United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response
Washington DC 20460
EPA/540/P-87/001
(OSWER Directive 9355 0-14)
December 1 987
Superfund
EPA
A Compendium of
Superfund Field
Operations Methods
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EPA/540/P-87/001
(OSWER Directive 9355.0-14)
December 1987
A Compendium of Superfund
Field Operations Methods
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
Office of Waste Programs Enforcement
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mcy
Region 5, Library (PL-12J) ,
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for
publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Table of Contents
A GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xvii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxi
SECTION 1
USE OFTHE COMPENDIUM : 1-1
1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 1-1
1.2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS OR ACRONYMS 1-3
1.3 APPLICABILITY 1-7
1.4 RESPONSIBILITY 1-7
1.5 UPDATES ...: 1-7
1.6 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 1-7
APPENDIX 1A 1A-1
SECTION 2
PREPARATION OF PROJECT DESCRIPTION AND STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES ... 2-1
2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 2-1
2.2 DEFINITIONS 2-1
2.3 APPLICABILITY 2-2
2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 2-2
2.5 RECORDS 2-2
2.6 PROCEDURES 2-2
2.6.1 Site Description and History 2-3
2.6.2 Schedule of Activities 2-4
2.6.3 Intended Data Usage 2-4
2.6.4 Identification of Sample Matrices and Parameters 2-5
2.6.5 Sampling Design Description and Rationale 2-5
2.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 2-6
2.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 2-7
SECTION 3
IMPLEMENTING FIELD ACTIVITIES 3-1
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 3-1
3.1.1 Scope and Purpose 3-1
3.1.2 Definitions 3-1
3.1.3 Applicability 3-1
3.1.4 Responsibilities 3-1
3.1.5 Records 3-2
3.1.6 Procedures 3-2
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3.2 CONTROL OF FIELDWORK-GENERATED CONTAMINATED MATERIAL 3-2
3.2.1 Scope and Purpose 3-2
3.2.2 Definitions 3-2
3.2.3 Applicability 3-2
3.2.4 Responsibilities 3-3
3.2.5 Records 3-3
3.2.6 Procedures 3-3
3.2.7 Region-Specific Variances 3-11
3.2.8 Information Sources 3-11
3.3 ORGANIZATION OFTHE FIELD TEAM 3-11
3.3.1 Scope and Purpose 3-11
3.3.2 Definitions 3-11
3.3.3 Applicability 3-11
3.3.4 Responsibilities 3-11
3.3.5 Records 3-16
3.3.6 Procedures 3-16
3.3.7 Region-Specific Variances 3-18
3.3.8 Information Sources 3-18
3.4 DECONTAMINATION 3-19
3.4.1 Scope and Purpose 3-19
3.4.2 Definitions 3-19
3.4.3 Applicability 3-19
3.4.4 Responsibilities 3-19
3.4.5 Records 3-20
3.4.6 Procedures 3-20
3.4.7 Information Sources 3-20
3.5 GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 3-22
3.5.1 Scope and Purpose 3-22
3.5.2 Definitions 3-22
3.5.3 Applicability 3-22
3.5.4 Responsibilities 3-22
3.5.5 Records 3-22
3.5.6 Procedures 3-23
3.5.7 Information Sources 3-29
SECTION 4
SAMPLE CONTROL, INCLUDING CHAIN OF CUSTODY 4-1
4.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 4-1
4.2 DEFINITIONS 4-1
4.3 APPLICABILITY 4-1
IV
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4.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 4-1
4.5 RECORDS 4-1
4.6 PROCEDURES 4-2
4.6.1 Sample Identification Tags 4-3
4.6.2 Sample Traffic Report (TR) 4-8
4.6.3 Chain-of-Custody Forms and Records 4-8
4.6.4 Receipt-for-Samples Form 4-10
4.6.5 Custody Seals 4-10
4.6.6 Field Notebooks 4-11
4.6.7 Corrections to Documentation 4-11
4.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 4-11
4.7.1 Region I 4-11
4.7.2 Region II 4-12
4.7.3 Region III 4-12
4.7.4 Region IV 4-12
4.7.5 Region V 4-12
4.7.6 Region VI 4-12
4.7.7 Region VII 4-12
4.7.8 Region VIII 4-12
4.7.9 Region IX 4-12
4.7.10 Region X 4-13
4.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 4-13
SECTION 5
LABORATORY INTERFACE 5-1
5.1 NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM 5-1
5.1.1 Scope and Purpose 5-1
5.1.2 Definitions and Abbreviations 5-1
5.1.3 Applicability 5-1
5.1.4 Responsibilities 5-1
5.1.5 Records 5-2
5.1.6 Procedures 5-2
5.1.7 Region-Specific Variances 5-16
5.1.8 Information Sources 5-18
5.2 NONCONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM 5-18
5.2.1 Scope and Purpose 5-18
5.2.2 Definitions 5-18
5.2.3 Applicability 5-18
5.2.4 Responsibilities 5-18
5.2.5 Records 5-19
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5.2.6 Procedures 5-19
5.2.7 Region-Specific Variances 5-24
5.2.8 Information Sources 5-24
SECTION 6
SAMPLE CONTAINERS, PRESERVATION AND SHIPPING 6-1
6.1 SAMPLE CONTAINERS AND PRESERVATION 6-1
6.1.1 Scope and Purpose 6-1
6.1.2 Definitions 6-1
6.1.3 Applicability 6-1
6.1.4 Responsibilities 6-2
6.1.5 Records 6-2
6.1.6 Procedures 6-2
6.1.7 Region-Specific Variances 6-8
6.1.8 Information Sources 6-8
6.2 PACKAGING, LABELING AND SHIPPING 6-8
6.2.1 Scope and Purpose 6-8
6.2.2 Definitions 6-8
6.2.3 Applicability 6-9
6.2.4 Responsibilities 6-9
6.2.5 Records 6-9
6.2.6 Procedures 6-10
6.2.7 Regional Variances 6-14
6.2.8 Information Sources 6-16
SECTION 7
FIELD METHODS FOR RAPID SCREENING FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIAL 7-1
7.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 7-1
7.2 DEFINITIONS 7-1
7.3 APPLICABILITY 7-1
7.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 7-2
7.5 RECORDS 7-4
7.6 PROCEDURES 7-4
7.6.1 Inorganic Compounds 7-4
7.6.2 Organic Compounds 7-5
7.6.3 Class A Poisons 7-9
7.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 7-12
7.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 7-12
VI
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APPENDIX 7A
PROTOCOLS, REPORTING, AND DELIVERABLES 7.A-1
SECTION 8
EARTH SCIENCES 8.1-1
8.1 GEOLOGIC DRILLING 8.1-2
8.1.1 Scope and Purpose 8.1-2
8.1.2 Definitions 8.1-2
8.1.3 Applicability 8.1-2
8.1.4 Responsibilities 8.1-3
8.1.5 Records and Inspection 8.1-3
8.1.6 Procedures 8.1-4
8.1.7 Region-Specific Variances 8.1-23
8.1.8 Information Sources 8.1-23
8.2 TEST PITS AND EXCAVATIONS 8.2-1
8.2.1 Scope and Purpose 8.2-1
8.2.2 Definitions 8.2-1
8.2.3 Applicability 8.2-1
8.2.4 Responsibilities 8.2-2
8.2.5 Records 8.2-2
8.2.6 Guidelines 8.2-3
8.2.7 Region-Specific Variances 8.2-5
8.2.8 Information Sources 8.2-5
8.3 GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE AND GEOLOGICAL LOGGING 8.3-1
8.3.1 Scope and Purpose 8.3-1
8.3.2 Definitions 8.3-1
8.3.3 Applicability 8.3-2
8.3.4 Responsibilities 8.3-2
8.3.5 Procedures 8.3-3
8.3.6 Region-Specific Variances 8.3-16
8.3.7 Information Sources 8.3-16
8.4 GEOPHYSICS 8.4-1
8.4.1 General Considerations 8.4-1
8.4.2 Geophysical Methods 8.4-7
8.4.3 Borehole Geophysics 8.4-35
APPENDIX 8.4A
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) INSTRUMENT 8.4A-1
VII
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APPENDIX 8.4B
RESISTIVITY 8.4B-1
APPENDIX 8.4C
SEISMICS 8.4C-1
APPENDIX 8.4D
MAGNETICS 8.4D-1
APPENDIX 8.4E
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR 8.4E-1
APPENDIX 8.4F
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS 8.4F-1
8.5 GROUNDWATER MONITORING 8.5-1
8.5.1 Scope and Purpose 8.5-1
8.5.2 Definitions 8.5-1
8.5.3 Applicability 8.5-1
8.5.4 Responsibilities 8.5-1
8.5.5 Records 8.5-1
8.5.6 Procedures 8.5-1
8.5.7 Information Sources 8.5-43
SECTION 9
EARTH SCIENCES LABORATORY PROCEDURES 9-1
9.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 9-1
9.2 DEFINITIONS 9-1
9.3 APPLICABILITY 9-1
9.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 9-6
9.5 RECORD 9-6
9.6 PROCEDURES 9-6
9.6.1 Introduction 9-6
9.6.2 Laboratory Selection 9-7
9.6.3 Physical Properties 9-8
9.6.4 Chemical Properties of Soil and Rock 9-29
9.6.5 Compatibility Testing 9-38
9.6.6 Laboratory and Analyses Records 9-41
VIII
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9.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 9-43
9.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 9-43
SECTION 10
SURFACE HYDROLOGY 10-1
10.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT 10-1
10.1.1 Scope and Purpose 10-1
10.1.2 Definitions 10-1
10.1.3 Applicability 10-1
10.1.4 Responsibilities 10-2
10.1.5 Procedures 10-3
10.1.6 Region-Specific Variances 10-28
10.1.7 Information Sources 10-28
10.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 10-29
10.2.1 Scope and Purpose 10-30
10.2.2 Definitions 10-30
10.2.3 Applicability 10-31
10.2.4 Responsibilities 10-31
10.2.5 Records 10-31
10.2.6 Sampling Procedures 10-32
10.2.7 Region-Specific Variations 10-48
10.2.8 Information Sources 10-48
SECTION 11
METEOROLOGY AND AIR QUALITY 11-1
11.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 11-1
11.1.1 Meteorological Parameters for Screening Model Analyses 11-1
11.1.2 Meteorological Parameters for Refined Modeling Analyses 11-4
11.1.3 Information Sources 11-14
11.2 OTHER METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS 11-16
11.2.1 Scope and Purpose 11-16
11.2.2 Definitions 11-16
11.2.3 Applicability 11-16
11.2.4 Responsibilities 11-17
11.2.5 Records 11-17
11.2.6 Procedures ;. 11-17
11.2.7 Region-Specific Variances 11-20
11.2.8 Information Sources 11-21
11.3 AIR QUALITY 11-21
11.3.1 Scope and Purpose 11-21
IX
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11.3.2 Definitions 11-21
11.3.3 Responsibilities 11-22
11.3.4 Procedures 11-22
11.3.5 Information Sources 11 -28
SECTION 12
BIOLOGY/ ECOLOGY 12-1
12.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 12-1
12.2 DEFINITIONS 12-1
12.3 APPLICABILITY 12-1
12.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 12-2
12.5 RECORDS 12-2
12.6 PROCEDURES 12-2
12.6.1 Presence of Toxic Substances 12-3
12.6.2 Field Collection Techniques-General 12-4
12.6.3 Field Methods-Specific 12-6
12.6.4 Laboratory Tests and Analyses 12-16
12.7 REGION SPECIFIC VARIANCES 12-36
12.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 12-39
APPENDIX 12A
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES 12A-1
SECTION 13
SPECIALIZED SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 13-1
13.0 GENERAL 13-1
13.1 WIPE SAMPLING 13-1
13.1.1 Scope and Purpose 13-1
13.1.2 Definitions 13-1
13.1.3 Applicability 13-1
13.1.4 Responsibilities 13-1
13.1.5 Records 13-2
13.1.6 Procedures 13-2
13.1.7 Region-Specific Variances 13-3
13.1.8 Information Sources 13-3
13.2 HUMAN HABITATION SAMPLING 13-3
13.2.1 Scope and Purpose 13-3
13.2.2 Definitions 13-3
13.2.3 Applicability 13-3
13.2.4 Responsibilities 13-4
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13.2.5 Records 13-4
13.2.6 Procedures 13-5
13.2.7 Region-Specific Variances 13-6
13.2.8 Information Sources 13-6
13.3 TCDD SAMPLING 13-6
13.3.1 Scope and Purpose 13-6
13.3.2 Definitions 13-6
13.3.3 Applicability 13-6
13.3.4 Responsibilities 13-6
13.3.5 Records 13-7
13.3.6 Procedures 13-7
13.3.7 Region-Specific Variances 13-8
13.3.8 Information Sources 13-8
13.4 CONTAINER SAMPLING 13-9
13.4.1 Purpose and Scope 13-9
13.4.2 Definitions 13-9
13.4.3 Applicability 13-9
13.4.4 Responsibilities 13-9
13.4.5 Records 13-9
13.4.6 Procedures 13-10
SECTION 14
LAND SURVEYING, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, AND MAPPING 14-1
14.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 14-1
14.2 DEFINITIONS 14-1
14.3 APPLICABILITY 14-1
14.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 14-2
14.5 RECORDS 14-2
14.6 PROCEDURES 14-2
14.6.1 Surveying—General 14-2
14.6.2 Aerial Photography 14-5
14.6.3 Remote Sensing 14-8
14.6.4 Hydrographic Surveys 14-8
14.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 14-9
14.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 14-9
SECTION 15
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION 15-1
15.0 INTRODUCTION 15-1
XI
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15.1 PHOTOVAC10A10 15-2
15.1.1 Scope and Purpose 15-2
15.1.2 Definitions 15-2
15.1.3 Applicability 15-7
15.1.4 Responsibilities 15-7
15.1.5 Records 15-7
15.1.6 Procedures 15-7
15.1.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-16
15.1.8 Information Sources 15-16
15.2 HNU PI-101 15-16
15.2.1 Purpose 15-16
15.2.2 Definitions 15-16
15.2.3 Theory and Limitations 15-16
15.2.4 Applicability 15-20
15.2.5 Responsibilities 15-20
15.2.6 Records 15-20
15.2.7 Procedure 15-20
15.2.8 Region-Specific Variances 15-28
15.2.9 Information Sources 15-29
15.3 ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER (OVA-128) 15-29
15.3.1 Scope and Purpose 15-29
15.3.2 Definitions 15-29
15.3.3 Theory and Limitations 15-29
15.3.4 Applicability 15-31
15.3.5 Responsibilities 15-31
15.3.6 Records 15-31
15.3.7 Procedure 15-31
15.4 EXPLOSIMETER 15-37
15.4.1 Scope and Purpose 15-37
15.4.2 Definitions 15-37
15.4.3 Applicability 15-38
15.4.4 Responsibilities 15-38
15.4.5 Records 15-38
15.4.6 Procedures 15-38
15.4.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-40
15.4.8 Information Sources 15-40
15.5 OXYGEN INDICATOR 15-40
15.5.1 Scope and Purpose 15-40
15.5.2 Definitions 15-40
15.5.3 Applicability 15-41
XII
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15.5.4 Responsibilities 15-41
15.5.5 Records 15-41
15.5.6 Procedures 15-41
15.5.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-42
15.5.8 Information Sources 15-43
15.6 COMBINED COMBUSTIBLE GAS (EXPLOSIMETER) AND OXYGEN ALARM 15-43
15.6.1 Scope and Purpose 15-43
15.6.2 Definitions 15-43
15.6.3 Applicability 15-43
15.6.4 Responsibilities 15-44
15.6.5 Records 15-44
15.6.6 Procedures 15-44
15.6.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-44
15.6.8 Information Sources 15-44
15.7 VAPOR DETECTION TUBES - DRAEGER GAS DETECTOR MODEL 21/31 .. 15-45
15.7.1 Scope and Purpose 15-45
15.7.2 Definitions 15-45
15.7.3 Theory and Limitations 15-45
15.7.4 Applicability 15-45
15.7.5 Responsibilities 15-46
15.7.6 Records 15-46
15.7.7 Procedures 15-46
15.7.8 Region-Specific Variances 15-47
15.7.9 Information Sources 15-47
15.8 FIELD EQUIPMENT-RADIATION MONITORS 15-47
15.8.1 Scope and Purpose 15-47
15.8.2 Definitions 15-48
15.8.3 Applicability 15-48
15.8.4 Responsibilities 15-49
15.8.5 Records 15-49
15.8.6 Procedures 15-49
15.8.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-52
15.8.8 Information Sources 15-52
15.9 PERSONAL SAMPLING PUMPS 15-53
15.9.1 Scope and Purpose 15-53
15.9.2 Definition 15-53
15.9.3 Applicability 15-53
15.9.4 Responsibilities 15-53
15.9.5 Records 15-53
15.9.6 Procedures 15-53
XIII
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15.9.7 Region-Specific Variances 15-55
15.9.8 Information Sources 15-55
15.10 OTHER MONITORING DEVICES 15-55
15.10.1 Electrochemical Gas Detector 15-55
15.10.2 Passive Dosimeters 15-56
15.10.3 Miniram Monitor 15-56
SECTION 16
DATA REDUCTION, VALIDATION, REPORTING, REVIEW, AND USE 16-1
16.0 GENERAL 16-1
16.1 NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM-LABORATORY DATA .. 16-1
16.1.1 Scope and Purpose 16-1
16.1.2 Definitions and Abbreviations 16-1
16.1.3 Applicability 16-2
16.1.4 Responsibilities 16-2
16.1.5 Records 16-2
16.1.6 Procedures 16-2
16.2 DATA VALIDATION 16-2
16.2.1 Scope and Purpose 16-2
16.2.2 Definitions 16-3
16.2.3 Applicability 16-3
16.2.4 Responsibilities 16-3
16.2.5 Records 16-3
16.2.6 Procedures 16-3
16.3 REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF DATA VALIDATION 16-9
16.4 INFORMATION SOURCES 16-9
SECTION 17
DOCUMENT CONTROL 17-1
17.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 17-1
17.2 DEFINITIONS 17-1
17.3 APPLICABILITY 17-1
17.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 17-1
17.5 RECORDS 17-1
17.6 PROCEDURES 17-2
17.6.1 Project Files 17-2
17.6.2 Document Identification and Numbering 17-2
17.6.3 Document Distribution 17-5
17.6.4 Revisions to Documentation 17-5
17.6.5 Project Logbooks 17-7
XIV
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17,6.6 Computer Codes and Documentation 17-7
17.6.7 Corrections to Documentation 17-11
17.6.8 Confidential Information 17-11
17.6.9 Disposition of Project Documents 17-12
17.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 17-12
17.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 17-12
SECTION 18
CORRECTIVE ACTION 18-1
18.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 18-1
18.2 DEFINITIONS 18-1
18.3 APPLICABILITY 18-1
18.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 18-1
18.5 RECORDS 18-1
18.6 PROCEDURES 18-2
18.6.1 Limits for Data Acceptability 18-2
18.6.2 Control of Data Acceptability 18-2
18.6.3 Reviews 18-3
18.6.4 Nonconformance 18-3
18.6.5 Corrective Action Approval 18-3
18.6.6 Corrective Action Review 18-3
18.6.7 Corrective Actions for Data Acceptability 18-3
18.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 18-3
18.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 18-3
SECTION 19
QUALITY ASSURANCE AUDIT PROCEDURES 19-1
19.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 19-1
19.2 DEFINITIONS 19-1
19.3 APPLICABILITY 19-2
19.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 19-2
19.5 RECORDS 19-2
19.6 PROCEDURES 19-3
19.6.1 Audit Schedules 19-3
19.6.2 Qualification and Certification of Quality Assurance Personnel 19-4
19.6.3 Preparation for Audits 19-5
19.6.4 Conduct of Audits 19-8
19.6.5 Audit Follow-Up 19-10
19.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 19-11
19.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 19-11
xv
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SECTION 20
QUALITY ASSURANCE REPORTING 20-1
20.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE 20-1
20.2 DEFINITIONS 20-1
20.3 APPLICABILITY 20-1
20.4 RESPONSIBILITIES 20-1
20.5 RECORDS 20-1
20.6 PROCEDURES 20-1
20.6.1 Assessment of Measurement Data Accuracy 20-2
20.6.2 Assessment of Performance and Systems Audits 20-2
20.6.3 Nonconformances 20-2
20.6.4 Assessment of Quality Assurance Problems and Solutions 20-2
20.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES 20-3
20.8 INFORMATION SOURCES 20-3
XVI
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A GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AA atomic adsorption d.b.h
AAM Algal Assay Medium DC
AC alternating current DO
ACS American Chemical Society DOJ
AGI American Geological Institute DOT
API American Petroleum Institute DQO
AR authorized requester DRI
ARAR Applicable or Relevant and ECD
Appropriate Requirements EDMI
ASTM American Society for Testing and Eh
Materials EM
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and EMSLLV
Disease Registry
atm atmosphere EOS
SNA base neutral acids EP
CAA Clean Air Act EPA
CCS Contract Compliance Screening EPIC
CDC Center for Disease Control
CDP common-depth-point profiling ER
CE current electrode ERP
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental ERT
Response, Compensation and ERTS
Liability Act of 1980 (PL 96-510) EROS
CERCLIS CERCLA Information System ESB
CFR Code of Federal Regulations ESD
CIR color infrared EST
CLP Contract Laboratory Program eV
COC chain of custody FAA
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand FIT
COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers FS
CRDL Contract Required Detection Limits FSP
CWA Clean Water Act GC
GC/MS
diameter breast height
direct current
dissolved oxygen
Department of Justice
Department of Transportation
data quality objectives
Direct Reading Instrument
electron capture detector
electronic distance meter instrument
oxygen-reduction potential
electromagnetic
Environmental Monitoring System
Laboratory-Las Vegas
equivalent opening size
toxicity-extraction procedure toxicity
Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Photographic
Interpretation Center
electrical resistivity
Emergency Response Plan
EPA Emergency Response Team
Earth Resources Technology Satellite
Earth Resources Observation Systems
EPA Environmental Services Branch
Environmental Services Division
Eastern Standard Time
electron volt
Federal Aviation Administration
Field Investigation Team
Feasibility Study
Field Sampling Plan
Gas Chromatographs
Gas Chromatrography/Mass
Spectrometer
XVII
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GEMS Graphical Exposure Modeling ISCO
System
gpm gallons per minute ITD
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar LEL
GSC a company name LL
GT greater than LOD
HASP Health and Safety Plan (see also LOQ
Site Safety Plan) LSC
HAZMAT Hazardous Materials Team LT
HEP Habitat Evaluation Procedure LUST
HEPA High Efficiency Paniculate Air LVZ
HNU indicates a photoionization device MAD
HR heart rate MDL
HRS Hazard Ranking System m/sec
HSCD EPA Headquarters Hazardous Site MHz
Control Division MS/MS
HSI habitat suitability Index
HSL Hazardous Substance List (previous NBS
term for Target Compound List) NCDC
HSO Health and Safety Officer (see also NCIC
SSC.SSHOandSSO)
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste NCP
Amendments NEIC
HU habitat unit
IATA International Air Transport NGVD
Association NIOSH
ICAO International Civil Aviation
Regulations NMO
ICP Inductively Coupled Plasma NOAA
ICS Incident Command System
ID inside diameter N.O.S
IDL Instrument Detection Limit
IDLH immediately dangerous to life and NPDES
health
IFB invitation for bid NPL
IP ionization potential NRC
Instrumentation Specialists
Company
Ion Trap Detector
lower explosive limit
liquid limit
limits of detection
limit of quantitation
liquid sample concentration
less than
leaking underground storage tank
low-velocity layer
maximum applicable dose
Method Detection Limit
meters per second
megahertz
Mass Spectrometer/Mass
Spectrometer
National Bureau of Standards
National Climatic Data Center
National Cartographic Information
Center
National Contingency Plan
National Enforcement Investigation
Center
National Geodetic Vertical Datum
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
normal moveout
National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration
not otherwise specified (used in
shipping hazardous material)
National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System
National Priorities List
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
XVIII
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NSF National Sanitation Foundation QA/QC
NTIS National Technical Information QAMS
Service
NWS National Weather Service QAPjP
OD outside diameter
OERR EPA Office of Emergency and QAPP
Remedial Response
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health QC
Administration RA
OSWER EPA Office of Solid Waste RAS
and Emergency Response RCRA
OT oral temperature
OVA Organic Vapor Analyzer (onsite RD
organic vapor monitoring device) RDCO
OWPE EPA Office of Waste Programs REM
Enforcement REM/FIT
PARCC Precision, Accuracy, Representative-
ness, Completeness, Rl
Comparability ROD
PCBs polychlorinated biphyenyls
PDS personnel decontamination station RPM
PE potential electrode RSPO
PEL permissible exposure limit RSCC
PHC principal hazardous constituents RTOs
PI plasticity index SARA
PID photo ionization detector
PL plastic limit
PO EPA Headquarters Project Officer SAS
POTWs publically owned treatment works SDL
ppb parts per billion SI
PPE personal protective equipment SI units
ppm parts per million SIM
PRP Potentially Responsible Party SCBA
psig pounds per square inch gauge SCS
PVC polyvinyl chloride SDWA
QA quality assurance
quality assurance/quality control
Quality Assurance Management
Staff
Quality Assurance Project Plan
(see QAPP)
former abbreviation for Quality
Assurance Plan (see QAPJP)
quality control
remedial action
Routine Analytical Service
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1978 (PL 94-580)
remedial design
Regional Document Control Officer
Remedial Planning
Remedial Planning/Field Investigation
Team
Remedial Investigation
Record of Decision (previous title
for Remedy Project Manager)
EPA Remedial Project Manager
Remedial Site Project Officer
Regional Sample Control Center
resistance temperature detectors
Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act of 1986
(PL 99-499)
Special Analytical Service
Sample Detection Limit
Site Inspection
International System of Units
Selected Ion Monitoring
self-contained breathing apparatus
Soil Conservation Service
Safe Drinking Water Act
XIX
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SMCRA Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act
SMO Sample Management Office
SM Site Manager
SOPs standard operating procedures
SP spontaneous potential
SPM Site Project Manager (previous
title for Site Manager)
SRM Standard Reference Material
SSC Site Safety Coordinator (see also
SSHO, SSO, and HSO)
SSHO Site Safety and Health Officer (see
also SSC, SSO, and HSO)
SSO Site Safety Officer (see also SSC,
SSHO, and HSO)
STAPPA/
ALAPCO the State and Territorial Air
Pollution Program Administrators
and the Association of Air Pollu-
tion Control Officials
STAR Stability Array
TAL Target Analyte List
TAT technical assistance team
TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TEGD Technical Enforcement Guidance
Document
TDD Technical Directive Documents
TDS total dissolved solids
TIC Tentatively Identified Compounds
TLD thermoluminescent detector
TLD
badge Thermoluminescent detector badge
TLV threshold limit value
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TOH Total Organic Halogen
TOX Total Organic Halides
TR traffic report
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
TSDF reatment, Storage, and Disposal
Facility
UEL upper explosive limit
UNAMAP User's Network for Applied Model-
ing of Air Pollution
U.S. EPA U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
USCS Unified Soil Classification System
USDI U.S. Department of Interior
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
USPS U.S. Postal Service
UV ultraviolet
VOA volatile organic analysis
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WAs Work Assignments
WP work plans
xx
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This document was developed for the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) with
assistance from the following individuals:
• Lisa Woodson Feldt (Hazardous Site Control Division, OERR)
• James B. Moore (CH2M HILL)
• Bob Stecik (NUS)
• Jim Adams (Region V, Environmental Services Division)
• Lisa Gatton-Vidulich (Region VI, Environmental Services Division)
• Duane Geuder (Hazardous Response Support Division, OERR)
• Roily Grabble (Region VIII, Environmental Services Division)
• Al Hanke (Region IV, Waste Management Division)
• Eric Johnson (Region VIII, Waste Management Division)
• Doug Lair (Region IV, Environmental Services Division)
• Steve Lemmons (Region VI, Environmental Services Division)
• Steve Ostradka (Region V, Waste Management Division)
• Steve Serian (Region I, Waste Management Division)
• Ed Shoener (Region III, Waste Management Division)
• Tim Travers (Region III, Waste Management Division)
• Lee Tyner (OGC)
The following individuals were largely responsible for the technical content of the compendium:
• Artemas Antipas (CH2M HILL)
• Steve Paquette (COM)
• Dick Grim (CH2M HILL)
• Larry Fitzgerald (E.C.Jordan)
• Jody Gearon (CH2M HILL)
• Jane Gendron (CH2M HILL)
• Joseph Boros (NUS)
• Don Heinle (CH2M HILL)
• Katie Brady (NUS)
• Gary Helms (CH2M HILL)
• Patrick Byrne (NUS)
• Larry Holm (CH2M HILL)
• Paul Clay (NUS)
• Don Johnson (CH2M HILL)
• Jeffrey Orient (NUS)
• Mike Keating (CH2M HILL)
• Haia Roffman (NUS)
• David Lincoln (CH2M HILL)
• Matthew Soltis (NUS)
• Craig Rightmire (CH2M HILL)
• Denise Taylor (NUS)
xx i
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• Larry Well (CH2M HILL)
• Robert Tubach(NUS)
• Mark Ulintz (NUS)
Helpful suggestions and comments on the draft document were provided by the following, as well as
other EPA and contractor staff:
• MikeAmdurer (EBASCO)
Paul Beam (Hazardous Site Control Division, OERR)
Linda Boornazian (CERCLA Enforcement Division, OWPE)
Ken Jennings (CERCLA Enforcement Division, OWPE)
Doug Mundrick (Region IV, Environmental Services Division)
• Julie Pfeffer (CH2M HILL)
« Andrew Szilagyi (COM)
The compendium could not have been completed without the selfless dedication of these people:
• Diane Anderson (CH2MHILL)
• Cacey Combs (CH2M HILL)
• Barbara Hart (CH2M HILL)
• Cindy Howe (CH2M HILL)
• Craig Ripple (CH2MHILL)
• Betty Toms (CH2MHILL)
Pam Feikema (Blue Pencil)
JeanieMassey (Blue Pencil)
' Pat Petretti-Velikov (Blue Pencil)
The camera-ready copy was prepared by Ebon Research Systems, 1173 Spring Centre South
Boulevard, Altamonte Springs, Florida 32714.
XXII
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SECTION 1
USE OF THE COMPENDIUM
1.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Webster's Third New International Dictionary (Unabridged) defines" compendium" as:
• A. A brief compilation or composition consisting of a reduction and condensation of the subject
matter of a larger work
• B. A work treating in brief form the important features of a whole field of knowledge or subject
matter category
While the reader may take exception to the use of the word "brief to describe this compendium, the
two volumes represent an astoundingly reduced version of the many field operations methods that have
been used during remedial response activities at hazardous waste sites. This compendium focuses
primarily on techniques and methods used during the fieldwork phase of a remedial investigation. Exhibits
1-2 and 1-3 emphasize this orientation, and provide the reader with a guide to the applicability of the
various sections to the Remedial Investigation / Feasibility Study (RI/FS) process. The compendium also
provides some limited information on those subjects for which extensive guidance exists elsewhere, such
as project planning and management, quality control, decontamination, and health and safety issues.
These latter subjects are addressed only briefly, primarily to guide the reader into an appreciation of how
the various facets of project management and execution are interrelated.
The compendium was written primarily to assist the Site Manager (SM). The SM is the individual who is
responsible for the successful execution of a work assignment, and who may be an employee of the EPA,
state agency, Potentially Responsible Party (PRP), or contractor. Generally, the compendium addresses
the SM as a contractor's employee who is working with an EPA Remedial Project Manager (RPM) at the
regional project level on a Superfund program, such as Field Investigation Team (FIT) or Remedial Plan-
ning Activities (REM II, III, or IV). The EPA management structure includes a Regional Project Officer, who
oversees implementation of a program at the EPA regional level, and a Project Officer at EPA Head-
quarters, who Is responsible for program guidance Agency-wide. Management structures vary with the
contractors' organization.
This compendium is one of a series of guidance and technical documents of which the Site Manager
and, to a lesser degree, task leaders and field workers should be aware before beginning fieldwork. These
documents are listed in Exhibit 1-1.
The list of applicable guidance Is far from complete; a more detailed (but still incomplete) list of
guidance and technical resource documents, and their relationship to RI/FS phases and tasks is contained
in Appendix 1 A. Subsequent sections of the compendium will list other helpful references under the head-
ing "Information Sources."
1-1
-------
Exhibit 1-1
GUIDANCE AND TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
• Guidance on Remedial Investigations Under CERCLA (EPA 540/G-85/002)
• Guidance on Feasibility Studies Under CERCLA (EPA 540/G-85/003)
• Superfund Remedial Design and Remedial Action Guidance
(OSWER Directive 9355.0-4A)
• Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual (OSWER Directive 9285.4-1)
• Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual (OSWER Directive 9285.5-1)
• Standard Operating Safety Guides (OSWER Directive 9285.1 -1B)
• Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities
(DHHS (NIOSH)Publication 85-115)
• Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response Activities (OSWER Directive 9355.0-7B)
• Samplers and Sampling Procedures for Hazardous Waste Sources (EPA 600/2-80-018)
• User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program (OERR, December 1986)
• EPA Regional Standard Operating Procedures, Guidelines and Directives
The purpose of this compendium is to provide the reader with a summary of field techniques to use as
references during preparation of project planning documents. The compendium does not contain a series
of standard operating procedures to use as references in their entirety, but rather it may be used as a
reference to a series of methods with project and site-specific modifications added. For example, a quality
assurance project plan could present techniques for gathering data on chemical concentrations in fish tis-
sues as shown in the following Example Citation.
1-2
-------
Example Citation
TASK 1. BIOTA EVALUATIONS
Subtaskt.A. Electroflshing in Mung Creek
• A. Limitations and Application - Subsection 12.6.3.3, Aquatic (Freshwater) Field Methods
Summary, pp. 12-24 and 12-25, Section 12, Revision No. 0, Compendium of Field Operations
Methods (COFOM #0).
• B. Sampling Techniques - Subsection D2, Electroflshing, Appendix 12A, pp. 12A-32
through 12A-35, COFOM #0.
Modifications - Only carp will be collected. Specimens smaller than 8 Inches in length
and 2 pounds in weight will be released. Any specimens caught below 14th Street Bridge
will be released. See site safety plan for boating and collection safety procedures.
• C. Laboratory Techniques - Subsection 12.6.3.3,pp. 12-23 and 12-24, Subsection E4, Ap-
pendix 12A, pp. 12A-41 through 12A-46, COFOM #0.
Modifications - See CLP SAS In Task 4, Sample Analysis
The compendium will be available to every EPA region and contractor and can serve as a common
source for methods citation, as Indicated above.
1.2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS OR ACRONYMS
Each section of the compendium defines terms specific to that section and deciphers abbreviations or
acronyms when they are first used. A glossary Is furnished in the beginning of each volume. The most fre-
quently used abbreviation is defined below.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual who Is responsible for the successful execution of a work assignment. SM
usually refers to a contractor's employee.
1-3
-------
Exhibit 1-2
RELATIONSHIP AMONG STANDARD
RI/FS TASKS AND THE COMPENDIUM
Description of
Standard RI/FS Tasks
and
Subtasks
Project Planning
Community Relations
Field Investigations
Project management
Quality control
Fieldwork, air
Fieldwork, biota
Fieldwork, close support laboratories
Fieldwork, Rl-derived waste disposal
Fieldwork, soil gas
Fieldwork, support
Fieldwork, well logging
Fieldwork, mapping and survey
Fieldwork, geophysical
Fieldwork, well installation
Fieldwork, groundwater
Fieldwork, soil
Fieldwork, source testing
Fieldwork, surface water
Sample Analysis
Fieldwork, close support laboratory
Data validations
Sample management
Data Evaluation
Assessment of Risk
Treatabillty Study/Pilot
Remedial Investigation Reports
Remedial Alternatives Screening
Remedial Alternative Evaluation
Feasibility Study RI/FS Reports
Post RI/FS Support
Enforcement Support
Miscellaneous Support
ERA Planning
Applicable Sections and
Subsections
of the "Compendium of
Field Operations Methods"*
2,3.2,3.3,3.4,4,5,6,16
17,18,19,20
Not directly applicable
2,3,17,18,19,20
Throughout; procedure specific
7,11,15
12
5.2, 7, 15
3.2,5.2.6.4,8.1.6.3
3,17, 18, 19,20
8.1,8.3
14
8.4
8.1,8.5
8.5
8.1,8.2,8.3
7, 13, 15
10
5.2, 15
16
4,5,6
16
Not directly applicable
9 (soils engineering data)
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
Not directly applicable
*SM Exhibit 1-3 for titles.
1-4
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Exhibit 1-3
TITLES OF SUBJECTS IN
"COMPENDIUM OF FIELD OPERATIONS METHODS"
Section and Subsection
1. Use of the Compendium
2. Preparation of Project Description and Statement of Objectives
3. Implementing Field Activities
3.1 General Considerations
3.2 Control of Fieldwork-Generated Contaminated Material
3.3 Organization of the Field Team
3.4 Decontamination
3.5 General Health and Safety Considerations
4. Sample Control, Including Chain of Custody
5. Laboratory Interface
5.1 National Contract Laboratory Program
5.2 Noncontract Laboratory Program
5.2.6.4 Residual Samples and Analytical Wastes
6. Sample Containers, Preservation, and Shipping
6.1 Sample Containers and Preservation
6.2 Packaging, Labeling, and Shipping
7. Field Methods for Rapid Screening for Hazardous Materials
8. Earth Sciences
8.1 Geologic Drilling
8.2 Test Pits and Excavations
8.3 Geological Reconnaissance and Geological Logging
8.4 Geophysics
8.5 Groundwater Monitoring
9. Earth Sciences Laboratory Procedures
9.6.2 Laboratory Selection
9.6.3 Physical Properties
9.6.4 Chemical Properties of Soil and Rock
9.6.5 Compatibility Testing
9.6.6 Laboratory and Analysis Records
10. Surface Hydrology
10.1 Flow Measurement
10.2 Sampling Techniques
11. Meteorology and Air Quality
1-5
-------
Exhibit 1-3
(continued)
12. Biology/Ecology
12.6.1 Presence of Toxic Substances
12.6.2 Field Collection Techniques-General
12.6.3 Field Methods-Specific
12.6.3.2 Terrestrial Field Methods Summary
12.6.3.3 Aquatic (Fresh Water) Field Methods Summary
12.6.3.4 Marine Field Methods Summary
12.6.4 Laboratory Tests and Analyses
13. Specialized Sampling Techniques
13.1 Wipe Sampling
13.2 Human Habitation Sampling
13.3 TCDD Sampling
13.4 Container Sampling
14. Land Surveying, Aerial Photography.and Mapping
15. Field Instrumentation
16. Data Reduction, Validation, Reporting, Review, and Use
17. Document Control
18. Corrective Action
19. Quality Assurance Audit Procedures
20. Quality Assurance Reporting
1-6
-------
1.3 APPLICABILITY
The techniques presented in this compendium may be used in remedial response activities conducted
for or by the EPA. Other entities (state agencies, other federal agencies, or private concerns) may also find
the techniques useful. All of the methods presented have been used by EPA contractors in executing
fieldwork. Some of EPA's region-specific standard operating procedures, which are referenced in each
section of this compendium, may take precedence over these more general methods (see Subsection 1.6).
The procedures are written for the trained, experienced professional who should realize that every haz-
ardous waste site is discrete and every work assignment is different. Every hazardous waste site requires a
degree of personal protection, a monitoring system to detect hazards, and an adaptation of work proce-
dures to site conditions. The user should realize that not all procedures are suitable for use, or can even be
accomplished, with every level of personal protection. The amount of time spent executing a procedure
and the number of trained, experienced people needed to accomplish the work will increase dramatically
as the need for personal protection increases.
1.4 RESPONSIBILITY
The Site Managers bear prime responsibility for selection of the proper methods to accomplish the
goals and objectives of their work assignments. The SM uses the capabilities of various technical
specialists and the data quality objectives to precisely determine the methods used. Senior management
and the clients provide quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC), and overall direction.
1.5 UPDATES
The compendium represents a snapshot of methods and techniques that, in the rapidly evolving field of
remedial response, will undergo changes as new procedures are defined. Additionally, methods that were
not included in this compendium because of a lack of demonstrated success at the time of writing may
rapidly emerge as methods of choice. EPA's intent is to provide periodic updates presenting newly
evolved methods and improvements on "old" methods. Comments, suggestions, and recommended pro-
cedures are solicited from the users. Please address such material to:
Ms. Lisa Woodson Feldt
U.S. EPA (WH548E)
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
1.6 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
As stated, these procedures have been used by EPA contractors during remedial response activities.
Variances specific to the various EPA regions are listed In each section. These variances were updated
using information supplied by the regions for this version and were current at publication. However, be-
cause performance requirements vary among EPA contracts, among EPA regions, within EPA regions, and
even among tasks on the same work assignments, users of this compendium are strongly urged to consult
the appropriate EPA official to obtain the most current variations to the methods listed in this compendium.
Some regions, such as the Engineering Support Branch in Region IV, have published a detailed standard
operating procedure for use by persons executing fieldwork.
1-7
-------
Appendix 1A
INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG POLICY GUIDANCE, TECHNICAL RESOURCE DOCUMENTS,
AND THE RI/FS PHASES AND TASKS
RI/FS Phases/Tasks
SCQPJNS
Collection and Analyses of
Existing Data
Identification of Preliminary
Remedial Action Alternatives
Identification on ARARs
Identification of Data Needs
and Sampling Strategies
Activities
Health and Safety Planning
SAP (QAPjP/FSP)
Work Plans
Go to Rl Phase I
and FS Phase I
Primary or Policy Guidance (SARA & NCP for All)
Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response
Activities (EPA, 3/87)
Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response
Activities (EPA, 3/87)
Guidance Document for Cleanup of Surface Tank
and Drum Sites (EPA, 5/85)
Guidance Documents for Cleanup of Surface
Impoundment Sites (EPA, 6/86)
Handbook on Remedial Action on Waste Disposal
Sites (EPA, 10/85)
Other draft documents not yet In circulation
(e.g., groundwater remediation guidance,
landfill guidance, etc.)
CERCLA Compliance with other Environmental
Statutes (EPA, 10/85)
Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response
(EPA, 3/87)
Occupational Safety and Health: Guidance Manual
for Hazardous Waste Site Activities (NIOSH, 10/85)
A Compendium of Field Operations Methods (3/84)
Secondary or Technical Resource Documents
Management of Hazardous Waste Leachate,
SW871 (EPA, 1982)
Leachate Plume Management (EPA, 11/85)
Standard Operation Safety Guides
(EPA, 11/84)
Sediment Sampling Quality Assurance Users
Guide (EPA, 7/85)
Soil Sampling Quality Assurance Users Guide
(EPA, 5/84)
Federal-Lead Remedial Project Management
Handbook (EPA. 12/86)
State-Lead Remedial Project Management
Handbook (EPA, 1/86)
-------
Appendix 1A
(continued)
RI/FS Phases/Tasks
Rl Phase I
Field Investigation
Primary or Policy Guidance (SARA & NCR for All)
Sample Analysis
Risk Assessment
Other Data Evaluation
Methods
Refinement of Remedial
Action Objectives
A Compendium of Field Operations Methods (3/84)
A Compendium of Field Operations Methods (3/84)
User's Guide to the CLP
Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual
(EPA, 12/85)
Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual (EPA, 5/86)
Data Quality Objectives for Remedial Response
Activities (EPA, 3/87)
Secondary or Technical Resource Documents
Test Methods for Evaluation of Solid Waste,
2nd Edition (EPA, 6/86)
Geophysical Methods for Locating Abandoned
Wells (5/84)
Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Burled
Wastes and Waste Migration (EPA, 1984)
Practical Guide for Goundwater Sampling
(EPA, 9/85)
Modeling Remedial Actions at Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA, 4/85)
Go to FS Phase I
-------
RI/FS Phases^asks
ESLPIiaseJ
Identification of Potential
Technologies
Technology Screening
Assembly of Alternatives
Appendix 1A
(continued)
Primary or Policy Guidance (SARA & NCP for All)
Guidance Document for Cleanup of Surface Tank
and Drum Sites (EPA, 5185)
Handbook on Remedial Actions at Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites (4/85)
Handbook of Evaluating Remedial Action
Technology Plans (EPA, 8/83)
Directory of Commercial Hazardous Waste
Treatment and Recycling Facilities (EPA, 12/85)
Secondary or Technical Resource Documents
Management of Hazardous Waste Leachate,
SW 871 (EPA, 1982)
Leachate Plume Management (EPA. 11/85)
Mobile Treatment Technologies for
Superfund Wastes (EPA. 9/86)
Review of In-Place Treatment Techniques for
Contaminated Surface Softs (EPA, 7/84)
Treatment Technology Briefs: Alternatives
to Hazardous Waste Landfills (EPA. 7/86)
Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification
of Hazardous Wastes (EPA, 9/86)
System to Accelerate In Situ Stabilization
of Waste Disposal (EPA, 9/86)
Slurry Trench Construction for Pollution
Migration Control (EPA. 2/84)
Go to FS Phase II
-------
RI/FS Phases/Tasks
FS PHASE II
Alternative Evaluation:
- Effectiveness
Implementability
- Cost
Alternative Screening
Go to Rl Phase II
or FS Phase III
Appendix 1A
(continued)
Primary or Policy Guidance (SARA & NCP for All)
Modeling Remedial Actions at Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA, 4/85)
Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual
(EPA, 12/85)
Costs of Remedial Response Actions at
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA, 1981)
Remedial Action Costing Procedures Manual
(EPA, 9/85)
Secondary or Technical Resource Documents
Directory of Commerical Hazardous Waste
Treatment and Recycling Facilities
(EPA, 12/85)
Petitions to Delist Hazardous Waste: A
Guidance Manual (EPA, 4/85)
Rl PHASE II
Bench-Scale Testing
Pilot Testing
Practical Guide-Trial Burns for Hazardous Waste
Incinerators- Project Summary (EPA, 7/86)
Go to FS Phase III
-------
Appendix 1A
(continued)
RI/FS Phases/Tasks
FS PHASE III
Detailed Evaluation:
- Effectiveness
Implementabillty
- Cost
Primary or Policy Guidance (SARA & NCP for All)
Modeling Remedial Actions at Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA, 4/85)
Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual
(EPA, 12/85)
Superfund Remedial Design and Remedial Action
Guidance (EPA. 2/85)
Costs of Remedial Response Actions at
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA, 1981)
Remedial Action Costing Procedures Manual
(EPA, 9/85)
Secondary or Technical Resource Documents
Directory of Commercial Hazardous Waste
Treatment and Recycling Facilities
(EPA, 12/85)
Petitions to Delist Hazardous Waste: A
Guidance Manual (EPA, 4/85)
Summary
COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Community Relations in Superfund: A Handbook
(EPA. 3/86)
-------
SECTION 2
PREPARATION OF PROJECT DESCRIPTION
AND STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
2.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section describes the information that should be addressed in the "project description and state-
ment of objectives" section of a field activities plan. The information discussed below is applicable to all
such plans, but it should be modified to meet the needs of a specific project.
