United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response
Washington DC 20460
EPA/540/P-87/001 b /-""
(OSWER Directive 9355.0-14)
August 198"7
&EPA
Superfund
A Compendium of
Superfund Field Pre-Prmt
Operations Methods:
Volume 2
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A
EPA/540/P-87/001b
OSWER Directive 9355. 0-1 4
August 1987
A COMPENDIUM OF SUPERFUND
FIELD OPERATIONS METHODS:
Volume 2
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago. II 60604-3590
OFFICE OF EMERGENCY AND REMEDIAL RESPONSE
OFFICE OF SOLID WASTE AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
11
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CONTENTS
VOLUME 2
Section
Glossary of Abbreviations and Acronyms
9 Earth Sciences Laboratory Procedures
9.1 Scope and Purpose 9-1
9.2 Definitions 9-1
9.3 Applicability 9-5
9.4 Responsibilities 9-5
9.5 Records 9-5
9.6 Procedures 9-5
9.7 Region-Specific Variances 9-53
9.8 Information Sources 9-53
10 Surface Water Hydrology
10.1 Flow Measurement 10-1
10.2 Sampling Techniques 10-37
11 Meteorology and Air Quality
11.1 Scope and Purpose 11-1
11.2 Other Meteorological Parameters 11-22
11.3 Air Quality 11-29
12 Biology/Ecology
12.1 Scope and Purpose 12-1
12.2 Definitions 12-1
12.3 Applicability 12-2
12.4 Responsibilities 12-3
12.5 Records 12-3
12.6 Procedures 12-3
12.7 Region-Specific Variances 12-49
12.8 Information Sources 12-49
Appendix 12A Collection and Processing
Techniques
13 Specialized Sampling Techniques
13.0 General 13-1
13.1 Wipe Sampling 13-1
13.2 Human Habitation Sampling 13-4
13.3 TCDD Sampling 13-7
13.4 Container Sampling 13-10
111
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Section Page
14 Land Surveying, Aerial Photography,
and Mapping
14.1 Scope and Purpose 14-1
14.2 Definitions 14-1
14.3 Applicability 14-1
14.4 Responsibilities 14-2
14.5 Records 14-2
14.6 Procedures 14-2
14.7 Region-Specific Variances 14-11
14.8 Information Sources 14-11
15 Field Instrumentation
15.0 Introduction 15-1
15.1 PHOTOVAC 10A10 15-2
15.2 HUN PI-101 15-18
15.3 Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA-128) 15-32
15.4 Explosimeter 15-41
15.5 Oxygen Indicator 15-45
15.6 Combined Combustible Gas
(Explosimeter) and Oxygen Alarm 15-48
15.7 Vapor Detection Tubes—Drager Gas
Detector Model 21/31 15-50
15.8 Field Equipment—Radiation Monitors 15-53
15.9 Personal Sampling Pumps 15-60
15.10 Other Monitoring Devices 15-63
16 Data Reduction, Validation, Reporting,
Review, and Use
16.0 General 16-1
16.1 National Contract Laboratory
Program—Laboratory Data 16-1
16.2 Regional Variations of Data
Validation 16-3
16.3 Regional Variations of Data
Validation 16-8
16.4 Information Sources 16-8
17 Document Control
17.1 Scope and Purpose 17-1
17.2 Definitions 17-1
17.3 Applicability 17-1
17.4 Responsibilities 17-2
17.5 Records 17-2
17.6 Procedures 17-2
17.7 Region-Specific Variances 17-14
17.8 Information Sources 17-14
IV
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Section Page
18 Corrective Action
18.1 Scope and Purpose 18-1
18.2 Definitions 18-1
18.3 Applicability 18-1
18.4 Responsibilities 18-1
18.5 Records 18-2
18.6 Procedures 18-2
18.7 Region-Specific Variances 18-4
18.8 Information Sources 18-4
19 Quality Assurance Audit Procedures
19.1 Scope and Purpose 19-1
19.2 Definitions 19-1
19.3 Applicability 19-2
19.4 Responsibilities 19-2
19.5 Records 19-3
19.6 Procedures 19-3
19.7 Region-Specific Variances 19-12
19.8 Information Sources 19-12
20 Quality Assurance Reporting
20.1 Scope and Purpose 20-1
20.2 Definitions 20-1
20.3 Applicability 20-1
20.4 Responsibilities 20-1
20.5 Records 20-1
20.6 Procedures 20-2
20.7 Region-Specific Variances 20-3
20.8 Information Sources 20-3
WDR225/013
v
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AA—atomic adsorption
AAM—Algal Assay Medium
AC—alternating current
ACS—American Chemical Society
AGI—American Geological Institute
API—American Petroleum Institute
AR—authorized requester
ARAR—Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements
ASTM--American Society for Testing and Materials
ATSDR—Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
atm—atmosphere
BNA—base neutral acids
CAA—Clean Air Act
CCS—Contract Compliance Screening
CDC—Center for Disease Control
CDP—common-depth-point profiling
CE--current electrode
CERCLA—Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act of 1980 (PL 96-510)
CERCLIS—CERCLA Information System
CFR—Code of Federal Regulations
CIR—color infrared
CLP—Contract Laboratory Program
COC—chain of custody
COD—Chemical Oxygen Demand
COE—U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CRDL—Contract Required Detection Limits
CWA~Clean Water Act
d.b.h—diameter breast height
DC—direct current
DO—dissolved oxygen
DOJ—Department of Justice
DOT—Department of Transportation
DQO—data quality objectives
DRI—Direct Reading Instrument
ECD--electron capture detector
EDMI—electronic distance meter instrument
Eh—oxygen-reduction potential
EM—electromagnetic
EMSLLV—Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory-Las Vegas
EOS—equivalent opening size
EP toxicity—extraction procedure toxicity
EPA—Environmental Protection Agency
EPIC—Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center
ER—electrical resistivity
ERP—Emergency Response Plan
VI
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
(continued)
ERT—EPA Emergency Response Team
ERTS—Earth Resources Technology Satellite
EROS—Earth Resources Observation Systems
ESB—EPA Environmental Services Branch
ESD—Environmental Services Division
EST--Eastern Standard Time
eV—electron volt
FAA—Federal Aviation Administration
FIT—Field Investigation Team
FS—Feasibility Study
FSP—Field Sampling Plan
GC—Gas Chromatographs
GC/MS—Gas Chromatrography/Mass Spectrometer
GEMS—Graphical Exposure Modeling System
gpm—gallons per minute
GPR--Ground Penetrating Radar
GSC Corporation—a company name
GT—greater than
HASP—Health and Safety Plan (see also Site Safety Plan)
HAZMAT—Hazardous Materials Team
HEP—Habitat Evaluation Procedure
HEPA—High Efficiency Particulate Air
HNU—indicates a photoionization device
HR—heart rate
HRS—Hazard Ranking System
HSCD—EPA Headquarters Hazardous Site Control Division
HSI—habitat suitability index
HSL—Hazardous Substance List (previous term for Target
Compound List)
HSO—Health and Safety Officer (see also SSC, SSHO, and SSO)
HSWA—Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
HU—habitat unit
IATA—International Air Transport Association
ICAO—International Civil Aviation Regulations
ICP—Inductively Coupled Plasma
ICS—Incident Command System
ID—inside diameter
IDL—Instrument Detection Limit
IDLH—immediately dangerous to life and health
IFB—invitation for bid
IP—ionization potential
ISCO—Instrumentation Specialists Company
ITD—Ion Trap Detector
LEL--lower explosive limit
LL—liquid limit
VII
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
(continued)
LOD—limits of detection
LOQ—limit of quantitation
LSC—liquid sample concentration
LT—less than
LUST—leaking underground storage tank
LVZ—low-velocity layer
MAD—maximum applicable dose
MDL—Method Detection Limit
m/sec—meters per second
MHz —megahertz
MS/MS—Mass Spectrometer/Mass Spectrometer
NBS—National Bureau of Standards
NCDC—National Climatic Data Center
NCIC—National Cartographic Infprmation Center
NCP—National Contingency Plan
NEIC—National Enforcement Investigation Center
NGVD—National Geodetic Vertical Datum
NIOSH—National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NMO—normal moveout
NOAA—National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
N.O.S—not otherwise specified (used in shipping hazardous
material)
NPDES—National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
NPL—National Priorities List
NRC—Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSF—National Sanitation Foundation
NTIS—National Technical Information Service
NWS—National Weather Service
OD—outside diameter
OERR—EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
OSHA—Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OSWER—EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OT—oral temperature
OVA—Organic Vapor Analyzer (onsite organic vapor monitoring
device)
OWPE—EPA Office of Waste Programs Enforcement
PARCC—Precision, Accuracy, Representativeness,
Completeness, Comparability
PCBs—polychlorinated biphyenyls
PDS—personnel decontamination station
PE—potential electrode
PEL—permissible exposure limit
PHC—principal hazardous constituents
PI—plasticity index
Vlll
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
(continued)
PID—photo ionization detector
PL—plastic limit
PO—EPA Headquarters Project Officer
POTWs—publically owned treatment works
ppb—parts per billion
PPE—personal protective equipment
ppm—parts per million
PRP—Potentially Responsible Party
psig—pounds per square inch gauge
PVC—polyvinyl chloride
QA—quality assurance
QA/QC—quality assurance/quality control
QAMS—Quality Assurance Management Staff
QAPjP—Quality Assurance Project Plan (see QAPP)
QAPP—former abbreviation for Quality Assurance Plan (see
QAPjP)
QC—quality control
RA—remedial action
RAS—Routine Analytical Service
RCRA—Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1978
(PL 94-580)
RD—remedial design
RDCO—Regional Document Control Officer
REM—Remedial Planning
REM/FIT—Remedial Planning/Field Investigation Team
RI—Remedial Investigation
ROD—Record of Decision (previous title for Remedial Project
Manager)
RPM—EPA Remedial Project Manager
RSPO—Remedial Site Project Officer
RSCC—Regional Sample Control Center
RTDs—resistance temperature detectors
SARA—Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
(PL 99-499)
SAS—Special Analytical Service
SDL—Sample Detection Limit
SI—Site Inspection
SI units—International System of Units
SIM--Selected Ion Monitoring
SCBA—self-contained breathing apparatus
SCS—Soil Conservation Service
SDWA—Safe Drinking Water Act
SMCRA--Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
SMO—Sample Management Office
SM—Site Manager
SOPs—standard operating procedures
SP—spontaneous potential
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
(continued)
SPM—Site Project Manager (previous title for Site Manager)
SRM—Standard Reference Material
SSC—Site Safety Coordinator (see also SSHO, SSO, and HSO)
SSHO—Site Safety and Health Officer (see also SSC, SSO, and
HSO)
SSO—Site Safety Officer (see also SSC, SSHO, and HSO)
STAPPA/ALAPCO—the State and Territorial Air Pollution
Program Administrators and the Association of Air
Pollution Control Officials
STAR—stability array
TAL—Target Analyte List
TAT--technical assistance team
TCDD--2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TEGD--Technical Enforcement Guidance Document
TDD—Technical Directive Documents
TDS—total dissolved solids
TIC—Tentatively Identified Compounds
TLD—thermoluminescent detector
TLD badge---Thermoluminescent detector badge
TLV---threshold limit value
TOC—Total Organic Carbon
TOH—Total Organic Halogen
TOX—Total Organic Halides
TR—traffic report
TSCA—Toxic Substances Control Act
TSDF—Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility
UEL—upper explosive limit
UNAMAP—User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution
U.S. EPA—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
USCS—Unified Soil Classification System
USDI--U.S. Department of Interior
USGS—U.S. Geological Survey
USPS—U.S. Postal Service
UV—ultraviolet
VGA—volatile organic analysis
VOC—Volatile Organic Compound
WAs—Work Assignments
WP—work plans
WDR225/015
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Section 9
EARTH SCIENCES LABORATORY PROCEDURES
9.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 9 identifies the laboratory procedures used to
determine the physical and chemical properties of soil mate-
rials. Procedures are given for volumetric, strength, and
transport relationship tests and for testing chemical
properties.
The purpose of Section 9 is to provide general guidance for
the planning and implementation of laboratory testing of
earth science materials for hazardous waste projects. This
section provides both a broad overview of the types of rou-
tine laboratory techniques available for use and a brief,
general discussion of their purpose and applicability. It
also lists references to specific testing techniques and
standards, where available. The reader should refer to
Exhibit 9-1 for an index of test parameters as related to
test methods.
Test types and techniques presented herein cover routine
methods that may be applicable at the site investigation,
feasibility study, predesign, design, or construction phases
of hazardous waste projects.
This section is not intended to be all-inclusive, because
the application of laboratory testing to a particular proj-
ect demands careful and knowledgeable planning and experi-
mental design. Detailed specification is required for all
work, for quality assurance (QA) and/or sampling plans, and
for each laboratory testing request, both for the U.S. EPA
Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) and for private
laboratories. The specifications should be included in work
plan, QA plan, and/or sample plan.
9.2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions may be found in ASTM D653-82, Standard
Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil and Rock
Mechanics and in some of the individual test method termi-
nology subsections.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
9-1
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Exhibit 9-1
TEST PARAMETER VERSUS TEST METHOD
9.6.3 Physical Properties
9.6.3.1 Soil
9.6.3.1.1 Index Property Tests
Visual Classification
Moisture Content
Atterberg Limit
Grain Size
Specific Gravity
Soil Classification
Sand Equivalent
Centrifuge Moisture
Capillary-Moisture Relationship
9.6.3.1.2 Density Tests
Unconfined Compression
Moisture-Density Relationship
Relative Density
9.6.3.1.3 Strength Tests
Unconfined Compression
Direct Shear
Triaxial Compression
Vane Shear
Moisture Penetration Resistance
Bearing Ratio
9.6.3.1.4 Deformation Tests
One-Dimension Consolidation
Swell Test
9.6.3.1.5 Permeability Tests
Undisturbed Sainples (cohesive)
Recompacted Samples
9.6.3.2 Rock
9.6.3.2.1 Index Property Tests
Apparent Specific Gravity
Soundness
9.6.3.2.2 Strength Tests
Uniaxlal Compressive Strength
Direct Tensile Strength
Splitting Tensile Strength
Flexural Strength
9.6.3.3 Materials
9.6.3.3.1 Concrete
Compressive Strength
Entrained Air
Flexural Strength
Specific Gravity
Splitting Tensile Strength
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
2488-84
2216-80
4318-84
422-63
854-83
2487-85
2419-74
425-79
2325-68
3152-72
ASTM D 1587-83
ASTM D 3550-84
ASTM D 698-78
ASTM D 1557-78
ASTM D 4253-83
ASTM D 4254-83
ASTM D 2166-85
ASTM D 3080-72
ASTM D 2850-82
ASTM D 2573-72
ASTM D 1558-84
ASTM D 1883-73
ASTM D 2435-80
ASTM D 4546-85
ASTM D 2434-68
ASTM C 127-83
ASTM C 88-83
ASTM C 170-85
ASTM D 2936-84
ASTM D 3967-81
ASTM C 99-85
C 39-83
C 231-82
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM C 173-78
ASTM C 78-84
ASTM C 293-79
ASTM C
ASTM C
642-82
496-85
9-2
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Exhibit 9-1
(continued)
9.6.3.3.2
Soil Cement
Miscellaneous
9.6.3.3.3 Portland Cement
Blended Hydraulic Cement
9.6.3.3.4 Asphalt Cement
9.6.3.3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
9.6.3.3.6 Geotextiles
Fabric Weight
Fabric Thickness
Grab Strength and Elongation
Abrasion Resistance
Puncture Resistance
Mullen Burst Strength
Trapezoid Tearing Strength
Equivalent Opening Size (EOS)
Planar Flow
Normal Permeability
Coefficient of Friction (soil to fabric)
Coefficient of Friction (fabric to fabric)
Alkali or Acid Stability
Thermal Shrinkage
Ultraviolet Stability
9.6.3.3.7 Geomembranes
Thickness
Specific Gravity
Tensile Strength
Elongation
Tear Resistance
Dimensional Stability
Bonded Seam Strength
Peel Adhesive
Chemical Properties of Soil and Rock
9.6.4
9.6.4.
1 Waste Evaluation Procedures
1.1 Ignitability
1.2 Corrosivity
1.3 Reactivity
1.4 Extraction Procedure
1.5 Mobility
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
2901-82
806-74
1632-63
1633-84
1634-63
1635-63
558-82
559-82
560-82
ASTM C 150-85a
ASTM D 4223-83
ASTM D 3773-84
ASTM D 3774-84
ASTM D 3775-85
ASTM D 3776-85
ASTM D 3777-64
ASTM D 1682-64
ASTM D 751-79
ASTM D 3786-80a
ASTM D 1117-80
U.S. Army COE
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
ASTM D
1593-81
412-83
792-66
882-83
412-83
638-84
882-83
412-83
638-84
1004-66
624-86
751-79
1204-84
3083-79
751-79
413-82
EPA SW-846 1010, 1020
EPA SW-846 1110
EPA SW-846
EPA SW-846 1310
EPA SW-846 1410
9-3
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Exhibit 9-1
(continued)
9.6.4.2 Pollutant Analysis
2.1 Organics EPA SW-846 8010-8310
3510-3550
2.2 Metals EPA SW-846 7040-7951
3010-3060
2.3 Total and Amenable Cyanide EPA SW-846 9010
2.4 Total Organic Halides (TOX)
2.5 pH Ref.
2.6 Lime Requirement Ref.
9.6.4.3 Other Tests
3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity Ref.
3.2 Extractable Cations Ref.
3.3 Exchangeable Hydrogen Ref.
3.4 Total Soluble Salts--
Electrical Conductivity Ref.
3.5 Carbon
Total Organic and Inorganic U.S. Army COE
3.6 Sulfides EPA SW-846 9030
3.7 Total Nitrogen Ref.
3.8 Extractable Phosphorus Ref.
3.9 Total Phosphorus U.S. Army COE
3.10 Mineralogy Ref.
9.6.5 Compatibility Testing
9.6.5.1 Soil
1.1 Clay
1.2 Silt
1.3 Sand
1.4 GraveIs/Aggregates
9.6.5.2 Rock
9.6.5.3 Materials
3.1 Concrete
3.2 Soil-Cement
3.3 Portland Cement
3.4 Asphalt Cement
3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
3.6 Metal Products
3.7 Plastic Products
3.8 Wood Products
3.9 Geotextiles
3.10 Geomembranes
3.11 Synthetic Drainage Media
9.6.6 Laboratory/Analysis Records
9.6.6.1 Sample Log
6.2 Data Sheets
6.3 Recordkeeping
WDR146/003
9-4
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compendium should review the most recent ASTM procedures for
changes. Applicable ASTM standards should be included in
work, QA, and sample plans. The subsection below discusses
the evaluation of the suitability of a laboratory to conduct
the procedures, and it discusses the various tests. The
standards are listed in the categories of sample handling;
physical tests (volumetric, strength, and transport rela-
tionships) ; chemical tests (mineralogy, cation exchange
capacity, and distribution coefficient); and laboratory
records.
9.6.2 LABORATORY SELECTION
9.6.2.1 Evaluation of Agencies (Laboratories)
The evaluation of agencies engaged in testing and inspecting
materials used in engineering design and construction is
important to quality assurance goals.
This subsection discusses criteria for the evaluation of a
testing or inspection agency's organizational, human, and
physical resource capabilities. These criteria require dis-
closure of those factors on which the objectivity of the
agency can be judged.
The reader should refer to ASTM D 3740-80 Standard Practice
for the Evaluation of Agencies Engaged in the Testing and/or
Inspection of Soil and Rock as Used in Engineering Design
and Construction and ASTM E 329-77 (1983) Standard Recom-
mended Practice for Inspection and Testing Agencies for
Concrete, Steel, and Bituminous Materials as Used in
Construction.~~~
9.6.2.2 Sample Integrity
Methods of sample handling in the laboratory may affect the
physical and chemical state of samples and the reliability
of the test results. Special attention should be given to
how samples are transported, stored, and prepared for labo-
ratory testing. Guidance is available in some ASTM stan-
dards for particular tests.
Provisions for handling samples generally include the
following:
o Temperature and humidity controls in the
laboratory environment and storage areas
o Provisions for opening and resealing sample
containers
o Tools for trimming and preparing samples
9-6
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Where sample quantity is limited, it may be possible to
perform sequence testing so that the same sample can be used
in multiple analyses. However, some sample types and some
tests preclude reuse in subsequent analyses because of irre-
versible alteration of the sample.
9.6.2.3 Laboratory Safety
The safe handling of samples in the laboratory depends on
several factors that include design of the laboratory facil-
ities; laboratory policies and procedures for sample
handling, analysis, and disposal; and training of laboratory
personnel in the safe handling of samples, personal protec-
tion, and emergency procedures.
Earth sciences laboratories engaged in analyzing hazardous
materials should have secure, ventilated storage and dis-
posal areas with controlled access; readily available safety
equipment (e.g., fire extinguishers, self-contained breath-
ing apparatus, safety shower, eye wash station, first aid
kit); ventilated hoods for the handling and testing of sam-
ples; an emergency ventilation system in case of accidental
release of hazardous gases; routine inspection and main-
tenance of laboratory equipment (including safety equip-
ment) ; fire-resistant walls, doors, and windows; an emer-
gency alarm system; and access to a telephone with emergency
numbers displayed.
Laboratory policies should be established for using
protective clothing and equipment; appropriate training and
medical surveillance of employees; collecting and disposing
of hazardous or toxic wastes; monitoring the laboratory
atmosphere and equipment; investigating and reporting labo-
ratory accidents; and working alone. Spill prevention plans
and a list of emergency procedures should be placed in a
prominent place, and employees should be familiar with the
procedures.
9.6.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
9.6.3.1 Soil
9.6.3.1.1 Index Property Tests
Visual Classification
Purpose. The visual classification of soils allows
convenient and consistent comparison of soils using a stan-
dard descriptive method. The use of this classification
method provides a basis for comparing soils from widespread
geographic areas.
9-7
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Synopsis. By visual observation, a soil is assigned to one
of three primary groups: coarse-grained soils (gravels and
sand); fine-grained soils (silts and clays); and organic
soils (soils containing organic matter, such as decayed
roots, leaves, grasses, and other fibrous vegetable matter).
After the soil is assigned to one of the primary groups,
other visual and physical characteristics are observed, such
as color, odor, moisture condition, and structural
characteristics.
Methods. ASTM D 2488-84, Standard Practice for Description
of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
Limitations and precautions. The ability to visually
classify soils requires practice and experience. Laboratory
test ASTM D 2487-85 should verify visual classifications.
Moisture Content
Purpose. The moisture content test determines the mass of
water contained in a given mass of soil. The results are
usually presented as the mass of water divided by the mass
of dry solids, expressed as a percentage. Moisture content
(along with unit weight and specific gravity of solids) pro-
vides the basis for determining the phase relationships of a
soil. A comparison of the field moisture content of a soil
with its index properties (such as Atterberg Limits) may be
useful in estimating soil consistency, compressibility, and
strength.
Synopsis. A sample of the soil is weighed as received,
dried for 24 hours at 105°C, and then weighed again. The
difference in mass is attributable to water loss during dry-
ing. Results are presented as the water mass divided by the
dry solids mass, expressed as a percentage.
Methods. ASTM D 2216-80, Method for Laboratory
Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and
Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.
Limitations and precautions. It is important to prevent
moisture content changes during sampling, shipping, and
handling. Precautions may include sealing the sample in
wax, foil, plastic, or a combination thereof or shipping the
entire sample in the Shelby tube used for sampling.
Organic soil that contains items such as wood, fibers, or
decayed vegetation demands careful monitoring, since drying
at high temperature may destroy some of the organic matter.
Organic chemicals may be driven off and their mass mistaken
as water.
9-8
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Atterberg Limits
Purpose. The Atterberg Limits include liquid limit (LL),
plastic limit (PL), and plasticity index (PI), which are
used for the following:
o To assist in classification of soils
o To indicate soil consistency (when compared with
natural moisture content)
o To provide correlation to soil properties,
including compressibility and strength
Synopsis. LL is the moisture content at which a soil
becomes liquid and flows to close standard-size groove when
subjected to 25 impacts in the standard test device. PL is
the moisture content at which soil becomes plastic, as dem-
onstrated by the moisture content causing incipient
crumbling to occur in the soil when it is rolled into
1/8-inch threads. PI is the difference between the LL mois-
ture content and the PL moisture content; it represents the
range between plastic and liquid states of the soil.
A soil sample is prepared by starting the test at either
natural or air-dried moisture content.
Methods. ASTM D 4318-84, Test Method for Liquid Limit,
Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils.
Limitations and precautions. Soils may exhibit different
liquid and plastic limits if they are prepared from air-
dried or natural moisture conditions. The liquid limit
device must be calibrated before use. Operator error in
applying insufficient or excessive pressure or improper
rolling rates while performing the plastic limit procedure
may affect results.
Grain Size
Purpose. Grain size distribution is used to assist in
classifying soils and to provide correlation with soil prop-
erties that include permeability and capillarity. In addi-
tion, grain-size analyses are essential for adequate
assessment and design of such specific features as granular
drains, filters, well screens, and gravel pack materials.
Synopsis. Three general procedures used to determine the
grain-size distribution of soil include sieve analysis,
hydrometer analysis, and a combined analysis. A sieve anal-
ysis consists of shaking soil through a stack of progres-
sively finer meshed screens, each with a known opening size,
and determining the portion (by weight) of particles
9-9
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retained on each sieve. The hydrometer analysis is based on
Stoke1s Law for the velocity of a freely falling sphere; the
method determines the settling rate of soil particles by
measuring the density of the soil-water solution and cal-
culating the particle size in suspension at particular time
intervals. The combined procedure consists of both the
sieve and hydrometer analyses to determine the grain size
distribution throughout the full range of particle sizes.
Methods. ASTM D 422-63, (reapproved 1972), Method for
Particle-Size Analysis of Soils.
Limitations and precautions. Because the hydrometer method
is extremely sensitive to a number of variables, the
accuracy of fine-grained soils distribution is more ques-
tionable than that of the coarser-grained soils. The
hydrometer analysis may be more sensitive to interferences
from hazardous materials than the sieve analysis.
Specific Gravity
Purpose. The specific gravity of soil particles is used in
determining the phase relationships of air, water, and sol-
ids in soils. For example, specific gravity can be used to
determine unit weights that are used in pressure, settle-
ment, and stability problems.
Synopsis. The specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of
the weight in air of a given volume of soil particles to the
weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at 4°C.
A pycnometer (volumetric bottle) is calibrated, and a known
weight of a soil slurry is introduced into the pycnometer.
The pycnometer is evacuated of dissolved air. It is then
weighed, and the temperature of the slurry is recorded. The
specific gravity of the soil particles is calculated using
the dry weight of the original soil sample; the weight of
the pycnometer, soil, and water; and the weight of the
pycnometer plus water.
Methods. ASTM D 584-84, Test Method for Specific Gravity of
Soils.""
Limitations and precautions. It is generally recommended
that soils containing soluble salts should be slurried using
kerosene. This, coupled with any hazardous waste within the
soil being tested, may greatly alter the specific gravity as
calculated. Also, kerosene and hazardous materials may be
susceptible to fire or explosion. This test is susceptible
to sources of error in the measurement of weights and tem-
perature because the equation used involves the differences
in weights, which are small compared to the weights
themselves.
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is reached for a given tension, flow will stop and the mois-
ture content of the sample can be determined. A series of
tests is performed at varying tensions, and a curve of mois-
ture content versus tension is prepared.
Methods. ASTM D 2325-68 (reapproved 1981), Test Method for
Capillary-Moisture Relationships for Coarse and Medium-
Textured Soils by Porous-Plate ApparatuiT; and ASTM D 3152-72
(reapproved 1977) , Test Method for Capillary-Moisture Rela-
tionships for Fine-Textured Soils by Pressure-Membrane
Apparatus.
Limitations and precautions. Results of the test provide
only an indication of the capillary-moisture relationship of
the soil tested. Extrapolation of laboratory results to
field or in situ conditions must be used with proper engi-
neering judgment.
9.6.3.1.2 Density Tests
Undisturbed Samples
Purpose. Undisturbed unit weight or density of undisturbed
samples is used to determine the phase relationships for
soils and for correlation to soil properties.
Synopsis. A sample of undisturbed soil is obtained in
conformance with the appropriate sampling standards
described below. The sample is weighed and measured for
length, width, and height. The density (unit weight) is
calculated as the sample weight divided by sample volume.
With the moisture content of the sample, the dry unit can be
calculated.
Methods. ASTM D 1587-83, Practice for Thin-Walled Tube
Sampling of Soils; and ASTM D 3550-87, Practice for Ring-
Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils.
Limitations and precautions. The term "undisturbed" is a
relative term. Disturbance may occur during sampling, ship-
ment, and sample preparation. This disturbance may or may
not be of consequence in determining the unit weight of the
soil. Proper engineering judgment and familiarity with the
type of soil sampled will minimize the effects of sample
disturbance.
Moisture-Density Relationships
Purpose. Laboratory determinations of moisture-density
relationships are used in the phase relationships of soils,
in specifying density for other laboratory tests, and for
comparing in-place field densities to laboratory standard
curves for construction of earthwork control.
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Synopsis. A soil sample is obtained and divided into at
least four specimens. Each specimen is prepared by adjust-
ing the moisture content and compacting into a volumetric
mold using a specified energy. A relationship is developed
between the dry unit weight and the percentage of moisture
content for each specimen. The results are generally pre-
sented in the form of a curve showing the relationship of
dry density versus moisture content.
Methods. ASTM D 698-78, Test Methods for Moisture-Density
Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 5.5-lb
Rammer and 12-in. Drop; and ASTM D 1557-78, Test Methods for
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mix~
tures Using 10-lb Rammer and 18-in. Drop.
Limitations and precautions. The methods used to determine
compaction densities are generally applicable to fine-
grained soils or to those that are not free draining. The
methods have been used on free-draining soils. However, a
well-defined relationship between soil density and moisture
may not exist, and engineering judgment is required to
interpret the results.
Relative Density
Purpose. The relative density expresses the degree of
compactness of a soil with respect to minimum and maximum
index densities.
Synopsis. The minimum index density is obtained by pouring
the soil as loosely as possible into a volumetric mold.
Weight and volume relationships are determined, and a mini-
mum density is obtained. The maximum index density is
obtained by placing the soil in a volumetric mold, placing a
surcharge weight on top of the soil, and then densifying the
soil by vibration using a specified amplitude and frequency.
Methods. ASTM D 4253-83, Test Methods for Maximum Index
Density of Soils Using a Vibratory Table"; and
ASTM D 4254-83, Test Methods for Minimum Index Density of
Soils and Calculation of Relative Density.
Limitations and precautions. The determination of relative
density is subject to variations in the vibration apparatus
used and in the degree of care used to determine minimum
density. Materials with greater than approximately 8 per-
cent fines (i.e., fines are silts and clays) are generally
not appropriate for the relative density determination;
other methods of determining density should be used (i.e.,
laboratory moisture-density relationships).
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Soil Classification Systems
Purpose. Soil classification systems attempt to group soils
having similar engineering behavior (based on index tests).
A number of classification systems have been developed, each
for a specific application. For example, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (COE) has a classification system based
on the frost susceptibility of soils. The Bureau of Public
Roads has a classification based on the applicability of
soils to highway construction. The Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the COE have developed a classi-
fication system for soils used in airfield construction.
The Bureau of Reclamation and the COE have developed a clas-
sification system intended for use in all types of engineer-
ing problems that involve soils. The system most generally
accepted for a wide range of engineering applications is the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).
Synopsis. Soil classification systems generally use index
test methods to permit rational grouping of soils. Some of
the specific index test methods that are applicable to soil
classification are discussed elsewhere in this section (see
Index Property Tests, Subsection 9.6.3.1.1).
Methods. ASTM D 2487-85, Test Method for Classification of
Soils for Engineering Purposes. Additional methods are
forthcoming.
Limitations and precautions. Caution must be used in
solving problems of flow, strength, compressibility, and
stability strictly on the information provided by a soil
classification system. Many empirical correlations between
indexes and soil properties and behavior have large
deviations.
Sand Equivalent
Purpose. A sand equivalent test is performed to allow an
estimation of the amount of clay-like or plastic fines in a
granular soil. The test takes little time to perform and,
therefore, may be used in either the field or the laboratory
as a quick check on the relative amount of fines in a granu-
lar soil. The results of the test can be used for control-
ling types of materials placed in earthworks.
Synopsis. A known volume of granular soil is placed with a
flocculating agent into a graduated cylinder and is shaken,
which loosens clay-like or plastic fines. The material is
then irrigated with more flocculating agent. The granular
soil settles, and the clay-like particles are forced into
suspension. The height of the granular soil and the
flocculated clay-like particles are measured. The sand
equivalent is the ratio of the height of sand to the height
of clay-like material times 100.
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Methods. ASTM D 2419-74 (reapproved 1979), Test Method for
Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine Aggregate.
Limitations and precautions. The test results should be
interpreted as an empirical value of the relative amount of
fine material in the sample tested. Sample selection and
variations in segregation as a result of handling may sig-
nificantly alter test results. Hazardous materials within
the sample in combination with the flocculating agent may
create unusable results. This test is not intended to
replace either ASTM D 422 or D 1140.
Centrifuge Moisture
Purpose. A centrifuge moisture test is performed to
estimate the air-void ratio, the water-holding capacity, or
the specific retention of a soil. Test results are used in
the phase relationships of soils, which can be used as index
properties. The results are also used in estimating the
amount of water that can be removed from a soil in the labo-
ratory or in situ, by gravity drainage.
Synopsis. Duplicate soil samples are obtained, prepared,
and saturated with distilled water. They are then placed in
a centrifuge, held at a constant temperature, and accelerat-
ed to a force equal to 1,000 times the force of gravity.
The speed of the centrifuge is held constant for 1 hour; the
specimens are removed and the mass of dry soil is obtained.
Methods. ASTM D 425-79, Test Method for Centrifuge Moisture
EquivaTent of Soils.
Limitations and precautions. The test results are affected
by temperature and by the equipment used in the test.
Results are for extremely small samples, and extrapolation
to in situ soils or consideration of scale effects must be
used with proper engineering judgment.
Capillary-Moisture Relationships
Purpose. The capillary-moisture test is performed to
estimate the specific retention of a soil. Specific reten-
tion is also referred to as field capacity or water-holding
capacity. The specific retention is used in determining the
specific yield of soil, which is the ratio of the drainable
volume to the bulk volume of a soil material.
Synopsis. A saturated soil sample is placed in contact with
a saturated porous plate or membrane. A pressure drop is
induced across the plate or membrane. The soil samples
establish equilibrium with the plate or membrane, and water
that is held at a tension less than the pressure drop will
flow out of the soil through a drain hose. When equilibrium
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9.6.3.1.3 Strength Tests
Unconfined Compression
Purpose. The unconfined compressive strength provides an
indication of the strength of the soil in unsaturated,
undrained conditions without lateral confinement on the sam-
ple. Unconfined compression test results assist in evaluat-
ing the consistency of soils and can be used in stability
analyses of foundations, excavations, and embankments.
Synopsis. A cylindrical soil sample is prepared and loaded
in uniaxial compression to failure. The unconfined compres-
sive strength is determined as the peak uniaxial stress that
is twice the maximum shear stress.
Methods. ASTM D 2166-85 (reapproved 1979) , Test Methods for
Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil.
Limitations and precautions. Strength estimates based on
the unconfined compression test are only approximate esti-
mates of the in situ strength of soil because of effects of
disturbance, lack of confinement, and unsaturation in test
samples. Strain rates, sample preparation, and sample dis-
turbance may alter the results of the test.
Direct Shear
Purpose. The results of the direct shear test are generally
used in stability and strength analyses for foundations,
excavations, and embankments.
Synopsis. A soil sample is placed and consolidated within a
direct shear box, which allows horizontal loading and dif-
ferential movement of the top half of the sample. Soil sam-
ples are sheared horizontally under different normal loads.
A plot of maximum shear stress versus normal stress is pre-
sented for each normal load. The resulting relationship of
normal stress to maximum shear stress provides the shear
stress parameters of cohesion intercept and angle of
internal friction.
Methods. ASTM D 3080-72 (reapproved 1979) , Method for
Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated" Drained
Conditions.
Limitations and precautions. The test is generally
performed on granular soils, but it has been used for fine-
grained soils. Because the direct shear test does not allow
control or measurement of some important factors in the test
(e.g., pore pressure, actual state of stress), experienced
judgment must be used in interpreting and applying the
results. Pore pressure increase or decrease during shear
may occur, depending on the rate of shear and soil type.
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Triaxial Compression
Purpose. Triaxial compression tests are used to determine
the strength of soils; these tests have an advantage in that
many of the important factors that control soil strength can
be simulated in the test. These factors include preloading
conditions of the soil, initial stress state in the soil,
drainage conditions during loading, and stress changes dur-
ing soil loading. Triaxial test results are used for
stability analyses of foundations, excavations, and
embankments.
Synopsis. A cylindrical soil specimen is prepared and
installed within a rubber membrane and is placed within the
triaxial testing cell. A predetermined lateral or confining
pressure is applied, and the sample is loaded until the max-
imum stress constituting failure is reached. The test may
be performed at a controlled strain rate or at a controlled
stress rate.
Methods. ASTM D 2850-82, Test Method for Unconsolidated,
Undrained Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial
Compression.
Limitations and precautions. A thorough discussion of
triaxial testing is beyond the scope of this subsection.
Application of triaxial testing demands careful attention
to, and clear specification of, test methods to properly
simulate desired conditions; use of "standard" methods can
be made only in the most general sense. These tests should
be used only under the direct supervision of a geotechnical
engineer.
Vane Shear
Purpose. The vane shear test provides a rapid estimate of
the shear strength of a cohesive soil. It is useful for
approximating allowable soil pressures, safe slopes, and
lateral soil pressures on buried structures. This estimate
of shearing resistance may also be compared with empirical
results of similar soils with regard to strength properties.
Synopsis. The vane shear instrument consists of a bladed
vane on the end of a rod. The vane is pushed into the soil
sample and rotated. The maximum torque required to turn the
vane is measured and the results can be used to compute the
shearing resistance of the soil. A torvane is a small vane
shear instrument that can be pushed into a flat surface of a
soil specimen. It gives only a general indication of the
shearing resistance of cohesive soils.
Methods. ASTM D 2573-72 (reapproved), Test Method for Field
Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil.
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Limitations and precautions. The shearing resistance
obtained by the torvane is only an estimate of the actual
resistance that may exist in a soil mass. Operator proce-
dure and instrument condition may greatly affect the results
of the test. The pocket torvane is useful only as a rough
indicator of soil consistency. This test is applicable only
to fine-grained soils.
Moisture-Penetration Resistance
Purpose. Moisture-penetration tests are used to develop a
correlation between penetration of a standard-size penetrom-
eter needle and the density at a specific moisture content
of a soil. The results of the test allow rapid collection
of estimates of densities and moisture content for various
soils used in earthworks.
Synopsis. The resistance of the soil to penetration is
determined on each soil sample by penetration of the sample
with a soil penetrometer, which consists of a spring-loaded
tube with a graduated pressure scale and a needle of known
length and end area. The penetration-pressure reading is
divided by the area of the needle and presents values of
force per unit area. The results are presented as plot of
the penetration resistance values versus moisture content of
the samples.
Methods. ASTM D 1558-84, Test Method for Moisture Content
Penetration Resistance Relations of Fine-Grained Soils.
Limitations and precautions. Penetration resistance of
granular or extremely dry soils is difficult; the results
obtained, if any, may not be applicable.
Bearing Ratio
Purpose. This test determines the bearing ratio of a
compacted soil by comparison of the penetration load of the
compacted soil with that of a standard crushed gravel mate-
rial. The results of the test are used with empirical rela-
tionships in evaluating the relative strength of near
surface soils to be used as roadways.
Synopsis. A sample is divided into a least four equal
portions, the moisture content is adjusted, and the sample
is compacted in accordance with ASTM D 698 or D 1557. The
sample is surcharged with a predetermined weight, and a pen-
etration piston is seated on the sample. A load is applied
to the sample through the penetration piston at a specified
strain rate. Load versus penetration is recorded during the
test. A load-versus-penetration curve is prepared. The
bearing ratios are then calculated by dividing the loads
from the test by standard loads of 1,000 psi and 1,500 psi.
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The bearing ratio reported for the soil is normally based on
0.1 inch of penetration.
Methods. ASTM D 1883-73 (reapproved 1978) , Test Method for
Bearing Ratio of Laboratory-Compacted Soils.
Limitations and precautions. The test is an empirical
relationship that compares the penetration of remolded com-
pacted soils to the penetration of uniformly crushed gravel
material. Proper engineering judgment must be used in
applying the results of this test.
9.6.3.1.4 Deformation Tests
One-Dimensional Consolidation
Purpose. The one-dimensional consolidation test results are
used to predict the amount and rate of settlement (or con-
solidation) of a soil mass subjected to sustained loads.
Synopsis. A soil sample is trimmed and placed in a
consolidation ring that restrains it laterally. Porous
stones are placed on the top and the bottom of the sample to
allow drainage of pore water. The sample is then loaded,
and the change in the sample height is recorded with time.
Loads are applied in increments, and the test is repeated.
The time-rate deformation of the sample is presented as
plots of log of time or square root of time versus deforma-
tion. Plots of void ratio (or percent compression) versus
log of pressure curve are prepared for use in assessing
total settlement.
Methods. ASTM D 2435-80, Test Method for One-Dimensional
Consolidation Properties of Soils.
Limitations and precautions. Sample disturbance, scale
differences between a laboratory sample and actual con-
ditions, and interpretation of primary and secondary com-
pression are areas requiring engineering judgment in
application of the test results.
Swell Test
Purpose. The swell test is used to determine the percentage
of volume change or the maximum swelling pressure of a soil
as a result of changes in moisture content. The test
results are used to determine the suitability of a soil for
use in earthworks and to minimize the impact of swelling
soils on engineering projects.
Synopsis. A sample is prepared and placed in a
consolidation ring that provides lateral restraint. The
sample is subjected to a small vertical pressure, and water
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is introduced to the sample; the vertical expansion with
time or the force required to prevent expansion is then
recorded. A percentage of volume change or swell pressure
is presented as the results of the test.
Methods. ASTM D 4546-85, Test Methods for One-Dimensional
Swell or Settlement Potential of Cohesive Soils"!
Limitations and precautions. The results of the test will
yield information on soils under extreme conditions.
Changes in moisture content, soil structure during sampling,
sample handling, and preparation will lead to results that
are only rough approximations. Proper engineering judgment
must be used in applying the test results to actual
problems.
9.6.3.1.5 Permeability Tests
Undisturbed Samples (Cohesive)
Purpose. Permeability tests are performed to estimate the
ability of a soil to transmit water under saturated condi-
tions. Results of the permeability test are used to esti-
mate the quantity and flowrate of water through the soil.
Synopsis. The sample is trimmed, measured, weighed, placed
in the triaxial cell, and back-pressure saturated. The sam-
ple can be consolidated to approximate anticipated field
conditions. Flow across the sample is induced by applica-
tion of differential pressure across the sample and is
measured until flow reaches steady-state conditions.
Methods. No standard method exists at this time for
performing the test. Information concerning the generally
accepted test methods is found in the references.
Limitations and precautions. Test methods, temperature,
sample disturbance variability, and sample preparation may
affect the test results.
Recompacted Samples (Cohesionless and Cohesive)
Purpose. This permeability test is performed to estimate
the permeability of a compacted soil. Permeability is a
measure of the ease with which water can move through a com-
pacted soil. Results of the permeability test are used to
estimate the quantity and flowrate of water through embank-
ments and liners.
Synopsis. Laboratory determination of permeability (also
termed hydraulic conductivity) can be performed as falling-
head or constant-head tests. Permeameters that apply a con-
stant head to the sample are generally used to test
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noncohesive or granular soils. Permeameters that apply a
falling or varying head are generally used to test cohesive
or fine-grained soils. Samples to be tested are prepared
and generally compacted to approximate field densities in
the proper type of permeameter. The flow through the sample
is initiated. For the constant-head permeameters, the quan-
tity of flow through the sample versus time is recorded.
For the falling-head permeameter, the change in head or
pressure across the sample and the change in volume with
respect to time are recorded. Hydraulic conductivity is
calculated by applying data obtained during the test to
Darcy's equation.
Methods. ASTM D 2434-68 (reapproved 1974), Test Method for
Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head).No standard
currently exists for performing the falling-head test.
Generally accepted test methods are given in the references.
Limitations and precautions. Laboratory samples are
extremely small when compared to conditions. Disturbance of
samples occurs, methods of testing are not universally stan-
dardized, and extrapolation to field conditions may be
approximate at best. Determinations of the coefficient of
permeability are generally considered to be accurate only
within an order of magnitude. Therefore, the quantities and
the rates of flow must also be considered accurate within an
order of magnitude. These factors dictate the use of proper
engineering judgment in applying the results of a
permeability test.
9.6.3.2 Rock
9.6.3.2.1 Apparent Specific Gravity
Purpose. The apparent specific gravity of rock is
determined to obtain the rock unit weight (bulk density),
from which vertical and horizontal loads on subsurface
installations can be estimated.
Synopsis. Specimens of regular shape (cylinders or blocks)
can be weighed, and the volume can be determined by measure-
ment. The apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the
weight of the specimen to the weight of a volume of water
having the same volume as the specimen. For irregularly
shaped specimens, each may be weighed in air and again while
suspended and submersed in water. A formula can be used to
determine the apparent specific gravity.
Methods. ASTM C 127-83, Standard Test Methods for
Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity of Natural Building
Stones.
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Limitations and precautions. Depending on the character of
the rock in its natural deposits, the overall bulk density
of the deposits may be less than that estimated on the basis
of the specific gravity of the sample. This difference is
because joints and cavities and other discontinuities reduce
the overall density of the natural deposits.
9.6.3.2.2 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Purpose. The uniaxial compressive strength of the rock can
be used as an indicator of rock quality and can be used in
forming judgments about the allowable bearing pressure for
foundations.
Synopsis. A prismatic or cylindrical sample of rock is
loaded to failure in a compression-testing machine. A
record of stress versus strain is made to enable determina-
tion of the elastic modulus of the rock.
Methods. ASTM C 170-85, Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Natural Building Stone.
Limitations and precautions. The number of factors that can
affect the test results significantly includes flatness of
the bearing surfaces, specimen size and shape, moisture con-
tent in the specimen, effect of friction between the bearing
platens and the specimens, alignment of the swivel head, and
rate of loading. A standardized procedure to account for
most of these factors has been proposed by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines. The most significant limitation of the uniaxial
compressive strength test is that the strength of an indi-
vidual specimen of rock in a laboratory will probably not be
representative of the strength of a large mass of rock in
the field. An exception may be a massive unjointed,
unweathered rock deposit. Any discontinuities found in the
rock mass (such as fractures, joints, and cavities) will
lower the compressive strength of the rock mass.
9.6.3.2.3 Direct Tensile Strength
Purpose. The direct tensile strength of rock is useful in
calculating rock stability and strength in situations where
the rock is stressed in tension.
Synopsis. A regularly shaped specimen of rock (usually
cyclindrical) is cemented to grips or loading heads that can
be used to pull on the specimen without inducing undue local
stress concentrations that would cause premature failure of
the specimen. The specimen is then lowered in tension in a
testing machine. A record of stress versus strain can be
made to compute the elastic modulus in tension.
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Methods. ASTM D 2936-84, Test Method for Direct Tensile
Strength of Intact Rock Core Specimens.
Limitations and precautions. The applied tensile load must
be uniformly distributed over the end of the specimen. The
load must be parallel to the specimen's central axis. The
grips used for holding the specimen must not produce signif-
icant lateral stresses in the specimen. The end of the
specimen must be perpendicular to the specimen's central
axis within a very small tolerance. As with other tests on
rc'ck specimens, the laboratory properties of an individual
specimen may not be representative of the properties of a
rock mass. The behavior of a rock mass is primarily con-
trolled by its imperfections, such as joints, bedding
planes, fractures, and cavities, rather than by the mechan-
ical properties of the individual particles of rock in the
mass.
9.6.3.2.4 Splitting Tensile Strength
Purpose. The direct tensile strength of rock is useful
primarily in calculating the permissible span of roofs above
openings in rock. It may also be useful in calculating
allowable slopes for excavations in rock.
Synopsis. A cylindrical test specimen of the rock is placed
in a testing machine so that a load is applied to the sides
of the cylinder along two lines 180 degrees apart. The
specimen is then loaded to failure. Loading in this manner
generally results in a fracture that develops on a plane
through the central axis of the specimen and extends from
one loading platen to the other.
Methods. ASTM D 3967-81, Test Method for Splitting Tensile
Strength of Intact Rock Core Specimens.
Limitations and precautions. Care must be taken to prevent
local stress concentrations at the loading heads. The
tensile strength that is determined from a splitting tensile
test will generally be greater than that determined from a
direct tensile test. This result occurs because the split-
ting tensile test forces the plane of failure to be near the
center of the specimen, whereas in the direct tensile test
there is a greater opportunity for the specimen to fail at
the weakest plane in the specimen.
9.6.3.2.5 Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
Purpose. The flexural strength or modulus-of-rupture test
provides a measure of the tensile strength of the material
when loaded as a beam. This result can be used in the
stability analysis of conditions involving rock flexural
stresses.
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Synopsis. A small rectangular specimen is supported on
either end on knife edges and is then loaded at midpoint on
the opposite side of the specimen until the specimen fails.
Methods. ASTM C 99-85, Test Method for Modulus of Rupture
of Natural Building Stone.
Limitations and precautions. A number of specimens should
be tested, since this test will produce variable results
even with careful specimen preparation. Tests should be
made both parallel to and perpendicular to any naturally
occurring planes of weakness in the rock. The tensile
strength determined by the flexural test will generally be
higher than that determined by the direct tensile test. The
properties of the rock mass will probably be less than those
computed based on individual laboratory specimens because of
defects in the rock mass such as joints, bedding planes,
fractures, and cavities.
9.6.3.2.6 Soundness
Purpose. This test furnishes information that aids in
[judging the resistance of rock to weathering, especially as
a result of freezing and thawing.
Synopsis. Rock specimens are repeatedly submerged in
saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate and are
oven dried to partially or completely dehydrate the salt-
precipitated impermeable pore spaces. When the specimen is
reimmersed, the rehydration of the salts creates an internal
expansive force that simulates the expansion of water when
freezing.
Methods. ASTM C 88-83, Test Method for Soundness ^f
Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate orMagnesium slTlfate.
Limitations and precautions. This test is intended to give
only a preliminary indication of the probable weathering
resistance of the rock material. A better method for judg-
ing the weathering durability of rock material is to observe
specimens that are the same material and that have been in
service for a number of years.
9.6.3.3 Materials
9.6.3.3.1 Concrete
Compressive Strength
Purpose. The test determines the compressive strength of
cylindrical concrete specimens, such as molded cylinders or
drilled cores, for conformance to specifications of concrete
primarily under compressive loadings.
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Synopsis. The test method consists of applying a
compressive axial load to cylindrical concrete specimens at
a rate within a prescribed range until failure occurs. The
compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by divid-
ing the maximum load attained during the test by the cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
Methods. Refer to ASTM C 39-83b, Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
Limitations and precautions. Special sample handling and
curing procedures must be followed. Testing equipment must
be in current calibration to a standard load. The test
result relates more to the conformance of the concrete batch
to the mix design specified than to the actual strength of
concrete in place.
Entrained Air
Entrained air in concrete improves resistance to freezing
and thawing damage in hardened concrete.
Purpose. The test determines the air content of freshly
mixed concrete for conformance to specifications.
Synops is. Freshly mixed concrete is placed in a measuring
bowl,A cover assembly containing an air pump, gauge, and
valves is sealed to the bowl. The operation employs the
principle of Boyle's law to observe the change in volume of
the concrete with a change in pressure.
Methods. ASTM C 231-82, Test Method for Air Content of
FreshlymMixed Concrete by thePressureMethod; and
ASTM C 173-78, Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed
Concreteby theVolumetric Method.
Limitations and precautions. Calibration of equipment is
essential to achieve accurate test results. Start tests
within 5 minutes after obtaining the final portion of the
composite sample.
Flexural Strength
Concrete specimens are subjected to flexural or tension
loadings. The test yields the flexural strength of the
concrete.
Purpose. The flexural strength of concrete is determined by
the use of a simple beam specimen of concrete with third-
point loading.
Synopsis. A rectangular prism of hardened concrete is
supported by two load-applying blocks near each end. Two
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load-applying blocks are located on top of the specimen at
third-points. A controlled rate load is applied until fail-
ure. The modulus of rupture is calculated for the specimen.
Methods. ASTM C 78-84, Test Method for FlexuralStrength of
Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading); and
ASTM C 293-79, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete
(Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) (not an alter-
native to C 78-84).
Limitations and precautions. Special handling and curing
procedures must be followed. Testing equipment must be in
current calibration to a standard load.
Specific Gravity and Absorption
Purpose. This test determines the specific gravity,
absorption, and voids in hardened concrete. It is useful in
developing data required for mass/volume conversions for
concrete, allowing conformance to specifications, and show-
ing variability from place to place within a mass of
concrete.
Synopsis. An oven-dried specimen of concrete is weighed in
air, submerged for a period of time, weighed under saturated
surface dry conditions, and then boiled for 5 hours. After
cooling and reweighing surface dry, the specimen is immersed
and weighed in water. The values of specific gravity,
absorption, and voids are calculated from the measurements
taken.
Methods. ASTM C 642-82, Test Method for Specific Gravity,
Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete.
Limitations and precautions. Specimens may be pieces of
cylinders, cores, or beams; specimens must be free from
observable cracks, fissures, or shattered edges.
Splitting Tensile Strength
Purpose. When tensile strength values are not available
from concrete beam specimens or are required from existing
structures, compressive strength cylinders or drilled cores
may be used. This test method covers the determination of
the splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete spec-
imens, such as molded cylinders or drilled cores.
Synopsis. The cylindrical specimen is positioned
horizontally with a bearing plate or bar that extends the
full length of the specimen and that is diametrically
opposed on the top and bottom. A constant rate of load is
applied until failure of the specimen. The splitting
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tensile strength is calculated from the maximum applied load
and specimen dimensions.
Methods. ASTM C 496-85, Test Method for Splitting Tensile
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
Limitations and precautions. Special handling and coring
procedures must be followed. Testing equipment must be in
current calibration to a standard load. Special alignment
jigs, bearing strips, and loading apparatus are required.
9.6.3.3.2 Soil-Cement
Purpose. Proportions of soil-cement mixtures are determined
by trial batch mix designs. Strength and resistance to deg-
radation of the mixture are evaluated by compressive
strength, flexural strength, moisture-density relationship,
freezing and thawing, and wetting and drying tests. Soil-
cement stabilization may also be considered for solidifica-
tion of some hazardous wastes.
Synopsis. Various amounts of cement are added to soil. The
mixture is moistened to optimum water content and is com-
pacted into specimens. The specimens are cured and removed
from the molds for further curing and testing. Samples are
tested at various intervals to determine compressive
strength development. Other specimens are run through
repetitive cycles of freezing, thawing, wetting, and drying
to identify the most appropriate proportions for the
soil-cement mixture.
Methods. ASTM D 2901-82, Test Method for Cement Content of
Freshly Mixed Soil-Cement; ASTM D 806-74 (reapproved 1979) ,
Test Method for Cement Content of Soil-Cement Mixtures;
ASTM D 1632-63, (reapproved 1979) , Method i:or Making~and
Curing Soil-Cement Compression and Flexure Test Specimens in
the Laboratory; ASTM D 1633-84, Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Molded Soil-Cement Cylinders; ASTM D 1634-63
(reapproved 1979), Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Soil-Cement Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure (Mod-
ified Cube Method); ASTM D 1635-63 (reapproved 1979), Test
Method for Flexural Strength of Soil-Cement Using Simple
Beam with Third-Point Loading; ASTM D 558-82, Test Methods
for Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement Mixtures;
ASTM D 559-82, Methods for Wetting-and-Drying Tests of Com-
pacted Soil-Cement Mixtures; and ASTM D 560-82, Methods for
Freezing-and-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement
Mixtures.
Limitations and precautions. Not all soils are appropriate
for soil-cement treatment, especially fine-grained or clayey
soils. Special equipment and space are required.
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9.6.3.3.3 Portland Cement, Blended Hydraulic Cement
Purpose. Several types of Portland cement are used to
achieve specific properties when making concrete. Blended
hydraulic cements are also available in several types to
provide specific properties. It is beyond the scope of
these procedures to present the physical property tests used
to evaluate Portland cement and blended hydraulic cement.
The reader should refer to the methods listed below.
Methods. ASTM C 150-85a, Specifications for Portland
Cement; and ASTM C 595-86, Specification for Blended
Hydraulic Cements.
9.6.3.3.4 Asphalt Cement
Purpose. Several grades of asphalt cement are available for
paving and using hydraulic mixtures with aggregates. It is
beyond the scope of these procedures to present the physical
property tests used to evaluate asphalt cements. The reader
should refer to the methods listed in ASTM Volumes 04.03,
04.04, and 04.08.
9.6.3.3.5 Asphalt-Stabilized Soils
Purpose. Emulsified or cutback asphalt may be blended with
soil to increase strength and reduce permeability to water.
Asphalt-stabilized soils may also be considered for solidi-
fication of some hazardous waste materials.
Synopsis. Specimens of soil-asphalt mixtures are prepared
and tested for strength, specific gravity, permeability, and
stability to determine the most appropriate proportions of
the soil-asphalt mixture.
Methods. ASTM D 4223-83, Practice for Preparation of Test
Specimens of Asphalt-Stabilized Soils.
Limitations and precautions. Special equipment and space
are required.Special handling of asphalt materials and
associated solvents is necessary.
9.6.3.3.6 Geotextiles
Fabric Weight
Purpose. The fabric weight is directly related to the
fabric tensile strength and, therefore, provides an index of
strength.
Synopsis. The fabric weight test is conducted by cutting a
sample of fabric and measuring its dimensions and weight.
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The fabric weight is calculated as the total weight of the
sample divided by its area.
Methods. ASTM D 3773-84, Test Method for Length of Woven
Fabric, 07.01; ASTM D 3774-84, Test Method for Width of
Woven Fabric, 07.01; ASTM D 3775-85, Test Method for Fabric
Count of Woven Fabric, 07.01; and ASTM D 3776-85, Test Meth-
ods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of Woven Fabric, 07.01.
Limitations and precautions. Potential error is reduced by
using as large a sample as possible.
Fabric Thickness
Purpose. The thickness of a geotextile is an index to its
ability to absorb impacts and transport water (for constant
density).
Synopsis. A sample of fabric is placed on an anvil, and
gradual pressure is applied by means of a fixed-weighted,
mechanical foot. The thickness (distance between the anvil
and foot) is measured.
Methods. ASTM D 1777-64 (reapproved 1975), Method for
Measuring Thickness of Textile Materials, 07.01.
Limitations and precautions. Different methods of finishing
geotextiles (e.g., spun-bonding, needle punching, heat bond-
ing) may alter the deformation properties of the material,
thus affecting the thickness measurement.
Grab Tensile Strength and Elongation
Purpose. The grab tensile test is the most commonly used
strength and elongation index for woven fabrics. The test
provides a good indication of strength and deformation
during installation.
Synopsis. The grab tensile test involves using a specified
size sample of fabric loaded in tension between two clamps.
The clamps are moved apart at a constant rate until failure
of the fabric is achieved. The load at failure is the ulti-
mate grab tensile strength; the deformation at failure is
the elongation.
Methods. ASTM D 1682-64 (1975), Test Methods for Breaking
Load and Elongation of Textile Fabrics, 07.01.
Limitations and precautions. Because fabrics are often
subjected to multidirectional stresses in actual use, this
method may not provide a good indication of the strength or
deformations after placement.
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Creep
Purpose. Creep tests of fabrics are used to assess
potential loss of a reinforcing capability because of time-
dependent fabric deformation.
Synopsis. Creep tests are conducted by hanging a constant
weight on a strip of fabric and measuring the deformation
(elongation) of the fabric over a period of time.
Methods. Standard methods are not currently available.
Creep tests must be carefully designed on a case-by-case
basis considering the specific loading conditions antici-
pated. Proprietary methods developed by manufacturers are
available.
Limitations and precautions. Creep tests that apply loads
and measure deformation in only one direction have limited
application to actual field conditions.
Abrasion Resistance
Purpose. Abrasion tests are used to assess the resistance
of a fabric to wear by friction. Abrasion may be a concern
in applications where relative movement occurs frequently
(perhaps cyclically) between the fabric and adjacent soils
or materials (e.g., under riprap at shoreline or under
heavily loaded road or rail beds).
Synopsis. Not applicable.
Me thods. No standards are currently available. The reader
should refer to manufacturers for information and methods.
Limitations and precautions. Current test methods may not
be relevant to most hazardous waste applications.
Puncture Resistance
Purpose. The puncture resistance is important in assessing
the ability of a fabric to resist abuse during installation
(e.g., compaction of gravels on top of or around a fabric).
Synopsis. A sample of fabric is placed in a ring clamp, and
the fabric is penetrated by a hemispherically tipped steel
cylinder advanced at a specified rate. The load required to
penetrate the fabric is the puncture strength.
Methods. ASTM D 751-79, Method of Testing Coated Fabrics,
09.02.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
standard method.
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Mullen Burst Strength
Purpose. The Mullen burst test is used to assess fabric
strength when fabric is subjected to multidimensional loads
that may be more representative of actual field loads after
placement.
Synopsis. A sample of fabric is placed in a circular clamp
and loaded hydrostatically at a constant rate through an
inflatable membrane. The pressure required to rupture the
fabric is the burst point.
Methods. ASTM D 3786-80a, Test Method for Hydraulic
Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods and Nonwoven Fabrics;
Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method, 07.01.
Limitations and precautions. The test results must be
carefully interpreted because of the small sample size and
potential edge effects of the clamp.
Trapezoid Tearing Strength
Purpose. The trapezoid tearing strength test is useful in
assessing the tendency of a fabric to continue to tear when
tearing is initiated.
Synopsis. A sample of the fabric is marked with an outline
of a trapezoid, and the nonparallel sides are clamped in
parallel jaws of the testing machine. The jaws are separat-
ed at a constant rate, and a continuously increasing load is
applied to continue tearing the sample. The load versus
deformation curve is recorded, and the maximum (peak) load
determined is the tearing strength.
Methods. ASTM D 1117-80, Methods of Testing Nonwoven
Fabrics, 07.01.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
standard method.
Equivalent Opening Size (EOS)
Purpose. The equivalent opening size test compares opening
size in fabrics to U.S. standard sieve sizes to help evalu-
ate the performance of filter fabric.
Synopsis. A sample of filter fabric is attached to a U.S.
standard sieve with openings larger than the largest beads
to be used. The beads are placed in the sieve and shaken
for a fixed period. The size of beads, of which 5 percent
or less (by weight) pass through the fabric, is determined
by sieving. The EOS of the fabric is the U.S. standard
sieve number which retains this fraction of the glass beads.
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Methods. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Guidelines.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
standard method.
Planar Flow
Purpose. Planar flow test results are used to help evaluate
the capacity of a fabric to transmit fluid in the plane of
the fabric.
Synopsis. Circular fabric samples are placed between flat
plates and compressed at a set pressure. Fluid flow is
induced under constant hydraulic head from the middle of the
sample to the edges. The transmissibility is used as a mea-
sure of flow capacity because it includes both permeability
and thickness.
Methods. No standard methods are available.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
manufacturer.
Normal Permeability
Purpose. Normal permeability test results are used to
evaluate the capacity of a fabric to transmit fluid perpen-
dicular to the plane of the fabric. The test helps evaluate
infiltration and evaporation rates across fabrics and is
important in evaluating fabrics for drainage applications.
Synopsis. Normal permeability tests can be conducted by
clamping a sample of fabric across the base of cylinder,
tilling the cylinder with fluid, and measuring the rate of
fluid flow through the sample as in a falling-head test.
Methods. No standard methods are available.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
manufacturer.
Coefficient of Friction (Soil to Fabric)
Purpose. Determining the coefficient of friction between a
fabric and soil is essential in evaluating the ability of
the fabric to provide lateral reinforcement of the soil.
The coefficient of friction provides a measure of the abil-
ity to transfer stresses to the fabric, which may affect the
thickness of cover required to prevent shifting of the
fabric.
Synopsis. Samples of fabric are placed on a horizontal
surface, and a sample of soil is placed at one end. The end
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is raised and the angle of the incline at which the soil
starts to slide is measured. The coefficient of friction is
the trigonometric tangent of the angle of inclination at
incipient sliding.
Methods. No standard methods are available.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
manufacturer.
Coefficient of Friction (Fabric to Fabric)
Purpose. The coefficient of friction between two fabrics is
essential for evaluating the required overlap needed to keep
fabrics in place (unbonded seams) and to evaluate the abil-
ity of layered fabric systems to transmit lateral stresses
or to resist sliding.
Synopsis. Samples of fabric are overlapped and clamped
together at fixed pressures. The fabrics are pulled at a
constant rate to cause differential movement between the
fabric samples, and the force is measured. The first peak
load corresponds to the static friction load.
Methods. No standard methods are available.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
manufacturer.
Alkali or Acid Stability
Purpose. Alkali or acid stability tests are used to assess
potential fabric deterioration caused by exposure to or con-
tact with acidic or basic solutions. Potential deteriora-
tion may affect the performance and effective service life
of fabrics in drains, liners, and covers.
Synopsis. Fabric samples are attached to frames and placed
in alkali or acid baths at constant pH. Samples are period-
ically removed from the baths, dried, and tested (e.g., grab
tensile test). The changes in tensile strength with pro-
longed bath exposure provide information on the rates of
deterioration.
Methods. No standards currently exist.
Limitations and precautions. Within practical limits, the
duration of bath exposure may not be representative of field
conditions. Extrapolations to estimate actual field service
life may be questionable.
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Thermal Shrinkage
Purpose. The results of thermal shrinkage tests can be used
to evaluate potential deformations of fabric in hot environ-
ment applications (e.g., contact with hot asphalts or
exothermic chemical reactions).
Synopsis. Samples of fabric are placed in ovens at various
temperatures and are periodically measured for unrestrained
deformation.
Methods. The reader should see ASTM methods for width and
length measurements that are listed earlier in this
compendium under "Fabric Weight."
Limitations and precautions. Because measurements are made
on unrestrained fabric samples, the test may not be repre-
sentative of field conditions. Since thermally induced
stresses are not measured, the results cannot be used to
assess these potential effects.
Ultraviolet Stability
Purpose. The results of ultraviolet stability tests allow
assessment of potential deterioration of fabrics that are
subjected to sunlight. These assessments can be used to
evaluate changes in effectiveness and to predict the service
life of the fabrics.
Synopsis. Fabric samples are exposed to ultraviolet light
(either artificial or natural sunlight) and are periodically
tested (e.g., grab tensile test). The changes in tensile
strength indicate the rate of fabric deterioration.
Methods. The reader should see the ASTM method listed
earlier in this compendium under "Grab Tensile Strength and
Elongation Tests" in this subsection.
Limitations and precautions. Practical limits on the
duration of testing may not represent actual field con-
ditions. Extrapolations of test results to assess long-term
effects may be questionable.
9.6.3.3.7 Geomembranes
Polymeric flexible membranes are available supported
(reinforced) or unsupported (nonreinforced). The general
types of materials used are elastomeric (rubber), thermo-
plastic, semicrystalline, or alloys of the various polymers.
The physical test specifications to be used depend on the
polymer and whether it is supported or not. Many of the
test specifications used by manufacturers and listed in
National Sanitation Foundation Standard 54 were developed
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for other purposes and are being used since specifications
for specific geomembrane materials and properties are
unavailable at this time.
Thickness
Purpose. The thickness of a geomembrane is proportional to
the strength and elongation properties.
Synopsis. Three methods for measurement of thickness are
presented below. The method selected will depend on the
specification for the particular geomembrane.
Methods. ASTM D 1593-8, Specification for Nonrigid Vinyl
Chloride Plastic Sheeting; ASTM D 751-79, Method of Testing
Coasted Fabrics; and ASTM D 412-83, Test Methods for Rubber
Properties in Tension.
Limitations and precautions. A special apparatus is
required to make measurements.
Specific Gravity
Purpose. The specific gravity measurement of a geomembrane
is useful in determining the unit weight of materials.
Synopsis. The test method covers the determination of spe-
cific gravity and density of solid plastics by displacement
of liquid and the determination of change in weight.
Methods. ASTM D 792-66, Test Methods for Specific Gravity
and Density of Plastics by Displacement.
Limitations and precautions. Special equipment may be
required.
Tensile Strength
Purpose. The tensile strength of a geomembrane is an
important design parameter related to the ability to with-
stand the movement of the geomembrane into place, to support
itself on slopes, and to withstand operational stress.
Synopsis. There are four methods for determining the
tensile strength ot geomembranes. The appropriate method
will depend on the type of polymeric geomembrane being
tested.
Methods. ASTM D 882-83, Test Methods for Tensile Properties
of Thin Plastic Sheeting; ASTM D 751-79, Method for Testing
Coated Fabric; ASTM D 412-83, Test Method for Rubber Prop-
erties in Tension; and ASTM D 638-84, Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Plastics.
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Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to
test methods listed above.
Elongation
Purpose. The elongation of a geomembrane is an extension
produced by tensile stress. Elongation provides some mea-
sure of the material's ability to accommodate minor
deformation.
Synopsis. There are four methods for determining the
elongation of geomembranes. The measurement is usually an
adjunct to the tensile strength test. The appropriate
method will depend on the polymeric geomembrane being
tested.
Methods. The reader should see the methods that are listed
earlier in this compendium under "Tensile Strength."
Limitations and precautions. Refer to the test methods
listed above.
Tear Resistance
Purpose. The tear resistance is a measure of the strength
of the geomembrane at a point of stress. The tear resis-
tance of a geomembrane is the stress required to propagate a
cut or slit at the edge of a membrane specimen under strain.
Synopsis. There are three methods for determining the tear
resistance of geomembranes. The appropriate method will
depend on the polymeric geomembrane being tested.
Methods. ASTM D 1004-66(1981), Test Method for Initial Tear
Resistance of Plastic Film and Sheeting; ASTM D 751-79,
Method of Testing Coated Fabrics; and ASTM D 624-86, Test
Method for Rubber Property.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to the
test methods listed above.
Dimensional Stability
Purpose. The measurement of linear dimensional changes of
geomembranes at elevated temperature suggests the behavior
of the materials in the field when exposed to solar heating
during placement.
Synopsis. The reader should refer to National Sanitation
Foundation Standard 54 for Flexible Membrane Liners, 1983,
for details of the test. This method is proposed for all
geomembranes listed in Standard 54.
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Methods. ASTM D 1204-84, Test Method for Linear Dimensional
Changes of Nonrigid Thermoplastic Sheeting or Film at
Elevated Temperature.
Limitations and Precautions. The reader should refer to the
test method listed above.
Bonded Seam Strength
Purpose. The seam strength is the single most important
concern for lining integrity, and it applies to both
factory-made and field-made seams.
Synopsis. A tensile strength test is performed on a
specimen prepared to have a seam under shearing stress. The
specimen is tested to failure to determine the maximum
stress. The specimen is examined to determine if the fail-
ure was within the seam or in the parent material.
Methods. ASTM D 3083-76(1980), Specification for Flexible
Poly (Vinyl Chloride) Plastic Sheeting for Pond, Canal, and
Reservoir Lining; and ASTM D 751-79, Testing Coated Fabrics.
Limitations and precautions. Specimens require special
handling and curing before testing. The testing machine
must be currently calibrated to a standard. A special test-
ing apparatus is required.
Peel Adhesion
Purpose. The tensile strength of geomembrane seams by 180
degree peel is the definitive test of the bond strength.
Synopsis. The tensile stress is applied to material on
adjacent sides of the seam to create a 180 degree strain on
the bonded seam. The sample is tested to failure, and the
failure location is noted as being in the seam or in the
parent material.
Methods. ASTM D 413-82, Test Methods for Rubber Property-
Adhesion to Flexible Substrate.
Limitations and precautions. Specimens require special
handling and curing prior to testing. The testing machine
must be currently calibrated to a standard. A special test-
ing apparatus is required.
9.6.4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND ROCK
9.6.4.1 Waste Evaluation Procedures
Section 262.11 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) regulations requires that a generator of a "solid
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waste"—i.e., any garbage, refuse, sludge, or other waste
that is not excluded under Section 261.4(a)—must do the
following:
1. Determine if the waste is excluded.
2. If the waste is not excluded, determine whether the
waste is listed as a hazardous waste.
3. If the waste is not excluded and not listed, then
evaluate the waste in terms of the four hazardous char-
acteristics—ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and
extraction procedure toxicity—unless the generator can
properly evaluate the waste based upon previous experi-
ence (e.g., corrosivity testing may not be required if
the generator has a long history of running the waste
through steel pipes without any evidence of corrosion).
9.6.4.1.1 Ignitability (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose. The ignitability test identifies wastes that
either present fire hazards under routine storage, disposal,
and transportation, or are capable of severely exacerbating
a fire once it has started.
Synopsis. The following two methods are approved by the
EPA:
1. The Pensky-Martens closed-cup method uses the closed-
cup tester to determine the flash point of fuel oils,
lubrication oils, suspension solids, liquids that tend
to form a surface film under test conditions, and other
liquids.
The sample is heated at a slow, constant rate and is
continually stirred. A small flame is directed into
the cup at regular intervals while simultaneously
interrupting the stirring. The flash point is the low-
est temperature at which application of the test flame
ignites the vapor above the sample.
2. The Setaflash closed-cup method uses the Setaflash
Closed Tester to determine the flash point of paints,
enamels, lacquers, varnishes, and related products and
their components that have flash points between 0°C and
110°C (32°F and 230°F) and viscosity lower than 150
stokes at 25°C. Tests at higher or lower temperatures
are possible.
The procedures may be used to determine whether a
material will or will not flash at a specified tempera-
ture, or to determine the finite temperature at which a
material will flash.
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Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Methods 1010 and 1020.
Limitations and precautions. Ambient pressure, sample
homogeneity, drafts, and operator bias can affect flash
point values. Quality control data as specified under
Method 1010 and Method 1020 should be available for review.
9.6.4.1.2 Corrosivity (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose. The corrosivity test identifies wastes that might
pose a hazard to human health or the environment because of
their ability to do the following:
o Mobilize toxic metals if discharged into a
landfill environment
o Corrode handling, storage, transportation, and
management equipment
o Destroy human or animal tissue in the event of
inadvertent contact
To identify such potentially hazardous materials, EPA has
selected two properties on which to base the definition of a
corrosive waste. These properties are pH and corrosivity
toward SAE Type 1020 steel. The procedures for pH are
described in this Subsection 9.6.4.2.5. Corrosivity toward
steel is used for both aqueous and nonaqueous liquid wastes.
This test exposes coupons of SAE Type 1020 steel to the liq-
uid waste to be evaluated and, by measuring the degree to
which the coupon has dissolved, determines the corrosivity
of the waste.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 1110. Corrosivity of Steel.
Limitations and precautions. In laboratory tests, such as
Method 1110, corrosion of duplicate coupons is usually
reproducible to within ± 10 percent. However, large differ-
ences in corrosion rates may occasionally occur under con-
ditions in which the metal surfaces have become passivated.
Therefore, at least duplicate determinations of the corro-
sion rate should be made. Exact requirements are to be
included in the QA plan and specified in the laboratory.
9.6.4.1.3 Reactivity (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose. The reactivity test identifies wastes that,
because of their extreme instability and their tendency to
react violently or explode, pose a problem at all stages of
the waste management process.
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Synopsis. The EPA gives a descriptive definition of
reactivity, because the available tests for measuring the
variegated class of effects embraced by the reactivity defi-
nition suffer from a number of deficiencies.
Methods. See regulatory definition in EPA SW-846, Test
Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Section 2.1.3—
Reactivity.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should refer to
Subsection 2.1.3 in EPA SW-846.
9.6.4.1.4 Extraction Procedure (EP) Toxicity Test Method
and Structural Integrity Test
Purpose. This test is used to simulate the leaching a waste
may undergo if it is disposed of in a landfill. The test is
applicable to liquid, solid, and multiphasic samples.
Synopsis. If a representative sample of waste contains more
than 0.5 percent solids, the solid phase of the sample is
extracted with deionized water that is maintained at a pH of
5 ± 0.2 using acetic acid. The extract is analyzed for the
specified priority pollutants (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se,
Ag, endrin, lindane, methoxychlor, toxaphene, 2,4 D,
2,4,5-TP [Silvex]) by the appropriate tests as described
under organic and inorganic priority pollutant analyses.
Wastes that contain less than 0.5 percent are not subjected
to extraction, but they are directly analyzed and evaluated
in a manner identical to that for extracts.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 1310.
Limitations and precautions. Potential interferences that
may be encountered during analyses pertain to the individual
analytical methods.
9.6.4.1.5 Mobility
Purpose. This test is used to determine the mobility of
various components in a waste to evaluate contaminant
transport.
Synopsis. A multiple extraction procedure currently is
being developed by the EPA. (Method 1410) Although these
procedures are used to evaluate a waste, they are not to be
confused with a hazardous characteristic as defined by the
RCRA regulations.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 1410.
9-39
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Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
method.
9.6.4.1.6 Acid-Base Potential (Potential Acidity with
Peroxide, Neutralization Potential, Mine Spoil Potentials)
Purpose. Within impounded mine tailings, the potential for
in situ acid formation may exist whenever pyritic sulfide is
present in the waste material. If acid were to be formed by
the oxidation of pyritic sulfur, the acid theoretically
could dissolve and mobilize transition metals. The pos-
sibility that acid formation will occur is evaluated by
measuring the acid-base potential.
Synopsis. Determination of the acid-base potential is the
result of two independent analyses: one is an acidometric
measure of the base equivalent (as calcium carbonate) of the
tailings solids, and the other is a measure of the hydrogen
peroxide-oxidizable sulfur that could produce sulfuric acid.
The acid-base potential is the base content minus the acid
content.
Methods. Report No. EPA-670/2-74-070, Mine Spoil Potentials
for Soil and Water Quality.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
method.
9.6.4.2 Pollutant Analysis
9.6.4.2.1 Organics
Purpose. Organics tests are used to identify and quantify
the organic contaminants of the soil.
Synopsis. The EPA has a list of organic priority pollutants
for which well-defined analytical and quality control proce-
dures have been developed. These pollutants are classified
in four groups based on the extraction procedures employed
before analysis: volatiles, acid extractables, base or neu-
tral extractables, and pesticides. The major analytical
procedures employed are gas chromatography and mass spec-
troscopy. For organics other than the priority pollutants,
procedures need to be obtained from literature. Appropriate
descriptions should be presented to the laboratory on a spe-
cial analytical services (SAS) form.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Methods 8010-8310, 3510-3550.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
methods and the literature.
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9.6.4.2.2 Metals
Purpose. Metals tests are used to identify and quantify the
metal contaminants in the soil.
Synopsis. The EPA has a list of metal priority pollutants
for which well-defined analytical and quality control proce-
dures have been developed. In analysis requests, distinc-
tions need to be made in total metal or extractable metal
analysis. The soil is digested with a strong acid to dis-
solve all metals in the first, whereas an appropriate
extraction method is employed in the second. The analysis
methods are mainly atomic absorption and inductively coupled
plasma emission. For metals that are not on the priority
pollutant list, procedures need to be obtained from litera-
ture and appropriate descriptions given on the SAS form.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Methods 7040-7951, 3010-3060.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
methods and the literature.
9.6.4.2.3 Total and Amenable Cyanide
Purpose. This test is used to determine the concentration
of inorganic cyanide. The method detects inorganic cyanides
that are present as either simple soluble salts or complex
radicals. The test is used to determine values for both
total cyanide and cyanide amenable to chlorination. It does
not determine the "reactive" cyanide content of wastes con-
taining iron-cyanide complexes.
Synopsis. The waste is divided into two parts. One is
chlorinated to destroy susceptible complexes. Each part is
distilled to remove interferences and is analyzed for
cyanide. The fraction amenable to chlorination is deter-
mined by the difference in values.
4
During the distillation, cyanide is converted to hydrogen
cyanide vapor, which is trapped in a scrubber containing
sodium hydroxide solution. This solution is titrated with
standard silver nitrate.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 9010.
Limitations and precautions. Sulfides interfere with the
titration, but they can be precipitated with cadmium. Fatty
acids form soaps under alkaline titration conditions and
interfere. The fatty acids can be extracted with a suitable
solvent. Oxidizing agents can decompose the cyanide; the
oxidizing agents can be treated with ascorbic acid.
9-41
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Thiocyanate presence will interfere by distilling over in
the procedure. This situation can be prevented by adding
magnesium chloride. Aldehydes and ketones can convert
cyanide to cyanohydrin under the acid distillation
conditions.
9.6.4.2.4 Total Organic Halides (TOX)
Purpose. This test_is used to determine the total organic
halides (TOX) as Cl extract.
Synopsis. A sample of water that has been protected against
the loss of volatiles by the elimination of headspace in the
sampling container is passed through a column containing
activated carbon. The column is washed to remove any
trapped inorganic halides and is analyzed to convert the
adsorbed organohalides to a titratable species that can be
measured by a microcoulometric detector.
Methods. The reader should see the test methods. EPA
SW-946, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method
9020, Total Organic Halides (TOX).
Limitations and precautions. All samples must be run in
duplicate. Under conditions of duplicate analysis, the
reliable limit of sensitivity is 5 yg per liter.
The method detects all organic halides containing chlorine,
bromine, and iodine that are adsorbed by granular-activated
carbon under conditions of the method. Fluorine species are
not determined by this method.
The method is applicable to samples whose inorganic-halide
concentration does not exceed the organic-halide concentra-
tion by more than 20,000 times.
9.6.4.2.5 pH
Purpose. This test is used to measure the pH of the soil.
Synopsis. The soil is stirred with water and, after
equilibration, the pH of the supernatant solution is
measured with a glass electrode pH meter.
Methods. The EPA is currently developing a method, EPA
SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method
9045.
Limitations and precautions. The measured pH value may
shift slightly with each change in the soil-to-water ratio
used in the preparation of the soil samples, and seasonal
fluctuations in pH may also be anticipated.
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9.6.4.2.6 Lime Requirement
Purpose. This test is used to determine the pH of acidic
soils for estimating the amounts of lime needed to neutral-
ize the soil.
Synopsis. The dried soil is mixed with a buffer solution
and allowed to equilibrate, and the pH is measured with
glass electrodes and a pH meter. The amount of lime needed
can be estimated from experimental lime versus pB corre-
lation curves specific to the region.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, revised September 1978.
Limitations and precautions. Electrodes should be rinsed
very well between samples to eliminate a constant increase
in the pH measured because of electrode contamination.
9.6.4.3 Other Tests
9.6.4.3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity
Purpose. This test is used to determine the exchangeable
cation content of the soil. Many of the assimilative capac-
ity determinations for constituents in industrial waste are
based on cation exchange capacity measurement.
Synopsis. Determination of soil cation exchange capacity
involves removal of all exchangeable cations by leaching the
soil with an excess of neutral ammonium acetate solution and
saturating the exchange material with ammonium. This proce-
dure is followed by leaching with NH.Cl. The soil is then
washed with isopropyl alcohol until all chloride is removed.
The ammonium adsorbed on the exchange complex is displaced
by treating the soil with acidified NaCl. The displaced
solution is distilled and then titrated to calculate the
cation exchange capacity.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, revised September 1978.
The EPA is developing a cation exchange capacity method
entitled Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, SW-846,
Methods 9080, 9081. This method includes the ammonium
acetate and the sodium acetate methods.
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9.6.4.3.2 Extractable Cations: K , Na , Ca , Mg
Purpose. Extractable cation content of the soil, along with
extractable hydrogen, is used to estimate the cation
exchange capacity and the percentage of base saturation
required for soil taxonomy.
Synops is. The ions are extracted from the soil with a
neutral ammonium acetate solution. The quantities of the
individual ions in the solution are then determined by
atomic absorption.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Method 17, revised September 1978.
Limitations and precautions. The four cations are
determined on the same soil extract but with different dilu-
tions. The single-extraction technique for cations in non-
calcerous soil gives values that are equivalent to at least
35 percent of the values obtained by mult^le extraction.
For samples that contain carbonates of Ca or Mg , the
multiple extraction with ammonium acetate may dissolve these
carbonates and give higher values for Ca and Mg than are
obtained with a single extraction. For routine testing,
there is usually no interest in determining the extractable
Ca and Mg in alkaline samples that contain free lime.
9.6.4.3.3 Exchangeable Hydrogen
Purpose. To determine the amount of acidic hydrogen that
can be removed from the soil by a buffer solution. The
extractable hydrogen content, along with the extractable
cations, is used to estimate the cation exchange capacity,
as well as the percentage of base saturation required for
soil taxonomy.
Synopsis. The soil is mixed with a buffer solution and kept
for 30 minutes while being shaken to dissolve the acidic
hydrogens. The soil is then filtered. This process is
repeated two more times; then the filtrate is titrated to
determine the acid content.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, revised September 1978.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
method.
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9.6.4.3.4 Total Soluble Salts—Electrical Conductivity
Purpose. This test is used to measure the electrical
conductivity of the soil extract as an indication of its
ionic content (soluble salts).
Synopsis. Water is added to the soil to prepare a saturated
soil paste. This paste is then filtered, and the
conductivity of the filtrate is measured.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Method 1, revised September 1978.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the
literature.
9.6.4.3.5 Carbon, Total Organic and Inorganic
Purpose. This test is used to determine the total organic
carbon and/or the total inorganic carbon content of the
soil. Carbon may exist in sediment and water samples as
either inorganic or organic compounds. Inorganic carbon is
present as carbonates and bicarbonates and possibly as free
carbon dioxide. Specific types of organic carbon compounds
are nonvolatile organic compounds (sugars), volatile organic
compounds (mercaptans), partially volatile compounds (oils),
and particulate carbonaceous materials (cellulose).
Synopsis. The basis of the method is the catalytic or
chemical oxidation of carbon in carbon-containing compounds
to carbon dioxide, followed by the quantification of the
carbon dioxide produced. Alternately, the carbon may be
reduced to methane and appropriately quantified. It then
follows that the distinction between inorganic carbon and
organic carbon is the method of sample pretreatment. There
are presently two procedures for defining this separation.
One method is based on sample treatment with a strong acid.
Analysis of an untreated sample is a measure ot total car-
bon, while analysis of the acid-treated fraction is a mea-
sure of organic carbon. Inorganic carbon is calculated by
subtraction. The second method of separation is based on
differential thermal combustion with organic compounds being
converted to carbon dioxide at 500°C to 650°C and inorganic
carbon being converted to carbon dioxide at 950°C to
1,300°C.
Methods. Procedures for Handling and Chemical Analysis of
Sediment and Water Samples^Russell H.Plumb,U.S. EPA and
Army Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for
Dredged and Fill Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
9-45
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9.6.4.3.6 Sulfides
Purpose. This test is used to measure the concentration of
total and dissolved sulfides.
Synopsis. Excess iodine is added to a sample, which may or
may not have been treated with zinc acetate, to produce zinc
sulfide. The iodine oxidizes the sulfide to sulfur under
acidic conditions. The excess iodine is back-titrated with
sodium thiosulfate or phenylarsine oxide.
Methods. EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 9030; EPA Method 376(1979).
Limitations and precautions. The method does not measure
acid-insoluble sulfides; copper sulfide is the only common
acid-insoluble sulfide.
The method is suitable for measuring sulfide in
concentrations above 1 mg per liter. Reduced sulfur
compounds that decompose in acid, such as sulfite,
thiosulfate, and hydrosulfite, may yield erratic results.
Also, volatile iodine-consuming substances will give high
results. Samples must be taken with a minimum of aeration
to avoid volatilization of sulfides and reaction with oxygen
that may convert sulfide to unmeasurable forms. If the
sample is not preserved with zinc acetate, analysis must
start immediately.
9.6.4.3.7 Total Nitrogen
Purpose. This test is used to determine the total nitrogen
content of the soil.
Synopsis. In the micro-Kjeldahl method, the nitrogen in
different forms is converted to the ammonium ion by
digestion in sulfuric acid. The digest is distilled, and
the distillate is titrated for the ammonium content from
which the nitrogen content can be calculated.
Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Method 3, revised September 1978.
9.6.4.3.8 Extractable Phosphorus
Purpose. This test is used to determine the amount of
phosphorus that can be extracted with a sodium bicarbonate
solution from the soil.
Synopsis. The sodium bicarbonate extract of the soil is
treated with a complexing agent; the phosphorus complex is
determined colorimetrically.
9-46
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Methods. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing
Laboratory at Oregon State University, Special Report 321,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Method 15, revised September 1978.
Limitations and precautions. The pH of the NaHCO3 solution
increases over time when exposed to the atmosphere. When
the pH of the extractant exceeds 8.5, a notable increase in
extractable soil is anticipated. A thin layer of mineral
oil that is spread over the surface of the extracting solu-
tion will effectively decrease the rate at which the pH will
change. Chemical reactions that tend to decrease the activ-
ity or concentration of soluble Ca, Al, and Fe will allow
for a potential increase in soluble phosphate. The amount
extracted is also dependent on the shaker time and
temperature.
9.6.4.3.9 Total Phosphorus
Purpose. This test is used to determine the total
phosphorus content of the soil after digestion.
Synopsis. Numerous methods are available for the digestion
of sediment samples to be analyzed for phosphate. Most
procedures consist of strong acid digestion or treatment
with an oxidizing agent and a strong acid. A common feature
ot the digestion procedures is that the sample treatments
are designed to convert all the phosphate compounds to
orthophosphate. The orthophosphate is then quantified
colorimetrically.
Methods. Procedures for Hand 1 ing ajid ffigmica 1 Analy sis of
Sediment and Water Samples^Ru s sell H. Plumb, U.S. EPA and
Army Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for
Dredged and Fill Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the test
method.
9.6.4.3.10 Mineralogy
Purpose. This test is used to determine the mineral
characteristics of soil.
Synopsis. The most widely used techniques in mineral
identification and composition determination are X-ray
diffraction and optical techniques; the underlying princi-
ples are beyond the scope of this compendium. References
are given in Subsection 9.8.
Methods. Ford, W. E. Dana's Textbook of Mineralogy,
OpticaT Techniques. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and
Sons. 1966.
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Hurlburt, C. S., Jr. Manual of Mineralogy, 19th ed. New
York: John Wiley and Sons. 1977.
"X-Ray Diffraction Techniques for Mineral Identification and
Mineralogical Composition," Methods of Soil Analysis,
Agronomy Monograph No. 9, Part I,American Society of
Agronomy, 1965. (The second edition of this reference is
soon to be published.) This reference provides qualitative
and semiquantitative soil mineralogical analyses.
Limitations and precautions. The reader should see the
methods.
9.6.5 COMPATIBILITY TESTING
Materials considered for hazardous waste applications should
be analyzed for compatibility with the wastes. The analyses
should determine the changes in material properties caused
by contact or exposure to wastes. Materials of concern for
compatibility may include natural materials (e.g., soils and
rock) and synthetic materials (e.g., construction
materials).
Although analytical methods are being developed, few
standards for compatibility testing exist at present.
Decisionmakers must use their judgment and experience in
evaluating the need for, and use of, compatibility test
data. Those laboratories conducting the testing must be
appropriately staffed and equipped. The test method must
clearly document the test scope, limitations, and materials
used, and provide quantification of the degree of alteration
and projected useful life of the material.
In general, compatibility testing involves rational use of
both chemical tests and tests of physical properties (see
Subsections 9.6.3 and 9.6.4) to assess the effects of wastes
on the materials. Chemical analyses may be used to deter-
mine the types and concentrations of wastes to which the
material is subjected. The aggressive substance in a haz-
ardous waste may be of low total concentration, but the sub-
stance may accumulate in a particular phase or level in the
waste. Under such conditions, the concentration level may
be high enough to act aggressively. Physical tests provide
the basis for measuring resultant changes.
The following discussions are not intended to be all-
encompassing, but they should heighten general awareness
about potential effects on various materials. Specific
needs and details of such testing must be evaluated on a
site-specific basis.
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9.6.5.1 Soil
The compatibility of soils with wastes is primarily
concerned with the effects of the presence of liquid wastes
in the pore fluids of the soils. Compatibility effects may
include chemical alteration of the soil itself or alteration
of soil properties, such as permeability, compressibility,
and strength (since many of the properties of soils depend
on the characteristics of the pore fluids).
9.6.5.1.1 Clay
Clay has traditionally been used for water containment
because of the low permeability of most clays and clay mix-
tures. Recent evidence suggests that permeability and other
properties are altered by liquid contaminants. Clays are
subject to alteration by organic chemicals, pH changes, ion
exchange, and so forth.
9.6.5.1.2 Silt
Silt is a major constituent of alluvial soils and usually
appears in combination with various amounts of clay and
sand. The parent material from which the silt is derived
will influence the effects of wastes on the alteration of
silts. Concern for the alteration of silts relates more to
structural and strength property changes than to chemical
changes.
9.6.5.1.3 Sand
Sand used for bedding and drainage media must be evaluated
for alterations that may aftect its structural and fluid
conductivity suitability. Tests using the liquid phase of
hazardous wastes on sands to determine leaching, permeabil-
ity, strength, and particle size changes should be
performed.
9.6.5.1.4 Gravels and Aggregates
Gravels used for structural and drainage systems must be
evaluated for alterations that may affect their suitability.
Aggregates used in Portland cement and asphaltic concrete
products should be evaluated in the same manner as the
gravels and sands.
9.6.5.2 Rock
In situ properties of rocks underlying or adjacent to
hazardous wastes should be evaluated for potential effects
ot exposure to wastes. Alteration of strength, permeabil-
ity, competence, and so forth should be considered.
9-49
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Samples of rock removed from the site will be useful in
determining some physical and chemical property changes in
contact with wastes. However, the value of that determina-
tion is limited. The overriding concern should be with the
behavior of the rock mass as a unit.
9.6.5.3 Materials
9.6.5.3.1 Concrete
Cast-in-place and precast concrete products to be used in
hazardous waste control systems must be evaluated for
effects caused by the waste materials. The effects of some
chemicals are known to cause expansion, cracking, spalling,
surface deterioration, and dissolution of cement paste or
matrix. A few standard methods for resistance of concrete
to some chemical and physical stresses may be found in ASTM
Vol. 04.02.
9.6.5.3.2 Soil-Cement
Minor amounts of Portland cement may be added to soils to
strengthen them and to reduce permeability of soil mate-
rials. An evaluation of the soil-cement system, using spec-
imens trom the mix-design procedures, must be made using
contaminated soils or involving hazardous waste materials.
Cement is often used to solidify contaminated materials.
The solidification procedure should be evaluated for prop-
erties to remain within an allowable range over the long
term.
9.6.5.3.3 Portland Cement
There are many types of Portland cement and blended
hydraulic cements. Some have properties that may be more or
less resistant to chemical exposure to hazardous wastes.
The compatibility of the cement products must be assessed
and evaluated to make successful Portland cement concrete.
9.6.5.3.4 Asphalt Cement
Many types of bituminous products or asphalt cement are used
to control leakage. The alteration of properties, such as
impermeability, by hazardous wastes must be evaluated to
determine product suitability. Evaluation may involve
visual observation of changes, as well as physical property
changes measured according to ASTM procedures.
9.6.5.3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
Asphaltic cement may be added to soils for strengthening and
reducing permeability. The appropriateness of this method
must be evaluated by testing with hazardous waste to deter-
mine the alteration of the stabilized soil's properties.
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9.6.5.3.6 Metal Products
Metal products are mentioned in this subsection to draw
attention to any materials that may be buried in soil or
contaminated soil or exposed to hazardous wastes. Since
exposure of metal products to hazardous waste materials is
possible, the corrosion, deterioration, and alteration of
the product or its function must be evaluated to determine
the most suitable material or the need for an alternative.
9.6.5.3.7 Plastic Products
A broad range of material compatibility information for
plastics is available from manufacturers. The potential
exposure of plastics to hazardous waste must be defined and
the most suitable products tested. Adaptations of the
U.S. EPA SW-846 Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste,
Method 9090 for Flexible Membrane Liners, may be considered
for testing plastics.
9.6.5.3.8 Wood Products
Wood products and lumber that may be subjected to hazardous
waste should be evaluated before use. Such evaluation is
especially important if wood and lumber products are to be
used structurally.
9.6.5.3.9 Geotextiles
The use of woven and nonwoven geotextiles is common in
hazardous waste facilities. The functions these synthetic
fibrous materials provide may be altered by exposure to
wastes. Geotextiles should be tested and evaluated for
their continued ability to provide the functions required.
The nature of geotextiles presents a challenging task to the
development of meaningful test methods. The U.S. EPA,
SW-846 Test Methods for Evaluation Solid Waste, Method 9090,
may provide some guidance.
9.6.5.3.10 Geomembranes
Flexible membrane liners or geomembranes are 10- to 100-mil
thick sheets of polymeric materials. Compatibility test
information and results for most polymeric materials are
available from the manufacturers and some independent
sources. An accepted method of test for geomembranes is the
U.S. EPA Method 9090. Properties of membrane specimens are
determined before and after soaking in the hazardous waste
liquid, extract, or leachate. Another recommended test
method for estimating long-term performance of membrane
liners in a chemical environment is provided in Appendix D
of National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) Standard 54 for
Flexible Membrane Liners.
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9.6.5.3.11 Synthetic Drainage Media
In place of sand and gravel drainage systems, synthetic
drainage media may be used. The synthetic media may be sep-
arated from the soil above and below by a geotextile fabric.
The media may be polymeric mesh mat-like material with
favorable strength and hydraulic properties. The material
should be evaluated using methods similar to those used for
geomembranes, since the materials used are similar.
9.6.6 LABORATORY AND ANALYSES RECORDS
A general description of the laboratory recording procedures
is presented below. Specific requirements may be estab-
lished as contractual obligations with the laboratories
(e.g., U.S. EPA's CLP). The user should be familiar with
the contractual obligations for sample and data recording
when using contract laboratories. Review of existing CLP
recording requirements is beyond the scope of this
subsection.
9.6.6.1 Sample Log
All samples should be recorded upon receipt at the
laboratory. The sample should be logged into a bound record
book and assigned a sequential identification number. The
log should be used to track the sample through the labo-
ratory by recording date received, date and location stored,
date tested, and date disposed of. Chain of custody should
be maintained on all samples throughout the process (see
Sections 4, 5, and 6). The numerical identification should
be used on all laboratory record sheets, together with other
pertinent information such as project name and number and
case number.
9.6.6.2 Data Sheets
The data and analysis results for each sample should be
recorded on data sheets as the test is conducted. The for-
mat for specific test sheets may follow those presented in
the ASTM standards, as applicable. Data sheets should be
developed and consistently used for tests that do not have
standards.
At a minimum, the following identifying information should
be provided on each data sheet:
o Project name and number
o EPA authorization number or case number
o Sample identifier (number, location, depth, and
name of sampler)
o Date of laboratory analysis
o Laboratory and analyst names
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In addition to the identifying information, the data sheet
should refer to the standard used including a specific
statement of any deviations from the standard. Where stan-
dards are not available, a detailed description of the test
method should be attached with the data sheets.
The data section of the sheet should be legibly completed
without erasures. Any changes to the data should be done by
crossing out the original entry, writing in the correction,
and initialing it.
Calculations should be orderly and should be done on the
data sheet or attached separately. Calculations should
follow the same guidelines as for data recording (i.e., it
should be legible without erasures).
9.6.6.3 Recordkeeping
Originals of all laboratory sheets and records should be
retained in a secure file by the analyzing laboratory.
Legible copies should be provided to EPA and its contrac-
tors, as required.
In addition to data sheets, all pertinent correspondence,
chain-of-custody records, quality assurance records, and
other records should be retained. Originals should be
retained for the duration ot the project including com-
pletion of any litigation.
9.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Many of the methods and procedures discussed in this
subsection have not been accepted as standard by the EPA
CLP. Because information on variances is rapidly dated,
users should consult with the laboratory in each EPA region
to obtain clarification of specific regional variations.
Changes in variances will be included in Revision 01 to this
compendium.
9.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Oregon State University. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in
the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University.
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Corvallis, Oregon. Revised September 1978.
American Concrete Institute, Chapter 318.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1984 Annual
Book of ASTM Standards. Section 4: Construction.
Vol. 04.08, 1984, and Vols. 08.01 and 09.02. 1984.
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Bower, C. A., and L. V. Wilcox. "Soluble Salts." Methods
of Soil Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 62. American Society of
Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 933-951.
Bremner, J. M. "Total Nitrogen." Methods of Soil Analysis,
Part 2, Chapter 83. American Society of Agronomists.
Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1143-1176.
Ford, W. E. "Optical Techniques," Dana's Textbook of
Mineralogy. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1966.
Grewling, T. and M. Peech. "Chemical Soil Tests." Cornell
University Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 960.
1960.
Hurlburt, C. S., Jr. Manual of Mineralogy. 19th ed. New
York: John Wiley and Sons. 1977.
Jackson, M. L. Soil Chemical Analysis. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1958. pp. 151-154.
Lambe, T. W. Soil Testing for Engineers. New York: John
Wiley and Sons. 1951.
Lambe, T. W., and R.V. Whiteman. Soil Mechanics. New York:
John Wiley and Sons. 1969.
McWhorter, David B. and Daniel K. Sunada. Groundwater
Hydrology and Hydraulics. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Water
Resources Publications. 1977.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Laboratory
Corrosion Testing of Metals for the Process Industries.
Houston, Texas: NACE Standard TM-01-69 (1972 Revision).
Natural Sanitation Foundation. Standard 54 for Flexible
Membranes. 1983.
Obert, L., and W.I. Duvall. Rock Mechanics and the Design
of Structures in Rock. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
1967.
Obert, L. , S. L. Windes, and W. I. Duvall. "Standardized
Tests for Determining the Physical Properties of Mine Rock."
U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 3891. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1946.
Olsen, S. R., et al. "Estimation of Available Phosphorous in
Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicarbonate." USDA Circular
No. 939. 1954.
9-54
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Olsen, S. R., et al. "Phosphorous." Methods of Soil
Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 73. American Society of
Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1035-1048.
Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn.
Foundation Engineering. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and
Sons. 1974.
Plum, Russell H. Procedures for Handling and Chemical
Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples, U.S. EPA and Army
Corps of Engineers Technical Committee on Criteria for
Dredged and Fill Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
Pratt, P. F. "Potassium." Methods of Soil Analysis,
Part 2, Chapter 71. American Society of Agronomists.
Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1022-1030.
Richards, L. A. "Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and
Alkali Soils." USDA Handbook 60. U.S. Salinity Laboratory.
1954.
Schollenberger, C. J., et al. "Determination of Exchange
Capacity and Exchangeable Bases in Soil-Ammonium Acetate
Method." Soil Science, Volume 59, 13-24. 1945.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "Laboratory Soil Testing."
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1906. Department of the Army,
Office of the Chief of Engineers. Washington, D.C.
30 November 1970.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Earth Manual. 2nd ed. U.S.
Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 1974.
9-55
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METHODS AND PROCEDURES
ASTM 1635-63 (reapproved 1979) , Flexural Strength of
Soil-Cement Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading.
ASTM 1682-64 (1975), Test Methods for Breaking Load and
Elongation of Textile Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM C 39-83b, Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens.
ASTM C 78-84, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading).
ASTM C 88-83, Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium
Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate.
ASTM C 150-84, Portland Cement, and ASTM C 595-83, Blended
Hydraulic Cements.
ASTM C 170, Compressive Strength of Natural Building Stone.
ASTM C 178-78, Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
the Volumetric Method.
ASTM C 231-82, Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by
the Pressure Method.
ASTM C 293-79, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) (not an alternative
to C 78-84).
ASTM C 496-71 (reapproved 1979) , Splitting Tensile
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM C 642-82, Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids
in Hardened Concrete.
ASTM C 9951, Modulus of Rupture of Natural Building
Stone.
ASTM C 9783, Standard Test Methods for Absorption and Bulk
Specific Gravity of Natural Building Stones.
ASTM D 93-85, Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens
Closed Tester.
ASTM D 297, D 412, D 624 (for rubber).
ASTM D 422-63 (reapproved 1972) , Particle-Size Analysis
of Soils.
ASTM D 425-79, Centrifuge Moisture Equivalent of Soils.
9-56
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ASTM D 558-82, Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement
Mixtures.
ASTM D 559-82, Wetting-and-Drying Tests of Compacted
Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 560-82, Freezing-and-Thawing Tests of Compacted
Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 584-83, Specific Gravity of Soils.
ASTM D 638, D 972, D 1004, D 1204, D 3083 (for plastics).
ASTM D 653-82, Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols
Relating to Soil and Rock Mechanics.
ASTM D 698-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils.
ASTM D 698-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and
Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 5.5-lb Rammer and 12-xn. Drop,
ASTM D 751 (for supported geomembranes).
ASTM D 751-79, Methods of Testing Coated Fabrics, 09.02.
ASTM D 806-74 (reapproved 1979), Cement Content of
Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 882 (for thin plastic).
ASTM D 1117-80, Methods of Testing Nonwoven Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 1557-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and
Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 10-lb. Rammer and 18-in.~Drop.
ASTM D 1558-71 (reapproved 1977), Moisture-Penetration
Resistance Relations of Fine-Grained" Soils.
ASTM D 1587-83, Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D 1593 (for polyvinyl chloride).
ASTM D 1632-63 (reapproved 1979), Making and Curing
Soil-Cement Compression and Flexure Test Specimens
in the Laboratory.
ASTM D 1633-63 (reapproved 1979), Compressive Strength
of Molded Soil-Cement Cylinders.
ASTM D 1634-63 (reapproved 1979), Compressive Strength
of Soil-Cement Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure
(Modified Cube Method).
9-57
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ASTM D 1777-64 (reapproved 1975) , Method for Measuring
Thickness of Textile Materials, 07.01.
ASTM D 1883-73 (reapproved 1978) , Bearing Ratio of
Laboratory-Compacted Soils.
ASTM D 2166-66 (reapproved 1979), Unconfined Compressive
Strength of Cohesive Soil.
ASTM D 2216-80, Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture)
Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.
ASTM D 2325-68 (reapproved 1981) , Capillary-Moisture
Relationships for Coarse and Medium-Textured Soils by
Porous-Plate Apparatus.
ASTM D 2419-74 (reapproved 1979) , Sand Equivalent Value
of Soils and Fine Aggregate.
ASTM D 2434-58 (reapproved 1974) , Permeability of Granular
Soils (Constant Head).
ASTM D 2435-80, One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of
Soils.
ASTM D 2487-83, Classification of Soils for Engineering
Purposes.
ASTM D 2488-69 (reapproved 1975) , Description of Soils
(Visual-Manual Procedure).
ASTM D 2850-82, Unconsolidated, Undrained Compressive
Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression.
ASTM D 2901-82, Cement Content of Freshly Mixed Soil-Cement.
ASTM D 2936-78, Direct Tensile Strength of Intact Rock-
Core Specimens.
ASTM D 3080-72 (reapproved 1979), Direct Shear Test
of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions"!
ASTM D 3152-72 (reapproved 1977), Capillary-Moisture
Relationships for Fine-Textured Soils by Pressure-Membrane
Apparatus.
ASTM D 3550-77, Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D 3740-80, Standard Practice for the Evaluation of
Agencies Engaged in the Testing and/or Inspection of Soil
and Rock as Used in Engineering Design and Construction.
9-58
-------
ASTM D 3775-84, Test Method for Fabric Count of Woven
Fabric, 07.01.
ASTM D 3773-84, Test Method for Length of Woven Fabric,
09.02.
ASTM D 3774-84, Test Method for Width of Woven Fabric,
07.01.
ASTM D 3776-84, Test Methods for Weight (Mass) per Unit
Area of Woven Fabric, 07.01.
ASTM D 3782-80, Test Method for Bow and Skewness (Bias)
in Woven and Knitted Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 3783-80, Test Method for Fabric Crimp or Takeup
of Woven Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 3786-80a, Test Method for Hydraulic Bursting Strength
of Knitted Goods and Nonwoven Fabrics: Diaphragm Bursting
Strength Tester Method, 07.0.
ASTM D 3967-81, Splitting Tensile Strength of Intact
Rock-Core Specimens.
ASTM D 4223-83, Preparation of Test Specimens of
Asphalt-Stabilized Soils.
ASTM D 4253-83, Maximum Index Density of Soils Using a
Vibratory Table
ASTM D 4254-83, Minimum Index Density of Soils and
Calculations of Relative Density.
ASTM D 4318-83, Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity
Index of Soils.
ASTM E 329-77, Standard Recommended Practice for Inspection
and Testing Agencies for Concrete, Steel, and Bituminous
Materials as Used in Construction.
Anderson, C.H., et al. Preliminary Interim Procedure for
Fibrous Asbestos. U.S. EPA Analytical Chemistry Branch,
Athens, Georgia. July 1976.
Plumb, Russell H. Procedures for Handling and Chemical
Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples. U.S. EPA and Army
Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for
Dredged and Fill Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
Shrestra, Sharad, and J.R. Bell. "Tensile and Creep
Behavior of Geotectiles." Transportation Research Report
81-30. Oregon State University. January 1981.
9-59
-------
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. Plastic
Filter Fabric. CW 02215. November 1977.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Interim Method
for Determination of Asbestiform Minerals in Bulk Insulation
Samples. 1 June 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Test Methods for
Evaluating Solid Waste." Methods 9030, 9045, 9010,
7040-7951, 3010-3060, 8010-8310, 3510, 3550, 1310, 1110,
1010, 1020, and Section 21.3. EPA SW-846.
WDR146/025
9-60
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Section 10
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Note: This section is organized by the topics "Flow
Measurement" and "Sampling" for greater usefulness.
10.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT
10.1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the planning,
method selection, and implementation of surface flow mea-
surements for hazardous waste site field investigations that
require information on flows for streams, rivers, or surface
impoundments.
10.1.2 DEFINITIONS
Flow (or volumetric flowrate). That volume of water which
passes through a cross-sectional plane of a channel in some
unit of time.
Flow measurement. The act or process of quantifying a
flowrate.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
10.1.3 APPLICABILITY
This subsection discusses general and special flow-
measurement techniques that may be applied to the majority
of site field investigations. There is no universally
applicable procedure, because flows must be measured under a
variety of conditions. For any given site, the technique
selected must be appropriate for that site's specific con-
ditions. For example, the choice of flow-measurement device
can depend on the following criteria:
o Is the flow continuous or intermittent?
o Is the flow channel open or closed?
o What is the channel geometry?
o Are there hydraulic discontinuities in the channel
(standing waves, hydraulic jumps, dams, etc.)?
10-1
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o Is there access to the channel at a suitable point
for measuring flow?
o How often will flow measurements need to be made?
o Will the flow-measuring device require freeze
protection or shelter?
o What water constituents may affect the reliability
of the flow-measuring device? For example, will
sediment in the stream clog flow tubes?
o Would there be a need for installing a more
permanent flow-measuring device for long-term
surveys?
o Are utilities (electrical, air, or clean water)
available onsite?
The following discussions apply only to water moving from
one point to another, not to surface water lying still in an
impoundment or liquid waste pond. Such water does not fit
the flow definition cited above. Flowing water moves
because it has a sloping surface that is subject to the pull
of gravity and/or a pressure head. This movement from point
to point is opposed by frictional forces between the water
and the sides of the channel. This friction leads to wide
variations in velocity over the cross-sectional plane of the
channel. No matter which flow-measurement technique or
device is chosen, it will have to accurately account for
these variations. Field crews conducting flow measurements
must be made aware of the strengths and limitations that
apply to any flow-measurement technique.
Another type of "flow" not covered by the following
discussion may be called "overland flow" or "emergent sub-
surface flow," wherein water moves across a land surface
without being constrained by definable, continuous channel
boundaries. Examples of this type of flow occur during
floods or heavy storm runoffs. Such flows are mostly
ephemeral, nonuniform, and very shallow. Since there is no
definite cross-sectional measurement available, flow mea-
surement by any of the following methods is not practical.
Problems related to quantification of such flows are dis-
cussed in the National Handbook of Recommended Methods for
Water Data Acquisition compiled by the Department of
Interior's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) staff.
10.1.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM is responsible for obtaining proper flow
measurements. The most important tool in carrying out this
responsibility is the site operations sampling plan.
10-2
-------
Details of this plan are site-specific, usually following a
site reconnaissance by the site or field team leader.
The field team leader is responsible for implementing the
requirements of the site operations sampling plan and for
reporting any unusual conditions to the SM as soon as it
becomes apparent that plan modifications may be needed. The
field team leader must also make certain that all required
documentation is properly originated, maintained, completed,
and forwarded to the proper authorities.
The field investigation team is responsible for the actual
installation of the proper equipment and the performance of
flow measurements. Selected members of the work crew must
be familiar with the objectives, the site operations plan,
the equipment designated for use, the recordkeeping
requirements, the appropriate safety measures, and the
importance of accurate measurements.
10.1.5 PROCEDURES
10.1.5.1 General Considerations
The planning, selection, and implementation of any flow-
measurement program require careful consideration by qual-
ified, experienced personnel. A preliminary site visit
should be made to review actual conditions and to confirm or
correct site plans, diagrams, or layouts.
The purpose of making flow measurements should be clearly
defined before commencing this activity. Some common rea-
sons for measuring flowrates include the following:
o Assessing impacts on receiving streams
o Acquiring data on flow volume, variability, and
average rate to design and operate wastewater
treatment facilities
o Determining compliance with load limitations
placed on selected pollutants
o Flow-proportioning composites to comply with
permit requirements that govern composite sampling
o Estimating chemical addition requirements or
treatment costs for effective wastewater treatment
o Establishing the requirements for sampling
frequency or the need for continuous monitoring of
flowing streams
10-3
-------
Whatever the reason for conducting flow measurements, the
parties involved in such work must be made aware of the
purpose, so that their contribution to this effort will be
better defined. Most of the techniques described below
depend on two critical measurements:
o The geometry of the cross-sectional plane through
which the water is passing
o The velocity at which the water is moving,
typically expressed in terms of length per unit of
time (e.g., meters per second, feet per second)
At times, the velocity may drop to zero and the water may
stand still. This phenomenon further divides surface flows
into two distinct types: intermittent and continuous. The
flow-measurement method chosen must be able to account for
periods of zero flow whenever they occur. The measurements
themselves may be made continuously using automatic instru-
ments or intermittently by manual methods. Human observers
must be aware of flow variations including periods of no
flow. But other factors, such as the cost, accessibility,
climate, available time for measurements, and the relative
accuracy of measurement desired, will also contribute
heavily to the choice of method used. The type of measure-
ment technique used will ultimately depend on conditions
encountered at each location.
10.1.5.2 Methods and Applications; General
Selection and implementation of flow-measurement practices
require that consideration be given to the following issues
that are common to all surface flow measurements at or near
hazardous waste sites:
o Preventing the spread of contamination
o Minimizing the risk to health and safety
o Maintaining a high level of accuracy in measuring
flows
o Causing the least possible disruption to onsite
activities
o Reporting all readings in an organized fashion as
required by the sampling plan
o Reducing, where possible, any additional long- and
short-term impacts
For most sites, flow measurements are made in open channels
that consist of a bed, two banks or sides, and a free or
10-4
-------
open water surface. The term also may apply to water move-
ment through closed conduits or sewers that are flowing only
partially full. The most typical cross-sectional shape
encountered is either circular or rectangular. On occasion,
measurements are taken in pressurized closed channels that
are completely full of water at a pressure greater than
atmospheric, either because of gravity or the use of pumps.
Some of the measurement techniques described in the follow-
ing discussion are applicable only to open channels, while
others work only in closed channels. Some may be used in
either type of channel. Also, some methods are best suited
for making single measurements, while others work best on a
continuous basis. Individual site conditions will determine
the user's options. The most appropriate option is selected
and incorporated into the site sampling plan.
Most flow measurements are based on determining two key
variables cited in Subsection 10.1.5.1: cross-sectional
area and velocity across that area. For open channels,
especially the smaller ones, the cross section is often best
measured directly using a meter or yardstick and weighted
chains or lines. Care must be taken to find a location
where the dimensions are not likely to change during the
time period in which flow measurements will be taken. Width
and depth are expressed in terms of meters or feet, and the
cross-sectional area is expressed as square meters or square
feet.
Velocity is determined using one of the methods that follow,
either directly or by calculation, from head differential or
pressure differential relationships. Units are commonly
given in meters/sec or feet/sec for most flow velocities.
When cross-sectional area and flow velocity are multiplied,
their product is the volumetric flowrate, expressed as cubic
meters/sec or cubic feet/sec for large flows and as
liters/sec or gallons/min for small flows.
At times, the entire flow from a discharge pipe or a notched
weir or dam can be caught in a collector of known volume,
such as a 5-gallon can or 55-gallon drum. By clocking the
amount of time needed to fill the vessel, one may obtain a
direct measurement of volumetric flowrate without resorting
to cross-sectional area and velocity measurements. A mini-
mum of 10 seconds to fill the container is recommended.
Several fill-ups should be timed, and the results should be
averaged to improve the quality of this measurement. But
other means of flow measurement will be used more often than
this direct estimate, which is valid only for flows between
0.06 liter/sec (1 gallon per minute (gpm)) and about
6.3 liter/sec (100 gpm).
10-5
-------
The equipment listed in this subsection is the most commonly
used at hazardous waste sites. For selected special appli-
cations, the reader should refer to Subsection 10.1.5.3.
Current meter. A current meter can be a mechanical device
with a rotating element that, when submerged in a flowing
stream, rotates at a speed proportional to the velocity of
the flow at that point below the surface. The rotating ele-
ment may be either a vertical shaft or a horizontal shaft
type. Meter manufacturers usually provide the user with
calibration tables to translate rotation into linear speed
in meters/sec or feet/sec (Price, undated).
Current meters can also be electromagnetic sensors where the
passage of fluids between two electrodes in a bulb-shaped
probe causes a disturbance of the electromagnetic field sur-
rounding the electrodes. This disturbance generates a small
voltage that can be made proportional to fluid velocity by
internal electronic circuitry. A direct readout of velocity
in meters/sec or feet/sec is provided for the user
(Marsh-McBirney, undated).
Applicability. Vertical axis meters are more commonly used
because they are simpler, more rugged, and easier to main-
tain than horizontal shaft meters. They also have a lower
threshold velocity, on the order of 0.03 meters/sec
(0.1 feet/sec). The electromagnetic current meters can be
used in making measurements in situations where mechanical
meters cannot function, such as weedy streams where mechan-
ical rotating elements would foul. However, the electro-
magnetic meters must always be carefully aligned to be
normal to the stream cross section, since the meter measures
only one velocity vector (the one parallel to the probe's
longitudinal axis). Current meters will operate at depths
ranging from 0.1 meter (0.3 feet) to any depth where the
meter can be held rigidly in place using cables or extension
poles. For most hazardous site investigations, depths
rarely exceed 2 or 3 meters (6.5 to 10 feet). Since current
meters provide readings at a single point, the mean velocity
must be based on multiple readings along a vertical line, or
on a single reading that can be converted to an estimated
mean velocity using standard coefficients. Methods for
estimating mean velocity include the following:
o Six-tenths depth method--Uses the observed
velocity at a point 0.6 of the total depth below
the surface as the mean velocity for the vertical.
Flow is calculated for each subsection defined by
the verticals and is the product of the depth
times the mean velocity for that subsection.
Total discharge flow is the sum of all individual
subsection flows, while the average stream
velocity is that sum (total discharge) divided by
10-6
-------
the total cross-sectional area. The number of
readings to be taken to increase accuracy will
depend on the width of the stream, from 2 or 3 for
streams less than 5 feet across to 15 to 25 for
streams wider than 50 feet across. Ideally, the
stream should be partitioned into sections small
enough that less than 10 percent of the total
stream flow passes through each section. In this
manner, individual measurements that may be in
error will have less impact on the overall average
velocity determination. However, practical con-
siderations, such as a rapidly changing stage or
limited time available to conduct measurements,
often may preclude the use of the ideal number of
partial sections. Users must recognize the poten-
tial impact on the overall accuracy of velocity
measurements from an inadequate number of verti-
cals within a given cross section. This method
works best at depths between 0.09 and 0.16 meters
(0.3 to 2.5 feet) and is the method of choice when
measurements must be made quickly.
o Two-point method—Measures velocities at 0.2 and
0.8 of the total depth below the surface. The
average of the two readings is considered to be
the average for the vertical. Several different
verticals are averaged across the cross section.
This method is more accurate than the six-tenths
depth method, but it cannot be used at depths less
than 0.76 meters (2.5 feet) because the observa-
tion points would be too near the surface and the
streambed.
o Three-point method—Measures velocities at 0.2,
0.6, and 0.8 of the total depth below the surface.
Readings at 0.2 and 0.8 are averaged; then that
result is averaged with the reading at 0.6. This
method provides a better mean value when veloc-
ities in the vertical are abnormally distributed,
but it should not abnormally be used at depths
less than 0.76 meters (2.5 feet).
o Vertical-velocity method--Primarily for deep
channels, this method measures velocities at
0.1 depth increments between 0.1 and 0.9 of the
total depth for several verticals. Because of the
multiplicity of readings, this method is rarely
used.
A step-by-step summary of a typical flow or discharge
measurement is as follows:
10-7
-------
Assemble current meter and test for proper
operation in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. Collect data form or notebook,
pencil, stop watch, 50-foot tape, etc.
Partition stream into sections (with tag-line or
bridge railing), visually observing the velocity
and general flow of the stream. Enough stations
should be established to prevent more than 10 per-
cent of the total discharge from passing through
any individual partial section. Remember, the
partial section in question is not the same as the
interval between two successive stations. Mark
stations appropriately. A check of measurements
may indicate the need for readjustment of the par-
titioned sections to upgrade the quality of the
readings.
Record stream stage as indicated by one of the
staff gauges, and record this value on the water
level recorder chart at the point of pen contact.
Record a minimum of the following items on the
data form or in the notebook:
Project
Site
Date
Time at start of measurements
Stream stage at start of measurements
Approximate wind direction and speed
General stream condition (e.g., turbid,
clear, low level, floating debris, water tem-
perature, type of streambed material, etc.)
Other factors having a bearing on discharge
measurements
Location of initial point
Total width of stream to be measured
Type of current meter and conversion factor,
if applicable
- Name of investigator taking the above reading
Determine the depth and mean velocity at the first
station or "initial point" if the situation
allows; record this information.
Measure depth at the second station from initial
point and record. Determine whether the velocity
should be measured at the 0.6 depth from the sur-
face (six-tenths depth method), at the 0.2 and 0.8
depths (two-point method), or by either of the
other methods available. Calculate respective
10-8
-------
depths from the surface, measure the velocity at
each point, and record these values.
o Continue to each successive station as rapidly as
possible, following the same procedure.
o Determine the depth and mean velocity at the last
station, or endpoint, and record.
o Record on the data form the ending time of this
series of measurements and the stage, since the
stage may have been changing during the
measurements.
o Enter the ending stage value on the recorder chart
at the point of pen contact. This information
will illustrate the interval of time and stage
variations during the cross-sectional measure-
ments. Also enter the date and indicate that a
calibration has taken place over this interval.
o Remove the tag-line (if used); rinse the current
meter in clean water, if necessary; allow the cur-
rent meter to dry; then pack it away in its
carrying case.
There are a few other comments regarding stream discharge
calibrations that should be mentioned:
o Where practical, make the measurements with the
investigator standing behind and well to the side
of the meter.
o Avoid disturbing or standing along the streambed
beneath the cross-sectional measuring points.
This location is part of the control area and
should remain constant, if possible, from cali-
bration to calibration of the stream. This step
is especially important if soft, mucky sediment is
encountered somewhere along the cross section.
o Where possible, try to use the same cross section
throughout the study period and during all of the
stream calibrations. However, the number and
position of stations within the cross section may
be changed, if necessary, to accommodate changing
flow conditions.
o Always hold the wading rod vertical, and be aware
of how VKJORM -*-s Determined with each of the vari-
ous types of meters, if it becomes necessary to
switch meters during a calibration.
10-9
-------
o Repeat the stream calibration at regular intervals
throughout the study period to account for sea-
sonal changes in streambank vegetation and
streambed alterations that may affect
measurements.
Once the mean velocity for each stream subsection is
determined, that value is multiplied by the area of the sub-
section; the product is the volumetric flow through the sub-
section per unit of time. The total discharge rate is the
sum of all volumetric flows for each subsection across the
entire cross section of the stream. The reader should refer
to USGS Water Supply Paper 2175 for additional information
(USGS, 1982). Customary units are cubic meters/sec (cu
ft/sec) for large flows and liters/sec (gal/min) for small
flows.
Current meters and stage gauges. Where repeated
measurements of a volumetric flowrate at a certain cross-
sectional area are required, it is best to install a per-
manent stage gauge along the stream's back or side wall to
facilitate measurement of the depth. The gauge should be a
rigid rod or board, precisely graduated and firmly mounted
with the streambed serving as a possible reference point.
Where stream characteristics are such that significant bed
erosion from scouring may be expected, it is best not to set
the streambed as a zero point, because this could lead to
confusion from generation of negative numbers for gauge
height readings. An arbitrary datum plume should be
selected that is below the elevation of zero flow expected
for the stream site. Gauges may be mounted vertically (per-
pendicular to the stream surface) or may incline along the
slope of the stream bank. Vertical gauges are simpler to
construct and calibrate, while inclined gauges provide more
accurate readings and are less likely to be damaged by mate-
rial floating by. The gauge provides one of the measure-
ments needed to estimate area. Width is fixed for channels
with vertical sides and can be readily determined for other
configurations. Velocity is determined using a current
meter as described above.
Discharge rating curves can be used to define the
relationship between stage and stream discharge, and to
allow conversion of stage hydrographs to discharge hydro-
graphs. The discharge calibration points are hand or
machine plotted onto a log-log paper graph of stage versus
stream discharge. Stream stage is plotted on the vertical Y
axis, and stream discharge is plotted on the horizontal X
axis. Ideally, enough calibrations are conducted over the
full range of stage variations to allow a smooth hand-drawn
curve to be drawn through these points on the graph.
10-10
-------
The slope and rate of change of slope may vary significantly
over the length of this curve. At certain gauging stations,
the slope of this curve may break sharply, or the distribu-
tion of points may require the construction of two partial
curves rather than one continuous curve. These latter two
situations would apply to more complex stage-discharge rela-
tionships. It is the task of the investigator to derive a
mathematical relationship that describes this curve as
closely as possible (i.e., an equation). The development of
an equation would allow calculation of discharge flow by
simply plugging in the stream elevation. This equation will
allow computerization of the process of converting stage
records into discharge and will eventually allow conversion
to volume by noting the time interval on the recorder chart
at which this rate of flow applies.
More complicated rating relationships may be required at a
particular gauging station. Discharge may be not only a
function of stage but also a function of slope, rate of
change of stage, or other variables specific to each site.
Additionally, stage-discharge relationships are rarely per-
manent, and discharge calibrations should be carried out at
periodic intervals to define the effects of various factors
including the following:
o Scouring and deposition of sediment
o Alteration of streambed roughness as a result of
the creation and dissemination of dunes, anti-
dunes, ripples, and standing-wave features in
sandy bottoms; the deposition of leaves and other
debris during different seasons; and the seasonal
variation in the growth of macrophytes
o Ice effects that may cause additional resistance
to flow (If monitoring is carried out during the
colder months, a complete ice-over and additional
freeze will tend to constrict the stream channel
with time and may increase the stage, when in fact
the flow may not be increasing at all.)
o Human-related activities, such as upstream
construction, recreation, etc.
Applicability. This method applies to sites where many flow
measurements will be made over a long period of time. Care
must be taken to maintain a known zero reference point ele-
vation. The point does not have to be the stream's bottom.
Where bed erosion over the course of flow measurements may
become a problem, provisions must be made to recalibrate the
gauge at regular intervals (e.g., weekly). The gauge is
lowered or raised as necessary to conform with changing bed
10-11
-------
conditions. Calculation of flow rate is the same as in the
preceding subsection for current meters alone.
Weirs. Weirs are commonly used flow measurement devices.
They are relatively easy to install and inexpensive to con-
struct. All weirs are deliberate restrictions inserted into
an open channel or a partially full pipe to obstruct flow by
forcing the weir through a calibrated cross section. The
weir causes water to back up and create a higher level
(head) than the level below the barrier. The height of that
head is a function of the velocity of the flow. Standard
tables and nomographs are available for many different types
of weirs, based on different general equations for each
type. The reader should refer to Exhibit 10-1 for a typical
profile of an installed weir.
The three most common weir configurations are triangular (or
V-notch), rectangular, and Cipolletti (or trapezoidal). The
reader should refer to Exhibit 10-2 for examples. Triangu-
lar weirs can have submerged angles of any size, but the
most common angles are 22-1/2:, 30:, 45:, 60:, and 90:.
Rectangular weirs may be designed with no end contractions
(the water flows over the full width of the weir) or with
contractions on one or both ends (water flows over a notch
in the weir). The former case is referred to as a sup-
pressed weir, but this type is often subject to problems
when a vacuum develops under the nappe (the sheet of water
breaking free from the crest of the weir). The most common
type of rectangular weir is the contracted or notched weir
with end contractions. Standard contracted weirs have two
end contractions whose width is at least twice the maximum
head expected above the weir crest. The Cipolletti weir has
standardized end slopes of one horizontal to four vertical,
which provide a correction for the contraction of the nappe
over the crest. Other weir profiles exist, but they are
much less common. The reader should refer to the flow-
measurement references in U.S. Department of Interior
(USDI), 1974; Instrument Specialists Company (ISCO), 1985;
and USGS, 1982, for information on other types of weirs.
Flumes. Flumes are specially shaped open-channel flow
sections with a restriction in channel area and, in most
examples, with a change in channel slope. Either or both of
these shape changes cause velocities to increase and water
levels to change while passing through the flume. Typical
flumes consist of three sections:
o A converging section to accelerate the approaching
flow
o A throat section, whose width is used to designate
flume size
10-12
-------
Exhibit 10-1
PROFILE OF SHARP-CRESTED WEIR
K = approx. 1/8"
POINT TO
MEASURE
DEPTH, H
20H
'max.
i
I
STRAIGHT^ |
INLET RUN
or
45"
10-13
-------
Exhibit 10-2
THREE COMMON TYPES OF SHARP-CRESTED WEIRS
RECTAI
Max. Level
SIGULARWEIR
Umax.
*
t
X
J
4:1 slope ""V^
~*JC
CIPOLLETTIWEIR
7£
f max.
X
*
L at least 3 Hmax.
X at least 2 Hmax.
10-14
-------
o A diverging section, designed to ensure that the
level downstream is lower than the level in the
converging section
Ideally, flowrate through a flume may be determined by
measurements at a single point some distance downstream from
the inlet and above the throat. This single measurement
indicates the discharge rate only if critical or supercriti-
cal flow is achieved in the flume. By definition, critical
flow is that for which the Froude number (the ratio of force
due to inertia to the force due to gravity) is unity.
Supercritical flow occurs when the Froude number exceeds
unity. If the Froude number is less than one, subcritical
flow occurs; a second depth reading must be taken in the
throat section to determine the true discharge rate. Refer
to USGS Water Supply Paper 2175, Volume 2, Chapter 10, for
discussion of flumes and weirs under all flow conditions,
including submergence.
The most widely used flume type is the Parshall flume.
These flumes may be constructed of wood, fiberglass, con-
crete, plastic, or metal. The dimensions and capacities for
12 different standard Parshall flumes are given in
Exhibit 10-3. The reader should note that considerable
overlap exists in capacities, indicating that several dif-
ferent sizes can apply to most flow measurement require-
ments. Flow curves for free-flow conditions are shown in
Exhibit 10-4 for 17 Parshall flumes, ranging in size from
3 inches to 50 feet.
Another useful, more portable flume is the Palmer-Bowlus
type, which uses the existing channel configuration, but
provides a level section of floor and some side contraction
to produce supercritical flow. Four commonly used shapes of
Palmer-Bowlus flumes are illustrated in Exhibit 10-5. Note
that in each case, the floor length is approximately the
same as the channel width. Materials of construction
include fiberglass, stainless steel, cast iron, or, for per-
manent installations, concrete. The principal advantage of
Palmer-Bowlus flumes is their ease of installation, while
the main disadvantage is their smaller useful flow range.
For measurement of low flowrates (less than 2.8 m /sec or
100 cfs), one of the H-type flumes may be used. These
flumes are more nearly weirs than flumes or are more
properly called open-channel flow nozzles, but they are
included with flumes because of historical precedence.
Because of their configuration, design of these flumes com-
bines the accuracy of a weir with the self-cleaning feature
of a flume. H-type flumes have the advantage of simple con-
struction and can monitor flow over a wide range. They have
flat, unobstructed bottoms, sloping side contractions (much
10-15
-------
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• Equals I cu ft per §ec.
LEGEND:
W Size of flume, in inches or feet.
A Length of tide wall of converging section.
H A Distance tack from end of crest to gage point.
B Axial length of converging section.
C Width of downstream end of flume.
D Width of upstream end of flume.
E Depth of flume.
F Length of throat.
i: OUAHCO (1M1).
G Length of diverging section.
K Difference in elevation between lower end of flume and crest.
N Depth of depression in throat below crest.
R Radius of curved wing wall.
M Length of approach floor.
P Width between ends of curved wins; walls.
X Horizontal distance to H> gage point from low point in throat.
Y Vertical distance to H, gage point from low point in throat.
-------
Exhibit 10-4
FLOW CURVES FOR PARSHALL FLUMES
•PM
I0O00OO
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300000
200000
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10-17
-------
Exhibit 10-5
VARIOUS SHAPES OF PALMER-BOWLUS FLUMES
End View
Longitudinal Mid-Sections
Vertical
Horizontal
(e)
10-18
-------
like the converging section of a flume), and a trapezoid-
shaped opening that tilts backwards toward the approaching
flow. This opening is the flow control section; the
flowrate is a function of the convergence angle, the side-
wall top slope, and the width of the opening. H-type flume
size is designated by the depth, D, of the flume at its
entrance. There are three basic configurations of H-type
flumes, ranging from HS flumes for low flows, through
H flumes for medium flows, to HL flumes for high flows.
Dimensions and capacities for H flumes are given in
Exhibit 10-6. The reader should consult standard flow ref-
erences or manufacturers' published data for information on
other H-type flumes.
Applicability. Flumes are more versatile than weirs, in
that they can be used to measure higher flowrates than com-
parably sized weirs; they are, to a large extent, self-
cleaning because of higher velocities through the throat
section. They also operate with much smaller head losses
than weirs. Their major disadvantage is the cost of con-
struction and installation. As a result, flumes tend to be
used only where many measurements over a long period of time
are contemplated. Another disadvantage is their insensitiv-
ity at low flows because of the rectangular section.
In most cases, the smallest flume that can handle the
maximum expected flow is chosen, but the channel width
should also be considered when selecting a flume size.
Generally, the flume's width should be one-third to one-half
of the channel width.
Palmer-Bowlus flume flowrates are best estimated from
discharge tables published by the flume manufacturers. The
reader should note that tables covering flumes made by one
manufacturer may not apply to those of another manufacturer
because of subtle discrepancies in shape or physical dimen-
sions. Also, field calibrated tests of flumes have indi-
cated up to a 7 percent difference at low heads between
actual and theoretical discharge rates. For Palmer-Bowlus
flumes in general, the following equations state some of the
applicable relationships:
Q2 _ Ac3 , Vc2 _ Ac _ dc
~g" ~ b ana ~2g ~ 2b ~ ~2
Where:
2
Ac = area at the critical depth in ft
Q = discharge flow in cfs
g =32.2 ft/sec (acceleration because of gravity)
b = width of the flume in ft
Vc = critical velocity in ft/sec
dc = critical depth in ft
10-19
-------
Exhibit 10-6
DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES OF H-TYPE FLUMES
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Discharge equations have been developed for various H-type
flumes by Gwinn and Parsons. These are quite complex and
are not listed here. For further details on HS, H, and
HL flumes, the reader should refer to Subsection 10.1.7.
Submerged orifices. An orifice flow-measuring device
consists of a well-defined, typically circular or rectan-
gular hole that is designed to restrict flow when installed
in a pipe or on a wall or bulkhead through which flow can
occur. Orifices may discharge freely into air or into water
as a submerged flow. The submerged orifice is more likely
to be used in field investigations, especially where there
is insufficient fall for a weir, and a flume cannot be
justified. As in the case of weirs, installation of thin
plate orifices is relatively inexpensive and simple, and
variations in flowrate are easily accommodated by varying
the size or shape of the orifice. Exhibit 10-7 illustrates
four common types of orifices: the sharp-edged, the round-
ed, the short tube, and the Borda-type orifices. The reader
should note that each offers different resistances to flow
even though the diameters are identical. The coefficient,
C, shown for each type is used in calculations to account
for the different resistances.
Applicability. Submerged orifices may be used to measure
flows where the opening can be kept full of water and where
the pressure head upstream and downstream of the orifice can
be measured. If the upstream water surface drops below the
top of the orifice, flow will cease to follow the laws of
orifice flow. Instead, the partly submerged orifice will
begin to function more like a weir. Orifices should be
installed in straight sections of the channel or pipe.
Orifice diameter (or area for noncircular orifices) is a
function of the expected flow and may range in size from
10 percent to 90 percent of the cross-sectional area. Flows
are estimated by measuring the pressure differential
upstream and downstream, then relating this difference to
the geometry of the orifice and channel cross section. For
most applications the general equation is Q = CAR (H,
- H-) , where Q is the discharge rate in cfs, A is the
orifice area in ft , FL is the pressure head at the center
of the inlet to the orifice (in feet) , H2 is the pressure
head downstream of the orifice (in feet) , and C and K are
constants derived from orifice shape and geometry. Values
of K may be calculated from the equation
TC - 2g
dl
10-21
-------
Exhibit 10-7
COEFFICIENTS OF FOUR TYPES OF ORIFICES
ORIFICES AND THEIR NOMINAL COEFFICIENTS
*••»
C
Sharp-Edged
^
0.61
Rounded
L
•— ^~
+
r
0.98
Short-Tube
I
0.80
Borda
T
0.51
10-22
-------
2
where g = 32.2 ft/sec (acceleration as a result of
gravity), d~ is the orifice area in square feet and d, is
the channel cross-sectional area in square feet. Alterna-
tively, K may be approximated from the curve shown as
Exhibit 10-8 for known values of d, and d2. The coefficient
C will be relatively constant for most d2'^l rat;"-os' but it
will tend to increase for d_/d.. ratios greater than 0.7.
For example, the 0.61 coefficient used with sharp-edged
orifices covers all d2/d.. ratios from 0.2 through 0.7, but
it increases to 0.64 for the case where d2/d.. = 0.8, and to
0.71 when d2/d, =0.9. In most cases, the orifice-to-
channel ratio will be less than 0.5, so the coefficient
shown in Exhibit 10-8 will apply.
Water stage gauges, recorders, and stilling wells. In those
instances where many repeated flow measurements are to be
made over a period of time, or where continuous flow read-
ings are desired, it becomes necessary to provide a means
for measuring surface elevation more efficiently. Water
surface elevation is the variable parameter for most appli-
cations, because the channel cross-sectional area at a given
point is usually fixed. Three ways of simplifying the mea-
surement of surface water elevation are as follows:
o Installation of permanent water stage gauges at
points where surface elevation readings are
necessary
o Provision for automatic recorders that can track
changes in elevation on a continuous basis
o Installation of stilling wells for improving the
reliability of surface-level measurements
Water stage gauges were discussed previously as an adjunct
to the use of current meters, but they are readily adapted
to weirs and flumes as well. The graduated face of the
gauge must be kept clean to observe the readings accurately.
In addition to permanently mounted staff gauges, other types
of calibrated gages may be used (e.g., hook gauges, wire-
weight gauges with graduated disk readouts, wire-tape
gauges, and chain gauges). All are designed to provide ref-
erence points so that surface elevations can be more easily
measured, but none allows for continuous measurements,
because they are all dependent on human observers.
Automatic recording devices can provide continuous readings
of surface elevation by using graphic, punched tape, or
printed records of the rise and fall of the water surface.
A common type of graphic recorder uses a weighted float and
cable to rotate a float pulley, which in turn is linked to a
flow cam and base plate that cause a pen to move up or down
10-23
-------
Exhibit 10-8
CURVE FOR DETERMINING THE VALUES OF K USED IN THE
ORIFICE, VENTURI, AND FLOW NOZZLE EQUATIONS
0.1
10-24
-------
the face of a recorder chart (Stevens, 1976). The reader
should refer to Exhibit 10-9 for a simplified sketch of this
device. USGS prefers a digital punch-tape recorder because
of its greater economy and flexibility and its compatibility
with the use of computers to calculate discharge records.
The stages are recorded in increments of 0.01 feet and are
transmitted to the recorder by rotation of an input shaft.
Shaft rotation is converted by the instrument into a coded
punch-tape record. For details, the reader should refer to
USGS Water Supply Paper 2175 (USGS, 1982). Other similar
recorders sense changes in pressure at the water surface. A
box containing a flexible diaphragm is mounted at the water
surface so that the rise and fall of the surface will
increase or decrease the pressure on the diaphragm. These
changes in pressure are continuously recorded. The reader
should refer to Exhibit 10-10 for an example of this type of
recorder mounted in a weir system. Another pressure-based
recorder is shown in Exhibit 10-11; it is based on the fact
that changes in water surface elevation will cause increased
or decreased resistance to air escaping from an immersed
bubbler tube. A pressure-sensitive translator drives the
recording chart.
Stilling wells are specially designed reservoirs used to
dampen the effects from surface variations or ripples in the
main channel, thus allowing for a more stable and steady
surface-level measurement. Such wells are especially desir-
able if float-type water level recorders are used. Several
requirements must be met when stilling wells are used:
o They must be high enough to cover the entire
expected range of surface levels. The well should
be long enough that its bottom is at least 0.3 m
(1.0 feet) below the minimum stage expected.
o They should be as vertical as possible, so that
the float wire or tape can move vertically with no
drag or interference.
o Intake pipes or holes should be large enough to
make sure that water levels in the well do not lag
the rise or fall of levels in the stream.
o They must have provisions to clean out and remove
silt.
o If used in freezing weather, they should be
provided with a means for heating the devices
unless wells can be protected by surrounding
ground and a subfloor.
10-25
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Exhibit 10-9
FLOATING WATER ELEVATION MEASURING DEVICE
FLOAT PULLEY
PEN ARM \FLOWGEARS
BASE I
FLOW CAM-V
FLOAT
PULLEY
FLOW CAM
10-26
-------
V
-------
Exhibit 10-11
AIR BUBBLER FOR MEASURING WATER DEPTH
An air bubbler will measure water depth in pipes and channels. The recorder
gauges for the bubbler must be selected for the depth of flow because of low
air back-pressure.
I. , . , I . , . . , , , , , , I , , I , Till I I If I I I , I , •„
Air Supply
o
Meter Box and Recorder
Pressure gauges and reducing
valve - normally in meter
box as part of meter
This method can be used in an
open channel or stilling well
to measure depth of flow
1/8 or 1/4 in. Pipe
10-28
-------
o Stilling wells should have sealed bottoms to avoid
seepage if they are installed into streambanks.
Applicability. Calibrated water stage gauges are widely
applicable to almost any flow measurement problem. ..Custom-
made gauges can even be calibrated to read cfs or m /sec
directly if all other conditions besides surface elevation
can be kept constant. This calibration is especially true
for flumes and weirs where cross-sectional areas are fixed.