A section entitled "project description and statement of objectives" should be included in all response
activity plans; such a section is required in the quality assurance and sampling plans for remedial investiga-
tions and in work plans for Field Investigation Team (FIT) operations. Project descriptions are also used as
input to the site safety plan. The project description defines the goals of the project and describes how the
information necessary to meet the project goals will be obtained. The project description should provide
the reader with enough information to judge the appropriateness and adequacy of the quality assurance,
work, or sampling plans. The project description and statement of objectives are integral elements in the
development of data quality objectives, which are qualitative and quantitative statements that outline the
decision-making process for remedial responsibilities and specify the data required to support those
decisions. Extensive guidance on development of data quality objectives exists (OSWER Directive 9355.0-
7B) and will not be repeated within this document.
2.2 DEFINITIONS
Analytical Parameters
Chemical constituents and levels of detection required for sample analysis. Parameters also
include field measurements (e.g., pH, groundwater levels), engineering soils data (e.g., soil
permeability, particle size analysis), and Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) Special Analytical
Services (SAS) components.
Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP)
The policies, organization, objectives, functional activities, and specific QA and Quality Control
(QC) activities designed to achieve the data quality goals of the specific project(s) or continu-
ing operation(s).
Sample Matrix
Media from which the sample is collected (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water).
Sampling Plan
A program of action that is developed prior to field activities and that describes the methods
and procedures for obtaining representative portions of the environment being investigated.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
2-1
-------
2.3 APPLICABILITY
Remedial response activities, such as field investigation and sample collection, require a written plan
that should include a project description. The description should be included in its entirety and may not be
referenced from another document.
2.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The Site Manager or designated person who is responsible for writing the work plan, sampling plan, or
quality assurance project plan is also responsible for the section on project description and statement of
objectives.
2.5 RECORDS
The project description and statement of objectives constitute the record. Pertinent information that is
used to develop the project description should be recorded and maintained by the SM.
Such information would include results of previous site investigations; any environmental permits as-
sociated with the site; tax records; results of inspections by other state, local, or federal agencies;
newspaper accounts; records from community relations interviews; aerial photography (such as those typi-
cally available from the Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center); and any other data that will as-
sist the SM in developing the project description and statement of objectives. It is important, particularly
on projects involving enforcement activities, that adequate records be kept to document the process by
which project objectives were derived. Project objectives determine sampling strategy and are directly re-
lated to the final costs of the response activities, the adequacy of the feasibility study, and the success of
the remedial alternative. Meeting notes, telephone conversation records, assumptions regarding inter-
pretations of work assignments, and other records pertaining to the development of the project description
and statement of objectives should be maintained in a manner that will allow the SM and project team to
reconstruct the decision-making process that led to the stated project objectives.
2.6 PROCEDURES
The project description should be site-specific and include at least the following items:
• Site description and history
• Schedule of activities
• Intended data usage
• Identification of sample matrices and parameters
• Sample design description and rationale
2-2
-------
Each of these items are described below.
2.6.1 Site Description and History
The site description should include all pertinent physical and land use information. Maps, drawings,
and photographs should be included, if available. The following information should be provided:
• Size, including area within facility boundaries and the extent of contamination above defined
thresholds, if known (See also Section 17 for discussion of background levels used as a defined
threshold.)
• Specific location description including directions and distances from nearby towns
• Surrounding geography (e.g., town, city, county, or state boundaries and jurisdictions; power
lines; railroads; roads; and topography)
• Physical description including the following:
Geologic conditions
- Soil types and depths
- Surface water hydrology
- Groundwater hydrology
- Flora
- Fauna
- Terrain
• Onsite conditions (e.g., the presence of pits, ponds, tanks, drums, standing water, buildings, and
wells)
• Climatological description for the region and for site-specific parameters, such as wind speed and
direction, precipitation patterns, and freezing conditions
• Demographics and surrounding land use (e.g., agricultural, industrial, or residential; populace at
risk; and transportation patterns)
Relevant historic facts about the site should be included in the project description. Following are ex-
amples of useful historic information:
• Past and present uses of the site
• Identification of onsite facilities and description of activities at these facilities, including any facilities
that have been demolished and any subsurface facilities (e.g., tanks, utilities, and vaults)
2-3
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• Onsite disposal and materials handling practices
Areas used for disposal and methods of disposal (tanks, drum, pit, pond, lagoon,
landfill, land treatment, etc.)
- Material storage or transfer facilities and areas onsite, including spills or dumps
• Description of wastes onsite
- Quantity
- Physical state
Chemical identification, if known
Location
• Prior complaints or agency actions concerning the site Including any permits held by the site
(Permit applications are also of interest, even if no permit was awarded.)
• Prior sampling activities onsite or near the site, and the resultant data (This information should be
evaluated in terms of the confidence held in the data and of the intended usage of that data.)
• Prior remedial or response activities
• Prior accidents or incidents onsite, such as fires, explosions, or chemical releases
A detailed site history should be completed before initiating any activities onsite. A brief summary of
the site history, which includes information that may affect sampling plans, work plans, the site safety plan,
or the quality assurance plan, should be included in the project description. The reliability of the informa-
tion should be assessed, and the acceptability of the existing data for intended use should be determined.
2.6.2 Schedule of Activities
The project schedule should include project milestones, such as the startup date for the project, field
investigation dates, the data review period, and dates when reports are due. The activity(s) addressed by
quality assurance and work sampling plans should be identified. The expected start and finish dates for the
project and the field work must be stated. A diagram, flow chart, or critical path chart should be included
to help the reader understand the project.
2.6.3 Intended Data Usage
To determine whether the work, sampling, and quality assurance plans will generate data that meet the
project objectives, it is necessary to define the types of decisions that will be made, identify the intended
use of the data, and design a data collection program. Data quality objectives (DQO) are defined as "an in-
tegrated set of thought processes which define data quality requirements based on the identified end use
of the database" (OSWER Directive 9355.0-7B). The DQOs are useful in developing a sampling plan and
analytical plan so that sufficient data of known, defensible quality are obtained to assist the decision-
makers in arriving at sound decisions concerning remedial response activities. The DQO, based on the in-
tended use of the data, will assist in determining the appropriate detection limits, analytical methods, and
sample handling procedures (chain-of-custody requirements, as well as preservation and holding times).
2-4
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Possible uses for the data are listed below:
• Confirm suspected contaminants or concentrations of contaminants.
• Qualitatively assess the nature and extent of contamination.
• Design additional sampling campaigns.
• Implement operable units involving cleanup and removal.
• Compare with established criteria (e.g., drinking water standards and National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) requirements).
• Assess exposure, endangerment, and risks.
• Screen or select remedial alternatives.
• Use as input to the conceptual design of remedial technologies.
• Use in future enforcement actions and litigation. The applicable legislation (CERCLA, RCRA,
TSCA, etc.) should be identified.
The specific purpose of the site investigation should be stated. The use of the data as a qualitative or
quantitative measure should be specified. Discrete quantitative requirements for the data, such as a level
of detection required for comparison with health criteria, should also be specified.
2.6.4 Identification of Sample Matrices and Parameters
Identification of the appropriate sample matrices and parameters should be included in the project
description. A table similar to Exhibit 2-1 may suffice. A listing of compounds should be included. Any
special sample handling requirements (e.g., filtering and dry weight analyses) should be identified in this
section. Parameters for special analytical services and geotechnical and hydrogeological investigations
should also be identified.
2.6.5 Sampling Design Description and Rationale
A brief description of the sampling design and rationale should be included in the project description.
DQO guidance addresses sampling design description and rationale. If DQO guidance is followed, a single
scoping section covering anticipated remedies, data requirements, and sampling should result. The sam-
pling design description should include potential sampling locations and parameters. A rationale for
choosing the sampling points, number of samples, medium of sample (air, soil, or water), sampling
methods, amounts, preservation techniques and chemical parameters should be discussed. Sample con-
tainers, preservation techniques, and shipping methods should be selected in accordance with the latest
2-5
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Exhibit 2-1
SAMPLING FOR XYZ SITE
Groundwater
Monitoring Well
Residential Wellsb
Target
Compound List
Organics
Target
Compound List
Inorganics3
Tasks I & II Metals
Task III Cyanide
Special
Analytical
Services
(No. x Freq. = Total) (No. x Freq. = Total) (No. x Freq. = Total)
19x2 = 38
10x2 = 20
19x2 = 38
5x2 = 10
5x2 = 10
Surface Water
Water
Sediment
6x1 = 6
6x1 = 6
6x1 = 6
6x1=6
Soils
Chemical
Physical
46 x 1 =46
46 x 1 =46
25 x 1 = 25°
Groundwater sample to be analyzed for total cyanide and total metals will not be filtered before analysis. An aliquot will be
filtered in the field before sample preservation, and will be analyzed for soluble metals and soluble cyanide. Detection limit
requirements are specified in "QAPjP for XYZ Site, Appendix A, Analytical Requirements."
SAS will be used to analyze residential well samples for ammonia, nitrates and nitrites.
c 10 Atterberg limits, 15-grain-size distribution.
EPA and Department of Transportation (DOT) requirements. Sections 4, 5, and 6 of this compendium con-
tain information on these procedures; however, consultation with EPA and DOT is strongly recommended.
2.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No specific regional variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated
in subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPMs for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
2-6
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2.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Data Quality Objectives: Development Guidance for Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Site Remedial Response Activities." OSWER Directive 9355.0-7B, Sections B, C, D, and F.
Washington, D.C.: Hazardous Site Control Division. 1 April 1987.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Guidance for Preparation of Quality Assurance Project Plans.
QAMS, 005/80. Washington, D.C.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Guidance for the Development of a Quality Assurance Plan.
Prepared by Regional Team: Juanita Hillmar (Region. VIII), Ho L Young (Region IX), and Barry Towns
(Region X).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ^Preparation of State-Lead Remedial Investigation Quality Assurance
Project Plans for Region V; Guidance. Quality Assurance Office. Chicago, Illinois.
2-7
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SECTION 3
IMPLEMENTING FIELD ACTIVITIES
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.1.1 Scope and Purpose
Section 3 addresses several areas including the control of contaminated materials generated during
fieldwork, organization of the field team, decontamination, and general health and safety considerations.
This section provides general information on those topics in individual subsections that identify their
relevant scope and purpose, definitions, and applicability. The section lists information sources for specific
guidance. Fieldwork encompasses the activities associated with preliminary assessments / site inspections
(PA/SI), site investigations, remedial investigations (Rl), feasibility study, pilot or bench tests, and Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) inspections. Guidance on these activities Is voluminous and will
not be presented here. The Site Manager (SM) must also be guided by the state and local laws, codes,
rules, regulations, and ordinances, as well as by any site-peculiar guidance such as consent decrees.
3.1.2 Definitions
Office of Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 1910.120
OSHA Interim Final Rule on Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response. OSHA
Standard 29 CFR 1910.120 as released on 19 December 1986 in the Federal Register.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
3.1.3 Applicability
The procedures contained in Section 3 are applicable to field activities that involve hazardous materials
(as defined by the OSHA standard) and are a potential for personnel exposure.
3.1.4 Responsibilities
Activities that fall under the scope of OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120, as defined in that standard, must comply
with the requirements of that standard. The SM is responsible for coordinating all efforts with the assigned
Health and Safety Officer (HSO) [also known as Site Safety Coordinator (SSC) or Site Safety and Health
Officer (SSHO)] to achieve and maintain compliance.
3-1
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3.1.5 Records
The documents required by OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 must be completed, maintained, and made avail-
able as described in that standard. These records include medical surveillance documents, health and
safety plans, and all other required documentation. The retention time for these documents is significant -
30 years or more. Site Managers must rely on the administrative personnel associated with their corporate
or agency health and safety programs to provide for retention of records. These procedures should be
clearly delineated within the program.
3.1.6 Procedures
Appropriate procedures are specified in the subsequent subsections.
3.2 CONTROL OF FIELDWORK-GENERATED CONTAMINATED MATERIAL
3.2.1 Scope and Purpose
Field investigation activities often result in the production or migration of contaminated materials (in-
vestigation-derived waste) that must be properly managed to protect the public and the environment, as
well as to meet legal requirements. This subsection deals with the proper management of contaminated
materials.
The objective of this guideline is to provide general reference information on the control of con-
taminated materials.
3.2.2 Definitions
Contaminated Material
Any of the field investigation's by-products that are suspected of being contaminated or are
known to be contaminated with hazardous substances. These by-products include such
materials as decontamination solutions, disposable equipment, drilling muds and cuttings,
well-development fluids, well-purging water, and spill-contaminated materials.
3.2.3 Applicability
The SM should assume that hazardous wastes generated during an investigation will require com-
pliance with federal requirements for generation, storage, transportation, or disposal. In addition, there
may be state regulations that govern the disposal action.
The work plan for a site investigation must include a description of control procedures for con-
taminated materials. This plan should assess the type of contamination, estimate the amounts that would
be produced, describe containment equipment and procedures, and delineate storage or disposal
methods. Adequate budget must be allocated for these purposes. As a general policy, it is wise to select
investigation methods that minimize the generation of contaminated materials. The handling and the dis-
posing of potentially hazardous materials are expensive; however, the consequences and penalties for im-
proper handling are significant.
3-2
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3.2.4 Responsibilities
The Site Manager or designee is responsible for identifying a$ contaminated, any material that was
generated onsite and for implementing the procedures used to control and dispose of such material.
3.2.5 Records
If onsite or offsite testing is conducted on the contaminated material, appropriate chain-of-custody and
sample analysis forms must be prepared as described in other sections of this compendium. If it is deter-
mined that wastes generated onsite are hazardous, the appropriate RCRA manifest and disposal forms
must be completed as discussed in Subsection 3.2.6.2. The SM must determine who will be designated as
the generator of the contaminated material. Typically, an EPA official should be designated as the person
to sign items such as manifests.
3.2.6 Procedures
Provided below is a broad description of the sources of contaminated material that can be generated
onsite, plus a general discussion of the current procedures used to control and dispose of contaminated
materials that are fieldwork generated.
3.2.6.1 Sources of Contaminated Materials and Containment Methods
Decontamination Solutions: Decontamination solutions and rinses must be assumed to contain the
hazardous chemicals associated with the site, unless there are analytical or other data to the contrary. The
solution volumes could vary from a few gallons to several hundred gallons in cases where large equipment
requires cleaning.
Small amounts of rinse solutions, such as those generated by the personnel decontamination station
(PDS), are best stored in 55-gallon drums (or equivalent containers) that can be sealed until ultimate dis-
posal at an approved facility. As a rule of thumb, use of a temporary PDS will generate 55 to 110 gallons of
decontamination solution per day for every five persons using it. The addition of showers and clothes
washing machines, associated with a more permanent facility, will generate as much as 1,000 gallons per
day per every five persons. If the amounts generated by a PDS exceed one or two 55-gallon drums each
day, a larger capacity above ground storage vessel, such as a fiberglass tank or collapsible rubber bladder,
should be considered. If individual drums are used, they should be marked with sufficient information so
that personnel can determine what contaminants may be present. This information should be based on the
analytical results from the sampling campaign. Alternately, samples can be analyzed from each drum.
However, the cost of analysis may exceed the cost of disposal. Larger containers may be sampled and
analyzed in a cost-effective manner. If the suspected contamination is acceptably low, the fluids can be al-
lowed to drain back onsite or can be released to local sewers - with the permission of the appropriate
authorities. In some rare instances, contaminated fluids may be released back to the site.
Larger equipment, such as backhoes and tractors, must be decontaminated in an area that has a
method of controlling and collecting the spent fluids. A decontamination area for large equipment can con-
sist of a shallow depression lined with plastic, which is covered with clean sand or gravel, or the area may
be a bermed concrete pad with a floor drain leading to a holding tank. The amounts generated by typical
equipment cleaning devices (steam jenny and hydro-blaster) usually exceed 500 gallons per cleaning. Spill
prevention and containment measures should be implemented for the larger fluid containers, or if many
drums of fluid are left onsite. Protection from vandals is also needed.
3-3
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Disposable Equipment: Disposable equipment that could be contaminated during a site investiga-
tion typically includes tools, rubber gloves, boots, broken sample containers, and chemically resistant
clothing. These items are small and can easily be contained in 55-gallon drums with removable lids.
Secure containment within the containers is provided by sealing them at the end of each work day and
upon project completion. Additionally, containers are labeled in accordance with the applicable Depart-
ment of Transportation (DOT) regulations on hazardous materials under 49 CFR 172.304. Adequate
protection from vandals, theft, and adverse weather must be provided for all containers.
Drilling Muds and Well-Development Fluids: Drilling muds and well development fluids are
materials used when installing groundwater monitoring wells. Their use could result in the surface ac-
cumulation of contaminated liquids and solids that require containment. Monitoring wells are often placed
in uncontaminated areas to determine if hazardous chemicals have migrated below ground. Materials from
these wells require especially careful management since they threaten contamination of otherwise clean
property.
The volume of drilling and well-development fluids requiring containment will depend on the number of
wells, diameters and depths, groundwater characteristics, and geologic formations. There are no simple
mathematical formulas available for accurately predicting these volumes. It is best to rely on the ex-
perience of hydrogeologists and/or reputable well drillers who are familiar with the local conditions and the
well installation techniques selected. These individuals should be able to estimate the volume of con-
taminated fluid to be contained. Since rough estimates may be involved, managers shall always be
prepared to halt drilling or other well-development operations if more containment capacity is needed. For
example, over one million gallons of contaminated fluids have been generated during pump tests of
monitoring wells.
Drilling fluid (mud) is mixed and stored in a container commonly referred to as a mud pit. This mud pit
consists of a suction section from which drilling fluid is withdrawn and pumped through hoses down the
drill pipe to the bit and then back up the hole to the settling section of the mud pit. In the settling section,
the fluid velocity is reduced by a screen and by several flow-restriction devices, thereby allowing the well
cuttings to settle out of the fluid.
The mud pit may be either a portable aboveground tank, commonly made of steel, or a stationary pit
that is in the ground. The aboveground tanks have a major advantage over pits in the ground because the
tanks isolate the contaminated fluids from the surface environment. The tanks are also portable and can
usually be cleaned easily.
As the well is drilled, the sediments that accumulate in the settling section must be removed. Removal
is best done by shoveling sediments into drums or other similar containers. When the drilling is complete,
the contents of the above ground tank are likewise shoveled or pumped into drums, and the tank is
cleaned and made available for reuse.
If in-ground pits are used, they shall not extend into the natural water table. They shall also be lined
with a bentonite-cement mixture followed by a layer of flexible impermeable material such as plastic sheet-
ing. To maintain its impermeable seal, the material used must be nonreactive with the contaminants. An
advantage of the in-ground pit is that well cuttings do not necessarily have to be removed periodically
during drilling because the pit can be made deep enough to contain them. Depending on site conditions,
the in-ground pit may have to be totally re-excavated and refilled with uncontaminated natural soils when
the drilling operation is complete.
When the aboveground tank or the in-ground pit is used, a reserve tank or pit should be located at the
site as a backup system for leaks, spills and overflows. In either case, surface drainage shall be such that
any excess fluid can be controlled within the immediate area of the drill site. In-ground pits must also be
barricaded and lighted to prevent accidents.
3-4
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The containment procedure for well-development fluids is similar to that for drilling fluids. The volume
and weight of contaminated fluid will be determined by the method of development. When a new well is
bailed to produce clear water, substantially less volume and weight of fluid will result, than when backwash-
ing or high-velocity jetting is used.
Spill-Contaminated Materials: A spill is always possible when a site investigation involves opening
and moving containers of liquids. Contaminated sorbents and soils resulting from spills will have to be
contained and cleaned up. Small quantities of spill-contaminated materials are usually best contained in
drums, while larger quantities can be placed in lined pits or in other impermeable structures. In some
cases, onsite containment may not be feasible and immediate transport to an approved disposal site will be
required.
3.2.6.2 Disposal of Contaminated Materials
Actual disposal techniques for contaminated materials are the same as those for any hazardous sub-
stance - incineration, landfilling and/or treatment. The problem centers around the assignment of respon-
sibility for disposal. The responsibility must be determined and agreed on by all involved parties before the
fieldwork starts.
If testing conducted on a waste that was generated onsite (RCRA extraction, organic screening, inor-
ganic and organic analysis, etc.) shows that the waste is nonhazardous, the material can be handled as a
non-RCRA waste and disposed of onsite at the direction of EPA. For hazardous waste materials, onsite
disposal should not be practiced. The material should be properly packaged and disposed of in a RCRA-
approved offsite facility. The same procedure applies to residuals of samples (see Section 5 for a discus-
sion).
A majority of the waste material generated during onsite activities is hazardous. Either it is a health
hazard, or the waste material when tested, fails the RCRA extraction tests. In these instances, EPA has
provided guidance for the disposal of these materials. The guidance, in the form of a memorandum dated
13 December 1984 from Russel H. Wyer of EPA Headquarters, provides the general procedure for dispos-
ing of RCRA waste material from hazardous waste facilities. Site specific disposal options are developed
by consulting with the EPA regions through the EPA RPM and by specifying disposal actions in the work
plan.
3.2.6.3 Waste Storage and Management
Wastes generated through investigative activities (e.g., drilling) are governed by RCRA requirements
with regard to packaging, labeling, transporting, storing, and record keeping. These requirements are
stated in 40 CFR 262 entitled "Standard Applicable to Generators of Hazardous Wastes." However, some
state laws have primacy over RCRA requirements. To determine this, the appropriate state agency must be
contacted. A list of the state environmental agencies has been attached for this use and appears as Exhibit
3-1.
Wastes that are accumulated through onsite activities are to be stored in a secure location that is under
the control of the operator. Therefore, to meet this requirement, it is common practice for the waste-stag-
ing area to be located onsite. Wastes generated from offsite activities, such as wells, are addressed in
standard 40 CFR 262.34(c). This standard states the generator "may accumulate as much as 55 gallons of
hazardous waste or 1 quart of acutely hazardous waste...in containers at or near any point of generation
where wastes initially accumulate, which is under the control of the operator of the process generating the
waste...." Offsite wells are typically areas that cannot be considered to be under the operator's control.
Therefore, the operator must place the wastes in containers and then label, manifest, and transport these
wastes to the onsite staging area.
3-5
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Exhibit 3-1
LISTING OF STATE ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES
ALABAMA
Department of Environmental
Management
State Capital
Montgomery, AL 36130
205/271-7700
ALASKA
Department of Environmental
Conservation
3220 Hospital Dr.
Pouch 0
Juneau, AK 99811
907/465-2600
ARIZONA
Division of Environmental
Health Services
Department of Health Servs.
1740 W.Adams St.
Phoenix, AZ 85007
602/255-1130
ARKANSAS
Department of Pollution
Control and Ecology
8001 National Dr.
Little Rock, AR 72209
501/562-7444
CALIFORNIA
Resources Agency
1311 Resources Building
1416 9th St.
Sacramento, CA 95814
916/445-5656
COLORADO
Department of Natural
Resources
718 State Centennial Bldg.
1313 Sherman St.
Denver, CO 80203
303/866-3311
CONNECTICUT
Department of Environmental
Protection
117 State Office Bldg.
165 Capitol Ave.
Hartford, CT 06106
203/566-2110
DELAWARE
Division of Environmental
Control
Department of Natural
Resources and
Environmental Control
R and R Complex
89 Kings Highway
P.O. Box1401
Dover, DE 19903
302/736-4764
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Environmental Control
Division
Housing and Environmental
Regulation Administration
Department of Consumer and
Regulatory Affairs
505 North Potomac Building
614HSt.,NW
Washington, DC 20001
202/767-7370
FLORIDA
Department of Environmental
Regulation
Twin Towers Building
2600 Blair Stone Rd.
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904/488-4805
GEORGIA
Environmental Protection
Division
Department of Natural
Resources
825 Trinity-Washington Bldg.
270 Washington St., SW
Atlanta, GA 30334
404/656-4713
HAWAII
Office of Environmental
Quality Control
550 Halekauwila St.
Honolulu, HI 96813
808/548-6915
IDAHO
Division of Environment
Department of Health
and Welfare
Towers Bldg.
450 W. State St.
Boise, ID 83720
208/334-4059
ILLINOIS
Environmental Protection
Agency
220 Churchill Rd.
Springfield, IL 62706
217/782-3397
INDIANA
Environmental Management
Board
State Board of Health
Health Bldg.
1330 W.Michigan St.
Indianapolis, IN 46206
317/633-8404
IOWA
Department of Water, Air,
and Waste Management
Henry A. Wallace Bldg.
900 E. Grand Ave.
DesMoines, IA 50319
515/281-8854
KANSAS
Division of Environment
Department of Health and
Environment
Bldg. 740, Forbes Field
Topeka, KS 66620
913/862-9360, Ext. 283
KENTUCKY
Department of Environment
Natural Resources and
Environmental Protection
Cabinet
Ash Bldg., 18ReillyRd.
Frankfort, KY 40601
502/564-2150
3-6
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Exhibit 3-1
(continued)
LOUISIANA
Department of Environmental
Quality
700 State Land and Natural
Resouces Bldg.
625 N. 4th St.
P.O. Box 44066
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
504/342-1265
MAINE
Department of Environmental
Protection
Ray Bldg., AMHI Complex
Hospital St.
Mail to: State House,
Station 17
Augusta, ME 04333
207/289-2811
MARYLAND
Maryland Environmental
Service
Department of Natural
Resources
60 West St.
Annapolis, MD 21401
301/269-3351
MASSACHUSETTS
Executive Office of
Environmental Affairs
Leverett Saltonstall State
Office Bldg.
100 Cambridge St.
Boston, MA 02202
617/727-9800
MICHIGAN
Department of Natural
Resources
Stevens T. Mason Bldg.
7th Floor
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, Ml 48909
517/373-2329
MINNESOTA
Environmental Quality Board
100 Capitol Square Bldg.
550 Cedar St.
St. Paul, MN 55101
612/296-2603
MISSISSIPPI
Bureau of Pollution Control
Department of Natural
Resources
Southport Mall
Hwy. 80-W at Ellis Ave.
P.O. Box 10385
Jackson, MS 39209
601/961-5171
MISSOURI
Division of Environmental
Quality
Department of Natural
Resources
1915SouthridgeDr.
P.O. Box 1368
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314/751-3241
MONTANA
Environmental Sciences Division
Department of Health and
Environmental Sciences
W. F. Cogswell Bldg.
Lockey St.
Helena, MT 59620
406/444-3948
NEBRASKA
Department of Environmental
Control
State Office Bldg.
301 Centennial Mall, S.
P.O. Box 94877
Lincoln, NE 68509-4877
402/471-2186
NEVADA
Division of Environmental
Protection
Department of Conservation
and Natural Resources
221 Nye Bldg.
201 S. Fall St.
Capitol Complex
Carson City, NV 89710
702/885-4670
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Environmental Protection
Division
Office of the Attorney
General
State House Annex
25 Capitol St.
Concord, NH 03301
603/271-3679
NEW JERSEY
Department of Environmental
Protection
John Fitch Plz.
P.O. Box 1390
Trenton, NJ 08625
609/292-2885
NEW MEXICO
Environmental Improvement
Division
Health and Environment
Department
Crown State Office Bldg.
725 St. Michael's Dr.
P.O. Box 968
Santa Fe, NM 87504-0968
503/984-0020, Ext. 200
NEW YORK
Department of Environmental
Conservation
50 Wolf Rd.
Albany, NY 12233-0001
518/457-3446
3-7
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Exhibit 3-1
(continued)
NORTH CAROLINA
Division of Environmental
Management
Department of Natural
Resources and Community
Development
Archdale Bldg.
512 N.Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611
919/733-7015
NORTH DAKOTA
Environmental Health Section
Department of Health
102 Missouri Office Bldg.
1200 Missouri Ave.
Bismarck, ND 58501
701/224-2374
OHIO
Ohio Environmental Protection
Agency
Seneca Towers
361 E. Broad St.
P.O. Box 1049
Columbus, OH 43216
614/466-8318
OKLAHOMA
Department of Pollution
Control
1000 N.E. 10th St.
P.O. Box 53504
Oklahoma City, OK 73152
405/271-4677
OREGON
Department of Environmental
Quality
Yeon Bldg.
522 S.W. 5th Ave.
P.O. Box 1760
Portland, OR 97207
503/229-5696
PENNSYLVANIA
Department of Environmental
Resources
Fulton Bank Bldg., 9th R.
200 N. 3rd St.
P.O. Box 2063
Harrisburg, PA 17105
717/787-2814
RHODE ISLAND
Department of Environmental
Management
83 Park St.
Providence, Rl 02903
401/277-2771
SOUTH CAROLINA
Division of Environmental
Quality Control
Department of Health and
Environmental Control
415 J. Marion Sims Bldg.
2600 Bull St.
Columbus, SC 29201
803/758-5450
SOUTH DAKOTA
Department of Water and
Natural Resources
Joe Foss Bldg.
523 E. Capitol Ave.
Pierre, SD 57501
605/773-3151
TENNESSEE
Bureau of Environment
Department of Health and
Environment
TERRA Bldg.
150 9th Ave., N.
Nashville, TN 37203
615/741-3657
TEXAS
Environmental Protection
Division
Office of the Attorney
General
Executive Office Bldg.
411 W. 13th St.
P.O. Box 12548, Capitol Sta.
Austin, TX 78711
512/475-1101
3-8
UTAH
Division of Environmental
Health
Department of Health
Social Services Bldg.
1 SOW. North Temple St.
P.O. Box 2500
Salt Lake City, UT 84110-2500
801/533-6121
VERMONT
Agency of Environmental
Conservation
Heritage II Complex
79 River St.
Montpelier, VT 05602
802/828-3139
VIRGINIA
Council on the Environment
903 Ninth St. Office Bldg.
9th and Grace Sts.
Richmond, VA 23219
804/786-4500
WASHINGTON
Washington Department of
Ecology
St. Martin's College
Mail Stop PV-11
Olympia, WA 98504
206/459-6168
WEST VIRGINIA
Department of Natural
Resources
669 State Office Bldg. 3
1800 Washington St., E.
Charleston. WV 25305
304/348-2754
WISCONSIN
Department of Natural
Resources
General Executive Facility II
101 S.Webster St.
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, Wl 53707
608/266-2121
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Exhibit 3-1
(continued)
WYOMING
Department of Environmental
Quality
Herschler Bldg., 4th Fl.
122 W. 25th St.
Cheyenne, WY 82002
307/777-7938
AMERICAN SAMOA
Environmental Quality
Commission
Office of the Governor
Pago Pago, AS 96799
Country Code 684/633-4116
and 633-4398
GUAM
Guam Environmental Protection
Agency
P.O. Box 2950
Agana, GU 96910
Country Code 671/646-8863
8864, and 8865
PUERTO RICO
Environmental Quality Board
204 Del Parque St.
P.O. Box 11488
Santurce, PR 00910
809/725-8898 and 723-1617
VIRGIN ISLANDS
Division of Natural Resources
Management
Department of Conservation
and Cultural Affairs
P.O. Box 4340
Charlotte Amalie,
St. Thomas, VI 00801
809/774-3320
3-9
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The maximum duration for storing wastes onsite is 90 days without a permit or without having interim
status, provided that the stored wastes meet the RCRA requirements for containing and labeling. Storage
duration beyond 90 days alters the status of the controller from a generator of hazardous waste to an
operator of a storage facility. Such a change in status, subjects the operator to compliance with RCRA re-
quirements stated in 40 CFR Parts 264 and 265. A final concern is that, during dismantling, the storage
area will need to be sampled (e.g., soil sampling) to determine that no releases of hazardous substances
occurred during storage.
Questions on the interpretation of the requirements for storing and handling hazardous substances can
be directed to the RCRA Hotline (1/800/424-9346).
Provided below is an outline of the suggested procedures for disposal of investigation-derived wastes.
1. Determine whether or not investigation derived wastes will be generated during the project. If
yes, obtain RCRA EPA Notification of Hazardous Waste Activity Form (Form No. 8700-12). If no,
note the decision in the work plan.
2. Obtain a RCRA generator provisional number from the EPA Remedial Project Manager (RPM).
3. Fill out the provisional number questionnaire and submit it to the EPA RPM.
4. Contact waste transporters and disposers to request bids for their services; obtain necessary
documentation required by a company for those services. (AH companies require the filing of
some type of waste data sheet.) A bid will not be awarded until a waste characterization, including
data, is provided to the transporter / disposer. These forms can be found in the Hazardous Waste
Services Directing: Transportation, Disposal Sites, Laboratories, and Consultants published by J. J. Keller
Associates (414/722-2848).
5. Obtain necessary state / federal shipping and disposal manifest forms. (A manifest is required
from the state where the waste originated.)
6. Conduct field activities.
7. Sample and characterize waste. This step includes all RCRA parameters plus special analyses
such as TCDD.
8. Receive analysis from laboratory.
9. Complete waste data sheets, and submit them to potential transporters and disposal facilities.
10. Receive bids for transportation and disposal activities.
11. Prepare EPA Form 8700-12, including waste characterization data for sign off by designated
EPA official. (Note: Materials generated are considered to be EPA wastes, and an EPA employee
must sign off on all paperwork.)
12. Prepare state and federal shipping and disposal manifest forms for signature by EPA person-
nel.
13. Award subcontract for waste transportation and disposal.
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3.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future determined variances will be in-
corporated within subsequent revisions of this compendium. Information on variances may become dated
rapidly. Thus, users should contact the regional EPA RPMs for full details on current regional practices and
requirements.
3.2.8 Information Sources
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.
3.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE FIELD TEAM
3.3.1 Scope and Purpose
The objective of this subsection is to provide the roles and responsibilities of field team members who
conduct remedial response activities at hazardous waste sites.
3.3.2 Definitions
None.
3.3.3 Applicability
The primary function of the field investigation team is to gather information according to the approved
work plan. These guidelines describe the components and duties of team members, and suggest the num-
bers of members that are necessary for the field team to safely meet the stated goals of the investigation.
These guidelines are applicable to field work involving hazardous waste disposal sites.
3.3.4 Responsibilities
The NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste
Site Activities presents a generalized approach to personnel organization for remedial response activities
(see Exhibit 3-2 taken from that publication) and provides an excellent summary of the responsibilities of
each of the named positions.
Typically, at least eight roles may be required for a field investigation team: SM, field team leader, site
safety officer, personnel decontamination station operator / equipment specialist, communications super-
visor, initial entry party, work party, and emergency response team.
The number of roles needed at each site is dictated by the potential hazards and the specific needs of
the site. Dual role assignments may be acceptable when hazardous substances and physical conditions at
a site are well documented and the nature of the work is limited.
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Exhibit 3-2
GENERALIZED APPROACH TO PERSONNEL ORGANIZATION
FOR SITE INVESTIGATION AND RESPONSE
Government Agency
Oversight
OFFSITE
Multidisciplinary
Advisors
Lead Organization
Senior-Level
Management
Medical Support
Project
Team Leader
ONSITE
Ul
Field Team
Leader
Work
Party
Command Post
Supervisor
Decontamination
Station Officers
Rescue Team
o
t
Scientific
Advisor
Financial
Officer
• Security
Officer
Record-
keeper
Logistics • Photographer
Officer
Public Information
Officer
OFFSITE
AND ONSITE
AS NEEDED
Site Safety and
Health Officer
• Bomb Squad Experts • Firefighters
• Communication
Personnel
• Environmental
Scientists
• Evacuation
Personnel
• Hazardous
Chemical
Experts
• Health Physicists
• Industrial
Hygienists
• Meteorologists
• Public Safety
Officer
• lexicologists
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3.3.4.1 Site Manager
The SM is responsible for the following:
• All the team does or fails to do
• Preparing and organizing project work
• Selecting team personnel and briefing them on specific assignments
• Coordinating with the EPA RPM, who is responsible for obtaining the owner's permission to enter
the site
• Coordinating with the field team leader to complete the work plan
• Completing final reports and preparing the evidentiary file
• Establishing safety and equipment requirements that are to be met, and monitoring compliance
with those requirements
• Coordinating with the lead agency
• Assisting in quality assurance efforts
Some of these responsibilities may be delegated to the field team leader and the site safety coor-
dinator.
3.3.4.2 Field Team Leader
The field team leader is responsible for the overall operation and safety of the field team. As mentioned
earlier, this role can be filled by the SM or the designated representative. The field team leader may join the
work party in the exclusion zone. The field team leader is responsible for the following:
• Execution of the site work plan
• Safety procedure compliance through coordination with the site safety officer
• Field operations management including coordination with laboratories and subcontractors
• Community relations, typically through state and federal liaison officials
• Site control
• Compliance of field documentation and sampling methods with evidence collection procedures
3.3.4.3 Site Safety Officer
The site safety officer is responsible for safety procedures and operations at the site. The site safety of-
ficer is responsible to whoever is responsible for safety in the organization rather than to the field team
leader or SM. This reporting system provides for two separate lines of authority, thereby allowing decisions
based on safety to be represented on an equal basis with decisions based on the pressures for ac-
complishing the investigation according to schedule.
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The site safety officer either remains on the clean side of the exclusion area while monitoring the work
party and site activities or may accompany the downrange team to supervise hazardous work. The site
safety officer is also responsible for the following:
• Determining of the level of personal protection required
• Updating equipment or procedures based on new information gathered during the site inspection
• Changing the levels of protection based on site observations (Subsection 3.3.4)
• Monitoring compliance with the safety requirements
• Stopping work as required to protect personal worker safety or where noncompliance with safety
requirements is found
• Determining and posting emergency telephone numbers (including poison control centers) and
routes to capable medical facilities; arranging for emergency transportation to medical facilities
• In conjunction with the SM, notifying local public emergency officers (i.e., police and fire depart-
ment) of the nature of the team's operations and coordinating the team's contingency plan with
that of the local authorities
• Informing personnel other than team members who want access to the potential hazards of the
site
• Entering the exclusion area in emergencies when at least one other member of the field team is
available to stay behind and notify emergency services (or after the emergency services have been
notified)
• Examining work party members for symptoms of exposure or stress
• Determining that each team member has been given the proper medical clearance by a qualified
medical consultant; monitoring team members to determine compliance with the applicable physi-
cal requirements as stipulated in the health and safety program
• Maintaining communications and line-of sight contact with the work party
• Providing emergency medical care and first aid as necessary at the site
3.3.4.4 Personnel Decontamination Station Operator / Equipment Specialist
The personnel decontamination station (PDS) operator / equipment specialist functions in two roles
that do not require concurrent attention. The equipment specialist role requires the following:
• Determining that equipment is properly maintained and operational
• Inspecting equipment before and after use
• Obtaining the required equipment before arriving at work site
• Decontaminating personnel, samples, and equipment that return from the exclusion area
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The role of PDS operator/ equipment specialist includes the following responsibilities:
• Designing and setting up the PDS
• Preparing the necessary decontamination solutions so that chemical contamination is not
transported into the clean area by equipment, samples, protective clothing, or personnel
• Managing the mechanics of removing contaminated clothing from the work party
• Properly disposing of discarded contaminated clothing and decontamination solutions
3.3.4.5 Communications Supervisor
The communications supervisor functions as the clearinghouse for communications. This person does
not enter the exclusion area to assist the work party. Should an emergency arise, the communications su-
pervisor notifies emergency support personnel by phone, radio, or some other communication device to
respond to the situation. Depending on the team size and the nature of the emergency, the communica-
tions supervisor may be needed to assist the site safety officer in effecting a rescue. Usually, the com-
munications supervisor assists the PDS operator / equipment specialist in operating the PDS during an
emergency and the site safety officer in taking emergency medical measures. The field team leader may
assume the position of communications supervisor.
The communications supervisor is also responsible for the following:
• Maintaining a log of communications and site activities, such as duration of work periods with
respirators or movement of personnel and equipment, onto and off the site
• Assisting the site safety officer in sustaining communication and iine-of-sight contact with the work
party
• Maintaining good community relations in the absence of the field team leader, usually by referring
questions to the appropriate head agency liaison officer
• Assisting the site safety officer and PDS operator/equipment specialist as required
The communications supervisor may also be responsible for logging and packaging for transport, the
samples taken by the work party. This person also maintains a weather watch, and provides security for
the emergency response vehicle and other equipment.
3.3.4.6 Initial Entry Party
The initial entry party enters the site first, employing specialized instrumentation to characterize site
hazards. To become familiar with the conditions and dangers associated with the site, the field team leader
should usually be a part of the initial entry party. The major purpose of this team is to measure existing
hazards and to survey the site to ascertain if the level of personal protection determined from preliminary
assessment, site inspection, or site screening study must be adjusted.
The initial entry party can consist of as few as two people (using the "buddy system"), if a nonsparking
cart or other device is used to transport all the instrumentation. Three or four people are able to do the job
more efficiently.
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3.3.4.7 Work Party
The work party performs the onsite tasks necessary to fulfill the objectives of the investigation (e.g., ob-
taining samples or determining locations for monitoring wells). No team member should enter or exit the
exclusion area alone. The work party consists of a minimum of two individuals, and any work party should
follow the buddy system. Aside from the safety considerations, it is much easier for two persons dressed in
protective clothing to perform such tasks as notetaking, photographing and sampling.
The number of individuals in the work party varies. Often, several teams may be working simul-
taneously at several different sampling efforts. In cases where a number of activities are taking place simul-
taneously or where activities are widely separated, the site safety officer may be supplemented with several
assistants assigned to each of the smaller work teams. Depending on the nature of the hazards onsite, the
work team safety officer may perform concurrent duties'(photography, air monitoring, headspace analysis,
sample logging) that would not interfere with the primary duty of maintaining safety.
In cases of multiple or widely separated work teams, a means of communication among the teams, the
site safety officer, and the field team leader is vital.
3.3.4.8 Emergency Response Team
Some means of providing emergency assistance to workers in the exclusion zone must be established
for every site. Most often, the site safety officer has that responsibility. Extensive assignments requiring
long hours and large work parties may necessitate the use of a standby emergency response team. Mem-
bers of the emergency response team are "half-dressed" in the appropriate protective gear so that they can
quickly enter the exclusion area in an emergency. This team is particularly valuable at sites where protec-
tive equipment produces stress and heat loads on the work party and where the rotation of workers
provides a rested group of workers able to respond to the emergency without increasing the team size.
3.3.5 Records
Records normally kept for field activities are identified in other sections of this manual. For details, see
the following sections:
Section 4 Sample Control, Including Chain of Custody
Section 5 Laboratory Interface
Section 17 Document Control
3.3.6 Procedures
The different guidelines that exist for organizing field operations are based generally on the size of the
field team used.
Team size depends on site organization, levels of protection, work objectives, and site hazards. Team
members can always be added according to the roles required.
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3.3.6.1 Two-Person Team
The two-person team is the minimum for a hazardous-substance site investigation, and the team's
capabilities are very limited. Such a team should never enter an uncharacterized hazardous-substance
site. The two-person team is best suited for offsite surveys and inspections or for obtaining environmental
(nonhazardous, offsite) samples. Verifying accuracy of aerial photographs by ground surveys, inspecting
files, or interviewing can all be accomplished by the two-person team. The two-person team can also con-
duct RCRA inspections at facilities that have an OSHA-approved safety program.
3.3.6.2 Three-Person Team
The three-person team is recommended for sites requiring Level C (air purifying respirators) protection
and, in some cases, at sites requiring Level B (supplied-air respirator) protection. (Levels of protection are
discussed in the NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA guidance manual and are set forth in the OSHA 29 CFR
1910.120 regulations.) This team is composed of a field team leader; an individual fulfilling the combined
functions of PDS operator / equipment specialist, site safety officer, and communications supervisor; and
another individual (buddy) to enter the site with the field team leader.
The three-person team is used where extensive PDS procedures are not required and where the
likelihood of needing emergency rescue is low. This field team is best used where the primary objective is
to map, photograph or inventory.
Considerable care and thought are necessary before a three-person team is employed on a site, be-
cause each individual has numerous responsibilities. In the event of an accident, the third member does
not enter the site to offer emergency assistance until outside assistance has been summoned; even then,
entry should be made only when absolutely necessary.