Automatic recorders find their widest use where readings
must be made continuously and where staffing is not avail-
able around the clock. These recorders are relatively
uncommon in site survey work because there are few occasions
where continuous measurements are essential. Even flow
readings for nearby streams or rivers are rarely made on a
continuous basis. However, the need may arise for special
application at certain sites, especially if ongoing remedial
work is being done.
Stilling wells are beneficial for all flow measuring
stations where multiple readings at a weir or flume must be
made. These wells are essential at any site where contin-
uous recorders are installed. Because stilling wells are
isolated from the main flow by a small-diameter inlet, waves
and surges in the main flow will not appear in the well.
But the well must be able to accurately reflect all steady
fluctuations in the main channel. The well may be made of
concrete, wood, ceramic pipe, or metal pipe; it must have a
solid bottom; and, except for the inlet, it must be water-
tight. The stilling well inlet should be located at the
desired head measuring point in the primary flow measurement
device (weir, flume, orifice). The inlet area should be
large enough to quickly reflect changes in the stream, but
small enough to provide effective damping of surges.
Suggested sizes are as follows:
If the well is of 6-inch diameter, the inlet should be
3/8-inch diameter.
If the well is of 12-inch diameter, the inlet should be
1/2-inch diameter.
If the well is of 24-inch diameter, the inlet should be
3/4-inch diameter.
If the well if of 30-inch diameter, the inlet should be
1-inch diameter.
If the well is of 36-inch diameter, the inlet should be
1-1/4-inch diameter.
USGS recommends at least 18-inch diameters for stilling
wells, and prefers to use a 2- to 4-inch intake line.
Selecting a site for the stilling well partially depends on
locating an area where stream velocity cross-sectional
10-29
-------
measurements can be carried out accurately under all
variations of stage. The following criteria are generally
used, at least in part, for selecting a site for a stilling
well.
o A fairly straight section of stream length should
be chosen where turbulence is minimal and flow
maintains, as much as possible, a uniform flow
under varying stages.
o This section should be accessible to a stable
channel or control and should be where a stage
discharge relationship can be determined.
o An area should be selected that is proximate to
where the cross-sectional measurements will be
made, possibly at some sort of permanent control
structure (e.g., either a bridge where abutments
contain the stream width with increasing stages or
an underwater rocky ledge). To be avoided are
undercut banks or areas where overland flooding
will occur easily, or where streambed scour or
streambank erosion may occur over the study
period.
o The site should be a position in the stream that
is away from strong current areas, but where water
will be available to the stilling well under low
flow conditions. A location should be chosen that
will also afford some protection to the installa-
tion from strong currents during flood events.
o The site should be at a location where the type of
sediment is sand, gravel, consolidated clay, or a
mixture of these materials, since the substrate
may be required to partially support the installa-
tion and to resist settling or tilting of the
structure.
o An area of low susceptibility to vandalism should
be chosen.
For details on installation and maintenance of stilling
wells, the reader should refer to USDI, 1965 and 1974; USGS,
1982; ISCO, 1985; and Stevens, 1978.
10.1.5.3 Methods and Applications: Alternative Flow
Measurements
At times none of the foregoing flow measurements are
applicable to the site-specific problem, so other methods
must be investigated. Some of the possibilities are briefly
discussed below, but readers will need to refer to other
10-30
-------
publications or manufacturers' instruction manuals for more
details.
Pitot tubes. Although Pitot tubes are usually associated
with flow measurements in closed pipes, they can also be
used to measure flow velocities in open channels. The prin-
ciple is illustrated in Exhibit 10-12, where the difference
in pressure between an upstream reading and a downstream
reading is directly related to flow velocity, at the point
of measurement. Pitot tubes are available commercially, and
manufacturer's specifications should be consulted before
use.
Applicability. Pitot tubes should be used where velocities
are high enough to generate readable differences in pres-
sure. They are very inaccurate at low velocities, less than
1 fps. Measurements are best made when the upstream
straight section is 15 to 20 times the channel width. Pitot
tubes are not reliable for streams carrying high concentra-
tions of suspended matter because the tube inlet plugs
easily, giving inaccurate pressure readings. The general
formula for calculating discharge rates using Pitot tubes is
Q = AV where Q is flow in cfs, A is cross^sectional area of
separate subsections of the channel in ft , and V is flow
velocity in ft/sec. Further, V is calculated from
V =
2g '- — °-5
where g = 32.2 ft/sec , P2~P1
2
is the change in pressure-,in Ib/ft , and d is 62.4, the
density of water in Ib/ft . Substituting values for the two
constants gives V = 1.02 (Po~Pl^ ' * Tne reader should note
that Pp-P-i is a pressure difference, and not a measure of
depth or nead. For very small differences in P, the
equation becomes meaningless. The individual subsections'
discharge rates are added together to define the total dis-
charge rate for the entire cross-sectional area.
Salt and Dye Solutions. The addition of salt or dye
solutions provides a means for estimating volumetric flow-
rates where channel geometry or inaccessibility render other
methods useless. These techniques depend on determining the
amount of dilution that a known concentration of a salt or
dye receives as it mixes with a much larger volume of salt-
free or dye-free water. As a result, the method does not
rely on accurate measurements of channel cross sections,
water levels, or even velocity. The following general con-
ditions are relevant to successful use of this technique.
(The reader should refer to USDI, 1965; USGS, 1982; and
Turner, 1976, for detailed information on salt or dye
dilution techniques.)
10-31
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Exhibit 10-12
PITOT TUBE MEASURES VELOCITY HEAD
s
s
s
s
I.IMIihll
s
s
s
s
s
•V
s
s
10-32
-------
o The salt or dye used as a tracer should be absent
in the original discharge flow, or, if salt or dye
is present, it must be of low enough concentration
that additional salt or dye will yield a mixed
concentration at least five times higher.
o The concentration and the injection rate of the
tracer being added must be known. There are two
ways to add the tracer:
At a constant rate so that downstream
concentrations will eventually become con-
stant (best for low flows and inexpensive
tracers; has long injection time).
As a sudden injection or slug of tracer so
that a relatively sharp peak concentration
can be detected downstream (best for higher
flows; requires long sampling time and many
individual measurements to make certain peak
is detected and quantified).
o The tracer must be stable both in solution and
upon mixing with the discharge. It must not react
with any chemicals in the discharge.
o There must be sufficient mixing in the following
stream to ensure that the tracer is evenly dis-
tributed on addition. The injection point should
be far enough upstream to allow for turbulent mix-
ing before the first measuring point.
o Sufficient injection time must be provided to
allow downstream samples to reach a concentration
plateau or reach a peak concentration, depending
on which injection method is used.
Suitable tracers include sodium, potassium or lithium
chloride, fluorescein, and Rhodamine WT dyes. Ideally, con-
centrations are determined in the field to assure that the
downstream concentration plateau was reached and sustained.
Applicability. Salt and dye tracer methods have wide
application since they do not rely on channel geometry or
the ability to measure velocities accurately. These methods
do rely heavily on analyzing chemicals, careful metering of
concentrated salt and dye solutions, and being able to accu-
rately determine when tracers have reached a point far
enough downstream to ensure complete mixing. Wide streams
will necessitate the collection of lateral samples for
inclusion in the calculations. To guarantee low backgrounds
10-33
-------
and the absence of materials that may react with the added
salt or absorb the dyes, the natural discharge must be
analyzed before choice of salt or dye can be made.
Radioisotopes. Radioisotopes may be used as tracers instead
of the salts and dyes discussed above. Geiger or scintilla-
tion counters are used to determine background, concentrated
injection solution, and downstream levels of the radioiso-
topes added. Since radioactivity measurements are made on
other samples from hazardous waste sites, this flow measure-
ment technique can be more easily practiced than standard
salt/dye tracer methods. The principles, procedures, and
methods of calculating flowrates are the same as for other
tracers. The radioisotopes will give positive indications
when downstream sampling should commence, simplifying the
sample collection task. Results are obtained in short
order, since analytical equipment and procedures need not be
used. The major problem is the necessity for special
handling of the radioactive material to prevent exposure to
the users and others at the site. Special licenses are
required prior to use, and considerable recordkeeping and
documentation must be maintained.
Applicability. This procedure applies to all situations
where salt and dye tracer methods apply. The only exception
that could occur would involve a site where background
radioactivity is high enough to affect the accuracy of the
count. The radioisotopes chosen must have a high detect-
ability range and a lowpdecay rate. The discharge formula
for this method is Q = T^— where Q is the flowrate, F is a
calibration factor for the probe and the counting system
(see the manufacturer's instructions), A is the total amount
of radioactivity injected, and N is the total count
downstream.
Acoustic flow meters. Portable velocity meters, operating
on the Doppler principle, have been successfully used to
measure flow passing through closed pipes. Use had been
limited to situations where bubbles or particles were evenly
distributed through the flowing stream, since the meter
transmits an ultrasonic pulse that is reflected by the bub-
bles or particles. Under ideal conditions, a Doppler shift
occurs and is directly related to the flow velocity. The
meter translates this reading directly into velocity in
feet/sec. The pipe cross-sectional area is then multiplied
by velocity to obtain discharge rate (U.S. EPA, 1984) .
Recently, more sensitive meters have been developed for use
in situations where the water is relatively free of
particles.
Applicability. In theory, this instrument is applicable to
flow measurements in closed pipe, but in practice many con-
ditions have to be met to ensure reliable readings. The
10-34
-------
user must be careful to follow all instructions for the par-
ticular instrument. All conditions specified for use must
be met. Generally, all measurements depend on the flowing
stream's ability to transmit sound, on the presence of
evenly distributed bubbles or small particles, and on the
nonlaminar, turbulent flow of the water at the point of mea-
surement. The user should refer to the instruction manual
for the selected instrument before committing it to service.
Slope-area methods. In situations where installation of a
weir or flume is impractical, but the cross-sectional area
and approximate slope of the channel are known, the Manning
formula provides reasonable estimates of flow velocity.
Then the discharge flow rate is readily obtained by multi-
plying that velocity by the cross-sectional area of the
channel at the appropriate water level. No equipment or
measuring device is necessary other than a means for esti-
mating water surface level in the channel. Tables are used
to simplify the calculation, or the basic Manning equation
may be solved directly (USGS, 1982; USDI, 1974; King, 1976;
and Davis and Sorenson, 1969) .
Applicability. The slope-area method is most useful when
relatively few measurements are to be made—too few to jus-
tify installation of permanent measurement equipment. The
primary weakness in the method is the fact that the slope of
the hydraulic gradient is not always known, nor is it easy
to estimate. Another factor that seriously reduces the
accuracy of the method is the need to estimate a roughness
coefficient for the channel surface. Because of the diffi-
culties in assigning values to these two factors, the
slope-area method is subject to a ±20 percent error rate,
even when carefully practiced, and a much wider potential
error if estimated slopes or roughness coefficients are
estimated inaccurately. The basic Manning formula expresses
velocity as
V =
1.486
n
R2/3S1/2 , where
V is average velocity in feet/sec, n is the roughness
coefficient, S is the slope of the hydraulic gradient, and R
is the hydraulic radius in feet. R, in turn, is calculated
by dividing A, the cross-sectional area by P, the wetted
perimeter (that portion of the channel boundary that is
under water).
Roughness coefficients, n, are listed in Water Measurement
Manual by the Bureau of Reclamation for most materials of
channel construction. Ranges are given because the coeffi-
cients tend to increase with time as a result of erosion,
10-35
-------
deposition of solids, and corrosion. For additional
information on assessing appropriate roughness coefficients,
the reader should refer to USGS Water Supply Paper 1849.
10.1.6 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
In general, site-specific conditions and project
requirements will strongly influence the selection of flow-
measurement methods. However, regional preferences may
occur in method selection when past experience levels are
considered. Region IV requires that all sampling and flow-
measurement events comply with the procedures described in
the "Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating
Procedures and Quality Assurance Manual" (ESBSOPQAM) dated
2 April 1986 and prepared by the Environmental Services
Divison of Region IV. Other similar region-specific
variances may evolve as site work progresses and methods are
revised or newly published. The reader should contact the
EPA RPM for the most up-to-date information on revised
methods or variances. Changes in variances will be included
in Revision 01 of this compendium.
10.1.7 INFORMATION SOURCES
American Society for Testing and Materials. Manual on
Water. 4th ed. Special Technical Publication 442A.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ASTM. 1978.
Davis, C.V., and K.E. Sorenson. Handbook of Applied
Hydraulics. 3rd ed. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
1969.
Fair, G.M., et al. Water Supply and Wastewater Removal.
New York, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1966.
Instrumentation Specialists Company. ISCO Open Channel Flow
Measurement Handbook. 2nd ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: ISCO.
1985.
King, H.W., and E.F. Brater. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th
ed. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill. 1976.
Lythin, J.N. Drainage Engineering. Huntington, New York:
R.E. Krieger Publishing Co. 1973.
Marsh-McBirney, Inc. Instruction Manual, Model 201 Portable
Water Current Meter. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Marsh-
McBirney, Inc. Undated.
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission. Planning and
Making Industrial Waste Surveys. Cincinnati, Ohio:
ORSANCO. 1952.
10-36
-------
Stevens. Stevens Water Resource Data Book. 3rd ed.
Beaverton, Oregon: Lenpold-Stevens, Inc. 1978.
Turner. "Fluorometric Facts, Flow Measurements."
Monograph. Mountain View, California: Turner Designs
Company. 1976.
U.S. Department of Interior, 1965a. "Discharge Measurements
at Gaging Stations." Hydraulic Measurement and
Computations. Book I, Chapter 11. Washington, D.C.: USDI,
Geological Survey. 1965.
U.S. Department of Interior, 1965b. "Measurement of
Discharge by Dye Dilution Methods." Hydraulic Measurement
and Computations. Book I, Chapter 14. Washington/ D.C.:
Geological Survey. 1965.
U.S. Department of Interior. Water Measurement Manual. 2nd
ed. Revised. Washington, D.C.: USDI. 1974.
U.S. Department of Interior. National Handbook of
Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition. Reston,
Virginia: USDI, OWDC, Geological Survey. 1977.
U.S. Department of Interior. Measurement and Computations
of Streamflow; Volumes 1 and 2. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 2175. Washington, D.C.: USDI. 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. ESB Standard
Operating Procedures Quality Assurance Manual. 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Handbook for
Monitoring Industrial Wastewater. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
EPA. 1979.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. NPDES Compliance
Inspection Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA. 1984.
10.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
10.2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the collection
of surface water, sediment samples, and sludge at hazardous
waste sites. The primary objective of any sampling program
is the acquisition of samples representative of the source
under investigation. Such samples must be suitable for sub-
sequent analysis to enable identification of the types and
amounts of pollutants present. Information derived from
sampling often forms the basis for litigation and develop-
ment of remedial action, so all sampling programs must be
conducted in a manner that will stand the scrutiny of the
court and the public.
10-37
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10.2.2 DEFINITIONS
Sampling. The physical collection of a representative
portion of the population, universe, or environment.
Environmental samples. Usually offsite samples with mid- or
low-contaminant concentrations, such as streams, ditches,
ponds, soils, and sediments, that are collected at some dis-
tance from direct sources of contaminants. Most surface
waters are environmental samples.
Grab samples. Discrete aliquots representing a specific
location at a given point in time. The sample is collected
all at once and at only one particular point in the sample
medium.
Composite samples. Nondiscrete samples composed of more
than one specific aliquot collected at various locations or
at different points in time. Analyzing this type of sample
produces an average value for the locations or time period
covered by sampling.
Surface water samples. Samples of water collected from
streams, ponds, rivers, lakes, or other impoundments open to
the atmosphere. Surface waters flow over or rest on the
land.
Sample blanks. Samples of deionized or distilled water,
rinsed collection devices or containers, sampling media,
etc., that are handled in the same manner as the unknown
sample and are subsequently analyzed to identify possible
sources of contamination during collection, preservation,
shipping, or handling.
Sediments. Particles derived from rocks or biological
materials that have been transported by a fluid. Sediments
include solid matter (sludges) suspended in or settled from
water.
Sampling plan. A detailed, site-specific plan that covers
all sampling objectives and strategy for a given site. The
plan describes methods and equipment used, locations, number
and type of samples, safety requirements, transportation and
shipping instructions, scheduling, and any other site-
related sampling requirements. The reader should refer to
Section 4 for details.
10.2.3 APPLICABILITY
This subsection describes general methods for the physical
sampling of surface waters, sludge, and sediments. In most
cases, such samples will be low- or medium-hazard wastes,
10-38
-------
rather than the more concentrated high-hazard wastes col-
lected from drums or storage facilities. The individual
site sampling plan will always define the requirements for
each sampling program. The reader should refer to Section 4
for details.
The following procedures apply to surface water (streams,
rivers, surface impoundments) and sediments (sludges, stream
bottoms, solids settled out of water).
10.2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Site Managers are responsible for identifying sampling team
personnel, assuring that each team member's responsibilities
are assigned and understood, ensuring that the project-
specific sampling procedures are followed, maintaining
chain-of-custody records, and determining that all sampling
documents have been completed properly and are accounted
for.
Field personnel performing sampling are responsible for
properly collecting samples, initiating chain-of-custody
forms (see Section 4), monitoring traffic reports, and over-
seeing the necessary sample documents, as required.
The sampling and analysis coordinator, equipment manager, or
the EPA's Sample Management Office authorized requester is
responsible for arranging the sample bottle deliveries and
coordinating the activities of the field personnel and the
Sample Management Office.
10.2.5 RECORDS
The various documents, forms, labels, and tags that sampling
teams will use in the field have been standardized and are
described in detail in Sections 4 and 17. These include
field logbooks, sample log sheets, sample labels, sample
identification tags, traffic reports (organic, inorganic,
and high hazard), custody seals, and chain-of-custody forms.
Other forms are not usually standardized (e.g., sample ship-
ping documents that may vary according to the shipping
company's requirements or photographic records that
necessarily must vary from site to site) .
10.2.6 SAMPLING PROCEDURES
10.2.6.1 General Considerations
Regardless of the sampling methods or equipment selected,
there are several general procedures that are applicable to
the collection of all surface water, sludge, or sediment
samples. These procedures include the following:
10-39
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o Before commencing collection of samples,
thoroughly evaluate the site. Observe the number
and location of sample points, landmarks, refer-
ences, and routes of access or escape.
o Record pertinent observations. Include a sketch,
where appropriate, identifying sample locations.
o Prepare all sampling equipment and sample
containers prior to entering site. Provide pro-
tective wrapping to minimize contamination.
o Place sample containers on flat, stable surfaces
for receiving samples. Use sorbent materials to
control spills, if any.
o Plan to collect samples first from those areas
that are suspected of being the least contaminated
so that areas of suspected contamination are col-
lected last, thus minimizing the risk of cross
contamination.
o Collect samples and securely close containers as
quickly as feasible. Where possible, make field
observations (pH, temperature, conductivity) at
the source rather than in containers.
o Follow the sampling plan in every detail.
Document all steps in the sampling procedures.
o For potentially hazardous samples, dispose of
sampling gear as determined in the sampling plan,
or carry it back to the contamination reduction
corridor for decontamination and cleaning in a
plastic bag.
o For potentially hazardous samples, deliver the
sample containers and equipment to the decon-
tamination station for cleaning prior to further
handling.
o Always be attentive to the potential hazards posed
by the sampling procedures and the material
sampled.
Sampling in the Superfund program is closely guided by many
EPA documents that originate in several offices. Guidance
documents are listed in the subsection on information
sources.
10-40
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10.2.6.2 Methods and Applications; Surface Water
Because each hazardous waste site will contain a variety of
waste substances, a variety of sampling equipment and tech-
niques will be necessary. By following the procedures out-
lined in this compendium, the degree of uniformity necessary
for defining characteristics of hazardous waste sites can be
obtained.
Surface water sampling. Samples from shallow depths can be
readily collected by merely submerging the sample container.
The container's mouth should be positioned so that it faces
upstream, while the sampling personnel are standing down-
stream so as not to stir up any sediment to contaminate the
sample. The method is advantageous when the sample might be
significantly altered during transfer from a collection ves-
sel into another container. This is the case with samples
collected for oil and grease analysis, since considerable
material may adhere to the sample transfer container and, as
a result, produce inaccurately low analytical results. Sim-
ilarly, the transfer of a liquid into a small sample con-
tainer for volatile organic analysis, if not done carefully,
could result in significant aeration and resultant loss of
volatile species. Though simple, representative, and
generally free from substantial material disturbances, the
act of transferring has significant shortcomings when
applied to a hazardous waste, since the external surface of
each container would then need to be decontaminated.
In general, the use of a sampling device, either disposable
or constructed of a nonreactive material such as glass,
stainless steel, or Teflon, is the most prudent method. The
device should have a capacity of at least 500 ml, if possi-
ble, to minimize the number of times the liquid must be dis-
turbed, thus reducing agitation of any sediment layers. A
1-liter polypropylene or stainless steel beaker with pour
spout and handle works well. Any sampling device may con-
tribute contaminants to a sample. The sampling devices that
should be selected are those that will not compromise sample
integrity and will give the desired analytical results.
Collecting a representative sample from a larger body of
surface water is difficult but not impossible. Samples
should be collected near the shore unless boats are feasible
and permitted. If boats are used, the body of water should
be cross sectioned, and samples should be collected at vari-
ous depths across the water in accordance with the specified
sampling plan. For this type of sampling, a weighted-bottle
sampler is used to collect samples at any predetermined
depth. The sampler (Exhibit 10-13) consists of a glass
bottle, a weighted sinker, a bottle stopper, and a line that
is used to open the bottle and to lower and raise the
10-41
-------
Exhibit 10-13
WEIGHTED-BOTTLE SAMPLER
Washer
Pin
Eyelet
Nut
1000-ml (1-quart) weighted-
bottle catcher
10-42
-------
sampler during sampling. There are variations of this
sampler, as illustrated in ASTM methods D 270 and E 300.
This sampler can be either fabricated or purchased. The
procedure for use is as follows:
o Assemble the weighted bottle sampler as shown in
Exhibit 10-13.
o Gently lower the sampler to the desired depth so
as not to remove the stopper prematurely.
o Pull out the stopper with a sharp jerk of the
sampler line.
o Allow the bottle to fill completely, as evidenced
by the cessation of air bubbles.
o Raise the sampler and cap the bottle.
o Wipe the bottle clean. The bottle can be also be
used as the sample container.
Teflon bailers have also been used while feasible for
collecting samples in deep bodies of water. Where cross-
sectional sampling is not appropriate, near-shore sampling
may be done using a pond sampler (refer to Exhibit 10-14).
In this instance, a modification that extends the reach of
the sampling technician is most practical. The modification
incorporates a telescoping heavy-duty aluminum pole with an
adjustable beaker clamp attached to the end. A disposable
glass, plastic container, or the actual sample container
itself can be fitted into the clamp. In situations where
cross contamination is of concern, use of a disposable con-
tainer or the actual sample container is always advanta-
geous. The cost of properly cleaning usually outweighs the
cost of disposal of otherwise reusable glassware or bottles,
especially when the cleanup must be done in the field. The
potential contamination of samples for volatile organic
analysis by the mere presence of organic solvents necessary
for proper field cleaning is usually too great to risk.
Another method of extending the reach of sampling efforts is
the use of a small peristaltic pump (see Exhibit 10-15). In
this method the sample is drawn through heavy-wall Teflon
tubing and pumped directly into the sample container. This
system allows the operator to reach into the liquid body,
sample from depth, or sweep the width of narrow streams.
If medical-grade silicon tubing is used in the peristaltic
pump, the system is suitable for sampling almost any
parameter including most organics. Some volatile stripping,
however, may occur; though the system may have a high flow
10-43
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Exhibit 10-14
POND SAMPLER
Varigrip clamp
L_
Bolt hole
Beaker, polyprop-
ylene, 250 ml
(1 qt)
Pole, telescoping, aluminum, heavy
duty, 250-450 cm (96-180")
10-44
-------
Medical-Grade Silicone Tubing
Intake
Assorted Lengths
of Teflon Tubing
Peristaltic
Pump
Discharge
to Sample Container
W
en
> w
l__-j K/
" rS
•-a y
H H-
n cr
H-
^rj ft
G
S ^
*rj ^D
i
-------
rate, some material may be lost on the tubing. Therefore,
pumping methods should be avoided for sampling volatile
organics or oil and grease. Battery-operated pumps of this
type are available and can be easily or carried by hand or
with a shoulder sling. It is necessary in most situations
to change both the Teflon suction line and the silicon pump
tubing between sample locations to avoid cross contamina-
tion. This action requires maintaining a sufficiently large
stock of material to avoid having to clean the tubing in the
field.
When medical-grade silicon tubing is not available or the
analytical requirements are particularly strict, the system
can be altered as illustrated in Exhibit 10-16. In this
configuration, the sample volume accumulates in the vacuum
flask and does not enter the pump. The integrity of the
collection system can now be maintained with only the most
nonreactive material contacting the sample. Some loss in
lift ability will result since the pump is now moving air, a
compressible gas rather than an essentially noncompressible
liquid. Also, this system cannot be used if volatile com-
pounds are to analyzed. The potential for losing volatile
fractions because of reduced pressure in the vacuum flask
renders this method unacceptable for use.
It may sometimes be necessary to sample large bodies of
water where a near-surface sample will not sufficiently
characterize the body as a whole. In this instance, the
above-mentioned pump is quite serviceable. It is capable of
lifting water from depths in excess (but not much in excess)
of 6 meters. It should be noted that this lift ability
decreases somewhat with higher density fluids and with
increased wear on the silicone pump tubing. Similarly,
increases in altitude will decrease the pump's ability to
lift from depth. When sampling a liquid stream that exhib-
its a considerable flowrate, it may be necessary to weight
the bottom of the suction line.
Samples from various locations and depths can be composited
where investigative goals indicate that it is appropriate;
otherwise, separate samples will have to be collected.
Approximate sampling points should be identified on a sketch
of the water body. The following procedures are used for
samples collected using transfer devices:
o Submerge a stainless steel dipper or other
suitable device with minimal surface disturbance.
Note the approximate depth and location of the
sample source (for example, 1 foot up from bottom
or just below the surface).
10-46
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Exhibit 10-16
MODIFIED PERISTALTIC PUMP SAMPLER
Teflon Connector
6mm I.D.
1-Liter Erlenmeyer
or Sample Bottle
Stopper to Fit
Flask or Sample Bottle
Teflon Tubing
6 mm O.D.
Peristaltic
Pump
V
Outlet
10-47
-------
o Allow the device to fill slowly and continuously.
o Retrieve the dipper or device from the surface
water with minimal disturbance.
o Remove the cap from the sample bottle and slightly
tilt the mouth of the bottle below the dipper or
device edge.
o Empty the dipper or device slowly, allowing the
sample stream to flow gently down the side of the
bottle with minimal entry turbulence.
o Continue delivery of the sample until the bottle
is almost completely filled. Check all procedures
for recommended headspace for expansion.
o Preserve the sample, if necessary, as per
guidelines in sampling plan. In most cases, pre-
servatives should be placed in sample containers
before sample collection to avoid over exposure of
samples and overfilling of bottles during
collection.
o Check that a Teflon liner is present in the cap if
required. Secure the cap tightly. Tape cap to
bottle; then date and initial the tape.
o Label the sample bottle with an appropriate sample
tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parame-
ters. Record the information in the field logbook
and complete the chain-of-custody form.
o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
o Dismantle the sampler, wipe the parts with terry
towels or rags, and store them in plastic bags for
subsequent disposal. Follow all instructions for
proper decontamination of equipment and personnel.
10-48
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The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
For samples collected using peristaltic pumps:
o Install clean, medical-grade silicone tubing in
the pump head, as per the manufacturer's instruc-
tions. Allow sufficient tubing on the discharge
side to facilitate convenient dispensation of liq-
uid into sample bottles but only enough on the
suction end for attachment to the intake line.
This practice will minimize sample contact with
the silicone pump tubing. (Some types of thinner
Teflon tubing may be used.)
o Select the length of suction intake tubing
necessary to reach the required sample depth and
attach the tubing to intake side of pump tubing.
Heavy-wall Teflon of a diameter equal to the
required pump tubing will suit most applications.
(A heavier wall will allow for a slightly greater
lateral reach.)
o If possible, allow several liters of sample to
pass through the system before actual sample col-
lection. Collect this purge volume, and then
return it to source after the sample aliquot has
been collected.
o Fill necessary sample bottles by allowing pump
discharge to flow gently down the side of bottle
with minimal entry turbulence. Cap each bottle as
filled.
o Preserve the sample, if necessary, as per
guidelines in sampling plans. In most cases,
preservatives should be placed in sample
containers before sample collection to avoid
overexposure of samples and overfilling of bottles
during collection.
o Check that a Teflon liner is present in the cap,
if required. Secure the cap tightly. Tape cap to
bottle; then date and initial the tape.
o Label the sample bottle with an appropriate tag.
Be sure to complete the tag with all necessary
information. Record the information in the field
logbook, and complete the chain-of-custody
documents.
10-49
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o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
o Allow system to drain thoroughly; then
disassemble. Wipe all parts with terry towels or
rags, and store them in plastic bags for subse-
quent cleaning. Store all used towels or rags in
garbage bags for subsequent disposal. Follow all
instructions for proper decontamination of equip-
ment and personnel.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
At times it is most convenient to collect surface water
samples at the flow measuring device (e.g., a weir, stream,
or discharge pipe). Good representative samples can usually
be collected because such flows have been mixed well.
Sampling personnel have been trained to seek out the best
locations for collecting representative samples. Require-
ments are spelled out in the site sampling plans, and the
need for deviation from the plans occurs only rarely. There
is no substitute for experience when it comes to locating
"ideal" sampling points and collecting good samples.
10.2.6.3 Methods and Applications; Sediments and Sludges
Many of the same constraints that apply to surface water
sampling also relate to the collection of sediments and
sludges. Sediments are examined to measure whether contami-
nants are concentrating along stream bottoms, creating hot
spots that may have high concentrations of heavy metals,
pesticides, or low-solubility organic matter. Sediments may
be watery, with relatively little difference in density from
water, or they may be compacted semi-solids where water is a
minor fraction of the mass. Because of such difference, a
variety of sampling methods and equipment may be necessary.
If the sediment has the potential for being considered a
hazardous material, disposable sampling equipment should be
10-50
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considered. For watery sludges from stream bottoms near
shore, the pond sampler shown as Exhibit 10-14 can be used,
since the plastic beaker can be disposed of, if the sampling
plan so ordains. Other devices could include plastic pails
or ladles for scooping up sediments from shallow water. The
user should allow time for settling to occur, then decant
the water off the top of the sediment before transferring
samples to their containers. The user should sample only
with plastic beakers, pails, or ladles where sample integ-
rity of organics will not be compromised.
The semi-solid sediments near shore or above the water line
are most easily collected using simple tools (e.g., polypro-
pylene scoops, trowels, or dippers). Other alternatives for
small semi-solid sediments include wooden tongue depressors
or stainless steel tablespoons.
If stream-bottom samples of sediment are necessary,
vertical-pipe or core samplers are used and can be driven
into stream beds to any selected depth. During retrieval,
samples are retained inside the cylinder by a partial vacuum
formed above the sample and/or by a retainer at the lower
end. For compacted sediment, sampling triers or waste pile
samplers may be used as long as sample points are above the
water surface or in very shallow water. If deep water sam-
ples from large streams or lakes are specified, specialized
samplers (e.g., Eckman or Ponar dredges) are used.
No matter what equipment is used, the following general
conditions apply:
o Collect at least three small, equal-sized samples
from several points along the sludge or sediment
deposition area. If possible, mark the location
with a numbered stake, and locate sample points on
a sketch of the site. Deposit sample portions in
a clean, 1/2-gallon wide-mouth jar. Carefully
stir portions together into one composite.
o Sediments from large streams, lakes, and the like
may be taken with Eckman or Ponar dredges from a
boat. Refer to Exhibit 10-17 for an example of a
Ponar grab sampler. Ponar grab samplers are more
applicable to a wide range of sediments and
sludges because they penetrate deeper and seal
better than spring-activated types (e.g., Eckman
dredges).
o Streams and lakes will likely demonstrate
significant variations in sediment composition
with respect to distance from inflows, discharges,
10-51
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Exhibit 10-17
PONAR GRAP SAMPLER
10-52
-------
or other disturbances. It is important, there-
fore, to document exact sampling location by means
of triangulation with stable references on the
banks of the stream or lake. In addition, the
presence of rocks, debris, or organic material may
complicate sampling and preclude the use of, or
require modification to, some devices. Sampling
of sediments should, therefore, be conducted to
reflect these and other variants.
o Transfer 100 to 200 grams of the composite sludges
or sediments from the 1/2-gallon jar to a 250-ml
sample bottle. Attach identification label number
and tag. Record all necessary information in the
field logbook and on the sample log sheet. Return
unused sample to its source.
o Store the sampler and jars in a plastic bag until
decontamination or disposal.
o Tape the lid on the sample bottle securely, and
mark the tape with the date and the sample
collector's initials.
o Pack the samples for shipping. Attach a custody
seal to the shipping package. Make certain that a
traffic report and chain-of-custody forms are
properly filled out and enclosed or attached.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
Specific sampling equipment for collecting sediment and
sludge specimens and procedures for their use are as
follows:
Scoops and trowels. This method provides for a simple,
quick, and easy means of collecting a disturbed sample of a
sludge or sediment.
o Collect the necessary equipment, and clean
according to the requirements for the analytical
parameters to be measured.
o Sketch the sample area, or note recognizable
features for future reference.
o Insert scoop or trowel into material, and remove
sample. In the case of sludges exposed to air, it
may be desirable to remove the first I to 2 cm of
material prior to collecting sample.
10-53
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o If compositing a series of grab samples, use a
plastic or stainless steel mixing bowl or Teflon
tray for mixing.
o Transfer sample into an appropriate sample bottle
with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop, or
spatula.
o Check that a Teflon liner is present in cap, if
required. Secure the cap tightly. The chemical
preservation of solids is generally not recommend-
ed. Refrigeration to 4°C is usually the best
approach, supplemented by a minimal holding time.
o Label the sample bottle with the appropriate
sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully
and clearly, addressing all the categories or
parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody docu-
ments, and record in the field logbook.
o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
Hand corers (see Exhibit 10-18). Hand corers are applicable
to the same situations and materials as the scoop described
above. Corers have the further advantage of collecting an
undisturbed sample that can profile any stratification in
the sample as a result of changes in the deposition.
Some hand corers can be fitted with extension handles that
will allow the collection of samples underlying a shallow
layer of liquid. Most corers can also be adapted to hold
liners generally available in brass or polycarbonate plas-
tic. Care should be taken to choose a material that will
not compromise the intended analytical procedures.
o Inspect the corer for proper precleaning.
10-54
-------
Exhibit 10-18
HAND CORER
Check Valve
Nosepiece
10-55
-------
o Force corer in with smooth continuous motion.
o Twist corer; then withdraw in a single smooth
motion.
o Remove nosepiece and withdraw sample into a
stainless steel or Teflon tray.
o Transfer sample into an appropriate sample bottle
with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop, or
spatula.
o Label the sample bottle with the appropriate
sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully
and clearly, addressing all the categories or
parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody docu-
ments, and record in the field logbook.
o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
Gravity corers (see Exhibit 10-19). A gravity corer is a
metal tube with a replaceable tapered nosepiece on the
bottom and a ball or other type of check valve on the top.
The check valve allows water to pass through the corer on
descent but prevents washout during recovery. The tapered
nosepiece facilitates cutting and reduces core disturbance
during penetration. Most corers are constructed of brass or
steel, and many can accept plastic liners and additional
weights.
Corers are capable of collecting samples of most sludges and
sediments. The corers collect essentially undisturbed sam-
ples that represent the profile of strata which may develop
in sediments and sludges during variations in the deposition
process. Depending on the density of the substrate and the
10-56
-------
Exhibit 10-19
GRAVITY CORER
.
Stabilizing Fins
Nosepiece
10-57
-------
weight of the corer, penetration to depths of 75 cm
(30 inches) can be attained. Care should be exercised when
using gravity corers in vessels or lagoons that have liners,
since penetration depths could exceed that of substrate and
result in damage to the liner material.
o Attach a precleaned corer to the required length
of sample line. Solid braided 5 mm (3/16 inch)
nylon line is sufficient; 20 mm (3/4 inch) nylon,
however, is easier to grasp during hand hoisting.
o Secure the free end of the line to a fixed support
to prevent accidental loss of the corer.
o Measure and mark distance to top of sludge on
sampler line to determine depth of sludge or
sediment coring.
o Allow corer to free fall through liquid to bottom.
o Determine depth of sludge penetration.
o Retrieve corer with a smooth, continuous lifting
motion. Do not bump corer because this may result
in some sample loss.
o Remove nosepiece from corer, and slide sample out
of corer into stainless steel or Teflon pan.
o Transfer sample into appropriate sample bottle
with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop, or
spatula.
o Check that a Teflon liner is present in cap, if
required. Secure the cap tightly. The chemical
preservation of solids is generally not recommend-
ed. Refrigeration to 4°C is usually the best
approach, supplemented by a minimal holding time.
o Label the sample bottle with the appropriate
sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully
and clearly, addressing all the categories or
parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody docu-
ments, and record in the field logbook.
o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
10-58
-------
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
Ponar grab sampler (see Exhibit 10-17). The Ponar grab is a
clamshell-type scoop activated by a counter-lever system.
The shell is opened, latched in place, and slowly lowered to
the bottom. When tension is released on the lowering cable,
the latch releases and the lifting action of the cable on
the lever system closes the clamshell.
Ponars are capable of sampling most types of sludges and
sediments from silts to granular materials. They are avail-
able in a "petite" version with a 232-square-centimeter sam-
ple area that is light enough to be operated without a winch
or crane. Penetration depths will usually not exceed
several centimeters. Grab samplers are not capable of col-
lecting undisturbed samples. As a result, material in the
first centimeter of sludge cannot be separated from that at
lower depths. The sampling action of these devices causes
agitation currents that may temporarily resuspend some set-
tled solids. This disturbance can be minimized by slowly
lowering the sampler the last half-meter and by allowing a
very slow contact with the bottom. It is advisable, how-
ever, to collect sludge or sediment samples only after all
overlying water samples have been obtained.
Steps in using Ponar dredges are as follows:
o Attach a precleaned Ponar to the necessary length
of sample line. Solid braided 5 mm (3/16 inch)
nylon line is usually of sufficient strength; how-
ever, 20 mm (3/4 inch) or greater nylon line
allows for easier hand hoisting.
o Measure and mark the distance to top of sludge on
the sample line. Record depth to top of sludge
and depth of sludge penetration.
o Open sampler jaws until latched. From this point
on, support the sampler by its lift line, or the
sampler will be tripped and the jaws will close.
o Tie free end of sample line to fixed support to
prevent accidental loss of sampler.
10-59
-------
o Begin lowering the sampler until the proximity
mark is reached.
o Slow rate of descent through last meter until
contact is felt.
o Allow sample line to slack several centimeters.
In strong currents, more slack may be necessary to
release mechanism.
o Slowly raise dredge clear of surface.
o Place Ponar into a stainless steel or Teflon tray
and open. Lift Ponar clear of the tray, and
return Ponar to laboratory for decontamination.
o Collect a suitable aliquot with a stainless steel
laboratory spoon or equivalent, and place sample
into appropriate sample bottle.
o Label the sample bottle with the appropriate
sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully
and clearly, addressing all the categories or
parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody docu-
ments and records in the field logbook.
o Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an
appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and
low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping
inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/
high-level water samples, organic high-level water
or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not
required in shipping soil samples, but ice may be
used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide
samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
Use a custody seal on the shipping package and
make certain that traffic report forms are
properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for
additional details.
10.2.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIATIONS
The reader should refer to Subsection 10.1.6 for discussion.
In addition to examples cited there, certain specific pro-
cedures may be subject to continuous revisions, so users
should contact the EPA RPM for to the most recent procedures
advocated by each region. For example, sediment sampling
for possible TCDD contamination contains special precautions
10-60
-------
as outlined in Section 13. Some regions will incorporate
these precautions, whereas others will prohibit use of
certain equipment. Such variances change from month to
month, so a special effort has to be made by SMs and field
team leaders to keep current on the various requirements.
Revision 01 to this compendium will include updated
variances.
10.2.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
deVera, E.R., B.P. Simmons, R.D. Stephens, and D.L. Storm.
"Samplers and Sampling Procedures for Hazardous Waste
Streams." EPA 600/2-80-018. January 1980.
Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory (EMSL), ORD, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of
Hazardous Waste Sites—A Method Manual, Volume II—Available
Sampling Methods. Las Vegas, Nevada 89114. 1983.
Lind, Orent. Handbook of Common Methods of Limnology.
St. Louis, Missouri: C.V. Mosby Co. 1974.
OWDC, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the
Interior. National Handbook of Recommended Methods for
Water-Data Acquisition. Prepared cooperatively by agencies
of the U.S. Government. Reston, Virginia. 1977.
Smith, R., and G.V. James. The Sampling of Bulk Materials.
London: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 1981.
WDR232/001
10-61
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-------
Section 11
METEOROLOGY AND AIR QUALITY
11.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 11 describes the meteorological data that are
required to make preliminary (screening) assessments of
exposure to hazardous air pollutants before site-specific
monitoring data are available. Similarly, the meteoro-
logical data requirements for conducting analyses of more
refined air quality modeling are described in terms of using
both representative offsite and site-specific data. The
section also identifies procedures for obtaining the appro-
priate meteorological information both from existing sources
and by conducting site-specific monitoring programs.
11.1.1 METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR SCREENING MODEL
ANALYSES
11.1.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection describes the meteorological data required
to make preliminary assessments of exposure to hazardous air
pollutants through the use of screening dispersion models.
These models are generally used before site-specific moni-
toring data are available. Screening models purposely over-
estimate air quality input. This overestimation is largely
a result of the generalization of model inputs and the
assumption inherent in the models that certain meteoro-
logical conditions, which produce high impacts occur and
persist at the site. It is useful to describe the required
meteorological parameters, how they are obtained and applied
in screening models, and how the results may be used. Such
information provides a more complete perspective in deter-
mining the possible need for more refined modeling analyses
and the associated meteorological data requirements. This
subsection provides a general discussion of model selection
with more specific guidanc,e provided in the references.
Selection ot an appropriate model depends on project- and
site-specific considerations.
11.1.1.2 Definitions
Specific descriptions ot the following generic terms are
provided in the text.
Dispersion model. A set of algorithms designed to simulate
the transport and diffusion of airborne pollutants to obtain
estimates of pollutant concentrations at specific receptor
locations for specific time periods.
11-1
-------
Hazardous air pollutant. An air pollutant to which no
ambient air quality standard applies and that, in the judg-
ment of the Administrator of the U.S. EPA, causes, or con-
tributes to, air pollution that may reasonably be
anticipated to result in an increase in mortality or an
increase in serious irreversible illness or incapacitating
reversible illness.
Joint frequency distribution. A statistical distribution
that lists the frequency of concurrent wind speed, wind
direction, and atmospheric stability data by individual wind
speed groups, wind direction sectors, and atmospheric
stability classes.
Receptors. The fixed locations relative to modeled sources
at which concentration estimates are predicted.
Screening ^ technique. A relatively simple analysis technique
to determine if a given source is likely to pose a threat to
air quality. Concentration estimates from screening
techniques are conservative.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Source. The point or area of origin of hazardous pollutants
emitted into the ambient air.
Source terms. The set of information that describes the
rates, locations, dimensions, and operational and physical
release characteristics of hazardous pollutants emitted into
the ambient air.
11.1.1.3 Applicability
Screening models are used to provide a conservative estimate
of the air quality impact of a specific source or source
category (U.S. EPA, 1978, p. 17). Depending on the level of
refinement, screening model analyses can also be used to
determine: the meteorological conditions that result in
maximum short-term and long-term impacts; the potential for
exceeding acceptable ambient concentrations; the receptor
locations at which maximum ambient levels are predicted to
occur (for use if refined modeling is needed); and impacts
on sensitive receptors (State and Territorial Air Pollution
Program Administrators/Association of Local Air Pollution
Control Officials (STAPPA/ALAPCO), 1984, pp. 135-136). The
guidance for use of screening models was developed primarily
in relation to the evaluation of sources of "criteria" air
pollutants (e.g., particulates, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen
11-2
-------
dioxide) for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards
exist (U.S. EPA, 1981a). The need for equivalent standards
for the host of hazardous air pollutants is recognized by
federal, state, and local agencies charged with protecting
the air quality in their jurisdictions (STAPPA/ALAPCO,
1984).
These currently evolving standards are expressed in terms of
a concentration averaged over some period of time. The
averaging time depends on the specific health impacts known
to be associated with a hazardous substance. The ability of
these substances to have an impact on health over the short
term (e.g., a 24-hour average) and the long term (e.g., an
annual average) creates the need for screening analyses to
be performed over these different time scales (STAPPA/
ALAPCO, 1984, pp. 132-134). The meteorological input data
requirements differ between screening models that produce
short-term and long-term concentration estimates. These
requirements are discussed in Subsection 11.1.1.6.2.
11.1.1.4 Responsibilities
Project meteorologist and air quality analyst—This person
is responsible, through coordination with the appropriate
regulatory agencies, for selecting appropriate screening
methodologies and model(s), selecting representative meteor-
ological data required as model input, performing model
calculations, evaluating and reporting results, and main-
taining records that document these activities. The execu-
tion of air quality models requires the input of source-term
data. If they have the requisite engineering skills, proj-
ect meteorologists and air quality analysts may develop this
information; if they do not have this capability, they will
need to work closely with the SM.
Site Manager—The SM is responsible for the program design
and coordination. The project engineer also interacts with
the project meteorologist in modeling and monitoring appli-
cations, such as source term development.
11.1.1.5 Records
Records of the meteorological data selected for use in the
screening model analyses must be maintained to validate
these data and to evaluate the modeling results. Selection
and determination of the representativeness of meteoro-
logical parameters should be documented, as well as the
selection, application, and results of the model analyses.
The level ot detail in these records must support the pro-
gram's quality assurance requirements, which are to be
established before making the screening model analyses.
11-3
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Quality assurance records include those records that furnish
documentary evidence of the quality of items and of activ-
ities affecting quality. Examples of such records include,
but are not limited to, the following: raw data records
(e.g., strip charts), data validation findings, equipment
maintenance and calibration records, work instructions, work
scopes (design control documents), model inputs and outputs,
modeling assumptions, and software documentation and
verification.
11.1.1.6 Procedures
11.1.1.6.1 Screening Model Selection
The screening methodology to be used is selected in
coordination with the appropriate federal, state, or local
agencies. Technical considerations (based on the level of
refinement required) that should be made include the appro-
priate averaging periods for acceptable ambient concentra-
tions; source release characteristics (e.g., point, area, or
line/volume sources; elevated or ground-level releases); the
topography of the site and surrounding area; and the availa-
bility of appropriate meteorological data. As discussed
earlier, the averaging period determines the selection of a
short- or long-term screening model. Source release charac-
teristics influence the selection process by defining the
need for either simplistic models (e.g., one source or
source type) or more sophisticated models (e.g., multiple
source types and release characteristics). Topography and
receptor locations influence the selection process by defin-
ing the need for models capable of representing airborne
pollutant transport over flat, rolling, or complex terrain.
Screening models approved by the U.S. EPA are provided in
the User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution
(UNAMAP), Version 6 (U.S. EPA, 1986). U.S. EPA provides
guidelines tor screening model selection and application
(U.S. EPA, 1977, 1981b, and 1986) . The project meteorologist
and air quality analyst should be familiar with this guid-
ance and with the available screening models before coor-
dinating with the appropriate regulatory agencies.
11.1.1.6.2 Meteorological Data Selection
Screening model analyses are generally made before
site-specific meteorological data are available. This pro-
cess requires the selection of a meteorological database
that will provide a conservation assessment of the air qual-
ity impact at the hazardous waste site and surrounding area.
The selection of meteorological data for use in screening
assessments depends on the level ot refinement of the model-
ing methodology and the representativeness of the available
data. These input data vary from selected "worst case"
meteorological scenarios to a source ot data, such as the
11-4
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treatment facilities. The source term can be determined
with a specifically designed onsite monitoring program,
which is receptor modeling based on near-site monitoring or
on air emission modeling. Emission modeling guidance is
summarized in U.S. EPA, 1981b, and in GCA Corporation, 1983.
Appropriate, conservative assumptions for emission rates can
be applied for screening model analyses. Determination of
the source configuration should be accomplished in conjunc-
tion with the SM after careful consideration ot all possible
release scenarios.
11.1.1.8 Region-Specific Variances
Besides the site-specific considerations to be made in
selecting the appropriate screening model and meteorological
input data, no region-specific variances have been identi-
fied; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on
variances may become dated rapidly. Thus, users should
contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current
regional practices and requirements.
11.1.2 METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS FOR REFINED MODELING
ANALYSES
11.1.2.1 Scope and Purpose
Refined modeling analysis uses site-representative hourly
meteorological data. When such data are unavailable, onsite
meteorological monitoring may be necessary. This subsection
provides generic guidance for the site-specific measurement
of meteorological parameters that may be required to make
detailed short-term and long-term assessments ot exposure to
hazardous air pollutants through the use ot refined models
for estimating dispersion of gases and particulates. The
need for refined model analyses will generally be identified
as a result of the preliminary screening model analyses dis-
cussed in Subsection 11.1.1. The procedures indicated here
are applicable for use for field work at hazardous waste
sites. This subsection briefly discusses model selection
with more specific guidance cited by reference. Specific
models are not recommended since selection ot an appropriate
model depends on project- and site-specific considerations.
Meteorological parameters that can be readily obtained from
other data sources are identified. The references listed in
Subsection 11.1.2.8 provide more detailed discussions of
field measurement procedures.
11.1.2.2 Definitions
Definitions of key terms as they apply to this procedure are
provided below. Subsection 11.1.1.2 contains additional
definitions of terms used in Subsection 11.1.2.
11-6
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National Weather Service (NWS) whose routine observations
are archived by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) in
Asheville, North Carolina. Data from the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and military stations (U.S. EPA, 1981c,
p. 5) or from universities, industry, pollution control
agencies, and consultants (U.S. EPA, 1980, p. 31) may be
used if these data are equivalent in accuracy and detail to
the NWS data. The project meteorologist and air quality
analyst must determine the representativeness of any offsite
data and the validity of their use, along with the screening
model, in providing a conservative assessment. The repre-
sentativeness depends on the proximity of the station to the
area under consideration, the complexity of the terrain, and
the exposure of the meteorological monitoring equipment at
the station. This selection process is also made in consul-
tation with the appropriate regulatory agencies.
Model selection governs the specitic meteorological data
that are required as input. For short-term analysis,
screening models employ a "worst case" meteorological sce-
nario. This scenario may consist either ot a specific
worst-case meteorological condition or a comprehensive set
of meteorological conditions that, when evaluated, will
determine the worst-cast meteorology.
Long-term models require that hourly meteorological data be
summarized over longer periods ot time (e.g., months, sea-
sons, years). Hourly wind speed, wind direction, and atmo-
spheric stability are reformatted into a stability array
(STAR). If determined to be representative, STAR data sets
compiled by the NCDC for NWS stations throughout the United
States (U.S. NCDC, 1983) could be used. Otherwise, the
assumptions described for long-term screening in U.S. EPA,
1977, should be used. The average temperature and the aver-
age morning and afternoon mixing heights are required inputs
of the long-term models. Mixing-height data have been sum-
marized on seasonal and annual bases by Holzworth, 1972, for
62 NWS stations in the United States. The NCDC can also
compile daily morning and afternoon mixing-height data for
NWS stations that routinely make balloon-borne measurements
of meteorological conditions in the upper air (above
ground). Since the spatial coverage of NWS stations making
these measurements is not dense, the project meteorologist
and air quality analyst must carefully select the most
representative source of the data to be used.
11.1.1.7 Source Term Development
Another concern in modeling releases from a hazardous waste
site is the determination of the source configuration (e.g.,
release type) and source term (i.e., emission rates).
Source term determination can be complex for many types of
sites such as surface impoundments, landfills, and land
11-b
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Subsection 11.1.2.6.1). The meteorological input data
requirements differ between models that produce short-term
and long-term concentration estimates. These requirements
are discussed in Subsection 11.1.2.6.2.
11.1.2.4 Responsibilities
Project meteorologist—This person is responsible for the
collection of site-specific meteorological data and/or
selection of other representative meteorological parameters.
Using input from project management, technical personnel,
and appropriate regulatory agencies, the project meteorolo-
gist would design the measurement program; oversee the data
collection, validation, and quality assurance procedures;
and maintain records that document these activities.
Project meteorologist and air quality analyst—This person
is responsible, through coordination with the appropriate
regulatory agencies, for selecting appropriate refined
model(s), performing model calculations, evaluating and
reporting results, and maintaining records that document
these activities.
Site Manager-—The SM is responsible for the program design
and coordination. The project engineer also interacts with
the project meteorologist in modeling and monitoring appli-
cations including source term development.
Field maintenance engineer—This person is responsible for
installing, calibrating, maintaining, and decommissioning
the designed program, and for maintaining records that
document these activities.
11.1.2.5 Records
Maintenance of records of the meteorological data collection
program is required for validation purposes and future use
in air quality modeling. These records include not only the
data themselves (data can be recorded on an analog strip for
future data reduction, digitally on hard copy such as a
printer, or digitally on a magnetic tape) but also appropri-
ate calibration and operational logs. These logs document
activities performed on the instrumentation for future use
in validation. Selection and determination of the represen-
tativeness of meteorological parameters, if applicable,
should be documented, as well as the selection, application,
and results of the refined model analyses.
Depending on the level of validation and quality assurance
applied, additional records to be maintained could include
system design drawings, data review logs, data correction
logs, audit documents, instructions for data handling and
use, and so forth. The level of detail in these records
11-8
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Atmospheric diffusion. The process by which minute
particles of a substance that is suspended in the atmosphere
are distributed throughout an increasing volume of air.
This process, then, reduces the concentration of the sub-
stance since the amount of the substance relative to the
amount of air is decreased. Atmospheric diffusion is con-
trolled in the atmosphere by wind speed and atmospheric
turbulence.
Atmospheric dispersion. As used in the context of this
procedure, atmospheric dispersion combines the effects of
atmospheric transport and diffusion on a substance.
Atmospheric stability. Terms that describe the ability of
the atmosphere to diffuse (see "atmospheric diffusion") a
substance. An unstable, turbulent atmosphere provides for
more diffusion than a stable atmosphere. For use in dis-
persion modeling and impact assessment, stability is repre-
sented by Pasquill-Gifford stability Classes A (unstable)
through F (stable).
Atmospheric transport. The process by which a substance is
carried through the atmosphere.
Mixing height. The height above the surface through which
relatively vigorous vertical mixing occurs.
Refined model. An analytical technique that provides a
detailed treatment of physical and chemical atmospheric pro-
cesses and requires detailed and precise input data. The
estimates are more accurate than those obtained from conser-
vative screening techniques.
Sigma theta. Terms that describe the measure of variability
of the wind direction. Sigma theta is used as an indicator
of the dittusion capacity of the atmosphere and can be used
to classify atmospheric stability.
11.1.2.3 Applicability
The purpose of conducting refined model analyses is to
provide a more accurate and representative estimate of the
impacts ot a specific source (U.S. EPA, 1978, p. 17). These
analyses are conducted when a potential for exceeding an
acceptable ambient concentration of a hazardous air pollu-
tant has been determined through screening model analyses
(STAPPA/ALAPCO, 1984, p. 136).
As Subsection 11.1.1.3 indicates, acceptable concentrations
of hazardous air pollutants (and standards based on these
acceptable levels) are currently evolving. Refined model
analyses may also be required in situations in which source
and/or receptor characteristics are complicated (see
11-7
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Some GEMS models also can account for removal and transfor-
mation mechanisms. Based on expected considerations at a
hazardous waste site, the ISC computer code will probably be
the most applicable model for many evaluations. The previ-
ously mentioned EPA-approved computer codes are also avail-
able through the UNAMAP on computer tape (U.S. EPA, 1986).
UNAMAP also contains many other EPA-approved codes that may
apply to some hazardous waste sites. All the UNAMAP models
are also available through GEMS.
The GEMS atmospheric models do not account for all types of
site-specific source and atmospheric dispersion considera-
tions. The U.S. EPA is formulating guidance for the use of
retined models with sources in complex terrain. Appropriate
models may include accurate wind field analysis to account
for terrain-induced variations in plume transport. In lieu
of an adequate refined model that appropriately accounts for
plume transport, complex terrain screening models (e.g.,
VALLEY) may need to be used and the results evaluated on a
site-specific basis, considering model limitations as
related to the intended application. Another consideration
is models that can account for nonuniform or instantaneous
releases. An example of a model that can address dispersion
in complex terrain, as well as instantaneous releases, would
be a plume element type such as a three-dimensional puff
model. The ERT Model for Pipeline Ruptures (Hanna, 1982) ,
the SPILLS Model (Fleisher, 1980), and the PFPL Model
(Garrett and Murphy, 1981) are examples of plume element/
puff models.
Another modeling concern for hazardous waste sites is the
transport and diffusion of heavier-than-air gases. Various
field measurement programs and analyses of the physical con-
cepts of dense gas dispersion show that standard, Gaussian
atmospheric diffusion models (e.g., the EPA-approved models)
are inadequate until the plume has been diluted to where its
density approximates that of the ambient air. This situa-
tion will occur at some distance from the source. The ini-
tial dispersion of dense gases is described by low, flat
plumes that disperse in part because of their own density.
Unless modified, Gaussian models cannot simulate this.
Accordingly, if dense gas dispersion must be considered,
especially close to the source, an appropriate model must be
used. Discussions of dense gas dispersion modeling is
provided in Britter and Griffiths (1982) .
The project meteorologist and air quality analyst, when
selecting the appropriate model for the application, must be
familiar with any technical shortcomings of the models. For
example, because of concerns over source size versus down-
wind distance and the applicability of modeling dispersion
parameters at close-in distances, EPA-approved models do not
calculate concentrations at distances less than 100 meters
11-10
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must support the quality assurance requirements of the pro-
gram, which are to be established before collecting data.
11.1.2.6 Procedures
11.1.2.6.1 Refined Model Selection
The refined dispersion model(s) to be used is selected in
cooperation with the appropriate federal, state, and local
regulatory agencies. The same technical considerations made
during selection of an appropriate screening model apply in
selection of refined models (see Subsection 11.1.1.6.1),
although relatively more detailed input is often required
because the refined models are more sophisticated.
The nature of atmospheric releases from hazardous waste
sites dictates the need for a detailed evaluation of the
appropriate model type and methodology to be applied.
Depending on the source characteristics, the model may have
to account for neutrally buoyant (i.e., approximately the
same density as air), lighter-than-air, or heavier-than-air
plumes; continuous or instantaneous (i.e., puff) releases;
gases or particulates; a single or many individual point
sources or area sources; and an urban or rural environment.
Consideration of these source characteristics plus the
required application (i.e., short- or long-term assessment)
will influence model selection. In addition, it may be nec-
essary to consider removal and transformation processes on
the pollutant as it is transported downwind. Examples of
these processes are gravitational settling, adsorption, and
oxidation. Models with appropriate algorithms must be
selected to account for these processes.
As with screening models, determination ot the appropriate
source term is an important factor in refined modeling and
in the analysis ot the results (see Subsection 11.1.1.7).
Since retined modeling attempts to provide a more realistic
and accurate assessment, source term and source character-
istic assumptions should be representative of expected
conditions.
A set ot refined models is available through the U.S. EPA
Exposure Evaluation Division, Office of Toxic Substances.
The modeling system, known as Graphical Exposure Modeling
System (GEMS), consists of a series of atmospheric models
with various levels of refinement (GSC Corporation, 1984) .
These models can also be used for screening assessments. In
addition to atmospheric models, GEMS includes models capable
of assessing contaminant migration in surface water, ground-
water, and soils. Examples of EPA-approved atmospheric mod-
els available for use through GEMS include COM, ISCST, and
ISCLT. These computer codes can address short-term and/or
long-term assessments with various source configurations.
11-9
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quality analyst must establish the monitoring program
requirements in cooperation with the appropriate regulatory
agencies.
For data to be collected in the field, a system should be
chosen for the required application. The monitoring system
should be designed so that the measurements represent the
conditions that determine atmospheric dispersion in the area
of interest. Since the atmospheric conditions can vary dra-
matically with the physical characteristics of the surround-
ing area, the system (equipment and location) should be
designed based on specific site characteristics and program
objectives.
Discussions concerning the collection ot various
meteorological parameters are presented below. More spe-
cific guidance on siting, equipment specifications and accu-
racies, and applications has been prepared by the U.S. EPA
(U.S. EPA, 1983; U.S. EPA, 1984), the U.S. Nuclear Regu-
latory Commission (U.S. NRC, 1980), and its successor, the
U.S. Department of Energy (1984). In all cases, specifica-
tions and accuracies should be based on requirements
determined according to the appropriate regulatory agencies.
The following discussions concern measurements to support
atmospheric dispersion modeling using most regulatory
agency-approved methodology and models for licensing and
permitting activities. Some of the more refined models may
require input data for meteorological parameters not dis-
cussed here. For special cases, the references provided in
this compendium or by the appropriate regulatory agency
should be consulted for the accepted measurement techniques.
Hori zonta1 Wind Speed
Description. Horizontal wind speed sensors (anemometers)
are available in a number of different designs. The most
common types are the rotational cup and the propeller
anemometers. The cup sensors are generally more accurate.
The design ot the anemometer cups dictates the durability,
sensitivity, accuracy, and response of the instrument.
Three conical cups usually provide the best performance.
Propeller anemometers (similar to windmills in design)
revolve about a pivoted shaft that is oriented by a vane
into the direction from which the wind is blowing. The num-
ber of blades normally varies from three to six. For most
atmospheric dispersion studies, anemometers should have a
starting threshold of 0.5 meters per second (m/sec) or less
and a system (i.e., sensor through readout device) accuracy
of ±0.2 m/sec.
Applicability. Measurement of horizontal wind speed is an
important factor for determining the dispersive capability
11-12
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from the source. Some evaluations at hazardous waste sites
may require assessments at these short distances from the
source. These special situations may require site-specific
analyses and should be discussed with the appropriate regu-
latory agency for guidance and approval on proposed
methodologies.
11.1.2.6.2 Meteorological Data Collection
Site-specific meteorological data are preferred when
conducting screening or refined model analyses (U.S. EPA,
1978, p. 31). An onsite monitoring program is necessary
when there is a lack of representative meteorological data.
Collection of meteorological data in the field requires the
design of a system that provides the necessary model input
information and that takes into account the logistics of
siting and operation. Some data are best collected from
visual observations or other representative sources (e.g.,
NWS stations) rather than from erected, in situ towers. In
practice, acquiring all ot the meteorological inputs to the
model(s) will often require a combination of all of these
collection techniques.
Model selection governs the specific meteorological data
that are required as inputs. Appropriate input parameters
and averaging times for screening models producing short-
term and long-term concentration estimates are described in
Subsection 11.1.1.6.2. The averaging time for meteoro-
logical data measured onsite should be consistent with the
project requirements. For meteorological parameters, a con-
secutive period ot at least 15 minutes can generally be used
to represent the 1-hour period (U.S. NRC, 1980, p. 11).
These hourly parameters are input directly to the refined
models.
The duration of the monitoring program depends on the
application of the measurements. It the project require-
ments are to assess potential impacts during periods of site
activity, then the meteorological data measured during these
periods is directly applicable to modeling analyses. How-
ever, if the project requirements are to assess short-term
and long-term impacts not specific to any period (which is
the scope of Subsection ll.l)r then the monitoring program
should be of a duration that will include meteorological
characteristics representative of conditions that would pro-
duce maximum impacts. In practice, it may be feasible to
conduct the monitoring program only for less than a year.
The EPA has prepared guidance on using data periods of less
than 1 year (U.S. EPA, 1980, pp. 9, 39). However, it should
be noted that this guidance was developed primarily in rela-
tion to the evaluation of "criteria" pollutants. Therefore,
in applying this guidance to evaluations of noncriteria haz-
ardous air pollutants, the project meteorologist and air
11-11
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consists of a vane with two flat plates perpendicular to
each other, counterbalanced and mounted on a gimbal that
allows the vane to rotate horizontally and vertically.
Unlike the UVW anemometer, it does not provide the wind
speed (and hence all three wind vector components) unless
mounted with a propeller anemometer in place on the counter-
weight. It does provide both the azimuth and elevation
components of the wind direction.
Vertical wind measurement systems should have a starting
threshold of less than 0.25 m/sec and an accuracy of
±0.2 m/sec for wind speed and ±5 degrees for wind direction.
Because of the sensitivity of these types of instruments,
long-term use in the field or use in harsh environments may
necessitate special maintenance activities. Individual
manufacturers should be consulted about each application.
Applicability. The measurement of vertical wind components
may be required as input to certain refined atmospheric dis-
persion models. Some refined models may use atmospheric
turbulence data directly to define vertical and horizontal
plume spread instead of indirectly from stability class.
These models use the standard deviation of horizontal and
vertical wind direction fluctuations—sigma theta and sigma
phi, respectively. Some models also use both sigma theta
and sigma phi measurements classified into atmospheric
stability class. Vertical wind speeds can be used for plume
downwash considerations (e.g., onsite hazardous waste incin-
eration) . The reader should refer to the subsection on
atmospheric stability for further discussion.
Ambient Temperature
Description. The two most commonly used temperature
measurement devices for air quality studies are the resis-
tance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistors.
Thermistors are electronic semiconductors that are made from
certain metallic oxides. The resistance of the thermistor
varies inversely with its absolute temperature so the elec-
trical output through the sensor can provide an indication
of the ambient temperature. The RTD is used in a similar
manner. These RTD sensors are made of different pure metals
such as silver, copper, nickel, or platinum. Normally,
platinum provides the best material. The RTD operates on
the principle that the electrical resistance of a pure metal
increases with temperature.
Care must be taken to avoid solar radiation error in
temperature measurements. This error can be avoided by
using naturally or mechanically aspirated radiation shields.
The radiation shields should face downward when mounted on a
tower. Temperature system accuracies should be approxi-
mately ±0.5°C.
11-14
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of the atmosphere. The speed of the wind provides an indi-
cation of the transport (e.g., travel speed) and diffusion
ot a pollutant and is a direct input to air quality models.
Wind speed is an important parameter in plume rise and is
used as a factor in determining an atmospheric stability
class for some stability classification schemes.
Horizontal Wind Direction
Description. Most sensors for measuring horizontal wind
direction consist of a vane rotating on a fulcrum. The
shapes and designs of the vane surface vary but are gen-
erally rectangular or curved. The vanes are designed to
orient into the direction from which the wind is blowing.
For atmospheric dispersion studies, wind vanes should have a
starting threshold of less than or equal to 0.5 m/sec and a
system accuracy of ±5 degrees.
Applicability. Horizontal wind direction is directly used
as an indicator of pollutant transport and is used as a
direct input to air quality models.
It is also preferred that the meteorological system be
designed to calculate directly and to give the standard
deviation of the horizontal wind direction fluctuations
(sigma theta). Sigma theta provides an indicator of the
atmospheric stability by measuring horizontal turbulence.
Some atmospheric diftusion models use sigma theta as a
direct input in determining horizontal plume dimensions.
Care should be exercised with this method to ensure that the
data are representative. It may be desirable, for example,
to install the meteorological tower at a complex-terrain
site to ensure that the sigma theta data reflect the surface
inhomogeneity.
Vertical Wind Speed and Direction
Description. Vertical wind speed and direction can be
measured with a vertical propeller anemometer, a UVW
anemometer, or a bivane. The vertical propeller anemometer
has a propellor-type sensor mounted on a fixed vertical
shaft. Since the propellor can reverse its direction, the
sensor can indicate whether wind flows are directed upward
or downward. A UVW anemometer has three fixed propellers.
Two, located 90 degrees apart, measure the horizontal wind
vector (both magnitude and direction). The third, like the
vertical propellor anemometer, is located on a vertical
shaft at right angles to the first two. This anemometer
will then measure the total (i.e., U, V, and W components)
wind vector. The UVW anemometer, when coupled with an
onsite microprocessor to reduce the data, can provide real-
time displays of wind speed, azimuth (horizontal wind compo-
nents) , and elevation (vertical wind component). The bivane
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Mixing Height
Description. Mixing heights are best determined from
representative NWS stations that record upper air (i.e.,
above the surface) data. Instrumentation packages called
radiosondes are carried aloft twice daily (7:00 a.m. and
7:00 p.m., EST) throughout the United States by nontethered
balloons. These packages measure wind speed and direction,
temperature, and humidity as they ascend. Algorithms exist
to compute mixing heights from the data collected by the
radiosonde. Care should be taken to select data from a rep-
resentative station and for the appropriate time, as appli-
cable. Subsection 11.1.1.6.2 discusses the sources of this
parameter. Estimates of the mixing height can also be made
at the site through the use of balloonsondes (tethered and
nontethered balloons) and with remote sensors such as
acoustic sounders. This equipment requires special exper-
tise to use, to evaluate, and to apply the collected data.
Applicability. The mixing height is the level of the
atmosphere below which pollutants could be mixed. Mixing
height indicates the vertical limit of pollutant dispersion.
It is also an important consideration in air quality model-
ing for nonground-ievel releases, including ground-level
sources with high effective-release heights (e.g., a large
plume rise because of a fire).
Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric stability can be determined in the field for air
quality modeling applications by using a number of alterna-
tive methods. These methods use the applicable meteoro-
logical parameters discussed in previous subsections.
The Pasquill-Turner method of classifying atmospheric
stability uses the combination ot wind speed, incoming solar
radiation, cloud cover, and time of day. This scheme is
indicated in Exhibit 11—1.
The neutral- Class D is assumed for overcast conditions
during day or night.
The incoming solar radiation intensities are determined from
the solar altitude (a function of time of day and day of the
year) and modified for existing cloud cover and cloud
ceiling height (Turner, 1964).
The EPA provides further guidance for adjusting sigma phi to
account for increased surface roughness, and for adjusting
the stability category to account for wind speed restric-
tions on the occurrence of unstable and stable conditions
(U.S. EPA, 1981c). If measurements of sigma phi are not
available, sigma phi may be determined using the transform:
11-16
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Applicability. The measurement of ambient temperature can
be used to determine relative humidity when used with the
dew point temperature or to determine source terms for air
releases of chemicals when used in the calculation of vapor-
ization or volatization rates. In addition, surtace temper-
ature is used to calculate mixing height. Temperature is
also put in air quality models to determine plume rise for
buoyant (lighter-than-air) atmospheric releases. Variation
ot ambient temperature helps characterize local meteoro-
logical conditions.
Cloud Cover
Description. Cloud cover is best determined from data
collected at a representative NWS station as there are
trained observers available to provide this information. If
representative NWS cloud cover data are not available, then
the total amount of cloudiness above the apparent horizon
should be estimated as a fraction (in tenths) by a visual
observation (Turner, 1964) .
Applicability. Instead of other data, cloud cover is used
as one of the indicators of atmospheric stability in the
Pasguill-Turner stability classification scheme. In this
scheme, cloud cover, ceiling height, wind speed, and solar
radiation are used to determine an atmospheric stability
class (Turner, 1964) .
Ceiling Height
Description. A ceiling is defined as a layer of clouds that
covers more than one-halt of the sky. The height of a ceil-
ing is best determined by experienced observers at NWS
stations. It can be estimated visually at the waste site by
determining the height of the lowest layer of clouds that
cover more than 50 percent of the sky. It is necessary for
the onsite observer to estimate only whether the ceiling is
less than 7,000 feet, between 7,000 and 16,000 feet, or more
than 16,000 feet, based on the application of this parameter
(Turner, 1964). Rough estimates o± altitude can be made by
noting the types of clouds when the ceiling height observa-
tion is made. Cloud forms with bases of less than
7,000 feet generally include fair-weather cumulus, stratus
and stratocumulus, and towering cumulus. Cloud forms with
bases between 7,000 and 16,000 feet generally include alto-
stratus, altocumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus.
Cloud forms with bases higher than 16,000 feet are usually
of the cirrus type. A pocket-sized cloud atlas may be a
useful tool for the field observer.
Applicability. Ceiling height is used in the Pasquill-
Turner stability classification scheme to determine
atmospheric stability class.
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ns
"
Where ^o (Sigma phi) = The standard deviation fluctuations
over a 1-hour period
ns
nw
= The standard deviation of the vertical wind speed
fluctuations over a 1-hour averaging period
= The average horizontal 10-ra wind speed for a 1-hour
averaging period (U.S. EPA, 1966)
Using the values of sigma theta computed from the
meteorological system, atmospheric stability is classified
as follows in Exhibit 11-3 (U.S. NRC, 1980):
Exhibit 11-3
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY SIGMA THETA
Stability
Classification
Extremely unstable
Moderately unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Moderately stable
Extremely stable
Stability
Categories
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Sigma Theta
Categories
.5
.5
Sigma theta 22.5
Sigma theta 17.5
Sigma theta 12.5
Sigma theta 7.5
Sigma theta 3.8
Sigma theta 2.1
Sigma theta
22.
17,
12.5
7.5
3.8
2.1
The U.S. EPA provides further guidance for adjusting sigma
theta to account for increased surface roughness and for
adjusting the stability category to account for low-level
wind direction meander at night and wind speed restrictions
on the occurrence of unstable and stable conditions (U.S.
EPA, 1966).
Current EPA guidance (U.S. EPA, 1981c) recommends that when
onsite meteorological data sets are being used, atmospheric
stability categories should be determined from one of these
schemes, which are listed in the order of preference:
1. Pasquill-Turner method using onsite data, which include
cloud cover, ceiling height, and surface winds (approx-
imately 10-m height)
11-18
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Exhibit 11-1
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY THE PASQUILL-TURNER METHOD
Night
Surface Wind
Speed (at 10 m)
m/sec
<2
2-3
3-5
5-6
>6
Day
Incoming Solar Radiation
Strong Moderate Slight
A
A-B
B
C
C
A-B
B
B-C
C-D
D
B
C
C
D
D
Thinly Overcast
or S3/8
£4/8 Low Cloud Cloud
E
D
D
D
F
E
D
D
If vertical wind direction fluctuations (sigma phi) or
vertical wind speed fluctuations are collected, atmospheric
stability may be classified as follows in Exhibit 11-2 (from
U.S. EPA, 1966) :
Exhibit 11-2
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY SIGMA PHI
Stability
Classification
Extremely unstable
Moderately unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Moderately stable
Stability
Categories
A
B
C
D
E
F
Sigma Phi
Categories
11.5
10
7.8
5
2.4
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
11.5
10
7.8
5
2.4
11-17
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Response Situations. DP-1595. Aiken, South Carolina:
Savannah River Laboratory. 1981.
GCA Corporation. Evaluation and Selection of Models for
Estimating Air Emissions from Hazardous Waste Treatment,
Storage, and Disposal Facilities. GCA-TR-82-83-G. May
1983.
GSC Corporation. GEMS User's Guide. June 1984.
Hanna, S.R. Diffusion From Sour Gas Pipeline Ruptures.
Report PB-226. Concord, Massachusetts: Environmental
Research and Technology, Inc. 1982.
Holzworth, G.C. Mixing Heights/ Wind Speeds, and Potential
for Urban Air Pollution Through the Contiguous United
States. Office of Air Programs Publication Number AP-101.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 1972.
National Climatic Data Center. Star Tabu1ations, Master
List. Prepared by the National Climatic Data Center,
National Environmental Satellite, Information, and Data Ser-
vice, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce. May 1983.
Randerson, D., ed. Atmospheri<3 Science and Power
Production. DOE/TIC-27601. U.S. Department of Energy.
July 1984.
STAPPA/ALAPCO. Toxic Air Pollutant; State and Local
Regulatory Strategies. A survey conducted by the State and
Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and the
Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials,
Washington, D.C. January 1984.
Turner, D.B. "A Diffusion Model for an Urban Area, Journal
of Applied Meteorology." February 1964. Pp. 83-91.
United States Code Annotated. Title 42—The Public Health
and Welfare, Section 9604. As amended and enacted through
May 15, 1983. Washington, D.C. 1983.
U.S. Congress. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of
1984, Section 3019. Washington, D.C. 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977. Guidelines for
Air Quality Maintenance Planning and Analysis, Volume 10
(Revised); Procedures for Evaluating Air Quality Impact of
New Stationary Sources. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
October 1977.
11-20
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2. Sigma phi method
3. Sigma theta method
4. Pasquill-Turner method using onsite wind speed with
cloud cover and ceiling height from a nearby NWS site
Applicability. The use of atmospheric stability is an
important consideration in determining the atmospheric dif-
fusion of a pollutant. Excellent diffusion conditions exist
for the unstable categories, while poor diffusion occurs
during stable conditions. Estimates of downwind pollutant
concentrations are not possible unless atmospheric stability
conditions are determined.
The EPA-preferred dispersion models used for short-term and
long-term analyses are designed to recognize six stability
classes, A through F. Stability classes determined by the
Turner method and other associated meteorological data are
directly applicable to these models. In the case of stabil-
ity classes determined by the sigma theta method, Classes F
and G and other associated meteorological data are combined
into one class, which is designated F.
11.1.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
Besides the site-specific considerations to be made in
selecting the appropriate refined model and representative
meteorological input data, there are no known region-
specific variances for collecting meteorological data for
use in retined modeling analyses. No region-specific
variances have been identified; however, all future
variances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to
this compendium. Intormation on variances may become dated
rapidly. Thus, users should contact the regional EPA RPM
tor full details on current regional practices and
requirements.
11.1.3 INFORMATION SOURCES
The following references will be useful in providing
additional, detailed information on meteorological
monitoring.
Britter, R.E., and R.F. Griffiths. Dense Gas Dispersion.
New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. 1982.
Fleisher, M.T. Mitigation of Chemical Spills; An
Evaporation/Air Dispension Model for Critical Spills on
Land. Houston, Texas: Shell Development Co. 1980.
Garrett, A.J., and C.E. Murphy, Jr. A Puff-Plume
Atmospheric Deposition Model for Use at SRP in Emergency
11-19
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986. User's Network
for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution (UNAMAPT/Version 6
(Computer Programs on Magnetic Tape). NTIS No. PB 86-22361.
Springfield, Virginia: National Technical Information
Service. 1983.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Proposed Revision 1 to
Regulatory Guide 1.23, Meteorological Programs in Support of
Nuclear Power Plants. September 1980.
Weinberg, D.B., G.S. Goldman, and S.M. Briggum, 1983.
Hazardous Waste Regulation Handbook, A Practical Guide to
RCRA and Superfund. New York, New York: Executive Enter-
prises. 1983. (Authors are members of the law firm of
Wald, Harkrader, and Ross, Washington, D.C.)
11.2 OTHER METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS
11.2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides guidance for the site-specific
measurement of certain meteorological parameters used in
evaluating air releases from a hazardous waste site and in
determining the operation of various air sampling instrumen-
tation. These parameters include precipitation, relative
humidity/dew point, atmospheric pressure, incoming solar
radiation, soil temperature, evaporation, and visibility.
The procedures indicated in this subsection are applicable
for use during fieldwork at these sites. More detailed dis-
cussions are provided in the references listed in
Subsection 11.2.8.
11.2.2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions of key terms as they apply to this procedure are
provided below. Subsection 11.1.1.2 gives generic defini-
tions for this section.
Dew point temperature. The temperature to which a given
parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure and con-
stant water vapor content for water saturation to occur.
Incoming solar radiation. Also referred to as "insolation,"
the total eleqtromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun and
falling on the earth.
Relative humidity. The ratio (normally expressed in a
percentage) of the actual water vapor content of the atmo-
sphere to the amount of water vapor when the atmosphere is
saturated.
11-22
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978. Guideline on
Air Quality Models. DAQ PS No. 1.2-080. Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. April 1978.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 198Oa. OAQPS
Guideline Series, Guideline on Air Quality Models. Proposed
Revisions. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office
of Air Quality Planning and Standards. October. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980b. Ambient
Monitoring Guidelines for Prevention of Significant Deterio-
ration (PSD).EPA-450/4-80-012.Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. November 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981a. "National
Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards." Code
of Federal Regulations (40 CFR 81.344, amended through
October 22, 1981).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981b. Evaluation
Guidelines for Toxic Air Emissions from Land Disposal
Facilities. Washington, D.C.: Office of Solid Waste.
August 1981.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983. Quality
Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems,
Volume IV Meteorological MeasurementsEPA-600/4-82-060.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Environmental Moni-
toring Systems Laboratory. February 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984a. "Proposed
Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment; Request for Com-
ments (Part VII)." Federal Register (49 FR 46294-46301),
Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984b. "Proposed
Guidelines for Exposure Assessment; Request for Comments
(Part VIII)." Federal Register (49 FR 46304-46312),
Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984c. "Proposed
Guidelines for Mutagenicity Risk Assessment; Request for
Comments (Part IX)." Federal Register (49 FR 46314-46321),
Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984d. "Proposed
Guidelines for the Health Assessment of Suspect Develop-
mental Toxicants and Requests for Comments (Part X)."
Federal Register (49 FR 46324-46331). Number 227.
Washington, D.C. 23 November 1984.
11-21
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Depending on the level of validation and quality assurance
applied, additional records to be maintained could include
system design drawings, data review logs, data correction
logs, audit documents, instructions for data handling and
use, and so forth. The level of detail in these records
must support the quality assurance requirements, which are
to be established before making refined model analyses or
conducting air sampling programs.
11.2.6 PROCEDURES
11.2.6.1 Meteorological Data Collection
Collecting meteorological data in the field requires the
design of a system that addresses the project requirements
as well as the logistics regarding siting and operation.
Some required data are best collected from visual obser-
vations or other representative sources (e.g., NWS stations)
rather than from in situ sensors. In practice, acquiring
all of the meteorological data to meet program requirements
will often require some combination of all of these
collection techniques.
For parameters that are to be collected in the field,
monitor placement or siting is important. Monitor placement
is intended to site the sensors so that the measurements
made are representative of the conditions in the area of
interest. Depending on the complexity of the terrain in the
area of interest and the parameters being measured, more
than one measurement location may be required.
Discussions concerning the collection of various
meteorological parameters are presented below. Subsec-
tion 11.2.8 contains more specific guidance on siting,
equipment specifications and accuracies, and applications of
the parameters discussed below.
Precipitation
Description. The recording gauge is the primary
precipitation monitor for use in air quality assessments.
Recording gauges not only provide the total precipitation
but measure the time of the beginning and ending of the pre-
cipitation and the rate of fall. There are two basic types
of recording gauges—the weighing gauge and the tipping
bucket gauge. Both can record liquid or frozen precipita-
tion. Frozen precipitation is usually melted by some type
of heating device incorporated into the gauge design. The
weighing gauge, which is less precise than the tipping
bucket type, normally incorporates a collector bucket and a
drum-type recorder. As precipitation fills the bucket, the
increasing weight moves a pen across the recorder, indicat-
ing the total amount. The tipping bucket-type directs the
11-24
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11.2.3 APPLICABILITY
The collection of site-specific meteorological data, other
than those parameters required for dispersion model analy-
ses, may be necessary for evaluating air releases from haz-
ardous waste sites and for determining the operation of
various air sampling instrumentation. The level of sophis-
tication in the design of the meteorological monitoring pro-
gram depends on how the particular data are applied. These
data primarily support other activities associated with a
hazardous waste site investigation (e.g., operating air
sampling instruments, interpreting air sampling results,
determining volatilization and vaporization rates of hazard-
ous substances into the air). The applicability of each
parameter to other activities is discussed in
Subsection 11.2.6.1.
11.2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Project meteorologist—This person is responsible for the
collection of site-specific meteorological data and/or
selection of representative meteorological parameters from
other data sources. The project meteorologist, using input
from project management, technical personnel, and appropri-
ate regulatory agencies, will design the measurement pro-
gram; oversee data collection, validation, and quality
assurance procedures; and maintain records that document
these activities. In addition, the project meteorologist
will provide any meteorological data required by other
program personnel involved in the air sampling program or in
the analysis of those results.
Field engineer—This person is responsible for installation,
calibration, maintenance, and decommissioning of the
designed program, and for maintaining records that document
these activities.
11.2.5 RECORDS
Maintenance of records of the meteorological data collection
program is required for validation purposes and future use
in air quality assessments. These records include not only
the data themselves (data can be recorded on an analog strip
for future data reduction, digitally on hard copy such as a
printer, or digitally on a magnetic tape) but also appro-
priate calibration and operational logs. These logs
document activities that are performed on the instrumenta-
tion for future use in validation. Selection and determina-
tion of the representativeness of meteorological parameters,
if applicable, should be documented.
11-23
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Applicability. Values of atmospheric humidity (relative
humidity can be calculated from the dew point temperature
and ambient dry bulb temperature) are used to determine
vaporization or evaporation rates of volatile compounds.
Relative humidity is also important in an air sampling pro-
gram, because it can indicate the efficiency of certain fil-
ters in collecting various chemical compounds.
Atmospheric Pressure
Description. Atmospheric pressure is measured with
barometers that operate with different types of sensors.
Analog signal-output barometers that are used in the field
sense variations in pressure primarily with aneroid (or bel-
lows) cells that flex as the pressure changes. Other types
of barometers use techniques such as capacitors, which
change in electrical characteristics as the pressure
changes. Most of these barometers can attain a ±0.5 milli-
bar accuracy or better, which is adequate for hazardous
waste site applications.
Atmospheric pressure can also be obtained using handheld
aneroid barometers, which use a dial readout or a micro-
barograph that uses a direct mechanical readout on a chart.
Both of these barometers provide sufficient resolution
(1.0 millibar graduations or better). Atmospheric pressures
for different averaging times are not easily provided with
the handheld barometer since these barometers would provide
only "instantaneous" values. Since barometric pressure is a
conservative parameter (i.e., variations with time are
normally small), this pressure may not be a major consid-
eration. Pressure measurements should be made near ground
level and should reflect the outside pressure at the mea-
surement location. Another source of atmospheric pressure
is from a representative NWS station. The NWS can provide
actual station pressure or pressure corrected to sea level
tor station elevation.
Applicability. Atmospheric pressure is used to calculate
vaporization or evaporation rates of chemical compounds.
Pressure is also used in an air sampling program to deter-
mine flowrates for sampling pumps (see Subsection 11.4.6).
Both ot these applications require the station pressure, not
a value corrected for elevation.
Incoming Solar Radiation
Description. Incoming solar radiation (insolation) is
measured with instruments known as pyranometers. These
instruments measure the solar radiation received from the
hemispherical part of the atmosphere it sees. The pyrano-
meter is mounted near ground level facing toward the sun's
11-26
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falling precipitation into buckets that tilt with each
0.01 inches of precipitation. The motion of the buckets
causes a mercury switch closure. Each closure is indicated
on a counter or recorder. The selected gauge should record
precipitation totals with a resolution of 0.01 inches and an
accuracy of ±10 percent. Measurements should be made near
ground level and away from obstacles that could cause a
nonrepresentative value.
Applicability. Precipitation measurements can be used as
input to complex air quality dispersion models that can
account for pollutant plume depletion by precipitation
scavenging (i.e., pollutant washout). Care must be taken in
applying precipitation data in this manner to assure that
the measurements are representative of the area of interest.
This care is necessary because precipitation, especially
over short periods of time (e.g., 1 hour to 24 hours), tends
to be variable over relatively short distances. If such an
application is required, the project meteorologist needs to
evaluate other available data sources or to expand the moni-
toring program by establishing a precipitation monitoring
network that will satisfy the model input requirements.
Precipitation measurements can also be used as a basis for
examining groundwater and surface water migration of pollu-
tants by leaching through soil and runoff.
Relative Humidity/Dew Point
A wide range of sensors is available to monitor relative
humidity or dew point. Instrument types vary from handheld
sling psychrometers to sensitive electronic units that use
an optical chilled-mirror technique. Some of these monitors
provide relative humidity directly, and others provide dew
point directly. For recording systems in the field, rela-
tive humidity sensors that incorporate a capacitor (the
electrical characteristics of which vary with humidity or
hygroscopic materials that undergo dimensional changes from
absorption of moisture) have been used. Dew point sensors
using the chilled-mirror technique, or sensors that undergo
chemical changes because absorption or adsorption of mois-
ture, are commonly used. The dew point sensors are gen-
erally more reliable and accurate. Dew point or relative
humidity monitoring equipment should be installed with the
same considerations given to temperature measurements (see
Subsection 11.1.2.6.2). The height of the measurement
should be based on the program requirements, but care should
be taken to avoid any nonrepresentative near-ground effects.
The accuracy of the selected system should be contingent on
the project requirements and applications. The reader
should refer to the manufacturer's literature to determine
appropriate accuracies and measurement limitations.
11-25
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Visibility
Description. A wide variety of instrumentation is available
to measure visibility in the field. Some of these instru-
ments were developed for use in aviation while others were
developed specifically for air pollution applications.
Instruments such as nephelometers and transmissometers are
simple to use in the field, but detailed calculations are
required to convert their readings to meaningful values for
visibility. Other instruments such as telephotometers are
more difficult to use and, like nephelometers and trans-
missometers, require calculations for visibility
determinations.
Studies have shown that the more subjective method of
observing visibility with the human eye provides results
comparable to the tield instruments.
Use of the human eye to determine visibility is based on
observing techniques of the NWS. In its simplest form, the
technique for using the human eye is to select markers at
various distances in the direction(s) of interest, determine
the distance of these markers from the observation point,
and then estimate visibility by noting which markers can be
seen. The distance at which the markers are placed and the
separation distance depend on the project requirements and
the availability ot objects that can serve as markers.
Visibility markers should be at least 1/2 degree in angular
size. (The object, when held at arm's length, will fill a
5/16-inch diameter hole.) Daytime markers should be dark,
while nighttime markers should be unfocused lights of
moderate intensity.
Applicability. Visibility measurements can indicate the
relative impact on visual impairment of pollutant releases
to the atmosphere.
11.2.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances are known to exist tor the
measurement of the meteorological parameters discussed in
this subsection; however, any future variances will be
incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium.
Because information on variances may become dated rapidly,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details
on current regional practices and requirements.
11.2.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
More detailed information concerning measurements and
applications of the meteorological parameters discussed in
this subsection are listed below:
11-28
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zenith. Care should be taken to avoid possible local inter-
ference from nearby obstructions that could block the incom-
ing solar radiation (i.e., there should be no shadows).
Logistics of the measurements dictate daily inspections and
data validation. Accuracy requirements should be based on
the final application of the data.
Applicability. Normally, solar radiation measurements are
secondary to wind and temperature measurements in air
quality evaluations. The solar radiation data can be
directly related to atmospheric stability. Existing stan-
dard air quality models do not currently use measured solar
radiation data. Models to compute rates of chemical volati-
zation or vaporization may use solar radiation data
quantitatively.
Soil Temperature
Soil temperatures can be measured with any of the
temperature sensors discussed in Subsection 11.1.2.6. A
representative surface temperature of the soil into which a
contaminant has been deposited should be determined. The
depth at which this measurement should be made varies with
soil type. Typically, a measurement of 1 to 5 cm depth is
used. Care must be exercised to not disturb the soil when
making the measurement.
Applicability. Soil temperature measurements are used to
determine vaporization rates ot chemicals spilled on the
ground surface.
Evaporation Data
The measurement of evaporation in the field is a difficult
and imperfect procedure. Most measurements involve the same
type ot instrumentation used by the NWS, a Class A evapora-
tion pan. This pan is mounted near the ground on supports,
and measurements of water loss are made routinely. These
pans must be carefully maintained and monitored. Instead ot
obtaining these data onsite, it would be preferable to
obtain the information from a representative NWS station
that makes these measurements or to calculate climatological
average values with any of several equations available.
Applicability. These data can indicate evaporation from
lagoons or ponds (and hence a source term) although the
relationship between the evaporation rate of the liquid with
the chemical makeup of the lagoon or pond compared to that
of the pan must be considered. In addition, the relation-
ship between the pan evaporation and evaporation over a
larger water body must be considered. Long-term evaporation
data, along with precipitation data from representative
sources, can also indicate the potential for contaminants to
leach to groundwater.
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Air Pollution Control Association. Proceedings, View on
Visibility—Regulatory and Scientific. November 1979.
Bruce, J.P., and R.H. Clark. Introduction to
Hydrometeorology. New York: Pergamon Press. 1969.
Fritschen, L.J., and L.W. Gay. Environmental
Instrumentation. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1979.
Thibodeaux, L.J. Chemodynamics, Environmental Movement of
Chemicals in Air, Water, and Soil. New York: John Wiley
and Sons. 1979.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Quality Assurance
Handbook tor Air Pollution Measurement Systems; Volume IV,
Meteorological Measurements.EPA-600/4-82-060.Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina: Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory. February 1983.
11.3 AIR QUALITY
Air quality measurements employ a number of instruments and
techniques. Section 15 of this compendium discusses a num-
ber of the more commonly used direct-reading field
instruments. This subsection discusses the general air and
gas sampling methods for determining air quality.
11.3.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection applies to field air quality monitoring and
air sampling activities related to site characterization
activities. It describes the methods and equipment neces-
sary for real-time air quality monitoring in the field, and
for collecting air samples for laboratory analysis. With
regard to site characterization activities, real-time moni-
toring will help in selection of sampling locations and
screening of samples (e.g., screening of split-barrel sam-
plers to select samples for laboratory analysis). Real-time
monitoring is also used for health and safety purposes. Air
samples collected for laboratory analysis can be used for
characterizing the atmospheric transport of contaminants and
for risk assessment.
11.3.2 DEFINITIONS
Continuous monitoring instrument. An instrument that gives
quantified measurements of the concentration of usually only
one specific pollutant (e.g., CO, H2S, SO2) on a real-time
basis. A variety of instruments can be used for this pur-
pose, including GC, UV, and IR devices.
11-29
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Detector tubes. Small glass tubes filled with solid
adsorbents, such as silica gel, activated alumina, or inert
granules, and impregnated with detecting chemicals through
which air is aspirated at a controlled rate. The detector
chemical undergoes a color change in the presence of the
contaminant; the contaminant concentration is proportional
to the intensity of color change, or the length of the
stain. Detector tubes are also known variously as
"colorimetric tubes" or "indicator tubes."
Direct reading instruments (DRIs). Instrumentation
operating on flame-ionization, photoionization, or infrared
principles providing real-time readings of ambient contami-
nants, usually in parts per million in air.
FID meter. A portable air monitoring instrument (e.g.,
OVA-128) that operates by flame-ionization detection (see
Section 15).
PIP meter. A portable air monitoring instrument (e.g., HNU
PI-101) that operates by photoionization detection (see
Section 15).
Representative sampling. Sampling over a fixed period of
time, usually 8 to 24 hours, using a sorbent medium (for
volatiles) or filter (for particulate material) to determine
the representative concentration of a contaminant in the air
volume sampled.
Sorbent sampling medium. A material that quantitatively
adsorbs volatile or semi-volatile organic compounds from air
passing through the medium. These compounds are desorbed in
the laboratory (using solvents or thermally) and analyzed.
Commonly used sorbent media include Tenax, XAD resins, and
activated carbon.
11.3.3 RESPONSIBILITIES
Site Manager. The SM is responsible for determining the
need for, and scope of, an air monitoring and sampling
program. ,
Field team leader. This person is responsible for
implementing the air monitoring program as it is detailed in
the work plan and Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP) for
the specific site. Air monitoring requirements may be
included in both the work plan and the site-specific health
and safety plan. In the case of air monitoring for health
and safety requirements, the site safety officer has a lead
role in evaluating the data and taking required action as
detailed in the health and safety plan.
11-30
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11.3.4 PROCEDURES
11.3.4.1 Introduction
The purpose of air and gas sampling is to define the
concentration of airborne contaminants in a discrete air
mass. Because of the wide spectrum of measurement tech-
nology and expense of instrumentation, it is critical to
clearly define the data quality objectives of the air
sampling program. Key considerations are pollutant(s) of
interest, turnaround time required for results, sampling
frequency, degree of measurement accuracy required, and the
level of quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) documen-
tation required for the intended use of the data.
An initial screening program should be included during site
reconnaissance activities for sites that may have signifi-
cant onsite levels and/or offsite transport of airborne con-
taminants. This screening will help to refine or redefine
the air monitoring requirements for the remedial response
activities. The screening would be accomplished using an
FID (e.g., OVA), PID (e.g., HNU), and possibly air sampling
pumps and/or detector tubes. The results of the screening
will provide input to the site safety plan and help in
selecting the proper site and the number of sampling
locations.
Continuous air monitoring is performed by drawing air
samples continuously from one or more fixed sampling points.
The analyzing instrument may be located at or very near the
point of air aspiration or may be several hundred feet from
the sampling locations.
When long sampling lines are used, transport time to the
analyzer must be taken into account when relating the con-
tamination episodes near the sample point to the real-time
analytical record reported at the analytical instrument.
Similarly, it should be noted that if the analyzer draws
samples successively from several sampling points, important
contaminant-releasing events could be missed if sampling was
not occurring from the nearest sampling point at the moment
of release.
Analytical instrumentation for continuous monitoring may use
fixed- or variable-wave-length UV, IR spectrographic,
flame-ionization, or electrochemical detection principles.
Fixed-site analytical devices for continuous sampling may
require AC power, weatherproof housing, climate control, and
various laboratory-grade compressed gases.
Fixed-site continuous monitoring is expensive and uses
complex analytical equipment. Monitoring may be used to
11-31
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provide the detailed input necessary for atmospheric
simulation modeling or may provide an early emergency
warning and/or a legal record when extremely toxic
contaminants or sensitive community relations are involved
at the site.
Representative air sampling is subdivided into two general
categories: gaseous and particulate. The two principal
methods for gaseous sample collection are adsorption of the
compounds of interest onto sorbent media (such as Tenax,
activated carbon, or XAD resin) through which a metered vol-
ume of gas has been passed, or collection of a gas sample in
a bag constructed of nonreactive material such as Mylar. In
all cases using sorbent media, two tubes must be linked in
series to evaluate breakthrough from the first tube in the
series. Tables of breakthrough values for most common
volatile organics are available from the sorbent suppliers;
if the concentration in the first tube approaches a break-
through value, the second tube should be analyzed. Alter-
nately, a two-phase tube with tandem sorbent media may be
used.
Use of sorbent media for air sampling is further described
below. Particulate (aerosol) sampling is generally per-
formed using a high-flow pump (about 2 liters per minute) to
which a filter assemble is attached. Commonly, filters with
0.8 micron average pore size are used. Calibration and use
of air sampling pumps are described in Subsection 11.3.4.3.
11.3.4.2 Air Monitoring
Air monitoring is used to help establish criteria for worker
safety, to document potential exposures, to determine pro-
tective measures for the public, to evaluate the environ-
mental impact of the site, and to determine mitigation
activities. An effective air surveillance program, tailored
to meet the conditions ±ound at each work site, must be
established to accomplish these tasks.
Air contaminant data, including any changes that occur, are
needed during site operations. Surveillance for vapors,
gases, and particulates is accomplished using DRIs and air
sampling systems. DRIs can be used to detect many organics
and a few inorganics and to provide approximate total con-
centrations. If specific organics (and inorganics) have
been identified, then DRIs calibrated to those materials can
be used for more accurate onsite assessment.
The most accurate method for evaluating any air contaminant
is to collect samples and analyze them at a reliable labo-
ratory. Although accurate, this method has two disadvan-
tages: the cost and the time required to obtain results.
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Analyzing large numbers of samples in laboratories is very
expensive, especially if results are wanted quickly. Onsite
laboratories tend to reduce the turnaround time, but unless
they can analyze other types of samples, they also are
costly. In emergencies, time is often not available for
laboratory analysis of samples either onsite or offsite.
To obtain air monitoring data rapidly at the site, site
operations may include instruments using flame-ionization
detectors (FIDs), photoionization detectors (PIDs), and
other similar instruments. This equipment may be used as
survey instruments (total concentration mode) or operated as
gas chromatographs (gas chromatograph mode). As gas
chromatographs, these instruments can provide real-time
qualitative/quantitative data when calibrated with standards
of known air contaminants. Combined with selective labo-
ratory analysis of samples, they provide a tool for evaluat-
ing airborne organic hazards on a real-time basis, at a
lower cost than analyzing all samples in a laboratory.
11.3.4.3 Air Sampling
For more complete information about air contaminants,
measurements obtained with DRIs must be supplemented by col-
lecting and analyzing air samples. To assess air contami-
nants more thoroughly, air sampling devices equipped with
appropriate collection media are placed at various locations
throughout the area. These samples provide air quality
information for the period of time they operate; they can
indicate contaminant types and concentrations over the
entire period of site operations. As data are obtained
(from the analysis of samples, DRIs, knowledge about mate-
rials involved, site operations, and potential for airborne
toxic hazards), adjustments are made in the type of samples,
number of samples collected, frequency of sampling, and
analysis required. In addition to air samplers, area
sampling stations may also include DRIs equipped with
recorders and operated as continuous air monitors. Area
sampling stations may be located in various places, as
dictated by project and site needs:
o Upwind. Because many hazardous incidents occur
near industries or highways that generate air pol-
lutants, samples may be taken upwind of the site
to establish background levels of air
contaminants.
o Support zone. Samples may be taken near the
command post or other support facilities to ensure
that they are in fact located in a clean area, and
that the area remains clean throughout operations
at the site.
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o Contamination reduction zone. Air samples may be
collected along the decontamination line to ensure
that decontamination workers are properly protect-
ed and that onsite workers are not removing their
respiratory protective gear in a contaminated
area.
o Exclusion zone. The exclusion zone represents the
greatest risk of exposure to chemicals and
requires the most air sampling. The location of
sampling stations should be based upon hot-spots
detected by DRIs, types of substances present, and
potential for airborne contaminants. The data
from these stations, in conjunction with intermit-
tent walk-around surveys with DRIs, are used to
verify the selection of proper levels of worker
protection and exclusion zone boundaries, as well
as to provide a continual record of air
contaminants.
o Downwind. One or more sampling stations may be
located downwind from the site to indicate if any
air contaminants are leaving the site. If there
are indications of airborne hazards in populated
areas, additional samplers should be placed
downwind.
11.3.4.4 Media for Collecting Air Samples
Remedial response activities concerning hazardous material,
especially those activities conducted on abandoned waste
sites, involve thousands of potentially dangerous sub-
stances—gases, vapors, and aerosols—that could become air-
borne. A variety of media—liquids and solids—are used to
collect these substances. Sampling systems typically
include a calibrated air sampling pump that draws air into
selected collection media. Some of the most common types of
samples and their collection media are described next.
Organic vapors. Activated carbon is an excellent adsorbent
for most organic vapors. However, other solid adsorbents
(such as Tenax, silica gel, and Florisil) are routinely used
to sample specific organic compounds or classes of compounds
that do not adsorb or desorb well on activated carbon. To
avoid stocking a large number of sorbents for all substances
anticipated, a smaller number—chosen for collecting the
widest range of materials or for substances known to be
present—is generally used. The vapors are collected using
an industrial hygiene personal sampling pump with either one
sampling port or a manifold capable of simultaneously col-
lecting samples on several sorbent tubes—tor example, a
manitold with four sorbent tubes (or individual pumps with
varying flowrates). The tubes might contain the following:
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o Activated carbon to collect vapors of materials
with a boiling point above zero degrees Centigrade
(0°C). These materials include most odorous
organic substances (such as solvent vapors).
o A porous polymer (such as Tenax or Chromosorb) to
collect substances (such as high-molecular-weight
nydrocarbons, organophosphorous compounds, and
vapors of certain pesticides) that adsorb poorly
onto activated carbon. Some of these porous
polymers also adsorb organic materials at low
ambient temperatures more efficiently than carbon.
o A polar sorbent (such as silica gel) to collect
organic vapors (such as aromatic amines) that
exhibit a relatively high dipole moment.
o Another specialty adsorbent selected for the
specific site. For example, a Florisil tube could
be used if polychlorinated biphenyls are expected.
Inorganic gases. The inorganic gases present at an incident
would primarily be polar compounds such as the haloacid
gases. These gases can be adsorbed onto silica gel tubes
and analyzed by ion chromatography. Impingers filled with
selected liquid reagents can also be used.
Aerosols. Aerosols (solid or liquid particulates) that may
be encountered at an incident include contaminated and non-
contaminated soil particles, heavy-metal particulates, pes-
ticide dusts, and droplets of organic or inorganic liquids.
An effective method for sampling these materials is to col-
lect them on a particulate filter (such as a glass fiber or
membrane-type filter). A backup impinger filled with a
selected absorbing solution may also be necessary.
Other methods. Colorimetric detector tubes can also be used
with a sampling pump when monitoring for some specific com-
pounds.' Passive organic vapor monitors can be substituted
for the active system described if passive monitors are
available for the types of materials suspected to be present
at a given site.
Information resource. The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH) Manual of Analyt-
ical Methods, Volumes 1-7, contains acceptable methods for
collecting and analyzing air samples tor a variety of chemi-
cal substances. The reader should consult it for specific
procedures.
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11.3.4.5 Collection and Analysis
Samples are analyzed to determine the types and quantities
of substances present. The following paragraphs provide
additional guidance on sample collection and analysis.
Aerosols. Samples tor aerosols should be taken at a
relatively high flowrate (generally about 2 liters per
minute) using a standard industrial hygiene pump and filter
assembly. To collect particulates, a membrane filter having
a 0.8 micrometer pore size is common. The sample can be
weighed to determine total particulates, then analyzed
destructively or nondestructively for metals. If the metals
analysis is done nondestructively or if the filter is sec-
tioned, additional analysis (for exampler organics, inorgan-
ics, and optical particle sizing) can be performed.
Sorbent samples. The sorbent material chosen, the amount
used, and the sample volume will vary according to the types
and concentrations of substances anticipated at a particular
site. Polar sorbent material, such as silica gel, will col-
lect polar substances that are not adsorbed well onto
activated carbon and some of the porous polymers. The
silica gel sample can be split and analyzed for the haloacid
gases and aromatic amines.
Activated carbon and porous polymers will collect a wide
range of compounds. Exhaustive analysis to identify and
quantify all the collected species is prohibitively expen-
sive at any laboratory and technically difficult for a field
laboratory. Therefore, samples should be analyzed for prin-
cipal hazardous constituents (PHCs). The selection of PHCs
is based on the types of materials anticipated at a given
site, on generator's records, and on information collected
during the initial site survey. To aid in the selection of
PHCs, a sample could be collected on activated carbon or
porous polymer during the initial site survey and could be
exhaustively analyzed offsite to identify the major peaks
within selected categories. This one thorough analysis,
along with what is already known about a particular site,
could provide enough information to select PHCs. Standards
of PHCs could then be prepared and used to calibrate instru-
ments used for field analysis of samples. Subsequent rou-
tine offsite analysis could be limited to scanning only for
PHCs, thereby saving both time and money. Special
adsorbents and sampling conditions can be used for specific
PHCs, if desired, while continued multimedia sampling will
provide a base for analysis of additional PHCs that may be
identified during the course of cleanup operations.
Other sample techniques involve the extraction or desorption
of various solid sorbents. While many NIOSH analytical
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methods are available for a variety of individual compounds,
the most useful methods in remedial response investigation
involve some form of gas chromatography coupled with mass
spectrophotometry identification (GC/MS).
The main advantage to GC/MS is the relatively high qualita-
tive accuracy obtainable when looking for specific com-
pounds. In addition, unexpected compounds can be identified
by comparing sample mass chromatograms to the National
Bureau of Standards' standard mass chromatograms. While
this method is not infallible, it is very useful in identi-
fying organic vapors at hazardous waste sites.
In addition, when using sorbent tubes, it is wise to check a
certain number of traps to assure that they are not chan-
neled or plugged, which would affect collection efficiency.
This activity is accomplished by checking pressure drop
across the trap.
Passive dosimeters. A less traditional method of sampling
is the use of passive dosimeters. The few dosimeters now
available are only for gases and vapors. Passive dosimeters
are used primarily to monitor personal exposure, but they
can be used to monitor areas. Passive monitors are divided
into two groups:
o Diffusion samplers. Molecules move across a
concentration gradient, usually achieved within a
stagnant layer of air, between the contaminated
atmosphere and the indicator material.
o Permeation devices. These devices rely on the
natural permeation of a contaminant through a mem-
brane. A suitable membrane is selected that is
easily permeated by the contaminant of interest
and impermeable to all others. Permeation dosi-
meters are, therefore, useful in picking out a
single contaminant from a mixture of possible
interfering contaminants.
Some passive dosimeters may be read directly, as are DRIs
and colorimetric length-of-stain tubes. Others require lab-
oratory analysis similar to that for solid sorbents.
11.3.4.6 Personnel Monitoring
In addition to area atmosphere sampling, personnel
monitoring, both active and passive, can be used to sample
for air contaminants. Representative workers are equipped
with personal samplers to indicate contaminants at specific
locations or for specific work being done. Placed on work-
ers, generally within 1 foot of the mouth and nose (breath-
ing zone), the monitors indicate the potential for the
worker to inhale the contaminant.
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11.3.4.7 Calibration
As a rule, the total air sampling system should be
calibrated, rather than the pump alone. Proper calibration
is essential for correct operation and for accurate inter-
pretation of resultant data. As a minimum, the system
should be calibrated before and after use. The overall
frequency of calibration will depend on the general handling
and use of a given sampling system. Pump mechanisms should
be recalibrated after repair, when newly purchased, and fol-
lowing suspected abuse.
11.3.4.8 Meteorological Considerations
Meteorological information is an integral part of an air
surveillance program. Data concerning wind speed and direc-
tion, temperature, barometric pressure, and humidity, singu-
larly or in combination, are needed for the following:
o Selecting air sampling locations
o Calculating air dispersion
o Calibrating instruments
o Determining population at risk or environmental
exposure from airborne contaminants
Knowledge of wind speed and direction is necessary to
effectively place air samplers. In source-oriented ambient
air sampling, samplers need to be located at different dis-
tances downwind of the source and other samplers need to be
placed to collect background samples. Shifts in wind direc-
tion must be known, and samplers must then be relocated or
corrections must be made for the shifts. In addition, atmo-
spheric simulation models for predicting contaminant disper-
sion and concentration need wind speed and direction as
inputs for predictive calculations. Information may be
needed concerning the frequency and intensity with which
winds blow from certain directions (windrose data); conse-
quently, the wind direction must be continually monitored
when use of this type of data is contemplated.
Air sampling systems need to be calibrated before use, and
corrections in the calibration curves should be made for
temperature and pressure. After sampling, sampled air vol-
umes are also corrected for temperature and pressure varia-
tions. This requires knowledge of air temperature and
pressure.
Air sampling is sometimes designed to assess population
exposure (and frequently potential worker exposure). Air
samplers are generally located in population centers irre-
spective of wind direction. Even in these instances, how-
ever, meteorological data are needed for air dispersion
modeling. Models are then used to preduct or verify
population-oriented sampling results.
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Proper data are collected by having meteorological stations
onsite or by contacting one or more of several government or
private organizations that routinely collect such data. The
choice of an information gathering method depends on the
availability of reliable data at the location desired, the
resources needed to obtain meteorological equipment, the
degree of accuracy of information needed, and the use of
information.
11.3.5 INFORMATION SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating
Safety Guides. November 1984.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Manual of Analytical Methods. Vols. 1-7. April 1977
through August 1981.
WDR225/003
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Section 12
BIOLOGY/ECOLOGY
12.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 12 discusses the general types of field and
laboratory activities that can be used to assess biological
or ecological impacts resulting from remedial response
activities at a hazardous waste site.
This section is divided into four basic components:
(1) introductory remarks about biological and ecological
evaluations of hazardous waste sites (Subsections 12.1
through 12.6.2); (2) a summary of the methods and
applications that have been used to date, and their limita-
tions; (3) a list of references to lead a user to more
details about methods (Subsection 12.8); and (4) Appen-
dix 12A, which shows additional details on methods. The
information sources subsection provides a partial list of
methods sources that users should refer to if the site
conditions or the questions being asked do not appear to be
compatible with the methods described herein. The reader
may also refer to "Standard Practice for Conducting Acute
Toxicity Tests with Fishes, Macroinvertebrates, and
Amphibians," ASTM Designation E 729-80, pages 285-309, by
the American Society for Testing and Materials.
For purposes of this discussion, the greatest emphasis in
Section 12 is placed on terrestrial habitats and the lowest
emphasis is placed on marine habitats. Aquatic (freshwater)
habitats are given intermediate emphasis because of the gen-
eral pattern of hazardous waste site locations. To date,
marine hazardous waste sites or sites associated with marine
areas have been near the shore, generally in shallow water
areas. Many of the study techniques described for aquatic
(freshwater) studies will also work in marine areas.
In summary, this section is a compendium of past biological
and limited ecological work that has been requested at haz-
ardous waste sites. It includes other suggested methods
that may work in some varying situations.
12.2 DEFINITIONS
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
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All other terms in Section 12 are in common use. If a term
is unfamiliar, the user should check the glossary.
12.3 APPLICABILITY
The information in this section is applicable to those
hazardous waste sites in which the SM determines the need
for such studies (see Subsection 12.4). Biological,
especially ecological, investigations have not been a major
requirement of remedial response activities in the past;
however, requirements may change as more sophisticated
evaluations of environmental impacts are required at
selected sites.
Detailed biological or ecological studies are not always
required. If other studies define the onsite and offsite
contaminant migration patterns, this information may be ade-
quate for the analysis and completion of remedial actions.
However, the fact that some stated criterion (usually for
single parameters) for a contaminant is or is not exceeded
does not always result in an observable impact on biological
systems. The biological impact projection process is made
complex by contaminants that are often a mix of parameters,
which may also vary in space and/or time. Single parameters
may not exceed any known criterion; yet an impact may still
be possible from such complex mixtures. Biological and eco-
logical site investigations may be triggered in situations
where questions exist about the presence or absence of mea-
surable impacts both onsite and offsite.
Biomonitoring can be conducted to better determine whether
the substances detected in soil, sediment, air, and water
analyses are affecting or could affect natural systems
either directly or through food chain accumulation and, if
an impact is possible, what risk there might be to humans.
There are two major types of biomonitoring: ecological sur-
veys and individual assays. Ecological surveys involve
comparing various ecological parameters, such as species
diversity or abundance, in a reference or control site with
the same parameters in an affected area. Individual assays
include measuring tissue levels of contaminants in organisms
collected on or near the site and from reference areas, as
well as performing bioassays using site materials or leach-
ates to test for toxicity and bioconcentration in various
standard organisms. The determination of contaminant levels
in the tissues of organisms that are consumed by humans can
assist in human health risk assessment.
Control or reference areas are not necessarily considered to
be free from any type of contamination, but rather these
areas provide information on local background or ambient
levels of contamination.
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Because of project schedule and reference area constraints
and because of the importance of immediate public health
concerns, detailed ecological surveys have not often been
conducted. Some limited ecological surveys, which focused
on a segment of the community such as aquatic invertebrates,
have been used to examine possible offsite contaminant
migration. Biota tissue analysis and bioassays, both in
situ and in the laboratory, have been the primary types of
biological surveys conducted on hazardous waste sites.
12.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM determines the need for biological and ecological
surveys and tasks the necessary personnel to execute the
study.
12.5 RECORDS
Field observations are kept in bound notebooks with numbered
pages. Entries are initialed by the notetaker. Laboratory
data are recorded on the appropriate forms and in logs.
Photographs are recorded in the field notebook; the reader
should see also Sections 6 and 17 of this compendium.
12.6 PROCEDURES
The following discussions describe the types of biological
field sampling techniques and laboratory analyses that have
been used or are being used in biological or ecological
assessments of hazardous waste sites.
12.6.1 PRESENCE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
To determine site contaminants of concern, the project staff
should review the results of soil, sediment, groundwater,
and surface water testing and should list the priority pol-
lutants present in these media. Then they should review
data and make a final listing of onsite pollutants. The
data should be compared to applicable or relevant and appro-
priate requirements, such as state and federal drinking
water standards, and to ambient water quality criteria that
have been established to protect either human health or
aquatic systems. The methodology to use in this comparison
is described in EPA's Draft Superfund Public Health Eval-
uation Manual (1985b), which focuses on human health pro-
tection. However, if the goal of the project is to protect
aquatic ecosystems, emphasis should be placed on EPA's ambi-
ent water quality criteria as well.
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Project personnel need to clearly define the overall
objectives of the site sampling program, which includes
physical parameter sampling, before designing the overall
field sampling program. If a biological or ecological study
is made at the site, an environmental scientist must become
involved early in the determination of initial physical
parameters for the field sampling program and for any subse-
quent sampling programs. Biological or ecological studies
often cannot be redesigned around the physical parameter of
sampling programs that are intended for other purposes.
Site Managers should note that an increase in parameter
testing or a requirement for lower detection limits to allow
comparison to water quality criteria can dramatically
increase study costs. For example, aquatic life criteria
for chromium are set separately for the two chromium spe-
cies, chromium VI and chromium III (EPA, 1980a and 1985a).
Data on total chromium are not adequate to determine whether
criteria have been exceeded. The cost increases for addi-
tional analyses may have to fit into available budgets. In
some cases, added costs for better biological and ecological
assessments will be at the expense of other studies. There-
fore, biological and ecological studies must be well thought
out and must justify the added time and the costs required
to complete them. Overall data quality objectives must be
able to justify these added costs.
If the decision is made to complete these increased
parameter tests, the laboratory that analyzes the samples
needs to know the detection levels and the types of test
results required for a comparison to standards and criteria.
Possible goals of conducting biological field studies are
(1) to detect differences between biological parameters at
the site and those at a reference location, (2) to detect
biological contamination, or (3) to quantify risks to humans
from contamination of an important food web. It is impor-
tant that the goals of the study are clearly identified
before developing a sample plan. The location and number of
sample collection sites, experimental procedures, and ana-
lytical techniques are chosen to achieve the goals of the
study plan.
Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements relate
primarily to air quality and water quality (EPA, 1985b).
Soil standards or criteria have not been determined,
although EPA is developing soil cleanup guidance. The lev-
els of soil contaminants that are of concern to ecological
systems can be determined by comparing data to background
levels or to state or federal cleanup levels or by using a
model to determine potential migration levels of soil con-
taminants into groundwater. Cleanup levels, too, are often
based on protection of groundwater systems. In some cases,
12-4
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this criterion may not be totally appropriate, because
direct contact with surface or subsurface soils or volatiles
can also have an impact on ecosystems.
12.6.2 FIELD COLLECTION TECHNIQUES—GENERAL
12.6.2.1 Field Sampling Program Development
After the pollutants of concern have been identified, their
probable transport routes or possible human or biota expo-
sure routes are determined by studying the chemical and
physical properties of the pollutant (e.g., octanol/water
partition coefficient, solubility, volatility) and by iden-
tifying site characteristics that assist in the transport of
the chemicals (e.g., topography, wind, groundwater aquifers,
surface water drainages, stormwater runoff patterns).
Important factors for the analysis of general ecological
system impacts are (1) frequency and degree of exposure,
(2) persistence of the material, (3) substrate composition,
(4) geographic location, and (5) sensitivity of the habitat
exposed and species present. Additional factors that are
important in the aquatic system are water depth, velocity
and discharge rate, and range in natural water quality
parameters at the time of exposure. Other factors important
in analyzing terrestrial system impacts include the physical
and chemical nature of soil and the nature of vegetation,
especially plant rooting depth.
Once the nature of the contaminants of concern is better
understood, the first step is to develop the field study
program. Several preliminary activities are necessary in
the evaluation of both the general biological and ecological
survey to be conducted onsite and the specific field
sampling program. These activities include (1) an infor-
mation search, (2) a preliminary site survey, and (3) iden-
tification of site-specific issues of concern.
An initial information search is conducted to identify the
following types of data:
o Prior uses of the site including a chronology of
events
o Date of last activity onsite
o Any biological and ecological surveys available on
the study area and the immediate vicinity
o Species used locally for human consumption and the
degree of such usage
o Species most likely present
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o The most appropriate sampling method for the
species of interest that is also permitted by law
o Appropriate identification keys for species to be
sampled
o Background levels of contaminants of concern in
soils, water, and biota
o Research on the contaminants of concern as to
known effects on local biota or related species
Additional information is obtained on any nearby habitat or
any species of special concern such as rare, threatened, or
endangered species (both federal and state lists). Possible
sources of the above information include state or local game
and fishery agencies; conservation agencies; state or local
agricultural agencies; and local college or university
departments such as the biology, ecology, forestry, or
fishery departments. Ecological organizations, museums,
Forest Service representatives, the National Park Service,
state and local park officials, and local sportsman's clubs
may also prove useful.
The second step is a preliminary site survey, which
identifies habitat types on and near the site, probable pol-
lutant transport routes, and possible indicator species to
serve as the focus of the study.
In preparation for the site survey, the study team prepares
a checklist of necessary field gear. The following items
can be included in this checklist:
o Site health and safety plan
o Site and vicinity topographic base map (Aerial
photographs are valuable in identifying habitat
types, but a base map is important for use in the
field.)
o Field notebooks
o Camera (Telephoto lenses may be necessary.)
o Collection containers for items such as vegetation
or scats
o Appropriate identification keys
o Required personal safety gear
o A summary of important notes collected during the
information search
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The site survey includes the following types of activities:
o Mapping of vegetation types including areas that
are unnaturally denuded
o Mapping of animal tracks, trails, and burrows
o Noting proximity of the site to aquatic or marine
habitat
o Noting aquatic habitat type (water temperature,
flow, substrate, cover)
o Noting presence of aquatic species (algae,
macrophytes, invertebrates, fish)
o Photographing ecological features onsite and in
the vicinity
At the completion of these preliminary activities, the
project task leader will have sufficient information to
determine the type of field sampling program that will most
effectively address the site-specific issues of concern.
The primary concern is usually possible risk to human
health. If human exposure from surface soil contamination
is a concern, the staff can conduct a vegetation and small
mammal study. Aquatic surveys are important if the site may
affect surface waters. Groundwater concerns are generally
evaluated through laboratory bioassays, which will be dis-
cussed later.
The staff must obtain any collecting permit required by the
appropriate regulatory agency before beginning field
collection programs.
Field biology and ecology survey data can vary greatly among
sites because of differences in species and habitats.
Therefore, the U.S. EPA Corvallis Laboratory (Porcella,
1983) is developing a standardized bioassessment protocol
for hazardous waste sites. This protocol uses site soils,
sediment, and water samples in bioassays on standard orga-
nisms such as freshwater fish (fathead minnow), freshwater
invertebrates (Daphnids), earthworms (Eisenia), freshwater
algae (Selenastrum), seed germination and root elongation
tests, and soil respiration tests. The protocol is cur-
rently experimental, and interpretation of the results is
not well defined.
These tests are summarized briefly in Subsection 12.6.4.3.
This type of standardized bioassessment has been suggested
to enable setting priorities for cleanup efforts; more im-
portantly, bioassessment can provide a consistent and
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relatively inexpensive method for monitoring the effective-
ness of any cleanup action.
12.6.3 FIELD METHODS—SPECIFIC
12.6.3.1 Introduction
The field methods, their applications, and their limitations
are discussed below. The discussions are grouped by terres-
trial, aquatic (freshwater), and near-shore marine
environments. Near-shore marine methods are quite similar
to many of those discussed for aquatic or freshwater systems
and are renamed, but those discussions are not repeated in
the marine subsection (12.6.3.4). A parallel description of
these methods is discussed in more detail in Appendix A.
The people who collect biological samples at a hazardous
waste site must be trained and fully certified to be on that
site in accordance with the regulations contained in 29 CFR
1910.120, "Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency
Response; Interim Final Rule," OSHA, December 1986.
Depending on the personal protection levels determined for a
specific hazardous waste site, the collector may need to
modify the field methods to adapt to the dress and equipment
requirements of the level of protection. Some personal pro-
tective ensembles will limit the field methods that biolo-
gists are physically capable of carrying out. The SM must
be made aware of these limitations, and their effects on the
project schedule. Also, people planning to collect biota
from hazardous waste sites need to be aware of any federal
and state endangered species that may be present on the
site, as well as having appropriate collection permits as
required by the state in which the site is located.
Subsection 12.6.3.2 and Appendix 12A discuss how to collect
and process plants and animals before transport to the labo-
ratory. Laboratory methods follow in Subsection 12.6.4,
12.6.3.2 Terrestrial Field Methods Summary
VEGETATION
Methods
1. Collection—General
Applications. Collection is useful on any terrestrial
site with vegetation; it provides a permanent record of
plant species present and any gross morphological
abnormalities caused by pollutants. Some perennial
woody plants may incorporate a temporal record of pol-
lutant impacts in their structural tissues, either as
changes in the chemical composition or in the size of
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growth rings or shoots. These methods may provide a
good qualitative estimate of the size and severity of
pollutant impact.
Limitations. Collection is not useful on denuded
sites; it requires careful comparison against sites
that are very similar, but uncontaminated. Finding
these "control" sites might be difficult for highly
disturbed situations like landfills. Plant stress
caused by pollutants at a site might be moderated or
aggravated by other site stressors such as low water
availability or abnormally high temperature. Variation
in response to pollutants between species may require
that the response of many species to pollutants be
understood if a large number of pollutant sites are to
be examined or studied. Unrecognized genetic variation
in response to pollutants within a species may cause
difficulties. The transitory nature of pollution dam-
age symptoms or of plant species may require multiple
site visits at different times of the year to develop a
complete picture.
2. Visual
Applications. Visiting the site provides a quick,
inexpensive assessment of the extent and severity of
damage by pollutants. A visit is particularly valuable
in scoping out the impacted area when the pollutants
are being moved by some physical factor such as wind
(downwind) or water (downgradient).
Limitations. Seasonal changes in weather., plant
morphology, and plant occurrence may necessitate multi-
ple visits to the site during different seasons for the
collector to construct an accurate overview of the
site. Nonpollutant factors such as plant diseases and
drought stress may produce symptoms similar to or iden-
tical to pollutant symptoms, obscuring pollutant
impacts. Several different pollutants may produce
symptoms that are indistinguishable from each other.
Small quantities of different pollutants may combine to
produce a single symptom in plant population. Data
tend to be very subjective and require comparison to
similar, but unpolluted, areas or to the subject site
before the presence of pollutants at the site.
3. Remote Sensing
Applications. Color infrared (CIR) aerial photography
can be used on vegetated sites to identify (on a broad
scale) those areas that are under stress, possibly from
pollutants. CIR can be very useful in defining impact-
ed areas in a general way.
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Limitations. Many factors other than pollutants can
cause stress symptoms in plants (insect infestation,
excessively drained pockets of soil, or some diseases),
which must be differentiated from pollutant-caused
symptoms, probably by examination of the area by an
experienced person on the ground. Because different
species will show different levels of stress from pol-
lutants, interpretation of CIR photos may be difficult
unless the site is covered more or less uniformly by
one type of vegetation. Optimum time to perform aerial
photography is in late summer or early fall; taking CIR
photos at other times of the year may be useless
because abundant moisture will limit stress in plants.
Data tend to be subjective, require comparison to simi-
lar unpolluted sites, can be used only on vegetated
areas, and may be costly.
4. Ecological Assessments
Applications. An assessment is a good technique to
collect quantitative data on the species composition
and the percentage of groundcover.
Limitations. An assessment requires the use of an
unpolluted (control) area similar to the one suspected
of being polluted. This control area may be either an
adjacent unpolluted site, or more rarely, data that
were collected from the subject site before the first
pollutant impact. Sensitivity of technique depends in
large part on the control area being very similar to
the treated area. The amount of pollutant cannot be
quantified satisfactorily using these techniques; it is
useful only on vegetated sites.
5. Tissue Analyses
Applications. These analyses are suitable for
collecting quantitative data on levels of contaminants
in plants growing on polluted sites. The data indicate
the extent to which the pollutant may be moving into
the animal food web.
Limitations. Plants selectively absorb various
chemicals or elements from the soil; therefore, plant
tissue analysis could give a very poor indication of
absolute quantities of a pollutant present on a site.
Variation in soil characteristics over a polluted site
could markedly affect the quantity of a pollutant pre-
sent in plant tissues. Normal plant metabolism could
chemically alter the pollutant and obscure results of
tissue analysis. The amount of pollutant in plant tis-
sue would probably vary among species and possibly
among individuals within a species, necessitating the
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collection of multiple samples per site. Death of
pollutant-sensitive species on a site before sampling
could result in collection of misleading data. Col-
lections during various seasons may be required for a
complete picture.
VERTEBRATES
Methods
1. Collection—General
Applications. Collection of terrestrial vertebrates
will document the presence of species. Collection
techniques can be used to estimate population sizes.
Vertebrate collection can be used to gather tissue for
pollutant analysis.
Limitations. Some vertebrate collection techniques are
unsuitable for certain sites (for example, shooting
animals near residential areas). Vertebrate collection
may generate opposition from animal-rights activists.
Some sites might not contain enough animals to ensure
statistical validity of the study.
2. Live Trapping
Applications. Live trapping can be used for collection
of "sensitive species" when lethal traps or hunting
would be inappropriate. Population sizes can be esti-
mated using live traps in a "mark-and-recapture" con-
text. A list of species present on the site can be
generated. The size of the home range of the species
can be estimated either through use of marked and
retrapped animals or through radiotelemetry of animals
that were trapped alive, marked, and released. Animals
can be trapped alive to collect tissue (especially
blood) for analysis.
Limitations. Humane live trapping can be a very
time-consuming activity; trappers can be injured by
animals that are trapped alive. Successful live trap-
ping requires experienced personnel for trap placement
and rapid field identification of species. Trapping
may need to conform to local laws on animal capture.
Some species are not very susceptible to live-trapping
techniques.
3. Lethal Trapping
Applications. Lethal trapping can be used to establish
which species are present on a site and to collect
tissue-donor specimens for analysis of pollutants.
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Limitations. This method is not suitable for work with
"sensitive species" and may agitate animal-rights
activists. Lethal traps may cause injury or death to
domestic animals on a site and may conflict with local
laws or require a special permit. An experienced
trapper is required for best results. Proper frequency
of checking the traps can make this method extremely
time-consuming. Depending on the type of tissue analy-
sis being conducted, tissues of interest may be mangled
beyond use during trapping. Some species may not be
susceptible to lethal trapping.
4. Hunting
Applications. Hunting allows the documentation of
species present on the site and is suitable for col-
lecting tissues for analysis. It is most useful on
medium- to large-sized species and may be best for spe-
cies not susceptible to trapping.
Limitations. Hunting is impractical for smaller
species. It may be a dangerous technique in urban
areas where people or property are nearby; hunting may
also be illegal or may require special permits. Hunt-
ing is not suitable for collecting "sensitive species,"
is poorly adapted to collection of nocturnal animals,
can be a very time-consuming method for collecting cer-
tain species, and may result in damage to the tissues
being collected for analysis.
5. Ecological Analysis—Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP)
Applications. HEP provides an integrated analysis of
the habitat values on a site. The impact of the pol-
lution on the site's most important habitat values can
be assessed by using an uncontaminated comparison area
or information on a polluted site before it was
polluted.
Limitations. A full HEP analysis is a very time-
consuming activity. It provides an assessment of
impact but does not identify causes of the impact.
12.6.3.3 Aquatic (Freshwater) Field Methods Summary
VEGETATION
Some collection techniques discussed for the terrestrial
environment can be applied to most freshwater systems.
Remote sensing techniques are limited to emergent vegetation
or other vegetation on or above the water's surface, which
creates a major limitation of this terrestrial technique to
freshwater studies. In addition, artificial substrate
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techniques discussed below for freshwater macrovertebrates
can also be used to collect or monitor colonization rates of
lower forms of aquatic vegetation.
MACROINVERTEBRATES
Methods
1. Sediment Grabs
Applications. Sediment grabs are used in lakes and
slower moving rivers and in softer bottoms with inver-
tebrates either in or associated with the sediments
down to shallow depths. The grabs can concurrently
collect surface sediment for contaminant analyses and
characterization.
Limitations. Complex gear can be required for deeper
water use, and harder sediments require heavier grabs.
A boat with a winch may be required in many applica-
tions. The use of a boat on a hazardous water body
will need to be assessed for human health risks.
2. Core Samplers
Applications. Core samplers are used in lakes and
slower moving rivers and in softer bottoms where a
deeper penetration is required than a grab. Core sam-
plers are needed for bottoms that are harder than a
grab can sample and that can be pushed in by hand dur-
ing shallow water applications. Core samplers can con-
currently collect surface and deeper sediments for
contaminant analyses and characterization.
Limitations. As with grabs, the size of target
invertebrates must be considered along with inside bar-
rel diameter of the core and retaining devices in the
core mouth. Core samplers (including sophisticated
vibracores) can require multiple-ton winch capacities
on larger ships to retrieve longer cores.
3. Shovel
Applications. Shovels are used for shallow sediment
collection in substrate that will stay on the shovel
when lifted through shallow water.
Limitations. Use of a shovel is qualitative only; very
shallow water must be over the sediments. Sediment
must be somewhat cohesive to stay on shovel (clays,
fine sands); porous gravels or cobbles may allow inver-
tebrates to leave the sample.
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4. Box Sieves (used in conjunction with grab, core, and
shovel sediment samples)
Applications. Box sieves separate invertebrates of
interest from sediments collected.
Limitations. The choice of screen size determines the
size of retained invertebrates; the smaller the screen
size the greater the time and cost to process the
invertebrate sampled but the better definition of the
invertebrates present.
5. Surber Samplers
Applications. Surber samplers are used in moving river
water to depths less than 12 inches and are best on a
bottom that can be disturbed to 2 to 4 inches deep.
Limitations. These samplers cannot be used in waters
too deep, too slow, or too swift to deploy the gear;
the bottom cannot be a solid substrate (rock or very
hard clays).
6. Invertebrate Drift Nets
Applications. These nets are used in river water
moving faster than 0.5 feet per second for inverte-
brates that migrate or are dislodged from the sub-
strate. The nets can be modified for use in lakes with
the net inverted (net opening faces the bottom of lake)
to capture vertically migrating invertebrates.
Limitations. The nets will not sample species that do
not migrate or dislodge from the substrate. Currents
can be too swift and may either tear the gear or muti-
late the invertebrates sampled, making it difficult to
quantify what the samples represent.
7. Other Trawls (The reader should see the fish methods
subsection that follows.)
Many larger macroinvertebrates associated with the
bottom or near bottom at certain times of the day or
night can be collected in conjunction with demersal
fish. Applications and limitations discussed in the
fish subsection apply.
8. Traps
Applications. Traps are used in river or lake bottoms
too rough for trawls and for larger macroinvertebrates
(i.e., crayfish) that are attracted to bait.
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Limitations. Traps should be used with mobile
macroinvertebrates only. The collector should consider
the contaminant content of the bait used to capture
animals in traps if the animals are to be used for tis-
sue analyses close to the digestive process.
9. Artificial Substrates
Applications. This method is good as a quantitative
benthic invertebrate colonization tool and is best for
smaller attached or less mobile invertebrate species.
Limitations. The method is time consuming;
interpretation is more complex if test substrate is not
representative of the natural substrate present. This
method is not suited to larger, slow-growing, mobile
macroinvertebrates.
10. In Situ Bioassays (The reader should see the
laboratory tests and analyses in Subsection 12.6.4.)
Applications. In situ bioassays are a good toxic
challenge or bioaccumulation tool for multiparameter
contaminants.
Limitations. This method is time consuming for
bioaccumulation and requires healthy test invertebrates
(crayfish, mussels, etc.) that occur either naturally
in the site area (beyond the site's influence) or from
other sources (including artificially reared inverte-
brates) that could inhabit the site area. A cautious
assessment of test animal response is required to be
certain that noncontaminant-related site parameters
(water temperature, low dissolved oxygen (DO), starva-
tion) are not involved. The method lacks control of
dependent variables that exist in laboratory bioassay.
11. Miscellaneous (hands, hand tools, dip nets, plankton
nets)
Applications. Miscellaneous methods have limited gear
needs, if at all,, and are adaptable to shallow water
areas. Diving' is presumed unsafe for human health
reasons.
Limitations. This method is only qualitative, except
if fixed-opening nets are metered. The collectors must
be gloved or otherwise protected as dictated by site
personal protection levels.
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12. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
These methods do not lend themselves to applications
and limitations. The investigators must compare the
contaminants expected or known on a hazardous waste
site with the macroinvertebrates that are likely to be
present to decide which may be the best species and
tissues to monitor from that species. Local human con-
sumption and tissues consumed must be considered. In
many cases, the available aquatic macroinvertebrates to
choose from may be quite limited. The same process
must be gone through to select a bioassay or bioaccumu-
lation species that is brought into the site. Many
aquatic macroinvertebrates are small in size, and whole
body samples may be needed. Since different metals and
organic chemicals may accumulate in certain tissues in
these invertebrates, tissue selection by organ and by
pooled samples (if the quantity permits) may yield a
higher resolution of what is being accumulated and of
what level of risk the bioaccumulation is to the inver-
tebrates that are involved.
FISH
Methods
1. Trawls
Applications. These methods are used in the flatter,
smooth-bottom areas of lakes or ponds or in large,
slow-moving rivers. The methods are quantitative if
net opening, distance traveled, and gear avoidance by
the target species is understood. Other trawls can be
modified to fish in midwater or in surface areas for
nondemersal fish species.
Limitations. The gear can become cumbersome and
labor-intensive, especially as larger trawls are used
and greater boat capacity is required. Gear avoidance
in high-visibility water is a problem with larger-sized
individuals and with more mobile species. Distance
trawled can be difficult tc calculate on larger bodies
of water; gear is easy to entangle and damage or to
lose on bottom obstructions and debris.
2. Electrofishing
Applications. This method is quantitative in small
confined water bodies that have good in-water visibil-
ity. Fish can usually be examined and returned without
harm. The method is portable for remote applications,
if required, and is boat-deployable for larger river or
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lake applications. Electrofishing is a good choice
where bottom type or stream course precludes trawls or
seines.
Limitations. The method has variable efficiency with
conductivity in freshwater or in estuarine (saline)
areas. Depending on the gear and settings, electro-
fishing can be very selective for the size of fish
taken. In low-visibility water, capturing stunned fish
can be difficult. The method is qualitative in larger
water bodies and has added risks to investigators.
Behavioral and habitat preference differences among
species will influence sampling efficiency. Electro-
fishing is not effective on very small fish that are in
large cobble or rock-type bottoms. Gear efficiency
declines with depth in larger bodies of water.
3. Seining
Applications. Smoother-bottomed, lower-sloped beaches
are suited to this gear. If a person can wade in the
area to sample, a seine can be used without a boat,
although a boat can be very useful to sample multiple
shore areas around some water bodies. Seining gear is
compact, easy to store, and easy to use; it is general-
ly reliable (little risk of loss or great damage).
Limitations. Net avoidance can be a problem with some
larger individuals and mobile species in higher
visibility waters. Seining is semiquantitative in most
applications and is difficult to use in faster flowing
river areas.
4. Hook and Line
Applications. The hook and line method is a simple
method if target fish are suited to it. It is a good
approach to collect a few larger individuals for tissue
analyses (artificial lures rather than bait are pre-
ferred) . The method is usually better for larger indi-
vidual fish than smaller fish and is independent of
bottom condition, depth, or water current conditions.
Limitations. This method is very selective to the fish
attracted to the lures or bait used. Investigators may
need a license as well as a collector's permit. The
hook and line method is not quantitative.
5. Other Fish Collection Approaches
Additional collection approaches that may be adaptable
to hazardous waste sites include gill nets, trammel
nets, fyke nets, or rotenone. The reader is referred
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to Nielsen and Johnson (1983) for a discussion of a
large number of collection techniques.
6. In Situ Bioassay (The reader should see the laboratory
tests and analyses in Subsection 12.6.4.)
Applications. In situ bioassay is a good toxic
challenge or bioaccumulation tool for multiparameter
contaminants that vary in concentration with space and
time.
Limitations. The bioaccumulation method is time
consuming and requires healthy test fish that occur
either naturally in the site area (beyond the site's
influence) or that could inhabit the site area. The
latter type of fish can be obtained from other sources
(including fish that are artificially reared) that
could inhabit the site area. A cautious assessment of
test animal response is required to be certain that
noncontaminant-related site parameters (water tempera-
ture, low DO, starvation) are not involved. This
method lacks control of dependent variables when
compared to laboratory bioassay.
7. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
These methods do not lend themselves to applications
and limitations. The investigators must compare the
contaminants expected or known on a hazardous waste
site with the fish that are likely to be present before
deciding which may be the best species and tissues of
that species to monitor. Local human consumption and
tissues consumed must be considered. In some cases,
the available fish species to choose from may be quite
limited. The investigators must go through the same
process before selecting a bioassay or bioaccumulation
species that is brought into the site. Some aquatic
(freshwater) fish are small in size, and whole body
samples may be a necessity. Since different metals and
organic chemicals may accumulate in certain tissues in
these fish, tissue selection by organ and by pooled
samples (if the quantity permits) may yield a higher
resolution of what is being accumulated and what degree
of risk the bioaccumulation poses to the fish species
involved. The collector should avoid the spawning sea-
son when sampling fish species.
The reader should see Appendix 12A for samples of
target fish species.
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12.6.3.4 Marine Field Methods Summary
For near-shore marine studies anticipated in hazardous waste
sites, nearly all of the collection and other practices in
Subsection 12.6.3.3, Aquatic (Freshwater) Field Methods Sum-
mary, can be applied here. In the interest of conserving
space, only those methods that require an approach different
from approaches listed in the freshwater section will be
discussed in this subsection. The reader should refer to
the previous subsection for method applications and limita-
tions. Three gear types discussed in the aquatic
(freshwater) subsection are not applied in the marine
environment (Surber Sampler, Invertebrate Drift Net, and
Electrofishing).
Attached or nonmigratory species are best for the
investigator to assess, if at all possible; these species
allow interpretation of plant and animal condition in the
zoned influence of the contaminants reaching the marine
environment.
VEGETATION
The reader should see the terrestrial and freshwater
discussions (Subsections 12.6.3.2 and 12.6.3.3). In inter-
tidal zones, tidal levels can be used to an advantage in
marine vegetation collection and can increase the reliabil-
ity of remote sensing applications over the limited use of
such techniques in freshwater.
MACROINVERTEBRATES
1. Sediment Grabs
2. Core Samplers
3. Shovel
4. Box Sieves
In the near-shore zone, tidal levels can be used to
eliminate water over sampling areas in the intertidal zone
or to reduce water levels in areas beyond the intertidal
zone. The size of larger targeted macroinvertebrates in
marine sediments must be considered relative to the opening
of grabs, especially core samplers and any core-retaining
devices.
5. Otter Trawls
6. Traps
7. Artificial Substrates
8. In Situ Bioassays
Limitations. In addition to limitations for
freshwater, fairly protected marine waters would be
required to attempt in situ marine bioassays.
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9. Miscellaneous (hands, hand tools, dip nets, plankton
nets)
10. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
FISH
1. Trawls
2. Electrofishing (not applicable in marine waters)
3. Seining
4. Hook and Line
5. Other Fish Collection Approaches
6. In Situ Bioassays
Limitations. In addition to limitations for
freshwater, fairly protected marine waters would be
required to attempt in situ marine bioassays.
7. Tissue Analyses/Species Selection
Several of the field techniques described in Appendix 12A
can yield subjective evidence of the impact on biotic sys-
tems. Examples of this subjective evidence include unna-
tural vegetation growth (or lack of growth) and tissue
result analyses from an affected area only. While helpful
in determining relative risk to humans and natural systems,
this type of information is not often defensible because it
does not define a statistical basis for impact assessment.
Such information can, however, provide another measure for
ranking sites relative to other sites. Subjective evidence
of harm to natural systems can also provide information on
areas of interest that should be included in the physical
and biological parameter sampling program.