3.3.6.3 Four-Person Team
Most short-term Level B operations can be conducted with a four-person team. These operations
would include work on active sites where facility personnel are present or on inactive sites with potentially
IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health) atmospheres. The objective of a four-person team at a
site requiring Level B protection might include limited sampling of ponds, soils, or open containers and in-
spections at sites known for poor housekeeping (i.e., sites with a history of spills, leaks, or other accidents).
The team consists of the standard two-person work party, a combination site safety officer and PDS
operator / equipment specialist, and a communications supervisor who may assist in the PDS operation.
Because life-threatening hazards are assumed or known to be present at a Level B site, it is essential that
all personnel be fully acquainted with their duties. During an emergency, the communications supervisor
stays in the support area to maintain communication while the site safety officer / PDS operator / equip-
ment specialist enters the exclusion area to aid the work party. Once the work party is in the contamination
reduction area, the command post supervisor can offer assistance on the PDS or provide fresh equipment
from the support area. During the work in the exclusion area, team members may rotate individual assign-
ments.
3.3.6.4 Five-Person Team
The five-person team is the typical minimum size for most Level A and Level B operations or for opera-
tions when known percutaneous hazards exist or when there is an absence of historical information. The
site hazards that necessitate Level A protection, combined with the limitations and stresses placed on per-
sonnel by wearing Level A protection, require a full-time PDS operator / equipment specialist who can also
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serve in emergency response. In the event of a serious emergency such as a fire, explosion, or acutely
toxic release, both the site safety officer and the PDS operator / equipment specialist may need to enter the
exclusion area dressed in Level A gear. The communications supervisor remains in the support area to
direct outside help to the site and then to assume the functions of PDS operator / equipment specialist.
3.3.6.5 Teams of Six or More
Certain hazardous-substance site activities may require operations that necessitate larger or alternating
work parties and additional support personnel in the contamination reduction area. A seven-person team,
for example, employs the basic structure of the five-person team plus an additional work party for alternat-
ing work loads. The eight-person team includes an additional PDS operator / equipment specialist to assist
in the continuous decontamination tasks that are involved with alternating work parties and to decon-
taminate and pack samples as they are received.
It is not unusual to employ teams of 12 where such tasks as drum opening, may require three work
parties working concurrently. This operation may involve teams to move the drums, open the drums, and
sample and reseal them under rigorous safety procedures. Larger teams can be designed with additional
work parties and support personnel, to safely gather the site data, and ensure communication and site con-
trol.
On some sites, many individuals will be required for concurrent operations, such as building demolition
or wastes excavation, that will also entail the use of mobile heavy equipment. It is not feasible to provide a
"buddy to the operators of such equipment. Rather, a number of site safety observers (two usually will suf-
fice) may be established at vantage points (rented scaffolding located onsite Is ideal), to observe the equip-
ment operators and the ground-based workers simultaneously. By means of radios or visual and audible
signals, the site safety observers can assist in "directing traffic," a particularly important safety procedure
where the protective gear interferes with hearing and vision.
3.3.7 Region-Specific Variances
In Region VI, the site safety officer for the Field Investigation Team (FIT) cannot downgrade the level of
protection without consulting the FIT regional safety coordinator. No other region-specific variances have
been identified. All subsequent variances will be incorporated within Revision 01 of this compendium. Be-
cause information on variances may become dated rapidly, users should contact the regional EPA RPMs
for full details on current regional practices and requirements. Regional variations of team organizations
should be established by coordinating the work plan with the EPA RPM.
3.3.8 Information Sources
Office of Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910.120. "Interim Final Rule for Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency Response." 19 December 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Occupational Safely and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous
Waste Site Activities. Developed by NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. October 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Standard Operating Safety Guides." Memorandum from Wil-
liam Hedeman, Jr. 19 November 1984.
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3.4 DECONTAMINATION
3.4.1 Scope and Purpose
Personnel conducting activities that involve hazardous substances may have their personal protective
gear contaminated by those substances through the course of the work effort. In addition, equipment may
become contaminated. Since such contamination is not always easily discernible, it is necessary to as-
sume that all personnel and equipment working in the area (where the presence of such substances is
known or suspected) have been contaminated. Effective decontamination procedures are implemented to
minimize the potential for cross contamination (the transfer of contaminants, usually from one sample to
another, by improperly decontaminated sampling equipment, containers, or devices such as drill rigs);
offsite contaminant migration (the transfer of contaminants to areas outside the exclusion zone, usually by
improperly decontaminated equipment); or personnel exposure from improperly decontaminated protec-
tive gear.
The subsections below present a general discussion of decontamination issues. Detailed guidance on
methods, techniques, procedures, equipment, and solutions exist in the documents shown in Subsection
3.4.7. The SM and site safety officer should study and reference these documents when preparing the
decontamination procedures.
3.4.2 Definitions
Decontamination
The process of neutralization, washing, rinsing, and removing exposed outer surfaces of
equipment and personal protective clothing to minimize the potential for contamination migra-
tion.
Cross Contamination
The transfer of contaminants from their known or suspected location into a noncontaminated
area; a term usually applied to sampling activities.
3.4.3 Applicability
The procedures in this subsection apply to activities where the potential exists for exposures of person-
nel and equipment to hazardous substances.
3.4.4 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for determining the type of decontamination facility to be used onsite, the solu-
tions to be employed, and the methodologies to be used in determining the effectiveness of the decon-
tamination approach. The SM is assisted by the field team leader and site safety officer. Onsite, the field
team leader is responsible for implementing the decontamination plan by providing materials and staff
members. The site safety officer oversees the decontamination process and provides verification of the ef-
fectiveness of the procedures. The decontamination plan should be presented or referenced in the work
plan and Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP).
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3.4.5 Records
The QAPjP and work plan document the decontamination approach. The use of equipment cleaning
blanks, decontamination rinse blanks, and other quality control procedures serves to document the effec-
tiveness of the cleaning before and the decontamination after working onsite. The site safety officer typical-
ly furnishes documentation of equipment decontamination for those Items leaving the site (see Exhibit 3-3).
Such documentation is typically required by EPA for government-owned equipment. In some instances,
such as decontaminating a drill rig normally used by a subcontractor for water well installation, the SM may
need to arrange for laboratory testing of wipe samples before documenting the "cleanliness" of a piece of
equipment.
3.4.6 Procedures
Numerous procedures are used in decontaminating people and things. The most effective procedure
is contamination avoidance, that is, the use of procedures or materials to minimize or eliminate the poten-
tial for contact with contaminants. Personal protection gear and standard operating procedures are used
to protect workers; other techniques include encasing instruments and equipment in disposable outer
wrappings (plastic sheeting), using disposable sampling devices, or isolating the contaminants.
Decontaminating procedures include flushing with water or other solvents; using pressure or steam
jets; heating, flaming, or baking items; scraping, rubbing, or grinding away; or, most simply, disposing of
the item after determining that the cost in time and staff necessary for decontamination is not acceptable,
or that decontamination would not be effective. Several documents offer detailed guidance on procedures
(see below).
3.4.7 Information Sources
Chapter 10, Decontamination, of the Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous
Waste Site Activities developed by NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. October 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Decontamination Techniques for Mobile Response Equint
Used at Waste Sites (State-of-the-Art Survey)." EPA/600/52-85/105. January 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Guide for Decontaminating Buildings, Structures, and Equipment
at Superfund Sites. EPA/600/2 85/028. March 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Field Standard Operating Procedures #7 Decontamination of
Response Personnel. January 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Standard Operating Safety Guides." November 1984.
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Exhibit 3-3
DOCUMENTATION OF EQUIPMENT DECONTAMINATION
Contract No: Site Manager:
Work Assignment: Firm:
Project No: Phone No:
Site Name/Location:
The following items of (government-owned) (corporate-owned) (rental) equipment have been decon-
taminated following the procedures detailed in the Site Safety Plan dated , (as modified on
). Additional information on the procedures used is contained in (list site logs, work plans.
photographs, etc. L
Manufacturer's or Dates of Date of
Equipment Nomenclature EPA Serial Number Use Decon.
SIGNED:
DATE:
Site Safety Coordinator
DATE:
Site Manager/Field Team Leader
NOTE: Attach tags to the decontaminated EPA-owned equipment showing the date of decontamination, the SSC's initials, and
the work assignment/project number(s).
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3.5 GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.1 Scope and Purpose
Field activities at hazardous waste sites are conducted according to detailed health and safety proce-
dures. These procedures are developed in accordance with the implementing regulations for Public Law
91-596, the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1970, contained in 29 CFR Part II (29 CFR 1910.120,
1910.126, 1910.134, 1910.141, 1910.165, and 1910.1200, among others). Following standardized health
and safety procedures will reduce the possibility of accidents or excess exposures of onsite workers to
hazardous materials while allowing field activities to be carried out in a uniform manner. The purpose of
this subsection is to out line several standard health and safety field procedures that are normally used in
the conduct of remedial response activities. Site specific health and safety requirements are detailed in
health and safety plans developed for each onsite visit. The general procedures to meet health and safety
requirements are described below.
3.5.2 Definitions
None.
3.5.3 Applicability
This procedure is applicable to onsite activities that are carried out at hazardous waste sites by field
personnel.
3.5.4 Responsibilities
The Site Managers are ultimately responsible for the health and safety of workers onsite. They are as-
sisted by the site safety officer.
The site safety officer is responsible for developing safe work procedures for onsite and offsite assess-
ment and for monitoring compliance with those procedures. The site safety officer obtains and implements
the site safety plan.
The field team leader is responsible for the overall operation of the field team. The field team leader
works with the site safety officer to conduct operations in compliance with the site safety plan.
Field team members are responsible for conducting tasks in accordance with the site safety plan
developed for the activity. Field team members are also responsible for reporting to the field team leader
any information that may have an impact on the health and safety of the operation.
3.5.5 Records
The measurements and observations mentioned in this subsection are documented in the project log-
book. A site safety plan must be prepared for each field activity and must be available for review by onsite
personnel.
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3.5.6 Procedures
3.5.6.1 Site Safety Plan
A site safety plan (SSP) must be prepared by a qualified safety person for each field investigation ac-
tivity. Review and approval by a different, equally qualified, safety staff member is typically required. For
remedial action at hazardous waste sites, safety plans can be developed simultaneously with general
operation plans and implemented when remedial actions begin. Emergency response situations may re-
quire verbal safety instructions and the use of standard Operating safety procedures, until specific safety
protocols can be written. For any remedial response activities, the SSP must include health and safety
considerations for all activities required at the scene. The SSP must be reviewed and updated whenever
additional site data are received, onsite personnel change, the level of protection used onsite is upgraded
or downgraded, or site operations differ from those covered by the existing plan.
The field team members shall be thoroughly trained in the use of safety plans. The plan will be
prepared under the direction of the site safety officer by persons knowledgeable with the site conditions
and safety requirements. The SM and a designated health and safety staff member must approve the plan.
Minimum Requirements: Paragraph (i) of 29 CFR 1910.120 requires employees to develop a site
safety and health plan that, as a minimum, addresses the following:
• Evaluate the risks associated with the site and with each operation conducted. A scope of work
will be included that summarizes the tasks required to perform each operation safely.
• Identify key personnel and alternates responsible for both site safety and remedial response opera-
tions.
• Address the levels of protective equipment to be worn by personnel during each site activity. Also,
include a decision logic for upgrading or downgrading the level of protection.
• Designate work areas (exclusion zone, contamination reduction zone, and support zone), boun-
daries, size of zones, distance between zones, and access control points into each zone.
• Establish decontamination procedures for personnel and equipment.
• Determine the number of personnel and equipment needed in the work zones during initial entries
and subsequent operations.
• Establish site emergency procedures (e.g., escape routes; signals for evacuating work parties; in-
ternal, external, and emergency communications; and procedures for fire and explosions). Emer-
gency phone numbers (fire department, police department, hospital, ambulance, poison control
center, and medical consultant) must appear on an emergency reference page.
• Implement a program and make arrangements with the nearest medical facility (and medical life
squad unit) for emergency medical care of routine injuries and toxicological problems. A map
showing the route from the site to the medical facility must be included in the plan.
• Document individual training requirements for the available use of protective gear and field instru-
ments and for the performance of particular tasks.
• Identify known or suspected contaminants onsite, location and concentration of contaminants,
hazards associated with each contaminant (including toxicity and health effects), and action levels
that would require upgrading the level of personal protective equipment.
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• Describe the procedures and equipment required to monitor the work area for potentially hazard-
ous materials. Detail the necessary records associated with the monitoring program.
• Consider weather and other conditions that may affect the health and safety of personnel during
site operations.
• Implement control procedures to prevent access to the site by unauthorized personnel.
• Describe medical surveillance requirements for each operation.
• Provide background information to familiarize the field team with the site history, current status,
physical features, disposal practices, past monitoring data, and community/worker health com-
plaints.
3.5.6.2 General Safety Practices
Personnel Precautions: The following are standard personnel safety precautions:
Eating, drinking, chewing gum or tobacco, smoking, or any practice that increases the probability
of hand-to-mouth transfer and ingestion of material, is prohibited in any area designated as con-
taminated.
Hands and face must be thoroughly washed upon leaving the work area and before eating, drink-
ing, or any other activities.
Whenever decontamination procedures for outer garments are in effect, the entire body shall be
thoroughly washed as soon as possible after the protective garment is removed.
No excessive facial hair, which interferes with a satisfactory fit of the mask-to-face seal, is allowed
on personnel required to wear respiratory protective equipment.
Contact with contaminated surfaces or with surfaces suspected of being contaminated shall be
avoided. Whenever possible, a person shall not walk through puddles, mud, and other discolored
surfaces; kneel on ground; or lean, sit, or place equipment on drums, containers, vehicles, or the
ground.
Medicine and alcohol can potentiate the effects from exposure to toxic chemicals. Prescribed
drugs shall not be taken by personnel on response operations, if there is likelihood of such poten-
tiation.
Personnel and equipment in the contaminated area shall be kept to a minimum, consistent with ef-
fective site operations.
Work areas for various operational activities must be established.
Procedures for leaving a contaminated area must be planned and implemented before persqnnel
go to the site. Work areas and decontamination procedures must be established on the basis of
prevailing site conditions.
Contact lenses shall not be worn by individuals required to wear respiratory protection or required
to enter a potentially contaminated area.
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Weather: Adverse weather conditions are important considerations in planning and conducting site
operations. Hot or cold weather can cause physical discomfort, loss of efficiency, and personal injury. Of
particular importance is heat stress resulting when protective clothing decreases natural body ventilation.
One or more of the following can be used to reduce heat stress:
Provide plenty of liquids. To replace body fluids (water and electrolytes) lost because of sweating,
use a 0.1 percent saltwater solution, more heavily salted foods, or commercial mixes. Current re-
search indicates commercial mixes high in electrolytes and low in salt are preferable.
Provide cooling devices to aid natural body ventilation. These devices, however, add weight and
their use must be balanced against worker efficiency.
Install mobile showers or hose-down facilities to reduce body temperature and to cool protective
clothing.
In extremely hot weather, conduct operations in the early morning or the evening.
Provide adequate shelter to protect personnel against heat (or cold, rain, snow, etc.), which can
decrease physical efficiency and increase the probability of accidents.
In hot weather, rotate shifts of workers as required to manage heat stress; reduce the length of the
work period and increase the length of the rest period.
Maintain good hygienic standards; frequent change of clothing; and daily showering. Clothing
should be permitted to dry during rest periods. Persons who notice skin problems should im-
mediately consult medical personnel.
Heat Stress Monitoring: For monitoring the body's recuperative ability after exposure to excess
heat, several techniques are available as a screening mechanism. Monitoring of personnel who wear im-
pervious clothing typically commences when the ambient temperature is 70°F or above. When tempera-
tures exceed 85°F, workers are monitored for heat stress after every work period, usually 2 hours. The fol-
lowing are two monitoring schemes:
1. Heart rate (HR) is measured by the radial pulse for 30 seconds as early as possible in the rest-
ing period. The HR at the beginning of the rest period should not exceed 110 beats/minute. If the
HR is higher, the next work period is shortened by 10 minutes (or 33 percent), while the length of
the rest period stays the same. If the pulse rate is 100 beats/minute at the beginning of the next
rest period, the following work cycle is shortened by 33 percent.
2. Body temperature is measured orally with a clinical thermometer as early as possible in the
resting period. Oral temperature (OT) at the beginning of the rest period should not exceed 99°F.
If it does, the next work period is shortened by 10 minutes (or 33 percent), while the length of the
rest period stays the same. However, if the OT exceeds 99.7°F at the beginning of the next period,
the following work cycle is further shortened by 33 percent. OT is measured again at the end of
the rest period to make sure that it has dropped below 99°F. (Since a mercury thermometer re-
quires as long as 5 minutes to register the correct body temperature, the use of digital ther-
mometers should be considered.)
3-25
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Effects Of Heat Stress: If the body's physiological processes fail to maintain a normal body
temperature because of excessive heat, a number of physical reactions can occur ranging In degree from
mild (such as fatigue, irritability, anxiety, or a decrease in concentration, dexterity, or movement) to fatal.
First aid books should be consulted for specific symptoms and treatment.
Effects of Cold Exposure: Persons working outdoors in temperatures at or below freezing may be
frostbitten. Exposure to extreme cold for a short time may cause severe injury to the surface of the body or
result in profound generalized cooling, causing death. Areas of the body that have a high surface-area-to-
volume ratio, such as fingers, toes, and ears, are the most susceptible.
Two factors influence the development of a cold injury: ambient temperature and the velocity of the
wind. Wind chill is used to describe the chilling effect of moving air in combination with low temperature.
For instance, 10°F with a wind of 15 mph is equivalent in chilling effect to still air at -18°F. Charts depicting
the wind-chill factor are readily available.
As a general rule, the greatest incremental increase in wind chill occurs when a wind of 5 mph in-
creases to 10 mph. Additionally, water conducts heat 240 times faster than air. Thus, the body cools sud-
denly when chemical-protective equipment is removed if the clothing underneath is soaked with perspira-
tion.
Local injury resulting from cold is included in the generic term frostbite. There are several degrees of
damage.
Systemic hypothermia is caused by exposure to freezing or rapidly dropping temperature. Its
symptoms are usually exhibited in five stages: (1) shivering; (2) apathy, listlessness, sleepiness, and
(sometimes) rapid cooling of the body to less than 95°F; (3) unconsciousness, glassy stare, slow pulse,
and slow respiratory rate; (4) freezing of the extremities; and, finally (5) death.
First aid books should be consulted for symptoms and specific treatments for cold injury.
3.5.6.3 Site Survey and Reconnaissance
Before the team enters the site, as much information as possible should be collected concerning the
types of hazards, degree of hazards, and risks that may exist. Using available information (shipping
manifests, transportation placards, existing records, container labels, etc.) or off site studies, the team will
assess the hazards and identify the initial safety requirements.
The team(s) initially entering the site must accomplish one or more of the following objectives:
• Characterize the hazards that exist, or potentially exist, affecting the public health, the environ-
ment, and the response personnel.
• Verify existing information and/or obtain data about the incident.
• Evaluate the need for prompt mitigative actions.
• Collect supplemental information to determine the safety requirements for personnel who initially
and subsequently enter the site.
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Preliminary Onsite Evaluation: The initial onsite survey is to determine, on a preliminary basis, haz-
ardous or potentially hazardous conditions. The main effort is to rapidly identify the immediate hazards
that may affect the public, the response personnel, and the environment. Of major concern are the real
potential dangers-fire, explosion, oxygen deficient atmospheres, radiation, airborne contaminants, or con-
tainerized or pooled hazardous substances-that could affect workers during subsequent operations.
Visual Observations: While at the site, the initial entry team should make visual observations that
would help in evaluating site hazards. Some examples are dead fish or other animals; land features; wind
direction; labels on containers indicating explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive materials; conditions
conducive to splash or contact with unconfined liquids, sludges, or solids; and other general conditions.
Direct-Reading Instruments: A variety of toxic air pollutants including organic and inorganic vapors,
gases, or particulates can be produced at abandoned waste sites by fires at chemical manufacturing,
storage, reprocessing, or formulating facilities or by the inadvertent mixing of chemicals during bulking
operations. Direct-reading field instruments will not detect or measure all of these substances. Thus, lack
of response should not be interpreted as the complete absence of airborne toxic substances. Verification
of zero results can be done only by collecting air samples and analyzing them in a laboratory.
Priority for Initial Entry Monitoring: Of immediate concern to initial entry personnel are atmos-
pheric conditions that could affect the immediate safety of these personnel (see Exhibit 3-4). These condi-
tions are airborne toxic substances, combustible gases or vapors, lack of oxygen, and, to a lesser extent,
ionizing radiation. Priorities for monitoring these potential hazards should be established after a careful
evaluation of conditions.
When the type(s) of material (s) involved in the investigation is identified and its release into the environ-
ment suspected or known, the material's chemical or physical properties and the prevailing weather condi-
tions may help determine the order of monitoring. An unknown substance(s) or situation(s) presents a
more difficult monitoring problem.
In general, when poorly ventilated spaces (buildings, ships' holds, boxcars, or bulk tanks) are entered,
combustible vapors or gases and oxygen-deficient atmospheres shall be monitored first by team members
wearing (as a minimum) supplied-air respirators and a high degree of dermal protection. Measurement of
toxic gases or vapors and radiation, unless known not to be present, should be the next priority.
For open, well-ventilated areas, combustion gases and oxygen deficiency are lesser hazards and re-
quire lower priority. However, areas of lower elevation at the site (such as ditches and gullies) and
downwind areas may have combustible gas mixtures, in addition to toxic vapors or gases, and may lack
sufficient oxygen to sustain life. Entry teams should approach and monitor whenever possible from the up-
wind side of an area.
Periodic Monitoring: The monitoring surveys made during initial entry to the site are for a prelimi-
nary evaluation of atmosphere hazards. In some situations, the information obtained may be sufficient to
preclude additional monitoring. A chlorine tank determined to be releasing no chlorine, is one such ex-
ample. Materials detected during the initial site survey may indicate the need for a more comprehensive
evaluation of hazards and analyses for specific components. A program must be established for monitor-
ing, sampling, and evaluating hazards for the duration of site operations. Since site activities and weather
conditions change, a continuous program to monitor atmospheric changes must be implemented using a
combination of stationary sampling equipment, personnel monitoring devices, and periodic area monitor-
ing with direct reading instruments.
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Exhibit 3-4
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARD GUIDELINES
Monitoring Equipment
Combustible Gas
Indicator
Hazard
Ambient Level
Explosive atmosphere IT* 10% LEL°
10-20%
_Action
Oxygen Concentration
Meter
Oxygen
Radiation Survey
Radiation
GT° 20% LEL
LT19.5%
19.5-25%
GT 25.0%
LT 1 mR/hr
Thermoluminescertt
Detector (TLD) Badge
Radiation
Radiation
GT 10 mR/hr
Colorimetric Tubes
Photoionization
Detectors
Rame-ionization
Detectors
Organic and inorganic
vapors/gases
Total organic vapors/
gases and limited
inorganic species
Total organic vapors/
Specific organic
vapor/gases
Depends on
species
Above
background
Above
background
Depends on
species
Continue investigation.
Continue onsite monitoring with ex-
treme caution as higher levels are en-
countered.
Explosion hazard; withdraw from area
immediately.
Monitor, wearing self-contained breath-
ing apparatus (SCBA). NOTE: Combus-
tible gas readings are not valid in atmos-
pheres with LT 19,5% oxygen.
Continue investigation with caution.
SCBA not needed, based on oxygen
content only.
Discontinue inspection; potential fire
hazard. Consult specialist.
Continue investigation. If radiation is
detected above background levels, this
signifies the presence of possible radia-
tion sources; at this level, more
thorough monitoring is advisable. Con-
sult a health physicist.
Potential radiation hazard; evacuate
site. Continue monitoring only upon
the advise of a health physicist
All employees shall wear a TLD badge
when working on hazardous waste sites
and during any response operation.
Badges will be analyzed quarterly to
determine compliance with federal
standards.
Consult standard reference manuals for
air concentration/toxicity data.
Consult EPA standard operating proce-
dures.
Consult EPA standard operating proce-
dures.
Consult standard reference manuals for
air concentrations/toxicity data.
a LT means less Uian.
b LEL is defined as lower explosive limit
c GT means greater than.
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Peripheral Monitoring: Whenever possible, atmospheric hazards in the areas adjacent to the onsite
zone are monitored with direct-reading instruments, and air samples should be taken before the initial entry
for onsite monitoring. The lack of readings on instruments away from the site does not indicate a lack of
hazards onsite. Offsite readings are only another piece of information to assist in the preliminary evalua-
tion.
Monitoring Instruments: It is imperative that personnel using monitoring instruments be thoroughly
familiar with their use, limitations, and operating characteristics. All instruments have inherent constraints
in their ability to detect and/or quantify the hazards for which they were designed. Unless trained person-
nel use instruments and assess data readout, air hazards can be misinterpreted. In addition, only intrinsi-
cally safe instruments shall be used until the absence of combustible gases or vapors can be confirmed.
Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations: Any indication of atmospheric hazards (toxic substances,
combustible gases, lack of oxygen, radiation, and other specific materials) should be viewed as a sign to
proceed with care and deliberation. Readings indicating nonexplosive atmospheres, low concentrations of
toxic substances, or other conditions may increase or decrease suddenly, changing the associated risks.
3.5.7 Information Sources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Standard Operating Safety Guides." Memorandum from Wil-
liam Hedeman, Jr. 19 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous
Waste Site Activities. Developed by NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. October 1985.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. "Interim Final Rule for Hazardous Operations and
Emergency Response." 29 CFR 1910.120. 19 December 1986.
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SECTION 4
SAMPLE CONTROL, INCLUDING CHAIN OF CUSTODY
4.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section describes procedures for sample identification and chain of custody. The purpose of
these procedures is to maintain the quality of samples during collection, transportation, and storage for
analysis. Sample control and chain-of-custody procedures specific to the Contract Laboratory Program
(CLP) are presented in the User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program.
4.2 DEFINITIONS
Sample
Physical evidence collected for environmental measuring and monitoring. Evidence includes
remote-sensing imagery and photographs.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
4.3 APPLICABILITY
When environmental measuring or monitoring data are collected for the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), workers should refer to the procedures in this section.
4.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM or designee is responsible for monitoring compliance with these procedures. In general, it is
desirable to appoint one person to be responsible for implementing sample control procedures (i.e., field
operations leader). However, each sampler is responsible for the activities described in Subsections 4.5
and 4.6.
4.5 RECORDS
The following records are kept:
• Sample identification tags (varies with the EPA region; see Subsection 4.7 and Exhibit 5-7)
• Sample traffic reports (e.g., Special Analytical Services (SAS); see Exhibits 5-2, 5-3, and 5-9)
• Chain-of-custody (COC) forms and records (see Exhibits 5-4,5-5, and 5-6)
• Receipt-for-samples forms (varies among EPA regions; see Subsection 4.7 and Exhibit 4-3)
4-1
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• Field Investigation Team (FIT) receipt (for sample forms and field notebooks not serially numbered
by the U.S. EPA)
• Field notebooks
• Airbills or bills of lading
• Dioxin analysis forms (as applicable)
• Photographic logs
Subsection 4.6 describes procedures for these records; Subsection 5.1.6 shows completed exhibits of
the first three items.
4.6 PROCEDURES
Sample identification documents must be prepared to maintain sample identification and chain of cus-
tody. The following are sample identification documents:
• Sample identification tags
• Sample traffic reports
• Chain-of-custody records
• Receipt-for-samples forms
• Custody seals
• Field notebooks
These documents are usually numbered (serialized) by EPA. Some varieties of custody seals, field
notebooks, or photographic logs may not be serialized.
The following additional forms are used for samples shipped to CLP laboratories:
• Organic traffic reports
• Inorganic traffic reports
• High-hazard traffic reports
• SAS request forms
• Dioxin shipment records (as applicable)
Completed examples of these forms are in Subsection 5.1.6 of this compendium.
4-2
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The organization's document control officer (designated on exhibits in this subsection as the Regional
Document Control Officer or RDCO) or another designated person maintains a supply of the documents
listed above, including field note books. The document control officer is responsible for the inventory of
serialized documents and the assignment of these documents to specific projects. Unused field docu-
ments are usually returned to the document control officer at the end of the field sampling event. The
document control officer notes the return of these documents in the serialized document logbook. In some
EPA regions, unused field documents are retained by the sampler to whom they were originally assigned
for use on future projects. The sampler maintains a personal logbook in which is recorded the final disposi-
tion of all relevant field information. Unused, returned documents may be checked out to another project
by the RDCO, as needed. A cross reference of serialized field documents is usually maintained for each
project in the project files. A sample cross-reference matrix is shown in Exhibit 4-1.
The document control officer orders sample identification tags, receipt-for samples forms, custody
seals, and chain-of-custody records from the EPA regional offices. Traffic reports and SAS request forms
are obtained through the Sample Management Office (SMO) representative.
Exhibit 4-2 shows how the sample control documents can be integrated into the document control pro-
cedures used in an EPA project. The procedures for using each document are discussed below. Subsec-
tion 4.7 discusses regional variations; however, because procedures change and vary from region to
region, the EPA Regional Sample Coordinating Center (RSCC) should be contacted during the planning of
field activities to obtain the most current procedures. Appendix A of the User's Guide to the CLP contains a
directory of RSCC contacts and telephone numbers.
4.6.1 Sample Identification Tags
Sample identification tags (see Exhibit 5-7) are distributed as needed to field workers by the SM (or
designated representative). Procedures vary among EPA regions. Generally, the EPA serial numbers are
recorded in the project files, the field notebook, and the document control officer's serialized document
logbook. Individuals are accountable for each tag assigned to them. A tag is considered to be in an
individual's possession until it has been filled out, attached to a sample, and transferred to another in-
dividual along with the corresponding chain-of custody record. Sample identification tags are not to be
discarded. If tags are lost, voided, or damaged, the facts are noted in the appropriate field notebook, and
the SM Is notified.
Upon the completion of the field activities, unused sample identification tags are returned to the docu-
ment control officer, who checks them against the list of assigned serial numbers. Tags attached to those
samples that are split with the owner, operator, agent-in-charge, or a government agency are accounted
for by recording the serialized tag numbers on the receipt-for-samples form (Exhibit 4-3). Alternatively, the
split samples are not tagged but are accounted for on a chain-of-custody form.
Samples are transferred from the sample location to a laboratory or another location for analysis.
Before transfer, however, a sample is often separated into fractions, depending on the analysis to be per-
formed. Each portion is preserved in accordance with prescribed procedures (see User's Guide to the CLP
and Section 6 of this compendium) and is identified with a separate sample identification tag, which should
indicate in the "Remarks" section that the sample is a split sample.
4-3
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Sample Organic Inorganic High-Hazard Chain- Receipt-for-
Sample Indentification Type of Traffic Traffic Traffic Dioxin of-Custody Samples Airbill Date
SlaliQD. Taa Number Analysis Report Number Report Number Report Number Eoima Record Number Form Number
O
3J
O
V)
V)
3J
m
m
m
3)
rn
O
m
m
1
N
m
o
o
m
-------
Exhibit 4-2
DOCUMENT CONTROL PROCEDURES
-------
The following information is recorded on the tag:
• CLP Case / SAS Number(s): The unique number(s) assigned by SMO to identify the sampling
event (entered under "Remarks" heading)
• CLP Sample Number: The unique sample identification number (from the TR, DSR, or PL) used
to document that sample (entered under "Remarks" heading)
• Project Code: An assigned contractor project number
• Station Number: A unique identifier assigned to a sampling point by the sampling team leader
and listed in the sampling plan
• Date: A six-digit number indicating the year, month, and day of collection
• Time: A four-digit number indicating the local standard time of collection using the 24-hour clock
notation (for example, 1345 for 1:45 p.m.)
• Station Location: The sampling station description as specified in the sampling plan
• Samplers: Each sampler's name and signature
• Preservative: Whether a preservative is used and the type of preservative
• Analysis: The type of analysis requested
• Tag Number: A unique serial number, stamped on each tag
• Batch Number: The sample container cleaning batch number, recorded in the "Remarks" section
• Remarks: The sampler's record of pertinent information, such as batch number, split samples,
and special procedures
• Laboratory Sample Number: Reserved for laboratory use
The tag used for water, soil, sediment, and btotic samples contains an appropriate place for identifying
the sample as a grab or a composite, the type of sample collected, and the preservative used, if any. The
tag used for air samples requires the sampler to designate the sequence number and identify the sample
type. Sample identification tags are attached to, or folded around each sample, and are taped in place.
After collection, separation, identification and preservation, a traffic report is completed and the sample
is handled using chain-of-custody procedures discussed in the following sections. If the sample is to be
split, aliquots are placed into similar sample containers. Depending on the EPA region, sample identifica-
tion tags are completed and attached to each split and marked with the tag numbers of the other portions
and with the word "split." Blank or duplicate samples are labeled in the same manner as "normal" samples.
Information on blanks or duplicate samples is recorded in the field notebook. Some EPA regions require
that laboratories be informed of the number of blanks and duplicates that are shipped, but not the identity
of the quality assurance samples.
The printed and numbered adhesive sample labels affixed to the traffic reports are secured to sample
containers by the sampler. Forms are filled out with waterproof ink, if weather permits. If a pen will not
function because of inclement conditions, an indelible pencil may be used. If a pencil is used, a note ex-
4-6
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t;
United States Environmental Services Division
Environmental Protection Agency BC/»C.I»T mn ,.*,,», r*. u-s- Environmental Protection Agency Region 10
Region 10 RECEIPT FOR SAMPLES 1200 Sixtn Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98101
PROJECT NO.
PROJECT NAME
SAMPLER(S): (Signature)
Split Samples Offered
( ) Accepted ( ) Declined
Station
Number
Date
Time
rr
o
o
D
*
o
Split
Samples
Teg Numbers
Name of Facility
Facility Location
Station Description
Transferred by: (Signature)
Date Time
Distribution: Original to Coordinator Field Files; Copy to Facility
No. of
Con-
tainers
Remarks
,
Received by. (Signature) Telephone Number
Title Date Time
N2 131
o
31
m
O
m
(Oca
m
CO
-------
plaining the conditions must be included in the field notebook. When necessary, the label is protected
from water and solvents with clear tape.
The original is sent to the SMO. The first copy is retained for the project file. The second and third
copies are sent with the shipment to the laboratory. Complete instructions for the use of traffic reports are
given in the User's Guide to the CLP.
4.6.2 Sample Traffic Report (TR)
The sample documentation system for the CLP sample preparation program is based on the use of the
sample traffic report (TR), a four-part carbonless form printed with a unique sample identification number.
One TR and its printed identification number is assigned by the sampler to each sample collected. The
three types of TRs currently in use include organic, inorganic dioxin, and high-concentration TRs. (See
Subsection 5.1.6 for examples of completed TRs.)
To provide a permanent record for each sample collected, the sampler completes the appropriate TR,
recording the case number, site name or code and location, analysis laboratory, sampling office, dates of
sample collection and shipment, and sample concentration and matrix. Numbers of sample containers
and volumes are entered by the sampler, beside the analytical parameter(s) requested for particular
sample portions.
4.6.3 Chain-of-Custody Forms and Records
Because samples collected during an investigation could be used as evidence in litigation, possession
of the samples must be traceable from the time each is collected until it is introduced as evidence in legal
proceedings. To document sample possession, chain-of-custody procedures are followed.
4.6.3.1 Definition of Custody
A sample is under custody if one or more of the following criteria are met:
• The sample is in the sampler's possession.
• It is in the sampler's view after being in possession.
• It was in the sampler's possession and then was locked up to prevent tampering.
• It is in a designated secure area.
4.6.3.2 Field Custody Procedures
Only enough of the sample should be collected to provide a good representation of the medium being
sampled. To the extent possible, the quantity and types of samples and the sample locations are deter-
mined before the actual fieldwork. As few people as possible should handle the samples.
Field samplers are personally responsible for the care and custody of the samples collected by their
teams until the samples are transferred or dispatched properly. A person is usually designated to receive
4-8
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the samples from the field samplers after decontamination; this person maintains custody until the samples
are dispatched.
The SM determines whether proper custody procedures were followed during the fieldwork and
decides if additional samples are required.
4.6.3.3 Transfer of Custody and Shipment
Samples are accompanied by a chain-of-custody (COC) form or record (Exhibits 5-4 and 5-5). When
transferring samples, the individuals relinquishing and receiving them should sign, date and note the time
on the form. This form documents sample custody transfer from the sampler, often through another per-
son, to the analyst, who is in a mobile or contract laboratory.
Samples are packaged properly for shipment and dispatched to the appropriate laboratory for
analysis, with a separate COC record accompanying each shipment. Shipping containers are padlocked
or sealed with custody seals for shipment to the laboratory. The method of shipment, courier name(s), and
other pertinent information such as the laboratory name should be entered in the "Remarks" section of the
COC record.
When samples are split with an owner, operator, or government agency, the event is noted in the
"Remarks" section of the COC record. The note indicates with whom the samples are being split. The per-
son relinquishing the samples, to the facility or agency requests the signature of the receiving party on a
receipt-for-samples form (Exhibit 4-3) (described in the following subsection), thereby acknowledging
receipt of the samples. If a representative is unavailable or refuses to sign, this situation is noted in the
"Remarks" section of the COC record. When appropriate, for example, when an owner's representative is
unavailable, the COC record and receipt-for-samples form should contain a statement that the samples
were delivered to the designated location at the designated time. A witness to the attempted delivery
should be obtained. The samples shall be secured if no one is present to receive them.
All shipments are accompanied by a COC record identifying their contents. The original form accom-
panies the shipment; the copies are retained by the sampler and returned to the sampling coordinator.
If nonhazardous samples are sent by mail, the package Is registered, and a return receipt is requested.
Note: Hazardous materials shall not be sent by mail. If samples are sent by common carrier, a bill of
lading is used. Air freight shipments are sent prepaid. Freight bills, postal service receipts, and bills of
lading should be retained as part of the permanent documentation for the COC records.
4.6.3.4 Laboratory Custody Procedures
Laboratory personnel are responsible for the care and custody of samples from the time they are
received until the samples are exhausted or returned to the laboratory sample custodian for ultimate dis-
posal. Laboratory-specific variations exist; however, a generally accepted laboratory chain-of-custody pro-
cedure is presented below. Any laboratory used for the analysis of samples taken in the course of EPA
remedial response must have an adequate chain-of-custody procedure. This procedure is required as an
exhibit in the Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP) if the laboratory is not in the CLP.
A designated custodian of laboratory samples accepts custody of the shipped samples and verifies
that the information on the sample identification tags matches that on the COC records. Pertinent informa-
tion on shipment, pickup, courier, and condition of samples is entered in the "Remarks" section. The cus-
todian then enters the sample identification tag data into a bound logbook, which is arranged by project
code and station number.
4-9
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The laboratory custodian uses the sample identification tag number or assigns a unique laboratory
number to each sample; the custodian transfers the samples to the proper analyst or stores them in the ap-
propriate secure area. A limited number of named individuals are allowed access to the sample storage
area. The appropriate analysts are responsible for the samples until they are returned to the custodian.
When sample analyses and necessary quality assurance (QA) checks have been completed, the un-
used portion of the sample and the sample containers must be disposed of properly (see Subsection
5.2.6.4). All identifying tags, data sheets, and laboratory records, are retained as part of the permanent
documentation.
4.6.4 Receipt-for-Samples Form
Section 3007(a) (2) of the RCRA states "If the officer, employee, or representative obtains any samples,
prior to leaving the premises he shall give to the owner, operator, or agent-in-charge, a receipt describing
the samples obtained and, if requested, a portion of each such sample equal in volume or weight to the
portion retained." Section 104 of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), con-
tains identical requirements.
Completing a receipt-for-samples form complies with these requirements; such forms should be used
whenever splits are offered or provided to the site owner, operator, or agent-in-charge. The particular form
used may vary between EPA regions; an example is shown in Exhibit 4-3. This form is completed and a
copy given to the owner, operator, or agent-in-charge even if the offer for split samples is declined. The
original is given to the SM and is retained in the project files. In addition, the contractor must provide
analytical results from the samples collected to the owner, operator, or agent in charge, as mandated in
SARA.
4.6.5 Custody Seals
When samples are shipped to the laboratory, they must be placed in padlocked containers or con-
tainers sealed with custody seals; a completed example is shown in Exhibit 5-6. Some custody seals are
serially numbered. These numbers must appear in the cross-reference matrix (Exhibit 4-1) of the field
document and on the COC report. Other types of custody seals include unnumbered seals and evidence
tape.
When samples are shipped, two or more seals are to be placed on each shipping container (such as a
cooler), with at least one at the front and one at the back, located in a manner that would indicate if the
container were opened in transit. Wide, clear tape should be placed over the seals to ensure that seals are
not accidentally broken during shipment. Nylon packing tape may be used providing that it does not com-
pletely cover the custody seal. Completely covering the seal with this type of tape may allow the label to
be peeled off. Alternatively, evidence tape may be substituted for custody seals.
If samples are subject to interim storage before shipment, custody seals or evidence tape may be
placed over the lid of the jar or across the opening of the storage box. Custody during shipping would be
the same as described above. Evidence tape may also be used to seal the plastic bags or metal cans that
are used to contain samples in the cooler or shipping container. Sealing individual sample containers as-
sures that sample integrity will not be compromised if the outer container seals are accidentally broken.
4-10
-------
4.6.6 Field Notebooks
A bound field notebook must be maintained by the sampling team leader to provide daily records of
significant events, observations, and measurements during field investigations. All entries are to be signed
and dated. All members of the field investigation team are to use this notebook, which is to be kept as a
permanent record. Observations or measurements that are taken in an area where contamination of the
field notebooks may occur may be recorded in a separate bound and numbered logbook before being
transferred to the project notebook. The original records are retained, and the delayed entry is noted as
such.
Field notebooks are intended to provide sufficient data and observations to enable participants to
reconstruct events that occurred during projects and to-refresh the memory of the field personnel if called
upon to give testimony during legal proceedings, in a iegai proceeding, notes, if referred to, are subject to
cross-examination and are admissible as evidence. The field notebook entries should be factual, detailed,
and objective.
4.6.7 Corrections to Documentation
Unless restricted by weather conditions, all original data recorded in field notebooks and on sample
identification tags, chain-of-custody records, and receipt-for-samples forms are written in waterproof ink.
These accountable serialized documents are not to be destroyed or thrown away, even if they are illegible
or contain inaccuracies that require a replacement document.
If an error is made on an accountable document assigned to one person, that individual may make cor-
rections simply by crossing out the error and entering the correct information. The erroneous information
should not be obliterated. Any error discovered on an accountable document should be corrected by the
person who made the entry. All corrections must be initialed and dated.
For all photographs taken, a photographic log is kept; the log records date, time, subject, frame and
roll number, and photographer. For "instant photos," the date, time, subject, and photographer are
recorded directly on the developed picture. The serial number of the camera and lens are recorded in the
project notebook. The photographer should review the photographs or slides when they return from
developing and compare them to the log, to assure that the log and photographs match. It can be par-
ticularly useful to photograph the labeled sample jars before packing them into shipping containers. A
clear photograph of the sample jar, showing the label, any evidence tape sealing the jar, and the color and
amount of sample, can be most useful in reconciling any later discrepancies.
4.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Region-specific variances are common; the SM should contact the EPA RPM or the RSCC before any
sampling campaign to ascertain the latest procedures. Future changes in variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium.
4.7.1 Region I
Region I uses a standard contractor serialized chain-of-custody form and an unnumbered chain-of-cus-
tody seal, which are placed on the outside of the shipping cooler. Numbered sample bottle labels are used
for REM site work and numbered tags for FIT site work.
4-11
-------
4.7.2 Region II
Region II uses an unnumbered chain-of-custody form and numbered sample bottle labels for all site
work. Custody seals are placed on the outside of the shipping cooler.
4.7.3 Region III
Region III uses a serialized chain-of-custody form and numbered sampling tags. Chain-of-custody
seals used by Region III are unnumbered and placed on the outside of the shipping cooler.
4.7.4 Region IV
Region IV has a detailed procedural discussion in the Engineering Support Branch Standards Operating
Procedures and Quality Assurance Manual, U.S. EPA, Region IV, Environmental Services Division, 1 April
1986.
4.7.5 Region V
Region V uses a serialized chain-of-custody seal. Region V seals are color coded; orange is used for
REM and FIT work. Seals are placed on the outside of the shipping cooler only if the samples are sent the
same day as collected; otherwise, seals are placed across sample jar lids. FIT does not note whether or
not samples were split on the chain-of-custody record. FIT Includes the corresponding Traffic Report num-
ber under the remarks section of the tag. The bottle lot numbers or "batch numbers" are not recorded
here, but on the "Chain-of Custody form."
4.7.6 Region VI
Region VI does not use a serialized number control system on custody seals.
4.7.7 Region VII
Region VII personnel provide onsite sample control. Samples are logged into a computer by regional
personnel. Although contractor personnel do not seal and log samples, chain of custody is followed as
described above.
4.7.8 Region VIM
Region VIII does not use a serialized number control system on custody seals.
4.7.9 Region IX
Region IX does not use a serialized number control system on chain-of-custody seals.
4-12
-------
4.7.10 Region X
Region X does not use a serially numbered custody seal. Seals are signed, and the sample ID number
is written on the seal.
4.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Superfiind Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA). Section 104(m), "Information Gathering Access
Authorities."
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. NEICPolicies and Procedures. EPA-330/9-78-001-R. May 1978.
(Revised February 1983.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. REM IV Zone Management Plan. Contract No. 68-01-7251,
CH2M HILL and U.S. EPA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of Emer-
gency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Zone IIREM/FITQuality Assurance Manual. Contract No. 68-
01-6692, CH2M HILL and Hazardous Site Control Division.