12.6.3.5 Vegetation
Subjective evidence of harm to vegetation (terrestrial,
aquatic, and marine) is primarily from visual observation of
lack of growth where growth would be expected or of unusual
growth of species or specific individuals. For example,
Ulva is a marine algae susceptible to introduced pollutants.
In areas with a high nutrient loading, the Ulva can be
excessively abundant. In areas where the composition of
pollutants includes hazardous materials, areas can be local-
ly devoid of Ulva or of any other algae.
The impact on vegetation is obvious in some areas where
spills or leaks have discolored the soil and no vegetation
is found. Other areas that appear natural but are devoid of
vegetation for extended periods of time indicate possible
contamination of soils or water sources. In some cases,
field botanists and ecologists can determine harm to the
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community if the species composition favors tolerant species
and if more sensitive species are absent or reduced. Some
vegetation, trees in particular, can appear to be unhealthy
or dying in a contaminated area.
When the area to be inspected is large, remote sensing can
be useful in collecting subjective evidence of harm to
biotic systems, as discussed in Subsection 12.6.3.2 and in
Section 14, Land Surveying, Aerial Photography, and Mapping.
Aerial reconnaissance surveys are common tools in evaluating
hazardous waste sites.
12.6.3.6 Terrestrial Animals
Compared to vegetation, potential impacts to terrestrial
animals resulting from hazardous wastes are much more diffi-
cult to subjectively assess in the field. Either a lack of
animals and animal tracks in areas expected to support some
wildlife or a trapping effort that yields no organisms dur-
ing the field survey might be indications of an adverse
impact. While avoidance behavior in free-ranging popula-
tions should not be interpreted without an adequate data
base, an absence of wildlife indicates a possible impact on
these populations in the vicinity of the site.
Disturbances to wildlife habitats as a result of hazardous
waste site operations may suggest impacts to wildlife popu-
lations. This disturbance is especially apparent in cases
where the waste site is in or adjacent to a sensitive habi-
tat such as a wetland or estuary. In these habitats, there
are many opportunities, including high productivity, for
wildlife to come in contact with contaminants.
Other subjective assessments of harm to biota can result
from cases of animal poisoning, abnormal behavior, or other
potential toxic responses reported to local authorities that
have occurred in either wildlife species or domestic animals
(including pets) found near of the site.
As stated in Subsection 12.6.3, wildlife bioaccumulation
data can also be considered subjective because of the pos-
sible lack of an adequate reference sample, because of low
sample size, and because of a general lack of data amenable
to statistical analysis.
12.6.3.7 Aquatic Invertebrates
Subjective field assessment of benthic aquatic invertebrate
communities can include evidence of poor water quality or
visual observations of an extremely low or extremely high
abundance of plants in the system. Subjective evidence of
possible harm to aquatic invertebrates would include oil
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sheens on the water; abnormal water color; or results of
water-quality parameter testing that shows low oxygen con-
tent, abnormally high salinity or temperature, or extreme
ranges in pH.
12.6.3.8 Fish
The same sources of subjective evidence described for
aquatic invertebrates can be used to subjectively determine
possible harm to fish populations. Additional subjective
evidence of an impact on fish populations would include
reported fish kills and observations of abnormal growths or
tumors in fish caught near the hazardous waste site.
12.6.4 LABORATORY TESTS AND ANALYSES
12.6.4.1 Introduction
Laboratory bioassessment analyses and tests are used to
obtain more objective and more detailed information regard-
ing the impact of pollutants on natural systems than would
be possible from either the initial subjective biotic field
surveys or from chemical testing of site-contaminated soil
and water. Laboratory bioassessments include determination
of levels of contaminants in organisms that were collected
from the site vicinity and in bioassays or toxicity testing
using site media, in reference organisms from unaffected
areas near the site, or in standard assay organisms.
Bioconcentration and biomagnification tests are conducted
when the investigator suspects that an identified food web
may be affected by site contaminants. These tests are par-
ticularly important if site chemicals are known to biocon-
centrate or if the octanol/water coefficient indicates that
a potential for bioconcentration exists. This information
is important in the assessment of possible human health
risks resulting from the site. Tissues are collected from
food web organisms, such as fish or mammals, found on or
near the site (Subsection 12.6.2) and analyzed according to
laboratory protocol (Subsection 12.6.4.3).
Laboratory bioassays or toxicity tests are used for a
variety of reasons including preliminary site screening,
monitoring cleanup efforts, or determining the toxicity of
complex and/or unusual mixtures of chemicals. An example of
a screening test for bioassessment of hazardous waste sites
is the experimental protocol being developed by the EPA
research laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon. This protocol is
composed of a series of tests that use site soils, ground-
water, surface water, and extracts of site soils to deter-
mine their respective toxicities to bacteria, algae, seeds,
earthworms, aquatic invertebrates, and fish (Porcella,
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1983). EPA is assessing the use of this protocol as a stan-
dard screening test to establish priorities for site clean-
ups and as a monitoring tool for cost-effective site clean-
up. If the procedures for regular analytical testing of
site chemicals of concern are expensive and if turnaround
time is extensive, some or all of the proposed bioassessment
protocol might be used to yield more cost-effective
monitoring data.
Toxicity test methods for hazardous waste sites are in the
development stage, with no one set of protocols mandated for
use. Until some future date when toxicity tests are better
established for these sites, investigators must keep up with
the developing protocols as discussed above, and they must
use existing methods that were designed for other uses.
Since most hazardous waste site waters can be characterized
as complex effluents, wastewater bioassays can be adapted
for use. These techniques are published by EPA and are
required to be used in state and regional National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) procedures. Hazardous
waste sites that may have (or had) point or nonpoint dis-
charges may have ongoing (or past) bioassays completed by
some of these methods. Two recent publications that charac-
terize the present techniques for effluents can be applied
to hazardous waste sites (EPA, 1985c and 1985d).
These manuals and other documents referenced in them provide
details on methods beyond the developing protocols
(Porcella, 1983) that can also be applied to hazardous waste
sites.
The most common bioassay or toxicity test currently used is
the static acute bioassay using aquatic invertebrates or
fish. This test can be used as a quick toxicity screening
device or can be employed when chemical analyses indicate
the presence of a complex mixture of contaminants. There
are often synergisms or antagonisms among the site contami-
nants that are difficult to describe from available litera-
ture or from a comparison to criteria. Bioassays can be
important tools in identifying actual toxic responses to the
unusual combination of contaminants found onsite. Acute
bioassays do not address long-term or chronic toxicity con-
cerns. The reader should see EPA (1985d) for short-term
approaches to chronic toxicity issues. Exhibit 12-1 pro-
vides recommended species, test temperatures, and life
stages for measuring acute toxicity.
Data interpretation of the results of EPA's draft
bioassessment protocol can yield an indication of the rela-
tive acute toxicity of a specific hazardous waste site based
on toxicity criteria (Exhibit 12-2). Low or nondetectable
levels of toxicity do not necessarily mean that the site is
"safe." Long-term or chronic toxicity is not addressed by
this protocol.
12-23
-------
Exhibit 12-1
RECOMMENDED SPECIES, TEST TEMPERATURES, AND LIFE STAGES
Test
Temperature
Species (°C)
Freshwater
Vertebrates
Cold Water
Brook trout
Coho salmon
Rainbow trout
Warm Water
Bluegill
Channel catfish
Fathead minnow
Invertebrates
Cold Water
Stoneflies
Crayfish
Mayflies
Warm Water
Amphipods
Cladocera
Crayfish
Mayflies
Midges
Marine and Estuarine
Vertebrates
Cold Water
English sole
Sanddab
Winter flounder
Warm Water
Flounder
Longnose killifish
Mummichog
Pinfish
Sheepshead minnow
Silverside
Spot
Three spine
stickleback
Invertebrates
Cold Water
Dungeness crab
Oceanic shrimp
Green sea urchin
Purple sea urchin
Sand dollar
Salvelinus fontinalis
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Salmo gairdnerl
Lepomis macrochirus
Ictalurus punctatus
Pimephales promelas
Pteronarcys spp.
Paclfastacus leniusculus
Baetis spp. or Ephemerella spp.
Hyalella, spp . ,
Gammarus lacustris, G. fasciatus,
or G. pseudol imnaeus ,
DapHnia magna or D. pulex,
Ceriodaphnia spp.
Orconectes spp., Cambarus spp.,
Procambarus spp . ,
Hexagenia limbata or H. bilineata
Chironomus spp.
Parophrys vetulus
Citharichthys stigmaeus
Pseudop 1 euronectes aroericanus
Paralichthys dentatus
P. lethostigma
Fundulus simili s
Fundulus heieroclitus
Lagodon rhombbides
Cyprinodon variegatus
Menidia spp.
Leiostomus xanthurus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cancer magister
Pandalus ^brdahi
Strongylocentrotus
droebachiensis
S. purpuraius
Dendraster excentricus
12
12
12
20
20
20
12
12
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
12
12
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
12
12
12
12
12
Life h
Stage
30 to 90 days
30 to 90 days
30 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Larvae
Juveniles
Nymphs
Juveniles
Juveniles
Juveniles
1 to 24 hours
1 to 24 hours
Juveniles
Juveniles
Nymphs
Larvae
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Post-metamorphosis
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Juvenile
Juvenile
Gametes/embryo
Gametes/embryo
Gametes/embryo
12-24
-------
Exhibit 12-1
(continued)
Species
Harm Water
Blue crab
Mysid
Grass shrimp
Penaid shrimp
Sand shrimp
Pacific oyster
American oyster
Callinectes sapidus
Mysidopsis spp.
Rebmysis spp.
Palaemonetes spp.
Pehaeus seliferus
P. duoraruin
P. aztecus
Crangon spp.
Crassostrea grigas
Crassostrea vlr'g'fnica
Test
Temperature
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Life ..
Stage£
Juvenile
1 to 5 days
to 5 days
to 10 days
larval
larval
Post larval
Post larval
Post larval
Embryo/larval
1
1
Post
Post
aTo avoid unnecessary logistical problems in trying to maintain different test temperatures for
each test organism, it would be sufficient to use one temperature (12°C) for cold water
organisms and one temperature (20°C) for warm water organisms.
The optimum life stage is now known for all test organisms.
cln tests with nine toxicants, Mayes et al. (1983) found no significant difference in the
sensitivity of fish ranging in age from 10 to 100 days.
dDaphnia pulex is recommended over D. magna because it is more widely distributed in the
United States, test results are less sensitive to feeding during tests, and it is not as
easily trapped on the surface film.
Source: EPA (1985c).
WDR230/018
12-25
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Exhibit 12-2
DEFINITION OF TOXICITY CATEGORIES FOR AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGICAL ASSAYS
Sample
Assay
Freshwater
Fish
Freshwater
Invertebrate
Freshwater
Algae
Seed Germination and
Root Elongation
Earthworm Test
Soil Respiration Test
Activity Measured
96-hr LC5Q
(lethality)
48-hr EC5Q
(immobilization)
96-hr EC5Q
(growth inhibition)
115-hr EC5Q
(inhibited root
elongation)
336-hr LCC
"50
336-hr EC
50
Type*
s
L
S
L
S
L
L
S
S
L
MAD"
1
100
1
100
1
100
100
500
500
100
Units
g/i
percent
g/i
percent
g/i
percent
percent
g/kg
g/kg
percent
High
<0.01
<20
<0.01
<20
<0.01
<20
<20
<50
<50
<20
Moderate
0.01-0.1
20-75
0.01-0.1
20-75
0.1-0.1
20-75
20-75
50-500
50-500
20-75
Low or Not Detectable
0.1-1
75-100
0.1-1
75-100
0.1-1
75-100
75-100
500
500
75-100
NJ
I
NJ
CTi
*S = solid, L = aqueous liquid, includes water samples and elutiate or leachate. Nonaqueous liquids are evaluated on
an individual basis because of variations in samples, such as vehicle, percent organic vehicle, and percent solids.
DMAD = Maximum applicable dose.
CLCc0 = Calculated concentration expected to kill 50 percent of population within the specified time interval.
EC_n = Calculated concentration expected to produce effect in 50 percent of population within the specified time interval.
Source: Porcella, 1983.
WDR146/019
-------
Theoretically, hazardous waste sites can be compared by this
protocol if the study plans are designed to incorporate ran-
domness in sample collection and to minimize the variability
of site-specific characteristics. Ultimately, the protocol
is aimed at allowing EPA to rank hazardous waste sites for
cleanup priority and to monitor the cleanup efforts to more
effectively protect human life and natural systems.
12.6.4.2 Test Material Handling Requirements
12.6.4.2.1 Collection Techniques
As described in Subsection 12.6.2, types of biotic test
materials collected from sites can include vegetation,
aquatic invertebrates, tissues from terrestrial animals, and
whole fish or tissues from fish. Approximately 30 grams of
vegetative material and 100 grams of animal tissue are
needed to run most tissue analyses (EPA, 1980b and 1980c).
Surface soils, groundwater, sediment, and surface waters are
collected to run bioassay types of tests.
Initial screening bioassays are usually performed using site
soils collected from three sample sites: one at the point
of greatest contamination, one at the boundary of the haz-
ardous waste site, and one from a reference or control area.
If the boundary-site contamination level is found to be
higher than the control, additional offsite samples are
taken to identify the contaminant boundary. Additional
screening bioassays can be run using onsite or near-site
surface water or groundwater.
Surface soils and sediments from the site are collected
according to the protocol as described in other sections
(Sections 8 and 10) of this compendium. Typically, three
subsamples of soil are collected from the top one-half meter
of depth in a square meter area at the desired sample loca-
tion and are thoroughly mixed. The size of the sample
depends on the test being performed. Soil and sediment sam-
ples are sampled and stored according to procedures
described in other sections (Sections 6, 8, and 10) of this
compendium.
Groundwater and surface waters are also collected and
handled according to procedures described in other sections
(Sections 6, 8, and,10) of this compendium. The size of the
sample depends on the test being performed.
12.6.4.2.2 Laboratory Techniques
Sample Storage
Biological samples, including fish and mammal tissues frozen
in the field, are stored in a designated freezer until
12-27
-------
extracted. The biological samples should be stored sepa-
rately from other samples. Water and soils/sediments that
were collected from the site and are to be used in bioassays
are stored on ice during shipment and are kept at 4°C until
testing begins. The temperature of the stored water sample
is allowed to equilibrate to that of the bioassay test tem-
perature before being diluted. All samples are labeled and
kept in designated storage areas. If sample jars are
breakable, outer unbreakable containers are used to trans-
port samples to the test area.
Equipment Cleaning
Test containers are primarily made of glass, No. 316
stainless steel, and perfluorocarbon plastics. Each test
container is cleaned as follows:
1. Wash with nonphosphate detergent.
2. Rinse with distilled water.
3. Rinse with 100 percent acetone. If volatile
analyses are required, acetone use is discouraged
and methanol is often used as a substitute.
4. Rinse with distilled water.
5. Rinse with nitric acid (5 percent).
6. Rinse thoroughly with distilled water.
7. Rinse finally with distilled, deionized, or
organic-free water (three times), as appropriate
to required analyses.
12.6.4.3 Specific Tests and Analyses
12.6.4.3.1 Vegetation
Tissue Analysis
Before plant tissues are analyzed, samples need to be
prepared for the type of analysis being done. If airborne
sources of contamination are suspected, it may be necessary
to wash all samples before analysis. Washing will remove
loose surface contaminants and provide for an analysis of
tissue concentrations. If surface contamination data are
required, samples are not washed. Roots are thoroughly
washed because of the possibility that contaminants could be
adsorbed to soil particles and not to root tissue.
Samples are weighed before washing to determine weight gain
as a result of water absorption. Plant material to be
12-28
-------
analyzed is washed slowly in distilled or deionized water.
The material is gently moved in the water and is not
scrubbed. Detergents are not used. Washed material is
placed on clean blotter paper and is not allowed to air dry.
Each sample is prepared for analysis immediately following
washing.
The laboratory also analyzes a sample of the clean wash
water, of the wash water after washing plants, and of a
piece of the blotter paper.
Vegetative samples are homogenized through mincing,
grinding, or blending. For nonvolatile contaminant analy-
ses, these plant tissues can be dried and then processed
through a Wiley mill or other tool as appropriate to the
analyses planned. For volatile contaminant analyses, these
plant tissues need to be processed "wet" with no drying
during the analytical process. In this situation, a
separate sample is dried for measurement of wet and dry
weight ratios and is not used in the volatile analyses.
The amount and types of planned analyses dictate the
required sample size of plant tissue. In most cases,
30 grams (wet weight) will suffice, although many different
types of analyses may require a larger amount of plant mate-
rial. If the investigator anticipates that an organic con-'
taminant is very dilute in plant tissues, large quantities
of the plant tissue may have to be collected and subjected
to extraction procedures before achieving the required ana-
lytical result. For nonvolatile analyses, 1 gram (dry
weight) of plant tissue is often used.
For the most part, "standard methodology" does not currently
exist for plant (or animal) tissue analyses. Methods orig-
inally designed for water or sediment will usually address
plant tissue analyses; however, the sample preparation pro-
cess is not included. In some cases, the analytical tech-
nique or the interpretation of gained results must be
modified because of matrix-related interferences and other
tissue problems not encountered in water and sediment test-
ing. Pesticides are well covered in the EPA 1980d manual.
In other cases, modified water or sediment analytical tech-
niques exist in an "interim" or "draft" status that may
cover only a subset of the required analyses.
Because of the current lack of a standard methodology for
plant tissue analyses, the reader should contact the region-
al EPA laboratory for the latest available plant tissue pro-
cessing and analytical chemistry techniques for the
contaminants of concern. The Information sources subsection
lists several EPA methods manuals that can provide some
assistance, including EPA 1980b, 1980c, 1980d, 1982, and
1983.
12-29
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Seed Germination and Root Elongation Bioassay
Toxic substances that inhibit plant germination or root
elongation (often the most sensitive phase in plant growth)
can decrease primary productivity, reduce crop yields, and
change natural systems by selection for tolerant species.
A brief description of this test is provided below. For
additional details, the reader should see Porcella (1983).
Although inhibition of both seed germination and root elon-
gation is an observable toxic response, root elongation
inhibition is more likely at lower concentrations and is a
preferred end point in this bioassay.
Untreated seeds (i.e., seeds not treated with fungicide,
other pesticides, or fertilizers) can be obtained from com-
mercial seed companies, state agricultural experiment
stations, and U.S. Department of Agriculture laboratories.
Seeds are sized and individually examined, and tests are
conducted using the most common size of seed.
Five test species representing commercially important and
different plant families are used in this assay: lettuce
(butter crunch), Lactuca sativa L.; cucumber (hybrid Spartan
valor), Cucumis sativa L.; red clover (Kenland), Trifolium
praetense L.; wheat (Stephens), Triticum aestivum L.; and
radish (Cherry Belle), Raphanus sativa L.
Equipment needed to conduct this assay includes one-piece
molded glass tanks (6-liter capacity) outfitted with glass
pegs or rods to hold at least five glass plates at a
67-degree angle, a spray bottle with a fog or mist nozzle, a
metric ruler, forceps, a Soxhlet extraction apparatus,
Whatman No. 3 mm chromatography filter paper, single-ply
cellulose tissues (e.g., Kimwipes), a triple-beam balance, a
pH meter, storage bottles, and plastic bags to enclose the
test tanks (described above).
The test medium is an extract of a solid sample and is
prepared according to the procedure listed in Exhibit 12-3.
Dilutions of the extract should be made with distilled
water, which is used as a negative control. Extracts should
be tested for pH and salinity. Generally, pH >6.5 and
salinity <0.01 N salt will not be toxic. If the medium is
outside these ranges, an artificial control should be
assayed.
A filter paper is soaked in the test medium, and then
15 seeds are placed on the test paper. A narrow strip of
previously cleaned (using the Soxhlet extraction apparatus)
cellulose tissue is placed over the seeds and misted to
cause the tissue to adhere.
12-30
-------
Exhibit 12-3
METHODS FOR PREPARING SOIL EXTRACT
Steps
1. Weigh an adequate amount of air-dried soil sample for
all desired tests.
2. Add a weight of distilled water equal to four times
the soil weight.
3. Shake for 48 hours (150 rpm) at constant temperature
(20±2°C) in the dark.
4. Allow to settle, decant, and filter with 0.45 ym
•membrane to obtain the extract. Soil sample extracts
with high clay content will have to be centrifuged and
decanted before filtration.
5. Relate all extracts to the original weight of soil.
Measure volume of extract and relate to initial soil
weight. For example, if 3,100 ml of extract is ob-
tained from 1,000 grams of air-dried soil, there are
3.1 ml/gram of soil. Then, if 25 ml of extract are
added to 100 grams of soil for a test, this combination
would be equivalent to 8 grams of soil (25/3.1) or a
7.4 percent soil solution (8/108). This soil solution
would be the highest concentration. For a geometric
series of tests, subsequent samples would be decreased
by halves. For example, for 7.4, 3.7, 1.85,... the
percent extract plus sample volumes would be 25 + 0,
12.5 + 12.5, 6.25 + 18.75,
6. Do not concentrate extracts; extracts should be pre-
pared within 24 hours of collection. Extracts should
be checked for salinity using conductivity.
Source: Porcella, 1983.
12-31
-------
The plate is then placed in the test chamber along with
enough test medium solution to immerse by 2 to 3 centimeters
the bottom of the test plate and filter paper
(500 mililiters). This procedure is repeated for each plant
species in the test. The whole chamber is enclosed in a
plastic bag to maintain a humid atmosphere and is placed in
a dark, temperature-controlled area at 25±2°C for 115 hours.
Each assay is composed of a tank for each test con-
centration, positive controls, and negative (distilled
water) controls. The concentration range of NaF used for
the positive control that causes an ECj-p, (effective concen-
tration causing inhibition of 50 percent of growth compared
to control) for each seed species is radish, 400 to 500 mg
NaF/liter; wheat, 300 to 400 mg NaF/liter; lettuce, 100 to
200 mg NaF/liter; cucumber, 150 to 200 mg NaF/liter; and red
clover, 80 to 100 mg NaF/liter.
Seeds and roots must be examined and measured at ±30 minutes
from the end of the 115 hours to have a valid test. The
root length is measured from the transition point between
hypocotyl and root to the tips of the root. At the transi-
tion between the hypocotyl and the primary root, the axis
may be slightly swollen, may contain a slight crook, or may
change noticeably in size for the radish, lettuce, cucumber,
and red clover. In wheat, the single longest primary or
seminal root is measured from the point of attachment to the
root tip.
A range-finding test that consists of one control tank and
one test tank each of 100, 10, 1, 0.1, and 0.01 percent
extract is conducted to see if a definitive test is neces-
sary. If the 100 percent tank has mean root lengths that
are 65 percent of control and if at least 10 of the 15 seeds
germinate, no further testing, examination, or root measure-
ment is done. No EC,-Q is possible with these results. If a
definitive test is called for, at least six extract concen-
trations must be chosen in geometric series; the highest
concentration used will be the next higher concentration
than that concentration which reduced the mean root length
to less than 50 percent of the control.
Freshwater Algae 96-Hour Test
Unicellular algae are important primary producers in aquatic
food webs and are often sensitive to environmental changes.
Algal growth can be either inhibited or stimulated in the
presence of contaminants. In EPA's Corvallis laboratory,
the bioassessment protocol includes a simple screening test
to be conducted in 96 hours for freshwater algae. This
96-hour screening test exposes algae to various concentra-
tions of test material and growth (measured by cell counts
or other methods listed below). Typical results of this
12-32
-------
test are reported as ECgQ and EC50 if growth is inhibited or
as SC,,.. if growth is stimulated. (E(~cn i-s the lowest test
concentration causing growth inhibition of 50 percent rela-
tive to control. SCj-p, is the lowest concentration causing
growth stimulation of 20 percent relative to the control.)
The proposed test species is Selenastrum capricornutum, a
nonmotile chlorophyte that is easily maintained in laborato-
ry cultures. The test algae is kept in flasks containing
standard Algal Assay Medium (AAM) in a constant-temperature
room or incubator at 24±2°C (from Miller et al., 1978, as
reported by Porcella, 1983) . Exhibit 12-4 lists nutrient
components of the AAM. Continuous illumination of 4300±430
lumens/m (400 ft-c) is required, and overhead cool-white
fluorescent bulbs are recommended. The algal culture is
checked microscopically to ensure that the culture is
healthy and is composed only of the test algae. The
concentration of cells at the beginning of the test should
be approximately 10,000 cells/ml.
According to Porcella, test material can be aqueous liquids
(groundwater, surface water, or soil extracts in water);
nonaqueous liquids (aqueous samples with greater than 0.2
percent organics, nonaqueous liquids, solvent exchange sam-
ples, and extracts or leachates in a nonaqueous or organic
vehicle); or solids. Nonsolid test material should be fil-
tered (preferably onsite) using a 0.45-micrometer cellulose
acetate filter to remove indigenous algae. The minimum sam-
ple size needed to run the algae test is 1 gram of soil (or
solid material), 0.06 liter of aqueous liquid, or 0.05 liter
of nonaqueous liquid. Test material is obtained from areas
specified in the study plan by using standard collecting
methods.
Preliminary tests are run with 100 percent test material
with and without nutrients contained in the AAM. If the
100 percent test with nutrients shows a less than 50 percent
inhibition compared to a control sample, the material is
considered relatively safe and no further testing is done.
If there is a greater than 50 percent inhibition, test mate-
rial should be assayed by either a range-finding test (dilu-
tions of 80 percent, 10 percent, 1 percent, and 0.1 percent
using three replicates each) or a definitive test, or both.
A definitive test is conducted after a range-finding test by
spanning the moderate response concentration using a geomet-
ric series. For example, if 1 percent (0.01) and 10 percent
(0.10) gave toxic responses, the definitive test series
would include 0.1, 0.05, 0.025, 0.0125, 0.00625, and
0.003125. All tests are conducted with nutrients added
essentially equivalent to 100 percent AAM, with AAM used to
make dilutions.
12-33
-------
Exhibit 12-4
COMPOSITION OF ALGAL ASSAY MEDIUM (AAM)
Macronutrients
Nutrient Composition
Stock Solutions
Prepared Medium
Compound
NaNO
NaHCO,
MgSO -7H 0
Concentration
(g/D
25.500
15.000
1.044
14.700
12.164
4.410
Element
N
Na
C
P
S
Mg
Ca
Concentration
(mg/1)
4.200
11.001
2.143
0.186
1.911
2.904
1.202
Micronutrients
Nutrient Composition
Stock Solutions
Compound
MnCl2'4H20
Na MoO • 2H20
Na EDTA«2H 0
Concentration
(9/1)
185.520
415.610
3.271
1.428
0.012
7.250
160.000
300.000
Prepared Medium
Element
Concentration
(mg/1)
B
Mn
Zn
Co
Cu
Mo
Fe
32.460
115.374
1.570
0.354
0.004
2.878
33.051
*Other forms of the salts may be used as long as the resulting
concentrations of elements are the same.
Source: Porcella, 1983, from Miller et al., 1978.
WDR146/015
12-34
-------
Controls include the AAM (negative control) to check
standard organism response; the receiving water, if applica-
ble (reference control); and a solvent control, if applica-
ble (dilution water plus solvent). The positive control is
applied with ZnCL« in AAM at a concentration of 80 mg Zn /I
to give a range or inhibition of 51 to 66 percent (long-term
mean = 58.8).
After 96 hours of exposure, algae growth is measured by any
one of the following methods: electronic particle counting,
biomass (dry weight), absorbance (as measured by a spectro-
photometer), or microscopic counting. Electronic particle
counting is preferred, but cursory microscopic examination
is important to identify abnormal cell shape or condition.
Exhibit 12-5 contains a summary of the possible methods used
in counting cells, the equipment used, and the appropriate
format used for results.
The investigator must use the definitive test to obtain data
to calculate the ECj--., EC_», or SC__. and should assay a min-
imum of four test concentrations. The EC-,., ECg0/ and SC~n
are calculated using any of several statistical methods.
Exhibit 12-2 lists the toxic categories for results of the
freshwater algal 96-hour test (Porcella, 1983).
12.6.4.3.2 Terrestrial Animals
Laboratory tests and analyses pertinent to terrestrial
animals include bioaccumulation and biomagnification analy-
ses that are performed on vertebrate tissues taken from
animals collected on or near the study site. The analyses
also include laboratory assays of toxicity of soils and soil
extracts to invertebrates (i.e., earthworms).
Bioaccumulation and Food Web Transfer Tests
Laboratory protocols for determining the presence of
pesticides and related compounds in tissue and blood samples
are contained in the information sources under Sherma
(1976). An additional reference containing protocols for
determining other contaminants in tissue is EPA 1980d.
In general, tissues to be analyzed are collected and stored
in glass jars or vials with foil- or Teflon-lined screw caps
and are either refrigerated (if analyses will be conducted
within 24 hours) or frozen. The amount of tissue needed
depends on the expected degree of contamination and the
detection levels required for data interpretation. If low
concentrations are expected, more tissue will be needed. If
the degree of contamination is unknown, 100 grams of tissue
12-35
-------
Exhibit 12-5
ALGAE ASSAY PROCESSING METHODOLOGIES
Method
Electronic Particle
Counting
Biomass
Equipment/Procedure
Model ZB1 Coulter
Counter with Mean
Cell Volume (MCV or
MHR) computer
Measured portion of
algal suspension
filtered with tared
0.6 micrometer PVC
membrane filter-dried
for 2 hours at 70°C—
cool in desiccator
weighed. Test cul-
ture volume filtered
and handled same.
Subtract tare weight
and divide by volume
of culture filtered
Resulting Data Format
mg dry weight
S.Capricornutum/liter or
Number of S. Capricornutum
cells/liter
ing/liter dry weight
Absorbance
Microscopic Counting
Spectrophotometer or Absorbance units per mg dry
colorimeter at wave- weight per liter
length of 750 nm
with optical density
greater than 0.05
and less than 1.0
Hemacytometer count- cells/liter
ing chamber and
microscope
The calculations used to interpret data results are as follows:
(T-IN) - P (C-IN)
P(C-IN)
x 100 = (+) % = Stimulation
(-) % = Inhibition
where:
P = percent volume of AAM used to dilute test
sample (>20 percent)
T = maximum standing crop (mg/1) in test sample
IN = dry weight (mg/1) of inoculum at start of
test
C = maximum standing crop (mg/1) in AAM control
Source: Porcella, 1983.
WDR146/016
12-36
-------
is the typical amount collected. Specific procedures for
the extraction of pesticides and their residues will vary.
Solvents range from hexane or petroleum ether for nonpolar
organochlorine and organophosphorus compounds to methylene
chloride for polar carbamates. Some prior knowledge of the
pesticides of concern is necessary in determining the labo-
ratory methodology to be used. Details of these method-
ologies are contained in previously cited references.
Briefly, tissue samples are broken down into small pieces
and blended before extraction. In most cases, the Soxhlet
extraction method is used. High-performance liquid chroma-
tography is EPA's recommended technique for the separation
and analysis of complex mixtures (Sherma, 1976). However,
gas or column chromatography is also used. Thin layer
chromatography can be used to confirm residues following
initial screening and quantification by gas chromatography.
Earthworm Toxicity Test
In EPA's laboratory in Corvallis, the bioassessment protocol
includes a two-phase test involving the earthworm Eisenia
foetida. The reader should contact the regional EPA labo-
ratory to obtain the current status of this procedure and a
source for this earthworm. Although it is not common, this
earthworm is regularly used in testing, grows easily in
organic soils (commonly found in sewage beds), has a short
life cycle, and readily reproduces. The proposed tests
closely approximate actual conditions encountered by earth-
worms and do not require elaborate equipment or extensive
personnel training.
Briefly, the first phase of the test is a simple contact
test where individual worms are exposed to various concen-
trations of soil extracts on filter paper. The second phase
exposes earthworms to actual test soils or to extracts in a
defined soil medium. The contact test consists of a range-
finding and definitive test, while the soil test is usually
just definitive. The end point of these definitive tests is
an LCI,--, with worms classified as dead when they do not
respona to a gentle mechanical stimulus to the anterior end.
The first earthworm test is the range-finding contact test
where individual worms are placed in vials lined with filter
paper (Whatman Grade 1) soaked in varying concentrations of
extracts and a negative control (distilled water). Extracts
are prepared as described in Exhibit 12-3. Dilutions used
in this preliminary test are 100 percent, 10 percent, and
1 percent. Ten replicate test vials for each dilution are
laid on their sides in a dark, temperature-controlled area
(20±2°C) for 48 hours. The number of dead worms is counted
at the end of the test and compared to the control tests.
12-37
-------
A geometric dilution series is used in the definitive
contact test, with the concentrations used determined by the
results of the range-finding test. A positive control is
run using 0.354 mg Cu/liter of copper sulfate. This concen-
tration will provide a response range of 0.9 to 1.1 of the
LC^. A negative control is also run. Test procedures are
the same as for the range-finding tests.
Earthworm toxicity tests using soils are conducted in two
ways: one with artificial soil to which test soil extract
is added in varying concentrations, and a second in which
test soil is used directly and "diluted" with artificial
soil. Artificial soil is made of three general constitu-
ents: 70 percent industrial sand, 20 percent Kaolinite
clay, and 10 percent sphagnum peat. Exhibit 12-6 provides a
detailed list of two of these components. Calcium carbonate
is used to adjust the pH to 7.0. The moisture content is
adjusted to approximately 20 percent of dry weight with
either test extract and/or distilled water. Site soil is
prepared using the procedure outlined in Exhibit 12-7.
Test containers are 500-ml crystallizing dishes covered with
plastic lids, petri dishes, or plastic film. In each dish,
400 grams of moist test medium are used. For each test,
four replicates of each concentration are run on 10 test
worms. Four negative controls (distilled water) and one
positive control, containing copper sulfate at a concen-
tration of 600 mg Cu/kg of soil, are also run for each test.
Test containers are held at a constant temperature (20±1°C)
in a continuously lighted area for 14 days. The average
weight of the test and control worms is determined at the
beginning and at the end of each test. Again, mortality is
determined by sorting the worms from the soil and recording
their reaction to mechanical stimulation.
An assessment of mortality at 7 days and continuation of the
test to 28 days is optional. However, soil moisture may
need to be adjusted because moisture is lost during sorting.
Test results are plotted on log probit graph paper and the
median lethal concentration (LC5Q) and its confidence limits
are estimated. The LC values are given as percent of test
soil sample. Mortality in the negative controls should not
exceed 10 percent. If some mortality does occur (<10 per-
cent) , a correction is made using the following formula:
Corrected mortality percent = (observed mortality percent -
control mortality percent)/100 - control mortality.
12-38
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Exhibit 12-6
COMPONENTS OF ARTIFICIAL SOIL
General Composition by Weight
1. 70% Industrial Sand
2. 20% Kaolinite Clay
3. 10% Sphagnum Peat
Specific Composition
1. Industrial Sand
Diameter in Microns
45
45
63
90
125
180
250 & greater
2. Kaolinite Clay
Percent
1.7
9.3
29.0
34.3
20.8
4.0
0.8
Composition
Si°2
Ti02
AL2°3
MgO
CaO
K2°
Na2°
loss on ignition
Percent
58.5
1.3
28.0
1.0
0.3
0.2
2.0
0.3
8.4
Source: Porcella, 1983,
WDR146/018
12-39
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Exhibit 12-7
PROCEDURE FOR HOMOGENIZING SOIL SAMPLES
1. Air dry the soil to be tested. (Air drying is
considered completed when an aliquot of soil has no
more weight loss.)
2. Add 25 burundum cylinders and about 2 liters of air-
dried soil to a ball mill.
3. Mill about 5 minutes (until soil is coffeeground size).
Then sieve through a 2mm-mesh sieve.
4. Return larger particles to the ball mill, and repeat
steps 2 through 4 until the sample is completely ground
with the exception of rocks. Discard rocks.
5. Before use, thoroughly homogenize soil using a
laboratory or small cement mixer.
6. Clean the ball mill by adding 1 quart of silica sand
and 10 burundum cylinders. Mill for 15 minutes, discard,
and then brush out mill.
Sources: Lighthart, 1980; unpublished procedures as
reported by Porcella, 1983.
WDR146/017
12-40
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Acute Toxicity Test
The acute toxicity test is a standard test that is commonly
used to describe the toxicity of a compound or mixture of
compounds to aquatic systems. Daphnia is the most common
freshwater organism used. However, many crustaceans,
mollusks, and fish have been used. The following is a brief
description of the acute-static toxicity test used as a part
of the EPA's bioassessment protocol.
The daphnid, Daphnia magna, was the basis for much of the
preliminary work in acute toxicity testing as described by
Porcella (1983). EPA (1985c) now recommends D. pulex over
D. magna because the former species is "more widely dis-
tributed in the United States, test results are less sensi-
tive to feeding during tests, and it is not as easily
trapped on the surface film." D. pulex is, therefore, pre-
ferred in these studies, if available.
EPA's test uses early instars of Daphnia in a static type of
assay (i.e., the same body of water is used throughout the
test as compared to a flow-through test in which the water
is replaced). The exposure time is 48 hours, and because
death is not always easily determined in Daphnia, the test
results are given as effective concentration (48-hour EC,.-.) .
A summary of test conditions for the Daphnia acute test is
presented in Exhibit 12-8.
It should be noted that static bioassay has a limited
application for compounds that become volatile or undergo
rapid chemical change in water.
Dilution water can be water from the site (upstream of
possible contamination), local dechlorinated tap water, or
reconstituted water, as long as it can support healthy orga-
nisms for the duration of the test procedure without having
the organism show any sign of stress. The water chosen for
dilution water is tested to ascertain that none of the fol-
lowing substances exceeds the maximum allowable concen-
tration as shown:
Maximum
Pollutants Concentration
Suspended solids 20 mg/1
Total organic carbon 10 mg/1
Unionized ammonia 20 yg/1
Residual chlorine 3 pg/1
Total organophosphorus pesticides 50 ug/1
Total organochlorine pesticides plus PCBs 50 yg/1
12-41
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Exhibit 12-8
RECOMMENDED TEST CONDITIONS FOR DAPHNIDS
(DAPHNIA PULEX* AND D. MAGNA)
1. Temperature (°C)
2. Light quality
3. Light intensity
4. Photoperiod
5. Size o'f test vessel
6. Volume of test solution
7. Age of test animals
8. No. animals per test
vessel
9. No. of replicate test
vessels per concentration
10. Total no. organisms per
concentration
11. Feeding regime
12. Aeration
13. Dilution water
14. Test duration
15. Effect measured
aUse of I), pulex is preferred.
_ft c = foot candles
Source: EPA, 1985c.
WDR230/017/2
20 ± 2°C
Ambient laboratory illumination
50 to 100 footcandles (ft c)
(ambient laboratory levels)
8 to 16 hours light/24 hours
100 ml beaker
50 ml
1 to 24 hours (neonates)
10
20
Feeding not required first 48 hours.
For longer tests, feed every other
day beginning on the third day
(Appendix A).
None, unless DO concentration falls
below 40% of saturation, at which
time start gentle, single-bubble
aeration.
Receiving water or other surface
water, groundwater, or synthetic
water: hard water for Daphnia
magna; moderately hard or soft water
for iD. pulex.
Screening test—24 hours (static tests)
Definitive test—48 hours (static tests)
Mortality—no movement of body or
appendages on gentle prodding (LC,. )
12-42
-------
Other water quality considerations are pH, hardness,
temperature, alkalinity, and conductivity.
The test animal, Daphnia, was chosen because of its wide
geographic distribution, importance in the food web, temper-
ature requirements, wide pH tolerance, ready availability,
and ease of culture. Daphnia is obtained from laboratory
cultures in its early instar stages (less than 24-hour
neonites), and each test is conducted using organisms that
are from the same source and that are as healthy and uniform
in size and age as possible. Care is taken to maintain the
cultures in as ideal a situation as possible. Avoidance of
stress and disturbances is important.
Unless the approximate toxicity of the sample material is
already known, a minimum of six concentrations of test mate-
rial should be prepared, with the maximum concentration
being the maximum applicable dose (MAD) for that sample type
(see Exhibit 12-2). Test organisms are placed in test ves-
sels no later than 30 minutes after test solutions are
prepared.
12.6.4.3.3 Fish
Fish, especially those species consumed by humans, are
common test organisms in acute and bioconcentration tests.
Because of the relative difficulty in maintaining saltwater
aquariums, most testing is done on freshwater species.
A 96-hour static toxicity test using the freshwater fish
species fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, is part of
EPA's bioassessment protocol (Porcella, 1983). The follow-
ing is a brief discussion of that test protocol. Details on
test protocols using other species and flow-through systems
are contained in Appendix 12B, which is the ASTM Standard
Practice for Conducting Acute Toxicity Tests with Fishes,
Macroinvertebrates, and Amphibians (ASTM Designation:
E 729-80).
As with Daphnia, the fathead minnow was chosen because of
its commonness, range of pH tolerance, temperature require-
ments, importance in the food web, and ready availability.
Fish can be obtained from state, federal, or local
hatcheries or from wild populations in relatively unpolluted
areas. Fish collected by electroshocking should not be
used. The fathead minnows used in testing should weigh
between 0.5 and 1.0 gram each, and the standard length (tip
of snout to end of caudal peduncle) of the longest fish
should be no more than twice that of the shortest fish.
Weights and lengths are recorded before and after the test.
The same water-quality considerations discussed for Daphnia
testing are true for fathead minnow testing. Test
12-43
-------
procedures are contained in Exhibit 12-9. The test results
in the case of minnows is the concentration causing
50 percent lethality (LC,.,.) and is determined using any of
the methods mentioned above for determining Daphnia test
results. The 96-hour LC,.-. are evaluated according to
Exhibit 12-2.
12.6.4.3.4 Aquatic Invertebrates
Laboratory tests and analyses using aquatic invertebrates
include the classic acute toxicity tests and bioconcentra-
tion analyses. The most common acute toxicity test is a
static toxicity test using Daphnia, a small freshwater
crustacean. Bioconcentration analyses are usually conducted
on invertebrates consumed by humans, such as mollusks (e.g.,
mussels and oysters) and crustaceans (e.g., crabs and
crayfish). The U.S. Mussel Watch program is an example of
bioconcentration analyses using invertebrates to determine
the degree of contamination occurring along the U.S. coasts
(Goldberg et al., 1978).
12.6.4.3.5 Bacteria
Bacteria can be used to assay a variety of potential impacts
on biotic systems resulting from exposure to a contaminant
or chemical compound. The following two types of bacteria
assays can be used in study plans for hazardous waste sites.
Soil Respiration and Soil Litter Test
Soil microorganisms are important recyclers of ecosystem
nutrients. Their stress levels can be relatively easy to
determine by measuring the carbon dioxide (CO_) evolved from
their respiration process. The results of this test show
the percentage of inhibition (EC5Q) or stimulation (SC__)
between CO.., evolved in control ana tested microcosms at
specified time intervals.
This test used 1-quart (approximately 1 liter) wide-mouth
jars with airtight lids and 1-ounce (30 ml) glass bottles
with airtight lids. One hundred grams of air-dried artifi-
cial soil (Exhibit 12-6) in combination with test soil or
soil extract (prepared as instructed in Exhibits 12-3 and
12-7) at specified concentrations are added to the cleaned
wide-mouth jars. Deionized water is used to adjust the
moisture content. A 1-ounce bottle containing C02 trapping
solution is then added, and the whole test container is
tightly sealed and placed in a dark, temperature-controlled
area (20±2°C) for 14 days. Three special blank jars are
used to correct for atmospheric CO2 by placing a CO2 trap in
a clean, empty wide-mouth jar and running that jar at the
same time as the test jars.
12-44
-------
Exhibit 12-9
SUMMARY OF TEST CONDITIONS
(from Brusick and Young, 1982)
Temperature, °C
Photoperiod, hours
light:dark
Water quality, hardness*
mg/1 as CaC03
Container size
Test volume
Organism per container
Replicates
Feed
Duration, hours
Measurements of DO
and pH, hours
Fathead Minnow,
Pimephales promelas
22 ± 1
16:8
100
20 liters
15 liters
10
2
No
96
0, 24, 48, 72, 96
*For dilution water only; the investigators add salts as appropriate
to obtain 100 yg/1 as CaCO .
Source: Brusick and Young, 1982, as reported by Porcella, 1983.
WDR146/020
12-45
-------
The CO- is typically measured twice weekly using the
procedure for titrating C02 (Exhibit 12-10). Results are
based on the total of all C
-------
Exhibit 12-10
PROCEDURES OF TITRATING CO IN TRAPS AND
METHODS FOR PREPARING REAGENTS
A. CO TITRATION PROCEDURE
1. Replace the CO traps at the designated intervals by opening
the microcosm, removing the exposed CO trap, and replacing it
with an unexposed one. (At the same time this step is being
performed, insert an open vacuum line to aid in properly reple-
nishing the air in the microcosm. Remove at least 3 times the
volume of the air space.)
2. As quickly as is practical, place an airtight cap on the
exposed CO trap; return the microcosms to the dark 20°C
incubator.
3. Add 5 ml of 1.3N of Bad and a stir bar to each exposed CO
trap immediately before titration.
4. Titrate excess 0.6N NaOH remaining in the trap to pH 9.0 with
a buret and pH meter (or autotitrator) using Trizma standard-
ized 0.6N HC1 to measure milligrams of CO produced.
Formula for the Calculation of CO Production
mg of CO = (Blank ml - Sample ml) x 22 mg of CO /ml/N x Normality of
* • i ** ^*
Acid
e.g., mg of CO = (10.40 ml - 6.93 ml) x 22 mg of CO /ml/n x 0.6013 N
= 45.90 mg of CO produced
B. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS
1. 0.6N NaOH
a. Rinse 20-liter glass carboy with distilled HO.
b. Place on a large magnetic stir plate; add degassed
distilled HO to the 18.9 liter mark.
c. Add 454 grams (1 Ib) of NaOH pellets.
d. Stopper and stir overnight before use. (Maintain the
NaOH stock solution in a CO -free atmosphere by using
ascarite traps.)
2. 0.6N HC1
a. Rinse 20-liter glass carboy with distilled HO.
b. Add 1.0 liter of concentrated HC1.
c. Add distilled HO until the 20-liter mark.
d. Stopper and stir overnight.
12-47
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Exhibit 12-10
(continued)
Titrate 5 "Tris" samples (0.5 to 0.9 grams of "tris" in
10.0 ml of distilled HO and 5 ml of 1.2 BaCl ) to pH 5.0
with about 0.7 HC1; calculate mean and standard deviation
("s") . (If "s" is larger than 0.0015, do 5 more samples
and combine results.)
Normality of HC1 =
(0.1211 g/meg) (ml of HC1 used)
(Weight of Tris in grams)
(0.1211 g/meg) (9.69 ml)
0.7089 grams
e.g., Normality of HC1 = 0.6041N
3. 1.3N BaCl
a. Weigfi 317.56 grams BaCl :2H O
b. Dissolve in degassed distilled HO in a 1-liter
volumetric flask.
4. Tris
Aminomethane (hydroxymethyl)tris—Trizma Base (Sigma Chemical
Company, St. Louis, Missouri).
Source: Lighthart, 1980; unpublished procedure as reported by
Porcella, 1983.
WDR146/021
12-48
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12.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Regional variances exist. Climatic differences will
influence different responses with standardized test orga-
nisms. Regional differences also exist in native plants and
animals that are on hazardous waste sites. The reader is
urged to contact the appropriate EPA RPM for referral to the
knowledgeable technical specialists. Regional variances
will be updated in Revision 01 to this compendium.
12.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
American Fisheries Society. A List of Common and Scientific
Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada. 4th ed.
Special Publication No. 12. 1980.
American Public Health Association. Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 16th ed.
APHA-AWWA-WPCF. Washington, D.C. 1984.
American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
Designation E 729-80. Pp. 285-309.
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General
Ecology. 1977.
Cox, George W. Laboratory Manual ofGeneral Ecology.
Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company. 1967.
FAO. Manual of Methods in Aquatic Environment Research.
Part 1—Methods for Detection, Measurement, and Monitoring
of Water Pollution. Technical Paper No. 137. FIRI/T137.
Rome, Italy. 1975.
Freed, J.R., P.R. Abell, D.A. Dixon, and R.E. Huddleston,
Jr. Sampling Protocol For Analysis of Toxic
Pollutants in AmbientWater, Bed Sediments, and Fish.
Interim Final Report. Prepared by Versar, Inc.,
Springfield, Virginia, for EPA Office of Water Planning and
Standards, Washington, D.C. 1980.
Goldberg, E.D., V.T. Bowen, J.W. Farrington, G. Harvey, J.H.
Martin, P.L. Parker, R.W. Risebrough, W. Robertson,
E. Schneider, and E. Gamble. "The Mussel Watch." Environ-
mental Conservation, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 101-126. 1978.
Mosby, Henry S. Manual of Game Investigational Techniques.
U.S. Wildlife Society. 1960.
Nielsen, Larry A., and David L. Johnson, eds. Fisheries
Techniques. Bethesda, Maryland: American Fisheries
Society. 1983.
12-49
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Phillips, E.A. Methods of Vegetation Study. New York, New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1959.
Platts, William S., Walter F. Megahan, and G. Wayne
Minshall. Methods for Evaluating Stream, Riparian, and
Biotic Conditions. Draft. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service General Technical Report. INT—138. Ogden,
Utah. May 1983.
Porcella, D. B. Protocol for Bioassessment of Hazardous
Waste Sites. Prepared by Tetratech, Inc., for U.S. EPA.
Corvallis, Oregon. TC 3547-1. 1983.
Reeves, Robert G., Abraham Anson, and David Landen. Manual
of Remote Sensing. Falls Church, Virginia: American
Society of Photogrammetry. 1975.
Schemnitz, S.D., ed. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual.
4th ed. Washington, D.C.: The Wildlife Society, 1980.
Sherma, Joseph. Manual of Analytical Quality Control for
Pesticides in Human and Environmental Media.
U.S. EPA-600/1-76-017.1976.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.
Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring
the Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents. EPA
670/4-73-001.1973.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980a. Ambient Water
Quality Criteria Documents. Washington, D.C. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980b. Manual of
Analytical Methods for the Analysis of Pesticides in Human
and Environmental Samples. EPA 600/8-800-038. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980c. Extraction and
Analysis of Priority Pollutants in Biological Tissue.
Method PPB.10/80, EPA, S&A Division Region IV. Athens,
Georgia: Laboratory Services Branch. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980d. Interim
Methods for the Sampling and Analysis of Priority Pollutants
in Sediments and Fish Tissue. Cincinnati, Ohio: ESML.
October 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1982. Test Methods
for Evaluating Solid Waste. Physically Chemical Methods,
SW-846. 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983a. Methods for
Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. EPA 600/4-79-020.
1983.
12-50
-------
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983b. Technical
Support Manual: Waterbody Surveys and Assessments for
Conducting Use Attainability Analysis. OWRS. November
1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985a. Water Quality
Criteria; Availability of Documents. Federal Register.
Vol. 50, No. 145. 29 July 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985b. Draft
Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual. OSWER Directive
9285.4-1. Prepared by ICF, Incorporated, Washington, D.C.
18 December 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985c. Methods for
Measuring the Acute Toxicity of Effluents to Freshwater and
Marine Organisms"! 3rd ed. EPA 600/4-85/013, ORD.
Cincinnati, Ohio. March 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985d. Short-Term
Methods for Estimating the Chronic Toxicity of Effluent and
Receiving Water for Freshwater Organisms. EPA 600/4-85/014,
ORD. Cincinnati, Ohio. December 1985.
Verschueren, Karel. Handbook of Environmental Data on
Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. 1983.
Watts, Randell R. ed. Analysis of Pesticide Residues in
Human and Environmental Samples. U.S. EPA-600/8-80-038.
1980.
WDR232/008
12-51
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Appendix 12A
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
12-52
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Appendix 12A
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
A. VEGETATION COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Two general types of information can be used to determine
the level of impact of any pollutant on vegetation. First,
the general health and stress level of plants on the site
should be assessed. This can be done with superficial
visual observations, through remote sensing using color
infrared photography, and by tissue analysis. Second, the
composition of the plant community can be measured through
an ecological survey to determine if the stress has been
great enough to change the relative abundance of the
vegetation.
Assessing the stress level of the plants growing on a site
is appropriate for determining subtle environmental effects.
By the time an impact is severe enough to change the species
composition of a site, it may be pointless to review
existing vegetation for stress effects.
Important factors to consider in analyzing the effects of
pollutants on the terrestrial ecosystem include how the
pollutant entered the ecosystem (for example, by a spill on
the soil surface, or through contamination of an underground
water table); the time of entry of the pollutant in relation
to the season of the year and the life-cycle of principal
life forms; the physical and chemical nature of the soil,
especially infiltration rates, internal drainage, buffering
capacity, and soil pH; the nature of the vegetation,
especially plant rooting depths, litter quantity, and rate
of organic matter turnover; specific types of potential
human and animal food produced by the vegetation, such as
crops, deer browse, edible nuts; and animal use of the area,
including identification of resident and migratory species.
Al. VISUAL FIELD OBSERVATIONS
During site surveys, an ecologist should observe the
vegetation throughout the vicinity and in downgradient
(downwind, downstream, and downhill) areas. It may be
desirable to make such observations at different times of
the year, especially during the spring growth of the major
species, during a period of high heat-and-water stress in
the summer, and just before leaf fall in the autumn. These
are times when symptoms of stress may be particularly
obvious, especially if there is a chance that the pollutant
has impaired the function of the root system.
Team personnel should determine the types of vegetation
expected to be found and the successional stages common to
12A-1
-------
the area. It is imperative that the length of time since
site disturbance or site abandonment be known to interpret
properly these visual assessments. Signs of stress that
need to be assessed in both the affected and unaffected
areas include size of annual or biennial plants, leaf size
of perennial plants, leaf and stem necrosis, chlorosis,
evidence of changes in levels of disease or insect damage
that may be linked to stressed plants, increases in size of
seed crops of perennial plants (often associated with
stress), premature leaf fall, abnormal wilting of succulent
plant parts, and abnormal plant coloration.
A2. REMOTE SENSING
When the site vicinity is large or the possible offsite
pollutant pathways are extensive or unknown, aerial
photography using color infrared (CIR) film can be used to
identify and delineate the extent of vegetational stress.
Field checks are necessary to substantiate conclusions made
by the examination of CIR photographs. The success of this
method depends on the experience and interpretive abilities
of the investigator and on the amount of information
available about the expected effects of the pollutants on
vegetation.
Remote sensing may be applicable only at certain times of
the year and is probably most effective during the warmer,
drier periods of the growing season. Additional information
can be found in the following:
o Reeves, Robert G., Abraham Anson, and David
Landen. Manual of Remote Sensing. Falls Church,
Virginia: American Society of Photogrammetry.
1975.
o Schemnitz, Sanford D., ed. Wildlife Management
Techniques Manual. Washington, D.C.: The
Wildlife Society. 1980.
A3. ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS
There are a number of ecological survey techniques available
for obtaining quantitative, defensible information about the
structure, composition, biomass, and productivity of plant
communities. Ecological surveys conducted simultaneously in
a (possibly) affected area and a reference area can demon-
strate vegetational stress if exposure to site contaminants
is the only difference between these two sites. The most
common survey techniques include plot sampling, plotless
sampling, and line-intercept sampling.
Plot sampling is frequently used to quantify species
composition within an area. For this purpose, plots are
12 A-2
-------
laid out in the study area on either a random or systematic
sampling basis. Plot sizes vary with the size of the
vegetation being sampled. (If the composition of a stand of
large plants, such as trees or tall shrubs, is being
quantified, the plots may be, for instance, 10 m x 10 m;
however, if the composition of a stand of annuals is being
measured, plot size may be only 1 m x 1 m.) The size and
number of plots sampled is also a function of the uniformity
of the plant community. In plant communities with multiple
layers—for example, in a temperate forest with an
over-story canopy, a shrub layer, and a herbaceous
layer—three different plot sizes may be used, each of the
smaller plots being a subsample of the next largest plot.
Once the plots are laid out, the scientist estimates the
percentage of the plot covered by a projection of the leaves
of each species onto the ground. By taking several of these
plots within a study area, an average percent-cover is
calculated for each plant species.
In a variation of this plot-sampling technique, the
scientist harvests all plants growing within a plot, sorts
them by species, and weighs them. This technique gives a
more precise measure of species composition, but it is more
costly. Data gathered from harvested plots can be compared
to data gathered from "percent-cover" plots only with a
great deal of care.
Plotless sampling is an alternative to the establishment of
plots when the plants to be sampled are widely spaced, as in
arid or otherwise semi-barren areas. There are several
plotless sampling procedures. One common procedure involves
the selection of random points in a plant community. At
each point, four quadrants of 90 degrees each are estab-
lished. In each quadrant, the distance from the point to
the nearest plant is measured. The nearest plants can be
measured for whatever parameters are of interest, including
the projected area of the leaves of the plant upon the
ground. The point-to-plant distance squared is, on the
average, the mean area occupied by one plant. The
percentage of coverage by species can be calculated from
this data. Again, the number of sample points required
depends on the accuracy required in the study and the
uniformity and distribution of plants within the community.
The line-intercept sampling method is particularly useful in
quantifying low-growing vegetation. In this technique, a
randomly oriented line is laid out on the ground. The sci-
entist then moves along the line, measuring and recording
the length of the line under the projected leaf area of each
plant. The length of line covered by each species is
divided by the total length of the line to determine a
percent-cover for each species. By laying out a number of
12A-3
-------
short lines, or by arbitrarily dividing a long line into
segments, species frequency can be determined.
Each of the sampling techniques presented here can be used
to gather a variety of information. The examples above pri-
marily illustrate the mechanics of each technique.
Quantitative ecological vegetation assessments are rarely
done in hazardous waste site studies because they are labor
intensive and because little additional information is
gained for use in a human health risk assessment beyond that
information available from the visual site investigation.
For these reasons, vegetation sampling techniques should be
selected on a site-specific basis. Several references are
available for use in designing quantitative vegetation study
plans, including the following:
Cox, G.W. The Laboratory Manual of General Ecology.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co. 1967.
Phillips, E.A. Methods of Vegetation Study. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1959.
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General
Ecology. 1977.
A4. TISSUE ANALYSES
Plant tissues can become contaminated by metals, organics,
and various other elements of environmental concern. The
type of plant and/or plant tissue collected for analysis
will depend on site conditions. Approximately 30 grams
(wet) of plant tissue are normally needed for analysis, but
the number and type of analyses required will determine how
much material must be collected. The laboratory performing
the analysis will inform the collector of the amount of
material needed and any special handling methods required.
Grasses and forbs should be clipped just above ground level
using scissors or plant shears. No soil should be included
in the material collected. Samples should be placed in
clean 1-gallon paper bags as described in Subsection El of
this appendix.
Leaves collected for analysis should be clipped at the
petiole and allowed to drop directly into the collecting
bag. All flowers, leaves, and other plant growth should be
removed from plant stems collected. Stems are then cut into
3- to 4-inch lengths and allowed to drop directly into the
collecting bag.
All leaf, flower, or cover tissue is removed, if possible,
from fruits, nuts, or seeds. If this is not possible in the
12 A-4
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field, the sample label should indicate what part of the
sample is to be analyzed.
Roots, tubers, or other underground plant growth are handled
differently than above-ground plant tissue. Underground
structures are collected by digging with a trowel or other
tool, rather than by pulling the plant out of the ground.
The entire root system is carefully collected, and attached
soil is gently removed by shaking or striking. (Some soil
will remain, but the laboratory will clean the material
prior to analysis.) The root should be cut away from the
stem at ground level, and each root placed in a separate bag
and labeled as described in Subsection El of this appendix.
B. TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE FIELD
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Assessments of effects on terrestrial vertebrates can be
accomplished through tissue analysis and through ecological
survey techniques. Collection techniques for tissue
analyses of terrestrial vertebrates normally involve small
to medium-sized animals. The most common techniques are
live trapping, lethal trapping, and hunting with a gun.
Other assessments used on terrestrial vertebrates include
mark and recapture studies and scatological studies. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife's Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP)
incorporates vegetation and wildlife survey techniques to
estimate natural resource losses expected over time as a
result of a specific project. The reader should also refer
to Subsection B4—Habitat Evaluation Procedure of this
appendix.
The collection of terrestrial vertebrates at any site can
serve a multitude of functions, including identification of
species present, estimation of total numbers of each
species, and securing of tissue for chemical analysis.
Because of the time and expense involved, the collection
procedures are usually used only when tissue residue studies
are needed.
Bl. LIVE TRAPPING
Live traps completely enclose the captured animal. This
system normally does not kill the captive; however, some
animals may become hurt in their attempts to gain freedom or
may die from exposure if the traps are not properly insulat-
ed. Death because of exposure occurs most frequently during
cold or rainy weather. Live traps should be checked
frequently.
Live traps can be used in ecological surveys or, more
typically, for capturing specimens for tissue analysis.
12 A-5
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Live traps allow the collector to be selective because
unwanted species can be released unharmed.
The most commonly used live traps are small, medium, or
large Havahart traps or Peterson live traps (Exhibit 12A-1).
Havahart traps are used for squirrel-sized or larger
mammals, while Peterson traps (with dimensions of 3x3
x 9 inches) are used for small, rodent-sized animals. Traps
can be baited with a variety of food such as smoked fish,
oatmeal and peanut butter, birdseed and peanut butter, or
other appropriate attractants.
Before it is used for the first time, a trap is specially
cleaned with a trap dye to remove the scent accrued during
manufacture; it is then treated with sealing wax to reduce
rusting. Gloves are used to handle the trap so that human
scent is not associated with it.
Trap placement is determined by the species to be captured.
Carnivores, omnivores, or herbivores with relatively small
home ranges (less than 20 acres) are considered to be the
most likely terrestrial vertebrates to have come in contact
with site contaminants. Mammals such as opossums, rabbits,
woodchucks, mice, moles, shrews, muskrats, and raccoons are
the most commonly collected mammals.
The site vicinity is examined by biologists to identify
likely habitats and animal trails. Live traps are baited,
wired open, and placed in likely areas for 2 to 3 days to
acquaint animals with the foreign object. Following the
acquaintance period, the trap is baited and set to close
when tripped.
The number of animals needed for tissue analysis depends on
the species available, the target tissue (e.g., muscle,
liver, brain), the number and types of analyses to be done,
and the detection limit required for study objectives. The
primary laboratory protocol used (see EPA, 1980c in
Subsection 12.8) requires a minimum of 10 grams for base/
neutrals and acids, 10 grams for pesticides and PCBs,
5 grams for volatiles, and 10 grams for metals.
Approximately 100 grams of the target tissue is usually
required. Trapping an adequate number of a single species
may sometimes be difficult within the schedule of the
sampling program.
Field notebooks (bound, with numbered pages) are kept to
record all field data, including sampling locations, date,
weather conditions, species caught, weight, length, sex, and
any unusual biotic condition observed. Photographs
including a scale object, are made of all specimens retained
for sacrifice.
12 A-6
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Exhibit 12A-1
LIVE ANIMAL TRAPS
1
ANIMAL tNTCftS. Lured by bait on
bait pan or fooled by trap set on run-
way, animal enter* trap Animal can
eet through open ends of trap and
enters unsuspectingly.
DOOMS SLAM AND LOCK. Animal
trips ban pan and doors slam »hut
Door design restricts animal move-
ment to help prevent injury.
HEADY TO GO. Pats and norvtarget
wildlife can be released immediately
Rests can be transported in trap for
relocation end release Trap doubles
e* a handy animal carrier
For Foxes, fteoeooru, fcobeets, Oners
Special single-door trap with compartment for live chicken,
rabbit or other bait. Size 55" x 12" x 12"
12 A-7
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Animals to be used in tissue analyses can be killed with a
shot to the head, by suffocation, or by breaking the neck.
The animal is dissected according to the procedure described
by Henry S. Mosby in Manual of Game Investigational
Techniques (U.S. Wildlife Society, 1960). Another important
reference in wildlife collection is the 1980 Wildlife
Management Techniques Manual (The Wildlife Society,
S.D. Schemnitz, ed.). (See Subsection 12.8 for information
source.) Additional details on tissues sampled and sample
preservation are provided in Subsection E2 of this appendix.
The "mark-and-recapture" system of live trapping is useful
for estimating population sizes. In this system, a number
of animals of a particular species are trapped alive, marked
in some way, and returned to the ecosystem. After allowing
a brief interval for the marked animals to meld into the
population, a large number of traps are set and animals are
captured. The population of animals in the ecosystem can be
calculated based on the number of animals marked, the number
of marked animals recaptured, and the total number of
animals captured in the second trapping. Information on the
size of animal populations might reveal whether or not the
environment has been seriously disturbed by some factor,
such as a pollutant, but this technique is not likely to be
useful when the polluted area is very small.
B2. LETHAL TRAPS
Lethal traps physically grab and retain animals once the
trap is tripped. This type of trap is used to collect such
animals as muskrats, raccoons, minks, or skunks (which are
more easily handled by this method) for tissue analysis.
Common traps used include the Victor No. 1 coil spring leg
trap, the Conibear No. 1 body trap, and the museum special,
Victor rat traps (Exhibit 12A-2). Traps are baited and/or
set along identified animal trails, preferably at night. As
with live traps, lethal traps are specially cleaned and
prepared to reduce human scents and improve the catch.
The ambient temperature helps to determine how often a trap
should be checked, because heat and low humidity can decay
or dessicate samples. The following frequency is
recommended:
o Below 50°F at night, traps can be left out
overnight.
o Below 50°F during day, traps should be checked
every 4 hours.
o Between 50°F and 80°F at night, traps should be
checked every 4 hours.
12 A-8
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Exhibit 12A-2
LETHAL ANIMAL TRAPS
12A-9
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o Between 50°F and 80 °F during day, traps should be
checked every 2 hours, especially on sunny days.
o Above 80°F at night, traps should be checked every
2 hours.
o Traps should not be set during daylight hours if
the temperature is above 80°F unless traps are
continuously checked.
Captured organisms are killed and processed in the same
manner as described in the live trap subsection above.
S3. HUNTING
Species not easily captured by trapping methods are
occasionally obtained by standard hunting methods using a
.22-caliber gun. Large aquatic turtles are an example of
such a species. Once the organism is killed, it is
processed in the same manner as described in the live trap
subsection above. Hunting is used to collect organisms for
tissue analysis.
B4. ADDITIONAL ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS
Ecological assessments of hazardous waste sites to date have
been very limited. Terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
ecological studies may be called for in the future. The
following references will provide guidance:
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General
Ecology. 1977.
Cox, George, W. Laboratory Manual of General Ecology.
Dubuque, Iowa.: William C. Brown Co. 1967.
Updates of this compendium will incorporate any ecological
techniques applied through the date of preparation. The
Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP) discussed below is a tool
that can be applied to hazardous waste site evaluations.
Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP)
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services (FWS) HEP is part of the
methodology being assessed by the Department of Interior for
use in establishing a monetary value for natural resources
lost because of hazardous waste sites. This procedure might
be used in rural settings where wildlife resources have been
lost, but it would have limited use in urban areas.
There are two possible objectives to this type of study.
The first is to evaluate the impacts of the site on
wildlife, using the HEP methodology. The second is to
12A-10
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develop a conceptual mitigation plan describing the possible
replacement of wildlife habitat or other mitigation to
compensate for the habitat affected by the site. Following
is a brief summary of the major tasks involved in conducting
the HEP.
Task 1. Literature Review and HEP Evaluation Team Formation
Wildlife biologists meet with personnel from federal and
state resource agencies and other appropriate agencies to
gather existing published and file data and to identify
significant issues or resources related to the site
vicinity. Representatives of these entities will form an
HEP evaluation team. This team identifies species of
interest, clarifies agency concerns, and provides an
opportunity for agency input into the design phase of the
study. This task also includes a site visit.
Task 2. Study Definition
The results of Task 1 activities are used to determine
several elements of the study. The study area is roughly
defined, and an initial selection of evaluation species is
made. The inclusion of species is determined jointly by
representatives of the HEP evaluation team.
Selection of evaluation species is determined by several
criteria and may include species of special concern, such as
threatened or endangered species, or species of interest to
the wildlife resource agencies because of their management
significance as game species. Additionally, the list of
evaluation species may include representatives of several
guilds (that is, species with similar nesting or foraging
requirements), to provide an ecologically balanced approach
to the study. A maximum of eight evaluation species are
usually selected. If possible, the study should select only
species for which published verified models or habitat
suitability index (HSI) curves are available.
An evaluation team meeting is then held to discuss species
selection, modify species models as necessary, and clearly
establish study goals and objectives.
Task 3. Habitat Inventory and Study Site Selection
Aerial photographs taken from before site development to the
present are obtained for the study area. These photos,
combined with onsite visual verification and any other
available data sources (such as timber harvest records, land
use maps, or old zoning records) are used to classify the
cover types in the area under existing and baseline condi-
tions. Photos are also helpful in determining succession
and agricultural or silvicultural practices on lands
adjacent to the site.
12A-11
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In evaluating an existing site using the HEP methodology, it
is necessary to identify cover types in the study area that
can be used to represent uncontaminated baseline conditions.
An underlying assumption is that these baseline areas repre-
sent conditions at the site before contamination. This
assumption is critical because baseline conditions establish
the standard against which impacts are measured.
The results of the habitat inventory can be presented in
several ways. Each cover type can be described using
standards FWS habitat classifications (where appropriate),
and can include a description of the dominant species in the
tree, shrub, and ground layers as well as estimates of
canopy coverage, tree height, and diameter breastheight
(d.b.h.), as appropriate. Specific methodologies that can
be used are described in Laboratory Manual of General
Ecology. (See Subsection 12.8 for Cox, G.W. Dubugue, Iowa:
Wm. C. Brown Co. 1967.)
A copy of the draft report of the habitat inventory results
is to be sent to each HEP evaluation team member along with
HEP models for the evaluation species. The evaluation team
then meets to select specific sampling locations, develop
the sampling design, and make any final modifications to the
evaluation species models.
Sampling sites are selected in each of the major plant
communities and successional stages, as represented by the
cover types described in the habitat inventory. Sampling
sites are selected by a stratified, random process whereby
the number of sampling sites per cover type will be approxi-
mately proportional to the total area and to the amount of
variability within each type. Where possible, an equal
number of sample sites are selected and evaluated in each of
the three major areas of study: baseline, impact, and
mitigation sites.
Task 4. Conduct, Analyze, and Interpret HEP Assessment
Following the selection of study sites and evaluation
species and the finalization of the study design, the actual
field methodology used to collect data is fairly straight-
forward. Each study site is sampled by the evaluation team
in accordance with the HEP guidelines. Target years for
analysis usually include a year before the contamination (a
year that has aerial photos available), a year close to the
present (again determined by the availability of aerial
photos), and a year 1 or 2 years in the future, usually
after remediation.
In the HEP methodology, each species model uses a number of
measurable variables that are combined into a simple
equation, resulting in a sample site HSI. The average HSI
12A-12
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from all sample sites is used as the HSI value for a given
evaluation species in the study area. This overall HSI,
which is a number between 0 and 1.0, is a quality index or a
measure of the capacity of the project area to meet the life
requisites of the evaluation species.
The overall HSI, when multiplied by the number of habitat
acres for the evaluation species, yields the number of habi-
tat units (HUs), a measure of the quality and quantity of
habitat available to the evaluation species. The difference
in HUs for each evaluation species between the target years
represents the losses or gains of the habitat in terms of
quantity and quality as a result of the project or
mitigation measures.
C. AQUATIC MACROINVERTEBRATE FIELD
COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Collection techniques for freshwater and marine
macroinvertebrates are discussed below. These techniques
include quantitative and qualitative methodologies focused
on benthic infauna or epifauna and can be used to collect
specimens for tissue analysis or ecological surveys. All of
the methods that identify collection of invertebrates from
sediment require the use of personal protective gear appro-
priate for the level of contamination expected.