4-13
-------
SECTION 5
LABORATORY INTERFACE
5.1 NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM
Note: This section is organized by contract and noncontract laboratory programs to provide a clearer
differentiation between programs.
5.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection summarizes how to schedule analyses through the National Contract Laboratory
Program (CLP), the types of services provided by the CLP, the paperwork involved in submitting samples
to a CLP laboratory, and how to contact a CLP laboratory regarding final disposition of analytical data. A
detailed discussion of the entire CLP, including the CLP tracking system, can be found in the User's Guide
to the CLP.
5.1.2 Definitions and Abbreviations
National Contract Laboratory Program (CLP)
(See User's Guide to the CLP.)
Regional Sample Control Center (RSCC)
(See User's Guide to the CLP.)
Sample Management Office (SMO)
(See User's Guide to the CLP.)
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
5.1.3 Applicability
This subsection is applicable to samples collected during Superfund projects. Only EPA may grant ex-
ceptions to the required use of CLP. The use of CLP is a requirement only when justified by the choice of
data quality objectives (DQO). There will be many opportunities to use mobile laboratories, screening
protocols, subcontracted private laboratories or EPA regional laboratories.
5.1.4 Responsibilities
Detailed responsibilities are described in Subsection 5.1.6 on procedures. General responsibilities are
given to the following:
5-1
-------
• Site Managers for planning the sampling dates and analytical requirements
• EPA Remedial Project Managers (RPMs) for communicating the sampling or analytical schedule to
the RSCC
• RSCC for deciding sample priorities within their region and for telling SMO their analytical needs on
a monthly, as well as a weekly, basis
• SMO for scheduling sample analysis, communicating the laboratory information back to the RSCC,
and contacting the laboratories concerning late or missing data
•
• Sampling personnel for completing the required paperwork and for contacting SMO and RSCC
with shipping information
5.1.5 Records
The following sample documentation is required (examples are given in Subsection 5.1.6):
• Organic traffic report
• Inorganic traffic report
• High-concentratio" traffic report
• CLP dioxin shipment record
• Special analytical service packing list
• Sample tag and label
• Custody seal
• Chain-of-custody (COC) form
Note: All of the above are not required for each sample collected. The reader should refer to subsec-
tion 5.1.6 for specific requirements.
5.1.6 Procedures
The procedures in this subsection are presented in the chronological order used during a routine sam-
pling episode; they are applicable to routine, as well as special, analytical services. Exhibit 5-1 summarizes
the process from start to finish. These procedures are generic with an approach to regional differences
discussed in Subsection 5.1.7. (See also Subsection 6.1.6.1.)
5.1.6.1 Activities Before Sampling
1. The project team decides what sampling is to occur at the site and the analyses to be per-
formed, based on available data. The CLP provides a choice of two analytical services: routine
and special. Routine analytical services include analysis of a soil or water sample at low-to-
5-2
-------
Exhibit 5-1
ROUTINE SAMPLING PROCESS
Project Team Decides on
Numbers of Samples, Dates, Analyses
n
Site Project Manager Completes
CLP Projection Form
T
CLP Coordinator Compiles
Analytical Needs
I
CLP Coordinator Contacts
the RSCC
RSCC Compares Analyticals Requests
with Monthly Allocation
WAIT FOR
SAMPLE
SPACE
WITHIN ALLOCATION
I
RSCC Calls
SMO with Sampling Info
LAB
AVAILABLE
SMO Assigns
Case Number, Labs
Samples Collected, Paperwork
Completed, SMO Called
Samples Shipped to Lab
I
Analysis Performed
±
Results Sent to RSCC & SMO
I
RSCC Sends Results
to Contractor
Contractor Contacts
RSCC with Questions
RSCC Calls the Lab or SMO &
Gets Back to Contractor
LAB NOT
AVAILABLE
5-3
ABOVE ALLOCATION
I
RSCC Notifies Contractor
that SMO Cannot Take Samples
I
Decision by EPA to Go Outside
the CLP or Wait for CLP Spat e
GO
OUTSIDE
CLP '
r
Procure Lab
Collect Samples,
Complete Paperwork
I
Send Samples to Lab
±
Analysis Performed
Results Sent to Contractor
I
Contractor Contacts Lab
with Questions
-------
medium concentration levels (<15 per cent of any single compound) for the Target Com-
pound List (TCL) organics and/or inorganics with a 30-day to 45-day turnaround requirement.
The TCL includes organic compounds, trace elements and cyanide. Special analytical ser-
vices include any analysis that is not routine, such as analysis for non-TCL compounds; dif-
ferent turnaround times; high concentration soils, water, drums, etc.; or different sample media
(e.g., fish, air, etc.).
2. The SM completes a CLP monthly projection form that details the sampling anticipated for
the present month as well as the following 2 months. This form is submitted to the contractor's
CLP coordinator, who compiles the analytical needs.
3. The contractor's CLP coordinator contacts the EPA RPM with the information. The RPM
contacts the authorized requesters (AR) at the appropriate RSCC and gives them the ap-
propriate information. The AR calls the SMO with the necessary information.
The SMO requires the following information from an AR to initiate a RAS request:
• Name of RSCC authorized requester
• Name(s), association, and telephone number(s) of sampling personnel
• Name, city, and state of the site to be sampled
• Superfund site/spill ID (2-digit alpha-numeric code)
• Dioxin tier assignment, where applicable
• Number and matrix of samples to be collected
• Type of analyses required
- Organics: Full (VOA, BNA, and pesticides / PCB) or VOA and/or BNA and/or pes-
ticides / PCB
Inorganic: Metals and/or cyanide
- Dioxin: 2.3,7,8-TCDD
• Scheduled sample collection and shipment dates
• Nature of sampling event (i.e., investigation, monitoring, enforcement, remedial, drilling
project, CERCLA Cooperative Agreements)
• Suspected hazards associated with the sample and/or site
• Other pertinent information that may affect sample scheduling or shipment (i.e., an-
ticipated delays because of site access, weather conditions, sampling equipment)
• Name(s) of regional or contractor contacts for immediate problem resolution
This information is submitted to the RSCC as early as possible before the anticipated sampling
date. A minimum of 2 weeks lead time is strongly suggested for RAS requests. Changes in
the sample schedule are relayed to the RSCC as soon as they become known. It should be
recognized that changes in the sampling schedule may delay laboratory assignments, espe-
cially if they are frequent or "last minute." This reporting sometimes necessitates daily contact
with the RSCC.
5-4
-------
RSCC telephone numbers are found in the User's Guide to the CLP, Appendix A.
4. Special Analytical Service (SAS) is handled slightly differently. Because these services are
individually procured on a competitive basis, a minimum lead time of 2 weeks is required to
process a completely defined SAS request. More lead time is strongly recommended when-
ever possible. Certain types of SAS requests require a longer lead time, as follows: A mini-
mum lead time of 2 to 3 weeks is required for SAS requests that involve distribution of
protocols. A minimum lead time of 4 or more weeks is recommended for large-scale, analyti-
cally complex, and/or non-Superfund SAS requests. Award of non-Superfund SAS sub-
contracts may be made only after the appropriate funding process is complete.
SMO requires the following information from an AR to initiate an SAS request:
• Name of RSCC authorized requestor
• Name(s), association, and telephone number(s) of sampling personnel
• Name, city and state of the site to be sampled
• Superfund site / spill ID (2-digit alpha-numeric code)
• Number and matrix of samples to be collected
• Specific analyses required and appropriate protocols and QA/QC
• Required detection limits
• Matrix spike and duplicate frequency
• Data turnaround and data format
• Justification for fast turnaround request, if appropriate
• Scheduled sample collection and shipment dates
• Nature of sampling event (i.e., investigation, monitoring, enforcement, remedial, drilling
project, CERCLA Cooperative Agreements)
• Suspected hazards associated with the samples and/or site
• Other pertinent information that may affect sample scheduling or shipment (i.e., an-
ticipated delays because of site access, weather condition, sampling equipment)
• Name(s) of regional or contractor contacts for immediate problem resolution
5. The RSCC contacts SMO to schedule analysis at least 1 week before start of sampling for
Routine Analytical Analysis (RAS) only; for SAS, additional time is needed. SMO assigns a
case number, an SAS number (if applicable) and laboratories; this information is communi-
cated to the RSCC.
5-5
-------
6. The RSCC contacts the RPM or the SM regarding the case number, SAS number, and
laboratory information no later than noon on the Wednesday of the week before sample ship-
ment. The RSCC also provides traffic reports, custody seals, SAS packing lists, chain-of-cus-
tody forms, sample tags, and CLP dioxin shipment record forms, as appropriate for EPA/CLP
sampling events.
5.1.6.2. Sampling Activities
1. During the sampling process, sampling personnel maintain close contact with SMO and
RSCC, relaying sampling information, shipping Information, problems encountered during
sampling, and any changes from the originally scheduled sampling program. Shipping infor-
mation Is called in to SMO before 5:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on the day of ship-
ment or by 8:00 a.m. EST the next day. Friday-shipments are called in to SMO before 3:00
p.m. EST to confirm Saturday delivery.
2. Samplers should provide SMO with the following information during the call:
• Sampler name and phone number
• Case number and/or SAS number of the project
• Site name / code
• Batch numbers (dioxin only)
• Exact number(s), matrixes and concentration^) of samples shipped
• Laboratory(ies) that samples were shipped to
* Carrier name and airbill number(s) for the shipment
• Method of shipment (e.g., overnight, 2-day)
• Date of shipment
• Suspected hazards associated with the samples or site
• Any irregularities or anticipated problems with the samples, including special handling in-
structions, or deviations from established sampling procedures
• Status of the sampling project (e.g., final shipment, update of future shipping schedule)
3. Samplers must complete the required SMO / CLP paperwork before sample shipment. Ex-
amples of properly completed forms are given in Exhibits 5-2 through 5-10. (Also see Section
4 for information regarding sample control and chain-of-custody reports.)
4. The designated copies of the completed paperwork are sent to the laboratory or SMO, as
appropriate. All paperwork must be submitted within the same week of the sampling event.
5-6
-------
Exhibit 5-2
TYPICAL ORGANICS TRAFFIC FORM
U.S. LNVlhuNMEN'lAx,
ILCilON AGLNCY IIW1 Sample Management Office
**r.
ORGANICS TRAFFIC REPORT
Sample Number
AH 719
Q) Case Number:
Sample Site Name/Code*
$ 750 • 75"
©Regional Office: A&ifett*
Sampling Personnel:
^AMPLGR
(Name)
*^// J?6 3 3S"£
Airbill Number:
(D SAMPLE C
(C
_X_Low<
(D SAMPLE N
(Check C
JC_. Water
Soil/S
ONCENTRATION © Ship To:
JieckOne) QtR L.&B
,3.3.1 Ro*-i> Snef£7~
^omcentiaootti
„ JOMe^T'Vi/^', SPfTS
*»rortr Attn: ^-S}A— /M \4J-/O-S~
Al/f-721yy^S ^7^^ *^ MA& /g*?
© Special Handling Instructions:
(e.g., safety precautions, hazardous nature)
SMOCOFY
-------
Exhibit 5-3
TYPICAL INORGANICS TRAFFIC FORM
U S ENVIK(
PROTECTION A
INORGANICS TRAFFIC REPORT
Sample Number
MAD 189
"~" Sample Site Name/Code:
CHeMic-At- 6ouf //ftS&ZT
0 Sampling Office: A/C/5 AffHfD
Sampling Personnel:
fNxmAl i^flfVlPtJGy^L
fPhone) -V/ 3j "798- /O8D
Sampling Date:
(Beoin) ///J5ip5~(End> f//5/ff^'
® Sample Description:
(Check One)
Surface Water
Mixed Media
Solids
Othor
(specify) ...
MATCHES ORGANIC SAMPLE NO. /
® SAMPLE CONCENTRATION
y (Check One)
— * — Low Concentration
— — — Medium Concentration
0 SAMPLE MATRIX
(Check One)
— J» — Water
Soil/Sediment
(t) Shipping Information:
Name Of Carrier:
nataShiPPBrf- ///r/tfS"
Airhill Nutnhar- .5S~O2£3 3<£f
(m\ Mark Volume Level
On Sample Bottle
Check Analysis required
JCTotalMetalB
SMOCOPY
(7) Ship To:
JS^Twr *°«*>
A*jyrcw*j,siw£ ooooo
Attn: ^lA4Af ^coCJ^/^^TDC
Transfer
Ship To:
MAD 189 - Total Metals
' MAD 189 • Total Metals
MAH 1 QQ fVaiiJJ,.
MAD •!• 0 Jf - Cyanide
MAD 189
MAD 189
MAD 189
5-8
-------
- cs
SAMPLERS:
STA. NO
OH*
OUTf
CTC.II
DATE
TIME
100
Uoo
IllO
X.
Rcllnqulihwtby:
R«Nm|Ul
RdlnqultlMd by
Oil* /Tim*
Oillrtbulion Ottpnil Accompwitoa Shts*?7*nt. Copy to Coordinator ftttil Fttto
REGION a
Curli* Bldfl . Slh & Walnut Si*
PbN*d«lphM, PMMi*riv*nta 1ttO«
REMARKS
0*u 1 Tlm*
Dal* / Tim*
R*c*l>M by IS&utvrt>
ft^ft"-!.
H«c«ivtd by IS>t*iivrt>
Rtmtrkl
2
o
mo
Tl
O
-------
Exhibit 5-5
CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD USED BY REGION II
IN LIEU OF CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY FORM
CHAIN OF CUSTODY RECORD
o
ENVIBONMINTAl PIOTECTION AGENCY - (IOION II
Environmental Services Division
(DISON, NEW JEBSET OBB17
2., CUFF
rrt , PA
Nv.b.r
.1
Dt«criptl«n
1-
4-
2.
Kumb.r
Au. T
? Tilt
Hoc
ftft
Dot.
1600
R«linquilh«d By:
mouuh.d By
«...iv.J By.
Tl..
t««»n f.r Chang. •( Custody
it*n f»r Chang* *f Cvttody
•' Cuirody
5-10
-------
Exhibit 5-6
TYPICAL CUSTODY SEALS
Wlk.
5-11
-------
Ul
ro
Z
O
rt
(D
fu 1-3
3 U
& 0)
ft O
»• tr
(D <
0)
30
4
<
ff
•o.
CD
H
5- ««
^i. co o
g Region III Samp
side of the sample tag bears a
•opriate regional address.
P CD
w i*
M
O
O
ib Sample No.
8
X
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W
CO
CD'
=^
— to
s
co
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Project Code
GO
01 I*
~-l z
0 °
01
t-»
Lab Sample No.
Station No.
Station Location
3D
CD
CU
sr
Month/Day/Year
**<"
Bacteriology
s
CU
IO
CD
ID
Pesticides
o
Si
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O
01
^
o'
u>
X
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Designate:
Comp.
Samplers (Signatures)
0
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0
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0
o
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ANALYSES
Preservative:
Yes D No [3
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3
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o
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fo
-------
Exhibit 5-8
SPECIAL ANALYTICAL SERVICES
PACKING LIST
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CLP Sample Management Office
P.O. Box 818 - Alexandria, Virginia 22313
Phone: 703/557-2490 - FTS/557-2490
SAS Number
We
SPECIAL ANALYTICAL SERVICE
PACKING LIST
Sampling Office:
10 US
Sampling Contact:
(name)
(phone)
Sampling Date(s):
Date Shipped:
Site Name/Code:
Ship To:
For Lab Use Only
Date Samples Rec'd:
Received By:
Sample
Numbers
Sample Description
i.e., Analysis, Matrix, Concentration
Sample Condition on
Receipt at Lab
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
999C - 03
999C-
999C-
For Lab Use Only
White - SMO Copy, Yellow - Region Copy, Pink - Lab Copy for return to SMO, Gold - Lab Copy
5-13
-------
Exhibit 5-9
HIGH-HAZARD TRAFFIC REPORT
HIGH HAZARD TRAFFIC REPORT
Sample Number
5500
FIELD SAMPLE RECORD
CD Case
Numter
Sample Sjte Name/Code:
D FieM Sample Description:
ADrum
_ Aqueous Liquid.
_ Sludge
_
_ Other
D Sup To: FReb <1HA<2.T
^ . LAC> POOAA 18
Attn:
(4) Sampling Office:
Known or Suspected Hazards:
-TAAMS FORMS fL
Sample Location.'
on-
(name)
(phone)'
Sampling Date:
(begm)
(end)
Preparations Requested:
(check below)
Sample Volume: _
Shipping Information:
(name of carrier)
(date shipped)
X Vobtte Qrganics
^Base/Neutral And,
1CDD
^Pestodes,PCB
Inorganics
__ Total Metals
Total Mercury
Strong Acad Arnons
(antaB number)
Special Handling Ltistructions:
Ajo ov/A
SMOCopy
A 5500
5500
5500
A 5500
A 5500
5-14
-------
Exhibit 5-10
CLP DIOXIN SHIPMENT RECORD
USEPA Contract Laboratory Program
Sample Management Office
P.O. Box 818 Alexandria, Virginia 22313
FTS 8-557-2490 703/557-2490 CLp D|OX|N SH|PMENT RECORD
CASE NO:
BATCH NO:
Data Turnaround:
15-Day 30-Day
SAMPLE
NUMBERS
OOP / O I
oo O i o 2-
OOP | 03
COO
ooo
OCOfOb
P6 OC)O (01
ooofcl
000/
ooo
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ocoitS
ooo uf-
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OOOI/i.
oco((l
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000119
000/2-0
000)2-1
MATRIX
DESCRIPTION
v/
y
y
y
y
y
OJU
as
is!
y
y
I;
a. (A
gz
oc
WHITE—SMO Copy YELLOW-flegton Copy PINK-tab Copy for Return to SMO GOLI>-Lab Copy
5-15
-------
5.1.6.3 Postsampling Activities
1. When the laboratory finishes the analysis, a copy of the results is forwarded to SMO and
another copy to the RSCC. The R8CC forwards a copy of the results to the RPM and the con-
tractor. If the results do not arrive at the contractor's office within the contractually required
time frame, the contractor's CLP coordinator initiates a call to the RSCC regarding the status
and expected completion data of the analysis.
2. Once the data are received, questions may arise regarding their interpretation. The SM will
contact the EPA RPM or RSCC, who contacts SMO or the laboratory to resolve questions
about the data.
3. SMO routinely performs Contract Compliance Screening (CCS) on all RAS data; modified
CCS can be performed on a case-by-case basis for mixed RAS-plus-SAS or all -SAS data. This
review determines completeness of data dellverables and compliance with contract specifica-
tion by the laboratory.
4. Data review services are provided by SMO upon request of the Regional Deputy Project Of-
ficer. Data review can be used by the SM to determine the usability and limitations of data, to
maximize usable data and to provide standardized data quality assessment. Review cannot be
initiated until all CLP deliverables have been received from the laboratory.
Contractually, the required time span is for analyses to be conducted by the laboratory.
Review and validation for compliance with quality assurance / quality control (QA/QC) require-
ments consume additional time. The SM should plan accordingly.
5.1.7 Region-Specific Variances
Each EPA region has developed variations in laboratory interface procedures, including the records
procedures for sampling and postsampling activities and the Individual forms used for the individual tasks.
Information on variations provided here may become dated rapidly. Thus, it is imperative that the user con-
tact the individual EPA RPM or RSCC to get full details on current regional practices and requirements. Fu-
ture changes in variances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium.
The regional variances presented in this subsection-as examples only-are given in chronological
order to allow for comparison with the general procedure outlined in Subsection 5.1.6.
5.1.7.1 Activities Prior to Sampling
1. In Region I, the Site Managers must submit an analytical request for each individual sam-
pling event at least 1 week prior to its occurrence. The request is submitted to the EPA RPM,
who forwards the request to the EPA RSCC personnel. This request confirms the previously
scheduled sampling.
2. Regions I and Vlfl provide a supply of organic and inorganic traffic reports that are used as
needed and that are replaced periodically. Region II supplies traffic reports on a trip-by-trip
basis. Regions III and IV provide a supply of organic and inorganic traffic reports to major
contractors. These reports are used as needed and are replaced periodically as the supply
diminishes. All other contractors within Regions III and IV will receive traffic reports on a trip-
by-trip basis, as needed.
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3. In Region V, the RSCC ranks by priority the monthly sampling requests and Indicates that
sampling can occur. The contractor is responsible for scheduling the analysis through 8MO.
4. In Region IX, the Site Managers communicate directly with the RSCC, providing them with
the monthly CLP projections.
5.1.7.2 Sampling Activities
1. Regions I, III, V, VI, and VIII use sample tags supplied by the region. Region II does not
supply sample tags, which necessitates the use of contractor sample labels. Region IX sup-
plies sample labels; no tags are used. Dedicated major Region IV contractors use sample tags
supplied by the region. All other Region IV contractors must supply their own tags according
to the region's specifications.
2. The Region IV sample tag is filled out differently from the Region III sample tag. Exhibit 5-7
gives an example of completed tags from Regions III and IV.
3. The Region II chain-of-custody (COC) form is entirely different from the COC form used by
the other regions. The Region I, III, IV, V, VIII, and IX COC forms are almost identical. Exhibits
5-4 and 5-5 show two types of forms.
4. Region IV requires that custody seals be put on each bottle, unless one can ensure cus-
tody, as in hand delivery situations. Regions I, II, III, and VI require custody seals on the outer
shipping container only. Region IX requires custody seals on both the sample bottles and the
outer shipping container. Regions V and VIII require custody seals on the outer shipping con-
tainer, with an option to put seals on each sample container.
5. Region IV places the traffic report label on the sample tag and the sample bottle, whereas
Regions I, II, III, V, VI, VIII, and IX place the label directly on the bottle.
6. When the regional supply of COC forms or sample tags is not available, the contractor may
supply COC forms and sample labels. These contractor supplied materials must satisfy all
regional requirements for these forms.
7. Sampling personnel in Region IX contact the RSCC rather than SMO with shipping informa-
tion.
B. The Region V procedures manual is being updated and will be available in June 1987; ex-
amples of completed paperwork are shown in that manual.
5.1.7.3 Postsampling Activities
1. Regions II, VI, and IX conduct the validation of the laboratory data, whereas data from sam-
pling conducted in Regions I and VIII are validated by the contractor. Both the contractor and
the EPA validate the data generated in Regions III, IV, and V.
2. The contractor-CLP coordinators provide the RSCCs in Regions II and VI with blank sample
numbers, duplicate sample numbers, and other pertinent sampling Information needed by the
data validators. This same information is provided by the SM in Region IX.
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5.1.8 Information Sources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of Emer-
gency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
CH2MHILL REMIFITDocumentation Protocol forRegion V. May 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures and
Quality Assurance Manual. Region IV, Environmental Services Division. 1 April 1986.
5.2 NONCONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM
5.2.1 Scope and Purpose
There is no formal noncontract laboratory program (non-CLP) run parallel to the Contract Laboratory
Program. A noncontract laboratory is procured by a method other than going through the SMO.
This subsection discusses how to contact a non-CLP laboratory, the paperwork involved when submit-
ting samples to such a laboratory, and the resolution of questions once the analyses have been completed.
5.2.2 Definitions
Noncontract Laboratory
A laboratory that works directly for a contractor rather than SMO.
5.2.3 Applicability
The procedures in this subsection apply to two situations: (1) the CLP does not have the capacity to
accept a sample, or (2) the EPA grants an exemption to the CLP usage requirement. The use of CLP is not
a requirement unless justified by the choice of DQO. There will be opportunities to use mobile laboratories,
field screening protocols, subcontracted private laboratories, or EPA regional laboratories.
5.2.4 Responsibilities
Responsibilities are discussed in Subsection 5.2.6 on procedures. General responsibilities are as fol-
lows:
• Site Managers plan the sampling dates and analytical requirements; the EPA RPM approves.
• The project chemist and chemistry section manager prepare the invitation for bids and evaluate
and choose qualified laboratories to receive the invitation. The SM and EPA RPM select
the laboratory.
• Sampling personnel complete the required paperwork and contact the laboratory with shipping in-
formation.
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5.2.5 Records
The following sample documentation is required (examples are given in Subsection 5.1.6):
• Sample tag or label
• Custody seal
• Chain-of-custody (COG) form
A sample tag or label is required for each bottle of sample collected, while each shipment requires cus-
tody seals and COG forms.
5.2.6 Procedures
The procedures in this subsection are presented in the chronological order used during a routine sam-
pling episode; they are applicable to any type of analysis. Exhibit 5-1 summarizes the process from start to
finish.
5.2.6.1 Activities Before Sampling
The first four activities conducted for a non-CLP laboratory before sampling are identical to steps 1
through 4 in Subsection 5.1.6.1. These steps continue as follows:
5. Each RSCC is given a monthly allocation of sample slots from SMO, for which the RSCCs
may submit samples for analysis. Sometimes a region has more samples for analysis than
slots, in which case some sampling must be postponed or canceled. The RSCC notifies the
contractor when such a situation arises. Likewise, there are times when SMO cannot find a
laboratory to perform the requested analysis. This is especially true for SAS work. The RSCC
once again notifies the contractor of the unavailability of a laboratory.
6. The SM evaluates the advantages between waiting until CLP space becomes available and
sending the samples outside the CLP system and advises the EPA RPM. The EPA RPM is
responsible for deciding which laboratory to use. The EPA regional laboratory may be avail-
able to analyze the samples, in which case the EPA laboratory is treated as a CLP laboratory
and the procedures in Section 5.1 are followed. If the decision is to go outside CLP, the RSCC
and its QA coordinator can be very helpful in choosing a properly qualified laboratory.
As an alternate to steps 1 through 6, the project team and EPA RPM may determine that CLP-
level data are not necessary for all analyses. In situations that involve taking a large number
of samples, possibly taking a number of "clean" samples, or gathering information that will
clearly never be used in an enforcement action, the appropriate analytical procedures may be
furnished either by field instrumentation, by mobile laboratories, by a temporary laboratory set
up near the site, or by contracting the work to a local laboratory. (CLP laboratories may also
be used if they have non-CLP capacity available.) Procurement of these analytical services fol-
lows the steps discussed below.
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7. A laboratory is procured using a standard bidding process. The laboratories chosen to
receive the invitation for bids (IFB) are usually approved by the EPA regional QA repre-
sentative, as well as other qualified EPA personnel. The analytical protocol is specified in the
bid package and conforms closely to CLP or other EPA-approved methods. CLP methods are
preferred because of the QA requirements. Typically, IFBs are sent to at least three
laboratories. The SM selects the laboratory with technical assistance from the EPA RSCC, if
available. The EPA Headquarters Project Officer and/or Contracting Officer must approve the
subcontract before work begins.
On state lead sites, the prime contractor subcontracts with the laboratory and separate IFBs
are not sent. Several remedial engineering management (REM) contractors have the
availability to use team member laboratories that have established costs for several analyses.
These laboratories may also respond to SAS requests in the form of subcontract bids.
The analytical procedures, and the QA/QC and sample control procedures used by the non-
CLP laboratory are included as part of the Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP). Depend-
ing on the type of analysis to be performed (e.g., field screening using portable instruments),
QA/QC procedures may be greatly simplified when compared to CLP requirements. Data
validation will be less time consuming also. Specific procedures for local, temporary, or
mobile laboratories vary widely; the SM must carefully review these procedures before con-
tracting any work.
5.2.6.2 Sampling
1. During sample collection, the samplers complete the required paperwork before the sample
shipment. Examples of properly completed forms are given in Exhibits 5-4 through 5-7. It
should be noted that whenever a noncontract laboratory is used, the contractor sample num-
ber should be substituted for the traffic report number, since no traffic report forms are used.
2. The samplers call the laboratory when samples are shipped or if shipment is delayed for
any reason. This call allows for immediate notification when samples do not arrive on time,
and it facilitates sample tracking. For mobile laboratories, care must be exercised to prevent
"flooding" the sample preparation or analytical capabilities of the laboratory. Daily meetings
with the mobile laboratory are sometimes needed.
3. The designated copy of the COC form is sent to the laboratory with the samples. Standard
EPA and DOT shipping procedures are followed.
5.2.6.3 Postsampling
1. When the laboratory finishes the analyses, a copy of the results is forwarded to the contrac-
tor. The project chemist contacts the laboratory if results do not arrive on time. Unlike at CLP
laboratories, verbal reporting of unvalidated results can be obtained from contractor chosen or
mobile laboratories. While the SM must be judicious in the use of these results, the rapid turn-
around allows the SM to adjust the sampling plan and to more intelligently use CLP resources
for full analyses.
2. Once the data are received, questions may arise regarding their interpretation. The project
chemist is the primary laboratory contact to resolve such questions.
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5.2.6.4 Residual Samples and Analytical Wastes
At EPA's direction, duplicate samples are often collected and stored for later use. These archived
samples, the residuals of samples sent out for analyses, and some of the wastes generated during analyses
are regulated by various federal regulatory programs. CLP laboratories will assume responsibility for
sample residuals at the laboratories. However, the SM must make arrangements for the proper disposal of
archived or residual samples at non-CLP laboratories.
5.2.6.4.1 Regulatory Framework
Each major federal program has elements that are expected to apply to sample and laboratory opera-
tions. These elements are cited and discussed briefly in this subsection.
RCRA: The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations apply only to those wastes
designated as hazardous under 40 CFR 261.3. If a sample is not a solid waste as defined in 40 CFR 261.2
or if the sample is a solid waste but not designated as hazardous in 40 CFR 261.3, that sample is not regu-
lated under RCRA.
Even hazardous waste samples as defined in 40 CFR 261.3 are exempt from RCRA regulation if the
terms of paragraph 40 CFR 261.4(d) are met. Section 40 CFR 261.4(d) is presented in its entirety below.
40 CFR 261.4(d) Samples
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (d)(2) of this section, a sample of solid waste or a sample
of water, soil, or air, which is collected for the sole purpose of testing to determine its charac-
teristics or composition, is not subject to any requirements of this part, or Parts 262 through
267, or Part 270, or Part 124 of this chapter, or to the notification requirements of Section 3010
of RCRA, when:
(261.4(d) introductory paragraph amended by 48 FR 30115, June 30,1983)
(i) The sample is being transported to a laboratory for the purpose of testing; or
(ii) The sample is being transported back to the sample collector after testing; or
(iii) The sample is being stored by the sample collector before transport to a laboratory
for testing; or
(iv) The sample is being stored in a laboratory before testing; or
(v) The sample is being stored in a laboratory after testing but before it is returned to
the sample collector; or
(vi) The sample is being stored temporarily in the laboratory after testing for a specific
purpose (for example, until conclusion of a court case or enforcement action where
further testing of the sample may be necessary).
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(2) To qualify for the exemption in paragraph (d)(1)(i) and (II) of this section, a sample collector
shipping samples to a laboratory, and a laboratory returning samples to a sample collector
must:
(I) Comply with DOT, U.S. Postal Service (USPS), or any other applicable shipping re-
quirements; or
(ii) Comply with the following requirements if the sample collector determines that
DOT, USPS, or other shipping requirements do not apply to the shipment of the
sample:
(A) Assure that the following information accompanies the sample:
(1) The sample collector's name, mailing address, and telephone
number;
(2) The laboratory's name, mailing address, and telephone number;
(3) The quantity of the sample;
(4) The date of shipment; and
(5) A description of the sample.
(B) Package the sample so that it does not leak, spill, or vaporize from its
packaging.
(3) This exemption does not apply if the laboratory determines that the waste is hazardous but
the laboratory is no longer meeting any of the conditions stated in paragraph (d)(1) of this sec-
tion.
A section of the RCRA regulations recognizes that analytical laboratory operations could generate was-
tewater which is mixed with small amounts of listed toxic hazardous wastes. This section [40 CFR
261.3(a)(2)(iv)(E)] excludes such wastewater from the RCRA hazardous waste regulations if the wastewater
discharge is subject to regulation under either Section 402 or Section 307(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA)
and if the calculated annualized average wastewater flow from the laboratory constitutes 1 percent or less
of the flow into the headworks of the treatment facility. (This calculation does not apply to septic systems
or any treatment system not regulated by Section 402 or 307(b) of the CWA.)
CWA: The Clean Water Act (CWA) regulates wastewater discharges to publicly owned treatment
works (POTWs) under Section 307(b) and wastewater discharges to surface waters under Section 402.
Therefore, if a laboratory discharges into a POTW system or a privately run wastewater treatment plant that
discharges treated effluent under an NPDES permit, that laboratory is indirectly regulated under the CWA.
As noted above, RCRA conditionally excludes laboratory wastewater from regulation when this indirect
CWA authority exists. Laboratory managers should know, however, that industrial wastewater discharges
into POTWs are usually monitored and regulated by local authorities, such as sewer districts. Even though
no pretreatment standards currently exist on a national basis for analytical laboratories, the general in-
dustrial effluent requirements for a particular POTW system might apply to the laboratory's effluent. Com-
pliance with the locally established requirements Is necessary to satisfy the RCRA exclusion.
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CERCLA: The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
is designed to provide a framework for both planned and emergency responses to releases of hazardous
substances into the environment. Laboratory analytical samples are often associated with defining and
responding to situations that fall under CERCLA authority. However, CERCLA, SARA, and the National
Contingency Plan (NCP) (40 CFR Part 300) are not explicit on the issue of how hazardous substance
samples are to be managed. The NCP will be revised in July 1987 and may address the issue more fully.
As stated earlier, samples of hazardous waste (as defined by 40 CFR 261.3) are managed in accord-
ance with 40 CFR 261.3 and 261.4. No such standards, exclusions, or limitations exist for hazardous sub-
stance samples. However, management of hazardous substance samples as if they were hazardous waste
may be appropriate based on Section 104(c)(3)(B) of CERCLA, which requires that any offsite treatment,
storage, or disposal of hazardous substances be conducted in compliance with Subtitle C of the Solid
Waste Disposal Act.
5.2.6.4.2 Procedures
Hazardous waste samples must be handled in conformance with 40 CFR 261.4(d) to be excluded from
RCRA regulation regarding administrative requirements for transport, storage, treatment, and disposal.
Similarly, samples of solid waste that might be hazardous (i.e., for which the hazard determination has not
yet been made) and samples of hazardous substances as defined by CERCLA may be handled in confor-
mance with 40 CFR 261.4(d).
Conformance with 40 CFR 261.4(d) requires that these hazardous samples be returned to their gener-
ator for proper management after the analysis. This return should be specified as an agreed-upon last task
in analytical contracts for hazardous samples if the SM wishes to avoid the effort entailed in treating the
material as other than a sample. Without the RCRA sample exclusion, samples would require manifesting
for shipment to the laboratory; the receiving facility would need to be a RCRA Treatment, Storage, and Dis-
posal Facility (TSDF); and offsite ultimate disposal would require yet another manifest. The American
Chemical Society has prepared a booklet titled "RCRA and Laboratories" that details these requirements.
Some samples received by laboratories are clearly not hazardous by RCRA or CERCLA definitions;
other samples are determined by analysis to be nonhazardous. These samples are not required to be
managed in accordance with the RCRA exclusion paragraph. However, before any nonhazardous samples
are disposed of as part of laboratory solid refuse or wastewater, the state and local solid waste codes and
industrial wastewater discharge codes should be examined to assure that their terms are being met. (Many
sewer districts, for example, require that total oil and grease loading not exceed a noted maximum at the
facility outfall. This might restrict the disposal of large nonhazardous oily samples from disposal through
the sewers.) Even for these nonhazardous samples, it might be necessary to have contract conditions or
additional fees to cover the disposal of samples.
To meet the requirements, laboratory and storehouse managers should develop a specific instruction
list noting logging, disposition, and contractual standards for each type of sample and analytical waste.
These specific instructions could differ appreciably from one laboratory to another because of local codes
and the nature and size of the sanitary sewer system compared to laboratory contribution. The SM should
have a clear understanding of the residual sample deposition before shipping samples to a laboratory or
warehouse.
5.2.6.4.3 Analytical Wastes
During chemical analysis, various extracts, components, and mixtures are derived from samples to
determine their character and composition. Typically, these analytically derived substances are small in
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volume, but are not totally used up in the actual analysis. The leftover substances then become what is
referred to as analytically derived waste.
In some cases, analytical wastes are not hazardous wastes (as defined in RCRA) or hazardous sub-
stances (as defined in CERCLA). As such, these wastes are disposed of in accordance with state and iocai
solid waste and industrial waste water discharge requirements. Typically, these wastes can be disposed of
in the wastewater discharged from the laboratory to the sanitary sewer.
In some cases, however, analytical wastes might have been derived from listed hazardous wastes, or
the chemicals used to obtain the derivative, could cause the waste to be classified as hazardous. In either
case, RCRA regulations provide for such waste to be disposed of with laboratory wastewater if certain con-
ditions are met. Wastes that are considered hazardous only because of a characteristic (ignitability, cor-
rosMty, reactivity, or EP toxicity-see 40 CFR 261, Subpart C) are no longer hazardous once they are
mixed to eliminate the characteristic. Mixing small volumes of analytical waste with the sanitary sewer flow
would cause the waste to become so diluted that it no longer exhibits hazardous characteristics.
When analytically derived wastes are produced in such volume or concentration that the conditions
specified in the RCRA regulations or the discharge limits for the sanitary sewer cannot be met by disposing
of these wastes with laboratory wastewater, other arrangements will need to be made.
5.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
The regional variances associated with the non-CLP are the same as for the CLP and can be found in
Subsection 5.1.7.
5.2.8 Information Sources
American Chemical Society, Task Force on RCRA. "RCRA and Laboratories." Department of Govern-
ment Relations and Science Policy, 1155 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036. September 1986.
CH2MHILL REM/FITDocumentation Protocol for Region V. May 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures and
Quality Assurance Manual. Region IV, Environmental Services Division. 1 April 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
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SECTION 6
SAMPLE CONTAINERS, PRESERVATION AND SHIPPING
Note: This section is presented by topic for greater clarity.
6.1 SAMPLE CONTAINERS AND PRESERVATION
6.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection describes the sample containers and the preservatives used for environmental and
hazardous samples collected at waste sites. The procedures described meet Contract Laboratory
Program (CLP) requirements and analytical procedures. Periodic updates and changes are detailed in
amendments to the User's Guide to the CLP. To obtain further information or copies of the User's Guide to
the CLP, contact the Sample Management Office (SMO) at 703/557-2490 or FTS 557-2490.
6.1.2 Definitions
Low-Concentration Sample
The contaminant of highest concentration is present at less than 10 parts per million (ppm).
Examples include background environmental samples.
Medium-Concentration Sample
The contaminant of highest concentration is present at a level greater than 10 ppm and less
than 15 percent (150,000 ppm). Examples include material onsite that is obviously weathered.
High-Concentration Sample
At least one contaminant is present at a level greater than 15 percent. Samples from drums
and tanks are assumed to be high concentration unless information indicates otherwise.
Routine Analytical Services (RAS)
Analysis of a soil or water sample on a 30- to 45-day turnaround time for a list of 126 organics,
23 metals, and cyanide.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
6.1.3 Applicability
The procedures described in Section 6 apply to samples collected for routine, as well as for special
analytical services. They are to be followed when the samples are being sent to either a CLP laboratory or
a noncontract laboratory.
6-1
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6.1.4 Responsibilities
Responsibilities are described in Subsection 6.1.6. General responsibilities are assigned as follows:
• The SM (and project team) will determine the number and type of samples to be collected and the
analyses to be performed; the EPA RPM approves work plan.
• Equipment manager will obtain the proper grades and types of preservatives and bottles.
• Sampling personnel will collect a representative sample and, if necessary, will add the proper
sample preservatives (as defined herein) once the samples have been collected.
6.1.5 Records
The preservatives used for each bottle are recorded on the sample tag or label. Tags and labels are
discussed in Subsection 6.2.6; examples of completed tags are shown in Subsection 5.1.6. Shipping
records are maintained as part of the chain-of-custody documentation. (See Section 4 of this compen-
dium.)
6.1.6 Procedures
The procedures in this subsection are presented in the chronological order of a typical sampling
episode. Exhibit 6-1 summarizes the sampling process. Procedures presented here are generic; an ap-
proach to regional differences is presented in Subsection 6.1.7.
6.1.6.1 Activities Before Sampling
1. In addition to the activities detailed in Subsection 5.1.6.1 for reserving laboratory space, the
SM (or designee) obtains sample bottles by contacting an EPA authorized requester at the
Regional Sample Control Center (RSCC) who orders the necessary bottles. (Currently, l-Chem
Research in California (415/782-3905), runs the official bottle repository for the Superfund
program.) Exhibit 6-2 lists the types of bottles available from the repository and summarizes
the bottle requirements for each class of sample (as presented in the User's Guide to the CLP,
December 1986).
2. At the same time, the SM (or designee) must order the chemicals necessary to preserve the
samples once they are collected. The chemicals that may be used include the following:
• Nitric acid, American Chemical Society (ACS) grade, 16N
• Sodium hydroxide, ACS grade, pellets
• Sulfuric acid, ACS grade, 37N
• Hydrocholoric acid, ACS grade, 12N
• Sodium thiosulfate, ACS grade, crystalline
• Mercuric chloride, ACS grade, powder
6-2
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Exhibit 6-1
TYPICAL SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Project Team Decides What Samples to Collect, Which Analyses to Perform,
and Identifies the Low-, Medium-, and High-Concentration Samples
CLP Coordinator (or Team Leader) Compiles Analytical Needs
and Determines Bottles Required
CLP Coordinator (or Equipment Manager) Orders Bottles from l-Chem Research
Samples Are Collected (and Filtered if Necessary)
Equipment Manager Orders Preservatives
I
ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES *
Proper Preservatives Are Added
Tags Placed on Bottles
1
HAZARDOUS SAMPLES *"
Tags Placed on Bottles
Bottles Placed in Plastic Bag
Bottles Placed in Plastic Bag
Bottles Placed in Paint Can
Bottles Placed in Cooler
Separators Placed in Cooler,
Ice Added
T
Cooler Filled with Vermiculite
Paperwork Taped to Inside Top
of Cooler
Cooler Sealed with Tape and
Custody Seals
1
Cooler Properly Labeled
Samples Shipped (Regular Airbill)
Low concentration
** Medium, high, and dioxin concentration
Can Filled with Vermiculite
Can Sealed with Tape or Clips
±
Can Properly Labeled
Cans Put in Cooler
Cooler Filled with Vermiculite
Paperwork Taped to Inside Top
of Cooler
JL
Cooler Sealed with Tape and
Custody Seals
Cooler Properly Labeled
Samples Shipped (Restricted
Article Airbill)
6-3
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Exhibit 6-2
SAMPLE BOTTLES AVAILABLE FROM THE REPOSITORY
Container
Type
Description
No. Per
Carton
Used for RAS
Sample Type*
B
80-oz amber glass bottle with 6
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
40-ml glass vial with Teflon-lined 72
silicon septum and black
phenolic cap
1 -liter high-density polyethylene 42
bottle with white poly cap
120-ml wide-mouth glass vial
with white poly cap
16-oz wide-mouth glass
jar with Teflon-lined
black phenolic cap
8-oz wide-mouth glass jar with
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
Extractable organics-Low-
concentration water samples
Volatile organics-Low-and
medium-concentration water samples
Metals, cyanide-Low-
concentration water samples
72 Volatile organics-Low-and
medium-concentration soil samples
48 Metals, cyanide-Medium-
concentration water samples
96 Extractable organics
Low- and medium- concentration soil
samples
and
Metals, cyanide-Low- and
medium-concentration soil samples
and
Dioxin-Soil samples
and
Organics and inorganics-High-
concentration liquid and solid samples
6-4
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Exhibit 6-2
(continued)
Container
Type
Description
4-oz wide-mouth glass jar with
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
No. Per
Carton
120
Used for RAS
Sample Type*
Extractable organics-Low- and
medium-concentration soil samples
and
Metals, cyanide-Low- and medium-
concentration soil samples
and
Dioxin--Soil samples
and
H
1 -liter amber glass bottle with
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
32-pz wide-mouth glass jar with
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
4-liter amber glass bottle with
Teflon-lined black phenolic cap
Organic and inorganic-High-
concentration liquid and solid samples
Extractable organics-Low-
24 concentration water samples
Extractable organics-Medium-
36 concentration water samples
Extractable organics~Low-
4 concentration water samples
* This column specifies the only type(s) of samples that should be collected in each container.
6-5
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6.1.6.2 Sampling Activities
1. The samplers collect representative aliquots of each medium and place them in the ap-
propriate sample jars as described in Exhibit 6-2.
2. The samplers preserve the low-concentration water samples as follows:
• Nitric acid (HNOs) is added to the TCL metals bottle until the pH is less than 2 (2 ml of
1 +1 is usually sufficient).
Note: Analysis for dissolved metals requires filtration of the sample before preservation;
however, the preservation method is the same for both dissolved and total metals.
For the cyanide aliquot, the following guidelines should be followed:
• Test a drop of sample with potassium iodide-starch test paper (Kl-starch paper); a blue
color indicates the presence of oxidizing agents and the need for treatment. Add ascorbic
acid, a few crystals at a time, until a drop of sample produces no color on the indicator
paper. Then add an additional 0.6g of ascorbic acid for each liter of sample volume.
• Test a drop of sample on lead acetate paper previously moistened with acetic acid buffer
solution. Darkening of the paper Indicates the presence of S2~. If S2" is present, add pow-
dered cadmium carbonate until a drop of the treated solution does not darken the lead
acetate test paper and then filter the solution before raising the pH for stabilization.
• Preserve samples with 2 ml of 10 N sodium hydroxide per liter of sample (pH > 12).
• Store the samples so that their temperature is maintained at 4°C until the time of analysis.
• Samples to be analyzed for TCL organics are packed in ice and shipped to the laboratory
with ice in the cooler.
The following RAS samples do not require preservatives:
• Soil or sediment samples
• Medium or high-concentration water samples
Exhibit 6-3 lists the preservatives used for frequently requested special analytical services.
3. The samples are shipped to the laboratory for analysis.
6-6
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Exhibit 6-3
SAMPLE PRESERVATION REQUIREMENTS
Analysis
Preservation
Acidity
Alkalinity
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
Chloride
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
EP toxiclty
Nitrogen
Ammonia
Kjeldahl, total
Nitrate
Nitrite
Oil and grease
Sulfate
Solids
Total dissolved
Total suspended
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
Total Organic Halogen (TOH or TOX)
Cod,4°C
Cool, 4°C
Cool,4°C
Cod,4°C
None
H2SO4 to pH < 2, Cool, 4°C
None
H2SO4topH <2,Cool,4°C
H2SO4topH <2,Cool,40C
HaSO4 to pH <2, Cool, 4°C
Cod, 4°C
H2SO4topH < 2, Cool, 4°C
Cool, 4°C
Cool>40C
Cool,4°C
H2S04 or HCI to pH <2,
Cool, 4°C
Several crystals of sodium
thiosulfate if chlorine is
present, cod, 4°C
Refer to RCRA Ground-Water Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance Document (TEGD) and SW-846 for additional
information on sample preservation, recommended containers, maximum holding times, and volume requirements. EPA's
Characterization of Hazardous Waste Sites. Vols. 1 and 2, and Soil Sampling QA User's Guide contain information regarding
holding time criteria for soil or sediment.
6-7
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6.1.7 Region-Specific Variances
The regional variances listed in this subsection are in chronological order to allow for easy comparison
with the generic procedure described in Subsection 6.1.6. Because this information may become dated
rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM or RSCC to get full details on current regional practices or
requirements before planning sampling activities. Future changes in variances will be incorporated in sub-
sequent revisions to this compendium.
6.1.7.1 Presampling Activities
Regional variances during the presampling phase will be discussed in Revision 01.
6.1.7.2 Sampling Activities
1. Region IV requires that samples collected for volatile analysis be preserved with
hydrochloric acid. Four drops of concentrated HCI are added to each VOA vial before the vial
is filled with the sample.
2. Region V preserves the metals sample with 5 ml of nitric acid. In addition, Region V uses a
10 normal sodium hydroxide solution rather than sodium hydroxide pellets.
6.1.8 Information Sources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
Federal Renter. Vol. 49, No. 209, p. 43260. 28 October 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures and
Quality Assurance Manual. Region IV, Environmental Services Division. 1 April 1986.
CH2MHILL REMIFIT Documentation Protocol for Region V. May 1984.
6.2 PACKAGING, LABELING AND SHIPPING
6.2.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection describes the packaging, labeling and shipping used for environmental and hazardous
samples collected at a waste site.
6.2.2 Definitions
The definitions are the same as those in Subsection 6.1.2.
6-8
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6.2.3 Applicability
The procedures described in this subsection apply to samples collected at a waste site. They must be
followed whether shipping to a CLP laboratory or a noncontract laboratory.
The shipment of hazardous materials Is governed by the Transportation Safety Act of 1974. Following
is a list of references that detail the regulations:
• Title 49 CFR
- Parts 100-177 - Shipper Requirements and Hazardous Material Table
- Parts 178-199 - Packaging Specifications
- Section 262.20—Hazardous Waste Manifest
• International Civil Aviation Regulations (ICAO)
- Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (lists man-
datory international and optional domestic regulations)
• International Air Transport Association (IATA)
- Dangerous Goods Regulations (This tariff incorporates 49 CFR, ICAO, and additional
IATA regulations. Most international and domestic airlines belong to IATA and require
conformance to all applicable regulations.)
• Tariff BOE-6000-D (reprint of 49 CFR with updates)
6.2.4 Responsibilities
Detailed responsibilities are described in the procedures subsection. General responsibilities are as-
signed as follows:
• Site Managers will state, to the best of their knowledge, whether samples planned for collection are.
environmental or hazardous samples.
• Equipment manager will procure shipping supplies (metal cans, shipping labels, vermiculite, etc.)
using RSCC whenever needed.
• Sampling personnel will properly label and package the samples.
6.2.5 Records
The user should refer to Section 4 for discussion of the records associated with sample collection and
chain-of-custody forms.
The following records are associated with the labeling and shipping process:
• Sample tag or label
• Traffic report label
6-9
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• Custody seal
• Chain-of-custody (COC) form
• Bill of lading (airbill or similar document)
Examples of the first four documents are given In Subsections 4.6 and 5.1.6; an example of an airbill is
given in Subsection 6.2.
6.2.6 Procedures
The procedures described in this subsection are carried out after the sample preservation described in
Subsection 6.1.6.2. They are generic in nature; an approach to regional differences is presented in Sub-
section 6.2.7.
6.2.6.1 Environmental Samples
Low-concentration samples are defined as environmental samples and should be packaged for ship-
ment as follows:
1. A sample tag is attached to the sample bottle. Examples of properly completed sample
tags are given in Exhibit 5-7.
2. All bottles, except the volatile organic analysis (VOA) vials, are taped closed with electrical
tape (or other tape as appropriate). Evidence tape may be used for additional sample security.
3. Each sample bottle Is placed in a separate plastic bag, which is then sealed. As much air
as possible is squeezed from the bag before sealing. Bags may be sealed with evidence tape
for additional security.
4. A picnic cooler (such as a Coleman or other sturdy cooler) is typically used as a shipping
container. In preparation for shipping samples, the drain plug is taped shut from the inside
and outside, and a large plastic bag is used as a liner for the cooler. Approximately 1 inch of
packing material, such as asbestos-free vermiculite, pertite, or styroioam beads, is placed in
the bottom of the liner Other commercially available shipping containers may be used.
However, the use of such containers (cardboard or fiber boxes complete with separators and
preservatives) should be specified in the sampling plan and approved by the EPA RSCC if CLP
is used.
5. The bottles are placed in the lined picnic cooler. Cardboard separators may be placed be-
tween the bottles at the discretion of the shipper.
6. Water samples for low or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics analysis
must be shipped cooled to 4°C with ice. No lea is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level
soil samples or medium / high-level water samples, or organic high-level water or soil samples,
or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in shipping soil samples, but may be utilized at the op-
tion of the sampler. All cyanide samples, however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C.
6-10
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7. The lined cooler is filled with packing material (such as asbestos-free vermiculite, perlite, or
styrofoam beads), and the large inner (garbage bag) liner is taped shut. Sufficient packing
material should be used to prevent sample containers from making contact during shipment.
Again, evidence tape may be used.
8. The paperwork going to the laboratory is placed inside a plastic bag. The bag is sealed and
taped to the inside of the cooler lid. A copy of the COC form should be included in the paper-
work sent to the laboratory. Exhibit 5-4 gives an example of a properly completed COC form.
The last block on the COC form should indicate the overnight carrier and airbill number. The
airbill must be filled out before the samples are handed over to the carrier. The laboratory
should be notified if another sample is being sent to another laboratory for dioxin analysis, or if
the shipper suspects that the sample contains any other substance for which the laboratory
personnel should take safety precautions.
9. The cooler is closed and padlocked or taped shut with strapping tape (filament-type).
10. At least two signed custody seals are placed on the cooler, one on the front and one on
the back. Additional seals may be used if the sampler or shipper thinks more seals are neces-
sary. Exhibit 5-6 gives an example of the two types of custody seals available.
11. The cooler is handed over to the overnight carrier, typically Federal Express. A standard
airbill is necessary for shipping environmental samples. Exhibit 6-4 shows an example of the
standard Federal Express airbill.
6.2.6.2 Hazardous Samples
Medium- and high-concentration samples are defined as hazardous and must be packaged as follows:
1. A sample tag is attached to the sample bottle. Examples of properly completed sample
tags are shown in Exhibit 5-7.
2. All bottles, except the VOA vials, are taped closed with electrical tape (or other tape as ap-
propriate). Evidence tape may be used for additional security.
3. Each sample bottle is placed In a plastic bag, and the bag is sealed. For medium-con-
centration water samples, each VOA vial is wrapped in a paper towel, and the two vials are
placed in one bag. As much air as possible is squeezed from the bags before sealing.
Evidence tape may be used to seal the bags for additional security.
4. Each bottle is placed in a separate paint can, the paint can is filled with vermiculite, and the
lid is fixed to the can. The lid must be sealed with metal clips or with filament or evidence tape;
if clips are used, the manufacturer typically recommends six clips.
5. Arrows are placed on the can to indicate which end is up.
6. The outside of each can must contain the proper DOT shipping name and identification
number for the sample. The information may be placed on stickers or printed legibly. A liquid
sample of an uncertain nature is shipped as a flammable liquid with the shipping name "FLAM-
MABLE LIQUID, N.O.S." and the identification number "UN 1993." A solid sample of uncertain
nature is shipped as a flammable solid with the shipping name "FLAMMABLE SOLID, N.O.S."
6-11
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Exhibit 6-4
STANDARD FEDERAL EXPRESS AIRBILL
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6-12
-------
and the identification number "UN1325." If the nature of the sample is known, 49 CFR-171-177
is consulted to determine the proper labeling and packaging requirements.
7. The cans are placed upright in a cooler that has had its drain plug taped shut inside and
out, and the cooler has been lined with a garbage bag. Vermiculite is placed on the bottom.
Two sizes of paint cans are used: half-gallon and gallon. The half-gallon paint cans can be
stored on top of each other; however, the gallon cans are too high to stack. The cooler is filled
with vermiculite, and the liner is taped shut.
8. The paperwork going to the laboratory is placed inside a plastic bag and taped to the in-
side of the cooler lid. A copy of the COC form, an example of which is shown in Exhibit 5-4,
should be included in the paperwork sent to the laboratory. The sampler keeps one copy of
the COC form. The laboratory should be notified if a parallel sample is being sent to another
laboratory for dioxin analysis, or if the sample is suspected of containing any substance for
which laboratory personnel should take safety precautions.
9. The cooler is closed and sealed with strapping tape. At least two custody seals are placed
on the outside of the cooler (one on the front and one on the back). More custody seals may
be used at the discretion of the sampler.
10. The following markings are placed on the top of the cooler:
Proper shipping name (49 CFR 172.301) ,
DOT identification number (49 CFR 172.301)
Shipper's or consignee's name and address (49 CFR-172.306)
'This End Up" legibly written if shipment contains liquid hazardous materials (49 CFR 172.312)
Other commercially available shipping containers may be used. The SM should ascertain that
the containers are appropriate to the type of sample being shipped. The SM should clearly
specify the type of shipping container to be used in the QAPjP.
11. The following labels are required on top of the cooler (49 CFR 172.406e):
• Appropriate hazard class label (placed next to the proper shipping name)
• "Cargo Aircraft Only (if applicable as identified in 49 CFR 172.101)
12. An arrow symbol(s) indicating 'This Way Up" should be placed on the cooler in addition to
the markings and labels described above.
13. Restricted-article airbills are used for shipment. Exhibit 6-5 shows an example of a
restricted article Federal Express airbill. The "Shipper Certification for Restricted Articles" sec-
tion is filled out as follows for a flammable solid or a flammable liquid:
6-13
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• Number of packages or number of coolers
• Proper shipping name: if unknown, use
- Rammable solid, N.O.S., or
- Rammable liquid, N.O.S.
Classification; if unknown, use
- Rammable solid or
- Rammable liquid
Identification number; if unknown, use
- UN1325 (for flammable solids) or
- UN 1993 (for flammable liquids)
Net quantity per package or amount of substance in each cooler
Radioactive materials section (Leave blank.)
Passenger or cargo aircraft (Cross off the nonapplicable. Up to 25 pounds of flammable solid per
cooler can be shipped on a passenger or cargo aircraft. Up to 1 quart of flammable liquid per
cooler can be shipped on a passenger aircraft, and up to 10 gallons of flammable liquid per cooler
can be shipped on a cargo aircraft.)
Name and title of shipper (printed)
An emergency telephone number at which the shipper can be reached within the following 24 to 48
hours
Shipper's signature
Note: The penalties for improper shipment of hazardous materials are severe; a fine of $25,000 and 5
years imprisonment can be Imposed for each violation. The SM or designee is urged to take adequate
precautions.
6.2.7 Regional Variances
There are no known regional variances for the shipment of hazardous samples. However, regional
variances for the shipment of environmental samples (low concentration) are common. Information in a
compendium on such variances can become dated rapidly. Thus, users are urged to contact the EPA RPM
or the RSCC for the latest regional variances.
1. Region I Includes the five-digit laboratory number of each sample in the "Remarks" section
of the chain-of-custody form to act as a cross check on sample identification.
2. Separators must be placed between the bottles of samples shipped from a Region IV site.
ESD also tapes the VOA vials and uses blue Ice.
6-14
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Exhibit 6-5
RESTRICTED ARTICLE FEDERAL EXPRESS AIRBILL
AM8U.L NUMBER
III
8
in
O
oc
X
ill
oc
Q.
PLEASE COMPLETE ALL INFORMATION IN THE 5 BLOCKS OUTLINED IN ORANGE
SEE BACK OF FORM SET FOR COMPLETE PREPARATION INSTRUCTIONS
YOURFEOERAt EXPRESS ACCOUNT NUMBER
H HoU FW Mefc-Up er SMtfday tMwy
RKtpM't Plwra NuMv
STREET ADDRESS (T» 0 BOX NUMBERS1
/g,
IN TENDERING THIS SMIPMEMT, SHIPPER AGREES THAT
F E C SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL INC IDE N
TIAL DAMAGES ARISING FROM
CARRIAGE HEREOF FEC DtS
CLAIMS ALL WAHHAiniES EX
55 OH IMPLIED WITH
RESPECT TO THIS SHIPMENT THIS IS A NON-NEGOTIABLE
AIRBILL SUBJECT TO CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT SET FORTH
ON REVERSE OF SHIPPER S COPY UNLESS YOU DECLARE A
HIGHER VALUE THE LIABILITY OF FEDERAL EXPRESS COR
PORATION IS LIMITED TO SIM 00 FEDERAL EXPRESS DOES
NOT CARRY CARGO LIABILITY INSURANCE
Ktf jr Al (0 id*
PRESS. LOCATlQ
IN SEF-ViCl GbOE HtCtr,i\T&
pn^K' s "'SE'1- l^ RtC -'I
ORWS AND
r-iKLMHtMUMB RAWOACTIVE
O w.^uwirSSS MATERIAL ONLY
(t* » 70 US 1
PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT
CARGO
AIRCRAFT ONLY
(DELETE-NONAPPLICAEU.E)
THIS SHIPMENT IS WITHIN THE LIMITATIONS PRESCRIBED FOR
IF ACCEPTABLE FOR PASSENGER AIRCRAFT, THIS SHIPMENT CONTAINS RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTENDED FOR USE IN. OR INCIDENT
TO. RESEARCH, MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS OR TREATMENT.
I HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE CONTENTS OF TMS CONSIGNMENT ARE FULLY AND ACCURATELY DESCRIBED ABOVE BY PROPER
SHIPPING NAME AND ARE CLASSIFIED, PACKED, MARKED, AND LABELED, AND IN PROPER CONDITION FOR CARRIAGE BY AIR
ACCORDING TO APPLICABLE NATIONAL GOVERNMENTAL REGULATIONS.
6-15
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3. Region V tapes the VOA vials and does not line the cooler with a plastic bag. Region V FIT
indicates the OTR / ITR number, bottle lot numbers, sample concentrations, and matrix in the
right-hand portion of the "Remarks" section of the chain-of-custody form. The custody seal
numbers, airbill number, and "samples shipped via Federal Express" are included in the lower
right-hand section.
4. Region VI does not tape sample bottles, put sample bottles in plastic bags, or line coolers
with plastic. Glass bottles are wrapped with "bubble wrap" instead of cardboard separators. In
addition, the traffic report stickers are placed at the liquid level on the sample bottles to allow
the laboratories to check for leakage.
5. Region VIII does not put the sample in a plastic bag.
Because information on variances can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM or
RSCC for current regional practices and requirements. Future changes and additional regional variances
will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this document.
6.2.8 Information Sources
CH2MHILL REM/FITDocumentation Protocol for Region V. May 1984.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Parts 171 to 177, Transportation.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures and
Quality Assurance Manual. Region IV, Environmental Services Division. 1 April 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
6-16
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SECTION 7
FIELD METHODS FOR RAPID SCREENING FOR
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
7.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 7 provides an overview of current techniques used by some contractors to rapidly screen the
hazardous waste material at waste sites. The section also describes the functions and capabilities of avail-
able analytical instrumentation and suggests some analytical protocols for mobile laboratories. The pur-
pose of this section is not to provide standard operating procedures for rapid screening for hazardous
material onsite or to establish performance criteria for direct-reading instruments or mobile laboratories.
The purpose is to provide a narrative description of some approaches and techniques that have been used
on certain projects. In Fall 1987, the Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) will publish a "Field Screening
Methods Catalog" that will contain detailed discussions of field analytical methods. The CLP catalog will
provide a consolidated reference for use by EPA, contractors, state and local agencies, and Potentially
Responsible Parties (PRPs) who will be conducting field analysis. When this compendium is updated, it will
reflect the information contained in the CLP catalog. The updated compendium will also contain any addi-
tional methods that were found useful by contractors but were not included in the catalog.
7.2 DEFINITIONS
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person Is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
7.3 APPLICABILITY
Field analysis involves the use of portable or transportable instruments that are based at or near a sam-
pling site. Field analysis should not be confused with the process of obtaining total organic readings using
portable meters.
Field analysis can provide data from the analysis of air, soil, and water samples for many Target Com-
pound List (TCL) organic compounds, including volatiles, base neutral acid (BNA) extractable organics,
and pesticides / PCBs. Inorganic analysis can also be conducted using portable atomic adsorption (AA) or
other instruments.
The ability to assess data quality for field activities depends on the QA/QC steps taken in the process
(e.g., documentation of blank injections, calibration standard runs, runs of qualitative standards between
samples, etc.).
Field analytical techniques are used whenever the data quality objectives specify Level I and II analyti-
cal support as adequate.
7-1
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The objective of Level I analysis is to generate data that are generally used in refining sampling plans
and estimating the extent of contamination at the site. This type of support provides real-time data for
health and safety purposes. Additional data that can effectively be obtained by Level I analyses include pH,
conductivity, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen for water (see Sections 8 and 10), as well as
some measurement of contamination using various kits (see Subsection 7.6).
Level I analyses are generally effective for total vapor readings using portable photoionization or flame
ionization meters that respond to a variety of volatile inorganic and organic compounds (see Section 15).
Level I analysis provides data for onsite, real-time total vapor measurement, evaluation of existing con-
ditions, refinement of sampling location and health and safety evaluations. Data generated from Level I
support are generally considered qualitative in nature, although limited quantitative data can also be
generated. Data generated from this type of analysis provide the following:
• Identification of soil, water, air and waste locations that have a high likelihood of showing con-
tamination through subsequent analysis
• Real-time data to be used for health and safety consideration during site reconnaissance and sub-
sequent intrusive activities
• Quantitative data if a contaminant is known and the instrument is calibrated to that substance
The procedures discussed in this section have been used for several purposes including screening the
site to determine the level of safety required for personnel working at the site; screening samples to deter-
mine which compounds, or groups of compounds, should be specified for further analysis, usually under
the Contract Laboratory Program (CLP); and screening for characterizing material for removal and in refin-
ing the sampling plan to more precisely determine the number and type of samples to be taken. By using
field screening, changes in sampling can occur while the field team is mobilized, rather than waiting for
several months for data to return from CLP analysis. Field screening techniques, such as the removal of
drums, lagoons, pits, ponds, and other waste sources, allows testing for compatibility and disposal
category classification (Exhibit 7-1) before disposal.
Note: Because of the many safety factors to be considered when undertaking such screening, the SM
should consult documents such as "Drum Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites," EPA/600/2-
86/013, January 1986.
7.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
Field screening generally consists of two phases:
• A field survey using instruments such as OVA meters or HNU detectors to analyze the ambient
conditions onsite or to conduct limited analyses of samples (Level I on Data Quality Objectives
rating; see Section 15)
• Mobile laboratory analyses to provide better qualitative and quantitative data upon which decisions
can be made about site safety, CLP use and the sampling campaign (Level II on Data Quality Ob-
jectives rating)
The SM is responsible for defining the screening program and obtaining the proper equipment. The
equipment manager and the mobile laboratory director are responsible for keeping the equipment in good
7-2
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Exhibit 7-1
POTENTIAL ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DISPOSAL
1. Flammability
2. pH
3. Specific gravity
4. PCB analysis
5. Thermal content (BTU/lb)
6. Physical state at 70°F
7. Phases (layering in liquids)
8. Solids (%)
9. Hydrocarbon composition
10. Pesticide analysis
11. Sulfur content
12. Phenols
13. Oil and grease (%)
14. Water (%)
15. Viscosity
16. Organochlorine percentage
17. Metals analysis
a. Liquids for soluble metals
b. Solids extracted according to the EPA Toxicant Extraction Procedure (24 hr), which shows
leachable metals.
c. Both liquid and solids checked for concentrations of the following metals:
Arsenic Mercury
Barium Nickel
Cadmium Selenium
Chromium Silver
Copper Zinc
Lead
18. Content checked for both free and total cyanide
19. Solids checked for solubility in water, sulfuric acid, and dimethyl sulfoxide
Reprinted from Muller, Broad, and Leo, 1982. Exhibit originally printed in the Proceedings of the National Conference on Manage-
ment of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 1982. Available from Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, 9300 Colum-
bia Blvd., Silver Spring, Maryland 20910.
7-3
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working order. The field investigators) and the mobile laboratory analyst(s) are responsible for checking
the equipment in the field and for verifying calibration and proper operation at the site.
7.5 RECORDS
Reporting is essential to thoroughly document technical methods and results. For screening of
samples and field surveys, activity logs may be kept to record and document the results. Bound field
notebooks with numbered pages should be used as the permanent record of results. Records should in-
clude field calibration procedures and duplicate readings. The equipment manager and the field analyst
should keep records of equipment maintenance and field laboratory calibration and should make these
records part of the permanent project file. The reader should refer also to Sections 4, 5, 6, and 17 of this
compendium.
With a few exceptions, such as the mass-produced TAGA 6000E Mobile MS/MS System, mobile
laboratories are each crafted differently. Accordingly, each mobile laboratory develops discrete standard
operating and documentation procedures that are specific to the instrumentation, power and water supply,
configuration, transportation arrangements, and housekeeping requirements for that laboratory. These
specific procedures should be appended to the QAPjP and rigorously followed. The laboratory notebooks
should document any deviations from the procedures or development of modifications to the procedures
for site-specific needs.
Results from field screening are recorded in field or laboratory notebooks for the permanent record;
tear sheets or carbonless forms are generally used to record results for the Site Manager's use before a
report is written. (See Exhibit 7A-1 and 7A-3 for mobile laboratory reporting procedures.)
7.6 PROCEDURES
7.6.1 Inorganic Compounds
Exhibit 7-2 presents a list of typical inorganic compounds that a laboratory program might analyze for
during a hazardous waste site investigation.
Several approaches are used to determine inorganic compounds. These approaches include the use
of various field test kits as well as traditional and state-of-the-art instrumentation. Examples of field test kits
include the Hach Hazardous Materials Detection Laboratory, the Hach COD kit, the Scintrex Atomic Ab-
sorption Spectrometer, indicator papers, portable wet chemistry test sets, and packaged test kits such as
those produced by Chemetrics. Each of these kits includes a detailed set of instructions on use of the in-
struments and chemicals and on interpretation of results. A general discussion of the capabilities of some
kits is presented below.
The kits offered by Hach and LaMotte Chemical include reagents to produce a colorimetric reaction
with subsequent relative quantitative determination using a spectrophotometer, which is also in the kit. The
Chemetrics test kits use self-filling ampoules that serve as disposable test cells. These ampoules contain a
measured amount of reagent sealed under vacuum. These are colorimetric tests, and results are obtained
through comparison with a color chart or through the use of a spectrophotometer or colorimeter. The
Hach Hazardous Materials Laboratory (which is also usable for a limited number of organic compounds) is
only class selective (e.g., heavy metals as a group) and is subject to interferences. The Hach kits and other
colorimetric methods are best used in a survey mode analogous to that of the Organic Vapor Meters, be-
cause positive results would not be conclusive without supporting data.
7-4
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Exhibit 7-2
LISTING OF TYPICAL INORGANICS
Aluminum Lead
Antimony Magnesium
Arsenic Manganese
Barium Mercury
Beryllium Nickel
Cadmium Potassium
Calcium Selenium
Chromium Silver
Cobalt Sodium
Copper Thallium
Cyanide Vanadium
Iron Zinc
The Scintrex Atomic Absorption Spectrometer is somewhat comparable to usual laboratory
capabilities. The inclusion of Zeemann Effect background correction compensates for the lower optical
performance, and the use of a tungsten furnace compares to the traditional laboratory instrument. The
operator of the Atomic Absorption unit in the field must be well versed in sample preparation and sample
handling techniques to avoid interference and contamination problems. The mobile Atomic Absorption unit
appears to be well suited for overall field application from the standpoint of both mobility and analytical per-
formance.
Although the process is expensive, inorganic analyses that use state-of-the art laboratory instruments
such as an Inductively Coupled Plama (ICP) Spectrometer can be performed in a field screening mode. A
protocol for inorganic analysis in mobile and fixed-base laboratories by ICP, flame, flameless, and cold-
vapor atomic absorption techniques is attached as Exhibit 7A-3 in Appendix 7A. Heavy metals in solid
samples can be analyzed by X-ray diffraction. An operating procedure for the Columbia Scientific X-Met
840 Analyzer is attached as Exhibit 7A-4 in Appendix 7A.
7.6.2 Organic Compounds
Exhibit 7-3 shows a typical list of organic compounds that the CLP analyzes for. Equipment for field
analysis and screening of organic compounds falls into three broad categories:
• Portable, total organic vapor monitors
• Portable, selective organic instruments
• Mobile, selective organic instruments
7.6.2.1 Portable, Total Organic Vapor Monitors
Equipment in this category includes the HNU Model 101, the AID Models 710/712 and 580, and the
Foxboro OVA 108/128. These instruments are essentially gas chromatographic detectors that continuously
sample the ambient atmosphere. With the exception of two instruments, they respond to all organic vapors
7-5
-------
and are nonselective. The exceptions are the HNU Model 101 and the AID Model 580; both use a Photo
lonization Detector (PID). The PID does not respond to methane (or any other organic molecule with an
ionlzation potential greater than the energy of the ionizing lamp). This selective response is advantageous,
since methane is a common organic decomposition product and does not necessarily indicate the
presence of toxic materials.
This type of equipment is already commonly used for health and safety as well as sample screening.
Zero instrument response is a definitive result; it indicates an undetectable amount of organic vapors (toxic
or otherwise) within the range of the instrument's ionizing lamp. However, a positive instrument response
Is not conclusive evidence of the presence of toxic materials, since the detector responds to both toxic and
nontoxic organics. In addition to the selective response limitation, the organic vapor meters accept only
vapor state samples. This equipment not only limits the sample type but also restricts the range of mea
surable compounds to the relatively high volatility materials.
Section 15 provides procedures for use of the equipment described above.
7.6.2.2 Portable, Selective Organic Instruments
These types of instruments include the Photovac 10A10, the AID Model 511, and the Foxboro OVA
Century. While these instruments are portable, they are not as simple to use and transport as the total or-
ganic vapor instruments. If samples other than ambient air are to be analyzed, it would be more con-
venient to perform the analyses in a van, trailer, or building. The instruments listed above are isothermal
gas chromatographs (GC). The Foxboro is designed to operate at either 0°C or 40°C, while the Photovac
operates at ambient temperature. Thus, neither Instrument is applicable for analysis of relatively nonvolatile
compounds such as napthalene, phenol, or PCBs. The AID, while an isothermal GC, will maintain 200°C for
8 hours on battery power if preheated on AC power. This elevated temperature capability makes the AID
suitable for analyzing PCBs and other semi-volatiles. The AID can be used by injecting a liquid sample, a
process that is the most common method of sample introduction for semi-volatile organics analysis. The
Photovac, the AID, and the Foxboro do not offer temperature programming or capillary column capability,
both of which considerably enhance the selectivity of GCs.
This type of instrument is capable of identifying and quantitating organic compounds in relatively non-
complex samples. The presence of large numbers of compounds in a sample can severely restrict the
selectivity of this instrument. An example of a situation in which adequate selectivity would not be available
is the analysis of phenanthrene or anthracene in the presence of oil. The large number of hydrocarbon
compounds in the oil would obscure and interfere with the phenanthrene or anthracene.
One type of detector that is available for this type of equipment and that offers special selectivity is the
electron capture detector (ECD), which exhibits high sensitivity for halogenated molecules. Thus, it is pos-
sible to analyze for chlorinated compounds such as PCBs in the presence of unhalogenated hydrocarbon
compounds such as oils. Other compounds, such as phthalates, also cause a response with this detector,
so interferences must always be considered. While this selectivity is advantageous when the compounds
of interest are halogenated, this detector is not very useful for compounds such as benzene. This situation
illustrates the type of considerations that should be used in selecting equipment appropriate for a given
site.
7.6.2.3 Mobile, Selective Organic Instruments
This type of Instrument ranges from GCs such as the Shimadzu Mini 2, the Hewlett-Packard 5890, the
HNU Model 301, and the Unacon 810 through the Mass Spectrometric GC detectors to the tandem Mass
Spectrometer / Mass Spectrometer (MS/MS) TAGA 3000 and 6000. These instruments require at least 120
volts of AC power, either from regular utility supplies or from generators. The GCs are amenable to
7-6
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Exhibit 7-3
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chloromethane
Bromomethane
Vinyl chloride
Chloroethane
Methylene chloride
Acetone
Carbon disulfide
1,1-Dichloroethene
1,1-Dichloroethane
Trans-1,2-dichloroethene
Chloroform
1,2-Dichloroethane
2-Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone)
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl acetate
Bromodichloromethane
1,1,2, 2-Tetrachloroethane
Volatile Fraction
1,2-Dichloropropane
Trans-1,3-dichloropropene
Trichloroethene
Dibromochloromethane
1,1, 2-Trichloroethane
Benzene
Cis-1,3-dichloropropene
2-Chloroethylvinylether
Bromoform
2-Hexanone (methly butyl ketone)
4-methyl-2-pentanone (methyl
isobutyl ketone)
Tetrachloroethene
Toluene
Chlorobenzene
Ethylbenzerie
Styrene
Total xylenes
Semi-VQlatile Compounds
Phenol
Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
2-Chlorophenol
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
Benzyl alcohol
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
2-M ethyl phenol
Bis (2-chloroisopropyl) ether
4-Methylphenol
N-nitroso-di-n-propylamine
Hexachloroethane
Nitrobenzene
Isophorone
2-Nrtrophenol
2, 4-Dimethylphenol
Benzcic acid
Bis (2-chloroethoxy) methane
2, 4-Dichlorophenol
1,2, 4-Trichlorobenzene
Naphthalene
Acenaphthene
2,4-Dinitrophenol
4-Nitrophenol
Dibenzofuran
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
2,6-Dinitrotoluene
Diethylphthalate
4-Chlorophenyl-phenylether
Fluorene
4-Nitroaniline
4,6-Dinitro-2-methylphenol
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
4-Bromophenyl-phenylether
Hexachlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenanthrene
Anthracene
Di-n-butylphthalate
Ruoranthene
Pyrene
Butyl benzylphthalate
3, S'-Dichlorobenzidine
7-7
-------
Exhibit 7-3
(continued)
Semi-Volatile Compounds (continued)
4-Chloroaniline
Hexachlorobutadiene Benzo \
4-Chloro-3-methylPhenol Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
2-Methylnapthalene Chrysene
Hexachlorobyclopentadiene Di-n-octy phthalate
2, 4, 6-Trichlorophenol Benzo
-------
transportation and setup facilities that are available onsite. The Mass Spectrometric detectors should be in-
stalled in dedicated mobile vans or trailers for transportation and operation, and the TAGA is transported
and operated in a custom motor home with an integral generator.
Although the mobile GCs are more restricted than the portable GCs in the locations where they can be
used, they offer significantly more potential selectivity. The ability to use capillary columns and to employ
temperature programming greatly increases the resolution of chromatographic separations and enhances
the selectivity of the analysis. Exhibit 7A-1 of Appendix 7A contains mobile laboratory protocols for organic
analyses based on GO techniques.
The Unacon is a special device for sample preparation, which, in addition to purging and trapping
aqueous samples, also facilitates the analyses of gases, soils, and sediments by gas chromatography.
Solid sample materials (such as soil or dry sediment) can be loaded into a Unacon sample tube and heated
to thermally desorb organics for GC analysis. The Unacon also provides for purge and trap and for direct
solvent injection of liquid samples.
If a GC is interfaced to a Mass Spectrometric Detector, such as the Hewlett-Packard 5970 B or the Fin-
nigan Ion Trap Detector (ITD), the resulting system will approach the selectivity of laboratory equipment.
These mass-selective detectors are designed to operate with capillary column GCs and to include
microcomputer-based data systems. While these data systems are compact and inexpensive, they can be
fitted for high capacity storage that provides the capability to search mass spectral databases, such as the
EPA/NIH Spectrum Library. The combination of a GC and a Mass Spectrometric Detector installed in a van
offers the potential for a highly selective mobile-analysis capability.
The TAGA MS/MS unit has been used In field situations for which it provided a great deal of selectivity,
although at a relatively high cost. When the situation warrants, the TAGA unit can provide exceptional
specificity and sensitivity for the analysis of problem compounds such as 2,3,7,8-tetra-chlorodibenzo-p-
dioxin (TCDD). The TAGA does not use a GC for initial separation of individual compounds. As the name
implies, two mass spectrometers in tandem provide both compound separation and identification informa-
tion within the same unit.
Effective use of these analytical instruments requires a high level of expertise and experience on the
part of the analyst.
7.6.3 Class A Poisons
7.6.3.1 General
Class A poisons are defined as being extremely dangerous poisonous gases or liquids of which an ex-
tremely small amount of gas or vapor of the liquid mixed with air is dangerous to life.
Exhibit 7-4 lists 25 compounds that fall into this category. Sixteen of these compounds are listed by
the Department of Transportation (DOT) as Class A poisons, and these compounds were selected for
screening at waste sites in an EPA report entitled Available Field Methods for Rapid Screening of Hazardous
Waste Materials at Waste Sites, Interim Report, Class A Poisons, December 1982. Determining the presence
of Class A poisons is of interest to the SM because of the extremely strict requirements placed on the ship-
ping of Class A poisons by DOT. The following paragraphs summarize the methods evaluated by EPA for
screening Class A poisons.
7-9
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Exhibit 7-4
CLASS A POISONS
Arsine
Bromoacetone
Carbonyl flouride
Chloropicrin
Cyanogen
Cyanogen chloride
Dichlorodiethyl sulfide
Ethyl bromoacetate
Ethyldichloroarsine
Germane
Hydrocyanic acid
Methyldichloroarsine
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen tetroxide
Nitrogen trioxide
Phosgene
Diphosgene
Phosphine
Phenylcarbylamine chloride
Trichloroacetyl chloride
Tetrachlorodin'rtroethane
Ally! isothiocyanate
Dichloro-(2-chlorovinyl) arsine*
Hydrogen selenide
Lewisite blistering agent (mustard gas)
7.6.3.2 Screening Methods for Class A Poisons
The current state of the art for existing methods of general detection does not provide for the specific
field screening of Class A poisons. It appears that a more promising approach is the specific detection
method for each of the Class A poisons of interest. A convenient method for the field screening of specific
volatile substances is the use of gas detection tubes. These tubes contain a granulated solid support, such
as silica gel, with an adsorbed reagent that changes color in the presence of the species the reagent is
designed to detect. A known quantity of sample gas is drawn through the detection tube, and the length of
the resulting discoloration is read against a precalibrated scale to give the concentration of the species of
interest. Interferences are common and can give erroneous results. The following summary of the litera-
ture describes the more promising systems for detection against reagents that might be used with the gas
detection tube concept. Gas detection tubes for several of the Class A poisons are already commercially
available. Colorimetric-indicating gas detection tubes are most useful in situations in which the con-
taminant is known or suspected; the tubes can reduce the possibility of interferences that produce er-
roneous results.
The EPA survey showed that 16 reagent detection systems lend themselves to field screening for
hydrocyanic acid. Of the methods that were considered, four employed photometric analysis, while the
other procedures used adsorption of hydrocyanic acid and/or the detector reagent on some type of solid
support, such as silica gel, filter paper, or activated charcoal. Considering all factors, the commercially
available Draeger detector tube for hydrocyanic acid appeared to offer the greatest potential for incorpora-
tion into field methodology. This tube has a detection range of 2.3 to 34 mg/m3; acid gases such as
hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia are retained in the precleanse layer.
Ten reagent systems were reported for the detection of arsine. Three methods involve photometric
analysis; one is a titration procedure; the other six use adsorption on a solid support, as described above.
The most promising of these methods for field screening appears to be the Draeger arsine detector tube,
which has a detection range of 0.16 to 195 mg/m3. Phosphine and antimony hydride are listed as positive
interferences. It should be noted that phosphine is also classified as a Class A poison.
7-10
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A total of 16 reagent detection systems were reported for the screening of ethyl and/or methyl-
dichloroarsine. Two of these methods used a precipitate in the reagent solution as a positive result.
Twelve methods used reagent-treated filter paper, while one used a coloration change made by marks of a
treated crayon. The method that appears to be the most suitable for incorporation into a field test kit used
a detector tube containing silica gel that has been impregnated with a mixture of zinc sulfate and molybdic
acid. This tube offers direct and sensitive detection for alkyldichloroarsine. The detection limit of the
reagent is given as 2.5 p.g; other closely related organo-arsenic halides and hydrogen sulfide are given as
positive interferences.
Eleven reagent detector systems could be used for field screening of mustard gas. There are two
types of chemical warfare blistering agents: H (and its distillates HD and HT) and Lewisite. All are known
by the general term "mustard gas." The most attractive of these methods for H compounds appears to be
silica gel impregnated with auric chloride. According to the literature, a characteristic reddish-brown color
appears in the presence of mustard gas.
Eleven potential field screening methods were found for the detection of dichloro-(2-chlorovinyl) arsine.
The most promising of these methods appears to be that which uses Michler's thioketone (4,4'-bis
(dimethylamino) thiobenzo phenone) as the reagent adsorbed on silica gel. This reagent system is current-
ly used by the U.S. Army in its M256 gas detector kit for the detection of Lewisite.
Seven methods were identified that could be used for the field detection of cyanogen chloride. Two
methods required photometric analysis, while one involved titration. The other four approaches used
reagents adsorbed on some type of solid support. The most promising approach appears to be the use of
the cyanogen chloride detector tube made by Draeger. This tube has a detection range of 0.64 to 12.8
mg/m3. Cyanogen bromide is listed as a positive interference.
Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide can be detected by using the Draeger nitrous fumes detector tube. A
total of 15 reagent systems were examined for the detection of nitric oxide and/or nitrogen dioxide. The
Draeger tube method appears to be the most advantageous approach since both gases can be detected
simultaneously and since the method is commercially available.
Eleven methods appeared suitable for adaptation to field screening for phosphine. One method in-
volved titration; two used photometric analysis; the remaining eight methods used liquid reagents ad-
sorbed on solid supports. The most promising method appears to be the use of the Draeger phosphine
detector tube, which has a detection range of 0.14 to 5.68 mg/m3. Antimony hydride and arsine, a Class A
poi son, are given as positive interferences.
Only four reagent detection methods were found for the field screening of bromoacetone. The best ap-
proach for the detection of this compound appears to be a two-step method. Sodium nitroprusside is used
as a detecting reagent for methyl ketones in the first step. An orange coloration of the sodium nitroprus-
side indicates the presence of this class of compounds. The second step is the detection of bromine using
fuchsin-sulfurous acid test paper. A positive response is indicated when a violet color appears. When both
of these tests are positive, bromoacetone is assumed to be present.
Sixteen reagent systems were examined for the detection of phosgene. Three methods require
photometric analysis; one involves titration; the remaining approaches use a reagent on solid support. The
best method appears to be the Draeger phosgene detector tube, which has a detection range of 0.17 to 6.2
mg/m3. Carbonyl bromide and acetyl chloride are listed as positive interferences. Literature dealing with
the detection of diphosgene stated that to use the Draeger tubes, the gas must be heated 300°C to 350°C
to decompose it to phosgene, which is then detected by the above methods. Further testing will determine
the necessity for this heat treatment.
7-11
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One method was found for the specific detection of cyanogen. The reagents used for this test are 8-
quinolinol and potassium cyanide, which turns red in the presence of this species. In addition, cyanogen
may be converted to hydrogen cyanide or cyanogen chloride and can be detected as these substances.
Five detection means were reported for germanium. Two of these methods involved titrimetric
analysis. Currently, the most promising approach for field detection appears to be the use of the reagent,
hydroxyphenyl fluorene, which turns an orange color in the presence of germanium.
Only one method was reported for the detection of phenylcarbylamine chloride. This method uses
Sudan red, ground chalk, and iron (III) chloride, which turns from red to green in the presence of phenyl-
carbylamine chloride. Sudan red is listed as a carcinogen.
The EPA report recommended that the above methods be evaluated in a laboratory as a means of
screening for the Class A poison for which each system is designed.
7.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Because field screening techniques are not completely standardized, the SM must prepare a detailed
explanation of the methods to be used and the associated QA/QC procedures. This information is included
in the QAPJP for review and approval by EPA.
7.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
COM Federal Programs Corporation. REMIITeam Operating Procedures for X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzer.
April 1987.
Equipment Available for Sample Screening and Onsite Measurements. Technical Directive Document No.
HQ-8311-04, Contract No. 68-01-6699. 30 May 1984.
NUS Corporation, Superfund Division. Operating Guidelines Manual: Rapid Field Screening of Hazardous
Substances. Procedure 4.35 (Draft 1).
REM/FIT Mobile Lab QA Procedure Development. Technical Directive Document No. HQ-8505-04. 30
June 1985.
Roffman, H.K., and M.D. Neptune. Field Screening of Samples From Hazardous Wastes. Proceedings, In-
stitute of Environmental Sciences. April 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available Field Methods for Rapid Screening of Hazardous Waste
Materials at Waste Sites. Interim Report, Class A Poisons, EPA Report No. 6001X-82-014. December 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Drum Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA Report
No. EPA/600/2-86-013. Cincinnati, Ohio: HWERL August 1986.
7-12
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APPENDIX 7A
PROTOCOLS, REPORTING, AND DELIVERABLES
The following sections discuss methodologies that have been used in screening samples on hazardous
waste sites. The Site Manager (SM) should realize that these methodologies may not be suitable for all
sites and may require extensive modification to meet the validation requirement of a specific region. Also,
the methodologies used must be related to the data quality objectives of the project.
Exhibit 7A-1 presents protocols that have been used for analyses, reporting and deliverables for the
mobile laboratory analysis of organic compounds for screening. Exhibit 7A-2 lists the estimated limits of
detection for organics on the target compounds list. Exhibit 7A-3 presents the protocols to be followed for
the mobile laboratory screening of inorganic trace elements and cyanide. Exhibit 7A-4 describes the
operating procedure for XRF analysis of soils and tailings with the Columbia X-Met 840 Analyzer.
HOLDING TIMES BEFORE ANALYSIS
Samples should be analyzed as soon as possible after sampling. One advantage to field analysis is
rapid turn around, generally 24 hours, for most analyses. If samples are not analyzed immediately, the fol-
lowing holding times are suggested. Volatile organic analyses (VOAs) should be held no more than 7 days
from sampling until analysis for water samples and no more than 10 days for soil or sediment samples.
Base neutral acids (BNAs) and pesticides should be held no more than 5 days until extraction for water
samples and no more than 10 days for soil or sediment samples. Samples must be refrigerated before
analysis.
Inorganic samples should be preserved in the field according to EPA protocols found in the User's
Guide to the CLP. The holding time for cyanides shall not exceed 24 hours.
Exhibit 7A-1
MOBILE LABORATORY PROTOCOLS FOR ORGANIC ANALYSES
I. VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
A. Instrumentation for Water and Soil Sample Analyses
1. Tekmar purge and trap or equivalent
2. Temperature-programmed gas chromatograph equipped with flame-ionization detector
3. GC column
a. 60/80 Carbopack B/1 percent SP-1000 6 ft x 44mm I.D. glass-packed column
B. Water Sample Analysis
1. Adapted from Method 5030, SW-846, purge and trap
2. Calibration standard solution
a. Spike an aliquot of commercial (Supelco) standard mixture into 20 ml of reagent
water and purge.
3. Analysis
7.A-1
-------
Exhibit 7A-1
(continued)
a. Use calibration standard through purge and trap system.
1) Once per site before sample analyses
2) After every 20 sample analyses
b. Purge organic-free water blank (5 ml), solution analysis
1) After every calibration standard solution analysis.
2) After every 10 sample analyses
c. Perform corrective maintenance when calibration standard responses decrease by
20 percent of the initial calibration standard run; clean the injection port and the purge
and trap appara
C. Soil / Sediment Sample Analysis
1. Adapted from Method 5030, SW-846, methand extraction
2. Calibration standard solution preparation
a. Spike aliquot of commercial (Supelco) standard mixture into 20 ml of reagent water
and purge.