Cl. GRABS/CORING DEVICES/SEDIMENT SAMPLING METHODS
Aquatic invertebrates inhabiting soft substrate can be
sampled by collecting the substrate and seiving it through
one or more standard screens to extract organisms. Sampling
methods include bottom grabs, sediment coring devices, and
shovels. The screening extraction method is described in
Subsection C2 of this appendix.
Invertebrates collected by sediment sampling devices live on
or in sediments where many pollutants can accumulate. For
this reason, these organisms are often good indicators of
the effects of contamination. Invertebrates can be used in
tissue analysis studies or ecological assessments. Bivalves
and larger crustaceans are normally used in tissue analyses,
while the invertebrate population as a whole can be studied
in ecological surveys.
Marine and freshwater invertebrates are collected primarily
by grabs such as the Ekman, Ponar, Smith-Mclntyre, or Peter-
sen. Intertidal or shallow-water sediment-dwelling inver-
tebrates are commonly collected with a Surber sampler (or
other standard gear) or with a shovel. Sediment coring
devices, while impractical for collecting organisms for
12A-13
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tissue analysis or ecological surveys because of their small
sample area, can be useful in obtaining a relatively
undisturbed sediment sample for analysis of pollutant
accumulation over time.
The various sediment grabs operate by digging into the
bottom using their weight and leverage. Shallow waters can
be sampled with some of these grabs by rigging them on poles
or rods and pushing them into the substrate. Grabs can
sample substrate ranging from soft muds through gravel. The
Ekman grab is most useful in sampling soft sediments; for
clay hardpan and coarse substrates, the heavier grabs such
as the orange peel or clam shell type (including the Ponar,
Petersen, Shipek, and Smith-McIntyreare) are better.
Exhibit 12A-3 shows various grab samplers.
Medium-sized boats equipped with winches are normally neces-
sary to deploy and retrieve grab samplers. The substrate
collected is funneled into either a box screen or a bucket
to await screening. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater, 16th ed.(APHA-AWWA-WPCF, 1984),
contains detailed descriptions of the most popular grab
samplers.
Core samplers vary from hand-push types to gravity-operated
types. The length of core taken by gravity or by hand will
vary with substrate texture and density and the amount of
weight or effort expended.
Grabs and corers are operated according to manufacturers'
specifications. If the study plan calls for ecological
data, invertebrates are collected according to the metho-
dologies described in EPA's Biological Field and Laboratory
Methods for Measuring the Quality of Surface Waters and
Effluents (Weber, 1973) or in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 16th ed.
(APHA-AWWA-WPCF, 1984) . In both tissue analysis and
ecological survey studies, samples are collected from both
the test or affected area(s) and a reference site.
Ecological surveys require replicate sampling, while tissue
analysis sampling requires approximately 100 grams of tissue
of a single species. As discussed in Subsection Bl of this
appendix, the amount of tissue needed can vary.
Sampled organisms are handled and preserved in the field
according to the procedures described in Subsection E3 of
this appendix.
12A-14
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whtbit 12 A-3
TYPES OF
12A-15
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Exhibit 12A-3
(continued)
12A-16
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C2. SIEVING DEVICES
Sieving devices remove aquatic invertebrates from their
habitats, either by capturing organisms larger than the
sediments in which they live or by capturing organisms
drifting in the water column. In the first case, box-type
sieves are used in conjunction with grab-collection methods
(Subsection Cl of this appendix). In the second case,
invertebrates are sampled from rubble and gravel riffles in
streams using a Surber-type sieving device (Exhibit 12A-4)
or from the water column using an invertebrate drift net.
Sieving devices can be used to collect specimens for tissue
analysis. These devices are especially useful in collecting
sediment-dwelling mollusks, both freshwater and marine
species. Sieves can also be used in ecological survey
studies when a quantitative sediment sampling method is
employed (Subsection C of this appendix). Surber samplers
can be used with relative ease as sampling devices for small
streams and are useful for comparative types of ecological
studies (i.e., upstream versus downstream). Surber samplers
can be used only in flowing water with a depth of less than
12 inches.
Surber samplers are composed of a stainless steel square
frame and attached nylon net, typically 0.21-mm mesh. The
sampler is placed over the sample site, and all sediments
within the frame are disturbed to loosen attached inverte-
brates. Larger rocks are lifted, scrubbed, and removed.
Remaining sediment is disturbed to a standard depth (usually
2 to 4 inches) by digging and stirring either by hand or
using a tool. Net contents are rinsed into the bottom of
the net with local water and then carefully removed to the
collection container. Stainless steel forceps are often
useful in removing small specimens.
Benthos screens used to process grab-type samples are
usually about one-half-meter-square, low-sided boxes with
bottoms made of 0.25-inch or finer stainless steel or nylon
mesh. Sediment samples are placed in the box, and local
water is used to wash sediment through the mesh. The
washing process is usually performed from the bottom upward
so as not to mutilate more delicate organisms of interest.
Collected specimens are then removed to collection jars or
aluminum foil, depending on the type of study being
conducted. Sample handling techniques and preservation are
discussed in Subsection E3 of this appendix.
Invertebrate drift nets are small, funnel-shaped,
fine-meshed nets with a rectangular opening and a typical
bag length of 1.3 meters. These nets are anchored in small,
swift streams (minimum current of 0.5 feet per second) above
the bottom and slightly below the surface. This type of net
is useful for collecting macroinvertebrates that migrate or
are dislodged from the substrate.
12A-17
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Exhibit 12A-4
SURBER SAMPLER
12A-18
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This sampling methodology can be used to collect organisms
for tissue analysis or for ecological surveys. Important
factors in obtaining quantitative ecological data are net
opening size, duration of operations, stream flow, time of
day, and season.
Examination trays, either stainless steel or white enamel,
are often used in the field to do the initial sorting of
collected invertebrates. Sample handling techniques and
preservation are discussed in detail''in Subsection E3 of
this appendix.
C3. OTTER TRAWL
Marine macroinvertebrates associated with the surface
sediment are collected in otter trawls along with demersal
fish. This sampling method is described in Subsection Dl of
this appendix.
Invertebrates collected by this method are handled and
preserved by the techniques described in Subsection E3 of
this appendix.
C4. TRAPS
Minnow or crab traps are screened devices that are baited
with an attractant to lure species of interest. These traps
are most commonly used to collect organisms such as crayfish
or marine crabs to be used in tissue analysis.
Traps are baited with items that will attract the species of
interest. Crayfish, for example, are scavengers and will be
attracted to any odorous food item such as fish or cat food.
The traps are then set on or near the site and at a
reference site and are checked at appropriate time inter-
vals. Specific trapping methodologies will vary with the
organism of interest. Once the organisms are collected (at
least 100 grams per sample), they are handled as described
in Subsection E3 of this appendix.
C5. ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATE
Artificial substrate samplers are devices that are placed in
the water for an extended period for colonization by
macroinvertebrates. This sampling technique can be used to
collect invertebrates (such as small crustaceans, insects,
and other arthropods) for tissue analysis. These devices
can be used in ecological studies if a standard artificial
substrate sampler is used at both the reference and study
locations and if care is given to placing the substrates in
equal water depth and under equal conditions for equal time
periods.
12A-19
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Because artificial substrate sampling methods can take
extended amounts of time (4 to 6 weeks), other available
methods may be preferable. However, in monitoring studies,
artificial substrates can provide information concerning
relative environmental conditions. This is one of the only
means for obtaining quantitative data relative to benthic
colonization in areas where substrate conditions may not
allow invertebrate colonization or where organisms are
scarce, making other collection efforts difficult.
The most common standard samplers are the multiplate or
Hester-Dendy sampler and the basket sampler (Exhibit 12A-5).
The multiplate sampler is positioned (preferably) in the top
meter of water, using floats and stainless steel cable, for
4 to 6 weeks. For maximum retention of organisms during
retrieval, the sampler is placed in a bag or large dip net
while still positioned in the water.
A basket sampler is a cylindrical basket containing
approximately 30 rocks of equal size. This device is often
used in creeks and rivers where rocks are the preferred
habitat for most invertebrates. Such samplers are also left
in place for 4 to 6 weeks.
Organisms removed from either artificial substrate are
processed using techniques described in Subsection E3.
C6. IN SITU BIOASSAYS
During this procedure, local invertebrates from a
comparatively clean area or invertebrates raised in
laboratories under known conditions are confined in traps
and held at the site and at a reference site to determine
the acute toxicity of the area of suspected contaminants or
to determine whether bioaccumulation is occurring.
Approximately 40 to 50 organisms such as bivalves or
crayfish are obtained. Then 10 to 15 organisms are placed
in two cages—one for the test area and one for the
reference area. If the purpose of the study is to determine
bioaccumulation, 10 to 15 additional specimens are
sacrificed and processed immediately to establish baseline
conditions. The test and reference cages are checked on a
regular schedule to determine mortalities. If
bioaccumulation is being studied, several specimens are
sacrificed at set time intervals over the study period.
Specimens for analysis are handled and preserved as
described in Subsection E3 of this appendix.
C7. MISCELLANEOUS INVERTEBRATE COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Aquatic invertebrates can be collected in a variety of other
ways, depending on the species and habitats being sampled.
12A-20
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Exhibit 12-5
SUBSTRATE SAMPLERS
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12A-21
-------
Other sampling devices that can be used include garden
rakes, pocket knives, buckets, tongs, dip nets, and hands.
Any of these methods would best be used for collection of
organisms for tissue analysis and not for ecological surveys
since they are difficult to quantify.
D. FISH FIELD COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Collection techniques for gathering biotic information on
both freshwater and marine fish species include trawling,
seining, hook and line, and in situ bioassays.
Electroshocking is used in freshwater systems only.
Dl. TRAWLS
The trawl method of sampling fish consists of dragging an
open net through a body of water with a boat. The net is
set at the appropriate operating depth to catch the species
of interest. This sampling method is used in large, open-
water areas of reservoirs, lakes, rivers, estuaries, and
oceans. Irregular bottoms or areas with snags or large
debris items are difficult to sample by trawl. Otter trawls
(Exhibit 12A-6) are commonly used because they can be
operated from a relatively small boat.
The otter trawl method is used to sample bottom species
while midwater species are often sampled by a modified otter
trawl (beam trawl) system.
Because many pollutants concentrate in sediments, bottom
trawling is useful in collecting organisms that are
associated with sediments. This sampling method can be used
to collect specimens for tissue analysis or for ecological
surveys to describe comparative populations (i.e.,
potentially impacted area versus reference area). However,
there are limitations to using trawls to describe the entire
population because some species are able to avoid being
captured in the net.
Otter trawls are composed of two rectangular "otter boards"
attached to the forward end of each side of the net. These
boards are used to hold the mouth of the net open. The
opening of the smaller trawls is about 16 to 20 feet. The
length of line used to fish the trawl depends on the depth
of the body of water. The preferred angle on the line is at
least 5 feet of line per foot of depth. The net is a semi-
balloon modified shrimp trawl with .75-inch mesh, and it
often has an additional liner of .25-inch mesh in the end of
the net (cod end) to retain smaller fish. The bottom line
of the net mouth is a lead line to keep the net fishing the
bottom, and the top line includes floats to keep the net
open.
12A-22
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Exhibit 12A-6
OTTER TRAWL
12A-23
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Small trawls can be operated by two people in a medium-sized
power boat. While the trawl can be hauled in by hand, a
winch is more useful, especially when the catch is expected
to be large.
The length of time for fishing with the trawl depends on the
expected abundance of organisms. The time usually varies
from 5 to 15 minutes and begins when the net starts fishing
the bottom. After the net is hauled back on deck, specimens
collected are handled as appropriate for the study program.
A detailed discussion of fish handling and preservation
techniques used in the field is included in Subsection D5
(Target Fish Species) of this appendix.
Other miscellaneous gear includes life jackets, wet-weather
gear (even in dry weather), gloves, and containers to hold
the catch into for sorting and examination. Before
collecting fish with bottom trawls, some information is
required to determine expected sediment contamination
levels. Personal protective gear is used when necessary.
D2. ELECTROFISHING
Electrofishing is a freshwater fish sampling method that
uses a pulsating direct current (DC) electroshocker, which
stuns fish when the electric current travels through water
with a resistance between 300 ohms and 30,000 ohms.
Alternating current (AC) or nonpulsing DC methods are
available but are not as desirable because higher fish
mortality occurs with AC. Pulsating DC often gives better
results than nonpulsing DC (Smith-Root, n.d.).
Electrofishers can readily be used to collect specimens for
tissue analysis or to obtain population estimates or other
population factors for creeks or small rivers in ecological
surveys. When using electrofishing in ecological studies,
several factors should be considered. These include size
selectivity (larger fish are more easily stunned than
smaller fish); behavioral and habitat preference differences
between species; and water conductivity, temperature, depth,
and turbidity.
Electrofishing in creeks and small rivers can be done with a
backpacking model pulsating DC electroshocker (top of
Exhibit 12A-7). The backpacker system includes the
electroshocker control unit and a 12-volt battery mounted in
a specially designed backpack unit, the anode pole, and the
cathode screens. The circular anode unit is mounted on a
pole, which can be outfitted with a small mesh net to
capture stunned fish. Other gear needed includes a long-
handled, fine-mesh dip net to capture fish and a bucket to
hold specimens. Because electroshockers have a high-voltage
output, other important equipment includes nonleaking,
12A-24
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Exhibit 12A-7
BACKPACK AND BOAT ELECTROSHOCKERS
12A-25
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chest-high wading boots and nonleaking rubber electrician's
gloves with long cuffs. Life jackets are also worn.
Waters that cannot be waded in can be electrofished by boat
(Exhibit 12A-7). The anode is clamped rigidly ahead of the
boat and extends into the water. One person guides the boat
with oars or a motor while one or two operators dip stunned
fish. In waters too deep to wade, larger fish are more
often taken by the boat method rather than by the backpack
method. The same safety equipment is used in boat electro-
shocking as for the backpack method. The boat electro-
shocker is equipped with a "dead man" switch that allows for
a quick disconnect of the electrical impulse if a person
falls in the water.
Some knowledge of expected species and their suitable
habitat is helpful in electrofishing. When stunned with a
DC system, a fish will often be drawn toward the anode.
However, in running waters, it can be swept downstream.
Polarized dark glasses can aid in finding stunned fish.
Collected organisms are placed in a water-filled bucket
until processing can take place. Organisms to be used for
tissue analysis are processed as described in Subsection D5
(Target Fish Species) of this appendix.
D3. SEINING
Seining involves the use of a long strip of netting hung
between a float line and a lead-weighted line that is pulled
through the water either by boat or, in shallow waters, by
hand. This method is most often used in shallow sandy beach
areas in either fresh or salt water. Beach seining is a
simple sampling method that can collect fish samples for
tissue analysis and can provide some information on species
variability in ecological studies. Because certain sizes
and types of fish can easily escape a beach seine, its use
in ecological studies is limited.
A small beach seine consists of a nylon net equipped with
cork or plastic floats on the top and a lead- or
steel-weighted line on the bottom. The size of the net will
depend on the area to be sampled, but a typical size is
approximately 10 meters long and 3 meters deep. Mesh size
can vary with the species of interest. Hauling lines are
attached to the top and bottom lines by a short bridle.
This type of small seine can be operated by two people. If
the water is shallow, no boat is needed. One person anchors
one side of the seine on the beach, while the other deploys
the seine through the area to be fished. Both ends are then
pulled on shore as quickly as possible, making sure that the
bottom line remains on the bottom. Collected organisms are
processed according to the study plan using techniques as
described in Subsection D5—Target Fish Species of this
appendix.
12A-26
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D4. HOOK AND LINE
Fishing with a hook and line involves the use of a hand-held
rod or trolling baited hooks or other lures. While this
method is not usually acceptable in ecological surveys, it
is often the best way to obtain a few specimens for chemical
analysis when other methods are not possible. Occasionally,
fish freshly caught by nonstudy-team personnel are used in
tissue analysis studies if enough information is known
regarding the location of catch. This study can also pro-
vide information regarding human consumption of local
species.
D5. IN SITU BIOASSAY
Local fish species can be used in field bioassays in the
same manner as was described for macroinvertebrates in
Subsection C3 of this appendix.
Target Fish Species
Before sampling fish for tissue analysis, the study team
identifies possible target species based on the following:
o Geographic location
o Available habitat
o Ease of capture and identification
o Pollution tolerance
o Use as a sport fish
o Nonmigratory habits
Exhibit 12A-8 lists possible target species by geographic
location. While trout are identified as one of the
preferred target fish species, caution is exercised in using
these fish because in many areas, especially in the east,
trout are stocked on a "put and take" basis. The local
agency responsible for stocking can be contacted to
determine when fish were stocked in a particular area. A
period of 3 months is considered to be the minimum time span
for trout to acquire a reasonable concentration of ambient
pollutants (Freed et al., 1980).
The season during which fish are collected for tissue
analysis is also an important consideration. The spawning
season should be avoided whenever possible because fish are
often stressed during this time; they also have different
feeding habits, fat content, and respiration rates, which
can influence pollutant uptake and clearing.
12A-27
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Exhibit 12A-8
TARGET FISH SPECIES FOR USE IN ISSUE ANALYSIS
I. Target Species (East of Appalachian Mountains)
***Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)
***Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
**Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
**Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdnerl)
**Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
**Purapklnseed (Lepomis gibbosus)
**Black Grapple (Pomoxis nigromaculatus)
**Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
*Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
II. Target Species (West of Appalachian Mountains and East of Rocky Mountains)
***Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri)
***Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)
***Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
**Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
**Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens)
**Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum)
**Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
*Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
*Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
III. Target Species (West of and including Rocky Mountains)
***Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri)
***Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)
***Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
**Bluegill
nis macrochirus)
**Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
*Cutthroat Trout (Salmo clarki)
*Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
*Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
***Preferred target series
**Good target species
*Acceptable target species
Source: Freed et al., 1980.
12A-28
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E. BIOLOGICAL FIELD SAMPLE PROCESSING
AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
El. VEGETATION
Samples of vegetation collected from the site and intended
for classification are initially placed in a ridged
collector's box. Samples should be kept moist and may be
refrigerated when the collector returns to the laboratory.
After identification, samples may be pressed and mounted for
permanent records.
Vegetation samples collected for tissue analysis are placed
in 1-gallon paper bags and labeled. Information on the
label includes the date, time, weather, collector, plant
type, site, identification number, and proposed analysis.
The bag is stapled or clipped shut, labeled with the
identification numbers, and placed in a larger plastic bag.
Several paper bags may be necessary to collect 30 grams of
material; 1 gram of plant tissue can suffice for most
analyses that require the same analytical processing.
However, more than 30 grams should be taken if multiple
testing or other special processing are required. The
plastic bag is then placed in a cooler with ice, ice packs,
or dry ice. Care is taken to keep cooler water from
contacting collected plant material. Samples remain in
coolers for shipment.
E2. TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES
Once the specimens are collected, organisms to be used for
tissue analysis are killed. Each animal is described by
weight, measurement, sex, and other general items. All
specimens are photographed. The following tissues can be
removed using stainless steel scalpels: muscle and
associated fatty deposits (lipids), liver, kidneys, and
possibly hair and claw samples for metal analysis. Stomach
or crop contents can be removed and preserved for identifi-
cation. Any anomalies are noted and photographed. Sections
of the anomalous tissues may be taken for analysis. Tissues
are immediately wrapped in cleaned aluminum foil (dull side
in), labeled, and frozen in the field using dry ice. Hair
and claw samples are placed in plastic bags and labeled.
Tissue samples are kept frozen until they are delivered to
the laboratory. Surgical gloves are used during the dis-
secting process.
E3. AQUATIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates collected for tissue analysis are sorted by
species, counted, measured (when appropriate), and weighed
12A-29
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to assure that each single sample consists of at least 100
grams. Crustaceans are washed using distilled water to
remove particulate matter, either wrapped in cleaned
aluminum foil (dull side in) or placed in Contract
Laboratory Program cleaned glass vials, labeled, and frozen
using dry ice. Samples are packed in ice chests and kept
frozen until they are delivered to the laboratory. Bivalve
mollusks are removed from their shells with a stainless
steel knife for the examination of organochlorine compounds
or with a plastic knife for the examination of metals.
Tissues are purged using distilled water, wrapped in
aluminum foil (dull side in), labeled, and frozen as de-
scribed above. For organic analysis, organic-free water and
blanks should be employed to document contamination control.
Surgical gloves are worn while handling invertebrate
samples. Glove manufacturers should be contacted to
determine if gloves are a source of contamination and, if
so, what compounds are typical.
Invertebrates collected for ecological assessment are
preserved in the field with either a 4- to 7-percent
formalin solution (dependent on sample use and fragile
nature of animals) or with 70-percent buffered ethanol.
Each sample is labeled with sampling location, depth, sample
number, species (or lowest taxonomic level practicable),
number of individual organisms collected, sampling method,
date, project number, sampler, and team leader.
E4. FISH
Fish collected for tissue analysis are handled according to
procedures outlined in the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources (MDNR) Fish Processing Procedures (Exhibit 12A-9)
and in the Field Collection Equipment Checklist
(Exhibit 12A-10). Exhibit 12A-11 shows the procedure for
preparation of MDNR's "standard fillets," and Exhibit 12A-12
lists the standard edible portions of selected sport and
commercial fish. Any marine fish that may be associated
with a hazardous waste site and is not on this list will
require input from local individuals as to which tissues are
consumed. Other fish tissues (i.e., liver, bone, etc.) may
need to be analyzed depending on contaminants involved and
where they may accumulate.
WDR232/009
12A-30
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Exhibit 12A-9
FISH PROCESSING PROCEDURES
1. Wash fillet board and table with local water supply
(river, lake, etc.). Distilled water may be used.
2.** Clean knives with acetone and wipe board and table with
acetone rinse. Rinse all with local water supply or
distilled water.
3. Rinse table and knives between specimens with distilled
water; alternately, a previously cleaned knife (#2
above) can be used for each specimen).
4. Take scale sample just posterior of gill and place in
scale envelope.
5. Take weight (kg) and length (mm), and record on data
sheets.
6. Fillet according to Exhibit 12A-11.
7. Wrap fillets in aluminum foil, and secure with 2-inch
masking tape.
a. If large, individually
b. If small, combine
8. Label package with
a. Date and time of collection and preparation
b. Location (river, lake, etc.)
c. Species
d. Sample number
e. Project number
f. Sampler's/preparer1s name
9. Place in bag and store in ice chest with dry ice.
**Note: If volatile analyses are required, acetone use is
discouraged and methanol can be used as a substitute.
Source: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
WDR146/030
12A-31
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Exhibit 12A-10
PISH COLLECTION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
Fillet table (formica top with long legs)
Wrapping table (aluminum, folding)
Fillet knives (1 large and 1 small)
Steel
Clear plastic packaging bags
Garbage bags
Fillet boards—polycarbonate
Water bucket
Wash brush
Garbage pail—6-gallon plastic or wastebasket
Data sheets
Procedure forms—fillet technique, skin-on or skin-off
Plastic bag ties
Scissors
2-inch masking tape
Marking pens and pencil
24-inch-wide roll of heavy-duty aluminum foil
Fish-scale envelope
Tripod
Fish-spring scale
Fish-measuring board
Ice chests
Paper towels
Acetone (wash bottle)**
Dry ice
**May need to substitute methanol (see Exhibit 12-9) .
Source: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
WDR146/031
12A-32
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Exhibit 12A-11
PREPARATION OF "STANDARD FILLETS"
1. Make a cut behind the entire
length of the operculum (gill
cover) cutting through the skin
and flesh to the spinal column.
2. Make • shallow cut through
the skin (on either side of the
dorsal fin) from the base of the
caudal peduncle.
3. Make a cut along the belly from
the base of the pectoral fin to
the posterior end of the caudal
peduncle. This cut is made on
both sides of the anus and the
anual fin.
4. Remove the fillet and then
remove any major bones.
12A-33
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Exhibit 12A-12
STANDARD EDIBLE PORTIONS OF SELECTED
SPORT AND COMMERCIAL FISH
Listed below are the "standard edible portions" for selected
fish. The standard edible portion will be used for
preparing the fish for contaminant analyses. The standard
edible portion is that portion of the listed species of fish
that most people eat.
Standard Edible Portion
Common Names
Scientific Name
Skin-on Fillet
(all below to next
heading)
Skin-on
Fillet
Yellow perch
Walleye
Sauger
Largemouth bass
Smallmouth bass
Bluegill
Pumpkinseed
Rock bass
White perch
Black crappie
White crappie
Green sunfish
Longear sunfish
Warmouth
Sucker family
Lake whitefish
Lake trout
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Splake
Lake trout
Atlantic salmon
Coho salmon
Chinook salmon
Pink salmon
Black bullhead**
Brown bullhead**
Yellow bullhead**
Channel catfish
Muskellunge
Northern pike
Round whitefish
Perca flavescens
Stizostedion vitreum
Stizostedion canadense
Micropterus salmoides
Micropterus dolomieui
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis gibbosus
Ambloplites rupestris
Morone americana
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Pomoxis annularis
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis gulosus
Catostomidae
Coregonus clupeaformis
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Salvelines fontinalis
Salvelinus poticalis*
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo salar
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus punctatus
Esox masquinongy
Esox lucius
Prosopium cylindraceum
12A-34
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Exhibit 12A-12
(continued)
Standard Edible Portion
Common Names
Scientific Name
Skin-off Fillet
(all below to next
heading)
Headless, gutted,
whole fish
Lake herring (cisce)
Chubs (bloater)
Carp
Freshwater drum
Bigmouth buffalo
Burbot
Quillback
Lake sturgeon
Rainbow smelt
Coregonus artedii
Coregonus hoyi
Cyprinus carpio
Aplodinotus grunniens
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Lota lota
Carpiodes cyprinus
Acipenser fulvescens
Osmerus mordax
* Hybrids between brook trout (S. fontinalis) and lake trout (S. namaycush)
are known as splake.
**Depending on local consumptive practice, bullheads may be considered
"skin-off" species since they are skinned before consumption.
Source: Modified from Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
WDR146/032
12A-35
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Section 13
SPECIALIZED SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
13.0 GENERAL
This section discusses several specialized sampling
techniques that have been used by contractors on hazardous
waste sites. The reader may develop other techniques for
specific site needs. In those cases and in cases where the
techniques listed here are modified for use on a specific
site, careful documentation of the exact procedures used
should be provided. This section does not discuss analyti-
cal techniques, since analytical methods would vary depend-
ing on the data quality objectives, the compounds of
concern, the media, and the exact sampling technique. The
Contract Laboratory Program plans to issue a "Field Method-
ology Catalog" in the summer of 1987 that will contain field
analytical techniques suitable for analyses of the samples
collected by using the techniques in this section.
13.1 WIPE SAMPLING
13.1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This guideline discusses the steps required for obtaining a
wipe sample. Wipe samples may be used to document the pres-
ence of carcinogenic substances or other toxic materials.
In addition, wipe sampling is commonly used to ascertain
that site or equipment decontamination has been acceptably
effective.
13.1.2 DEFINITIONS
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Wipe sample. A sample used to assess surface contamination.
The terms "wipe sample," "swipe sample," and "smear sample"
have all been used synonymously. For purposes of this sec-
tion, the sample will be termed "wipe sample."
13.1.3 APPLICABILITY
This guideline is applicable when a sample of the substances
on a surface is needed. Surfaces may include walls, floors,
ceilings, desk tops, equipment, or other large objects that
are potentially contaminated.
13-1
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13.1.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM or designee is responsible for deciding when wipe
sampling is needed.
Field personnel are responsible for performing the actual
sampling, maintaining sample integrity, and preparing the
proper chain-of-custody forms.
13.1.5 RECORDS
Records of wipe sampling include completed chain-of-custody
forms and appropriate entries in the field logbook. If the
sample collected is to be analyzed using the National Con-
tract Laboratory Program (CLP), then CLP forms must be com-
pleted as discussed in Section 5.
13.1.6 PROCEDURES
Wipe sampling can be an integral part of the overall
sampling program. Wipe sampling can help to provide a pic-
ture of contaminants that exist on the surface of drums,
tanks, equipment, or buildings on a hazardous waste site or
that exist in the homes of a populace at risk.
Wipe sampling consists of rubbing a moistened filter paper
over a measured area of 100 cm to 1 m . The paper is then
sent to the laboratory for analysis. The results are
related back to the known area of the sample. A proper
sampling procedure is essential to ensure a representative,
uncontaminated sample.
13.1.6.1 Equipment Required
The following equipment is needed for wipe sampling:
o Whatman 541 filter paper or equivalent, 15 cm
o Disposable, chemical-protective gloves
o Solvent to wet filter paper
13.1.6.2 Wipe Sampling Steps
The steps involved in obtaining a wipe sample are listed
below:
o Using a clean, impervious disposable glove, such
as a surgeon's glove, remove a filter paper from
the box. (Note: Although it is necessary to
change the glove if it touches the surface being
wiped, a new glove should be used for each sample
to avoid cross contamination of samples. A new
glove should always be used when collecting a new
sample.)
13-2
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o Moisten the filter with a collection medium
selected to dissolve the contaminants of concern
as specified in the sampling plan. Typically,
organic-free water or the solvent used in analysis
is used. The filter should be wet but not
dripping.
2
o Thoroughly wipe approximately 1m of the area
with the moistened filter. Using aim' stencil
will help in judging the size of the wipe area.
If a different size area is wiped, record the
change in the field logbook. If the surface is
not flat, be sure to wipe any crevices or
depressions.
o Without allowing the filter to contact any other
surface, fold it with the exposed side in, and
then fold it over to form a 90-degree angle in the
center of the filter.
o Place the filter (angle first) into a clean glass
jar, replace the top, seal the jar according to
quality assurance requirements, and send the
sample to the appropriate laboratory.
o Prepare a blank by moistening a filter with the
collection medium. Place the blank in a separate
jar, and submit it with the other samples.
o Document the sample collection in the field
logbook and on appropriate forms, and ship samples
per procedures listed in Section 6.
13.1.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revision to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
13.1.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
EBASCO. "Dioxin Sampling." REM III Program Guidelines.
Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
28 February 1986.
NUS Corporation. "Site-Specific Site Operations Plans."
REM/FIT Contract.
13-3
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13.2 HUMAN HABITATION SAMPLING
13.2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the planning,
method selection, and implementation of sampling activities
used to determine the potential for human exposure to con-
taminants that are present in residential environment.
13.2.2 DEFINITIONS
Human habitation areas. Any place people may spend extended
periods of time, such as their homes or offices.
13.2.3 APPLICABILITY
This subsection discusses sampling techniques that are
similar in collection methodology to other types of samples,
such as environmental soil and water, but are biased to
emphasize potential human exposure to contaminants moving
into the residential environment.
13.2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Human habitation sampling is the most sensitive of all
environmental sampling activities. This sensitivity must be
addressed by community relations, health and safety, and
sample collection personnel and should be their key respon-
sibilities. Community relations personnel must coordinate
with the EPA to gain site access for the samplers by care-
fully informing the residents of activities being performed
and by answering any questions the residents might ask.
This difficult task must be performed in a manner that will
not overly alarm or excite people before definitive data can
be collected to determine the true exposure assessment.
The health and safety (risk assessment) personnel must be
responsible for informing management and community relations
personnel of the potential exposure risks. Health and
safety personnel will assist in sample plan preparation and
will aid the community relations personnel in correctly
answering questions. The risk assessment is also used in
determining safety measures for samplers. Later the health
and safety personnel will use the analytical data to make a
final health risk assessment. Finally, the sampling person-
nel, aside from their normal responsibilities, must be made
aware of the resident's perspective. Workers who are
educated and more comfortable with hazardous environments
must understand the potential health and economic impacts on
the people involved and must conduct themselves in a
comparable manner.
13-4
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13.2.5 RECORDS
Records generated during human habitation sampling will
include telephone conversation notes, access permission
slips, field notebooks, sample result databases, and quality
assurance review documentation.
13.2.5.1 Telephone Conversation Notes
As part of the initial community relations and site
investigative activities, the EPA will make telephone calls
to public officials, property owners, and other involved
persons. These telephone conversations must be documented,
taking care to note any commitments that are made or activ-
ities that are discussed. The EPA should make calls again
just before sampling to reaffirm permission to sample.
13.2.5.2 Access Permission Slips
A critical record that pertains to human habitation sampling
activities is the property owner's consent to enter the
property. Records such as these are important in the event
that any litigation activities take place. Sampling person-
nel must be aware, however, that consent can be withdrawn at
any time.
13.2.5.3 Field Notebooks
Specific field records should be documented in accordance
with the requirements set forth in the Quality Assurance
Project Plan (QAPjP). (See Section 6.)
13.2.5.4 Sample Results Databases
Human habitation sampling efforts will create sample result
database records that are critical for health risk analysis
and statistical evaluations.
13.2.5.5 Quality Assurance Review Documentation
To ensure the quality, consistency, and completeness of the
data, reports and other records generated must be reviewed
by persons other than those involved with the record gen-
eration. Records documenting this review should be kept as
a check against errors.
13.2.6 PROCEDURES
This subsection describes several types of samples
pertaining to human habitation. These samples can be
related to the potential for human exposure to contaminants
in the residential environment. Samples taken from the air
in and near the house or from the lawn, gardens, swimming
13-5
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pools, crops, farm animals, and other media related to human
habitation are collected generally in the same manner as
other environmental samples. (See Sections 7, 8, 10, 11,
and 12 of this compendium.)
13.2.6.1 Vacuum Bag
If a vacuum cleaner is present in a residence being sampled,
the vacuum bag can be an excellent source for a representa-
tive sample. The bag contains material from the air and
home surfaces that may potentially expose humans through
dermal, ingestion, and inhalation pathways. The vacuum bag
should be removed from the vacuum and the sample collected
as if it were a normal soil sample. Information on the
period of use of the bag should be obtained.
13.2.6.2 Air Conditioner Filter
If there is a central air conditioner or heating unit
present in a residence, the filters used with the system are
another source for collecting samples representative of the
residential environment. Filters are removed and placed in
large plastic bags for shipment to the laboratory for analy-
sis. Information on the period of use of the filter(s)
should be obtained.
1_3_._2_._6_. 3 Duj31J3 weep
Dust sweep samples are applicable to residential sampling if
an area exists where sufficient volume can be found. Areas
such as attics, crawl spaces, basements, and garages are
possible locations. Dust sweep samples are collected by
sweeping dust into a pile and then transferring the dust to
the sample containers by using an appropriate tool, such as
a stainless steel spoon. Alternately, an industrial vacuum
cleaner with a high-efficiency filter, such as used for
asbestos removal, can be used. The sample volume needed
will vary depending on the types of contaminants suspected.
If only low-volume areas exist, surface wipe samples may be
an alternative method. Infrequently dusted furniture (tall
cabinets, refrigerator tops or coils, etc.) may be a good
source.
13.2.6.4 Sump or Drain Sediment
Sump or drain locations are potential sampling points for
representative samples. The sediment that collects over a
period of time, or backs up in the sump, is collected as a
normal soil sample.
13-6
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13 .2 . 6.5 Lint Traps
The lint traps in clothes washers and dryers may contain
sufficient quantities of material for a sample. It is
important to recognize that such material has been subjected
to heat, water, and various laundry products.
13.2.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Human habitation sampling should have a site-specific
sampling plan, and all regions should be informed about cur-
rent innovative developments. No region-specific variances
have been identified; however, all future variances will be
incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium.
Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details
on current regional practices and requirements.
13.2.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
NUS Corporation. Superfund Training Manual.
13.3 TCDD SAMPLING
13.3.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general information on performing
2, 3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) analysis. The
user should be aware that the procedures for use in sampling
TCDD are often revised and should refer to the latest proce-
dures. EPA Regional Sample Control Center (RSCC) should be
contacted about preferred collection techniques.
13.3.2 DEFINITIONS
None.
13.3.3 APPLICABILITY
This sampling is applicable to sample collection work that
deals with the collection and analysis of TCDD.
13.3.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM for a particular site or the designee is responsible
for deciding when TCDD sampling is required.
Field personnel are responsible for performing the actual
sampling, maintaining the sample integrity, and preparing
the proper chain-of-custody forms.
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13.3.5 RECORDS
Records of TCDD sampling include chain-of-custody forms,
TCDD sampling forms, and appropriate entries in the field
logbook. Samples collected and sent to a CLP lab must be
accompanied by the CLP forms discussed in Section 5.
13.3.6 PROCEDURES
13.3.6.1 Sampling Activities
TCDD is usually sampled as a contaminant in soil or
sediment. Because TCDD binds tightly to the soil, it is
most often found in near-surface soils, unless the contam-
inated material was used as fill or consists of transported
sediments. Sampling for TCDD in soils is similar to other
types of soil sampling with the exception that a thorough
blending of the sample is of greater importance and that the
sampling equipment must be rigorously cleaned. Because the
"action levels" associated with TCDD contamination are very
low, the SM should consider using sampling equipment (stain-
less steel spoons, etc.) that has been cleaned in a labo-
ratory using CLP procedures. The SM should dispose of the
equipment after only one sample is taken. This greatly
decreases the possibility of cross contamination.
13.3.6.2 Blending Procedure
Samples for TCDD must be properly blended before analysis.
One technique involves using a 1-quart stainless steel
blender cup. The blender cup should be no more than
three-quarters full. Personnel should avoid placing stones
in the blender cup. In addition, large clumps of soil
should be broken up.
The sample is then returned to the blending station. The
blender is placed on a sample drop sheet, and the following
occurs:
o Pulse blender five times.
o Invert blender cup several times and shake.
o Repeat this procedure six times for a total of
30 pulses.
o Allow the blender to sit for 2 to 5 minutes to
allow all dust to settle. The blended sample is
then dispersed into a jar that has been placed in
a plastic bag or "baggie" with a rubber band clo-
sure at the neck to reduce the possibility of con-
taminating the outside of the sample jar.
13-8
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The sample is removed from the blender cup by using
scoopulas, which will be disposed of when the sample jar has
been filled. The baggie and rubber band are removed and put
in the designated receptacle. The sample jar may be spray
rinsed with 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCE) to further
reduce the possibility of contamination.
The jar is rebagged in a clean baggie, tagged, and processed
for shipping.
Any material remaining in the blender cup is disposed of in
the waste receptacle. The blender cup is filled (one-
quarter to one-half full) with soapy water, agitated
(blended) for 30 seconds, and, if necessary, scrubbed with a
brush. The cup is then rinsed with distilled water, alco-
hol, and 1,1,1-TCE and allowed to drip dry.
13.3.6.3 Field Quality Control Requirements
The quality control requirements listed below for dioxin
sampling may be used.
o Do not composite field samples.
o Homogenize solid samples in the field using a
mechanical blender or send an undisturbed sample
to the laboratory for homogenization. Laboratory
soil homogenization techniques are discussed in
Subsection 13.6.
o Keep samples away from light.
For each batch of up to 20 samples from one site, the
following samples should be added for quality control pur-
poses to the shipment:
o Include two performance audit samples.
o Include one field blank composed of soil taken by
field personnel from a clean area at the site.
o Add another field blank of soil that will be
labeled on the bottle and on the packing list with
"to be spiked by laboratory."
o Include one decontamination rinsate sample that
was obtained from the last 1,1,1-TCE rinse of the
blender. Label the bottle and packing list with
"1,1,1-trichloroethane decontamination rinsate."
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13.3.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Sampling and blending techniques for TCDD vary from region
to region. In Region III, each sample "batch" consists of
24 samples. The laboratory duplicates one analysis to bring
the total number of results to 25. The QA samples included
as part of each batch include the following:
o One field duplicate
o One field blank (actually background soil)
o One field background marked "to be spiked"
o One PE sample (selected and provided by the QA
section after discussion with the SM or RPM)
If the number of samples is fewer than 19, an additional PE
or duplicate may be added to the batch. Because variances
become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM
for current variances and the RSCC for the latest procedures
before initiating TCDD sampling. Other regional variances
will be incorporated within Revision 01 of this document.
13.3.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Engineering Support
Branch Standard Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance
Manual." Region IV, Environmental Services Division.
1 April 1986. (See Appendix 13-B.)
13.4 CONTAINER SAMPLING
13.4.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
This subsection provides general information on available
references for use in planning and implementing sampling
programs involving the movement and opening of closed con-
tainers of sizes varying from bottles to large tanks. Col-
lecting samples of containerized materials can be an
important part of a field investigation. The samples are
analyzed to determine the presence and magnitude of the
threat to the environment.
13.4.2 DEFINITIONS
Containers. Any drum, bottle, can, bag, and the like, with
a capacity of 120 gallons or less.
Tanks. Bulk tanks, such as railroad tank cars, and large
above- and below-ground tanks with a capacity of more than
120 gallons including tank trailers.
13-10
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13.4.3 APPLICABILITY
This guideline is applicable when a sample of the contents
of a closed container is needed. In general, a container
sampling program will have one of the following objectives:
o To determine the presence of hazardous materials
onsite
o To characterize the range of materials onsite
o To characterize container contents for such
purposes as bulking for disposal
13.4.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM or designee is responsible for deciding when
container sampling is needed. Sampling personnel will be
responsible for collecting representative samples, pre-
serving sample integrity, and adhering to chain-of-custody
procedures.
13.4.5 RECORDS
Conditions, markings, and observations of containers found
on a hazardous waste site, will be recorded in the site
logbook. Chain-of-custody forms and the appropriate CLP
forms will be completed. Photographs are important.
13.4.6 PROCEDURES
Detailed procedures for closed-container sampling can be
found in the following documents:
Drum Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA
Contract No. 68-03-3113. EPA/600/2-86/013. PB-86-165362.
Cincinnati, Ohio. January 1986.
Guidance Document for Cleanup of Surface Tank and Drum
Sites. OSWER Directive 9380.0-3. (NTIS PB-87-110672 .)
28 May 1985.
"Drum Opening Techniques and Equipment" and "Containerized
Liquids Sampling." Sampling at Hazardous Materials
Incidents. EPA Training Manual. Cincinnati, Ohio.
NUS Corporation. "Drum Opening and Sampling." NUS
Operating Guidelines Manual. Procedure No. 4.28.
13-11
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Camp Dresser & McKee Inc. Site Investigation Procedures
Manual. Vol. III. EPA Contract No. 68-01-6939. Document
Control No. 999-PMl-IO-BRNL-l. 1985.
WDR230/001
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Section 14
LAND SURVEYING, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, AND MAPPING
14.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section provides information for use in the planning
and implementation of land surveying, aerial photography,
and mapping for hazardous waste sites.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
Azimuth. A horizontal direction expressed as an angular
distance between the direction of a fixed point and the
direction of the depth.
Bearing. The direction of one point with respect to another
on the compass.
Bench mark. A mark on a permanent object indicating
elevation and serving as a reference in topographic surveys.
Second ("). The 60th part of a minute of angular
measurement.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Third-order plane survey. The lowest level of accuracy used
in topographic mapping, usually limited to small-scale
projects.
Transit. A theodolite with the telescope mounted so that it
can be transited; a surveyor's instrument.
Traverse. A series of connected lines of known length
related to one another by known angles.
14.3 APPLICABILITY
This section focuses on the methods of obtaining maps
through field surveys, property surveys, surveys of monitor-
ing wells, aerial photography, and photogrammetric mapping.
In performing these methods, other survey requirements may
need to be fulfilled (e.g., monument construction, boundary
surveys, and time/method/accuracy/cost considerations of
using an electronic distance meter instrument). Other sur-
veying and mapping methods include plane table and alidade
14-1
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mapping, transit-stadia mapping, three-wire leveling, and
trigonometric leveling. While these methods may have appli-
cations on a specific site, the methods discussed below
apply to all mapping activities conducted for the U.S. EPA
at hazardous waste sites.
14.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
It is the responsibility of the survey and mapping task
leader to ensure that the proper techniques are followed
throughout the project.
14.5 RECORDS
All field notes should be kept in bound books. Each book
should have an index. Each page of field notes should be
numbered and dated and should show the initials of all crew
members. The person taking field notes will be identified
in the log. Information on weather (wind speed/wind direc-
tion, cloud cover, etc.) and on other site conditions should
also be entered in the notes. Graphite pencils or water-
proof ballpoint pens should be used. Erasing is not accept-
able; use a single strike-through and initial it. The
notekeeping format should conform to the Handbook of Survey
Notekeeping by William Pafford. A survey work drawing with
grid lines and at the scale of the topographic map should be
prepared for all survey field work.
Aerial photography film annotation should include, at a
minimum, the date of exposure, flight number, and exposure
number. Additional information would include radar and
barometric altitude, time, latitude, longitude, heading,
pitch, roll, and drift angles.
Photogrammetric mapping should be in ink on mylar or
scribed; maps should be 22 inches by 34 inches or as
directed by the survey and mapping task leader.
14.6 PROCEDURES
14.6.1 SURVEYING; GENERAL
Survey requirements may necessitate survey accuracies of the
third order; however, the second order may be required on
some occasions and lower accuracies on other occasions. For
the majority of sites, all surveys shall be third-order
plane surveys as defined in the standards and specifications
in Exhibit 14-1.
14-2
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Exhibit 14-1
STANDARDS FOR THIRD-ORDER PLANE SURVEYS
Principal Use: Small engineering projects and small-scale
topographic mapping.
Traverse
Number of bearing courses
between azimuth checks
Astronomical bearings:
standard error of results
Azimuth closure at azimuth
checkpoint not to exceed
(use the smaller value)
Standard error of the mean
for length measurements
Position closure per loop in
feet after azimuth
adjustment
Leveling
Levels error of closure per
loop in feet
30 to 40 [30]*
8".0 [6".0]*
30" /"N or 8".0 per [20"/~N]*
station
1 in 30,000 [1 in 20,000]*
1:5,000 checkpoint or
3.34/ M, whichever is smaller
0.05 /~M
*Figures in brackets are commonly used in preparing
specifications for bid.
N = the number of stations for carrying bearing
M = the distance in miles
14-3
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Third-order plane surveys and horizontal angular
measurements should be made with a 20-second or better
transit. Angles should be doubled, with the mean of the
doubled angle within 10 seconds of the first angle.
Distance measurements should be made with a calibrated tape
corrected for temperature and tension or with a calibrated
electronic distance meter instrument (EDMI). When using
EDMI, the manufacturer's parts per million (ppm) error
continues to be applied, as well as corrections for
curvature and refraction.
14.6.1.1 Third-Order Vertical Survey
Land surveys are to be completed by a surveyor who is
licensed and registered in the state where the survey is
conducted. When practical, vertical control will be refer-
enced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) of
1929, obtained from a permanent bench mark. If possible,
level circuits should close on a bench mark whose elevation
is known (other than the starting bench mark). If the cir-
cuit closes on the original bench mark, the last point in
the circuit must be used as a turning point. The following
criteria should be met in conducting the survey:
o Instruments should be pegged regularly.
o Rod levels should be used,
o Foresight and backsight distances should be
reasonably balanced.
o No side shot should be used as a turning point in
any level loop.
o Elevation readings should be recorded to 0.01 foot
and estimated to 0.005 foot using a calibrated
rod.
Temporary monuments should be set and referenced for future
recovery. All monuments should be described in the field
notes and should consist of a permanent mark scribed on
facilities such as sidewalks, paved roads, or curbs. Suffi-
cient description should be provided to facilitate their
recovery.
14.6.1.2 Property Surveys
All property surveys should be performed in accordance with
good land surveying practices and should conform to all per-
tinent federal and state laws and regulations governing land
surveying in the area where the work is being accomplished.
The surveyor shall be licensed and registered in the state
where the survey is conducted.
14-4
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Upon completion of the project, all original field note-
books/ computations, and pertinent reference materials
should be delivered to the SM for retention in the site
file. The surveyor may keep photostatic copies of the
material.
All field note reductions should be checked and marked in
such a way that a visual inspection of the field notes will
confirm that checks have been made. All office entries in
field notebooks should be made in colored pencil.
The office worker who reduces or checks field notes should
initial each page worked on in the color used on that page.
14.6.1.3 Traverse Computations and Adjustments
Traverses will be closed and adjusted in the following
manner:
o Step one—Bearing closures will be computed and
adjusted if within limits.
o Step two—Coordinate closures will be computed
using adjusted bearings and unadjusted field
distances.
o Step three—Coordinate positions will be adjusted
if the traverse closes within the specified lim-
its. The method of adjusting shall be determined
by the surveyor.
o Step four—Final adjusted coordinates will be
labeled as "adjusted coordinates." Field coordi-
nates should be specifically identified as such.
o Step five—The direction and length of the
unadjusted error of closure, the ratio of error
over traverse length, and the method of adjustment
should be printed with the final adjusted
coordinates.
14.6.1.4 Level Circuit Computations and Adjustments
Level circuits will be closed and adjusted in the following
manner:
o For a single circuit, elevations will be adjusted
proportionally, provided the raw closure is within
the prescribed limits for that circuit.
o In a level net where the elevation of a point is
established by more than one circuit, the method
of adjustment should consider the length of each
14-5
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circuit, the closure of each circuit, and the
combined effect of all the separate circuit clo-
sures on the total net adjustment.
14.6.1.5 Monitoring Well Surveys
Monitoring well locations are surveyed only after the
installation of the tamperproof locking cap well casing
cover, which is set in concrete. The horizontal plane sur-
vey accuracy is ±1 foot (unless greater accuracy is desired)
and is measured to any point on the well casing cover. The
vertical plane survey must be accurate to ±0.01 foot. Three
elevations are measured, including the following:
o Top of the inner well casing (on the lip)
o Top of the outer protective casing (on the lip,
not the cap)
o Finished concrete pad adjacent to the outer well
casing
The point at which the elevation was measured should be
scribed so that water level measurements may be taken at the
same location. Note: The SM should ensure that the survey-
ing party is given the keys to the locking cap before start-
ing the survey.
14.6.2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Aerial photography for nonphotogrammetic use can be obtained
from the following agencies:
o Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory (EMSL),
Las Vegas, Nevada
o Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center
(EPIC), Warrenton, Virginia
o National Cartographic Information Center, Reston,
Virginia
o Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture; Eastern or Western Laboratory,
Asheville, North Carolina, or Salt Lake City,
Utah, respectively
o Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. (for the eastern United States
and Alaska), or the appropriate regional forester
in Forest Service Regions 1-6 (Montana, Colorado,
New Mexico, Utah, San Francisco, and Portland)
14-6
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State and local transportation departments, zoning
commissions, and planning divisions or local universities
may also have useful aerial photographs. The EPA Enviropod,
which consists of two 70-mm cameras mounted in a pod that
can be attached to a light plane, is available through EPA
regional offices. Aerial photographs may be obtained
rapidly using the Enviropod and EPA photographic labo-
ratories for developing the film. The photographs are not
suitable for photogrammetric use. Photogrammetric aerial
photography is usually contracted.
14.6.2.1 Contracting Aerial Photography
The following provisions should be included in the contract:
o Business arrangements—These include such items as
the cost of the aerial survey, posting of a per-
formance bond, assumption of risks and damages,
provision for periodic inspection of work,
reflights, cancellation privileges, schedule for
delivery and payments, and ownership and storage
of negatives.
o Area to be photographed—This includes location,
size, and boundaries. These are ordinarily
indicated on flight maps (1:24,000 scale) supplied
by the purchaser.
o Type of photographic film and filter—This
includes such items as ASA exposure rating
(ASA 100 is usually specified). The dimensional
stability of the film base may also be specified.
o Negative scale—The maximum scale deviation
normally allowed is ±5 percent.
o The aerial camera—A National Bureau of Standards
calibration report meeting U.S. Geological Survey
standards for photogrammetric mapping is required.
Other camera specifications include size of nega-
tive format, method of flattening film during
exposure, type of shutter, focal length (usually
6 inches), distortion characteristics of the lens,
and resolving power.
o Position of flight lines—Lines are to be
parallel, oriented in the correct compass direc-
tion, and within a stated distance from positions
drawn on flight maps.
o Overlap—This is usually set at 55 to 65 percent
(the average is 60 percent) along the line of
flight and 15 to 45 percent (the average is 30
14-7
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percent) between adjacent lines. At the ends of
each flight line, two photo centers should fall
outside the boundary of the tract.
o Print alignment—Crab or drift is not to affect
more than 10 percent of the print width for any
three consecutive photographs.
o Tilt—This should not exceed 2 or 3 degrees for a
single exposure, or average more than 1 degree for
the entire project.
o Time of photography—The season of the year and
the time of day (or minimum sun angle) are usually
specified. The aerial photography should be con-
ducted in the spring or fall when deciduous vege-
tation is bare and the ground is essentially free
of snow cover. Ideal flight times are between
10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. local standard time, or
when the sun is at a minimum of 30 degrees above
the horizon. Cloud or fog cover should not exceed
10 percent.
o Base maps—If base maps or radial line plots are
required, responsibility for ground control (field
surveying) should be established.
o Film processing—Included here are procedures for
developing and drying negatives and for indexing
and editing film rolls, plus a description of the
type of photographic paper (weight, finish, and
contrast) to be used.
o Quality of negatives and prints—Negatives and
prints should be free from stains, scratches, and
blemishes that detract from the intended use.
o Materials to be delivered—Two sets of contact
prints and one set of index sheets are usually
supplied. A copy of the original flight log may
also be specified. Additional items such as
enlargements, mosaics, maps, or plan-and-profile
sheets should be listed in detail. One set of
contact prints should be delivered to the project
manager within 5 days of the date of the photog-
raphy, unless otherwise specified. The SM should
arrange for additional sets of prints to be
delivered at the same time if needed.
14.6.2.2 Photogrammetric Mapping
The scale of the mapping photography should be suitable for
the preparation of a topographic map by photogrammetric
14-8
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methods at a scale and contour interval requested by the
project, usually a 1" = 50' scale and 2-foot contour
intervals. Larger areas or areas with great differences in
elevation may require a different scale.
Map accuracy shall meet or exceed the following minimum
standards:
o For horizontal accuracy, 90 percent of all defined
points should be within 1/40 inch of their true
position, and 100 percent of all defined points
should be within 1/20 inch of their true position.
o For vertical accuracy, 90 percent of all contours
shall be within one-half of a contour interval,
and 100 percent of all contours shall be within
one contour interval. Ninety percent of all spot
elevations should be accurate to within one-fourth
of the contour interval, and all spot elevations
should be within one-half of the contour interval.
o Mapping should show all planimetric features
including, but not limited to, buildings, walks,
roads, fences, ditches, trees, utility poles,
tanks, drums, lagoons, pits, ponds, and other such
features visible on the photograph, as well as
contours and spot elevations on roads, dikes, and
ditch inverts. Assemblages of containers (e.g.,
drums, laboratory bottles) may be indicated by a
symbol rather than by depicting individual con-
tainers. The height and estimated number of such
containers should be depicted within the symbol.
o All horizontal and vertical control points should
be shown on the final map along with a tabulation
of coordinates and elevations. The description,
origin, and elevations of the bench marks used for
the mapping control should be shown on the map.
o The horizontal coordinate system should be
referenced to a local recoverable baseline at the
site. The state plane coordinate system should be
used when it is readily available near the site.
o Photographic control points must be kept outside
the hazardous areas where possible.
o The map should show the basis of bearing, north
arrow, date of photography, names of streets and
highways, project number, project name, and a bar
scale.
14-9
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14.6.3 REMOTE SENSING
The standards for remote sensing imagery will be determined
on a project-specific and instrument-specific basis. Remote
sensing data are used in environmental surveys and risk
assessments. Methods include, but are not limited to, the
following:
o Satellite photography (LANDSAT, Skylab)
o Radar (side-looking airborne radar, plan positive
indicator)
o Thermal imagery (infrared detectors, line
scanning, infrared photography)
o Multiband spectral imagery
o Low-altitude helicopter photography (stereograms)
o Continuous strip photography
The National Cartographic Information Center (NCIC) provides
information about and access to cartographic data generated
by federal, state, and local governmental bodies and by pri-
vate sources. NCIC does not hold these data; it functions
as a link between the user and the desired material.
Requests for information may be submitted to the following
agency:
National Cartographic Information Center
U.S. Geological Survey
507 National Center
Reston, Virginia 22092
Records of aerial photographic coverage of the United States
and outlying areas and of space imagery are maintained at
the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The
Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program gathers
and uses remotely sensed data, collected by satellite and
aircraft, of natural features and those made by humans on
the earth's surface. Reference files, consisting of micro-
films of available data primarily from LANDSAT I and II,
formerly known as Earth Resources Technology Satellite
(ERTS), may be viewed at 20 locations across the United
States. Purchases of such data may be made from the
following:
EROS Data Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198
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14.6.4 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Hydrographic surveys deal with the measurement and
definition of the configuration of the bottom and adjacent
land areas of oceans, lakes, rivers, harbors, and other
bodies of water.
The size of the body of water will dictate the type of
survey required to perform the necessary mapping. Surveys
should conform to the requirements set forth in the
Hydrographic Survey Manual by the U.S. Department of
Commerce.
14.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
14.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
American Society of Photogrammetry. Manual of
Photogrammetry. 4th ed.
Averes, T. Eugene. Interpretation of Aerial Photographs.
2nd ed. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgens Publishing
Company.
Federal Geodetic Control Committee. Specification to
Support Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and General
Specifications of Geodetic Control Surveys. July 1975.
(Revised June 1980.)
Manual of Photographic Interpretation. Menasha, Wisconsin:
Banta Publishing Company.
Moffitt, Francis H., and Harry Bouchard. Surveying.
New York: Mtext Educational Publishers.
Pafford, William F. Handbook of Survey Notekeeping.
Umbach, Melvin J. Hydrographic Survey Manual. 4th ed.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration.
WDR146/023
14-11
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Section 15
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION
15.0 INTRODUCTION
Section 15 provides basic information on operating various
pieces of equipment that are typically used in the field.
The purpose of this section is not to provide standard
operating procedures or to establish performance criteria
for field instruments. The purpose is to provide a narra-
tive description of some instrument use approaches and
techniques that have been tested on certain projects. In
*'all 1987, the Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) will pub-
lish a "Field Screening Methods Catalog" that will contain
detailed discussions of field analytical methods, including
use of field instruments for analysis. The CLP catalog will
provide a consolidated reference for use by EPA,
contractors, state and local agencies, and potentially
responsible parties (PRPs) who will be conducting field
analysis. When this compendium is updated, it will reflect
the information contained in the CLP catalog. The updated
compendium will also contain information on any additional
instruments that were found useful by contractors but were
not included in the catalog. Field monitoring instruments
are used whenever the data quality objectives specify
Level I and II analytical support as adequate.
The objective of Level I analysis is to generate data that
are generally used in refining sampling plans and in esti-
mating the extent of contamination at the site. This type
of support provides real-time data for health and safety
purposes. Additional data that can toe obtained effectively
by Level I analyses include pH, conductivity, temperature,
salinity, and dissolved oxygen for water (see Sections 8
and 10), as well as some measurement ot contamination using
various kits (see Subsection 7.6).
Level I analyses are generally effective for total vapor
readings using portable photoionization of flame ionization
meters that respond to a variety ot volatile inorganic and
organic compounds (see Section 15).
Level I analysis provides data for onsite, real-time total
vapor measurement, evaluation ot existing conditions,
refinement ot sampling location, and health and safety
evaluations. Data generated from Level I support are
generally considered qualitative in nature, although limited
quantitative data also can be generated. Data generated
from this type of analysis provide the following:
15-1
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o Identification of soil, water, air, and waste
locations that have a high likelihood of showing
contamination through subsequent analysis
o Real-time data to be used for health and safety
consideration during site reconnaissance and
subsequent intrusive activities
o Quantitative data if a contaminant is known and
the instrument is calibrated to that substance
On the other hand, field analysis (see Section 7) involves
the use of portable or transportable instruments that are
based at or near a sampling site. Field analysis should not
be confused with the process of obtaining total organic
readings using portable meters. These instruments typically
are used in obtaining data that is defined by data quantity
objectives as Level I. (See Section 7 for a discussion ot
DQO data levels.) The analytical techniques associated with
these instruments are derived from the experiences ot a
number of contractors and EPA personnel.
Equipment users also should consult the applicable
manufacturer's operating manuals, which will provide a more
comprehensive guide to all facets of using field equipment.
Several of the procedures discussed below refer to sections
of the manufacturer's manual that are too voluminous to
reproduce here. Finally, all equipment calibrations and
readings that occur in the field must be recorded in the
site-specific logbook.
Exhibit 15-1, modified from Tables 7-1 and 7-2 of
"Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazard-
ous Waste Site Activities," NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, October
1985, presents a summary of the characteristics of classes
of instruments, specific examples of which are discussed in
detail below.
lb.1 PHOTOVAC IQAlO
15.1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Subsection 15.1 discusses the use, calibration, and
maintenance of the Photovac 10A10.
15.1.2 DEFINITIONS
Carrier gas. The gas used to transport a gaseous sample
through the chromatographic column and on to the detector of
a gas chromatograph. In the Photovac, the carrier gas is
ultra-pure air.
15-2
-------
Exhibit 15-1
FIELD INSTRUMENTS*
Ul
I
co
Hazard
Instrument Monitored
Ultraviolet Many organic
(UV) Photoioni- and some inor-
zation Detector ganic gases and
(PID) vapors.
(Photovac 10A10)
(HNU PI-101)
Application
Detects total
concentrations
of many organic
and some inor-
ganic gases and
vapors .
Some identifi-
cation of com-
pounds is
possible if more
than one probe
is used.
Detection
Method
Ionizes
molecules using
UV radiation;
produces a cur-
rent that is
proportional
to the number
of ions.
Limitations
Does not detect
methane.
Does not detect
a compound if
the probe used
has a lower
energy level
than the com-
pound's ioniza-
tion potential.
Response may
change when
gases are mixed.
Other voltage
sources may
interfere with
measurements .
Ease of
Operation
Effective use
requires that
the operator
understands the
operating prin-
ciples and pro-
cedures , and is
competent in
calibrating,
reading, and
interpreting
the instrument.
General Care
and Maintenance
Recharge or
replace battery.
Regularly clean
and maintain the
instrument and
accessories .
Typical
Operating
Times
10 hours;
5 hours with
strip chart
recorder.
Readings can only
be reported rela-
tive to the cali-
bration standard
used.
Response is affect-
ed by high humidity.
Flame loniza- Many organic
tion Detector gases and
(FID) with Gas vapors.
Chromatography
Option
(OVA 128)
In survey mode,
detects the
total concen-
trations of many
organic gases
and vapors. In
gas chromato-
graphy (GC)
mode, identifies
and measures
specific
compounds .
In survey mode.
all the organic
compounds are
Gases and
vapors are
ionized in a
flame. A cur-
rent is pro-
duced in
proportion to
the number of
carbon atoms
present.
Does not detect
inorganic gases
or some synthe-
tics. Sensitiv-
ity depends on
the compound.
Should not be
used at temper-
atures less
than 40°F (4°C)
Difficult to
absolutely iden-
tify compounds.
Requires exper-
ience to inter-
pret data
correctly, espe-
cially in the
GC mode.
Specific iden-
tification
requires cali-
bration with
specific ana-
lyte of
interest.
Recharge or
replace battery.
Monitor fuel
and/or combus-
tion air supply
gauges.
Perform routine
maintenance as
described in the
manual .
Check for leaks.
8 hours;
3 hours with
strip chart
recorder.
-------
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Hazard
Monitored
Detection
Application Method
are ionized and
detected at the
same time. In
GC mode, volatile
species are
separated.
Ease of
Limitations Operation
High concentra-
trations of con-
taminants or
oxygen-deficient
atmospheres
require system
modification.
Typical
General Care Operating
and Maintenance Times
In survey mode,
readings can be
only reported
relative to the
calibration
standard used.
Combustible Combustible
Gas Indicator gases and
(CGI) vapors.
(MSA Explosi-
meter)
Measures the A filament,
concentration usually made
of a combustible of platinum,
gas or vapor. is heated by
burning the
combustible gas
or vapor.
The increase
Accuracy Effective use
depends, in requires that
on the differ- the operator
ence between the understands the
the calibration operating prin-
and sampling ciples and
temperatures . procedures .
Sensitivity is
Recharge or
replace battery.
Calibrate imme-
diately before
use.
Can be used
for as long
as the battery
lasts, or for
the recommended
interval
between cali-
bration which-
ever is less.
in heat is
measured.
a function of
the differences
in the chemical
and physical
properties be-
tween the cali-
bration gas and
the gas being
sampled.
The filament can
be damaged by
certain compounds
such as silicones,
halides, tetra-
ethyl lead, and
oxygen-enriched
atmospheres.
CGI does not
provide a valid
reading under
oxygen-deficient
conditions.
-------
l/l
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Oxygen Meter
(MSA Oxygen
Meter)
Direct-Reading
Colorimetric
Indicator Tube
(Draeger)
Hazard
Monitored Application
Oxygen (0 ) . Measures the
percentage of
0, in air.
z
Specific gases The compound
and vapors. reacts with
the indicator
chemical in the
tube, producing
a stain whose
length or color
change is pro-
portional to
the compound's
concentration.
Detection
Method
Uses an electro-
chemical sensor
to measure the
partial pressure
of 0, in the air
and converts
that reading to
0-, concentration.
z
The measured
concentration
of the same
compound may
vary among dif-
ferent manufac-
turer's tubes.
Many similar
chemicals
interfere.
Limitations
Must be cali-
brated before
use to compen-
sate for alti-
tude and
barometric
pressure.
Certain gases,
especially
oxidants such
as ozone, can
affect readings
Carbon dioxide
(C02) poisons
the detector
cell.
Minimal opera-
tor training
and expertise
required.
Ease of
Operation
Effective use
requires that
operator under-
stands the
operating prin-
ciples and
procedures .
.
Do not use a
General Care
and Maintenance
Replace detector 8
cell according
to manufacturer's
recommendations .
Recharge or
replace batteries
before expiration
of the specified
interval.
If the ambient
air is more than
0.5% CO-,, replace
or rejuvenate the
Oj detector cell
frequently.
Typical
Operating
Times
to 12 hours
previously opened
tube even if the
indicator chemi-
cal is not
stained.
Check pump for
leaks before and
after use.
Greatest sources
of error are
(1) how the opera-
tor judges stain's
end-point and
(2) the tube's
limited accuracy.
Affected by high
humidity.
Refrigerate before
use to maintain
shelf life of
about 2 years.
Check expiration
date of tubes.
Calibrate pump
volume at least
quarterly.
Avoid rough
handling that
may cause
channeling.
-------
U1
I
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Gamma Radiation
Survey
Instrument
(Thyac III)
Portable Infra-
red (IR)
Spectrophoto-
meter
Hazard
Monitored Application
Gamma radiation. Environmental
radiation
monitor.
Many gases Measures con-
and vapors. centration of
many gases and
vapors in air.
Designed to
quantify one-
or two-compo-
nent mixtures.
Detection
Method
Scintillation
detector.
Passes different
frequencies of
IP through the
sample.
The frequencies
adsorbed are
specific for
each compound.
Limitations
Does not mea-
sure alpha or
beta radiation.
In the field,
must make
repeated passes
to achieve
reliable
results .
Requires 115-
volt AC power.
Not approved for
use in a poten-
tially flammable
or explosive
atmosphere .
Interference by
water vapor and
carbon dioxide.
Ease of General Care
Operation and Maintenance
Extremely easy Must be cali-
to operate, but brated annually
requires exper- at a special-
ience to inter- ized facility.
pret data.
Rugged, good in
field use.
Requires per- As specified
sonnel with by manufacturer.
extensive exper-
ience in IR
spectrophotometry .
Typical
Operating
Times
Can be used
for as long
as the battery
lasts, or for
the recom-
mended interval
between cali-
brations,
whichever is
less.
Certain vapors
and high moisture
may attach the
instrument's
optics, which
must then be
replaced.
*Source:
Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities,
Tables 7-1 and 7-2, NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, October 1985.
HDR230/019
-------
Photoionization detector (PIP). The detector uses an
ultraviolet light source to ionize individual molecules that
have an ionization potential less than or equal to that
rated for the ultraviolet light source. Gaseous contami-
nants are ionized as they emerge from the column, and the
ions are then attracted to an oppositely charged electrode,
causing a current and finally an electric signal to the
strip chart recorder.
Retention time. The total time required for a volatile
chemical to traverse and emerge from chromatographic column
into the detector, measured from the time of injection onto
the column.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Standard. This is a known concentration of a known chemical
that is used to perform quantitative analysis. Either the
chemical constituent(s) can be in a solution with distilled
water so that a headspace is present, or it can be complete-
ly vaporized in the volatile organic analysis (VGA) vial. A
syringe can be used to withdraw some of the headspace gas
after the vial is agitated, and this gas can be injecte'd
into the column for chromatographic analysis. The retention
times of the standard are then compared to the retention
times of unknown peaks in a sample.
Volatile contaminants. Chemicals that are characterized by
low boiling points and high vapor pressures.
15.1.3 APPLICABILITY
This procedure is applicable to Photovac lOAlOs used for
field and laboratory analysis.
15.1.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of
these procedures.
15.1.5 RECORDS
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration
records will be generated and maintained by the responsible
organization. Maintenance, calibration, and results
obtained in the field will be recorded in the site logbook.
15-7
-------
15.1.6 PROCEDURES
Before beginning the set-up and operation of 10A10, the
following precautions should be carefully reviewed. Because
of its special capabilities, 10A10 requires special
treatment.
1. NEVER remove the top panel with the instrument
connected to the MAINS (electrical supply); always dis-
connect the instrument first because of the danger of
electric shock.
2. The 10A10 must always be connected to the carrier gas
supply, and a continuous stream of carrier gas must be
passed through the column. This arrangement maintains
the column in peak condition and ready for use with a
minimum of delay.
3. NEVER inject liquid samples, however small, into the
10A10. It is an all-gas system and is not designed to
accept liquids, which will cause gross contamination
and necessitate a thorough overhaul.
4. Read carefully the section in the manufacturer's manual
on battery care. Avoid overcharging the batteries;
otherwise, their life will be impaired.
5. Except when charging batteries, always unplug the unit
from the MAINS (electrical supplylwhen it is not in
use.
6. When transferring the unit from extremely cold
environments into warm, humid conditions, be alert to
the likelihood of condensation; if possible, allow some
time for the instrument to warm up before using.
7. Establish that the Photovac 10A10 can detect the
contaminate being tested for (see Exhibit 15-2). Two
criteria can be followed:
a. The ionization potential of the compound must be
less than 11 electron volts (eV).
b. The boiling point of the compound must allow for
its elution through an ambient temperature column.
Higher boiling points will not allow this to
occur.