3. Extraction
a. Place 1 g soil sample/10 methand in a 40-ml glass Teflon-capped vial.
b. Shake for 2 minutes.
c. Allow solids to settle.
4. Analysis
a. Use 400 |J extract injected/20 ml organic-free water (equivalent to 1 ppm limit of
detection).
5. Quality control
a. Use calibration standard through purge and trap system.
1) Once per site before sample extract analyses
2) After every 20 sample extract analyses
b. Purge organic-free water blank (20 ml organic-free water containing the 400 ul
methanol used for extraction).
1) After every calibration standard analysis
2) After every 10 sample extract analyses
3) After any sample extracts that exceed 100 ppm
c. Perform corrective maintenance when calibration standard responses decrease by
20 percent of the initial calibration standard run; clean the injection port and the purge
and trap apparatus.
II. SEMI-VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
A. Instrumentation for Water and Soil Sample Analyses
1. Base / neutral and acid extractable organic
a. Temperature-programmed gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization
detector
2. Pesticides/PCBs
a. Isothermal gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector
3. GC column
a. Base / neutral and acid extractable organics
7.A-2
-------
Exhibit 7A-1
(continued)
1) Fused silica capillary column DB-5 or equivalent 30 mm x 0.32 mm, 1
micron film thickness
b. Pesticides/PCBs
1) 3 percent OV-1 on 80/100 Supelcoport 6 ft x 4 mm I.D. or equivalent
B. Water Sample Analysis
1. Pesticides/PCBs
a. Extraction
1) Use 15 ml water sample/1.5 ml hexane in 20 ml disposable culture tube
with cap (Teflon or aluminum foil liner).
2) Shake for 2 minutes.
b. Analysis
1) Injects (xl extract.
2) Use detection limits 0.5 (for compounds such as lindane) to 20 ppb (for
compounds such as Aroclor PCBs).
c. Calibration standard solution
1) Pesticide mixture: lindane, 0.005 ng/|J; aldrin, 0.01 ng/jj; p-p'-DDT, 0.025
ng/jj
2) PCBs: Aroclor 1254, 0.15 ng/^l
d. Quality control
1) Inject calibration standard solution
a) Once per site before sample analysis
b) After every 20 sample extracts
2) Inject solvent blank.
a) After each calibration standard solution analysis
b) After every 10 sample extract analyses.
3) Spike (field) sample.
a) Spike water with spiking solution of lindane, 0.5 jil; aldrin.1.0 p,g/l;
p-p'-DDT, 2.5 n,g/l
4) Perform corrective maintenance when calibration response decreases 20
percent from initial calibration; clean injection port and front of GC column.
2. Base / neutral and acid extractable organic compounds
a. Extraction
1) Adjust 100 ml sample to pH 2 or less, in a 125 ml separator/ funnel.
2) Extract with 10 ml methylene chloride.
3) Shake for 2 minutes with proper venting and appropriate safety measures.
b. Analysis
1) Inject 2 jj of extract
2) Note that limits of detection vary depending on recovery and sensitivity of
compound, 100 ppb-1 ppm.
c. Calibration standard solution
1) Commercial (Supelco) solution containing the compounds of interest at
appropriate concentrations
d. Quality control
1) Inject calibration standard solution.
a) Once per site before sample analysis
b) Every 20 sample analyses
2) Use spiked (field) sample to check extraction recovery.
a) Spiking solution of phenol, phenanthrene, 4-6-dinitro-2 methyi-
pnenol, hexachlorobenzene, and di-n-octyl-phthalate
7.A-3
-------
Exhibit 7A-1
(continued)
b) Spike water sample at 1,000
c) Spiked sample to check extraction recovery
(1 ) Every 20 sample extract analyses
(2) At least once per site
(3) Solvent blank
(a) After each calibration standard analysis
(b) After every 10 sample analyses
(4) Conduct corrective, maintenance when calibration response decreases
20. percent from initial calibration; clean injection port and front of GC
column.
C. Soil / Sediment Sample Analysis
1. Pesticides / PCBs
a. Extraction
1) Place 1 g soil sample in glass scintillation vial of at least 20 ml volume with
screw caps (Teflon or aluminum foil liner).
2) Add 2 g anhydrous sodium sulfate.
3) Mix well with spatula to free-flowing powder.
4) Add 10ml hexane.
5) Shake for 2 minutes.
6) Allow solids to settle.
b. Analysis
1) 5 (J extract injected
2) Limits of detection 0.05 ppm for compounds such as lindane to 2 ppm for
compounds such as Aroclor PCBs
c. Calibration standard solution
1) Pesticide solution of lindane, 0.005 ng/ul; aldrin, 0.01 ng/ml; and p-p'-DDT,
0.025
2) PCBs--Aroclor 1254, 0.15
d. Quality control
1) Calibration standard Injected (both pesticides and PCBs)
a) Once per site before sample analysis
b) After every 10 sample analyses
2) Spiked (field) sample
a) Spiking solution-concentration in soil will be lindane, 50 ng/g;
aldrin, 100 ng/g; and p-p'-DDT, 250 ng/g
b) Spiked sample every 20 samples
c) Once per site, minimum
3) Solvent blank injection
a) After each calibration standard solution injection
b) After every 10 samples extract
c) After any samples that exceed 20 ppm
4) Conduct corrective maintenance when calibration response decreases by
20 percent of initial calibration; clean injection port and front of GC column
2. Base / neutral and acid extractable compounds
a. Extraction
1) Place 1 a soil sample in glass scintillation vial of at least 20 ml volume with
screw cap (Teflon or aluminum foil liner).
2) Add 2 g anhydrous sodium sulfate.
7.A-4
-------
Exhibit 7A-1
(continued)
3) Mix well with spatula to a free-flowing powder.
4) Add 10 ml methylene chloride.
5) Shake for 2 minutes.
6) Allow solids to settle.
b. Analysis
1) 2 |xl extract injected
2) Detection limits vary, 10 ppm-100 ppm
c. Calibration standard solution - commercial (Supelco) solution containing the com-
pounds of interest at appropriate concentrations
d. Quality control
1) Calibration standard injected
a) Once per site prior to sample extract analysis
b) After every 10 sample extract analyses
2) Spiked (field) samples
a) Spiking solution-concentration in soil will be 100 jig/g for each of
the following compounds: phenol, phenanthrene, 4-6-din'rtro-2-
methyl phenol, hexachlorobenzene, and di-n-octylphthalate
b) Spiked sample every 20 samples
c) Spiked sample once per site, minimum
3) Solvent blank injection
a) After each calibration standard injection
b) After every 10 sample extract analyses
c) After any sample extracts that exceed 10,000 ppm
4) Conduct corrective maintenance when calibration response decreases by
20 percent from initial calibration; clean injection port and front of GC column
III. DELIVERABLES AND REPORTING - MOBILE LABORATORY ORGANICS ANALYSES
A. For each sample analyzed, a summary sheet containing the following information shall be
provided:
1. Site name
2. Sample number
3. Date received
4. Date analyzed
5. Analyst
6. Number of peaks recorded on chromatogram (Note: For each sample
chromatogram, peaks recorded will be numbered sequentially (#1, #2, #3, etc.)
directly on the chromatogram)
7. Retention time of each peak
8. Relative concentration of each peak - compare sample chromatogram to calibra-
tion standard chromatogram; determine the closest eluting standard; and assume a
response factor of 1.0. Other response factors may be assumed if indicated.
B. Copies of all analysts' logbooks, calibration logs, daily activity logs, and all chromatograms
for calibration runs, blank injections, and samples will be received within 14 days of the receipt
of the last sample from a particular site.
7.A-5
-------
Exhibit 7A-2
TARGET COMPOUND LIST (TCL) ESTIMATED DETECTION LIMITS
Estimated
Detection Limits*, **
Volatiles"'b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Chloromethane
Bromomethane
Vinyl chloride
•Chlorethane
Methylene chloride
Acetone
Carbon disulfide
1, 1 -Dichloroethene
1, 1 -Dichtoroethane
Trans-1 , 2-dlchloroethene
Chloroform
1 ,2-Dichloroethane
2-Butanone
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Carbon tetrachloride
Vinyl acetate
Bromodichloromethane
1 ,1 ,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
1 ,2-Dichloropropane
Trans-1 ,2-dichloropropene
Trichloroethene
Dibromochloromethane
1 ,1 ,2-Trichloroethane
Benzene
Cis-1 ,3-dichloropropene
2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether
Bromoform
2-Hexanone
4-Methyl-2-pentanone
Tetrachloroethene
Toluene
Chlorobenzene
Ethyl benzene
Styrene
Total Xylenes
CAS Number
74-87-3
74-83-9
75-01-4
75-00-3
75-09-2
67-64-1
75-15-0
75-35-4
75-35-3
156-60-5
67-66-3
107-06-2
78-93-3
71-55-6
56-23-5
108-05-4
75-27-4
79-34-5
78-87-5
10061-02-6
79-01-6
124-48-1
79-00-5
71-43-2
10061-01-5
110-75-8
75-25-2
591-78-6
108-10-1
127-18-4
108-88-3
108-90-7
100-41-4
100-42-5
100-42-5
Water
»UJ/1
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
Soil/Sediment
M-g/kg
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
5
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
7A-6
-------
Exhibit 7A-2
(continued)
Estimated
Detection Limits*, **
Semi- Volatiles'
.ab
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
N-nitrosodimethylamine
Phenol
Aniline
Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether
2-Chlorophend
1 , 3-Dichlorobenzene
1 ,4-Dichlorobenzene
Benzyl alcohol
1 ,2-Dichlorobenzene
2-Methylphenol
Bis (2-chloroisopropyl) ether
4-Methylphenol
N-nitroso-dipropylamine
Hexachloroethane
Nitrobenzene
Isophorone
2-Nitrophenol
2,4-Dimethylphenol
Benzoic acid
Bis (2-chloroethoxy) methane
2,4-Dichlorophenol
1 ,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Naphthalene
4-Chloroaniline
Hexachlorobutadiene
4-Chloro-3-methylphenol
(para-chloro-meta-cresol)
2-Methylnaphthalene
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
2.4,6-Trichlorophenol
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
2-Chloronaphthalene
2-Nitroaniline
Dimethyl phthalate
Acenaphthylene
3-Nitroanlline
Acenaphthene
2,4-Dinitrophenol
4-Nitrophenol
Dibenzofuran
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
CAS Number
62-75-9
108-95-2
62-53-3
111-44-4
95-57-8
541-73-1
106-46-7
100-51-6
95-50-1
95-48-7
39638-32-9
106-44-5
621-64-7
67-72-1
98-95-3
78-59-1
88-75-5
105-67-9
65-85-0
111-91-1
120-83-2
120-82-1
91-20-3
106-47-8
87-68-3
59-50-7
91-57-6
77-47-4
88-06-2
95-95-4
91-58-7
88-74-4
131-11-3
208-96-8
99-09-2
83-32-9
51-28-5
100-02-7
132-64-9
121-14-2
7A-7
Water
Mfl/1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
50
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
50
10
50
10
10
50
10
50
50
10
10
Soil/Sediment
M,g/kg
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
1600
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
1600
330
1600
330
330
1600
330
1600
1600
330
330
-------
Exhibit 7A-2
(continued)
Estimated
Detection Limits*, **
Seml-Volatllesc.d
76. 2,6-Dinitrotoluene
77. Diethylphthalate
78. 4-Chlorophenyl phenyl ether
79. Fluorene
80. 4-Nitroaniline
81. 4,6-Dinitro-2-methylphenol
82. N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
83. 4-Bromophenyl phenyl ether
84. Hexachlorobenzene
85. Pentachlorophenol
86. Phenanthrene
87. Anthracene
88. Di-n-butytphthalate
89. Fluroanthene
90. Benzidine
91. Pyrene
92. Butyl benzyl phthalate
93. 3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine
94. Benzo (a) anthracene
95. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
96. Chrysene
97. Di-n-octyl phthalate
98. Benzo (b) fluoranthene
99. Benzo (k) fluroanthene
100. Benzo (a) pyrene
Pesticides8,1
101. Ideno (1, 2,3-cd) pyrene
102. Dibenz (a, h) anthracene
103. Benzo (g,h,i) perylene
104. Alpha-BHC
105. Beta-BHC
106. Delta-BHC
107. Gamma-BHC (lindane)
108. Heptachlor
109. Aldrin
110. Heptachlor epoxlde
CAS Number
606-20-2
84-66-2
7005-2-3
86-73-7
100-01-6
534-52-1
86-30-6
101-55-3
118-74-1
87-86-5
85-01-8
120-12-7
84-74-2
206-44-0
92-87-5
129-00-0
85-68-7
91-94-1
56-55-3
117-81-7
218-01-9
117-84-0
205-99-2
207-08-9
50-32-8
193-39-5
53-70-3
191-24-2
319-84-6
319-85-7
319-86-8
58-89-9
76-44-8
309-00-2
1024-57-3
Water
Pfl/1
10
10
10
10
50
50
10
10
10
50
10
10
10
10
50
10
10
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Soil/Sediment
^g/kg
330
330
330
330
1600
1600
330
330
330
1600
330
330
330
330
1600
330
330
660
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
7A-8
-------
Exhibit 7A-2
(continued)
Estimated
Detection Limits*. **
Pesticides'.' CAS Number
111. Endosulfanl 959-98-8 o.05 2.0
112. Dieldrin 60-57-1 Q.10 40
113. 4,4'-DDE 72-55-9 Q.10 4.0
114. Endrin 72-20-8 o.10 4.0
115. Endosulfanll 33213-65-9 0.10 4.0
116. 4,4'-ODD 72-54-8 0.10 20.0
117. Endrin aldehyde 7421-93-4 o.10 20.0
118. Endosulfan sulfate 1031-07-8 o.10 40.0
119. 4,4'-DDT 50-29-3 0.10 20.0
120. Endrin ketone 53494-70-5 0.10 20.0
121. Methoxychlor 72-43-5 0.5 20.0
122. Chlordane 57-74-9 0.5 20.0
123. Toxaphene 8001-35-2 1.0 20.0
124. AROCLOR-1016 12674-11-2 0.5 40.0
125. AROCLOR-1221 11104-28-2 0.5 40.0
126. AROCLOR-1232 11141-16-5 05
127. AROCLOR-1242 53469-21-9 0.5
128. AROCLOR-1248 12672-29-6 0.5
129. AROCLOR-1254 11097-69-1 1.0
130. AROCLOR-1260 11096-82-5 10
Medium Water Contract Required Detection Limits (CRDL) for Volatile Target Compound List (TCL)
Compounds are 100 times the individual Low Water CRCL.
Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Volatile TCL Componds are 100 times the individual Low Soil/Sediment CRDL.
c Medium Water CRDL for Semi-Volatile TCL Compounds are 100 times the individual Low Water CRDL
d Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Semi-Volatile TCL Compounds are 60 times the individual
low Soil/Sediment CRDL
6 Medium Water CRDL for Pesticide TCL Compounds are 100 times the individual Low Water CRDL
' Medium Soil/Sediment CRDL for Pesticide TCL compounds are 60 times the individual Low Soil/Sediment CRDL.
Detection limits listed for soil/sediment are based on wet weight. The detection limits calculated by the
laboratory for soil/sediment, calculated on dry weight basis as required by the contract, will be higher.
** Specific detection limits are highly matrix dependent. The detection limits listed herein are provided.
for guidance and may not always be achievable.
7A-9»
-------
Exhibit 7A -3
INORGANIC ANALYSIS PROTOCOLS
PROTOCOLS FOR INORGANICS ANALYSIS-MOBILE LABORATORY AND FIXED-BASE
LABORATORY
Metals: Approved EPA method for ICP, flame, flameless, or cold vapor atomic adsorption are used,
provided that the required detection limits listed herein can be achieved. These methods are detailed in the
CLP's Scope ofWork for Inorganic Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Concentration, SOW No. 785, July 1985 (a new
version is expected soon). However, perform digestion using a technique appropriate for the elements of
concern. Perform analyses for the following elements:
aluminum lead
antimony magnesium
arsenic manganese
barium mercury
beryllium nickel
cadmium potassium
calcium selenium
chromium silver
cobalt sodium
copper thallium
cyanide vanadium
iron zinc
Cyanide: Use approved EPA method that meets the detection limits required herein, as specified in
CLP SOW No. 785
DETECTION LIMITS
For inorganic analyses, use the required detection limits for soils. Limits should be no higher than 100
times the required limits for waters, which are listed below. (However, it is understood that occasional in-
terferences may prevent these limits from being achieved in every case. Provide documentation stating the
reason(s) if these limits are not achieved.)
Element / Compound and Required Detection Limit in p.g/1
aluminum 200 cobalt 50 nickel 40
antimony 60 copper 25 potassium 5,000
arsenic 10 cyanide 10 selenium 5
barium 200 iron 100 silver 10
beryllium 5 lead 5 sodium 5,000
cadmium 5 magnesium 5,000 thallium 10
calcium 5,000 manganese 15 vanadium 50
chromium 10 mercury 0.2 zinc 20
7.A-10
-------
Exhibit 7A-3
(continued)
GENERAL QUALITY CONTROL
• Perform one matrix spike and matrix spike duplicate on all fractions for each matrix (water or soil).
Spike with as many compounds as are currently in a stock mix, and report all levels found.
• Perform one laboratory (method) blank on all fractions for each matrix (water or soil).
• Homogenize solids carefully.
METALS ANALYSIS QUALITY CONTROL
• Whenever spike recoveries indicate that sample results for a particular metal may not be accurate,
perform a standard addition on all samples (from one site) of the same matrix if the samples have
positive results for this element. Use the control limits for spike recoveries as action levels for
standard additions that must not exceed 60 to 140 percent. Report standard addition corrected
results with a footnote that indicates this fact.
• Before running any samples and thereafter at least once per shift, run an instrument blank followed
by calibration for all metals.
• Run a calibration check standard after every 10 samples are run on an instrument. Recalibrate, if
necessary, based upon control limits that must not exceed 80 to 120 percent. If ICP is used, run a
QC standard at least twice per shift to check interelement interference correction. Interfered con-
centrations should be approximately 100 to 1,000 times higher than analyte concentrations.
• When results for calibration check standards or ICAP interference check standards fall outside of
control limits (which must not exceed 60 to 140 percent), reanalyze all preceding samples (since
the last check analysis) having positive results for the affected parameters. Reanalysis should
occur after the problem has been corrected.
DELIVERABLES
• For each sample analyzed, provide a summary sheet containing the following information:
- Site name
- Sample number
- Date received
- Date analyzed
- Analyst
• Report results for all samples, spikes, instrument, and method blanks. For each sample, list all
compounds for which analyses were per formed with either the amount detected or the ap-
proximate detection limit next to each compound. Report results in mg/l or mg/kg. Do not per-
form subtraction of method or calibration blank values from sample results. Report quantitations
to two significant figures.
• Report all matrix spike recoveries including amount added and recovered. If zero recoveries,
check for a problem, and document the explanation in the results. Calculate and report the relative
percentage of difference (difference divided by mean) for all matrix spike and matrix spike dupli-
cate recoveries.
• Report the sample preparation weight / volume, the final analysis volume, and the injection volume
for each sample and for each analytical fraction.
• Provide calibration check data for each sample run series. Report the true and measured con-
centrations of each analyte in the calibration checks.
• If ICP is used, provide results for all applicable interference check samples including true and
measured concentrations of each analyte in the check sample.
7.A-11
-------
Exhibit 7A-3
(continued)
• Report the type of analytical method used for each parameter analyzed, since different interferen-
ces occur witn ICAP, Rame AA, and furnace methods.
• For each ICAP parameter, report the wavelength for measurement, together with a list of all known
interfering elements and their approximate correction factors.
Receipt of results: Complete results and documentation (analysts' logbooks, calibration logs, daily ac-
tivity logs, and all machine-generated documentation) must be received within 14 days of sample receipt
for mobile laboratory analyses.
Verbal results for sample analyses will be provided upon request immediately following analysis; verbal
results are simply an indication of the presence or absence of contaminants in samples.
Periodic analyses on EPA quality assurance check samples will be performed as established by data
quality objectives and the QAPjP; results for these analyses will be reported in the same manner as any
samples.
Exhibit 7A-4
OPERATING PROCEDURE FOR SRF ANALYSIS OF SOILS / TAILINGS
WITH COLUMBIA SCIENTIFIC X-MET 840 ANALYZER
This procedure describes the use of the X-MET 840 X-ray fluorescence analyzer for analysis of heavy
metals in solid samples.
1.0 EQUIPMENT
1. X-MET 840 XRF analyzer electronic unit.
2. HEPS sample probe, either Cm-244 or Am-241 radioisotope source, or both.
3. Distribution box (optional) for analysis requiring both probes.
4. Pure element standards, one for each element present within the samples to be analyzed.
5. Sample calibration standards.
6. Sample cups, polyethelene film, and scissors (included in unit storage box).
7. Automatic pulverizer, or mortar and pestle, for grinding samples to a powder.
8. Oven and aluminum pans for drying samples.
9. Acid-rinsed silica sand for cleaning grinding equipment.
10. Plastic sampling spoons.
11. Plastic vials (50 dram).
2.0 SAMPLE PREPARATION
This procedure describes the method of preparing both samples and calibration standards for
analysis with the X-MET 840.
2.1 Drying
In order to avoid analytical errors due to moisture content (a matrix effect) of all
samples must be dried in the same manner.
2.1.1 Spread sample evenly in the aluminum pan. It is important that the
sample in the pan be as homogeneous as possible and that all large chunks
be broken up.
2.1.2 Place pan with sample in an oven and dry at 300°F for approximately 20
min., or until moisture Is removed. Alternatively, samples may be dried in
direct sunlight.
7.A-12
-------
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
2.2 Subsampling
It is recommended that the entire sample be ground to avoid sampling error due to
nonhomogenelty. However, if this is not possible, sampling error may oe minimized
by selection of a representative portion of the sample in the pan. With the use of a
plastic spoon, remove one or more pie-shaped sections and place into the grinding
apparatus.
2.3 Grinding
It is important that all samples be ground In the-same manner. Analytical error due to
differences in particle size can be substantial.
2.3.1 Samples should be ground with a portable hammer mill or, alternately, a
mortar and pestle, until of equal consistency.
2.3.2 The grinding equipment must be cleaned (decontaminated) by grinding
with silica sand. Liquid solvents should not be used.
2.4 Use of sample cups
2.4.1 Turn cup over and cover bottom with polyethelene film. Snap ring over
film and onto bottom of cup. Cut cup free of film with scissors.
2.4.2 Trim excess film from edges of cup and check for holes or wrinkles. If
the film is not completely smooth, or wrinkles cannot be removed, repeat the
procedure.
2.4.3 Place sample in cup using a plastic spoon. Cups should be at least 3/4
filled with sample. Pack sample into cup until bottom (at film surface) is as
smooth as possible. Brush away loose powder from outside edges of cup
with a small brush to avoid contamination of the probe.
2.5 Note: Analysis with the X-MET requires only about 5 grams of sample. However, a mini-
mum of approximately 40 grams is required for complete metals analysis by AAS or ICP tech-
niques. Therefore, a minimum of 45 grams should be ground: 40 grams for verification and/or
referee analyses and 5 grams retained for X-MET analyses. This is not critical if the entire
sample is ground.
2.6 Ground powders should be stored in labeled plastic vials (50 dram).
3.0 PREPARATION FOR OPERATION
This procedure must be followed prior to both calibration (Section 4.0) and/or measurement
(Section 5.0).
3.1 Power Supply
Connect the X-MET electronic unit to a suitable power source, either A.C. power,
charged battery pack, or 12 volt battery. (Note: the unit will operate for approximately
8 hours on a fully charged battery pack).
3.2 Probe Connection
Connect probe cable to PROBE connector on bottom left of front panel. If more than
one probe is to be used, they must be connected via the distribution box. (Note:
Never connect / disconnect probe while the electronic unit is ON; this may damage
the probe).
3.3 Switch ON
Turn the unit on by pressing the ON button. The display should then read: SELF
TEST COMPLETED followed by the"" prompt and "J'cursor" indicator. The "" prompt
indicates the ready (quiescent) state. (Note: Before switching the instrument OFF it
should be returned to the quiescent state).
3.4 Electrical and Thermal Stabilization
Allow the unit to stabilize for approximatelySO min., prior to any measurements.
Stabilization time is required to allow the X-MET to adjust to its surroundings. At least
1 min., of stabilization time should be allowed for each 1 deg F temperature change.
(Note: When using 2 or 3 probes via the distribution box, electrical stabilization oc-
curs simultaneously for alt probes).
7.A-13
-------
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
3.5 Gain Control
Each probe should be allowed at least 5 min., for gain control operation. Gain control
takes place automatically when the unit is in the quiescent state ("" prompt) and the
probe shutter is closed (lid open and green light on).
3.5.1 If the display reads: UNINITIALIZED PROBE, then no initial value have
been entered for gain control and an instrument calibration must be per-
formed before proceeding further.
3.5.2 Gain control parameters may be checked and/or changed via the main-
tenance set of programs 0 refer to Section 9.0).
3.5.3 The unit should be left ON between measurements with probe shutter
closed for continuous gain control operation.
3.5.4 When more than one probe is being used, each must be allowed
separate gain control operation.
3.6 Update Normalization Factors
Due to continual decay of the radioactive source in the probe, it may be necessary to
check and/or update the pure element normalization factors. This is not usually
necessary unless a significant amount of time has elapsed between successive uses
of the instrument.
3.6.1 Select approximately the same time as in the previous normalization.
Key in the NOR command. The display should read: NORMALIZING
SAMPLE? Enter the element symbol for which normalization is desired. The
display should now reads: MEASURE. Place the corresponding pure element
standard in position in the probe, open the shutter (close the lid) and measure
(press START button).
3.6.2 If the relative deviations between old and new normalization factors are
less than about 3%, or if the new measurements are statistically equal to each
other, measurements can begin; otherwise, a new instrument calibration is re-
quired before proceeding.
4.0 CALIBRATION
The calibration procedure programs the X-MET 840 for the desired application. The elements
to be analyzed are defined by setting up element channels (or windows) using the pure ele-
ment standards. Concentrations of elements are established by measuring known calibration
standards and calculating calibration coefficients using multiparameter regression analysis.
There are eight separate calibration memories or "models". In each model, 1 to 10 element
channels can be set up.
Figure 1 shows a diagram summarizing the main steps in the calibration procedure. Because
of the complexities involved, only a brief description of the process is given here (refer to the
operating manual for a more detailed discussion).
4.1 Instrument Calibration
Instrument calibration encompasses gain control initialization and stabilization, choice
of elements, and pure element measurements. The choice of elements to measure
depends on knowledge of their concentrations in the samples to be analyzed and their
suspected degree of spectral interference. Once the appropriate pure elements have
been selected; follow Sections 2.0 (Preparation for Operation) and 5.0 (Measurement).
Pure element calibration is initiated through the PUR or CPU commands.
4.2 Sample Calibration
Sample calibration includes measurement of calibration standards (CAL command),
input of calibration standard concentrations (ASY command), and calculation of
calibration coefficients (MOD command). Calibration coefficients may also be calcu-
lated externally and entered via the PAR command. Follow Sections 2.0 (Preparation
of Operation) and 5.0 (Measurement).
7.A-14
-------
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
4.3 Number of Calibration Standards
The number of calibration standards depends on two factors: number of elements to
be analyzed and number of interfering elements. Spectral overlap between elements
is automatically corrected for through measurement of the appropriate pure element
standards and selection of channel limits. Correction of matrix effects due to absorp-
tion or enhancement of fluorescent x-rays requires statistical evaluation. If a one-to-
one correlation between element concentration and x-ray intensity (linear regression)
is determined, the number of necessary calibration standards may be small. Matrix ef-
fects due to the presence of interfering elements, on the other hand, may require the
use of multiple regression analysis, and the number of calibration standards necessary
may increase (refer to Table 1).
5.0 MEASUREMENT
This section describes the measurement of either standards (calibration or pure element) or
samples.
5.1 Select the appropriate model by pressing the MODEL function key, typing in the desired
model (1-8), and pressing the CONT/YES editing key.
5.2 Select the appropriate measurement time by pressing the MTIME function key, typing in
the desired time in seconds, and pressing the CONT/YES editing key. (Note: Measurement
times may range between 1 and 32,767 seconds and it is not necessary that sample measure-
ment times be the same as calibration measurement times.)
5.3 Place sample to be measured in the sample holder in the appropriate probe. Close the lid
(green light should go out) and press START button. The screen should now indicate the
remaining measurement time. At the end of measurement, an audible signal (three short
tones) is given and the results displayed. Raise the probe lid and remove the sample.
5.4 If the sample is to be run again with another probe connected via the distribution box, turn
the probe indicator switch to that probe and repeat steps 5.1 through 5.3.
5.5 To re-display the results of the previous run, press the RECALC button. If calculations are
desired for the previous run under a different model, first change to the desired model (see
Section 5.1) and then press RECALC.
" TABLE 1
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM NUMBER OF CALIBRATION SAMPLES
VERSUS NUMBER OF ELEMENTS TO BE ANALYZED AND
NUMBER OF INTERFERING ELEMENT (INTENSITIES)
Number of Elements
Intensities
1
2
3
4
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
10
15
30
30
10
10
10
15
30
30
15
15
15
15
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
7.A-15
-------
F
|
I
s
?
••» •••BOTH
1
1
u
i
Jj
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
:igure 1 -Summary of calibration
futcrmcAi. AM twmuk mmjt
•Tit* OTf «TATl. Mate M HOW • «
IMMI i MOM i
• jr V
MmALOATKM
(Ml)
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7.A-16
-------
6.0
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
QA/QC
6.1 Quality Control
Throughout the analysis, midpoint standards should be re-checked after an average of
approximately five sample runs. Analyses are generally considered to be out of con-
trol when values obtained for the check standards are outside ±3 standard deviations
of their "true" value. The instrument is then recalibrated and the previous samples
rerun.
6.2 Instrumental Precision and Detection Limit
The standard deviation of counting statistics (STD command) can be considered a
very close approximation of instrumental precision. True instrumental precision is ob-
tained by repetitive measurements of a sample. As a general rule, the detection limit
may be established as three times the instrumental precision. (Note: Instrumental
precision can be increased and thus detection limit lowered by increasing the number
of calibration standards and/or the measurement time).
6.3 Sample Splits
Sampling error can be determined by running sample duplicates, or splits. Both field
duplicates and splits from the sample pan (if applicable) should be run an average of
one every 20 samples. To test for grinding error due to powder non-homogeneity,
powder splits should also be run at the rate of one per 20 samples.
7.0
8.0
9.0
FUNCTION KEYS
Key
START
MODEL
MTIME
RECALC
ON
OFF
EDITING KEYS
Key
SHIFT
CONT/YES
END/NO
COMMANDS
Key
ADD
ASY
CAL
CIN
CMS
CPU
DEL
DTM
EMP
INI
INT
LIM
LOC
MOD
Description
Start measurement
Select Model
Select measurement time
Recalculated assay in selected model
Switch on
Switch off
Description
Delete keyboard entry
Scroll backwards
Shift to upper case (if in lower case) or to lower case (if in upper case)
Accept, continue or scroll forwards
Reject, terminate or agree to negative question
Description
Add reference samples to identification library
Enter assays of calibration samples
Measure calibration samples
Output calibration sample intensities
Measure repeatedly (continuously)
Transfer or continue instrument calibration
Delete model
Display time and date
Enter maintenance programs (with PRM)
Initialize gain control
Output net count rates of channels
Examine and edit channel limits
Output normalization factors
Lock the keyboard
Regression modeling
7.A-17
-------
Exhibit 7A-4
(continued)
NOR Normalization
PAR Enter and edit calibration coefficients
PUL Output gross count rates of element channels
PUR Instrument ("Pure Element') calibration
PRM Instrument Calibration Parameters (with EMP)
REF Referencee sample examination and editing
SPE Output spectra
SPL Plot spectra
STD Output standard deviation (counting statistics)
STM Set time and date
TCR Output total count rate
UNL Unlock keyboard
10. REFERENCES
Columbia Scientific Industries Corp. 1985. Operating Instructions X-Met 840 Portable XRF Analyzer.
7.A-18
-------
SECTION 8
EARTH SCIENCES
Note: Because the scope of this section is large, the section is organized by topics; the most pertinent
topics, in order, are as follows:
Section Topic
8.1 Geologic Drilling
8.1.6.1 Drilling Methods
8.1.6.1.1 Hand Augers
8.1.6.1.2 Powered Augers
8.1.6.1.3 Hollow-Stem Augers
8.1.6.1.4 Solid-Stem Augers
8.1.6.1.5 Bucket Augers and Disk Augers
8.1.6.1.6 Cable Tools
8.1.6.1.7 Mud and Water Rotary Drilling
8.1.6.1.8 Air Rotary Method
8.1.6.1.9 Reverse Air-and Mud or Water Rotary
8.1.6.1.10 Drive and Wash
8.1.6.2 Sampling Techniques
8.1.6.2.1 Split-Spoon Samplers
8.1.6.2.2 Thin-Walled Tube Samplers
8.1.6.2.3 Cutting or Wash Samples
8.1.6.3 Decontamination and Waste Handling
8.2 Test Pits and Excavations
8.3 Geological Reconnaissance and Geological Logging
8.3.5.1 Geological Reconnaissance
8.3.5.2 Geological Logging
8.3.5.2.2 Methods - Soils
8.3.5.2.3 SoU Description
8.3.5.2.4 Rock Methods
8.3.5.2.5 Rock Classifications
8.3.5.2.6 Well Completion Diagrams
8.4 Geophysics
8.4.2 Geophysical Methods
8.4.2.1 Electromagnetics
8.4.2.2 Electrical Resistivity
8.4.2.3 Seismic Methods
8.4.2.4 Magnetics
8.4.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar
8.4.3 Borehole Geophysics
8.4.3.1.1 Electrical
8.4.3.1.2 Nuclear
8.4.3.1.3 Mechanical
Appendixes 8.4A to 8.4E contain detailed discussion of the theory of geophysical instruments.
8.1-1
-------
8.5 Groundwater Monitoring
8.5.6.1 Water Wells
8.5.6.2 Lysimeters
8.5.6.3 Piezometers and Tensiometers
8.5.6.4 Groundwater Sampling Equipment
8.5.6.5 Water-Level Measurement Devices
8.5.6.6 Field Parameter Measurements
8.5.6.7 Filtration
8.5.6.8 Materials for Well Construction
8.5.6.9 Groundwater Sampling Considerations
Each of the topics is organized Into subsections on applications and limitations. These subsections
follow the general compendium format.
8.1 GEOLOGIC DRILLING
8.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the planning, method selection, and implementation of
geologic drilling and subsurface soil sampling for field investigations of hazardous waste sites.
8.1.2 Definitions
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Soils
'The collection of natural bodies on the earth's surface, in places modified or even made by
man of earthy materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting
plants out-of-doors. The lower limit is normally the lower limit of biological activity, which
generally coincides with the common rooting of native perennial plants" (Glossary of Geology,
1972, p. 671). Typically, soils at a hazardous waste site are defined as the weathered material
located above bedrock; thus, soil sampling can occur to depths of many feet.
8.1.3 Applicability
Although this subsection focuses on drilling for sampling purposes, it is important to recognize that
borings are also required for in situ testing of subsurface materials and groundwater, and to allow installa-
tion of monitoring devices including wells.
Selection of the most appropriate method or combination of methods must be dictated by the special
considerations imposed by multipurpose borings. For example, although the best apparent method for
well installation at a particular site may be direct air rotary with driven casing, most air rotary equipment al-
lows sampling only by cuttings. If, in this case, soil sampling is required, pilot (or separate) borings done
with equipment capable of providing adequate undisturbed samples may be necessary. In addition, if drill-
8.1-2
-------
ing is to be conducted in an area of perched or multiple aquifer systems, auger techniques should not be
used because of the possibility of cross contamination; borings must be advanced using multiple casing
techniques that allow isolation of each aquifer encountered.
Examples of such optimization of techniques are too numerous to be thoroughly covered in this sec-
tion, but the general applicability of various methods Is discussed. Routine soil drilling and sampling tech-
niques are discussed. Specialized techniques that may be applicable only under unusual conditions are
not presented.
The planning, selection, and implementation of any drilling program requires careful consideration by
qualified, experienced personnel. At a minimum, the following general steps are required:
Review of existing site, area, and regional subsurface, geologic, and hydrogeologic information in-
cluding physical and chemical characteristics
Development of a site-specific health and safety program
Definition of the purpose of the drilling and sampling, selection of drilling methods and general site
layout, and preparation and execution of the drilling contract
Field implementation and decontamination including continuous inspection by qualified, ex-
perienced personnel
Reporting
Selection and implementation of soil drilling and sampling methods also require that specific con-
siderations be given to the following issues, which are common to all drilling at or near hazardous waste
sites:
• Prevention of contaminant spread
• Maintenance of sample integrity
• Minimization of disruption of existing conditions
• Minimization of long-term impacts
8.1.4 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for determining that the soil drilling and sampling techniques being used are ap-
propriate to the site conditions and drilling objectives.
8.1.5 Records and Inspection
Ali drilling and sampling activities should be continuously inspected by qualified, experienced person-
nel. Continuous inspection is essential to assure that the intent of the drilling program is being followed
and to provide knowledgeable direction to the field crews when conditions dictate variance from the
original plan.
8.1-3
-------
Inspection personnel should prepare daily reports that include the following:
• Activity logs or field notebooks
• Boring logs
• Sample documentation
Reporting is essential to adequately document the unusual site conditions, the drilling and sampling
quantities, and the personnel onsite for project control and to thoroughly document technical methods and
results.
8.1.6 Procedures
The following methods should be considered for application at various sites. Exhibit 8.1-1 presents a
summary of advantages, disadvantages, and depth limitations of various drilling techniques.
8.1.6.1 Drilling Procedures
8.1.6.1.1 Hand Augers
Description: The most commonly used manually operated augers include the Iwan, ship, closed-
spiral, and open-spiral augers. In operation, a hand auger is attached to the bottom of a length of pipe that
has a crossarm at the top. The hole is drilled by turning this crossarm at the same time the operator pres-
ses the auger into the ground.
As the auger is advanced and becomes filled with soil, it is taken from the hole, and the soil is removed.
Additional lengths of pipe are added as required. The Iwan, a post-hole type of auger, generally retains
sample material better than the other hand-operated augers. Hand augers of the type mentioned are
shown in Exhibit 8.1-2.
Application: In general, hand-operated augers are useful for sampling all types of soils except
cohesionless materials below the water table and hard or cemented soils. The ship auger, with a helical
flight on a solid stem, is best suited for use in cohesive materials. Spiral augers were developed for use in
those cases in which helical and screw augers do not work well. The closed-spiral auger is used in dry clay
and gravelly soils. The open-spiral auger is most useful in loosely consolidated deposits.
The Iwan auger is available in diameters ranging from 3 to 9 inches. The other types of augers are
available in diameters ranging from approximately 2 to 3.5 inches.
Auger borings are used primarily in cases in which there is no need for undisturbed samples and in
which the drilling will be done in soils where the borehole will stay open without casing or drilling mud,
generally above the ground water table. The high mobility of the equipment makes the hand auger ideally
suited for sites with impaired access.
8.1-4
-------
Drilling Technique Depth Limitation (ft)
Advantages
Disadvantages
po
Hand Auger
Power-Assisted
Hand Auger
Power Auger
Hollow-Stem
Solid-Stem
Bucket and Disk
Cable Tool
30
80
300 ±
100
1,000 +
Mud Rotary
Air Rotary
Reserve Alr-and-
Mud or Water Rotary
Drive-and Wash
5.000 +
5,000 +
Mobility
Same as above.
Ease of soil sampling.
No fluids required.
Holes up to 3 ft f In diameter.
Shallow holes above water table.
Low drilling fluid requirements.
Good definition of water-bearing zones.
Good in caving, high-gravel content
material.
Good formation In samples.
Good cutting samples.
Can leave hole open during drilling.
Rapid drilling.
Fast In consolidated formations.
No drilling liquids introduced
into well.
Minimizes wellbore disturbance.
Better cuttings removal
Not useful In unconsolldated material below water table.
Not useful in cemented material.
Limited application In gravelly material.
Mixed samples.
Same as above.
Not good In caving formations or those containing
boulders.
Not useful when undisturbed soil samples are required.
O
3J
O
ll
Slow.
Not good for small-diameter wells.
Must drive casing following bit.
Mud may plug permeable zones.
Not effective in boulder-rich sediments.
Not acceptable to EPA control of drilling fluids.
Lost circulation.
Small cuttings.
May be "watered out" in high-water zones.
Containment of drilling return difficult.
Same limitations as mud rotary.
Best for holes > 12 inches.
Limited to unconsolidated material.
Slow.
Large fluid volumes.
COB
331*
s-
CO
>
3D
-------
Limitations: Borings drilled with augers have the disadvantage that the samples are mixed and that,
in general, it is difficult if not impossible to locate precisely the changes in soil strata. Augering does not
case off the upper portion of the hole. If the walls collapse or slough, representative samples may be dif-
ficult to obtain.
The exact depth to which any hole can be carried is a function of the types of soil in the profile, the
type of auger being used, the amount of power available to turn the auger, and the location of the
groundwater table. Gravel larger than 2 cm impairs the use of hand augers. Hand augers are typically
used for shallow (2 to 8 feet) depths but may reach a maximum depth of 30 feet in unsaturated, uncon-
solidated material. These augers typically are not used for boring more than a few feet below the water
table. Power assists have been added to hand auger systems to increase depth capability without sub-
stantially decreasing mobility.
8.1.6.1.2 Powered Augers
Description: A powered auger is motor-driven and is advanced by a helical worm with sections that
can be screwed together. Three types of powered augers (which are discussed later) are hollow-stem,
solid-stem, and bucket augers. The augers themselves are available In sizes ranging from 2 to 48 inches in
diameter. The auger can be either hand held or rig mounted (Exhibit 8.1-3). The rig is self-sufficient and
generally does not require additional lifting devices, although a simple hoist and tripod is useful in holes
more than 10 feet deep.
Auger flights are available in several types depending on their intended use. These consist of single-
flight earth augers, double-flight earth-rock augers, double-flight rock augers, and high-spiral augers (Ex-
hibit 8.1-4). In operation, these augers are attached to a drilling rod, which is rotated and pressed
downward to achieve penetration. The rod with the auger is advanced for the distance of the flight or until
the flight has become filled with soil. The rod is then raised until the auger is clear of the hole, and the soil
is thrown free from the cutter head. The hole is drilled by repeating this process until the required depth is
reached. Two or four people can operate a powered auger.
Application: The maximum depth of penetration that can be achieved with powered augers Is limited
by the geologic material, the depth to water, and the length of the Kelly rod that can be accommodated by
the drilling rig used. In general, the depth is limited to between 100 and 200 feet. The advantage of auger
boring over wash boring, percussion, and rotary drilling is that the cuttings brought to the surface (al-
though disturbed) are generally suitable for positive identification of the soil material but not for precise soil
content. Using powered augers also makes it easier to determine the groundwater level. Casing is not
generally needed, except when drilling through noncohesive sand and gravel and sometimes when drilling
below the water table. Drilling practice has shown that, where applicable, powered auger drilling is
preferable to many other methods because the work progresses fast in drilling holes not deeper than 100
feet (when undisturbed samples are not required).
8.1.6.1.3 Hollow-stem Augers (Helical Augers)
Description: Hollow-stem augers (Exhibit 8.1-5) are a type of powered auger used primarily to ad-
vance the borehole when soil sampling is required. The hollow-stem auger consists of (1) a section of
seamless steel tube with a spiral flight to which are attached a finger-type cutter head at the bottom and an
adapter cap at the top, and (2) a center drill stem composed of drill rods to which are attached a center
plug with a drag bit at the bottom and an adapter at the top. The adapters at the top of the drill stem and
auger flight are designed to allow the auger to advance with the plug in place. As the hole is drilled, addi-
tional lengths of hollow-stem flights and center stem are added. The center stem and plug may be
removed at any time during the drilling to permit disturbed, undisturbed, or core sampling below the bot-
tom of the cutter head by using the hollow-stem flights as casing. This process also permits the use of
augering in loose deposits below the water table. Where this technique is used in unconsolidated material
8.1-6
-------
Exhibit 8.1-2
HAND AUGERS: (a) SHIP AUGER; (b) CLOSED-SPIRAL AUGER;
(c) OPEN SPIRAL AUGER; (d) IWAN AUGER
(a)
Ship Auger
(b)
Closed-Spiral Auger
(c)
Open-Spiral Auger
(d)
Iwan Auger
8.1-7
-------
below the water table, fluids of known chemical quality may be used to control groundwater inflow. Undis-
turbed samples taken in this manner may be more useful than those taken from a cased hole, since the dis-
turbance caused by advancing the auger is much less than that caused by driving the casing. Augers of
this type are available with hollow stems having inside diameters from 2-3/4 to 6 inches.
Application: The use of hollow-stem augers is advantageous, because drilling fluids that need to be
controlled and limited when advancing a borehole are used only under special circumstances. The augers
also allow direct access for soil sampling through the hollow inner part of the auger stem.
The depths to which hollow-stem augers can bore are limited by the geologic formation and depth to
groundwater. Hollow-stem augers are used primarily in formations that do not cave or have large
boulders.
Upon reaching the desired depth, a small-diameter casing and screen can be set inside the hollow
stem to produce a monitoring well. The augers are removed by section while the well screen and risers are
held in place. Typically, one 5-foot section of auger is removed at a time. In incompotent formations, the
borehole surrounding the screen may be allowed to cave around the screen, or a clean sand or gravel
pack may be installed as the augers are withdrawn. Once the screen is properly covered (usually to 2 feet
above the top of the screen), a clay (bentonite) seal is installed. As a final step, grout or other impermeable
material is tremied in place on top of the clay seal to ground level as the remaining auger sections are
removed. Careful Installation of clay and/or grout seals is essential, especially in areas where multiple
aquifers are encountered.
Allowing the formation to collapse around the well may damage the screen and/or risers. Depending
on formation material, sand or gravel pack may provide a better performing well. Gravel packing may re-
quire a slightly larger hollow-stem auger but may be worth the effort.
8.1.6.1.4 Solid-stem Augers
Description: Solid-stem augers (Exhibit 8.1-6) are a type of powered auger that is advanced into the
ground by the rotation and downward pressure of a rotary drill rig. These augers have interchangeable
heads or bits for use In various types of soil.
As the solid-stem auger is advanced into the ground, new auger sections are added. Auger borings
may be advanced to a depth of about 100 feet, depending on the soil conditions encountered. Casing may
be used to prevent caving in of unstable soil, especially below the water table, when the auger is removed
for sampling or placement of a monitoring well.
The soil displaced by the auger is transported to the surface by the auger blade. This soil shows the
general type of material through which the auger is passing, but definite determinations cannot be made
about the depth from which the soil was excavated or about the soil structure.
Solid-stem augers are most efficient in advancing a boring in moist, cohesionless soils with some ap-
parent cohesion and in medium-soft to stiff cohesive soils. These augers are not well suited for use in very
hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, or saturated cohesionless soils.
Application: Borings advanced with solid-stem augers are not useful when it is necessary to obtain
undisturbed samples of soil material or to determine the location of soil contacts. Under certain conditions,
solid-stem auger borings are useful in providing holes for monitoring well installation. It should be noted
that it is almost impossible to drill through a contaminated soil zone with a solid- stem continuous-flight
auger without downward transport of contaminants.
8.1-8
-------
Exhibit 8.1-3
RIG-MOUNTED POWERED AUGER
8.1-9
-------
Exhibit 8.1-4
AUGERS: (a) SINGLE-FLIGHT EARTH AUGER; (b) DOUBLE-FLIGHT
EARTH-ROCK AUGER; (c) DOUBLE-FLIGHT ROCK AUGER; (d) HIGH-
SPIRAL AUGER.
(a)
Single-Flight Earth Auger
(b)
Double-Flight Earth-Rock Auger
(c)
Double-Flight Rock Auger
(d)
High-Spiral Auger
8.1-10
-------
Exhibit 8.1-5
KECK-SCREENED, HOLLOW-STEM,
CONTINUOUS-FLIGHT AUGER
SCREEN
FLIGHT
KNOCK OUT PLUG
BIT
8.1-11
-------
Exhibit 8.1-6
SOLID-STEM AUGERS
Large Helical or Worm-Type Augers
CHECK VALVE
1WAN TYPE SMOC
FLAT-SPIRAL SUM
Spoon Auger Vicksburg Hinged Auger;
Sprague & Henwood Buda Continuous
Barrel Augers Helical Augers
8.1-12
-------
8.1.6.1.5 Bucket Augers and Disk Augers
Description: The bucket auger is a type of powered auger that consists of a cylindrical bucket 10 in-
ches to 72 inches in diameter with teeth arranged at the bottom. The bucket is fastened to the end of a
Kelly bar that is rotated and pushed downward. The bucket is then filled, brought to the surface, and
emptied by tipping it over. Bucket holes more than 3 feet in diameter may be drilled using a special attach-
ment. These wide holes permit visual inspection and direct sampling by a person lowered into the hole.
Disk augers are similar to helical augers but are larger and are used to make larger holes. Helical and disk
augers are shown in Exhibit 8.1-7. Large-diameter casing can be used to keep holes open in noncohesive
material.
Application: These methods of augering are used if the boreholes are relatively shallow and above
the water table. The methods are very rapid if boulders are not encountered.
8.1.6.1.6 Cable Tools
Description: A cable tool rig uses a heavy, solid-steel, chisel-type drill bit suspended on a steel cable
that, when raised and dropped, chisels or pounds a hole through the soil and rock. Cable tool drilling is
also commonly referred to as percussion drilling or churn drilling. Required equipment includes a drilling
rig, a drill stem, percussion bits, and a bailer. Casing is needed when advancing a hole through soft,
caving materials. Cable tool drilling equipment is shown in Exhibit 8.1-8.
Application: Cable tool rigs can operate satisfactorily in all formations, but they are best suited for
large, caving, gravel-type formations with cobbles or boulders or for formations with large cavities above
the water table. The use of cable tool rigs for small diameter (2-inch) wells is not recommended.
Information regarding water-bearing zones can be easily obtained during cable tool drilling. Relative
permeabilities and some water quality data can be obtained from different zones penetrated if a skilled
operator is available. Formation samples can be excellent when a skilled driller uses a sand pump bailer.
In hazardous waste applications, contaminated materials can be closely controlled through periodic
bailing and through containment of suspended cuttings. Some water is required to replace water removed
by bailing in unsaturated zones, but the water requirements for this method of drilling are generally low.
Limitations: Cable tool drilling is slow compared with rotary drilling. The necessity of driving the
casing along with drilling in unconsolidated formations requires that the casing be pulled back to expose
selected water-bearing zones. This process complicates the well completion process and often increases
cost. Relatively large-diameter (at least 4 inches) casing is required, which increases the costs when com-
pared with rotary-drilled wells with plastic casing. The casing, which has a sharp, hardened casing shoe on
the bottom, must be driven into the hole. The shoe cuts a slightly larger hole than does the drill bit, and it
can not be relied on to form a seal when overlying water-bearing zones are encountered.
With some types of cable tool drilling equipment, it may be difficult to reach some sites that are steep
or marshy.
8.1.6.1.7 Mud and Water Rotary Drilling
Description: In rotary drilling, the borehole is advanced by rapid rotation of the drilling bit, which
cuts, chips, and grinds the material at the bottom of the hole into small particles. The cuttings are removed
by pumping water or drilling fluid from a sump down through the drill rods and bit and up the annulus be-
tween the borehole wall and the drill rods. This water flows first into a settling pit and ultimately back to the
8.1-13
-------
Exhibit 8.1-7
HELICAL AND DISK AUGERS
Buda Earth Drill with Continuous Helical Augers
LPTINC
MECHANISM
SHUTTER
PLATE
CLEARANCE
CUTTER
CWTTtH
SHANK'
Buda Earth Drill with Disk Auger
8.1-14
-------
Exhibit 8.1-8
CABLE TOOL (PERCUSSION) DRILLING EQUIPMENT
Drilling Rig
Regular
Mother Hubbard Twisted Mother Hubbard
Chopping Bits
Drill Stem
J
3
Drill Jar
Bailer Valve
Flat Valve Bailer
8.1-15
Bailer Valve
Dart Valve Ba->e<
Rod Plunger Type
Sand Pump
with Regular Bottom
-------
main pit for recirculation. Water alone may be used when the depth is small and the soil is stable. Drilling
mud is sometimes preferred, since the required flow is smaller and the mud serves to stabilize the hole;
however, the mud may clog permeable soil units. A sample should be collected of any material introduced
into the well (water, drilling mud, additives, etc.). The sample should be retained for future analysis if any
question of contamination arises. A section of casing is used to start the hole, but the remaining part of ex-
ploratory boreholes advanced by rotary drilling is usually uncased except in soft soils.
When rotary drilling is used for exploratory borings, items such as motors, rotary driving mechanisms,
winches, and pumps, are generally assembled as a unit, with a folding mast mounted on a truck or tractor.
The unit also may be mounted on intermediate skids so that it can be placed on a raft or moved into places
inaccessible to motor vehicles. A diagrammatic sketch of such a drilling rig is shown in Exhibit 8.1-9. Skid
mounted drilling machines can also be used for rotary drilling.
Many types of rotary drilling bits are used, depending on the character of the material to be penetrated.
Fishtail bits and two-bladed bits are used in relatively soft soils and three- to four-bladed bits in firmer soils
and soft rock. The cutting edges are surfaced with tungsten carbide alloys or are formed by special hard-
metal Inserts. The bits used in rock have several rollers with hard-surfaced teeth. The two-cone bits are
used in soft or broken formations, but the trl-cone and roller bits provide smoother operation and are more
efficient in harder rocks. The number of rollers and the number and shape of the teeth are varied in ac-
cordance with the character of the rock. Relatively few and large teeth are used in soft rock, and the teeth
are interfitting so that the bit will be self-cleaning. The teeth in all bits are flushed by drilling fluid flowing out
of vents in the base of the bit.
Boreholes produced by rotary drilling may be cased to provide stability. The drill rod and bit can be
removed from the borehole, and a sampler can be lowered through the casing to remove soil from the bot-
tom of the boring.
Uncased boreholes are often filled with water to stabilize the hole and to remove material ground up by
the boring tools. Water will exert a stabilizing effect on the parts of the hole that extend below groundwater
level; however, above the water table, the water may result in a loss of soil strength and a collapse of the
hole. Water alone generally prevent neither caving of borings in soft or cohesionless soils nor a gradual
squeezing-in of a borehole in plastic soils. Uncased boreholes filled with water are generally used in rock
arid are often used in stiff, cohesive soils.
An uncased borehole can often be stabilized by filling it with a property proportioned drilling fluid or
"mud," which, when circulated, also serves to remove ground-up material from the bottom of the hole. A
satisfactory drilling fluid can occasionally be obtained by mixing locally available fat clays with water, but it
is usually advantageous and often necessary to add commercially prepared drilling mud addatives. When
suitable native clays are not available, the drilling fluid is prepared with commercial products alone. These
mud-forming products consist of highly colloidal, gel-forming, thixotropic clays—primarily bentonite-with
various chemicals added to control dispersion, thixotropy, viscosity, and gel strength. A sample of the drill-
ing fluid should be analyzed to eliminate the possibility of introducing contamination into the borehole.
The stabilizing effect of the drilling fluid Is caused in part by its higher specific gravity (in comparison
with water alone) and in part by the formation of a relatively impervious lining or "mudcake" on the side
walls of the borehole. This lining prevents sloughing of cohesionless soils and decreases the rate of swell-
ing of cohesive materials. The drilling fluid also facilitates removal of cuttings from the hole. The required
velocities and volume of circulation are smaller than for water alone, and the problem of uncontrolled
erosion at the bottom of the hole is decreased. Furthermore, the drilling fluid is thixotropic; that is, it stif-
fens and forms a gel when agitation is stopped, and it can be liquified again by resuming the agitation.
Drilling mud is, therefore, better able than water to keep the cuttings in suspension during the time required
for withdrawal and reinsertion of boring and sampling tools. It also reduces abrasion and retards corrosion
of these tools.
8.1-16
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Exhibit 8.1-9
MUD AND WATER ROTARY DRILLING
Truck-Mounted Rotary Drilling Rig
Two-Blade Bit Three-Blade Bit
BLADED BITS
Two-Cone Bit
Tri-Cone Bit
ROCK BITS
Roller Bit
Safety Clamp Spider and Slips
8.1-17
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Application: Rotary drilling is best suited for borings with a diameter of not less than 4 inches; a
diameter of 6 to 8 inches is generally preferred when the method is used for exploratory boring. In most
soils and rocks, the rate of progress is greater than that of other methods. However, rotary drilling is not
well suited for use in deposits containing very coarse gravel, numerous stones and boulders, or chert
nodules; In badly fissured or cavernous rock; or in very porous deposits with a strong groundwater flow,
since an excessive amount of drilling fluid may be lost by seepage in such formations. Judicious selection
of drilling mud additives and lost circulation material can ameliorate fluid loss problems. This method has a
rapid drilling rate and generally can avoid placement of a casing by creating a mud lining on the wall of the
well.
Major disadvantages of rotary drilling are as follows: (1) if not properly used, drilling fluids may intro-
duce potential contaminants into the borehole; (2) a large amount of water needs to be controlled after
use; and (3) the problem of lost circulation exists in highly permeable or cavernous geologic formations.
The "filter cake" produced when drilling mud is used may reduce the permeability in water-bearing zones.
Proper completion and well development can significantly lessen the adverse effect of filter cake and mud
invasion into a formation.
When using the rotary drilling method for the installation of monitoring wells, care must be exercised to
prevent recirculation of potentially contaminated drilling fluids into uncontaminated formations. In addition,
during well development, drilling fluids must be thoroughly flushed from the borehole and the invaded zone
to ascertain that samples collected are representative of true formation fluids.
8.1.6.1.8 Air Rotary Method
Description: Air rotary rigs operate in the same manner as mud rotary drills, except the air is circu-
lated down the drill pipe and returns with the cuttings up the annulus. Air rotary rigs are available
throughout much of the United States and are well suited for many drilling applications. A variation of the
air rotary method is the air hammer method, which uses a pneumatic or percussion hammer that pulverizes
rock and uses air to return cuttings to the surface.
Air rotary rigs operate best in hard rock formations. Formation water is blown out of the hole along
with the cuttings, so it is possible to determine when the first water-bearing zone is encountered. After fil-
tering water blown from the hole, collection and field analysis may provide preliminary information regard-
ing changes in water quality for some parameters. Where significant water inflow is encountered, foaming
agents may be added to enhance the ability of the air stream to remove cuttings from the wellbore. Forma-
tion sampling ranges from excellent in hard, dry formations to nonexistent when circulation is lost in cav-
ernous limestones and other formations with cavities.
Casing is required to keep the borehole open when drilling in soft, caving formations below the water
table. When more than one water-bearing zone is encountered and where the hydrostatic pressures are
different, flow between zones will occur between the time the drilling is done and the time the hole can be
properly cased and one zone grouted off. Multiple casing strings can be used to rectify this problem, if
necessary. Synthetic drilling aids are not usually used in air rotary drilling. If the air is filtered1 to capture
compressor lubricants, contamination can be minimized more effectively than with other methods. In
badly contaminated subsurface situations, air rotary drilling must be used carefully to minimize the ex-
posure of drilling personnel to potentially hazardous materials.
Application: Air rotary methods are conducive to drilling in hard rock and other consolidated forma-
tions where a mud or water lining is unnecessary to support the walls against caving. An important ad-
vantage of using the air rotary method is that contamination of the water zone is not a factor since no drill-
ing fluid is used.
8.1-18
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8.1.6.1.9 Reverse Air-arid-Mud or Water Rotary
Description: The difference between the straight rotary drilling method and the reverse rotary
circulation method lies in the circulation of the drilling fluid used to remove the cuttings and in the
equipment used. In the reverse rotary method, as the rods are rotated the drilling fluid is introduced under
gravity into the annular space between the drill rods and the walls of the hole. The fluid, along with
cuttings from the bottom of the hole, returns to the surface through hollow drill rods. The return flow is
accomplished by (1) application of a head at the top of the annulus relative to the discharge end of the drill
rods, (2) application of suction on the drill rods, and (3) introduction into the drill rods of a supply of air
that mixes with the slurry and causes it to be removed by air lift.
Application: This method has two advantages. It minimizes disturbance to the walls of the hole be-
cause of the higher head in the hole and more outward seepage pressure on the hole walls. It also
provides more rapid and efficient removal of cuttings from the hole, since the area of the drill rods is
smaller than that of the annulus, thereby giving higher upward velocity. Reverse rotary drilling is best
suited to holes 12 inches and larger in diameter, but it has the same limitations as the mud and water rotary
system.
8.1.6.1.10 Drive and Wash
Description: The drive-and-wash method is similar to cable tool drilling and is often used in EPA
Region I states. In this method of drilling, the casing is driven by a weight or hammer into the uncon-
solidated material. Soil entering the casing is washed out by circulating drilling fluid (water), and the casing
is advanced again. A water rotary wash may also be used to clean the inside of the casing.
Application: Drive and wash is limited to unconsolidated materials. The casing also acts as a tem-
porary seal to prevent cross-contamination of aquifers. Although faster than cable tool drilling, drive and
wash is not a very rapid method. If the wash water is not recycled, large quantities of fluids may require
collection and disposal.
8.1.6.2 Sampling Techniques
The purpose of soil sampling is to obtain a portion of soil (disturbed or undisturbed) that is repre-
sentative of the horizon sampled for chemical analysis, geotechnical analysis, and geomorphological clas-
sification. The volume of each sample is about 1 pint. Samples are usually taken at intervals approved by
the geologist or field engineer and at each change In formation or material type. Where sampling difficul-
ties are encountered or a larger volume of material is needed, a larger diameter split-spoon sampler, a
Shelby tube, a pitcher-type sampler, or a piston-type sampler might be required. Continuous coring may
be desirable when It is necessary to establish the presence and distribution of permeable layers and to es-
tablish stratigraphic control.
In areas where contamination is possible, soil samples are usually screened for contamination by the
use of various monitoring instruments (see Section 15). Any positive readings or visual evidence of con-
tamination will necessitate treating the sample as a hazardous material and using appropriate packaging,
labeling, and shipping techniques, as well as personal protection for the drillers and samplers. This level of
protection should be determined before the start of drilling.
Standard penetration tests should be conducted in accordance with American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) D1586, with the interval tested varying from continuous sampling to 5-foot intervals.
Where rock samples are required, N-series split inner tube core barrels are usually used. Air is the
preferred drilling fluid. Techniques for obtaining and handling disturbed or undisturbed samples are
described in this subsection.
8.1-19
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8.1.6.2.1 Split-Spoon Samplers
The split-spoon sampler Is a thick-walled, steel tube that is split lengthwise. A cutting shoe is attached
to the lower end; the upper end contains a check valve and is connected to the drill rods. When a boring is
advanced to the point that a sample is to be taken, drill tools are removed and the sampler is lowered into
the hole on the bottom of the drill rods.
The sampler is driven 18 inches into the ground in accordance with a standard penetration test (ASTM
D1586). The effort taken to drive the sampler the last 12 inches is recorded at 6-inch intervals, and the
sampler is removed from the boring. The density of the sampled material is obtained by counting the
blows per foot as the split-spoon sampler is driven by a 140-lb hammer falling 30 inches.
The standard-size split-spoon sampler has an inside diameter (ID) of 1.38 to 1.5 inches. When soil
samples are taken for chemical analysis, it may be desirable to use a 2 or 2.5 ID sampler, which provides a
larger volume of material but can not be used to calculate aquifer properties by using the stated ASTM test
method.
Samples to be chemically analyzed are placed in the appropriately sized decontaminated jar and
labeled with EPA serialized sample tags. Samples are kept out of direct sun light and stored at about 4C
until they are shipped to the laboratory. The split-spoon sampler is decontaminated between samples. In
some instances, separate, previously decontaminated split-spoon samplers may be required for each
sample taken.
When taking samples for geotechnical analyses, the disturbed soil samples removed from the sampler
are placed in a scalable glass jar and labeled to indicate the project name and number, boring number,
date, depths at top and bottom of sample interval, recovery, number of sample, number of blows for each 6
inches (15 centimeters) of penetration, date of sampling, and any other information required by the field en-
gineer or geologist. This information is placed on a gummed printed label that can be affixed to the jar. In
addition, the jar lid is marked with the project number, boring number, number of sample, and depths at
the top and bottom of the sample interval.
Jar samples are placed in containers, such as cardboard boxes, with dividers to prevent movement of
the jars. To aid in retrieving samples, only one boring is generally placed in a box. The boxes are labeled
on the top and four sides to show the project number and name, the identification of samples contained in
the box, and the depth from which the samples were taken.
Samples are taken in 6-inch increments and are placed in jars or, where lenses or layers are evident,
the material types should be separated into different jars. All samples recovered, except for slough or cut-
tings, should be saved until analysis is completed. They should then be properly disposed of. Section 5 of
this compendium describes disposal of samples. Each 6-inch increment of a sample should be assigned a
letter suffix, beginning with "A" at the bottom of the sample. If only 6 inches of a sample are recovered, this
would be given the suffix "A."
If the jar samples are to be temporarily stored onsite, they should be protected from weather, especial-
ly heat and freezing temperatures. Evidence tape or custody seals should be placed across the jar lids.
For commercial shipment, the boxes are marked "KEEP FROM HEAT AND FREEZING" and are labeled
with the appropriate Department of Transportation (DOT) labels. The reader should refer to Section 5 of
this compendium.
8.1-20
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8.1.6.2.2 Thin-Walled Tube Samplers
Thin-walled samplers, such as a Shelby tube, are used to take relatively undisturbed samples of soil
from borings. The samplers are constructed of cold drawn steel tubing about 1 mm thick (for tubes 2 in-
ches in diameter) or 3 mm thick (for tubes 5 inches in diameter). The lower end is bent to form a tapered
cutting edge. The upper end is fastened to a check valve to help hold the sample in the tube when the tube
is being withdrawn from the ground. Thin-walled tube samples are obtained by any one of several
methods including pushed-tube, Pitcher sampler, Denison sampler, and piston sampler methods. Choos-
ing the most appropriate method requires that field personnel use their own judgment. Since the purpose
of thin-walled tube sampling is to obtain the highest quality undisturbed samples possible, special care
should be taken in all sampling, handling, packaging, and shipping of these samples.
In obtaining pushed-tube samples, the tube is advanced by hydraulically pushing in one continuous
movement with the drill rig. The maximum hydraulic pressure is recorded. At the end of the designated
push interval and before lifting the sample, the tube is twisted to break the bottom of the sample.
Upon recovery of a thin-walled tube, the actual length of sample is measured and recorded (excluding
slough or cuttings). At least 1/2 inch of soil is cleaned from each end of the tube, and the ends of the soil
sample are squared off. Usually the top of the sample will contain cuttings or slough. These must be
removed before sealing. The soil that has been cleaned from the tube can be used for a visual classifica-
tion of the sample. The resulting space at each end of the tube is filled with melted sealing material, such
as approved wax, or with expandable packers. Previously decontaminated Teflon or stainless steel plugs
are also used. After this initial sealing, a dry filler such as cuttings, sand, or paper can be placed in the
remaining void areas, and sealing is again conducted. This filler prevents the sample from breaking the ini-
tial end seals during handling and shipment. The ends of the tube are then closed with tight-fitting metal or
plastic caps, and the seam between the cap and tube is wrapped with tape. Finally, the ends are dipped in
hot wax, completely covering the tape to ensure sealing.
The sample container and the top cap are labeled by writing on them with an indelible marker or by af-
fixing a label. If possible, all labeling should be located in the top 1 foot of the tube. The information on the
tube includes the project number, project name, date of sampling, boring number, sample number, zone of
sampling, and any other information the field engineer or geologist feels is pertinent. In addition, the tube
is marked TOP and BOTTOM so that the orientation of the soil sample is known.
As much as possible, the tubes should be carried by hand to the soils laboratory in an upright vertical
position to maintain the in situ orientation and to minimize sample dis-aggregation. If the tubes are being
transported by air plane, they should be carried, if possible, on the plane and not checked as baggage.
(NOTE: Soil samples that yield positive readings during screening with an HNU or organic vapor analyzer
(OVA), that show visual evidence of contamination, or that can reasonably be assumed to be contaminated
should never be carried on a passenger aircraft. The reader should refer to Section 5 of this compendium
for the proper packaging, labeling, and shipping of hazardous samples.) If the tubes are to be transported
by truck or automobile, they should be carefully padded and wedged in place to prevent movement and
minimize vibration. If tubes must be shipped as freight, they should be packed in secure wooden boxes
with dividers built in to prevent movement of the tubes, or the boxes should be tightly filled with packing
material such as wood chips to prevent movement. The boxes should be marked "FRAGILE" and "KEEP
FROM HEAT AND FREEZING" and labeled according to the type of hazard presented by the assumed con-
tamination. All packaging of tubes should be supervised by the field engineer or geologist.
Finally, if field engineers or geologists think the tubes have been disturbed in shipment, they should
notify the Project Manager and soils laboratory coordinator in writing.
In addition to geotechnical testing, such as permeability testing, thin-walled samples may be extruded
in the laboratory and used for chemical analysis.
8.1-21
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8.1.6.2.3 Cutting or Wash Samples
Occasionally, cutting or wash samples might be required as the boring is advanced. Cutting or wash
samples should be handled and packaged as outlined for split-spoon samples. An estimate of the depth
(or range of depth) from which the sample was obtained should be recorded on the log sheet. Samples
are usually taken every 5 feet. Samples should be labeled in the manner outlined for jar samples.
8.1.6.3 Decontamination and Waste Handling
Waste handling and decontamination of equipment should be coordinated with the SM or designated
field person before entering the site. Removing any possible sources of offsite contamination from the drill-
ing equipment before beginning work will minimize the offsite transportation of waste upon completion of
work and will minimize cross contamination while working onsite.
Between samples, the sampling equipment shall be decontaminated as approved by the SM or desig-
nated personnel. The decontamination procedure generally involves the following:
• Brush off visible mud or dirt; scrub and wash with clean water. Organic-free water, distilled water,
or tap water may be used; the tap water source must be noncontaminated. (Note: Sample clean-
ing blanks will be submitted for analysis to assure adequacy of decontamination.)
• Scrub and wash with trisodium phosphate.
• Scrub and wash with methanol or acetone.
• Rinse with clean water, preferably de-ionized or distilled water. (See remarks above about clean
water.)
Between boreholes, all casing, rods, samplers, and other equipment used in the boreholes must be
decontaminated as approved by the SM. The cleaning process generally consists of steam cleaning or
hosing the drilling equipment with a high-pressure hot water rinse. After cleaning, the drilling equipment
must be placed on a clean surface on the driller's truck bed or wrapped in clean polyethylene sheeting.
Upon completion of drilling activities, all equipment including the drill rig and all casing, rods, tools, and
miscellaneous equipment must be decontaminated before leaving the site, as approved by the SM. The
drill rig and equipment are usually cleaned with a steam cleaner or mobile high-pressure hot water washer.
Wipe tests may be used to determine the extent of remaining contamination, if any; this testing is particular-
ly relevant when a commercial well driller has been used as a contractor.
Solid waste from the drilling should be placed in barrels following completion of each borehole or dis-
posed of onsite with approval of the SM and EPA. Barrels containing solid wastes will be marked so the
contents can be identified and stored in a secure area onsite (shed or fenced area), at the direction of the
SM.
Fluids that are produced during drilling or well development or that are potentially contaminated during
equipment decontamination will have to be contained onsite and analyzed for contamination. If shown to
be uncontaminated, these fluids may be disposed of by an EPA- and SM-approved site-specific method.
Contaminated fluids will be handled according to procedures specified in the site-specific Quality As-
surance Project Plan (QAPjP). This consideration will be of particular importance at well locations adjacent
to surface waters. To prevent a runoff, a fluid discharge containment trench may be excavated so that all
8.1-22
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fluids from drilling, well development, and decontamination can be diverted to the trench. One trench may
be large enough to contain all fluids produced at a given borehole location. The trench is usually lined.
Consideration must be given to proper security (fencing or lights) around a trench when personnel are ab-
sent from the site. Air emissions from the fluids in a trench should be monitored.
Closure of the trench or removal of the trench contents or other contained fluids must be planned
before initiating any drilling. Trench contents may be allowed to drain into the soil; may be solidified by
backfilling; or may be drained, pumped, or sucked dry, followed by removal of the liner and proper dis-
posal. Samples may be taken from the trench fluids to determine the proper disposal methods. In some
cases, the SM or designated personnel may direct that all fluids be contained in a mobile tank or drums for
subsequent discharge at a location removed from surface waters. This location will be determined by the
SM and is usually less than 1 mile from a given well. Care must be taken in transporting such potentially
contaminated material on public roads to the collection point.
8.1.7 Region-Specific Variances
In general, site-specific conditions and the purpose of the project should be the main criteria for selec-
tion of drilling and sampling methods. However, regional variations from the methods recommended
above might be necessary because of local availability of certain types of equipment. However, because
information on variances can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for current
regional practices and requirements. Future changes will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this compen-
dium.
8.1.7.1 Region I
The hydrogeologists In Region I of EPA do not permit the use of mud rotary drilling techniques to drill a
boring for an unconsolidated zone monitoring well. Region I requires the performance of continuous split-
spoon sampling during all drilling operations. Also, Region I requires permeability testing at regular 5-foot
intervals during drilling operations.
8.1.7.2 Region IV
Region IV EPA personnel recommend the use of pesticide-grade isopropyl alcohol as a cleaning sol-
vent in place of acetone or methanol.
8.1.7.3 Region IX
Region IX EPA personnel do not permit the use of hand augers in sampling for TCDD.
8.1.8 Information Sources
Ackel, W.L Basic Procedures for Soil Sampling and Core Drilling. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Ackel Drill
Co., Inc. 1976.
Barcelona, M.J., J.P. Gibb, J.A. Helfrid, and E.E. Garske. Practical Guide for Groundwater Sampling.
SWS Contract Report 324. Champaign, Illinois: Illinois State Water Survey. 1985.
8.1-23
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Barcelona, M. J., J.P. Glbb, and R.A. Miller. A Guide to the Selection of Materials for Monitoring Well Con-
struction and Groundwater Sampling. ISWS Contract Report 327. Champaign, Illinois: Illinois State Water
Survey. 1983.
Hvorslev, M J. Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. Vicksburg,
Mississippi: Waterways Experiment Station. 1949. Reprinted by ASCE Engineering Foundation. 1965.
Johnson Division, UOP, Inc. Ground Water and Wells. St. Paul, Minnesota. 1980.
National Water Well Association. Water Well Specifications. Berkeley, California: Premier Press. 1981.
Sowers, G.F. Introductory Mechanics and Foundatidns: Geotechnical Engineering. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co. 1979.
Winterkorn, H.F., and H.Y. Fang. Foundation Engineering Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
1975.
8.1-24
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8.2 TEST PITS AND EXCAVATIONS
8.2.1 Scope and Purpose
The scope and purpose of this subsection is to provide reference material for conducting test pit and
trench excavations at hazardous waste sites. These reference materials provide general guidelines; conse-
quently, project-specific plans take precedence.
8.2.2 Definitions
Site Manager(SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person Is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Trenches or Test Pit
Open shallow excavations, typically longitudinal (if a trench) or rectangular (if a pit), to deter-
mine the shallow subsurface conditions for engineering, geological, and soil chemistry ex-
ploration and/or sampling purposes. These pits are excavated manually or by a machine,
such as a backhoe, clamshell, trencher excavator, or bulldozer.
8.2.3 Applicability
This subsection presents routine test pit or trench excavation techniques. Specialized techniques that
are applicable only under certain conditions are not presented.
During the excavation of trenches or pits at hazardous waste sites, several health and safety concerns
arise and control the method of excavation. All excavations that are deeper than 4 feet must be stabilized
(before entry into the excavation) by bracing the pit sides using wooden or steel support structures. Per-
sonnel entering the excavation may be exposed to toxic or explosive gases and oxygen-deficient environ-
ments. In these cases, substantial air monitoring is required before entry, and appropriate respiratory gear
and protective clothing is mandatory. There must be at least two persons present at the immediate site
before entry by one of the investigators. The reader should refer to OSHA regulations 29 CFR 1926 29
CFR 1910.120, and 29 CFR 1910.134.
Machine-dug excavations are generally not practical where a depth of more than about 15 feet is
desired. These excavations are also usually limited to a few feet below the water table. In some cases, a
pumping system may be required to control water levels within the pits, providing that pumped water can
be adequately stored or disposed. If data on soils at depths greater than 15 feet are required, the data are
usually obtained through test borings instead of test pits.
In addition, hazardous wastes may be brought to the surface by excavation equipment. This material,
whether removed from the site or returned to the subsurface, must be properly handled.
8.2-1
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8.2.4 Responsibilities
The SM or field team leader is responsible for developing the test pit program and instituting the
program, including sample acquisition. A minimum two-person crew, in addition to the excavating equip-
ment operator, is recommended for test pit work at a hazardous waste site. Larger crews may be required
if unusually hazardous conditions may be encountered or the scope of work requires additional staffing.
One person onsite must function as the health and safety officer to monitor compliance with health and
safety requirements. Other duties that may be required include sampling operations, both chemical and/or
geotechnical, and soil or rock descriptions. The personnel onsite may divide the required duties according
to their capabilities. Where physical or geotechnical soil descriptions are required, a geologist should be
included in the crew.
8.2.5 Records
Test pit logs should contain a sketch of pit conditions. In addition, at least one photograph with a scale
for comparison should be taken of each pit. Included in the photograph should be a card showing the test
pit number and site name. Test pit locations should be documented by typing in the location of two or
more nearby permanent landmarks (trees, house, fence, etc.) and should be located on a site map. Sur-
veying may also be required, depending on the requirements of each project. Other data to be recorded in
the field logbook include the following:
• Name and location of job
• Date of excavation
• Approximate surface elevation
• Total depth of excavation
• Dimensions of pit
• Method of sample acquisition
• Type and size of samples
• Soil and rock descriptions
• Photographs
• Groundwater levels
• Organic gas or methane levels
• Other pertinent information, such as waste material encountered
8.2-2
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8.2.6 Guidelines
8.2.6.1 Test Pit and Trench Construction
These guidelines describe the methods for excavating and logging test pits and trenches to determine
subsurface soil and rock conditions.
Test pits and trenches may be excavated by hand or by power equipment to permit detailed explana-
tion and clear under standing of the nature and contamination of the in situ materials. The size of the ex-
cavation will depend primarily on the following:
• The purpose and extent of the exploration
• The space required for efficient excavation
• The chemicals of concern
• The economics and efficiency of available equipment
Test pits normally have a cross section that is 4 to 10 feet square; test trenches are usually 3 to 6 feet
wide and may be extended for any length required to reveal conditions along a specific line. The following
table, which is based on equipment efficiencies, can give a rough guide for design consideration:
Equipment Typical Widths. In Feet
Trenching machine 2
Backhoe 2 - 6
Track dozer 10
Track loader 10
Excavator 10
Scraper 20
Fifteen feet is considered to be the economical vertical limit of excavation. However, larger and deeper
excavations have been used when special problems justified the expense.
The construction of test pits and trenches should be planned and designed in advance as much as
possible. However, field conditions may necessitate revisions to the initial plans. The field supervisor
should determine the exact depth and construction. The test pits and trenches should be excavated in
compliance with applicable safety regulations as specified by the health and safety officer.
If the depth exceeds 4 feet and people will be entering the pit or trench, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) requirements must be met: Walls must be braced with wooden or steel
braces, ladders must be in the hole at all times, and a temporary guardrail must be placed along the sur-
face of the hole before entry. It is advisable to stay out of test pits as much as possible; if possible, the re-
quired data or samples should be gathered without entering the pit. Samples of leachate, groundwater, or
sidewall soils can be taken with telescoping poles, etc.
Stabilization of the sides of test pits and trenches, when required, generally is achieved by sloping the
walls at a sufficiently flat angle or by using sheeting. Benching or terracing can be used for deeper holes.
8.2-3
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Shallow excavations are generally stabilized by sheeting. Test pits excavated into fill are generally much
more unstable than pits dug into natural in-place soil.
Sufficient space should be maintained between trenches or pits, to place soil that will be stockpiled for
cover, as well as to allow access and free movement by haul vehicles and operating equipment. Ex-
cavated soil should be stock piled to one side, in one location, preferably downwind, away from the edge
of the pit to reduce pressure on the pit walls.
Dewatering may be required to assure the stability of the side walls, to prevent the bottom of the pit
from heaving, and to keep excavation dry. This is an important consideration for excavations in cohesion-
less material below the groundwater table. Liquids removed as a result of dewatering operations must be
handled as potentially contaminated materials. Procedures for the collection and disposal of such
materials are discussed in the site-specific QAPJP.
The overland flow of water from excavated saturated soils and the erosion or sedimentation of the
stockpiled soil should be controlled. A temporary detention basin and a drainage system should be
planned to prevent the contaminated wastes from spreading.
8.2.6.2 Sampling Techniques
Sampling from test pits can be performed by "disturbed" and "undisturbed" methods. Sampling should
begin from within the pit or trench only after proper safety precautions have been initiated.
All samples collected should be identified on the test pit logs and in the field notebook. Information
such as sample number, depth, type, volume, and method of collection is required. Preservation, packing,
and shipping methods are specified elsewhere in this compendium (Sections 4,5, and 6).
Equipment: The following is a list of equipment that may be needed for taking samples from test pits
and trenches:
• Backhoe or other excavating machinery
• Shovels, picks, or scoops
• Sample containers (5-gal bucket with locking lid for large samples and 250-mL glass bottles for
chemical analysis samples)
Disturbed samples: Disturbed samples are those that have been collected in a manner in which the
in-situ physical structure and fabric of the soil have been disrupted. Disturbed sampling techniques typical-
ly include sampling from the walls or floors of the test pit by means of scraping or digging with a trowel,
rockpick, or shovel. Large disturbed samples can be taken directly from the backhoe bucket during ex-
cavation; however, care must be taken to assure that the sample is actually from the unit desired and does
not include slough or scraped material from the sides of the trench.
Undisturbed samples: "Relatively undisturbed" samples can be obtained from test pits. Typically, an
undisturbed sample is collected by isolating by hand a large cube of soil at the base or side of the test pit.
This sample can be cut using knives, shovels, and the like. Care is taken to keep disturbances to a mini-
mum. After the block of soil is removed, it is placed in an airtight, padded container for shipment to the lab.
The overexcavated sample is 'trimmed" at'the laboratory to the size required for the designated test. In
some instances (e.g., in soft cohesive soil), it may be possible to get an undisturbed sample by pushing a
Shelby tube sampling device into an undisturbed portion of the test pit and by using a backhoe.
8.2-4
-------
Waste samples: Trenching and test pitting are excellent methods of obtaining waste samples from
dumps and landfills. While borings may be useful at greater depths, drilling through a landfill or dump
creates unusual hazards, such as hitting pockets of explosive gases; rupturing intact, buried containers; or
potentially contaminating the transfer by penetrating confining layers beneath a landfill. Additionally, the
samples gathered by drilling are not representitive of the heterogeneous conditions found in a landfill.
Trenching and test pitting allow a larger, more representitive area to be observed, permit selection of
specific samples from the pile of spoiled or stockpiled material (biased grab sampling), and, with
reasonable precautions, allow the retrieval of intact, buried containers.
8.2.6.3 Backfilling of Trenches and Test Pits
Before backfilling, the onsite crew should photograph all significant features exposed by the test pit
and trench and should include in the photograph a scale to show dimensions. Photographs of test pits
should be marked to include site number, test pit number, depth, description of ' ^ure, and date of
photograph. In addition, a geologic description of each photograph should be ente -• the L >ook. All
photographs should be indexed and maintained for future reference.
After inspection, backfill material should be returned to the pit under the direction of the field super-
visor.
If a low permeability layer is penetrated (resulting in groundwater flow from an upper contaminated
flow zone into a lower uncontaminated flow zone), backfill material must represent original conditions or be
impermeable. Backfill could consist of a soil-bentonite mix prepared in a proportion specified by the field
supervisor (representing a permeability equal to or less than original conditions). Backfill should be
covered by "clean" soil and graded to the original land contour. Revegetation of the disturbed area may
also be required.
8.2.6.4 Decontamination
For decontamination procedures, the reader should refer to Subsection 8.1.6.3.
8.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
Site-specific conditions and project objectives dictate the methods of test pit or trench excavation and
sampling. No region-specific variances from the methods described above are known. Decontamination
procedures for sampling equipment vary with region. Most regions permit methane or acetone for a
decontamination solution; however, some allow only isopropyl alcohol. Because Information on variances
can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for current regional practices and re-
quirements. Future changes and additional regional variances will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this
compendium.
8.2.8 Information Sources
NUS Corporation. NUS Operating Guidelines Manual. Superfund Division, Sections 4.13 and 4.38.
U.S. Department of Interior. The Earth Manual. 2nd ed. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington,
D.C. 1980. 810pp.
8.2-5
-------
8.3 GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE AND GEOLOGICAL LOGGING
8.3.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection describes geological reconnaissance studies and geological logging activities for field
investigations of hazardous waste sites.
Geological reconnaissance studies require considerable professional judgment. Successful comple-
tion relies more on professional experience and insight than on acknowledged standards or procedures.
Because there are no industry standards, this subsection describes basic methods, procedures, and ac-
tivities to be accomplished or considered for a geological reconnaissance. Each site will require a special
approach that will depend on the local geology, the amount of available data, the project schedule, and the
judgment of the project geologist.
Geological logging of soil or rock materials derived from subsurface investigations is a more objective
activity, and several industry standards exist for the physical description of earth materials. These stand-
ards will be described below.
8.3.2 Definitions
Geological Reconnaissance Studies
The American Geological Institute (AGI) defines a geological reconnaissance as "a general, ex-
ploratory examination or survey of the main features (or certain specific features) of a region,
usually conducted as a preliminary to a more detailed survey."
The geological reconnaissance, therefore, provides the basis for more detailed investigations
by identifying the major geological or physical features at and near the hazardous waste site.
Geological reconnaissance studies are conducted early in project site investigations as part of
the site characterization process.
Geological and Geophysical Logging
Geological and geophysical logging is a detailed, systematic, and sequential record of the
progress of drilling a well or borehole, or of excavating pits and trenches.
The record of geological logging is kept on printed log forms and may include notes on the fol-
lowing:
• Soil and rock classifications and descriptions
• Outcrop descriptions
• Depths and thicknesses of the earth materials penetrated
• Groundwater conditions
• Origin and geologic structure(s)
8.3-1
-------
• Drilling progress
• Borehole geophysical logging
• Sampling
• Type of equipment used
• Unusual or significant conditions
• Date of drilling, location of borehole, and so forth
Materials encountered are classified and described by obtaining samples or cuttings and by
applying the standards described below.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
8.3.3 Applicability
8.3.3.1 Geological Reconnaissance
Geological reconnaissance studies are applicable to most investigations of hazardous waste sites and
are dependent on the existing database for the site. Sites having little existing information concerning site
setting and relevant geologic features may require more detailed work than sites with a considerable
database.
8.3.3.2 Geological Logging
Geological logging of subsurface explorations is always necessary to record events and conditions en-
countered in the field. Maintenance of acceptable log forms and adherence to established, or mandated
procedures for material description, are critical to technically sound and defensible field investigations.
8.3.4 Responsibilities
The SM is ultimately responsible for determining that proper logging and geologic reconnaissance
techniques are applied to the project. Because of the variability of geologic conditions from one site to
another and the judgment required by such studies, an experienced project geologist with local knowledge
should work with the SM to plan, implement, and evaluate the reconnaissance.
8.3-2
-------
8.3.5 Procedures
8.3.5.1 Geological Reconnaissance
8.3.5.1.1 General
Experienced personnel should plan and implement a cost-effective and technically sound reconnais-
sance study. The scope of the study will depend on anticipated problems and conditions at the site,
coupled with professional judgment. The scope will vary depending on the following:
• Amount of available reference material and base maps
• Site accessibility
• Size of site and type of facility (landfill, tanks, industrial, other)
• Geologic setting of the site
• Site topography or geomorphology
• Anticipated subsurface and groundwater conditions
• Anticipated extent and type of contamination
• Level of personal protection required during the conduct of the reconnaissance
• Overall goal of the site investigation activities
8.3.5.1.2 Methods
Hunt (1984) describes the basic steps of a geological reconnaissance as follows:
• Research of reference materials and collection of available data
• Terrain analysis based on topographic maps and remote sensing imagery
• Preparation of a preliminary geological map including (where appropriate) saprolite mapping, out-
crop mapping with strike and measurements of structural features, and locating of springs and
seeps
• Site reconnaissance to confirm and amplify the geological map, followed by preparation of the final
version of the map
• Preparation of a subsurface exploration program based on anticipated conditions and data gaps
The proportion of field work to office work will vary from site to site.
References and data gathered to initiate the work may include any or all of the following historical or
recent materials: geological maps and texts; soil surveys; hydrogeologic reports and well logs;
topographic maps, air photos, and remote sensing imagery; climatic data; geotechnical engineering
reports for the area; and site-related data and reports.
8.3-3
-------
The basic objectives of the geological reconnaissance are to determine regional geologic setting and
site-specific geologic conditions including the following:
• Determination of bedrock geology and major structural features
• Determination of the geology of unconsolidated overburden and soil deposits
• Identification of actual or potential aquifers and water-bearing units and their physical properties
• Climatic and topographic conditions affecting groundwater recharge and discharge, erosion,
flooding, and surface water conditions of interest
• Identification of potential pathways for contaminant migration
• Geologic conditions, hazards, or constraints that could contribute to offsite contaminant migration
or that might preclude certain remedial alternatives
Specific items of interest Include outcrops, springs, seeps, leachate outbreaks, and surface drainage
features. Compton (1962) presents a detailed list of field data collection techniques.
The reconnaissance study may sometimes be accompanied by more in-depth exploratory techniques
when little is known about the site, when the site is especially complex, or when more detailed geologic or
hydrogeologic site characterization is necessary. The scope of more detailed studies will also be project
specific and must build on data previously gathered. As with reconnaissance level efforts, the level of effort
for detailed geological investigations should be designed to be commensurate with potential remedial tech-
nologies and overall project goals. For the majority of sites the emphasis of the detailed studies is on
hydrogeology. These detailed studies include the following:
• Drilling of hydrogeologic test holes and soil borings, which are logged in the field by geologists
• In situ testing for permeability and other aquifer and aquitard characteristics
• Installing groundwater monitoring wells
• Determining groundwater flow-rates and directions
• Integrating site-specific hydrogeology into the regional hydrogeologic regime
In addition to these tasks, certain geotechnical or geological elements of the site may be explored by
using test pits, boreholes, or geophysics. These activities can further define site conditions and develop
engineering criteria for the design of remedial alternatives. Well drilling and geophysical techniques are
described in Subsection 8.1. These techniques are subject to site-specific health and safety and quality as-
surance procedures.