15.1.6.1 Startup Procedure
1. The preferred carrier gas is Linde Air Ultra Zero or
its equivalent (with less than 0.1 ppm total organic
contamination). Fit the supply cylinder with a
15-8
-------
Exhibit 15-2
SOME COMPOUNDS THAT CAN BE DETECTED USING
THE PHOTOVAC IDS SERIES OF PORTABLE GCs
Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone
Acetylene
Acetylene dichloride
Acetylene tetrabromide
Acrolein
Acrylonltrile
Allene
Allyl alcohol
Allyl chloride
Aminoethanol
Ammonia
Aniline
Anisole
Arslne
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzenethiol
Benzyl chloride
Benzonitrile
Benzotrifluoride
Bromobenzene
1-Bromobutane
2-Bromobutane
1-Bromobutanone
l-Bromo-2-chloroethane
Bromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
l-Bromo-3-chloropropane
Bromoethane
Bromoethene
Bromoform
1-Bromo-3-hexanone
Bromomethane
Bromomethyl ethyl ether
l-Bromo-2-methylpropane
2-Bromo-2-methylpropane
1-Bromopentane
1-Bromopropane
2-Bromopropane
1-Bromopropene
2-Bromopropene
3-Bromopropene
2-Bromothiophene
0-bromotoluene
M-bromotoluene
P-bromotoluene
1,3-Butadiene
2,3-Butadione
N-Butanal
2-Butanal
N-butane
1-Butanethiol
2-Butanone
Iso-butanol
Sec-butanol
Tert-butanol
2-Butanol
1-Butene
Cis-2-butene
Trans-2-butene
3-Butene nitrile
N-butyl acetate
eV
10.21
10.37
9.69
11.41
9.80
10.10
10.91
9.83
9.67
10.20
9.87
10.15
7.70
8.22
9.89
9.53
9.25
8.33
10.16
9.71
9.68
8.98
10.13
9.98
9.54
10.63
10.77
10.28
9.80
10.48
9.26
10.53
10.08
10.09
9.89
10.10
10.18
10.08
9.30
10.06
9.70
8.63
8.79
8.81
8.67
9.07
9.23
9.83
9.73
10.63
9.14
9.53
10.47
10.23
10.25
10.1
9.58
9.13
9.13
10.39
10.01
Sec-butyl acetate
N-butyl alcohol
N-butyl amine
I-butyl amine
S-butyl amine
T-butyl amine
N-butyl benzene
I-butyl benzene
T-butyl benzene
Butyl cellosolve
N-butyl mercaptan
I-butyl ethanoate
Iso-butyl mercaptan
I-butyl methanoate
1-Butyne
2-Butyne
N-butyraldehyde
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
Cellosolve acetate
Chlorobenzene
Chlorobromomethane
l-Chloro-2-bromoethane
1-Chlorobutane
2-Chlorobutane
1-Chlorobutanone
l-Chloro-2,3 epoxy propane
Chloroethane (ethyl chloride)
Chloroethene
2-Chloroethoxyethene
l-Chloro-2-fluorobenzene
l-Chloro-3-fluorobenzene
l-Chloro-2-flouroethene(cis)
l-Chloro-2-fluoroethene(trans)
Chloroform
0-chloroiodobenzene
l-Chloro-2-methylbenzene
l-Chloro-3-methylbenzene
1-Chioro-4-methyIbenz ene
Chloromethylethyl ether
Chloromethylmethyl ether
1 Chloro-2-methylpropane
Chloroprene
1-Chloropropane
2-Chloropropane
3-Chloropropene
P-chlorostyrene
2-Chlorothiophene
0-chlorotoluene
M-chlorotoluene
P-chlorotoluene
Cumene (i-propyl benzene)
Crotonaldehyde
Cyanoethene
Cyanogen bromide
3-Cyanopropene
Cyclobutane
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexene
Cyclo-octatetraene
Cyclopentadiene
Cyclopentane
Cyclopentanone
eV
9.91
10.04
8.71
8.70
8.70
8.64
8.69
8.68
8.68
8.68
9.15
9.95
9.12
10.46
10.18
9.85
9.86
10.13
11.28
9.07
10.63
10.67
10.65
9.54
10.60
10.97
10.00
10.61
9.16
9.21
9.87
9.87
11.37
8.35
8.72
8.61
8.78
10.08
10.25
10.66
10.82
10.78
10.04
8.68
8.83
8.83
8.70
8.75
9.73
10.91
10.91
10.39
10.50
9.98
9.14
8.95
7.99
8.55
10.52
9.26
15-y
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
Cyclopentene
Cyclopropane
2-Decanone
1,3-Dibromobutane
1,4-Dibromobutane
Dibromochloromethane
Dibromochloropropane
1,1-Dibromoethane
Dibroraemethane
1,2-Dibromopropane
2,2-Dibromopropane
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
l,4~Dich3orobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobutane
1,4-D]chlorobutane
l,4-Dichloro-2-butene(cis)
2,2-Dichlorobutane
2,3-Dichlorobutane
3,4-Dichlorobutene (Freon 12}
Dichlorodifluoromethane
1,1-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Cis-dichloroethene
Trans-dichloroethene
Dichloroethyl ether
DicM oromethane
i,2-Dichloropropane
1,3-Dichloropropane
1,1-Dichloropropanone
2,3-Dichloropropene
Dicyc]opentadiene
Dibutyl amine
Diethoxymethane
Diethyl amine
Diethyl ether
N-diethyl formamide
Diethyl ketone
Diethyl sulfide
1,2-Difluorobenzene
1,4-Difluorobenzene
Difluorodibromomethane
Difluoromethylbenzene
1,1-Dimethoxyethane
Ditnethoxyme thane
Diiodomethane
Diisobutyl ketone
Diisopropylamine
Dimethyl amine
2,3-Dimethylbutadiene
2,2-Diraethyl butane
2,2-Dimethyl butane-3-one
2,3-Dimethyl butane
2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene
3,3-Dimethyl butanone
Dimethyl disulfide
Dimethyl ether
Dimethylformamide
3,5-Dimethy1-4-heptanone
2,2-Dimethy1-3-pentanone
2,2-Dimethyl propane
eV
9.01
10.06
9.40
10.59
10.19
10.49
10.26
9.07
9.12
8,94
11.75
11.06
11.04
9.65
9.66
11.35
10.87
10.85
9.71
9.82
7.74
7.69
9.70
8.01
9.53
8.89
9.32
8.43
9.31
9.15
11.18
9.45
9.65
10.00
9.34
9.04
7.73
8.24
8.72
10.06
9.18
10.02
8.30
9.17
8.46
10.00
9.45
9.04
8.98
10.35
Dimethyl sulfide
Di-n-propyl disulfide
Dl-n-propyl ether
Di-i-propyl ether
Di-n-propyl amine
Di-n-propyl sulfide
Epichlorohydrin
Ethane
Ethanal
Ethanol
Ethanethiol (ethyl mercaptan)
Ethene (ethylene)
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl amine
Ethyl amyl ketone
Ethyl benzene
Ethyl bromide
Ethyl butyl ketone
Ethyl chloride (chloroethane)
Ethyl chloroacetate
Ethyl ethanoate
Ethyl disulfide
Ethylene chlorohydrin
Ethylene dibromide (EDB)
Ethylene glycol dinitrate
Ethylene oxide
Ethyl formate
Ethyl iodide
Ethyl methanoate
Ethyl isothiocyanate
Ethyl methyl sulfide
Ethyl propanoate
Ethyl trichloroacetate
Ethylidene chloride
Ethynylbenzene
Mono-fluorobenzene
Mono-fluoroethene
Mono-fluoromethanal
Fluorotribromomethane
0-fluorotoluene
M-fluorotoluene
P-fluorotoluene
Freon 11 (CFC1,)
Freon 12 (CF-CIJ
Freon 13 (CF,C1T
Freon 13 B-r3
Freon 14 (neat)
Freon 22 (CHC1F,)
Freon 113 (CF,CC1,)
2-Furaldehydeli J
Fur an
Furfuryl alcohol
Furfural
Hexachloroethane
N-hexane
N-heptane
2-Heptanone
eV
8.69
8.27
9.27
9.20
7.84
8.30
10.60
11.65
10.21
10.62
9.29
10.52
10.11
8.86
9.10
8.76
10.29
9.02
10.98
10.20
10.10
8.27
10.90
10.37
10.56
10.61
9.33
10.61
9.14
8.55
10.00
10.44
8.82
9.20
10.37
11.4
10.67
8.92
8.92
8.79
11.77
12.91
12.91
12.08
16.25
12.45
11.78
9.21
8.89
9.21
10.18
10.07
9.33
15-10
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
4-Heptanone
1-Hexene
Hexanone
HexamethyIben z ene
Hydraz ine
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen telluride
Iodine
lodobenzene
1-Iodobutane
2-Iodobutane
lodoethane (ethyl iodide)
lodomethane (methyl iodide)
l-Iodo-2-methylpropane
l-Iodo-2-methylpropane
1-Iodopentane
1-Iodopropane
2-Iodopropane
0-iodotoluene
M-iodotoluene
P-iodotoluene
Isoamyl acetate
Isoamyl alcohol
Isobutane
Isobutyl amine
Isobutyl acetate
Isobutyl alcohol
Isobutyl formate
Isobutyraldehyde
Isopentane
Isoprene
Isopropyl acetate
Isopropy1 alcohol
Isopropyl amine
Isopropyl benzene
Isopropyl ether
Isovaleraldehyde
Mesitylene
Mesityl oxide
Methanol
Methyl acetate
Methyl acrylate
Methyl amine
Methyl bromide
2-Methyl-l,3-butadlene
2-Methylbutanal
2-Methylbutane
2-Methyl-l-butene
3-Methyl-l-butene
3-Methyl-2-butene
Methyl n-butyl ketone
Methyl butyrate
Methyl cellosolve
Methyl chloroacetate
Methyl chloride
Methyl chloroform
eV
9.12
9.46
7.85
13.91
9.88
10.46
9.14
9.28
8.73
9.21
9.09
9.33
9.54
9.18
9.02
9.19
9.26
9.17
8.62
8.61
8.50
9.90
10.16
10.57
8.70
9.97
10.47
10.46
9.74
10.32
8.85
9.99
10.16
8.72
8.75
9.20
9.71
8.40
9.08
10.85
10.27
10.72
8.97
10.53
8.85
9.71
10.31
9.12
9.51
8.67
9.34
10.07
10.35
11.28
11.25
MethyIcyclohexane
4-Methylcyclohexene
MethyIcyclopropane
Methyl dichloroacetate
Methyl ethanoate
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl ethyl sulfide
2-Methyl furan
Methyl iodine
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methyl isobutyrate
l-Methyl-4-isopropylbenzene
Methyl isopropyl ketone
Methyl methacrylate
Methyl methanoate
Methyl mercaptan
2-Methylpentane
3-Methylpentane
2-Methylpropane
2-Methylpropanal
2-Methyl-2-propanol
2-Methylpropene
Methyl n-propyl ketone
Methyl styrene
Morpholine
Naphthalene
Nitric oxide
Nitrobenzene
Nitrotoluene
N-nonane
5-Nonanone
N-octane
3-Octanone
4-Octanone
1-Octene
N-pentane
Pentachloroethane
1,3-Pentadiene (cis)
1,3-Pentadiene (trans)
Pentafluorobenz ene
Pentamethylbenzene
N-pentanal
2,4-Pentanedione
2-Pentanone
3-Pentanone
1-Pentene
Perchloroethylene
Perfluoro-2-butene
Perfluoro-1-heptene
N-perfluoropropyl iodide
(N-perfluoropropyl)-
iodomethane
(N-perfluoropropyl)-
methyl ketone
Phenol
Phenyl ether
eV
9.85
8.91
9.52
10.44
10.27
9.53
8.55
8.39
9.54
9.30
9.98
9.32
9.74
10.82
9.44
10.12
10.08
10.56
9.74
9.70
9.23
9.39
8.35
8.88
8.10
9.25
9.92
9.43
9.10
9.19
9.10
9^52
10.35
11.28
8.59
8.56
9.84
7.92
9.82
8.87
9.39
9.32
9.50
9.32
11.25
10.48
10.36
9.96
10.58
8.69
8.09
15-11
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
Phenyl isocyanate
Phosphine
Pinene
Propadiene
N-propanal
Propane
1-Propanethiol
N-propanol
Propanone
Propenal (acrolein)
Propene
Prop-l-ene-2-ol
Prop-2-ene-l-ol
Propionaldehyde
N-propyl acetate
N-propyl alcohol
N-propyl amine
N-propyl benzene
Propylene
Propylene dichloride
Propylene oxide
N-propyl ether
N-propyl formate
Propyne
Pyridine
eV
8.77
9.96
8.07
10.19
9.95
11.07
9.20
10.51
9.69
10.10
9.73
8.2
9.67
9.98
10.04
10.20
8.78
8.72
9.73
10.22
9.27
10.54
10.36
9.32
TrifluoromethyIbenzene
Trifluoromethylcyclohexane
1,1,1-Trifluoropropene
Trimethyl amine
1,2,3-TrimethyIbenzene
1,2,4-TrimethyIbenz ene
1,3,5-TrimethyIbenzene
2,2,4-Trimethyl pentane
2,2,4-Trimethy1-3-pentanone
N-valeraldehyde
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl benzene (styrene)
Vinyl bromide
Vinyl chloride
4-Vinylcyclohexene
Vinyl ethanoate
Vinyl fluoride
Vinyl methyl ether
0-xylene
M-xylene
P-xylene
eV
9.68
10.46
10.9
7.82
8.48
8.27
8.39
9.86
8.82
9.82
9.19
8.47
9.80
10.00
8.93
9.19
10.37
8.93
8.56
8.56
8.45
Styrene 8.47
Tetrabromoethane
Tetrachloroethene 9.32
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
1,2,3,4-Tetrafluorobenzene 9.61
1,2,3,5-Tetrafluorobenzene 9.55
1,2,4,5-Tetrafluorobenzene 9.39
Tetrafluoroethene 10.12
Tetrahydrofuran 9.54
Tetrahydropyran 9.26
1,2,4,5-TetramethyIbenzene 8.03
2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-3-pentanone 8.65
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane
1,2,2,3-Tetrachloropropane
Thioethanol 9.29
Thiomethanol 9.44
Thiophene 8.86
1-Thiopropanol 9.20
Toluene 8.82
Tribromoethene 9.27
1,1,1-Trichlorobutanone 9.54
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 11.25
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Trichloroethene 9.45
Trichloromethyl ethyl ether 10.08
1,1,2-Trichloropropane
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Triethylantine 7.50
1,2,4-Trifluorobenzene 9.37
1,3,5-Trifluorobenzene 9.32
Trifluoroethene 10.14
l,l,l-Trlfluoro-2-iodoethane 10.10
Trifluoroiodomethane 10.40
Source: Photovac Technical Bulletin No. 11
*Many compounds with an ionization potential
of 10.6 eV or less will also be detected
by the Photovac TIP (Total lonizables
Present) Monitor.
15-12
-------
high-quality, two-stage gas chromatograph (GC)
regulator. Connect the regulator to the CARRIER IN
fitting with 1/8-inch Teflon tubing and a brass,
quick-disconnect fitting.
2. Set the flowrate to 10± 1 ml/min by adjusting the
CARRIER FLOW adjustment. Make a note of the setting
for future use. Check the flowrate by attaching a flow
meter with 1 ml/min or better accuracy to the OUT gas
fitting.
3. Check that the electrical controls are set as follows:
a. Move POWER SWITCH to OFF.
b. Move CHARGE SWITCH to OFF.
c. Move ATTENUATION SWITCH to 100 (least sensitive).
d. Move OFFSET dial to zero.
e. Connect chart recorder to the coaxial OUTPUT
connector, using the lead provided.
f. Set the chart recorder to 100 mV full scale and
chart speed to 2 cm/min.
g. Plug the POWER CORD into the panel socket and
connect to the 115V 60 Hz AC supply; the red AC
indicator light will come on.
The instrument is now in its POWER DOWN condition and is
ready for starting.
4. With the chart recorder off, switch on the POWER
switch. The red source OFF indicator may light and
stay on for up to 5 minutes. During this time, the
lamp-start sequence is being automatically initiated.
If more than 5 minutes is required, an adjustment must
be made to the screw next to the lamp (under the
aluminum housing).
5. As soon as the SOURCE OFF light is extinguished, the
meter will show a high reading that should fall rapidly
as conditions in the photoionizing chamber stabilize.
The reading should become steady after approximately
5 minutes.
6. Establish an acceptable baseline on the chart recorder.
7. The instrument is now ready for calibration and use.
15-13
-------
8. The user may now make sample injections from 1 to
1,000 ul (can be larger in certain situations, i.e.,
low-level air monitoring).
9. Reminder; Never inject liquid samples into the
Photovac.
15.1.6.2 Field Operation
1. Before any field analyses, use the following steps to
determine that the instrument is operational. This
should occur before the instrument is taken into the
field.
2. Check that the lecture bottle carrier gas supply is
adequate (charge supply is 1,800 psi and should last
approximately 3 days).
3. Set the pressure regulator to zero (fully counter-
clockwise) and turn on the main valve of the lecture
bottle.
4. Slowly turn the regulator control clockwise until air
begins to escape from the quick-disconnect connection.
Allow the line to purge for a few seconds.
5. Plug the quick-disconnect fitting into the free CARRIER
IN port. Shut off and disconnect the air supply in use
(usually a laboratory supply). Adjust the lecture bot-
tle regulator to approximately 40 pounds per square
inch gauge (psig). Set the required flowrate by using
a bubble tube.
6. With the instrument in the power-down mode, disconnect
the AC power supply. Allow 15 minutes for the effect
of the gas line switchover to subside. This lack of AC
power automatically switches the instrument to battery
power. The instrument is now completely self-contained
and, together with a battery powered recorder, may be
taken into the field. Check the battery charge on the
Photovac.
7. The instrument is now ready to be run through the
startup procedures as discussed in Subsection 15.1.6.1.
8. If there are significant changes in ambient temperature
(greater than 10°F) when the instrument is moved from
place to place, the column will require time to stabi-
lize thermally. At higher sensitivities, a nonther-
mally stabilized column will manifest itself as
baseline drift.
15-14
-------
9. DO NOT conduct analyses while batteries are charging
because heat generated during battery recharge will
affect column retention times and may cause baseline
drift.
15.1.6.3 Shutdown Procedure
1. Turn the POWER SWITCH to OFF.
2. Reduce the carrier gas flow to 2 cc/min.
3. If the instrument is being returned from the field, be
sure to store the instrument hooked up to a larger lab-
oratory carrier-gas supply.
4. Maintain the battery as indicated in the manufacturer's
manual.
5. Unplug the unit except when charging batteries.
15.1.6.4 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule*
Function Frequency
o Battery charge when instrument has Every 3 months for
been operating exclusively on WALL 10 hours on LOW
current with no use of battery
o Battery charge when instrument After each use, 1-1/2 hours
has been operated off batteries of HIGH charge for every
hour of use (DO NOT
OVERCHARGE)
o Calibration (running standards) With each use
o Septum change After approximately 50
injections
o Column reconditioning Every 3 months or after
heavy use, or when
installing a new column
*
The maintenance and calibration functions must be documented.
15.1.6.5 Calibration Procedure
1. Photovac Incorporated conducts an instrument
calibration and includes the chromatogram as a compo-
nent of that instrument's instruction manual. A check
of the instrument's performance can be accomplished by
duplicating the factory calibration check and comparing
15-15
-------
the results. Since the Photovac is not a direct read-
out instrument and instrument response can be checked
by running standards and comparing retention times on
different days, a calibration should be performed by
running standards only. This should be done before,
during, and after an analysis. The concentration and
identity of the standards are left up to the user, but
it is recommended that an aromatic (i.e., benzene) and
a chlorinated hydrocarbon (i.e., trichloroethylene) be
included. The calibration can be performed as follows:
o Prepare a standard for water or air analysis.
Most standards run on the Photovac range from 0.5
to 1.0 ppm.
o Obtain a syringe and withdraw an aliquot of
headspace gas that will result in peaks that are
large enough to see and not so large that they do
not fit on the chart paper. (Note: Water stan-
dards should be vigorously shaken for approxi-
mately 2 minutes before an aliquot is taken for
injection.)
o Compare peaks of identical standard injections
made before, during, and after analyses.
o If peak heights of the above injections change
significantly, note the sensitivity lost or gained
on the chart paper and include this information on
the resulting report.
15.1.6.6 Column Maintenance
1. The standard Photovac 10A10 is equipped with two
columns. Column #1 is a 1-foot long, 1/8-inch outside
diameter (OD) Teflon tube packed with CSP-20M.
Column #2 is a 4-foot long, 1/8-inch OD Teflon tube
packed with 5 percent SE-30 on 60-80 mesh Chromosorb G.
Column #1 is suitable for running blanks and other
quick scans but will not achieve significant separa-
tion. Column #2 is suitable for running field surveys
and analyses requiring detailed separations.
2. New columns must be conditioned overnight with
ultra-high purity helium (FR) or nitrogen at a tempera-
ture of 100°C at a maximum flowrate of 100 cc/min.
Reconditioning of older columns is accomplished under
the same conditions.
3. To gain access to the columns, use the following
procedure:
a. Disconnect the AC cord.
15-16
-------
b. Disconnect the chart recorder lead.
c. Disconnect the lecture bottle carrier gas supply.
d. Remove the four Phillips screws securing the panel
to the case, and remove the screw attaching the
lid retainer to the lid. (Never remove the panel
while the instrument is connected to the main
power supply.)
e. Grasp the panel assembly by the cylinder clamp.
Gently lift the rear of the panel clear of the
case rim, and ease the panel assembly backward
from the front rim. Lift the panel assembly
clear.
f. Gently unplug the circuit board from the wire
harness connection. Remove the nine Phillips
screws from the gold box, and lift clear the lid/
circuit board subassembly. The interior of the
column/ion cell chamber is now accessible.
g. To remove the column, locate the two fittings at
each end of the column (ion cell body and
injection part). Using a 5/6-inch open-ended
wrench, loosen these fittings. Unscrew the
fitting with the finger and remove the column.
h. To replace the column, reverse the previous steps
and take special care not to damage the thread on
the fitting. Make the fittings finger tight, and
use the 5/16-inch open-ended wrench to give an
additional 1/8 turn to assure that the fittings
seat.
15.1.6.7 Septum Change
The 10A10 contains a Teflon-faced, silicone-rubber,
0.25-inch diameter septum. Hamilton "Micro Sep" F-138 is
suitable. The septum can easily be replaced as follows:
1. Unscrew the septum retainer.
2. Extract the old septum with a fine pair of tweezers.
3. Insert the new septum with the Teflon face down.
4. Carefully screw the retainer back into place firmly,
but without overtightening.
5. A 10- to 20-minute stabilization period may be required
because the carrier gas flow is temporarily interrupted
when the septum is changed.
15-17
-------
15.1.6.8 Troubleshooting
A list of common troubleshooting techniques for the
Photovac 10A10 is provided in Exhibit 15-3.
15.1.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.1.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Horgan, L. Proposed Guidelines for Photovac IQAlO for the
Surveillance and Analysis Division.U.S.Environmental
Protection Agency. 1983.
Photovac Incorporated. Photovac IQAlO Operating Manual.
15.2 HNU PI-101
15.2.1 PURPOSE
Subsection 15.2 discusses the use, maintenance, and
calibration of the HNU PI-101.
15.2.2 DEFINITIONS
None.
15.2.3 THEORY AND LIMITATIONS
15.2.3.1 Theory
The HNU is a portable, nonspecific, vapor/gas detector
employing the principle of photoionization to detect a vari-
ety of chemical compounds, both organic and inorganic.
The HNU contains an ultraviolet (UV) light source within its
sensor chamber. Ambient air is drawn into the chamber with
the aid of a small fan. If the ionization potential (IP) of
any molecule present in the ambient air is equal to or lower
than the energy of the UV light source, ionization will take
place, causing a deflection in the meter. Response time is
approximately 90 percent at 3 seconds. The meter reading is
expressed in parts per million (ppm). All readings must be
stated as equivalent readings that depend on the calibration
gas being used. For example, the standard gas used to cali-
brate the HNU is benzene, which allows the instrument to
15-18
-------
Exhibit 15-3
TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES
FIELD EQUIPMENT: PHOTOVAC 10A10
Problem
No chromatographic
response
Probable Cause
There is no carrier
gas flow.
Batteries are flat
(if on battery
operation).
Electrometer is
saturated.
Remedy
Check at OUT port
with flow gauge.
Plug into AC and
check again.
Turn ATTENUATION to
10, set meter to 0.
If OFFSET reads 10
or more, the instru-
ment is saturated.
Allow to self-purge
until clear.
Syringe is plugged.
UV source is not on.
Try a new syringe.
Check SOURCE ON
light; if it is on,
see item 9 in this
exhibit.
Unacceptable
baseline drift
Unacceptable
baseline drift
Unit has been sub-
jected to large
temperature change.
A very concentrated
sample has recently
been introduced,
resulting in exces-
sive tailing.
Unacceptable con-
tamination levels are
in carrier gas supply.
Allow to stabilize.
Allow to self-purge
until clear.
Change carrier gas
supply, and allow
instrument to
stabilize.
Deterioration of
sensitivity
The unit is charging, Turn CHARGE switch
and the resulting heat to OFF.
is affecting the column.
Syringe has leaky
plunger.
Column needs
conditioning.
Try a new syringe.
Condition column.
15-19
-------
Exhibit 15-3
(continued)
Problem
4. Unacceptable low
frequency noise
5. Peaks elute very
slowly
6. Peaks eluting too
fast
7. Peak has flat top
8. Peak is misshapen,
with considerable
tailing
Peak is misshapen,
with considerable
tailing
Source OFF light
stays on after 5 rain.
Probable Cause
Septum is leaking.
Column fittings leak.
Remedy
Column needs
conditioning.
Carrier flowrate is
too slow.
Carrier flowrate is
too high.
Electrometer has
saturated.
Flow is too slow.
There is an improper
injection technique.
Compound is wrongly
matched to column;
perhaps too polar.
Peak is developing
from an earlier
injection (overlap
of peaks).
Batteries are low (if
battery operation).
Tube driver is
mismatched.
Change septum.
Disassemble and check
for leaks around
fittings, while under
pressure, with soap
solution.
Condition column.
Adjust flowrate.
Adjust flowrate.
Dilute sample
and repeat.
Adjust flow.
Repeat.
Select appropriate
column.
Allow greater time
between injections,
or install shorter
column.
Plug in AC connector.
Contact Photovac for
advice (416/881-8225)
15-20
-------
Exhibit 15-3
(continued)
Problem Probable Cause Remedy
9. Electrometer does Electrometer is Allow to self-purge,
not return to zero saturated.
after startup
If problems persist after trying all suggested remedies, contact
Photovac Incorporated for advice.
Photovac Inc.
Unit 2
134 Doncaster Avenue
Thornhill, Ontario, Canada L3T 1L3
416/881-8225 Telex: 06-964634
15-21
-------
provide results in benzene equivalence. Exhibit 15-4, mod-
ified from the "Instruction Manual for Model PI-101
Photoionization Analyzer," HNU Systems Inc., 1975, lists the
relative sensitivities for various gases.
15.2.3.2 Limitations
1. If the IP of a chemical contaminant is greater than the
UV light source, this chemical will not be recorded.
Some contaminants cannot be determined by any sensor/
probes.
2. It should be noted, specifically, that the HNU will not
detect methane.
3. During cold weather, condensation may form on the UV
light source window, resulting in erroneous results.
4. Instrument readings can be affected by humidity and
powerlines, making it difficult to interpret readings.
5. Total concentrations are relative to the calibration
gas (usually benzene) used. Therefore, true contami-
nants and their quantities cannot be identified.
Also, while the instrument scale reads 0 to 2,000 ppm,
response is linear (to benzene) from 0 to about
600 ppm. Greater concentrations may be "read" at a
higher or lower level than the true value.
6. Wind speeds of greater than 3 miles an hour may affect
fan speed and readings, depending on the position of
the probe relative to wind direction.
15.2.4 APPLICABILITY
This procedure is applicable to HNU PI-101 instruments used
for air monitoring.
15.2.5 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of
these procedures.
15.2.6 RECORDS
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration
records will be generated and maintained by the responsible
organization. The maintenance, calibration, and results
obtained in the field will be recorded in the site logbook.
15-22
-------
Exhibit 15-4
RELATIVE SENSITIVITIES FOR VARIOUS GASES
(10.2 eV Lamp)
Species
Photoionization
Sensitivity*
P-xylene
M-xylene
Benzene
Toluene
Diethyl sulfide
Diethyl amine
Styrene
Trichloroethylene
Carbon disulfide
Isobutylene
Acetone
Tetrahydrofuran
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Cyclohexanone
Naptha (86% aromatics)
Vinyl chloride
Methyl isocyanate
Iodine
Methyl mercaptan
Dimethyl sulfide
Allyl alcohol
Propylene
Mineral spirits
2,3-Dichloropropene
Cyclohexene
Crotonaldehyde
Acrolein
Pyridine
Hydrogen sulfide
Ethylene dibromide
N-octane
Acetaldehyde Oxime
Hexane
Phosphine
Heptane
Allyl chloride
(3-chloropropene)
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
11
11
10
10
10
9.
9.
8.
7.
7.
6.
6.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
3.
3.
3.
3.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
1.
.4
.2
.0
.0
.0
9
7
9
1
0
3
0
7
7
1
0
0
5
5
3
3
2
0
0
0
4
1
1
0
8
7
5
3
2
0
7
(reference standard)
1.5
1.0
1.0
15-23
-------
Exhibit 15-4
(continued)
Photoionization
Species Sensitivity*
Acetic anhydride 1.0
Alpha pinene 0.7
Dibromochloropropane 0.7
Epichlorohydrin 0.7
Nitric oxide 0.6
Beta pinene 0 . 5
Citral 0.5
Ammonia 0.3
Acetic acid 0 .1
Nitrogen dioxide 0.02
Methane 0.0
Acetylene 0.0
Ethylene 0.0
*Expressed in ppm (v/v).
Source: Instruction Manual for Model PI-101
Photoionization Analyzer, HNU Systems, Inc., 1975,
15-24
-------
15.2.7 PROCEDURE
15.2.7.1 Maintenance and Calibration Responsibilities
The instrument user is responsible for properly calibrating
and operating the instrument. When the instrument is
scheduled for or requires maintenance, these functions
should be conducted only by qualified individuals. If pos-
sible, maintenance responsibilities should be restricted to
one or two individuals who will also bear responsibilities
for logging the equipment in and out. Documentation of
instrument user, dates of use, instrument identification
number, maintenance and calibration functions, and project
identification should be maintained.
15.2.7.2 Operator Qualifications
The HNU, although a relatively simple instrument to use, can
be incorrectly operated if the user is not thoroughly famil-
iar with its operation. An appropriate training and certi-
fication procedure must be developed and incorporated into
the responsible organization's training procedures. The
users must complete the training and be certified for HNU
operation before using the instrument in the field.
Refresher courses should be obligatory every 6 months.
Courses are given by the manufacturer, by commercial
entities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison,
New Jersey, facilities.
15.2.7.3 5tartup/Shutdown Procedures
Startup
1. Check the FUNCTION switch on the control panel to make
sure it is in the OFF position. Attach the probe to
the readout unit. Match the alignment key, and twist
the connector clockwise until a distinct locking is
felt.
2. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the BATTERY CHECK position.
Check that the indicator reads within or beyond the
green battery arc on the scale plate. It the indicator
is below the green arc, or if the red LED comes on, the
battery must be charged before using.
3. To zero the instrument, turn the FUNCTION switch to the
STANDBY position and rotate the ZERO POTENTIOMETER
until the meter reads zero. Wait 15 to 20 seconds to
confirm that the zero adjustment is stable. If it is
not, then readjust.
15-25
-------
4. Check to see that the SPAN POTENTIOMETER is set at the
appropriate setting for the probe being used (5.0 for
9.5 eV probe, 9.8 for 10.2 eV, and 5.0 for 11.7 eV).
5. Set the FUNCTION switch to the desired ppm range. A
violet glow from the UV lamp source should be observ-
able at the sample inlet of the probe/sensor unit. (Do
not look directly at the glow, since eye damage could
result.)
6. Listen for the fan operation to verify fan function.
7. Check instrument with an organic point source, such as
a "magic marker," before survey to verify instrument
function.
Shutdown
1. Turn FUNCTION switch to OFF.
2. Disconnect the probe connector.
3. Place the instrument on the charger.
15.2.7.4 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule
Function Frequency
o Perform routine calibration Prior to each use*
o Initiate factory checkout Yearly or when malfunctioning or
and calibration after changing UV light source
o Wipe down readout unit After each use
o Clean UV light source window Every month or as use and site
conditions dictate
o Clean the ionization chamber Monthly
o Recharge battery After each use
During extended field use, the HNU PI-101 must be calibrated at least
once every 3 days.
15.2.7.5 Calibration Procedure No. 1
For HNU calibration canisters without regulators:
1. Run through startup procedures as in
Subsection 15.2.7.3.
15-26
-------
2. Fill a sampling bag with HNU calibration gas of known
contents.
3. Connect HNU probe to sampling bag by using flexible
tubing.
4. Allow sample bag contents to be drawn into the probe,
and check response in ppm.
5. Adjust the span potentiometer to produce the
concentration listed on the span gas cylinder. This
procedure shall be followed only until the span
potentiometer reaches the following limits:
Maximum
Initial Span Acceptance Span
Probe Pot. Setting Pot. Setting
9.5 eV 5.0 1.0
10.2 eV 9.8 8.5
11.7 eV 5.0 2.0
6. If these limits are exceeded, the instruments must be
returned for maintenance and recalibration. This main-
tenance will be done only by qualified individuals.
7. Each responsible organization must develop a mechanism
for the documentation of calibration results. This
documentation includes the following:
a. Date inspected
b. Person who calibrated the instrument
c. The instrument number (Serial number or other ID
number)
d. The results of the calibration (ppm, probe eV,
span potentiometer setting)
e. Identification of the calibration gas (source,
type, concentration)
15.2.7.6 Calibration Procedure No. 2
For HNU calibration canisters equipped with a regulator:
1. Run through startup procedures as described in
Subsection 15.2.6.3.
15-27
-------
2. Connect a sampling hose to the regulator outlet and the
other end to the sampling probe of the HNU.
3. Crack the regulator valve.
4. Take a reading after 5 to 10 seconds.
5. Adjust span potentiometer using the steps outlined in
step No. 5 of Subsection 15.2.7.5.
6. Calibration documentation should be as in step No. 7 in
Subsection 15.2.7.5.
15.2.7.7 Cleaning the UV Light-Source Window
1. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the OFF position, and
disconnect the sensor/probe from the Readout/Control
unit.
2. Remove the exhaust screw located near the base of the
probe. Grasp the end cap in one hand and the probe
shell in the other. Separate the end cap and lamp
housing from the shell.
3. Loosen the screws on the top of the end cap, and
separate the end cap and ion chamber from the lamp and
lamp housing, taking care that the lamp does not fall
out of the lamp housing.
4. Tilt the lamp housing with one hand over the opening so
that the lamp slides out of the housing into your hand.
5. The lamp window may now be cleaned using lens paper
with any of the following compounds:
a. Use HNU Cleaning Compound on all lamps except the
11.7 eV.
b. Clean the 11.7 eV lamp with a freon or chlorinated
organic solvent. Do not use HNU cleaner, water,
or water miscible solvents (i.e., acetone and
methanol).
6. Following cleaning, reassemble by first sliding the
lamp back into the lamp housing. Place the ion chamber
on top of the housing, making sure the contacts are
properly aligned.
7. Place the end cap on top of the ion chamber, and
replace the two screws. Tighten the screws only enough
to seal the O-ring. Do not overtighten.
15-28
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8. Line up the pins on the base of the lamp housing with
pins inside the probe shell, and slide the housing
assembly into the shell. It will fit only one way.
9. Replace the exhaust screw.
15.2.7.8 Cleaning the lonization Chamber
1. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the OFF position, and
disconnect the sensor/probe from the Readout/Control
unit.
2. Remove the exhaust screws located near the base of the
probes. Grasp the end cap in one hand and the probe
shell in the other. Separate the end cap and lamp
housing from the shell.
3. Loosen the screws on the top of the end cap, and
separate the end cap and ion chamber from the lamp and
lamp housing, taking care that the lamp does not fall
out of the lamp housing.
4. The ion chamber may now be cleaned according to the
following sequence:
a. Clean with methanol using a Q-tip.
b. Dry gently at 50°C to 60°C for 1/2 hour.
5. Place the ion chamber on top of the housing, making
sure the contacts are properly aligned.
6. Place the end cap on top of the ion chamber and replace
the two screws. Tighten the screws only enough to seal
the O-ring. Do not overtighten.
7. Line up the pins on the base of the lamp housing with
pins inside the probe shell, and slide the housing
assembly into the shell. It will fit only one way.
15.2.7.9 Troubleshooting
The following steps should be performed only by a qualified
technician:
1. The meter does not respond in any switch position
(including BATT CHK).
a. Meter movement is broken.
(1) Tip instrument rapidly from side to side.
Meter needle should move freely and return to
zero.
15-29
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b. Electrical connection to meter is broken.
(1) Check all wires leading to meter.
(2) Clean the contacts of quick-disconnects.
c. Battery is completely dead.
(1) Disconnect battery.
(2) Check voltage with a volt-ohm meter.
d. Check 2 mp fuse.
e. If none of the above solves the problem, consult
the factory.
Meter responds in BATT CHK position, but reads zero or
near zero for all others.
a. Power supply is defective.
(1) Check power supply voltages as shown in
Figure 11 of the HNU Instruction Manual. If
any voltage is out of specification, consult
the factory.
b. Input transistor or amplifier has failed.
(1) Rotate zero control; meter should deflect up
or down as control is turned.
(2) Open probe. Both transistors should be fully
seated in sockets.
c. Input signal connection is broken in probe or
readout.
(1) Check input connector on printed circuit
board. The input connector should be firmly
pressed down.
(2) Check components on back of printed circuit
board. All connections should be solid, and
no wires should touch any other object.
(3) Check all wires in readout for solid
connections.
Instrument responds correctly in BATT CHK and STBY but
not in measuring mode.
a. Check to see that the light source is on. Do not
look directly at UV light source, since eye damage
could result.
15-30
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(1) Check high-voltage power supply.
(2) Open end of probe, remove lamp, and check
high voltage on lamp ring.
(3) If high voltage is present at all above
points, light source has probably failed.
Consult the factory.
4. Instrument responds correctly in all positions, but
signal is lower than expected.
a. Check span setting for correct value.
b. Clean window of light source.
c. Double check preparation of standards.
d. Check power^supply 180 V output.
e. Check for proper fan operation. Check fan
voltage.
f. Rotate span setting. Response should change if
span potentiometer is working properly.
5. Instrument responds in all switch positions, but is
noisy (erratic meter movement).
a. Open circuit in feedback circuit. Consult the
factory.
b. Open circuit in cable shield or probe shield.
Consult the factory.
6. Instrument response is slow and/or irreproducible.
a. Fan is operating improperly. Check fan voltage.
b. Check calibration and operation.
7. The battery indicator is low.
a. Indicator comes on if battery charge is low.
b. Indicator also comes on if ionization voltage is
too high.
15.2.8 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
15-31
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become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.2.9 INFORMATION SOURCES
HNU Systems, Inc. Instruction Manual for Model PI-101
Photoionization Analyzer. 1975.
Ecology and Environment. FIT Operation and Field Manual;
HNU Systems PI-101 Photoionization Detector and Century
Systems (Foxboro) Model OVA-128 Organic Vapor Analyzer.
1981.
Personal Communication with Fran Connel, HNU Systems, Inc.
4 January 1984.
CH2M HILL. Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
Rabin, Linda J. "Selective Application of Direct-Reading
Instruments at Hazardous Waste Sites," presented at American
Industrial Hygiene Conference, Dallas, Texas. 1986.
15.3 ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER (OVA-128)
15.3.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
The purpose of this subsection is to discuss the use,
maintenance, and calibration of the OVA-128.
15.3.2 DEFINITIONS
None.
15.3.3 THEORY AND LIMITATIONS
15.3.3.1 Theory
The OVA uses the principle of hydrogen flame ionization for
the detection and measurement of organic compounds. The OVA
contains a diffusion flame of hydrogen and air that is free
of ions and is nonconducting. When a sample of organic
material is introduced into the flame, ions are formed,
causing the flame to become conductive. Eventually this
conductivity provides a meter reading because of a change in
current.
15.3.3.2 Limitations
1. The OVA will not see any inorganics.
15-32
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6. Turn off hydrogen flame, and adjust meter needle to
read 40 ppm (calibrate @ X10) using the calibration
adjust knob.
7. Switch to XI00 scale. The meter should indicate 0.4 on
the 1-10 meter markings (0.4 x 100 = 40 ppm). If the
reading is off, adjust with R33 Trimpot.
8. Return to X10 scale, and adjust meter needle to 40 ppm
with calibration; adjust knob, if necessary.
9. At the X10 scale, adjust meter to read 0.4 on the 1 to
10 meter markings using the calibration adjust. Switch
to XI scale. The meter should read 4 ppm. If the
reading is off, adjust using the R31 Trimpot.
Secondary Calibration
1. Fill an air sampling bag with 100 ppm (certified)
methane calibration gas.
2. Connect the outlet of the air-sampling bag to the
air-sampling line of the OVA.
3. Record the reading obtained from the meter on the
calibration record.
Documentation
Each responsible organization should develop a system
whereby the following calibration information is recorded:
1. Instrument calibrated (I.D. or serial number)
2. Date of calibration
3. Method of calibration
4. Results of the calibration
5. Identification of person who calibrated the instrument
6. Identification of the calibration gas (source, type,
concentration, lot number)
15.3.7.6 Pump System Checkout
The following steps are to be used only by qualified
technicians:
1. With the pump on, hold unit upright and observe flow
gauge.
2. See if ball level is significantly below a reading of
2; if so, flow is inadequate.
3. Check connections at the sample hose.
15-37
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4. Clean or replace particle filters if flow is impaired
or if it is time for scheduled service.
5. Reassemble and retest flow.
6. If flow is still inadequate, replace pump diaphragm and
valves.
7. If flow is normal, plug air intake. Pump should slow
and stop.
8. If there is no noticeable change in pump, tighten
fittings and retest.
9. If there is still no change, replace pump diaphragm and
valves.
10. Document this function in the maintenance records.
15.3.7.7 Burner Chamber Cleaning
1. Remove plastic exhaust port cover.
2. Unscrew exhaust port.
3. Use wire brush to clean burner tip and electrode. Use
wood stick to clean Teflon.
4. Brush inside of exhaust port.
5. Blow out chamber with a gentle air flow.
6. Reassemble and test unit.
7. Document this function in the maintenance records.
15.3.7.8 Quad Ring Service
1. Remove OVA instruments from protective shell.
2. Remove clip ring from bottom of valve.
3. Unscrew nut from top of valve.
4. Gently pull valve shaft upward and free of housing.
5. Observe rings for signs of damage; replace as
necessary.
6. Lightly grease rings with silicone grease.
15-38
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2. The OVA will "see" methane, which is explosive but
relatively nontoxic. The user should determine if the
contaminant involved is or is not methane.
3. DOT shipping regulations are strict for the OVA when
shipped containing pressurized hydrogen.
4. A relative humidity greater than 95 percent will cause
inaccurate and unstable responses.
5. A temperature less than 40°F will cause slow and poor
response.
6. Actual contaminant concentrations are measured relative
to the calibration gas used. Therefore, specific con-
taminants and their quantities cannot easily be
identified.
7. As with the HNU Photoionizer, the OVA responds
differently to different compounds. The table below is
a list, provided by the manufacturer, of the relative
sensitivities of the OVA to some common organic com-
pounds. Since the instrument is factory calibrated to
Compound Relative Response
Methane 100
Ethane 90
Propane 64
N-butane 61
N-pentane 100
Ethylene 85
Acetylene 200
Benzene 150
Toluene 120
Acetone 100
Methyl ethyl ketone 80
Methyl isobutyl ketone 100
Methanol 15
Ethanol 25
Isopropyl alcohol 65
Carbon tetrachloride 10
Chloroform 70
Trichloroethylene 72
Vinyl chloride 35
methane, all relative responses are given in percent,
with methane at 100.
15-33
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8. When operated in the gas chromatography (GC) mode,
chemical standards of known constituents and concen-
tration must be analyzed by the GC. These standards
must be run at the same operating conditions used in
the sampling procedure, i.e., carrier gas flowrate,
column type and temperature, and ambient conditions.
The purpose of running standards is to determine
retention times, concentrations (or instrument
response), and optimal instrument operating conditions.
15.3.4 APPLICABILITY
This procedure is applicable to all OVA-128s used for field
or laboratory applications.
15.3.5 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of
these procedures.
15.3.6 RECORDS
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration
records will be generated and maintained by the responsible
organization. The maintenance, calibration, and results
obtained in the field will be recorded in the site logbook.
15.3.7 PROCEDURE
15.3.7.1 Maintenance and Calibration Responsibilities
It is preferable to minimize the number of people
responsible for maintenance and calibration of the OVA.
These people should also be responsible for logging the
equipment in and out. Documentation of instrument user,
dates of use, instrument identification number, maintenance
and calibration procedures, and project identification
should be maintained.
15.3.7.2 Operator Qualifications
Although it is a relatively simple instrument to use, the
OVA can be incorrectly operated if the user is not thorough-
ly familiar with its operation. An appropriate training and
certification procedure must be developed and incorporated
into the responsible organization's training procedures.
The user must complete the training and be certified for OVA
use before taking the instrument into the field. Refresher
courses should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are
offered by the manufacturer, various commercial entities,
and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New
Jersey, facilities.
15-34
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15.3.7.3 Startup Procedures
1. Connect the probe/readout connectors to the side-pack
assembly.
2. Check battery condition and hydrogen supply.
3. For measurements taken as methane equivalent, check
that the GAS SELECT dial is set at 300.
4. Turn the electronics on by moving the INST switch to
the ON position, and allow 5 minutes for warm-up.
5. Set CALIBRATE switch to XI0; use CALIBRATE knob to set
indicator at 0.
6. Open the H- tank valve all the way and the H» supply
valve all the way. Check that the hydrogen supply
gauge reads between 8.0 and 12.0 psig.
7. Turn the PUMP switch ON, and check the flow system
according to the procedures in Subsection 15.3.7.6.
8. Check that the BACKFLUSH and INJECT valves are in the
UP position.
9. To light the flame, depress the igniter switch until a
meter deflection is observed. The igniter switch may
be depressed for up to 5 seconds. Do not depress for
longer than 5 seconds, as it may burn out the igniter
coil. If the instrument does not light, allow the
instrument to run several minutes and repeat ignition
attempt.
10. Confirm OVA operational state by using an organic
source, such as a "magic marker."
11. Establish a background level in a clean area or by
using the charcoal scrubber attachment to the probe
(depress the sample inject valve) and by recording
measurements referenced to background.
12. Set the alarm level, if desired.
15.3.7.4 Shutdown Procedure
1. Close Ej supply valve and H« tank valve (do not
overtignten valves).
2. Turn INST switch to OFF.
3. Wait until H,, supply gauge indicates system is purged
of H_; then switch off pump (approximately 10 seconds),
15-35
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4. Put instrument on electrical charger at completion of
day's activities.
15.3.7.5 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule
o Check particle filters Weekly or as needed
o Check quad rings Monthly or as needed
o Clean burner chamber Monthly or as needed
o Check secondary calibration Prior to project startup
o Check primary calibration Monthly, or if secondary check is
off by more than ±10 percent
o Check pumping system Before project startup
o Replace charcoal in 120 hours of use, or when background
scrubber attachment readings are higher with the inject
valve down than with the inject
valve up in a clean environment
o Factory service At least annually
Note: Instruments that are not in service for extended periods of time
need not meet the above schedule. However, they must be given a complete
checkout before their first use, addressing the maintenance items
listed above.
15.3.7.5 Calibration Procedures
The following steps are to be used only by qualified service
technicians:
Primary Calibration
1. Remove instrument components from the instrument shell.
2. Turn on ELECTRONICS and ZERO INSTRUMENT on XI0 scale.
Gas select dial to 300.
3. Turn on PUMP and HYDROGEN. Ignite flame. Go to SURVEY
MODE.
4. Introduce a methane standard near 100 parts per million
-------
-------
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for
Geologic Investigations. National Waste Terminal Storage
Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines
and Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance Project
Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance,
Office of Research and Development. Washington, D.C.
29 December 1980.
WDR225/008
19-13
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7. Reassemble valve; do not pinch rings during shaft
insertion.
8. Document this function in the maintenance records.
15.3.7.9 Troubleshooting
Indication
Possible Causes
o High background reading
(More than 10 ppm)
o Continual flameout
o Low air flow
o Flame will not light
o No power to pump
o Hydrogen leak
(Instrument not in use)
Contaminated hydrogen
Contaminated sample line
Hydrogen leak
Dirty burner chamber
Dirty air filter
Dirty air filter
Pump malfunction
Line obstruction
Low battery
Igniter broken
Hydrogen leak
Dirty burner chamber
Air flow restricted
Low battery
Short circuit
Leak in regulator
Leak in valves
15.3.7.10 Hydrogen Recharging
1. High-grade hydrogen (99.999 percent) is required.
Maximum pressure the instrument can handle is
2,300 psig.
2. Connect the fill hose to the REFILL PITTING on the side
pack assembly with the FILL/BLEED valve in the OFF
position.
3. Open H2 SUPPLY BOTTLE valve.
4. Place FILL/BLEED valve on fill hose in BLEED position
momentarily to purge any air out of the system.
15-39
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5. Open the instrument TANK valve.
6. Open REFILL valve on instrument.
7. Place FILL/BLEED valve in FILL position until the
instrument pressure gauge equalizes with the H- SUPPLY
BOTTLE pressure gauge.
8. Shut REFILL valve, FILL/BLEED valve, and H- SUPPLY
BOTTLE valve, in quick succession.
9. Turn FILL/BLEED valve to BLEED until hose pressure
equalizes to atmospheric pressure.
10. Turn FILL/BLEED valve to FILL position; then turn the
valve to the BLEED position; then turn to OFF.
11. Close TANK on instrument.
12. Disconnect the FILL HOSE, and replace protective nut on
the REFILL FITTING.
15.3.7.11 Particle Filter Servicing
Filters have been placed at two points- in the air sampling
line of the OVA to keep particulates from entering the
instrument. The first filter is located in the probe assem-
bly, and the second filter (primary filter) is located on
the side pack assembly. Cleaning procedures are as follows:
1. Detach the probe assembly from the readout assembly.
2. Disassemble the probe (unscrew the components).
3. Clean the particle filter located within the probe by
blowing air through the filter.
4. Reassemble the probe.
5. Gain access to the primary filter, located behind the
sample inlet connector on the side pack assembly, by
removing the sample inlet connector with a thin-walled,
7/16-inch socket wrench. Remove the filter, and clean
as above.
6. Reassemble the sample inlet fitting and filter to the
side pack assembly.
7. Check sample flowrate.
15-40
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15.3.7.12 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.3.7.13 Information Sources
The following references were used in generating this
subsection of the compendium:
Region II FIT. Proposed Guidelines for the Organic Vapor
Analyzer. 1984.
Ecology and Environment. FIT Operation and Field Manual;
HNU Systems PI-101 Photoionization Detector and Century
Systems (Foxboro) Model OVA-128 Organic Vapor Analyzer.
1981.
Century Systems (Foxboro). Service Procedures; Organic
Vapor Analyzer; 128GC.
CH2M HILL. Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
15.4 EXPLOSIMETER
15.4.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the
understanding, use, and application of an explosimeter. The
methodologies refer to explosimeters manufactured by Mine
Safety Appliances Company.
15.4.2 DEFINITIONS
Explosimeter. An instrument used to test an atmosphere for
concentration of combustible gases and vapors.
Lower explosive limit (LEL). The lowest concentration of a
gas or vapor in air, by volume, that will explode or burn
when there is an ignition source present.
Upper explosive limit (UEL). The maximum concentration of a
gas or vapor in air, by volume, that will explode or burn
when there is an ignition source present.
15-41
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15.4.3 APPLICABILITY
Explosimeters have been used during installation of
monitoring wells and in and around landfills where methane
gas is of primary concern. Once a monitoring well is
installed, methane gas can accumulate inside the well casing
and can create a potentially explosive environment.
Explosimeters have also proved useful during the excavation
of buried drums and tanks. In what can sometimes seem like
an innocuous situation because of the adequate ventilation
around the trench, heavier-than-air vapors can collect at
the bottom of the trench to produce an explosive environ-
ment. Additionally, the explosimeter has provided service
when investigative work has discovered abandoned warehouses
and storage sheds containing drums of volatile substances.
The explosimeter is typically used when entering any
confined space or for initial entry on hazardous waste
sites.
15.4.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Before the instrument is taken into the field, it should be
inspected and calibrated to ensure that it is operating
properly. If possible, maintenance and calibration should
be restricted to one or two qualified individuals.
15.4.5 RECORDS
Logbooks should contain records of the instrument checkout
and calibration procedures. Although a relatively simple
instrument to use, the explosimeter can be incorrectly
operated if the user is not thoroughly familiar with its
operation. An appropriate training and certification proce-
dure must be developed and incorporated. The users must
complete the training and be certified for operation before
using the explosimeter in the field. Refresher courses
should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by
the manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at
their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.4.6 PROCEDURES
15.4.6.1 Theory
A typical explosimeter draws a sample of the atmosphere over
a heated catalytic filament that forms a balanced electrical
circuit. Combustibles that are present in the atmosphere
are burned on the filament, which raises its resistance in
proportion to the concentration of the combustibles in the
atmosphere. The resulting imbalance of the circuit causes a
deflection of the meter needle on the instrument.
15-42
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15.4.6.2 Operation
The instrument must be calibrated before each field use.
Calibration is performed by using a known concentration of a
combustible gas that can be obtained from Mine Safety Appli-
ances Company. Once the calibration gas is introduced to
the instrument, adjustments can be made on an internal span
control inside the explosimeter. If the explosimeter cannot
be adjusted to read the standard, then the detector filament
must be replaced.
To establish a zero background reading, the explosimeter
should be prepared for operation in an area known to be free
of combustible gases and vapors. A flush of fresh air
should be passed through the instrument to zero the meter
needle. The sampling line should then be placed at the
point where the sample is to be collected, and the highest
reading on the meter should be recorded. The graduations on
the scale of the meter are in percentages of the lower
explosive limit. A deflection of the meter needle between
zero and 100 percent shows how closely the atmosphere being
tested approaches the minimum concentration required for an
explosion. When the needle deflects to the extreme right
side of the meter during a test, the person performing the
test can reasonably assume that the atmosphere being tested
is explosive. If the needle deflects to the extreme right
side and then quickly returns to a position within the scale
or below zero, this movement indicates that the atmosphere
tested has exceeded the concentration of the UEL. This
means that an overabundance of the gas or vapor has dis-
placed or consumed the "normal" air (oxygen levels of about
21 percent), creating an environment that will not explode
but could explode if the oxygen levels return to normal;
therefore, it is important to continue monitoring. The user
should always have the instrument on until the field team
has left the atmosphere being tested and a final flush of
fresh air has passed through the explosimeter to be sure
that the atmosphere has been thoroughly analyzed.
15.4.6.3 Limitations and Warnings Associated with an MSA
Explosimeter
As with all instruments, the user should appreciate the
limits of the explosimeter's capabilities and should be sure
to operate the instrument within those limits. The follow-
ing represents several important limitations:
1. The instrument is not designed to work in an oxygen-
enriched environment (oxygen above 25 percent), nor
will it function properly in an oxygen-deficient atmo-
sphere (below 19.5 percent). Therefore, it must be
used in conjunction with an atmospheric oxygen
indicator.
15-43
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2. The instrument will not indicate the presence of
explosive or combustible mists or sprays, such as
lubrication oil, or explosive dusts, such as grain or
coal dusts.
3. Care should be taken when sampling over liquids so the
liquid is not drawn into the instrument.
4. The following substances may poison the detection
filament: leaded gasoline, silanes, silicones,
silicates, or any silicon-containing compound.
5. The relative humidity must be in the range of 10 to
90 percent.
6. The instrument has a tolerance of ±40 percent. For
example, a reading of 20 percent LEL could be as high
as 28 percent or as low as 12 percent.
7. The instrument must not be switched on or off unless
the user is in a known combustible-free atmosphere.
8. The explosive limits for many gases and vapors are far
above the threshold limit values (TLVs) for those
substances.
9. Fuming acids, such as sulfuric acid and nitric acid,
will also poison the detection filament.
10. The instrument is typically calibrated with methane
gas. Many other materials are explosive at concen-
trations below that of methane. Care must be used in a
test atmosphere that may contain these types of mate-
rials. The readings obtained by the instrument are not
specific. The readings indicate only that the atmo-
sphere being measured is some percentage of the LEL of
the calibration atmosphere. Therefore, the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health criteria
shown below must be used in interpreting the readings
when using the instrument in an atmosphere of unknown
contaminants.
15.4.6.4 NIOSH Criteria
NIOSH guidelines on the use of the explosimeter are as
follows:
1. Ten percent LEL—Limit activities in area to those that
do not generate sparks; wear nonsparking gear; use
spark-proof equipment.
2. Twenty percent LEL—Limit all activities in area.
15-44
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15.4.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.4.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual,
Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen Alarm." Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating
Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA. Occupational Safety and Health
Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
October 1985. [
15.5 OXYGEN INDICATOR
15.5.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the
understanding, use, and application of an oxygen indicator.
The methodologies that are described refer to oxygen indica-
tors manufactured by Mine Safety Appliances Company.
15.5.2 DEFINITIONS
Oxygen indicator. An instrument that provides a means to
measure atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The volume
percent for atmospheric oxygen is 20.95 percent.
Partial pressure. The pressure that each gas exerts in a
gas mixture (i.e., oxygen is 159 mmHg at sea level). Par-
tial pressure is also temperature dependent.
15.5.3 APPLICABILITY
Wherever contaminants have been detected, a certain
percentage of the atmosphere has been displaced, subse-
quently lowering the partial pressure of oxygen. In respi-
ration, it is not the percentage of oxygen in the air, but
rather its partial pressure that is important in sustaining
life.
15-45
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Oxygen-deficient atmospheres at hazardous waste sites often
include confined spaces, such as abandoned warehouses where
solvent drums are typically stored. Oxygen-deficient atmo-
spheres could possibly be created during drum excavation in
test pits where heavier-than-air vapors accumulate at the
bottom of the test pit.
15.5.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Before taking the oxygen indicator into the field, the user
should inspect and calibrate it to ensure its proper opera-
tion. If possible, maintenance and calibration should be
restricted to one or two qualified individuals.
15.5.5 RECORDS
Logbooks should record the oxygen indicator's checkout and
calibration procedures. Although it is a relatively simple
instrument to use, the oxygen indicator can be incorrectly
operated if the user is not thoroughly familiar with its
operation. An appropriate training and certification proce-
dure must be developed and incorporated. The users must
complete the training and be certified for operation before
using the instrument in the field. Refresher courses should
be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by the
manufacturer, by various commercial entities, and by EPA at
their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.5.6 PROCEDURES
15.5.6.1 Theory
The MSA Oxygen Indicator tests the partial pressure of
oxygen in the atmosphere. The actual sensing device con-
sists of an oxygen-specific permeable membrane that allows
oxygen to pass into the sensor until the partial pressures
equalize on both sides of the membrane. Inside the sensor
is an electrolyte solution that surrounds two electrodes.
An oxidation-reduction reaction occurs in which the amount
of current generated is directly proportional to the oxygen
concentration. The change in current is detected by the
meter circuit, and the needle is calibrated to indicate oxy-
gen concentration in percentage, which is read out directly.
The sensor is temperature compensated from 32°F to 104°F.
The indicator response time is increased in temperatures
beyond the compensated range, partially below 32°F.
The instrument must be calibrated before using it in the
field. Calibration is performed by adjusting a calibration
screw when the probe is exposed to fresh air. Readings
should be checked every hour in sampling areas where the
temperature is not constant to attain the greatest accuracy
possible.
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15.5.6.2 Limitations and Warnings Associated with an MSA
Oxygen Indicator
As with all instruments, the user should appreciate the
limits of the oxygen indicator's capabilities and should be
sure to operate it within those limits. The following rep-
resents several ot the important limitations:
1. Condensation of moisture on the sensor face will cause
low oxygen readings. To avoid this problem, allow the
sensor to reach ambient temperature before taking
readings.
2. Strong oxidants such as fluorine, chlorine, and ozone
will lead to erroneously high oxygen readings when
these oxidants are present in concentrations exceeding
5,000 ppm or 0.5 percent.
3. Concentrations of C0_ greater than 1 percent will
reduce sensor life.
4. Changes in barometric pressure because of altitude will
also affect the meter reading. The instrument is cali-
brated for 20.8 percent oxygen at sea level (one
atmosphere).
5. Relative humidity operating range is 10 to 90 percent.
6. The sensor must not be touched by hands or other
objects; the membrane is easily damaged.
7. Fuming acids, such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid,
will poison the probe.
8. Once exposed to air, the oxygen sensor has a shelf life
of approximately 1 year.
15.5.6.3 Recommended Action Levels
If the oxygen level is less than 19.5 percent, the
inspection should be continued only with a self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) or a similar unit; the oxygen-
deficient area should be identified.
If the oxygen level is more than 19.5 percent, the
inspection can continue without breathing apparatus. If the
cartridge will provide adequate sorbent efficiency, a car-
tridge respirator is acceptable. Also, the contaminant must
have good warning properties, and must not react with the
sorbent material in the cartridge.
If the oxygen level exceeds 25 percent, the area should be
vacated, since an oxygen-rich atmosphere exists and an
explosion or fire is possible.
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15.5.6.4 NIOSH Criteria
Oxygen levels lower than 19.5 percent require the use of
supplied-air respirators.
15.5.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.5.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual,
Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen Alarm." Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating
Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA. Occupational Safety and Health
Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
October 1985.
15.6 COMBINED COMBUSTIBLE GAS (EXPLOSIMETER)
AND OXYGEN ALARM
15.6.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance for the
understanding, use, and application of a combined combusti-
ble gas and oxygen alarm. The methodologies refer to
combined combustible gas and oxygen alarm instruments man-
ufactured by Mine Safety Appliances Company.
15.6.2 DEFINITIONS
Explosimeter. An instrument used to test an atmosphere for
concentration of combustible gases and vapors.
Lower explosive limit (LEL). The minimum concentration of a
gas or vapor in air by volume that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source.
Upper explosive limit (UEL) The maximum concentration of a
gas or vapor in air by volume that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source.
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Oxygen indicator. An instrument that provides a means to
measure atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The volume per-
cent for atmospheric oxygen is 20.95 percent.
Partial pressure. The pressure that each gas exerts in a
gas mixture ("i.e., oxygen is 159 mmHg at sea level). Par-
tial pressure is also temperature dependent.
15.6.3 APPLICABILITY
The combined combustible gas and oxygen alarm can be
extremely useful, since both the combustible gas and oxygen
alarm are incorporated into one unit. For example, when
combustible vapors are present in sufficient concentrations
to displace a certain percentage of the atmosphere, this
condition should be reflected as a low reading on the oxygen
indicator and an elevated reading on the explosimeter. In
turn, the oxygen indicator also establishes the limits of
oxygen concentration (19.5 percent to 25 percent) in which
the explosimeter can function properly.
This instrument has been useful during installation of
monitoring wells in and around landfills where methane gas
is of concern. Confined spaces at hazardous waste sites,
such as abandoned warehouses and storage sheds containing
drums of volatile substances, pits, trenches, or sewers are
prime examples of where the instrument has provided service.
15.6.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Before the instrument is taken into the field, it should be
inspected and calibrated to ensure that it is operating
properly. If possible, maintenance and calibration should
be restricted to one or two qualified individuals.
15.6.5 RECORDS
Logbooks should record the instrument checkout and
calibration procedures. Although a relatively simple
instrument to use, the oxygen alarm can be incorrectly
operated if the user is not thoroughly familiar with its
operation. An appropriate training and certification proce-
dure must be developed and incorporated. The users must
complete the training and be certified for operation before
using the instrument in the field. Courses are offered by
the manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at
their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.6.6 PROCEDURES
The procedures for the confined explosimeter and oxygen
indicators are the same as for the separate instruments.
The reader should refer to Subsections 15.4 and 15.5.
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15.6.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.6.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual,
Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen Alarm." Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating
Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA. Occupational Safety and Health
Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
October 1985.
15.7 VAPOR DETECTION TUBES—DRAEGER GAS
DETECTOR MODEL 2T73T
15.7.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This procedure discusses the use of Draeger tubes to
determine the concentrations of specific gaseous pollutants
in the field.
15.7.2 DEFINITIONS
None.
15.7.3 THEORY AND LIMITATIONS
15.7.3.1 Theory
A known volume of air is drawn through a reagent by using
the pump and tube. The length of the color change observed
in the tube translates to a ppm value.
15.7.3.2 Limitations
1. Cross sensitivity is typical.
2. Readings are not specific; there is a large degree of
error (±35% at 1/2 the permissible exposure limit (PEL)
to ±25% at 1 to 5 times the PEL).
3. A slow response time is typical.
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4. Shelf life can be maintained for 2 years by
refrigerating tubes.
5. Operator error in "reading" the jagged edge where the
contaminant meets the indicator chemical (end point) is
a major source of inaccuracy.
15.7.4 APPLICABILITY
The colorimetric tube and pump measure the concentrations of
specific inorganic and organic vapors and of gases that
cause a discoloration which is proportional to the amount of
material present. The detector tubes are specific for indi-
vidual compounds, or groups of compounds, and require spe-
cific sampling techniques. This information is supplied
with the tubes; it details the required sample volume, the
proper tube preparation and insertion into the pump, and the
applicability and limitations of the individual tube. Since
several hundred different tubes are available, the user must
consult the specific instructions for each tube.
15.7.5 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM is responsible for determining when the use of the
Draeger tube is appropriate and for monitoring that the tube
is properly set up for field sampling.
Personnel must be trained in the use of the detector tubes.
Refresher courses should be obligatory every 6 months.
Courses are offered by the manufacturer, various commercial
entities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison,
New Jersey, facilities.
15.7.6 RECORDS
The comments dealing with the Draeger tube sampling episode
should be detailed in the field logbook.
15.7.7 PROCEDURES
15.7.7.1 Operation
A pump check should be performed each operational day. To
complete this check, place an unbroken tube into the suction
inlet of the pump and completely depress the bellows. The
bellows should not completely extend (taut chain) in fewer
than 30 minutes.
15.7.7.2 Field Use
o Break off both tips of the Draeger tube(s) in the
break-off eyelet located on the front pump plate.
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o Tightly insert the tube into the pump head with
the arrow pointing toward the pump head. If mul-
tiple tubes are used (e.g., vinyl chloride), join
the tubes with the rubber tube provided, then
insert the tube into the pump head.
o Fully compress the bellows and allow the bellows
to reextend until the chain is taut. Repeat as
often as specified in the tube operating
instructions.
o Evaluate the tube according to instructions.
15.7.7.3 In-House Handling Procedures (check in)
o Each unit on return from the field should be
subjected to the following tests with results
being entered in the logbook.
o The unit will be visually examined for surface
dirt, deformities, cracks, and cuts.
o The pump integrity will be checked in the
following manner:
Block the inlet with an unopened tube.
Fully compress; then release the pump
bellows. If the bellows do not completely
fill (limit chain slack) in 30 minutes, the
unit is operating properly. If the unit does
not pass the leak test, proceed as follows:
— Remove the pump plate.
— Unscrew the valve with the special
wrench.
Clean the valve in water and dry.
— Replace the disc if it is sticky,
brittle, hard, or cracked.
Reassemble and retest.
15.7.8 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
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15.7.9 INFORMATION SOURCES
Manual of Calibration, Maintenance, Service and Operation of
NUS H&S Equipment and Monitoring Instruments. November
1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of
Hazardous Waste Sites, Volume II, Available Sampling
Methods.EPA 600/X-83-018.March 1983.
15.8 FIELD EQUIPMENT—RADIATION MONITORS
15.8.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides guidance in the use and
implementation rationale in determining possible exposure(s)
to ionizing radiation by radiation monitors. Radiation or
radioactivity is the property of the nucleus of an atom to
spontaneously emit energy in the form of high-energy
electromagnetic waves or particles. Types of radiation that
are of concern are alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma and X-radiation.
Stable atoms of an element are composed of a dense nucleus
containing an equal number of protons and neutrons. Sur-
rounding the nucleus are clouds or orbits of electrons. The
number of electrons in the atom of an element equals the
number of protons. The number of neutrons in the atom can
vary and, if it does, the atom is known as an isotope. Most
isotopes are synthetic although some, such as Csl23 and
U238, occur naturally in nature. In addition, most isotopes
are radioactive; they are unstable and tend to transform
into an atom of a different element called a "daughter" by
releasing a particle (either alpha or beta particles) or by
emission of gamma and X-rays. The type of energy released
and the rate of this release (decay rate or half life) is
particular to each isotope. If desired, the isotope can be
identified by determining the type of energy released and by
measuring the decay rate.
Radiation, unlike other chemical and physical exposures, has
no real-time warning properties that are detectable by the
human sensories. However, reliable radiation detectors are
available.
All radiation detectors other than passive dosimeters
(radiation badges) operate on the same principle; radiation
causes ionization in the detection media. The ions produced
are counted electronically, and a relationship is estab-
lished between the number of ionizing events and the quanti-
ty of radiation present. Types of radiation detectors
include the following:
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o lonization detection tubes are used primarily in
high-range instruments, predominantly for
detection of gamma and X-radiation.
o Proportional detection tubes inherently do not
detect beta or gamma radiation; they are used pri-
marily for detection of alpha radiation.
o Geiger-Mueller detection tubes are very sensitive
to gamma and beta radiation.
o Scintillation detection media are crystal media
that interact with radiation; they are highly sen-
sitive to alpha and gamma radiation.
15.8.2 DEFINITIONS
Radiation Alert-Mini. Portable unit that detects ionizing
radiation and that indicates, by using three-level scales,
the actual radiation onsite with sound and light warnings
and a level indicator.
ROENTGEN. The amount of gamma or X-radiation that will
produce one electrostatic unit of charge in 1 cubic centime-
ter of dry air.
Radiation absorbed dose (RAD). The quantity of radiation
required for 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by 1 gram of
body tissue.
Radiation dose equivalent in humans (REM). A measure of the
dose received in terms of its estimated biological effect(s)
on humans.
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) badge. A clip-on badge
containing a substrate impregnated with either lithium or
calcium fluoride. These materials are phosphors that store
energy when exposed to ionizing radiation. When the phos-
phor is heated to several hundred degrees centigrade, energy
is released in the form of visible light that is measured
with a photometer, providing an exposure reading.
15.8.3 APPLICABILITY
For the purpose of field work and site investigations, field
teams should use several types of exposure monitors during
field activities. It is conceivable that during different
activities (recon versus sampling), disturbing different
areas of a site may expose previously undetected radiation
sources.
The cross conversion of ROENTGEN, REM, and RAD depends on a
"quality factor" that is specific to each radioisotope and
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on the energy level of the radiation. With various forms of
radiation, each has a "quality factor" that is based on its
estimated biological effect on humans. It, therefore,
stands to reason that each radioisotope has its own respec-
tive "quality factor."
Survey-type radiation detectors are normally calibrated
against a cesium-137 gamma source. In essence, the detector
is not calibrated for other isotopes. It does, however,
serve as a good reference and relative indicator for other
radiosotopes. The results of survey-type radiation detec-
tors are usually displayed by a counter or audio response,
along with a readout of milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr).
15.8.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM should see that field personnel are equipped with TLD
badges and a Radiation Alert-Mini (or similar unit) during
any aspect of field work. Health and safety personnel are
responsible for addressing these safety subjects in the
safety plan and for seeing that TLD badges are issued and
collected quarterly.
15.8.5 RECORDS
15.8.5.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) Badge
The responsible health and safety manager or designee will
maintain records of TLD issuance and results, as well as
badges that are lost or exposed through nonfield (airport or
dentist) activity.
15.8.5.2 Other Radiation Monitors
Health and safety personnel or their designees maintain
records relative to the following:
1. Periodic calibration (according to factory
specifications).
2. Major repairs (in which case the unit is to be labeled
"Out of Service").
3. Usage in the field.
4. Site safety personnel will keep records of any above-
background readings and action taken (to be noted on
the site safety follow-up report or by emergency phone
call) to be submitted to the responsible health and
safety manager.
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15.8.6 PROCEDURES
15.8.6.1 Radiation Alert-Mini
An example of a survey-type radiation detector is the
Radiation Alert-Mini, manufactured by Solar Electronics,
which uses a miniature geiger detector tube with a thin mica
end window called the alpha window. This arrangement makes
the Radiation Alert-Mini sensitive to all forms of radia-
tion. The detector indicates all incoming radiation with an
audio response and counter. The level of radiation is
measured in milliroentgens per hour (mR/hr). At lower ele-
vations natural background radiation can produce 10 to
20 counts per minute. The detector has three ranges (XI,
XI0, and XlOO) with two alarm lights that indicate counts of
10 and 30 percent for each range, e.g., .1 mR/hr and
.3 mR/hr for the XI range, and 1 mR/hr and 3 mR/hr for the
X10 range, and so on. Checkout procedures are as follows:
1. Check to see the unit is "field-ready."
2. Check battery by switching to ON position. (Note:
Field teams should bring extra batteries, especially
for lengthy projects.)
3. Switch unit to AUDIO. A periodic beep and flash will
indicate the unit is working, especially because of
background radiation. (.01-.02 mR/hr) (Note: 10 to
20 CPM on unit.)
4. Set the scale on the unit so it falls within
precautionary guidelines as follows:
o If less than 2 mR/hr, continue investigation with
caution.
o If greater than 2 mR/hr, stop work and evacuate
site.
(Note: Exact readings cannot be determined with most
alert-minis. If readings above background are deter-
mined with the alert-mini, a radiation survey meter or
equivalent must be used to determine exact readings
before continuing operations.)
5. Note any areas that display above-background readings.
If any site evacuation is needed, contact the responsi-
ble health and safety manager upon reaching an offsite
"safe zone."
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6. Limitations and precautions:
o When testing for alpha radiation, be sure to
position the alpha window about 1.4 inch from the
material under test. Alpha particles will not
penetrate more than about 1 inch of air and can be
shielded by thin paper or similar material.
o Avoid exposing the Radiation Alert-Mini directly
to liquids and corrosive gases; also avoid extreme
temperatures and direct sunlight.
o Avoid contamination by not touching the surface of
material being tested.
o Calibration must be checked and performed by the
factory. Annual calibration is recommended,
although its operation should be checked period-
ically with a low-emission source such as mantals
used in gas lanterns.
15.8.6.2 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) Badge
(Note: The TLD badge measures total quarterly cumulative
dosage to the body. It is by no means to be used as a sub-
stitute for Radiation Alert-Mini or Thyac III, which mea-
sures actual site radiation.
Radiation badges are commonly based on film dosimetry or
chemical dosimetry. It is important to understand the use-
fulness and limitation of passive radiation dosimeters.
The conditions under which one must work are generally
complex, ill defined, and irregular. Perhaps the most prac-
tical method, although less accurate than real-time moni-
tors, is to monitor radiation exposure by using dosimeters.
The dosimeter, or radiation badge, usually provides enough
information that the absorbed dose can be inferred from the
data. The dosimeter serves as a reliable assessment of
radiation exposure on a time-weighed average and activity
basis. Dosimetry is a convenient method of monitoring expo-
sure for a whole crew of individuals where other methods
would otherwise be impractical, if not impossible.
Upon receipt of TLD badges for each quarter, the responsible
health and safety personnel implement the following
procedures:
1. Distribute TLD badges to personnel subject to potential
radiation exposure during field and laboratory
activities»
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2. Personnel who are issued a TLD badge wear the badge on
their front pockets while onsite or performing labo-
ratory work.
3. Field team members required to go through airport
baggage checks (en route to or from the site) MUST WEAR
THE BADGE. (Badges packed in luggage may become
exposed if passed through X-ray machines.) Do not wear
badges during visits to the dentist.
4. At the end of each quarter, health and safety personnel
collect the badges and return them (including the con-
trol badge) to the manufacturer (or the designated com-
pany representative) and issue new badges for the
coming quarter.
5. Limitations and precautions
o . Dosimetry is a measure of after-the-fact
exposures.
o Badges that are not worn by workers provide little
information; compliance must be monitored.
o Badges that are exposed to direct sunlight for
extended periods produce false readings.
o Badges that are exposed to ionizing radiation when
not in use, as in the case of security checks at
airports and in the presence of color TV and
microwave ovens, will produce false positive
readings.
15.8.6.3 Model 490 Victoreen Thyac III Survey Meter
The Model 490 is a pulse-count ratemeter and power supply.
With the pancake detector probe, it acts as a survey meter
for alpha-beta-gamma radiation. Its range of operation is
0-80,000 cpm or 0-20 mR/hr approximate radiation intensity
with appropriate detector.
Use and Operation
The instrument should be used only by persons who have been
trained in the proper interpretation of its readings and in
the appropriate safety procedures to be followed in the
presence of radiation. Training courses are mandatory for
all field personnel, and refresher courses should be oblig-
atory every 6 months. Failure to follow instructions may
result in inaccurate readings and/or user hazard. Indicated
battery and operational (check source) tests must be per-
formed before each use to ensure that the instrument is
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functioning properly. Failure to conduct periodic perfor-
mance tests in accordance with ANSI N323-1978, para-
graphs 4.6 and 5.4, and failure to keep records thereof in
accordance with paragraph 4.5 of the same standard could
result in erroneous readings of potential danger. Do not
connect or disconnect any detector while the instrument is
on. Wait 2 minutes after the instrument is turned off
before connecting or disconnecting any detector. Failure of
transistors will occur if these instructions are not
followed.
The Thyac III is designed for 100 hours of continuous use on
two "D" cell batteries and longer with intermittent use.
Trained personnel are required to interpret its readings.
The user must be sure to read the instruction manual before
using. The instrument is in a weatherproof case, which
contains the two operating controls (the function switch,
and the response switch) on top.
A low-intensity beta check source is provided on the case.
Temperature limits are -30° to +50°C (limits for batteries
may be different). The check source may be used with a
headset or an audio speaker; it may be put in a plastic bag,
when appropriate, to prevent contamination.
Maintenance
Do not store the instrument with the batteries inside.
Replace the batteries as indicated during the battery check
performed before each use. Recalibrate the instrument peri-
odically according to manufacturer's specifications.
15.8.6.4 Eberline Model E-120 Radiation Monitor
The Model E-120 is a gamma response radiation monitor that
has dual scales (0-5 mR/hr and 0-6 CPM). This unit has
three range multipliers (xO.l, xl.O, and xlO.O) and has
adjustable response times. The general operating procedures
are as follows:
Field Operation
o Switch to the battery check position to indicate
the battery condition.
o Check the instrument's operation by placing a
check source in a repeatable position adjacent to
the detector. Move the selector switch to a range
that will give an upscale reading greater than
10 percent of scale. Adjust the response control
to minimize the erratic meter movements.
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o Log the instrument's response value on the green
tag.
In-House Handling Procedures (check in)
o When each instrument returns from the field or at
alternate 6-month maximum storage intervals,
Clean and visually examine the instrument for
defects.
Check its battery status.
Validate its response to an operation check
source.
Enter the above data and any green tag data
into the appropriate logbook.
o At least once per year, ship each instrument to
the manufacturer for recalibration.
15.8.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.8.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Sax, N.I.. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Material.
6th ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1984
CH2M HILL. Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
15.9 PERSONAL SAMPLING PUMPS
15.9.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection provides general guidance regarding the
plans for, method of selection, and use of personal sampling
pumps for field investigations of hazardous waste sites.
15.9.2 DEFINITION
Personal sample. An air sample that is collected by a
device worn on the worker; the device measures actual expo-
sure during the work routine.
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15.9.3 APPLICABILITY
This subsection discusses the use of sampling pumps for
personal monitoring purposes. These guidelines are based on
the objective of determining the potential exposure to a
worker of air contaminants. Subsection 11.6 contains infor-
mation on area sampling of ambient air.
15.9.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Field personnel must be adequately trained in the operation
of personal sampling pumps. Refresher courses should be
obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by the
manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at
their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.9.5 RECORDS
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration
records must be generated and maintained by the responsible
organization. Specific records of field use should be noted
in field notebooks as suggested in Sections 6 and 17.
15.9.6 PROCEDURES
15.9.6.1 Preliminary Considerations
The planning, selection, and implementation of any
monitoring program using personal sampling pumps require
clearly defined objectives. The following considerations
must be examined to define what the user wants to measure:
o Worker exposure versus ambient air
o Long-term (8 hours) versus acute (momentary
releases) exposure
o Vapors versus particulates
The sampling pump that is selected must also be lightweight,
portable, and not affected by motion or position.
15.9.6.2 Description and Application
Personal sampling pumps come in various models. Several
models offered by MSA include the Monitaire Samplers;
Models S and TD; Model C-210 Portable Pump; and the Fixt-Flo
Pump, Model 1. All these models consist of a compact pump
that may be clipped to the worker's belt or carried in a
shirt pocket so that continuous air sampling can be made. A
sampling head containing the sorbent tube, filter, or other
collection medium is clipped to the lapel of the worker as
close to the breathing zone as possible.
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The contaminant(s) of interest will determine the type of
collection medium used with the pump. Organic and inorganic
vapors, as well as particulate in the breathing zone of the
worker, may be measured.
MSA Colorimetric Detector Tubes are available for measuring
toxic concentrations of ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide,
hydrogen sulfide, mercury vapor, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
and sulfur dioxide.
Charcoal sampling tubes are also available to provide
efficient collection of organic and mercury vapors for sub-
sequent analysis using laboratory instrumentation.
The organic vapor tube will collect compounds such as
benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, dioxane, ethylene
dichloride, trichloroethylene, and xylene. The mercury
vapor sampling tube collects both elemental and chemically
bound mercury vapors, plus particulates containing mercury.
All the above-mentioned MSA sampling pumps are rechargeable
battery-operated diaphragm pumps. Flowrates may be adjusted
on all models.
As general guidance, the following procedures should be
followed when using personal sampling pumps:
1. Fully charge the pump.
2. Calibrate the pump.
3. Make sure assembly does not leak by assembling the
unit, covering the inlet to the sampling device, and
drawing a vacuum on the assembly.
4. If no leaks occur, the sampler is ready for use.
Manufacturer's instructions should be followed for more
complete guidance on using a specific model.
Certain information should be recorded in a field notebook
when a personal sampling pump is used. This may include,
but not be limited to the following:
o Date
o Name
o Site
o Pump number
o Type of sample
o Time sampler started
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o Time sampler turned off
o Flowrate
o Weather conditions
15.9.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however,
all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent
revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may
become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional
practices and requirements.
15.9.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
MSA Safety Equipment Catalog. 600 Penn Center Boulevard,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235.
Cralley and Cralley. Patty's Industrial Hygiene and
Toxicology, Volume III. 1979.
U.S. Steel Corporation. Environmental Health Services.
Environmental Health Monitoring Manual. 1973.
15.10 OTHER MONITORING DEVICES
15.10.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL GAS DETECTOR
There are many manufacturers of gas detector monitors that
use electrochemical cells for detection of toxic inorganic
gases. Many of these detectors are mixed oxide semiconduc-
tors (MOS) of a proprietary design, although many are of a
galvanic cell type, as previously described for the MSA oxy-
gen indicator, but specific to the analyt gas.
Typically, one manufacturer may provide a monitor with one
or more replaceable cells. In certain instances, MOS cells
for different gases can be interchanged in the same monitor.
Electrochemical gas detectors are quite compact, are battery
operated, have lower explosive detection (LED) readouts, and
have audio alarms for present concentrations.
The Monitor Compur 4100 is an example of the MOS-based
electrochemical gas detection system. The monitor offers
MOS cells for hydrogen sulfide (H^S), hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ana phosgene (COC12).
The monitor system is designed in particular to monitor and
alert the user when threshold limit values (TLV) are
exceeded as follows:
15-63
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H S—10 ppm
HCN--10 ppm
NO2—5 ppm
COC12—0.1 ppm
Of greatest consequence many times to site investigations
are phosgene and hydrogen cyanide. Electrochemical gas
detection such as the moni.tox system offers a real-time mea-
sure of phosgene and hydrogen cyanide. Neither of these
chemicals has warning properties (i.e., odor, taste) at TLV
levels.
15.10.1.1 Limitations and Precautions
o Cross sensitivity to other gases can trigger false
alarms.
o Chemical filter (activated charcoal) for the COC12
cell needs to change frequently if monitoring is
in the presence of H2S, HC1, and CL2.
o High concentration of analyt gas, typically
100 times the TLV, can irreparably change the
sensor cell.
o Sensor cells must be protected from excessive
moisture and dust-laden air.
o Service life of sensor cells is typically 6 months
during normal use.
15.10.2 PASSIVE DOSIMETERS
The use of passive dosimeters or gas badges is a recent
development in sampling. No energy or action is required to
take the sample. Currently badges are available to sample
from 15 minutes to 8 hours. These badges can be used for
sampling organic vapors, formaldehyde, mercury vapor, ammo-
nia, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.
Most passive dosimeters work on the principle of diffusion.
Gases and vapors enter the monitor by diffusion and are
absorbed by a sorbent medium in the interior of the badge.
The amount of gas or vapor adsorbed is determined by expo-
sure time and concentration present in the monitored
environment. A measured volume of an eluent is added to the
monitor to desorb and dissolve the contaminants. An aliquot
of the eluent solution is then analyzed by analytical proce-
dure specific to the contaminant. The weight of the
contaminant is used in conjunction with the diffusion
constant, as determined by the badge manufacturer, to calcu-
late the time-weighted average worker exposure.
15-64
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15.10.3 MINIRAM MONITOR
The MINIRAM (Miniature Real-Time Aerosol Monitor) is a
compact, personal-size, airborne particulate monitor whose
operating principle is based on the detection of scattered
(nephelometric principle) electromagnetic radiation in the
near infrared. The radiation scattered by airborne parti-
cles passing freely through the open sensing chamber of the
monitor is sensed by a photovoltaic detector. An optical
interference filter screens out light whose wavelength dif-
fers from the narrow-band pulsed source. Aerosol concen-
tration is displayed as milligrams per cubic meter every
10 seconds. The readings are stored and integrated to pro-
vide time-weighted averages.
Calibration of the monitor is performed by the factory
against a filter-gravimetric reference. The MINIRAM has
application to measuring all forms of aerosols: dusts,
fumes, smokes, fogs, etc. The MINIRAM is unique in that it
provides real-time semi-quantitative measurements of aerosol
concentrations, unlike filtration-gravimetric methods, which
require both time and laboratory facilities to complete.
The MINIRAM has particular application in monitoring ambient
air for toxic aerosols or toxic elements associated or
transported by aerosols.
WDR225/004
15-65
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Section 16
DATA REDUCTION, VALIDATION, REPORTING,
REVIEW, AND USE
16.0 GENERAL
This section discusses the data validation procedures that
are specific to the Contract Laboratory Program (CLP). A
more detailed discussion is available in the User's Guide to
the CLP. The section also describes data validation
procedures that the Site Manager uses in evaluating any
laboratory data.
16.1 NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM—LABORATORY DATA
16.1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This subsection summarizes the validation procedures used to
review laboratory analyses conducted for the Contract Labo-
ratory Program (CLP). The CLP offers routine analytical
services (RAS) that deliver analyses of the Target Compound
List (TCL) organic compounds, Target Analyte List (TAL)
inorganic parameters, and dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). Special
analytical services (SAS) also are available through the
CLP. These include customized or specialized analyses,
quick turnaround analyses, verification analyses, analyses
requiring lower detection limits than RAS methods provide,
identification and quantification of nonpriority pollutant
and non-TCL or non-TAL constituents, general waste charac-
terizations, and analysis of nonstandard matrices. The
validation process compares a body of data against a set of
performance criteria to determine consistency and appli-
cability to specific purposes.
16.1.2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Contract Laboratory Program (CLP). The reader should see
the User's Guide to the CLP"T
Target Analyte List (TAL) inorganics. 23 metals and cyanide
(See Section 7 of this compendium for a listing or consult
the User's Guide to the CLP.)
Target Compound List (TCL) organics. 127 organic compounds
are included on the TCL (35 volatiles, 65 semivolatiles, and
27 pesticides or PCBs) (See above.)
Routine Analytical Services (RAS). (See the User's Guide to
the CLP.)
16-1
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Sample Management Office (SMO). (See the User's Guide to
the CLP.)
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Special Analytical Services (SAS). (See the User's Guide to
the CLP.)
16.1.3 APPLICABILITY
The procedures in this section apply to analyses conducted
by laboratories in EPA's Contract Laboratory Program.
16.1.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Scheduling of analyses is the responsibility of the EPA
Regional Sample Control Centers (RSCC). Contract labora-
tories analyze samples from Superfund sites under the CLP
and send the reports to the Environmental Services Division
(BSD). Assessment of the laboratory data package is author-
ized by the RSCC, which approves release of the information
to the SM. Before release for use, all CLP data are
reviewed and approved by the BSD of the specific EPA
regional office or by its contractors to assess the appli-
cability of each data package to its intended use. Data
validators will assess the laboratory product as specified
in the referenced protocols and region-specific protocols,
and the validators will then make a recommendation to the
ESD's regional office. BSD provides technical oversight and
assistance and makes the final decision on qualifications of
the laboratory data. No data are considered usable without
notifying the BSD of the validation.
16.1.5 RECORDS
The CLP RAS protocols for analyzing TCL organics, TAL
inorganics, and dioxin in Superfund samples specify the
report format. Examples of laboratory report forms and
validation procedures for TCL organics, TAL inorganics, and
dioxin are given in Appendix B, "RAS Deliverables and Data
Reporting Forms," of the User's Guide to the CLP. Several
other lengthy examples are available to the SM, such as
EPA's analytical statements of work (see information
sources). Laboratory report forms for SAS analyses are
specified in the user-provided analytical protocol and
associated quality control (QC) procedures for each SAS
request.
16-2
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16.1.6 PROCEDURES
Detailed procedures for CLP data reduction, validation, and
reporting are found in the User's Guide to the CLP. Speci-
fic procedures for CLP validation of data arefound in the
standardized organic, inorganic, and dioxin CLP analytical
methods; each CLP user is provided with a sample data pack-
age that contains documentation of a series of QC operations
that permit an experienced chemist to determine the quality
and applicability of the data. Each EPA region and CLP lab-
oratory has established additional QC and data validation
procedures.
16.2 DATA VALIDATION
16.2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section discusses both sources of data errors and
approaches to reduce these errors.
16.2.2 DEFINITIONS
The reader should see Subsection 6.1.2.
16.2.3 APPLICABILITY
The procedures discussed below can be used by the SM on any
project, since measurements made have inherent limitations
that include the equipment and procedure used, the skill of
the person performing the analysis, and the conditions under
which it is performed. Environmental measurements are often
trace analyses made at extremely low concentrations. These
measurements are subject to chemical and physical interfer-
ences, instrument limitations, and uncertainties that affect
the accuracy of the determination. It is essential, there-
fore, to minimize these factors so that the measurements
accurately reflect the character of the sample collected. A
systematic process to consider when measuring environmental
contaminants is recommended by the American Chemical Society
in "Guidelines for Data Acquisition and Data Quality Eval-
uation in Environmental Chemistry." This process considers
the planning, measurement, calibration standardization,
quality assurance, statistical procedures, and documentation
needed for high-quality analytical chemical data.
16.2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Site Managers are ultimately responsible for obtaining
valid, usable data. They are assisted by project personnel,
corporate quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) person-
nel, and the analyzing laboratories.
16-3
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16.2.5 RECORDS
Data validation records are included as part of the QA/QC
package.
16.2.6 PROCEDURES
16.2.6.1 Exploratory (Qualitative) Investigations
Generally, analytical measurements are considered to follow
a continuum of analyte concentration as shown in
Exhibit 16-1. At some finite concentration, the analyte is
detected at an instrument response level greater than the
instrument background noise level or field blank value.
Qualitative measurements depend on both the analytical
method used and the concentration of the analyte in the
sample.
16.2.6.2 Quantitative (Remedial, Enforcement Site Dynamics)
Investigations, Reduction, and Validation
As shown in Exhibit 16-1, the numerical significance of the
apparent analyte concentration increases as the analyte sig-
nal increases above the LOD. The limit of quantitation
(LOQ) is determined by the expression
* Kgs
where:
K = quantitation factor, which is usually equal to 10
LOQ = S
q
Sample analyte concentrations in the range of 3 to 10 s are
highly variable and are more consistent at values greater
than 10 s. Every analytical system contains sources of
inaccuracy and imprecision that are demonstrated in the
variability of replicate analyses. These inaccuracies
include both systematic and random errors. Random errors
are the result of (a) inherent limitations of the equipment,
(b) limitations of observations, and (c) lack of care in
making measurements. Random errors can be above or below
the sample mean. Replicate analyses are recommended to min-
imize the effect of possible errors. Examples of random
errors include weighing uncertainties, aliquot variabili-
ties, sample heterogeneity, and instrument noise.
16-4
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Exhibit 16-1
CONTINUUM OF ANALYTE CONCENTRATION
where:
S = gross signal
S. = blank signal
K = response factor
s = standard deviation of measurement
This expression defines the limit of detection (LOD)
where K, is generally accepted as a value of 3.
Zero
Analyte
Not Detected
Region of
Detection
Region of
Quantitation
V3s
S, +10s
b
LOD LOQ
Analyte Concentrations
(1)
Anal. Chem., 1980, 52, 2242.
16-5
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Systematic errors are consistent and bias the measurement in
one direction (unless two or more systematic errors are pre-
sent that affect the data in differing directions). Exam-
ples of such errors include instrument calibration error,
uncompensated instrument drift, or operational errors.
These errors combine to produce measurement variability that
is reflected by the indicators of measurement quality, pre-
cision, and accuracy.
o Precision is the degree of agreement among
individual measurements made under prescribed con-
ditions using a single test procedure.
o Accuracy is the difference between an average
value and the true value, when the latter is known
or assumed.
Precise measurements reflect the proper use of good
laboratory practices, proven methodology, and low noise
instrumentation. Accuracy is confirmed by using standard
reference materials and participating in interlaboratory
comparison activities. Prepared standards and performance
samples are available from the U.S. National Bureau of
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Food
and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
various commercial sources.
16.2.6.3 Data Review and Use
The SM will perform the following for data review:
o Review data summaries and reports for
transcriptional and typographical errors.
o Review and determine if sampling protocols were
appropriate.
o Review and compare the data against the field and
trip blanks to detect contamination from sampling
(see Subsection 16.2.3).
o Review and compare field sampling replicates.
o Review laboratory QC including laboratory blanks,
spike recovery, method standards, and duplicates.
Are the data usable from a QC perspective?
o Delete unusable data and attach appropriate
qualifiers to usable data. Explain limitations of
qualified data.
16-6
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o Review and summarize detection limits for
nondetectable results.
o Review detection limits for positive but
nonquantifiable data. Are appropriate qualifiers
assigned?
o Review sampling design for dealing with media
variability.
Background concentrations are important in the
identification of site-specific contamination. For each
medium or operable unit, the reader should consider the
following:
o Are site-specific background samples available?
o Are the data of sufficient quality to estimate
site-specific background concentrations?
o If background data are lacking, can local,
regional, or national averages be found and used?
It is important to understand the "background" levels of
chemicals in environmental media (air, surface water,
groundwater, and soil) so that remedial actions may dis-
tinguish between the elimination of all risks and the
reduction of risks to levels normally associated with the
area.
"Background" is defined as the "normal ambient environmental
concentration of a chemical." Background includes "natural"
background and the contribution from anthropogenic (human-
made) sources other than the site. "Natural" background is
the range of concentrations of chemicals (primarily inorgan-
ics) naturally occurring in the environmental media. These
concentrations may vary from aquifer to aquifer, depth to
depth within one creek, and soil type to soil type. Anthro-
pogenic sources include auto exhaust emissions, industrial
discharges, and highway runoff.
Site-specific background samples should be taken for each
environmental medium. These samples should be representa-
tive of the media on the site and should be taken at a
location that is not influenced by the site. It is espe-
cially important in urban areas to take samples that can
differentiate between site sources and other urban sources.
When selecting the location and number of background sam-
ples, consider the variability of the medium, the number
required for statistical validity, and the size of the area
being defined. A minimum of three background samples should
be taken in each identifiably different medium (i.e., shal-
low aquifer versus deep aquifer). Background values can be
16-7
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presented as a range, a mean, or a median; when appropriate,
the confidence intervals around the mean. The appropriate
measure depends on the ultimate use of the information.
If site-specific background values are not available, the
reader should consult the following categories of informa-
tion sources as a means of approximating background. The
sources are presented in order of preference as follows:
1. Other local values, including those from other
background samples taken at nearby Superfund sites;
local surveys by the soil conservation service, U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS); local universities; or other
area-specific data sources, such as doctoral theses
2. Regional ranges and averages from USGS or other sources
3. Natural concentration ranges and averages in soil (see
Exhibit 16-2)
Professional judgment will have to be exercised in selecting
background values and in deciding which samples reflect site
sources and which samples are consistent with background.
Once the range of background has been established,
evaluation of remedial alternatives and estimation of risk
can proceed.
16.3 REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF DATA VALIDATION
Each EPA region has developed variations of the CLP
validation protocols for organics, inorganics, and dioxins.
Because information on variances can become dated rapidly,
the user should contact the EPA RPM or the RSCC that is
within the BSD to obtain specific information on exceptions
to these protocols. Future changes in variances will be
incorporated in Revision 01 of this compendium.
16.4 INFORMATION SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Laboratory Data
Validation, Functional Guidelines for Evaluating Organics
Analyses. Technical Directive Document No. HQ-8410-01.
Hazardous Site Control Division. May 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work,
Dioxin Analysis, Soil/Sediment and Water Matrices, Multi-
Concentrations, Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM) GC/MS
Analysis. IFB WA 86-K356. Sample Management Office.
September 1986.
16-8
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Exhibit 16-2
THE CONTENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS IN SOILS
Element
Silver
Aluminum
Arsenic
Boron
Barium
Beryllium
Bromine
Carbon
Calcium
Cadmium
Chlorine
Cobalt
Chromium
Cesium
Copper
Fluorine
Iron
Gallium
Germanium
Mercury
Iodine
Potassium
Lanthanum
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Sodium
Nickel
Oxygen
Potassium
Lead
Rubidium
Sulfur
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Tin
Strontium
Common Range
for Soils
(ppm)
0.01-5
10,000-300,000
1-50
2-100
100-3,000
0.1-40
1-10
7,000-500,000
0.01-0.70
20-900
1-40
1-1,000
0.3-25
2-100
10-4,000
7,000-550,000
5-70
1-50
0.01-0.3
0.1-40
400-30,000
1-5,000
5-200
600-6,000
20-3,000
0.2-5
200-4,000
750-7,500
5-500
200-5,000
2-200
50-500
30-10,000
5-50
0.1-2
230,000-350,000
2-200
50-1,000
Selected Average
for Soils
(ppm)
0.05
71,000
5
10
430
6
5
20,000
13,700
0.06
100
8
100
6
30
200
38,000
14
1
0.03
5
8,300
30
20
5,000
600
2
1,400
6,300
40
490,000
600
10
10
700
7
0.3
320,000
10
200
16-9
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Exhibit 16-2
(continued)
Common Range Selected Average
for Soils for Soils
Element (ppm) (ppm)
Titanium 1,000-10,000 4,000
Vanadium 20-500 100
Yttrium 25-250 50
Zinc 10-300 50
Zirconium 60-2,000 300
Source: W. Lindsay. Chemical Equilibrium in Soils.
New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1979.
16-10
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work,
Organics Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Concentration.
IFB WA-87J001, J002, J003. Sample Management Office.
October 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work,
Inorganics Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Concentration.
IFB WA-85J839. Sample Management Office. July 1985.
(Note: Inorganic statement of work will be updated with a
new IFB to be issued in the summer of 1987.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide to the
Contract Laboratory Program. Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response. December 1986.
WDR225/005
16-11
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Section 17
DOCUMENT CONTROL
17.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section describes procedures for the identification and
control of documents that may affect the product quality for
project activities. The procedures established should
ensure that documents are reviewed for adequacy, complete-
ness, and correctness and for release by authorized person-
nel. Changes to documents should be reviewed and approved
by the authorized personnel that perform the original review
and approval process or by their designees. Provisions
should include identification and distribution of controlled
documents; identification of personnel, position, or orga-
nizations responsible for preparing, reviewing, approving,
and issuing documents; and establishment of a document fil-
ing, numbering, and inventory system.
17.2 DEFINITIONS
Accountable documents. Those documents where there is
reasonable belief that they will be used as evidence during
litigation. In addition to controlled documents, these doc-
uments include logbooks, field data records, sample tags/
labels, chain-of-custody records, bench cards, photographs,
and correspondences that contain project data of evidentiary
nature.
Controlled documents. Those documents that describe
activities affecting quality which will be used for eviden-
tiary purposes during litigation. These documents are
released by authorized personnel and distributed for use by
the individuals performing the activities.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
17.3 APPLICABILITY
This procedure is an applicable method to appropriately
maintain the controlled and accountable evidentiary
documents.
17-1
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17.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The originating organization will be responsible for
identifying and maintaining the controlled documents in
accordance with this or other quality-assurance-approved
procedures.
17.5 RECORDS
Records provide the direct evidence and support for the
necessary technical interpretations, judgments, and dis-
cussions concerning project activities. These records, par-
ticularly those that are anticipated to be used as
evidentiary data, must directly support current or ongoing
technical studies and activities and must provide the his-
torical evidence needed for later reviews and analyses. The
control of records is essential in providing evidence of
technical adequacy and quality for all project activities.
Records that furnish documentary evidence related to quality
assurance activities will be specified, prepared, and main-
tained. Other records to be generated during the project
are specified in the work plan or task outline. Records
must be legible, identifiable, and retrievable and will be
protected against damage, deterioration, or loss. Require-
ments and responsibilities for record preparation, transmit-
tal, distribution, retention, maintenance, and disposition
must be in accordance with quality-assurance-approved
instructions such as those identified in this procedure.
17.6 PROCEDURES
17.6.1 PROJECT FILES
Project files are established upon issuance of Technical
Directive Documents (TDDs), Work Assignments (WAs), or award
of a contract. Each project file should be identified
according to site name and TDD/WA/contract number or by
other appropriate means that have been documented and
approved by the Site Manager (SM) or higher authority.
The SM is responsible for assuring the collection, assembly,
and inventory of all documents related to the project. The
SM will designate a document custodian who will be respon-
sible for record maintenance.
The document custodian is responsible for itemizing and, if
the project size warrants, giving to the accumulated
documents a unique sequential docket number. Each docket
number should be logged in on a file inventory form
(Exhibit 17-1). Documents should be placed into segregated
file folders according to the controlled document project
files procedures (Exhibit 17-2) that have been established.
17-2
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Exhibit 17-1
FILE INVENTORY
Site Name
JOB No.
TDD No.
Date
Docket Date of Title of
Number Entry Document
17-3
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Exhibit 17-2
CONTROLLED DOCUMENT PROJECT FILES PROCEDURES
Project Plans
Project Logbooks
Field Data Records
1. Equipment
Calibration
Chain-of-Custody
Records
Analytical
Laboratory Data
Document
Docket Log
Number
Enter Number
Under Project
Name
Check Off Master
Index Card
Project File
Correspondence
1. MTG
2. Telecons
3. Memo Internal
4. Memo EPA
Litigation
Documents
References,
Literature
Miscellaneous
1. Maps
2. Photos
3. Drawings
4. Notes
5. News Articles
Final Report
QA/QC
1. Quality Notices
17-4
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Individuals who remove documents from the project file
should sign out the document, give the date documents were
removed, and enter the date that the documents were returned
to the project file.
Access to project files must be controlled to restrict
nonproject personnel from having free and open access. An
authorized access list should be placed on the central fil-
ing room door or outside each individual filing cabinet and
should name the personnel who have unrestricted access to
the files. Personnel not identified on the authorized
access label must obtain project file access from the
document custodian or designee.
The document custodian or designee must assure that the
central filing room and individual filing cabinets are
locked at the end of each day.
17.6.2 DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION AND NUMBERING
Every controlled document should have a unique identifier
(number).
Each work plan should be identified as to project and task
number (TDD/WA number), revision level number, and report
status (draft/final).
Procedures and instructions must be identified and
referenced as to their origination or preparer, the approv-
ing organization or personnel, the effective date, and the
revision level.
Each procurement document should have a sequential purchase
order number or subcontract number assigned to it.
Accountable documents used by employees must be uniquely
identified by serialized number or by other appropriate
means. Each accountable document must be listed in a proj-
ect document inventory at the completion of each task or
assignment.
Black waterproof ink must be used to record all data on or
in serialized accountable documents.
Documents related to field activities, such as sample tags/
labels, chain-of-custody forms, and logbooks, will be num-
bered serially and their distribution will be controlled.
This control is usually through the EPA office issuing the
documents. The reader should refer to Section 4 of this
compendium.
17-5
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17.6.3 DOCUMENT DISTRIBUTION
Controlled documents, such as manuals, procedures,
instructions, and guidelines that are required for use in
performing project work, should be distributed on the basis
of a written, approved distribution list using a formal
transmittal form, such as shown in Exhibit 17-3, with a
return receipt required.
17.6.3.1 Document Distribution to Third Parties
All project documents generated by the Superfund contractors
are the property of EPA. The distribution of such documents
to state agencies, potential responsible parties, lawyers,
other regulatory agencies, or branches within the EPA must
be in accordance with recommended regional EPA practices.
Requests for document distribution should be in the form of
a TDD, WA, or memorandum from EPA.
Distribution of internal project documents, including but
not limited to photographs, logbooks, work plans, operating
guidelines, sampling procedures, documentation protocols,
and health and safety procedures, should be inventoried onto
a chain-of-custody form by recording the transfer of the
requested documents. A document transmittal form should
also accompany the requested information and must record the
receipt of said information as specified by the EPA. The
originating request to transmit the information must come
from the EPA. Otherwise, all requests from outsiders must
be referred to the EPA.
The return receipt must be documented on the controlled
document transmittal log.
17.6.4 REVISIONS TO DOCUMENTATION
Major revisions to documents are subject to the same level
of review and approval as the original document. Distri-
bution of revised documents should include all holders of
the original document.
Minor changes to documents, such as inconsequential
editorial corrections, do not require that the revised docu-
ments receive the same review and approval as the original
documents; however, they must be reviewed and approved at
the highest level previously involved in review.
17.6.5 PROJECT LOGBOOKS
Site Managers who are responsible for conducting field
investigations must be issued serialized logbooks. The SM
17-6
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Exhibit 17-3
FORMAL TRANSMITTAL FORM
DOCUMENT TRANSMITTAL
TO
DATE
REFERENCE NUMBER
SENDER
THE FOLLOWING DOCUMENTS! IS TRANSMITTED TO YOU FOR Q USE D RECORDS Q INFORMATION
TITLE/I D NO *HQ
NO OF
COPIES
CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED
NUMBERS NUMBERS
NOTE
D ABOVE OOCUMENT(S) IS TO BE USED FOR WORK PLAN
Q ABOVE DOCUMENTS) IS RESTRICTED TO USE ONLY FOR WORK PLAN
O DESTROY PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI
Q RETURN PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI TO SENDER
Q RETAIN PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI FOR YOUR
RECORDS
D THIS DOCUMENT IS PROPRIETARY INFORMATION
Q THIS DOCUMENT IS CONFIDENTIAL
D OTHER
PLEASE ACKNOWLEOQE RECEIPT OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI BY SIGNING THIS TRANSMITTAL
FORMANOPHOMPTLYRETUHNING IT TO THE ADDRESS NOTED BELOW IF PREVIOUS REVISION
OF THE DOCUM6NTISI IS TO BE DESTROYED THE FOLLOWING SIGNATURE ALSO CERTIFIES THE
DESTRUCTION OF THE DOCUMENTISI
SIGNATURE.
DATE
SIGNED COPY OF THIS TRANSMITTAl SHOULD BE RETURNED TO
17-7
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is responsible for recording all pertinent project informa-
tion including, but not limited to, field work documenta-
tion; field instrumentation readings; calculations;
calibration records; work plan distributions; photograph
references; sample tag/label numbers; meeting information;
and important times and dates of telecons, correspondences,
or deliverables.
Onsite measurements and field operations are recorded in the
logbooks with pertinent information necessary to explain and
reconstruct sampling operations. Entries made in the log-
book must be dated and signed by the individual who made the
entry unless entry is by the individual to whom the logbook
was originally assigned. The SM or designee must sign the
logbook at the close of each day; the SM may wish to review
and initial each page daily.
Project logbooks are the property of the regional office and
are to be turned over to the project file when a project
assignment has been concluded.
As an alternative to recording detailed sampling information
or instrument calibration in logbooks, separate sampling
record forms may be used. However, general site information
must be recorded in the logbook, and the use of such forms
should be referenced in the logbook. The reader should
refer also to Section 4 of this compendium.
17.6.6 COMPUTER CODES AND DOCUMENTATION
Computer codes used for analysis, modeling, or design
applications should be baselined, controlled, and docu-
mented. Documentation stored by computer system (e.g.,
chain-of-custody records and analysis reports) must be
adequately safeguarded.
17.6.6.1 Documentation, Verification, and Retention of
Software Programs
One person must be designated as responsible for ensuring
that all computer programs, whether developed internally or
acquired from an outside source, are documented in suffi-
cient detail so that each can be understood and verified by
an independent reviewer. The program documentation should
contain the following:
o Program identification. Give the program name,
descriptive title, and information necessary to
uniquely define the current version.
o Description of problem or function. Define the
problem to be solved or function to be performed
by the program.
17-8
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o Method of solution. Summarize mathematical
techniques, procedures, and numerical algorithms
employed for solution.
o Related material. List any auxiliary programs or
external data files required for implementation of
this program.
o Restrictions. Discuss limitations imposed by the
mathematical model or computer facilities.
o Computer(s) . Identify the computer(s) on which
the program has been successfully executed.
o Programming languages. Indicate the languages
used and approximate function of each.
\
o Operating systems. Identify the software system
and versions used.
o Machine requirements. List the computer hardware
required for implementation of the program.
o Authors. Give the names and addresses of the
author(s) and the individuals currently responsi-
ble for the program.
o References. List directly related publications
and other reference materials.
o User's manual. Describe all input required for
the program including input format. Include all
information required for a successful computer run
(e.g., special input techniques, handling of con-
secutive cases, default values of input parame-
ters) . Provide sample problems with control cards
and physical interpretations of input and output.
o Source. List the source program as compiled or
assembled.
17.6.6.2 Verification
Verification is the process of ensuring that the program
performs correctly and is required for all computer programs
used for quality-affecting work. The extent and degree of
verification will depend on the end use of the results of
the analysis for which the program is employed. The extent
of verification should be documented on a formal record,
such as shown in Exhibit 17-4, and retained.
17-9
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Exhibit 17-4
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICATION
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICA TION
DESCRIPTION OF VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES AND FINDINGS (CONTOI:
PAGE OF
VERIFIED 8V-
DATE
ACCEPTED tv IRCOIONAL/OFFICI MANAGER):
DATE.
REVIEWED BY OA:
DATE.
S *4I MOItJ
17-10
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Exhibit 17-4
(continued)
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICA TION
SOFTWARE PACKAGE NAME.
PAGE or
DEVELOPER:
PROGRAMMER-
COMPUTER TYPE:
VERIFICATION SCOPC:
O SAMPII PROBLEM FROM ORIGINATOR
Q MATHEMATICAL MODELING
0 COMPlETt Q f POT CHECK
Q NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
0 COMPUTE a SPOT CHECK
Q DATA LIBRARIES USED
Q COMPUTE Q SPOT CHECK
Q BENCHMARK AOAINST EXISTING PROGRAMS
O BENCHMARK AGAINST EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Q BENCHMARK AGAINST HAND CALCULATIONS)
a VERIFICATION TESTING PROGRAM
PROGRAM USE:
0 DESIGN
Q CALCULATIONS
Q MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
Q ANALYSIS
O OTHER
DESCRIPTION OF VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES AND FINDINGS.
17-11
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For programs that are widely used and accepted, verification
may be limited to running originator-supplied sample prob-
lems. For other programs, verification should be accom-
plished by checking the mathematical modeling, numerical
analysis, and computer program logic, and then by doing
either of the following:
o Demonstrate that the computer program solutions to
a series of test problems are in substantial
agreement with those obtained by a similar,
independently written program in the public
domain. The program from the public domain should
be a generally recognized program with sufficient
history to justify its applicability and validity
without further demonstration.
o Demonstrate that the program's solutions to a
series of test problems are in substantial agree-
ment with those obtained by hand calculations or
from accepted experimental or analytical results
published in the technical literature.
The test problems chosen for program verification should be
demonstrated to be representative of the range of appli-
cability of the problems to be analyzed by the program.
The program verification should be fully documented
including methods used, details of independent calculations
(manual or computer), results, and conclusions. This docu-
ment must be attached to the record of computer software
verification.
17.6.6.3 Retention
The documentation generated for a software program should be
labeled with sufficient information to uniquely identify the
version of the program to which it is applicable and should
be retained in the files of the project in accordance with
the applicable sections of the document control procedure
described herein. A master copy of the production program
disk must be maintained. No changes to this disk will be
made without the proper authorization. Such authorization
may be granted only after the modifications have complied
with the provisions of the document control procedure.
17.6.7 CORRECTIONS TO DOCUMENTATION
As previously noted, the documentation in logbooks, sample
tags/labels, custody records, and other data sheets must be
filled out with black ink. None of the accountable seri-
alized documents listed are to be destroyed or thrown away,
even if they are illegible or if they contain inaccuracies
17-12
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that require they be replaced. The person will simply void
the document, note such void in the appropriate sign-out
log, and maintain voided documents in a file.
If an error is made with an entry into the project logbook,
a chain-of-custody form, or sample tag/label, the individual
in error will draw a single line through the error and ini-
tial the error along with the appropriate date of change.
The site sampler is responsible for completing necessary
reports that detail sampling errors or omissions. This pro-
cedure also applies to words or figures inserted or added to
a previously recorded statement.
If a sample tag/label is lost in shipment, if a tag/label
was never prepared for a sample(s), or if a properly tagged/
labeled sample was not transferred with a formal chain-of-
custody record, a written statement is prepared by the Site
Manager detailing how the sample was collected. The state-
ment should include all pertinent information, such as field
logbook entries, regarding the sample and whether the sample
was in the sample collector's physical possession or in a
locked compartment until hand-transferred to the laboratory.
Copies of the statement are distributed to the project
files.
17.6.8 CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
Potentially responsible party site owners or their
representatives may disclose information during investiga-
tive activities with a request for confidentiality, thus
making such documents exempt for public access under the
Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. 9552. Only information
that is specifically exempt from disclosure by other pol-
lution control laws, (i.e., trade secret information, infor-
mation compiled as investigatory records for enforcement
purposes, classified information related to national secur-
ity, internal rules and practices, inter-agency and intra-
agency memorandums or letters, medical records and personal
files, reports and data prepared in the regulation of finan-
cial institutions, and geological and geophysical data for
oil and gas well owners and operators) must be handled as
confidential in accordance with EPA's requests.
A separate, locked file must be maintained for the
segregation and storage of all confidential and trade-secret
information. Upon receipt, this information is directed to
and recorded in a confidential inventory by the responsible
individual. The information is then made available to
authorized personnel, but only after it has been logged out.
The information must be returned to the locked file at the
conclusion of each working day. Confidential information
may not be reproduced except upon approval by, and under the
17-13
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supervision of, the responsible manager. Reproduction of
confidential information should be kept to an absolute
minimum.
17.6.9 DISPOSITION OF PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Upon termination of the project, the contents of the file
are processed for storage as quality assurance records.
The cognizant project manager and document custodian are
responsible for disposition of all project quality assurance
records as prescribed in the work plan for that project and
in the applicable procedures.
The quality assurance records retained must be dispositioned
as required by the EPA. Current procedures are that all
Superfund contractors' files are microfiched for transmittal
to the National Archives.
17.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
These procedures are applicable to activities carried out in
all 10 EPA regions; however, slight variations in the appli-
cation of these procedures may occur. EPA Region V has
indicated the following variations. Regarding
Section 17.6.1, Project Files, Region V does not use the
authorized-access listing approach to limit access to files.
All Region V personnel have access to files unless the files
are identified as confidential. Also, Region V does not use
separate file folders to segregate information. Pertaining
to Section 17.6.2, Document Identification and Numbering,
Region V handles field activity documents, such as sample
tags and traffic reports, through a system that is
independent from office file document control systems.
For Section 17.6.6, Sample Identification Documents, all
unused filed sampling documents in Region V are kept by the
person to whom they were assigned and maintained for future
use. This information should be recorded in the sampling
logbook.
Exhibit 17-1, File Inventory, is the same as Region V's
Document Control Log Sheet. Because variances can become
dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for
current information. All further regional variations will
be incorporated in Revision 01 of this compendium.
17.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Environmental Law Institute. Duties to Report or Disclose
Information on the Environmental Aspects of Business
Activities. September 1984; revised September 1985.
17-14
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National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement
Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors.Denver, Colorado.
April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program
Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Contractors.
Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of
publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for
Geologic Investigations. National Waste Terminal Storage
Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines
and Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance Project
Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance,
Office of Research and Development. Washington, D.C.
29 December 1980.
WDR225/006
17-15
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Section 18
CORRECTIVE ACTION
18.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
The corrective action program covers the analysis of the
cause(s) of any negative audit findings and the corrective
actions required. This program includes the investigation
of the cause(s) of significant or repetitious unsatisfactory
conditions relating to the quality of materials, components,
or services or the failure to implement or adhere to
required quality assurance practices.
This procedure establishes the methods for implementing and
documenting corrective actions.
18.2 DEFINITIONS
Corrective actions. Those actions taken in response to
nonconformance reports, audit findings, or surveillance or
monitoring findings. Audit reports require some stated spe-
cific action; other reports may often be implemented as
well.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
18.3 APPLICABILITY
The corrective action procedure is applicable to those
activities that affect quality control carried out at haz-
ardous waste site investigations and that require corrective
actions.
18.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The quality assurance representative is responsible for
reviewing audit reports and nonconformance reports to deter-
mine the significant or repetitious conditions adverse to
quality, or the failure to implement or adhere to required
quality assurance practices.
When such problems are identified, the responsible manager
or the designee must investigate the causes of the problems
and is responsible for defining and implementing the neces-
sary actions to correct the problems. The responsible
18-1
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manager must identify the person or persons responsible for
initiating the actions for remedying any immediate effects
of the problems.
18.5 RECORDS
Documentation that supports major corrective actions should
be maintained in the project files and in the quality assur-
ance files using the techniques discussed in Section 17,
Document Control, of this compendium.
18.6 PROCEDURES
18.6.1 LIMITS FOR DATA ACCEPTABILITY
The quality of data generated by sampling, monitoring, or
analyzing is defined in terms of the following:
Accuracy. The degree of agreement of a measurement (or an
average of measurements of the same thing), X, with an
accepted reference or true value, T, usually expressed as
the difference between the two values, X-T, or the differ-
ences as a percentage of the reference or true value, 100
(X-T)/T, and sometimes expressed as a ratio, X/T. Accuracy
is a measure of the bias inherent in the system.
Precision. A measure of mutual agreement among individual
measurements of the same property, usually under prescribed
similar conditions. Precision is best expressed in terms of
the standard deviation. Various measures of precision exist
depending on the prescribed similar conditions.
Completeness. A measure of the amount of valid data
obtained from a measurement system compared with the amount
that was expected to be obtained under correct normal con-
ditions and that was needed to be obtained in meeting the
project data quality objectives.
Representativeness. The degree to which data accurately and
precisely represent a characteristic of population, the
parameter variations at a sampling point, a process condi-
tion, or an environmental condition. It also includes how
well the sampling point represents the actual parameter
variations that are under study.
Comparability. The confidence with which one data set can
be compared with another; a qualitative characteristic that
must be assured in terms of sampling, analysis, reporting,
etc.
18-2
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The exact values of these quality characteristics will vary
depending on the analytical processes and procedures
involved. The processes and procedures used throughout the
project are based on established techniques and methods. In
many cases, existing EPA standard operating procedures will
be used. Where these are not available or suitable, nation-
ally recognized procedures, such as those established by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) will be
employed.
Individual work plans will detail the recommended field
activity and analytical methodology to establish that these
variables are adequate to support future decisions.
18.6.2 CONTROL OF DATA ACCEPTABILITY
Measures must be established and documented so that
conditions adverse to quality, such as deficiencies,
deviations, nonconformances, defective material services
and/or equipment, can be promptly identified and corrected.
The identification of conditions adverse to quality, the
cause of the condition, and the corrective action taken must
be documented and reported to appropriate levels of
management.
The area of concern must be audited in a timely manner to
establish that the corrective action has been accomplished.
18.6.3 REVIEWS
The results of audits must, within 30 days of receipt, be
reviewed by the quality assurance representative to deter-
mine the need for corrective action beyond the corrective
action in the audit report. If this audit review reveals
that major or long-term corrective actions are needed, the
responsible managers will obtain from their staffs a commit-
ment to define and implement the necessary actions to cor-
rect the cause(s) of the problem as well as to remedy any
immediate effects of the problem. In addition, several time
critical field events are short-term activities that must
receive immediate corrective-action attention. In other
words, the deficiency must be effectively remediated well
before completion of the event to ensure data acceptability.
18.6.4 NONCONFORMANCE
If a deficiency that affects the quality, validity, or both,
of a work product is discovered after final quality verifi-
cation, the project work and verification process should be
reviewed for adequacy. Modifications to project work will
be initiated if necessary.
18-3
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18.6.5 CORRECTIVE ACTION APPROVAL
Proposed major corrective actions shall be approved by the
responsible manager. The quality assurance representative
must be consulted and must concur with proposed major cor-
rective actions.
18.6.6 CORRECTIVE ACTION REVIEW
The quality assurance representative must review the results
of major corrective actions after implementation to deter-
mine the effectiveness of the actions and report the results
of this review to the program manager.
18.6.7 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS FOR DATA ACCEPTABILITY
Corrective action procedures for data acceptability have
been determined by EPA accepted practices and methods.
Section 16, Data Reduction, Validation, and Reporting, of
this compendium also contains information on corrective
action procedures.
18.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
All region-specific variations to this section will be
incorporated in Revision 01 of this document, because no
variations were identified during the draft review. Users
are urged to contact the EPA RPM to gain up-to-date
information on variations.
18.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement
Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado.
April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program
Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Contractors.
Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station.(No date of
publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for
Geologic Investigations. National Waste Terminal Storage
Program. October 1982.
18-4
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines
and Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance Project
Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance,
Office of Research and Development. Washington, D.C.
29 December 1980.
WDR225/007
18-5
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Section 19
QUALITY ASSURANCE AUDIT PROCEDURES
19.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Each project plan must describe the internal and external
performance and systems audits that will be required to mon-
itor the capability and performance of the total measurement
system(s).
Section 19 describes the activities usually accomplished in
the performance of audits. The preaudit meeting, audit per-
formance, evaluation of audit findings, postaudit meeting,
and audit reporting are addressed.
19.2 DEFINITIONS
Audit (office, field, laboratory). A documented activity
performed in accordance with written procedures or check-
lists to verify, by examination and evaluation of objective
evidence, that applicable elements of the quality assurance
program have been developed, documented, and effectively
implemented in accordance with specific requirements.
Auditor. A staff member who can perform audit activities
under the directions of a lead auditor. Persons classified
as auditors shall not serve as audit team leaders nor per-
form audits independently.
External audit. An external audit is performed by an
auditor(s) not employed by the company or organization being
audited. External audits are performed to verify that a
subordinate participant in a project is exercising effective
controls over its responsibilities for the implementation of
the overall quality assurance program.
internal audit. An internal audit is performed by an
auditor(s)employed by the company or agency to which the
audit activity belongs. Internal audits are performed to
verify that the developments or organizations within the
company are conforming with the quality assurance program.
Lead auditor (audit team leader). A staff member who, by
virtue of education,training,and experience, can organize
and direct audits, can report audit findings, and can evalu-
ate corrective actions.
Performance audits. Performance audits are normally
conducted after the data production systems are operational
and are generating data. Such audits independently collect
measurement data by using performance evaluation samples to
19-1
-------
determine the accuracy of the total measurement system or
portions thereof.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Systems audits. Systems audits are regularly performed and
encompass all aspects of the program. For purposes of this
procedure, systems audits will consist of evaluations of all
components of the applicable measurement systems to deter-
mine their proper selection and use. The total data produc-
tion process, which includes onsite reviews of both field
and laboratory systems and facilities for sampling, cali-
bration, and measurement protocols, is normally covered by
systems audits.
Technical expert. A staff member who is knowledgeable in
the technical discipline being audited but is not qualified
as an auditor.
19.3 APPLICABILITY
The audit procedure is applicable to the quality assurance
audits conducted on projects dealing with Superfund hazard-
ous waste site investigations.
19.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The quality assurance representative is responsible for
preparing and maintaining a schedule of audits as described
in this procedure.
Qualifications and certification of the audit personnel
should be reviewed and documented by the quality assurance
representative.
The audit team leader is responsible for preparing an audit.
These responsibilities include the selection of an audit
team, preparation of an audit plan and audit checklist, spe-
cial training and orientation of the audit team, and noti-
fication of the organization being audited.
The audit team leader and, where applicable, the other
members of the audit team are also responsible for complying
with the instructions identified in this procedure for con-
ducting audits.
19-2
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Audit follow-ups should be conducted by the audit team
leader to verify that corrective action on audit findings is
adequate and complete.
Documented findings identified during audits are to be
completed on the quality notice form (Exhibit 19-1). The
quality notice form should be completed in accordance with
the procedures outlined in Exhibit 19-2 (instructions) and
is the responsibility of the audit team members.
19.5 RECORDS
The following records are generated in support and
completion of the quality assurance audits for Superfund
projects:
o Audit schedules and revisions thereto
o Audit qualification records
o Certification records (current and historical)
o Audit checklists and audit guides
o Audit plan
o Audit reports
o Written response to audit reports
o Response evaluations
o Records of audit closure
19.6 PROCEDURES
The following procedure describes the methods used in
establishing and conducting an audit. Office, field, and
laboratory audits may vary in context but follow the generic
guidelines of this procedure.
19.6.1 AUDIT SCHEDULES
An audit schedule should be established for each year of the
project. The schedule will include both internal and
external audits, providing external audits are required.
The schedule is reviewed periodically and revised as
necessary to reflect current scheduling of activities that
affect quality and to provide adequate coverage of the
implementation of the quality assurance program.
The frequency of audits is based on the level of
participation of the audited organization in activities that
affect quality.
19-3
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Exhibit 19-1
QUALITY NOTICE
QUALITY NOTICE
11) QN NO (2) CODE
13) CATEGORY
O OFFICE O SOO/TOO/WA
D PROGRAM
(4) SOURCE
d QA INTERNAL AUDIT Q QA EXTERNAL AUDIT Q OTHER
I5| PROJECT
|7) AUDITED ORGANIZATION
181 ORGANIZATIONAL UNIT
1101 RESPONSE ASSIGNED TO
H3I
D OBSERVATION
16) AUDIT GUIDE REFERENCE
(91 ACTIVITY
(11) REPORTED BY
121 DATE
(1*1
D DEFICIENCY
{151 REFERENCE DOCUMENT
1161 REQUIREMENT {CITEl
(17) DESCRIPTION
(181 RESPONSE DUE DATE 1
19) SCHEDULED REAUDIT DATE
1201 APPROVED BY
{211 DATE
<22> RESPONSE ITO BE COMPLETED BY AUDITED ORGANIZATION)
TO SUBSTANTIATE COMPLETION OF CORRECTIVE ACTION.
ATTACH DOCUMENTATION AS APPROPRIATE
123) SUBMITTED BY
124) DATE
TO BE COMPLETED BV AUDITING ORGANIZATION
{251
Q SATISFACTORY
1291
n SATISFACTORY
{261
0 UNSATISFACTORY
130)
n UNSATISFACTORY
(33) REMARKS
(27) REVIEWED BY.
[311 REAUDIT DATE
1341
D QUALITY NOTICE
CLOSED
(351 APPROVED BY
128) DATE
132) REFERENCE ON NO(«I
(FOR UNSATISFACTORY
REAUDIT)
136) DATE
19-4
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Exhibit 19-2
QUALITY NOTICE INSTRUCTIONS
Tha QuaMy Notioi Form thall ta* u»rf tay persons performing Quality ABuranc* (QA) Audit or Surveillance of activities affecting the timtly and
tffective formulation or implementation of a defined QA program. Th« form n applicable to all typM off goods and service* (hardware and soft-
ware^ provided *n accordance with rtquiramanti of a QA Program This form may |M used by projact management representative* for monitoring
decisions, actions or events associated with QA programi partmtnt to work performed under thaw lunidtctton.
Tha Quality Notice Form shall b* usad by personnel idantifiad above to describe tht condition whan.
A. Specified quality for a product. proc*m or system ha« be*n violated; <.* , a quality DEFICIENCY (audit finding) ti to ba documented by
tht observer and appropnata corrective action is to bt commrtttd for schtdulad accomplishment fay tha auditad/monilorad organisation, or
4
B. Tha capability of tht audittd/momtorad organization to dtmonttratt with mtaningful level of eonfidanot. contmuad achi*v*mtnt of appro-
priate quality appears to b« »n t«opardy. i*.. >n OBSERVATION u to ba doeumtnttd by tht obtarvtr and is to ba aettd upon by tha
•uditad/monitortd organization in accordant* with aareement(a) tstablnhad by tha obatrvw with tha audrttd/momtorad ofgamutton.
(It Enter identifier lor each Quality Nonce ION) issued Unless
prescribed otherwise, the obsarvtr shall establish identification
appropriate to hit needs, e g , 01, 02.
(21 Leave blank (thit space may be used lor subsequent codittca-
tion and Quality trend analyses)
(3) Mark tht box(es) which btit describes the category of the
reooritd observation or deficiency
(4) Mark tht box which describes the source of the cued
observation or deficiency (see Note 1 below)
(5) Enter identification (e g . name or number) ot protect under
which activity was performed
(6) Enter identification of gu*de used to isolate and identify the
observation or deficiency, eg . audit checklist detailed scope
(?) Enter name and location of organization subjected to *udit/
surveillance/monitoring action
(81 Enter name of department or section where the noted observa-
tion or deficiency occurred
(91 identify the specific task, action or work assignment under-
going audit/curvtillance/monitonng when the observation or
deficiency was isolated and identified, e 9 . performing magnetic
particle inspection of containment vessel welds (hardware),
reducing strip chart data for wind speed and wind direction
(software)
(10) Enter tht name of the audited/monitored organization repreitn-
tatiwt responsible for providing observation or dtliotncy
responses.
tit) Enter the observer's name
(121 Record the date on which the observation or deficiency was
documented
(13) Mark thit box when quality is in jeopardy as described above
tn Instruction B (set Note 2 below).
(14) Mark this box when quality it violated as described above m
Instruction A (see Note 2 below).
(IS) A When item U3) is marked, enter the name and identifica-
tion of Applicable documemd) containing the specific
quality requirements that should be implemented to prevent
or to mitigate the conditions adverse to quality
B When item (14) ts marked, enter tha name and identifica-
tion of documents) containing the specific quality rtauirt-
mtnts violated.
(16) A When item (13) has been marked, enter (excerpt if
available) specific quality requirements that should be
implemented to prevent o* to mitigate the conditions
adverse to quality
B When item (14) is marked, enter excerpt from specific
• Quality requirement violated
(17) Record m terse concise language a description of tht observa-
tion or deficiency.
(18) Record the due date of the response from the audited/
monitored organization
(19) Record the next scheduled date for aud
-------
The published schedule contains the following information:
o Name and project organization (or subcontractor or
consultant) to be audited
o Subject of the audit
o Scheduled date of the audit
o Audit team leader
Audits are scheduled so that the quality assurance programs
covering the activities are effective during all phases of
the program.
The audit schedule is distributed to all appropriate
management personnel of the offices being audited. Audit
schedules prepared by the quality assurance representative
for specific office activities (e.g., field audits, labo-
ratory audits, and/or office audits) are distributed to the
cognizant manager.
Quality assurance personnel may conduct unscheduled audits
when one or more of the following conditions exist:
o When it is necessary to determine the capability
of a supplier's quality assurance program prior to
award of a subcontract
o When, after the award of a contract, sufficient
time has elapsed for implementation of the quality
assurance program, and when it is necessary to
determine that the organization is performing in
accordance with the program
o When significant changes are made to activities
affecting quality, such as reorganization or major
revision of quality assurance manuals, procedures,
or other controlling documents
o When it is suspected that the quality of the
services provided is in jeopardy because of non-
conformance with the quality assurance program
o When a systematic, independent assessment of the
program's effectiveness is considered necessary
o When it is necessary to verify that required
corrective actions have been implemented
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19.6.2 QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
PERSONNEL
19.6.2.1 Auditor Qualification
Three categories of personnel perform audits: auditor, lead
auditor, and technical expert. The qualifications for these
three categories are as follows:
Auditor. To be classified as an auditor, an individual
must, as a minimum, be given specific training in the con-
tent and objectives of the quality assurance program and in
audit procedures and be evaluated on knowledge of these
documents.
Lead auditor. To be classified as lead auditor, the
individual must meet the requirements for auditors. In
addition, the individual should have served as a team member
in the conduct of at least two audits led by a lead auditor.
Technical expert. The technical experts are not required to
be qualified as auditors. They are selected on the basis of
technical expertise in the area being audited and are part
of an audit team led by an auditor. They are given specific
training in the preparation and use of checklists and in the
conduct of an audit.
19.6.2.2 Certi fication
The quality assurance representative documents the basis for
auditor certification and provides written certification.
The program office manager certifies the quality assurance
representative. The certification must state the classi-
fication of the individual and the expiration date of the
certification.
19.6.3 PREPARATION FOR AUDITS
19.6.3.1 Audit Team Selection
The audit team leader for internal audits is selected by the
quality assurance representative. Audit team members are
also selected by the quality assurance representative.
Individuals are selected for quality assurance audit team
assignments on the basis of experience or training commensu-
rate with the complexity or special nature of the activities
to be audited. Any special abilities, specialized technical
training, previous experience, personal characteristics,
education, or physical capability that is applicable to the
assignment are to be considered during selection.
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19.6.3.2 Written Audit Plan
The audit team leader is responsible for the preparation of
a written audit plan, when specifically requested by the
quality assurance representative.
The audit plan includes the following information:
o Audit number
o Audited organization
o Subject of the audit
o Scope of the audit
o Projects or activities to be audited
o Names of the audit team members
o Schedule
o Applicable documents
19.6.3.3 Audit Checklists
The audit team leader is responsible for directing the
preparation of audit checklists or an audit guide.
The following guidelines are used in preparing checklists:
Initial baseline audits. Checklists are based on quality
assurance program documents (e.g., quality assurance manu-
als, plans, procedures, applicable standards).
Follow-up audits. Checklists are based on a review and
evaluation of findings from previous audits, responses to
these findings, and available objective evidence of imple-
mentation of corrective action.
Periodic audits. Checklists emphasize areas considered
critical to the program at the time of the audit or found
weak but not reported as a finding during a previous audit.
19.6.3.4 Audit Team Orientation
The team leader prepares the team prior to initiation of the
audit and assigns specific areas for each member to audit in
accordance with checklists the team has prepared. Pertinent
policies, procedures, standards, instructions, manuals
plans, codes, regulatory requirements, prior audit reports,
and responses should be made available to the team for
information and review. Also, each auditor is provided with
copies of the audit plan, procedures, and checklists neces-
sary to ensure an orderly audit. The team leader estab-
lishes that the auditors understand the internal and
external organization and contractual interfaces and respon-
sibilities of the organization to be audited.
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19.6.4 CONDUCT OF AUDITS
19.6.4.1 Aud i t Meeting
Upon arrival at the audit site, the audit team leader
conducts a meeting with the audit team members and cognizant
management of the organization to be audited.
The following are purposes of the preaudit meeting:
o Introduce auditors
o Meet counterparts
o Confirm the scope of the audit
o Present the audit plan
o Discuss the audit sequence
o Establish channels of communication
o Schedule a postaudit meeting
19.6.4.2 Audit Performance
The audit team leader prepares audit checklists or audit
guides. The depth and scope of the audit are determined and
incorporated into the checklists or guides. The audit team
leader establishes the ground rules for the audit and
assigns to the various team members the specific areas each
is to cover in the audit.
The audit checklists and guides are used to guide the audit
and to provide adequate depth, scope, and continuity.
However, the audit is not restricted to the checklists when
evidence raises questions not specifically addressed in the
checklists. The audit activity includes the review of
objective evidence to verify adequate implementation of the
quality assurance program.
Audit team members record each finding (observation or
deficiency) on a formal record such as a quality notice form
(Exhibit 19-1). This form is prepared in accordance with
the information contained in this section. When a finding
is identified, sufficient investigations should be conducted
to determine the basic cause of the finding.
The quality notice form is used to document the findings of
internal audit activities and the resolution of the find-
ings. Findings can be categorized as follows:
o Category A (Deficiency). Recognition of a
specific requirement (e.g., program, procedure,
process) that has been violated.
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o Category B (Observation). Recognition of an
activity or action that might be improved but is
not in violation of a specific requirement. Left
alone, the activity or action may develop into a
deficiency (Category A).
The processing of the quality notice form is outlined in
Subsection 19.6.5, Audit Follow-Up.
Deficiencies are written only when there is a clear
violation of a specific quality assurance requirement.
Any identified findings that require immediate corrective
action are reported immediately to the management of the
audited organization and recorded on a quality notice form.
For internal audits, the quality assurance representative is
notified immediately.
19.6.4.3 Evaluation of Audit Findings
Members of the audit team draft their own findings on
quality notice forms. These drafts are reviewed by the
audit team leader. Findings are stated in clear, concise
statements of facts that identify the problem.
19.6.4.4 Postaudit Meeting
At the conclusion of the audit, a postaudit meeting is
conducted. The meeting is chaired by the audit team leader.
Those in attendance should include members of the audited
organization who can verify the validity of the findings and
members of management who can correct the problems
identified by the audit.
The objectives of the postaudit meeting are to--
o Discuss the audit findings
o Determine and resolve any errors or
misunderstandings regarding the findings
o Achieve agreement of the validity of the findings
and on those findings that constitute
noncompliance
o Recommend improvements or corrective actions to
the audited organization
o Establish a tentative plan and schedule for the
development and implementation of the corrective
actions
o Schedule a follow-up audit, if appropriate
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19.6.4.5 Audit Reporting
The audit team leader is responsible for preparation of the
audit report, which provides the following:
o Description of the audit scope
o Identification of the audit team
o Identification of persons contacted
o A summary of the audit findings
o Any agreements and/or recommendations for
correcting deficiencies or for improving the
quality assurance program, as appropriate
The report or transmittal letter must require response by
the audited organization. The distribution of audit reports
for internal audits includes the cognizant project managers,
the quality assurance representative, and the management of
the audited organization. The report is usually issued
within 30 days after the audit is completed.
19.6.4.6 Audit Response
The manager of the audited organization is requested to
respond to the audit report within 30 days of receipt. The
response relates the corrective action taken or outlines the
plan and schedule for corrective action. In the case of
long-term corrective action, periodic progress reports are
submitted by the manager of the audited organization to the
lead auditor, the quality assurance representative, and the
appropriate manager.
19.6.5 AUDIT FOLLOW-UP
19.6.5.1 Audit Response
The program office manager takes, in a timely manner, those
actions necessary to correct the deficiencies identified
during the audit.
19.6.5.2 Audit Follow-Up
The audit team leader follows up all open findings in audit
reports, receives audit report responses, and evaluates the
responses to determine that the corrective action for each
finding has been adequately completed or scheduled.
The audit team leader may accomplish follow-up as required
through written communication, reaudit, or other appropriate
means.
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The audit team leader informs the audited organization in
writing of any unsatisfactory response, indicates why the
response is considered unsatisfactory, and specifies a reply
due date. The quality assurance representative is informed
of unsatisfactory responses by copy of the written
notification.
19.6.5.3 Audit Finding Closure
Each audit finding is considered open until a satisfactory
written reply (e.g., report follow-up response) has been
received from the audited organization documenting that cor-
rective action .has been completed.
Only the audit team leader or, in the case of
unavailability, the designee can close an audit finding.
This individual indicates the closure by signing and dating
the quality notice form.
All closed quality notice forms are retained as quality
assurance records.
19.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
This procedure is applicable to all contractor, regional
EPA, and state personnel who conduct hazardous waste
investigations. Slight variations in the application of the
project file numbers, control methods of accountable
documents, or use of a transmittal letter rather than a
document transmittal form may occur. However, these
variations can occur only after a suitable alternative
method for these control mechanisms has been reviewed,
approved, and documented by the responsible RPM. The user
should contact the EPA RPM for up-to-date information on
variances. Future variances will be included in Revision 01
of this compendium.
19.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement
Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors^Denver, Colorado.
April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program
Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Contractors,
Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of
publication.)
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Section 20
QUALITY ASSURANCE REPORTING
20.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
On a periodic basis, usually monthly, quality assurance (QA)
reports should be issued to the appropriate Project Manager
and, as appropriate, to the responsible higher management.
These reports summarize the quality assurance and quality
control status of the project and any conditions adverse to
quality. The QA reports address the assessment of measure-
ment data accuracy, precision and completeness, results of
any performance audits, results of system audits, any
reported nonconformances, and any significant quality assur-
ance problems, together with recommended solutions, and any
new quality assurance and quality control processes as
dictated by the client.
20.2 DEFINITIONS
Report. A document that gives information for record
purposes.
Site Manager (SM). The individual responsible for the
successful completion of a work assignment within budget and
schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site
Project Manager or the Project Manager and is typically a
contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
20.3 APPLICABILITY
This reporting procedure is applicable to the QA tasks
associated with Superfund remedial response activities.
20.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The QA representative is responsible for providing to
management the periodic reports on performance of measure-
ment systems and data quality for the respective projects.
20.5 RECORDS
The records to be generated in compliance with this
procedure are the monthly QA reports.
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20.6 PROCEDURES
The following subsection describes the parameters used in
assessing the quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC)
status of project activities and the means of reporting such
assessments.
20.6.1 ASSESSMENT OF MEASUREMENT DATA ACCURACY
The routine procedures used for assessing the precision,
accuracy, and completeness of measurement and monitoring
data should be evaluated and reviewed for compliance with
nationally recognized practices and with regionally approved
and documented procedures. This review should include, but
not be limited to, assessment of the completeness of work
plans and their reference documentation of field data col-
lection and analytical guidelines, calibration and stan-
dardization procedures, measurement and monitoring equipment
maintenance and repair records, and personnel qualification
records, as well as assessment of documentation provided by
field and laboratory logbooks and data sheets. Such assess-
ments, favorable or unfavorable, should be identified in the
QA report.
20.6.2 ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE AND SYSTEMS AUDITS
Quality assurance performance and system audits are
routinely conducted, in accordance with Section 19, Quality
Assurance Audit Procedures, to determine the effectiveness
of the quality assurance program and implementation. A sum-
mary of findings or observations resulting from the audits
is assessed and reported to the responsible manager. The
summary includes a brief description of the organization or
section(s) being audited, responsible personnel, dates of
audit activities, and particular type of audit (internal or
external), as well as a concise description of particular
activity findings and recommended actions to be taken to
clear up such findings.
20.6.3 NONCONFORMANCES
The QA representative reports any nonconformances that may
have occurred during the course of project activities.
Nonconformances may occur as a result of an identified or
suspected deficiency in an approved document (e.g., techni-
cal report, analysis, calculations, or computer program) or
an activity that is not conducted in accordance with the
established plans or procedures. The reported nonconfor-
mances are also accompanied by a brief description of the
activity or activities to be performed to clear up the
nonconformances.
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20.6.4 ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY ASSURANCE PROBLEMS AND
SOLUTIONS
A section of the QA report is devoted to identifying any
problems, solutions, or accomplishments of the overall qual-
ity assurance program. This section analyzes the general
QA/QC status of the program and identifies any satisfactory
or unsatisfactory trends in the implementation of the
program.
Any problems in the program or problems in the
implementation of the program must be detailed clearly and
documented along with the appropriate and complete actions
needed to solve the problem.
Any new QA program development or any unusual QA project
activities should also be documented in this section.
20.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
EPA Region VI requires the submittal of a final QA report
for each project. The final report must be complete enough
to evaluate the objectives for data quality, the audits, the
laboratory data, and so on. It should include method
validation and sampling designs. The user should contact
the EPA RPM for up-to-date information on variances. Future
regional variations will be identified and incorporated in
Revision 01 of this compendium.
20.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement
Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado.
April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program
Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Contractors.
Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of
publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for
Geologic Investigations. National Waste Terminal Storage
Program. October 1982.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines
and Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance Project
Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance,
Office of Research and Development. Washington, D.C.
29 December 1980.
WDR225/009
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