8.3-4
-------
8.3.5.2 Geological Logging
8.3.5.2.1 General
Geological logging, as previously defined, Includes keeping a detailed record of drilling (or excavating)
and a geological description of materials on a prepared form. Geological logs are used for all types of drill-
ing and exploratory excavations and Include descriptions of both soil and rock. General guidance for log-
ging soils and rock Is provided below.
8.3.5.2.2 Methods - Soils
When drilling In soils or unconsolidated deposits, the log should be kept on a standard soil boring log
form (Exhibit 8.3-1). The following basic information should be entered on the heading of each log sheet:
• Project name and number
• Boring or well number
• Location (approximate in relation to an identifiable landmark; will be surveyed. See Section 14,
Land Surveying, Aerial Photography, and Mapping).
• Elevation (approximate at the time; will be surveyed. See Section 14, Land Surveying, Aery
Photography, and Mapping).
• Name of drilling contractor
• Drilling method and equipment
• Water level
• Start and finish (time and date)
• Name of logger
The following technical information is recorded on the logs:
• Depth of sample below surface
• Sample interval
• Sample type and number
• Length of sample recovered
• Standard penetration test (ASTM-D1586) results if applicable
• Soil description and classification
• Graphic soil symbols
8.3-5
-------
Exhibit 8.3-1
SOIL BORING LOG
PROJECT NUMBER
BORING NUMBER
SHEET
OF
SOIL BORING LOG
PROJECT
. LOCATION
ELEVATION
. DRILLING CONTRACTOR .
DRILLING METHOD AND EQUIPMENT.
WATER LEVEL AND DATE
START
. FINISH
.LOGGER .
DEPTH
BELOW
SURFACE
-
SAMPLE
INTERVAL
TYPE AND
NUMBER
RECOVERY
STANDARD
PENETRATION
TEST
RESULTS
6' -61 -6"
(N)
SOIL DESCRIPTION
NAME GRADATION OR PLASTICITY.
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION COLOR
MOISTURE CONTENT. RELATIVE DENSITY
OH CONSISTENCY. SOIL STRUCTURE.
MINERALOGY. USCS GROUP SYMBOL
-
SYMBOLIC
LOG
COMMENTS
DEPTH OF CASING
DRILLING RATE
DRILLING FLUID LOSS
TESTS AND
INSTRUMENTATION
-
8.3-6
REV 11/82 FORM 01586
-------
In addition to the items listed above, all pertinent observations about drilling rate, equipment operation,
or unusual conditions should be noted. Such information might include the following:
• Size of casing used and method of installation
• Rig reactions such as chatter, rod drops, and bouncing
• Drilling rate changes
• De£th and percentage of fluid losses
• Changes in fluid color or consistency
• Material changes
• Zones of caving or heaving
8.3.5.2.3 Soil Description
Description of soils (well logging) should be done in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) as described in ASTM D2487-69 (1975): Test Method for Classification of Soils for En-
gineering Purposes (see Exhibit 8.3-2). The approach and format should generally conform to ASTM
02488-69(1975): Recommended Practice of Description of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure). Alternatively,
the Burmeister system of soil description may be used, although the use of this system seems to be con-
centrated in the Northeast. The complete title of the Burmeister system can be found in the references.
Because the Burmeister system relies heavily on handling the soil, it should not be used in areas of sig-
nificant soil contamination.
The soil description should be concise and should stress major constituents and characteristics. Soil
descriptions should be given in a consistent order and format. The following order is as given in ASTM
D2488:
• 1. Soil Name: The basic name of the predominant constituent and a single-word modifier in-
dicating the major subordinate constituent.
• 2. Gradation or Plasticity: For granular soil (sands or gravels) that should be described as
well- graded, poorly graded, uniform, or gap-graded, depending on the gradation of the minus 3-
inch fraction. Cohesive soil (silts or clays) should be described as nonplastlc, slightly plastic,
moderately plastic, or highly plastic, depending on the results of the manual evaluation for plas-
ticity as described in ASTM D2488.
• 3. Particle Size Distribution: An estimate of the percentage and grain-size range of each of
the soil's subordinate constituents with emphasis on clay-particle constituents. This description
may also include a description of angularity. This parameter is critical for assessing hydrogeology
of the site and should be carefully and fully documented.
• 4. Color: The basic color of the soil. (Refer to Munsell color charts.)
• 5. Moisture Content: The amount of soil moisture, described as dry, moist, or wet.
• 6. Relative Density or Consistency: An estimate of density of a granular soil or consistency
of a cohesive soil, usually based on standard penetration test results (see Exhibit 8.3-3).
8.3-7
-------
Exhibit 8.3-2
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
CLASS Ifl CAT ION CRITCAIA
TVPICAL
NAHCS
MOD*
SVMIOIS
NAJO* DIVISIONS
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lyotolt
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or plasticity index less than k
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8.3-8
-------
Exhibit 8.3-3
RELATIVE DENSITY OF NONCOHESIVE SOIL
Blows/Ft
0-4
5-10
11-30
31-50
>50
Relative
Density
Very loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very dense
Field Test
Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod pushed by hand
Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod pushed by hand
Easily penetrated with 1/2-inch steel rod driven with 5-lb hammer
Penetrated a foot with 1/2-inch steel rod driven with 5-lb hammer
Penetrated only a few inches with 1/2-inch steel rod driven with 5-lb
hammer
CONSISTENCY OF COHESIVE SOIL
Blows/Ft
<2
2-4
5-8
9-15
16-30
>30
Consistency
Very soft
Soft
Firm
Stiff
Very stiff
Hard
Pocket
Penetrometer
(TSF*)
<0.25
0.25-0.5
0.50-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-4.0
>4.0
Torvane
(TSF)
<0.12
0.12-0.25
0.25-0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
>2.0
Field Test
Easily penetrated several inches
by fist
Easily penetrated several inches
by thumb
Can be penetrated several inches
by thumb with moderate effort
Readily indented by thumb but
penetrated only with great effort
Readily indented by thumbnail
Indented with difficulty by thumbnail
*TSF- Tons per square foot
8.3-9
-------
• 7. Soil Texture and Structure: Description of particle size distribution, arrangement of particles
into aggregates, and their structure. This description includes joints, fissures, slicken sides, bed-
ding, veins, root holes, debris, organic content, and residual or relict structure, as well as other
characteristics that may influence the movement or retention of water or contaminants.
• 8. Relative Permeability: An estimate of the permeability based on visual examination of mate
rials (e.g., high permeability for coarse sand and gravel versus low permeability for silty clay). The
estimate should address presence and condition of fractures (open, iron-stand, calcite-filled, open
but clay-lined, etc.), as well as fracture density and orientation.
• 9. Local Geologic Name: Any specific local name or a generic name (i.e., alluvium, loess).
• 10. Group Symbol: Unified Soil Classification System of symbols (see Exhibit 8.3-2).
The soil logs should also include a complete description of any tests run in the borehole; placement
and construction details of piezometers, wells, and other monitoring equipment; abandonment records;
geophysical logging techniques used; and notes on readings obtained by air monitoring instruments.
8.3.5.2.4 Rock Methods
When coring in rock, keep the log on a standard rock core log form (see Exhibit 8.3-4). Basic informa-
tion should be entered on the heading, as described in the soil section. The following technical information
is entered in the log:
* Depth
• Core length
• Coring rate in minutes per foot
• Fluid gain or loss
• Core loss
• Percentage of recovery
• Core breakage due to discontinuities
• Total core breakage
• Number of breaks per foot
• Rock classification and lithology
In addition to the items listed above, pertinent observations concerning drilling rate, equipment opera-
tion, or unusual conditions should be noted. Such information might include the following:
• Casing type and diameter
• Type of drilling fluid
• Rig reactions
8.3-10
-------
Exhibit 8.3-4
ROCK CORE LOG
PROJECT NUMBER
ROCK CORE LOG
PROJECT
DRILLING METHOD.
ELEVATION
WATER LEVEI
. LOCATION.
.DRILLERS & EQUIPMENT.
ORIENTATION.
DATE-
_BORE HOLE:.
. START.,
.FINISH-
.INSPECTOR.
DEPTH
COMMENTS
TESTS
INSTRUMENTATION
CORING RATE AND
SMOOTHNESS
CORING FLUID LOSS
oS
CORE RUN
LENGTH AC
RECOVERY
_j
UJ UJ
EZ
oo
O N
oc
UJ
00
z
X
O
CD
a
O
cc
l
FRACTURE!
PER FOOT
DISCONTINUITIES
DESCRIPTION
TIGHTNESS
PLANARITY
SMOOTHNESS
FILLING. STAINING
ORIENTATION
LITHOLOGY
MINERALOGY CEMENTATION
CLASSIFICATION HARDNESS
COLOR WEATHERED
GRAIN SIZE STATE
ALTERATION
O
O
GRAPHIC L
8.3-11
FORM D 2113A 5/78
-------
• Depth and percentage of fluid losses
• Material changes
• Zones of caving
8.3.5.2.5 Rock Classification
The description of rock should be done in an orderly and systematic fashion. The following order is
recommended:
• 1. Ltthology and Texture: Geological name of the rock and its mineral composition (the
geological name, such as granite, basalt, or sandstone, usually describes the rock's origin).
Description of how grains are arranged or bound together (I.e., interlocking, cemented, or
laminated-foliated; Deere, 1963)
• 2. Color: The basic color of the rock, modified by light, medium, or dark.
*
• 3. Hardness: Terms used to describe hardness are given on subsequent pages.
Descriptive Term Defining Characteristics
Very hard Cannot be scratched with knife. Does not leave a groove
on the rock surface when scratched.
Hard Difficult to scratch with knife. Leaves a faint groove with
sharp edges.
Medium Can be scratched with knife. Leaves a well-defined groove
with sharp edges.
Soft Easily scratched with knife. Leaves a deep groove with
broken edges.
Very soft Can be scratched with a fingernail.
• 4. Weathering: Terms used to describe weathering are described below:
Descriptive Term Defining Characteristics
Fresh Rock is unstained. May be fractured, but discontinuities are not
stained.
Slightly Rock is unstained. Discontinuities show some staining on the
surfaces of rocks, but discoloration does not penetrate rock mass.
Moderate Discontinuity surfaces are stained. Discoloration may extend
into rock along discontinuity surfaces.
High Individual rock fragments are thoroughly stained and can be
crushed with pressure hammer. Discontinuity surfaces are
thoroughly stained and may be crumbly.
Severe Rock appears to consist of gravel-sized fragments in a "soil"
matrix. Individual fragments are thoroughly discolored and can
be broken with fingers.
• 5. Grain Size: Term that describes fabric as fine-grained, medium-grained, or coarse-grained.
8.3-12
-------
• 6. Description of Bedding or of Joint or Fracture Spacing: Description should be according
to the following:
Bedding or
Spacing Joints Foliation
< 2 in. Very close Very thin
2 in. to 1 ft Close Thin
1 ft to 3 ft Moderately close Medium
3 ft to 10 ft Wide Thick
> 10ft Very wide Very thick
(after Deere, 1963)
• 7. Discontinuity Descriptions: Terms that describe number, depth, and type of natural discon-
tinuities. Also describe orientation, staining, planarity, alteration, joint or fracture fillings, and struc-
tural features.
• 8. Local Geological Name: Term used to assign local geological name, if appropriate, and to
identify stratigraphic equivalents, if applicable.
The rock logs should also include a complete description of the mineralogy of the rock, of any tests run
in the bore hole, and of placement and construction details of piezometers, wells, and other rig monitoring
devices.
8.3.5.2.6 Well Completion Diagrams
For each monitoring well installed, a monitoring well completion diagram or well log should be sub-
mitted. This form (Exhibit 8.3-5) should contain information in the appropriate column as follows:
• Well number
• Project number and name
• Location
• Geologist or engineer
• Ground elevation
• Well installation date
• Drilling contractor
• Drilling methods
• Water levels before and after development
• Development method
Columns for a summary of the lithologies encountered during drilling, lithologic or USCS symbols, and
construction details are shown on the form. The construction details include depth of well, screen, and
riser; appropriate pipe diameters; backfill types and elevations; and pipe materials (e.g., polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), stainless, black).
8.3-13
-------
Exhibit 8.3-5
BLANK WELL LOG SHEET
W€LL LOG SHEET
WELL N», PROJECT N*. PROJECT NAME
LOCATION GEOLOGIST
DRILLING DATE DRILLING CONTRACTOR
DRILLING METHOD DRILLER INSTALLATION DATE
WATER LEVEL BEFORE INSTALLATION WATER LEVEL AFTER INSTALLATION
DEVELOPMENT METHOD GROUND ELEVATION
LITHOLOGY
DESCRIPTION
SYMBOL
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
DESCRIPTION DEPTH
8.3-14
-------
Exhibit 8.3-6
COMPLETED WELL LOG SHEET
WELL LOG SHEET
WELL t#. MW.3 .: P"OJECTNa._O1C;g,.l(e!
PROJECT NAME SWOflE ©M.
LOCATION PEK1KJSKOW.O4, KJ-J-
QEOLOQIST
DRILLING DATE
DRILLING CONTRACTOR
DRILLING METHOD V4VJ& ROTM6-Y
DRILLER
INSTALLATION DATE
WATER LEVEL BEFORE INSTALLATION
WATER LEVEL AFTER INSTALLATION Otnse ,Virv»
Medium SvwA ,TVx».ct c.lo.v o^d 1
63-84-
•fine ar*vcl °Mr.
-------
Exhibit 8.3-6 is an example of a completed well log sheet. This form accompanies the rock core and
soil boring logs to provide detailed information on borehole stratigraphy and monitoring well installation.
8.3.6 Region-Specific Variances
Site-specific conditions and project objectives will be the main criteria for methods used for geological
reconnaissance and logging. No regional variations in the methods described above are known, but varia-
tions in reporting formats do exist. However, some regions prefer the Burmeister soil identification system.
Because information on variances can become outdated rapidly, users of this section should consult the
EPA region in which the logging will be done. Future changes will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this
compendium.
8.3.7 Information Sources
American Geological Institute. Glossary of Geology. Washington, D.C. 1974.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D2487 - Standard Test Method for Classification of
Soils for Engineering Purposes. 1983.
ASTM D2488 - Standard Recommended Practice for Description of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure). 1983.
Burmeister, D.M. Identification and Classification of Soils—An Appraisal and Statement of Principles.
ASTMSTP113. 1951
Compton, R.R. Manual of Field Geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1962.
CH2MHILL PMO Field Manual for Subsurface Exploration. 1982.
Deere, D.U. Technical Description of Rock Cores for Engineering Purposes. Rock Mechanics Engineering
Geology. 1963.
Hunt, R.E. Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual. McGraw-Hill: New York. 1984.
8.3-16
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8.4 GEOPHYSICS
8.4.1 General Considerations
8.4.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This document provides general guidance for the planning, selection, and implementation of geophysi-
cal surveys that may be conducted during investigations of hazardous waste sites. Each of six commonly
used methods are discussed from the standpoint of applicability to site investigation, procedures for im-
plementation, survey design, and miscellaneous method-specific considerations. Emphasis is placed on
the practical understanding of each method with a minimal amount of theoretical explanation being offered
in the main body of the text. For those readers who may desire a more rigorous understanding, however,
theoretical considerations have been included in the appendix.
8.4.1.2 Definitions
Amplitude
The maximum vertical displacement from equilibrium in a wave.
Anomaly
An electromagnetic (EM) reading that deviates from the typical site background reading and is
generally caused by the presence of an irregularity or target.
API
American Petroleum Institute.
Array
The configuration of electrodes in resistivity surveys.
Body Wave
A "seismic wave" that travels through the interior of the earth and is not related to any bound-
ary surface. A body wave may be either longitudinal (P-wave) or transverse (S-wave). (Glos-
sary of Geology)
Bulk Density
The weight of an object or material divided by its volume, including the volume of its pore
spaces.
Circuit Potential
Measured electrical voltage drop or gain.
Compressional Wave
That type of seismic body wave that involves particle motion (alternating compression and ex-
pansion) in the direction of propagation. It is the fastest of the seismic waves and is also
known as a P-wave.
Confidence Interval
The statistical level of probability of accomplishing a given task, such as detecting a target.
Critical Angle
The least "angle of incidence" at which there is total reflection when electromagnetic radiation
passes from one medium to another, less refracting medium. (Glossary of Geology)
8.4-1
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Critical Distance
In refraction seismic work, that source-to-receiver distance at which the direct wave in an
upper medium is matched in arrival time by that of the refracted wave from the medium below,
the refracted wave having a greater velocity.
Crossover Distance
The source to receiver distance beyond which head waves from a deeper refractor arrive
ahead of those from a shallower refractor.
Cultural
An anomaly or feature that is attributable to human development, such as buried drums or
utility lines.
Dead Time
Measurement errors in nuclear logging occurring from the inability to record all of the pulse
energy within the resolving time.
Density
Mass per unit volume (g/cm3). Bulk rock densities vary mainly because of porosity and range
from 1.9 to 2.8 g/cm3.
Dynamic Correction
Seismic data must be corrected for normal moveout (NMO), which is the increase in arrival
time of a reflection event, resulting from an increase in the distance from source to receiver or
from dip of the reflector. Each trace has to be shifted by a different amount at different travel
time to line up the primary reflections.
Echo Profile
The graphic representation of time-delayed Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) impulses.
Effective Porosity
The porosity that involves those pore spaces which are interconnected and, therefore, effective
in transmitting fluids.
Electric Logs
The generic term for a well log that displays electrical measurements of induced current flow
between electrodes. Electric logs discussed in this sub-section include only single-point resis-
tivity and spontaneous potential.
Electrodes
A ground-contacting metallic conductor used to apply current or measure the circuit potential.
Fall-Off Rate
The rate of decay of an anomaly with respect to distance.
Fermat's Principle
A seismic wave will follow the path that takes less time between two points rather than follow
variations of this path. Such a path is called a minimum- time path.
Gamma
A unit of magnetic field. 1 gamma = 10"5 gauss = 10 tesla. In the International System of
Units (SI units), 1 tesla = 1 kg amp sec2.
Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
8.4-2
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Logging Speed
The speed at which the sonde traverses the borehole (typically in feet per minute).
Magnetic Dipole
A pair of magnetic poles of opposite signs and equal strengths that are close together so that
the interaction of these poles is detectable.
Magnetic Monopole
A single magnetic pole of either positive or negative sign that is spatially separated from a
magnetic pole of opposite sign so that there is no detectable interaction between the poles.
Magnetic Moment
The strength of a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic Susceptibility
A measure of the degree to which a substance may be magnetized.
Multichannel Seismic
Geophone groups and shotholes used in various combinations so that reflections are recorded
from the same portion of the subsurface a number of times. Also referred to as common-
depth point (CDP) shooting.
Noise
Variation in data because of an undesirable influence.
Nuclear Logs
The generic term for a well log that either measures natural or induces and measures radioac-
tive isotopes in the borehole environment. Discussion in this text is limited to natural gamma,
gamma-gamma, and neutron.
Ray Parameter
A function P that is constant along a given seismic ray when horizontal velocity is constant.
Defined as:
where velocity = Kand / is the angle of wave incidence.
Resistivity
The ability of a material to resist the flow of electrical current.
Shear wave
A seismic body wave propagated by a shearing motion that involves oscillation perpendicular
to the direction of propagation. The shear wave doesn't travel through liquids, and it arrives
later than the P-wave. It is also known as an S-wave.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
8.4-3
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Smell's Law
When a seismic wave encounters a boundary between two layers of different seismic
velocities, the direction of wave propagation changes so that the sine of the angle of wave in-
cidence (/) divided by the seismic velocity (Fo), of the overlying medium equals the sine of the
angle of wave refraction (zr), divided by the seismic velocity (Fi), of the underlying medium.
sin i sin ir sin //•
Fo ~ Vi ~ Fo
where (ir) is the angle of wave reflection and (p) is the ray parameter.
Sonde
The elongated cylindrical tool assembly used in a borehole to acquire well log information.
Specific Yield
The ratio of the volume of water that a given mass of saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity,
to the volume of that mass.
Spectrum
Amplitude and phase characteristics as a function of frequency for the components of a seis-
mic wavelet.
Static Corrections
Corrections applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of variations in elevation,
and weathered layer thickness by referencing all data to a datum plane. Such corrections are
independent of time, the amount of shift being the same for all points on any trace.
Surface Wave
A "seismic wave" that travels along the surface of the earth or parallel to the earth's surface.
Surface waves include Rayleigh waves, Love waves, and coupled waves.
Target
The specific focus (or purpose) of an EM survey, such as buried drums or trench boundaries.
Thermal Convection
The transfer of heat by vertical movements in the borehole because of density differences
caused by heating from below.
Total Porosity
The ratio of the void volume of a porous medium to the total volume. This is generally ex-
pressed as a percentage.
8.4.1.3 Responsibilities
The SM, in conjunction with the EPA RPM, must clearly define the objectives and information desired
from the geophysical efforts. Site Managers are responsible for determining which geophysical techniques
will provide data to permit meeting the established objectives. Site Managers are also responsible for coor-
dinating safety considerations, planning fieldwork, arranging for quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC),
and providing technical assistance. Geophysical task leaders are responsible for site reconnaissance,
identification of potential problems, estimation of project effectiveness, acquisition of equipment, onsite su-
pervision, and data interpretation.
8.4-4
-------
Electromagnetic techniques have been adapted for downhole applications. These can be useful in
defining the vertical extent of a contaminant zone. Some systems work inside PVC or Teflon monitoring
well casings. For further information on airborne, borehole, or surface EM instruments, the reader should
consult the subsections on theory and interpretation and the manufacturer references listed later in this
compendium.
8.4.1.4 Records and Inspection
8.4.1.4.1 Calibration
Dated records of geophysical equipment calibration, whether performed in the field or in the
laboratory, should be kept in the equipment management files and in the appropriate project file. Calibra-
tion is used to establish the reliability and accuracy of the equipment; it typically includes an internal circuit
check and actual field trials (e.g., testing over a known target). Equipment that historically exhibits fluctua-
tion in calibration should always be checked before and after field use. The equipment serial number
should be recorded on the calibration records. If equipment is recalled by the manufacturer, the recall
should be explained in the proper file. The various techniques and instruments available make it prohibitive
to outline in this compendium the specific calibration procedures to be followed for each instrument. For
those details, the reader should consult the manufacturer's manual pertaining to the particular instrument in
use.
8.4.1.4.2 Field Notes
Data and notes should be entered into a bound field logbook with sequentially numbered pages. At a
minimum, each logbook page should include the names of the equipment operators; who kept the notes, if
different from operator; survey date; name and project number of the site; line number; position (station)
number; survey direction (heading north or south); raw data; and any specific notes that relate to the sur-
vey (such as surface metal, weather conditions, and topographic changes. This data logbook should be
entered into the project field and stamped "original." Typed copies of the data may be included with the
survey report. At the conclusion of field activities, a report specifying the dates of fieldwork, observations,
personnel, and equipment involved should be submitted to the project file.
8.4.1.4.3 Data Reduction
There are several accepted ways to present geophysical data. Data profiles can be useful for estimat-
ing anomaly depth and lateral extent along a survey line. For defining site patterns and lateral extent be-
tween lines, a contour map may be more useful than a profile. Three-dimensional maps are becoming
more common (generated with the aid of computers) and can be extremely useful for site characterization.
Computer programs should be examined for accuracy, because many programs that are unsuitable are
available, particularly those programs with contouring functions. A percentage (such as 10 percent) of
computer-plotted points should be manually checked for accuracy.
Specific calculations can involve differential and integral calculus; however, these equations may be-
come theoretical, time consuming, and subject to interpretation. In general, graphic analysis may be more
straightforward, cost effective, and not as likely to be challenged in litigation. Very detailed interpretations
of some data are possible but should be attempted only by experienced personnel. Theoretically, it is pos-
sible to determine such things as size, shape, orientation, and depth of a conductor.
Parallel survey lines can be used to define long linear features such as contaminant plumes or faults.
Some features are mapped by only a few anomalous readings; others are mapped by looking for
anomajous trends. The decision to search for a few anomalous readings or trends is based mainly on the
detail of the survey grid and the size (and type) of the feature. Conclusions based on single-point
8.4-5
-------
anomalies should be used cautiously, because these anomalies may be solely the result of a transcription
error and not some site feature. A full discussion of interpretation theory and calculations is beyond the
scope of this compendium.
8.4.1.5 Use of Geophysics
Project management personnel should view geophysical methods as a tool to guide investigations of
hazardous waste sites. Geophysics is a proven indirect investigative technique that should not be viewed
as an absolute answer, because the methods are not part of an exact science. The final product of a suc-
cessful geophysical survey is an experienced geophysicist's interpretation, which is not always definitive or
conclusive. The results are interpretative and need to be routinely checked and confirmed by direct physi-
cal confirmation methods ("ground truthing," such as test pit excavation, drilling, and so forth).
Geophysics can be a cost-effective tool in providing extensive low-cost information and project
guidance about successive, more costly phases.
8.4.1.6 Procedures
The SM should confer with the staff geophysicist to determine the applicability of the method to site-
specific conditions and objectives. To identify site-specific technical problems, the geophysicist should ex-
amine site reports, drilling logs, air photos, and other data that may exist. In addition, the SM and the
geophysicist should conduct a site reconnaissance to identify any problems that may inhibit the study.
Cultural features such as power lines, surface metal, and radio transmitters may have a detrimental effect
on the data acquisition or interpretation. Identification of these potential problems during a site reconnais-
sance may have such an impact on the survey that the survey area may be modified, or geophysics may
not be selected for use at that particular site. Finally, the Site Manager should inform the geophysicist of
any related or dependent phases of work so that the geophysical survey may be completed in a timely
manner and the interpretation may be used to provide guidance for subsequent tasks.
Most geophysical surveys are carried out over a grid or a series of lines within the study area. Stations
at which measurements are taken or energy put into the ground (for those methods that involve an outside
source of energy) are usually spaced at regular intervals designed by the geophysicist to produce optimum
results for the study objectives. Although initial line placement can be done at the project management
level, detailed line placement and surveying should be done only by qualified technical staff members.
All fieldwork should be done under the supervision of the staff geophysicist with daily data reduction
and review being mandatory. The geophysicist should also supervise the daily reporting of all field data,
which at a minimum should include all field notes, maps, work sheets, and raw data tabulation (including
any x,y coordinates and measured values).
8.4.1.7 Information Sources
Information sources and references are listed in the following subsections at the end of the discussion
on each geophysical method.
8.4-6
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8.4.2 Geophysical Methods
8.4.2.1 Electromagnetics
The electromagnetic (EM) method provides a means of measuring the electrical conductivity of subsur-
face soil, rock, and groundwater. Electrical conductivity is a function of the type of soil and rock, its
porosity, its permeability, and the fluid composition and saturation. In most cases the conductivity of the
pore fluids will be responsible for the measurement. Accordingly, the EM method applies both to assess-
ment of natural geohydrologic conditions and to mapping of many types of contaminant plumes. In addi-
tion, trench boundaries, buried wastes, drums, and utility lines can be located with EM techniques.
8.4.2.1.1 Applicability
Although EM is not a definitive technique, it is useful for several reasons. First, an EM survey can be
conducted over an entire site very quickly. In addition, EM methods are generally inexpensive, even for
coverage of large areas. Often, 100 acres or more may be surveyed in just a few days time (depending on
desired detail). More importantly, EM data can be used to direct the more expensive phases of an inves-
tigative project, potentially resulting in a large cost savings. For example, rather than drilling several dozen
monitoring wells while searching for groundwater contamination, an EM conductivity unit may be used to
survey for a conductive (or resistive) plume. Several EM survey lines may be run to provide definition of
the plume and an indication of its source area, reducing the number of exploratory wells required. This ap-
proach could potentially result in better well placement at a significant cost savings. Another reason why
EM should be considered is to fill in data gaps and to reduce the risk of missing a facet of the investigation,
such as the presence of previously undetected refuse trenches, buried drums, or changing hydrologic con-
ditions.
Electromagnetic methods may be used in many situations for a variety of purposes. The following list
includes major uses related to investigations of hazardous waste sites:
• Defining the location of a contaminant plume (This could lead to the identification of downgradient
receptors, source areas, and flow directions if the conductivity of the plume (target) is distinct in
comparison to the host (background) hydrogeologic setting.)
• Locating buried metal objects (e.g., drums, tanks, pipelines, cables, monitoring wells)
• Addressing the presence or location of bedrock fault / fracture systems (This is important for iden-
tification of preferential pathways of water flow in bedrock.)
• Mapping grain size distributions in unconsolidated sediments
• Mapping buried trenches
• Defining lithological (unit) boundaries
• Determining the rate of plume movement by conducting multiple surveys over time
The above list is only partial; in fact, EM methods may be used wherever a significant change in con-
ductance can be measured. EM theory will be discussed later; however, in general, EM should be con-
sidered for use when any suspected target is anticipated to have a conductivity significantly different from
background values. Factors such as cost, site-specific conditions, and equipment availability should also
be evaluated before deciding to proceed with an EM survey.
8.4-7
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8.4.2.1.2 Procedures
A. Objectives
The reader should evaluate the objectives of hazardous waste site investigations in light of EM
geophysical capabilities. If the purpose of the site study is simply to confirm the presence of
contaminants with minimal effort, EM methods may provide too much detail and no direct
evidence; direct methods, such as installing a few wells or limited sampling, may be more
suitable. If a site is to be characterized in detail and if assessment of geohydrologic conditions
and identification of all source areas, plumes, and receptors are a priority, then EM (and other
geophysical methods) may be a cost-effective way of selecting strategic locations for monitor-
ing wells, directing test pit operations, efficiently selecting sampling points, and providing infor-
mation between site sampling points.
B. Existing Data
If EM equipment is identified as theoretically capable of providing the type of information
desired, the user should further evaluate the equipment to determine whether it is appropriate
for use under the conditions found at a particular site. Evaluation of existing data can identify
problems that may be encountered in the field:
• Variations in geohydrologic conditions (e.g., varied water table conditions or changes in
rock or sediment) can result in a conductivity range that envelopes the response of the tar-
get (e.g., plume) and effectively masks or blocks out any signals.
• Scattered, near-surface metal may mask buried targets such as drums or trenches.
• Near-surface layers of extreme conductivity (high or low) such as a clay lense or surficial
frost zone may mask the signal from a deeper target.
An analysis of the site history might more closely define a survey area, thereby cutting survey
costs by reducing the size of the survey. Deep targets may be out of the penetration range of
many EM units, and specialized equipment may be required. It may be difficult for many EM
systems to detect a groundwater contaminant plume through 100 feet of unsaturated over bur-
den. A site reconnaissance should be conducted to identify any other site conditions that may
affect the data. Drastic topography changes can affect the quality of EM data obtained with
some systems, and this possibility should be considered at each site.
8.4.2.1.3 Survey Design
Once the EM survey objectives have been clearly defined, the existing information has been reviewed,
and reconnaissance of the site has been conducted, attention should be given to the design of the
geophysical survey. The detail required of an EM survey is a primary factor in designing and planning
fieldwork. If the purpose of performing EM work onsite is to define a large geologic feature, then a grid
using a wide (100- to 1,000-foot) line spacing may be needed. Some instruments are capable of providing
a continuous data profile, which makes them less likely to miss small conductors than the typical discrete
measurement EM instruments. The importance of designing and implementing a grid system tied into ex-
isting "permanent" features (such as roads and buildings) cannot be overstated. This permanent feature
will allow the grid to be reoccupied in the field to place drill holes and monitoring wells. Furthermore, addi
tional surveys may be conducted on the site using other geophysical techniques or the same technique to
provide an indication of plume movement. These surveys will help in orienting maps and diagrams that are
produced later and in defining targets.
8.4-8
-------
For most detailed enforcement-related efforts, a 98 to 100 percent confidence interval should be main-
tained. For example, if the target area is only 1 percent of the total survey area, then 130 readings would
be required for the 98 percent confidence interval. For an accurate definition of an EM anomaly profile
(useful in interpretation), four or more anomalous readings are recommended.
A. Background Noise
Background noise can be a significant factor in the success of an EM survey. Evaluation of ex-
isting data and a site reconnaissance will help to identify the probable background noise level.
A high noise level can make interpretation difficult and may actually cause an anomaly to be
overlooked. It would be practically impossible to delineate a slightly conductive contaminant
plume contained in overburden that has a wide natural variation in conductivity. Noise sources
can be divided into two groups: (1) natural, such as changing grain size distributions, steeply
dipping strata, undetected mafic dikes, drastic topography, unexpected fault zones; and (2)
cultural, such as powerlines, houses, railroads, surface metal debris, cars, and radio transmis-
sion towers. Some instruments are more sensitive to certain types of noise sources than
others. Because there is little published information on this subject, experience is important.
B. Limitations
All EM instruments have varying limitations with regard to sensitivity and penetration.
Published references, operator's manuals, and field experience should be used to evaluate in-
strumentation versus capability. Exhibit 8.4-1 lists several commercially available instruments
along with factors that control their productivity.
Some systems are designed for one operator, some for two operators, and some are flexible
and allow one or two operators. Generally, EM coverage for 50-foot readings range from 8,000
line feet per day to 22,000 line feet per day in average terrain. Some instruments are more
suited to rugged terrain (steep hills, thick woods, brush, swamps) than others because of
equipment configuration. When definition of deep bedrock features is the primary objective of
a survey, large equipment along used brush-cut lines (typical in mineral exploration) may be
needed. (Note: Productivity will be greatly diminished with higher levels of protection; the
productivity factors shown are for unencumbered, unprotected workers in a "clean" area.)
C. Instrumentation
The following matrix (Exhibit 8.4-2) provides guidance for EM equipment selection. These in-
struments may or may not be suitable to specific site conditions and investigation objectives; a
full discussion of factors affecting their suitability is beyond the scope of this compendium. In
addition, a combination of instruments is commonly used to assess site conditions. This dis-
cussion includes only some of the currently common instrumentation owned by hazardous
waste investigative agencies.
Electromagnetic techniques have also been adapted for downhole applications. These techni-
ques can be useful in defining the vertical extent of a contaminant zone. Some systems work
inside polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or Teflon monitoring well casings. For further information on
airborne, borehole, or surface EM instruments, the reader should consult the subsections on
theory and interpretation and the manufacturer references shown later in this compendium.
Exhibit 8.4-3 compares some of the more common EM systems. The CEM and Max Min II sys-
tems are not commonly used for hazardous waste site investigations (they are more common-
ly used in minerals exploration), but the systems are included for comparative purposes.
8.4-9
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Exhibit 8.4-1
FACTORS CONTROLLING PRODUCTIVITY OF SOME COMMON EM UNITS
Instrument
EM-16-R
EM-16
EM-31-D
EM-34-3
VLF-3
GENIE (SE-88)
RADEM-VLF
CEM
Max Min II
EM-38
EM-33
Manufacturer
Geonics
Geonics
Geonics
Geonics
Scintrex
Scintrex
Crone
Crone
Apex
Geonics
Geonics
No.
Operators
2
1
1 or 2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
N/A
Typical Daily
Line Miles
(50-ft readings)
2
3-4
3
2
3
N/A
3-4
2
3
3
100 +
Notes
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1 (for
helicopter
use)
NOTES: (1) Primarily useful for geological features only.
(2) Useful for geological and cultural features.
Designation such as EM-16 or EM-31 are the manufacturer's model
numbers and do not imply equipment complexity or capability.
8.4-10
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8.4.2.2 Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity surveys provide information about the subsurface distribution of the ground resis-
tivity. The information can be used to infer groundwater quality and lithologic and geologic information.
Both horizontal and vertical changes in ground resistivity can be mapped by resistivity surveys. In practice,
resistivity surveys are mostly used to determine the vertical resistivity changes. Lateral resistivity changes
are more easily mapped by electromagnetic surveys. Often, electromagnetic and resistivity surveys are
used together.
8.4.2.2.1 Applicability
Electrical resistivity (ER) data are subject to interpretation; therefore, ER field results should be check-
ed periodically and confirmed by direct methods, such as sampling or drilling. This type of confirmation is
essential in enforcement cases.
Although ER is not a definitive technique, the data are useful for several reasons. Typical productivity
with conventional resistivity equipment is several thousand line-feet per day (similar to seismic refraction
work, but much less than electromagnetics - two competing techniques). This high productivity rate allows
a large amount of useful data to be collected in a relatively short period of time. For example, rather than
drilling several dozen monitoring wells or test borings to develop a complete picture of the site stratigraphy
and structure, a few wells can be drilled (for control) and information about the rest of the site can be ob-
tained by using resistivity methods. Method integration such as this can reduce the amount of time and the
costs required for a project. If the investigative objective is to locate a groundwater contaminant plume,
then resistivity techniques could be used to define the plume, its probable receptors, and its source area.
Once the plume has been defined, a few confirmation monitoring wells are required. Using resistivity tech-
niques could result in better well placement. Using ER data can also add another dimension to the inves-
tigative effort and data, which could fill in data gaps and could possibly reduce the risk of missing a facet of
the investigation, such as the presence of a previously undetected contaminant plume or bedrock valley
(as depicted in Exhibit 8.4-4).
Resistivity methods may be used in a wide array of situations and for a variety of purposes. The follow-
ing is a partial list of major uses related to investigations of hazardous waste sites:
Definition of a contaminant plume (This could lead to the identification of downgradient receptors
and source areas.)
Waste pit delineation
Definition of bedrock fault / fracture systems
Water table mapping (for contour maps)
Stratigraphic mapping of soil layers (particularly useful in overburden, discriminating clays from
sands and establishing their thicknesses)
Defining bedrock topography (valleys)
Resistivity methods may be used whenever the feature to be mapped has a contrasting resistivity with
the background material.
8.4-11
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Exhibit 8.4-2
APPLICATION GUIDELINES FOR EQUIPMENT USE
Equipment Use
Locate single shallow
buried drum
EM-16
3
EM-16R
3
EM-31
1
EM-34
3
Locate many shallow
buried drums
Locate single deep
buried drum
Locate many deep
buried drums
Define shallow fault
zone
Define deep fault zone
Delineate shallow
contaminant plume
1
3
3
1
3
1
2
1
Delineate deep
contaminant plume
Locate shallow pipeline
1. Good success rate
2. Moderate success rate
3. Poor success rate-not applicable
shallow is only several meters
deep is several tens of meters
NOTE: This table is based primarily on field experience. Designations such as EM-16 or EM-31 are the manufacturer's model
numbers and do not imply equipment complexity or capability.
8.4-12
-------
Exhibit 8.4-3
COMPARISON OF COMMON EM SYSTEMS
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Electrical resistivity surveys involve the use of metal electrodes that are driven into the ground and long
cables that drag along the ground. Set-up time can be long if the electrode spacing is large. Special han-
dling and decontamination procedures will be required at hazardous waste sites.
8.4.2.2.2 Procedures
Electrodes are typically arranged in one of several patterns, called electrode arrays, depending on the
desired information. Electrical resistivity techniques can determine the vertical subsurface resistivity dis-
tribution beneath a point. In this type of survey, called vertical electrical soundings, the electrode array is
expanded systematically and symmetrically about a point. For each set of electrode spacings, apparent
resistivity is determined from measurements of potential and input current. The resultant plot of apparent
resistivity versus electrode spacing is interpreted to provide the subsurface resistivity with depth distribu-
tion at that one particular point. Examples of three common arrays are given in Exhibit 8.4-5. The Wenner
and Schlumberger arrays are somewhat more common than the Dipole-Dipole and other arrays. These ar-
rays (Wenner, Schlumberger) start with a small electrode spacing that is increased to permit deeper
penetration for sounding.
The manner in which the apparent resistivity changes with the electrode separation can be used to
determine formation conductivity and layer thickness. To increase accuracy, the user should evaluate the
interpretation of resistivity data against the existing subsurface information. With any set of apparent resis-
tivity reading, a number of solutions are possible, so existing data must be used to select the one that fits
best. A formation resistivity may be assigned, but without geological control the material is not known.
Resistivity electrode arrays can also be used with constant inner-electrode spacing and to develop a lateral
picture of the site through profiles. Stratigraphic control is even more important when mapping lateral
changes with constant electrode spacings, because layer thickness changes alone can cause changes in
apparent resistivity. The desired resolution is a major factor in deciding how closely to space measure-
ments for a given survey.
In practical application, a resistivity survey target (such as a plume or clay lens) should have a resis-
tivity contrast (positive or negative) over 20 percent from background. This change in resistivity should be
50 percent or more to provide proper detection and delineation. For example, if a resistivity survey were
being conducted to delineate a groundwater contaminant plume (in overburden) with a resistivity of 200
ohm meters, a background-saturated over burden resistivity of over 400 ohm meters (for a conductive
plume) or under 100 ohm meters (for a resistive plume) would probably by detected, providing other fac-
tors (such as depth) are not detrimental.
When depth sounding, resolution of individual layers has an accuracy generally around 20 percent; ac-
curacy can be substantially more or less depending on the site conditions and operator expertise. Vertical
resistivity sounding is usually less accurate than seismic refraction work, which is often conducted within a
10 percent error tolerance. However, geologic units may be distinguishable (by geophysics) only with the
use of resistivity methods at some site.
8.4.2.2.3 Survey Design
Data can be collected at randomly located stations or along survey lines. If vertical electrical sound-
ings are performed to obtain resistivity changes with depth, then the soundings are positioned where the
information is most useful. If measurements are made to map lateral resistivity changes, then the survey is
best performed on a grid or on survey lines. The station spacing will be determined from the target size.
A. Background Noise
Evaluation of existing data and a site reconnaissance will help to identify the possible back-
ground noise level. A high noise level can make interpretation difficult and may actually mask
8.4-14
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Exhibit 8.4-4
POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF RESISTIVITY VS. DRILLING
RESISTIVITY
X-SECTION
;««£ 5
1290
»
IIICMSTIVI1V VHUC) 1
I4
-------
Exhibit 8.4-5
EXAMPLES OF COMMON ER ARRAYS
WENNER ARRAY
Power
Surface ^
PE
L i J
©
PE
k- • 3 i
CE
L 2 1
i
SCHLUMBERGER ARRAY
Power
Surface;
CE PE
.r~ "•'*"' " ',
P B ^
PE
l I
r> 1/5 B ""
(v)
CE
{' ' ' r • ' ' " ' ' ',
11 B 1
'
Power
DIPOLE-DIPOLE ARRAY
Surface
CE CE
/"D *
W Dto5D a
PE
* D *
PE
(D Electode Number
PE Potential Electrode
CE Current Electrode
(V) Voltmeter
SOURCE: Based in part on W. M. Telford et al., Applied Geophysics. 1976, and
R. E. Sheriff. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, 1984.
8.4-16
-------
an anomaly. It would be practically impossible to delineate a slightly conductive contaminant
plume contained in overburden that has wide natural variation in conductivity. Noise sources
can be divided into two groups: natural, such as discontinuous clay layers, undetected mafic
dikes, drastic topography, unexpected fault zones, variable water table, and lightning; and cul-
tural, such as powerlines, railroad tracks, and radio transmission towers. Some instruments
are more sensitive to certain types of noise sources than others. Since there is little published
information on instrument noise sensitivity, experience is important.
B. Depth of Investigation
As a rule of thumb when lateral resistivity is being conducted, the array should be four or five
times the distance from the ground surface down to the desired target. For vertical sounding,
this suggested spacing should be about ten times the anticipated target depth. These sugges-
tions should be used only as general guidance.
8.4.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Considerations
A. Instrumentation
For most shallow work at hazardous waste sites, practically any resistivity system will suffice.
Generally, equipment capability becomes important only when the desired investigative depth
exceeds 70 to 100 feet. Larger power sources are needed to provide a measurable electrical
potential with a wider electrode spacing. Some newer resistivity units are capable of electronic
data storage, and other features. Often, the peripheral capabilities of an ER system may be the
deciding factor when purchases are considered.
Borehole resistivity equipment has been used (in uncased boreholes) to determine relative for-
mation porosity and other factors. For more information on this equipment, the reader should
refer to the borehole geophysics subsection of this compendium.
B. Calibration
ER equipment requires calibration, either in the field or in the laboratory; dated records of this
calibration should be kept in the equipment management file and in the appropriate project file.
Calibration is used to establish the reliability and accuracy of the equipment; calibration typi-
cally includes an internal circuit check or actual field trials (e.g., tests over a known target).
Equipment that historically exhibits fluctuations in calibration should not be used. The equip-
ment serial number should be recorded on the calibration records. If the manufacturer recalls
equipment, this fact should be explained and documented for instrument maintenance in the
proper file. The current source and potentiometer must be calibrated on any type of resistivity
equipment. The instrument's current source may be calibrated by placing a reference am-
meter in series with the electrode cables. The reading obtained on the reference ammeter is
compared with the value read from the instrument's current source ammeter. The current
source ammeter is then adjusted accordingly.
The potentiometer is calibrated by either of two methods. The preferred field method, which is
similar to the calibration of the current source, is done by comparing the instrument's indicated
potential to that potential measured with an independent voltmeter. An alternative means of
calibration, which can be performed in the laboratory, involves placing a precision resistor of a
known value in series with the current load. A potentiometer is then placed across the resistor.
The potential measured should be equal to the product of the known resistance and indicated
current.
8.4-17
-------
C. Data Reduction
The raw data are the measured potential produced by a known current. To calculate the
rhoapp (apparent resistivity), these above known quantities are used. (See Exhibit 8.4-5, Com-
mon ER Arrays.) The electrode configuration is also used in the determination of apparent
resistivity, which is defined by:
rhoapp = (2 x * x VII) I (1/n - 1/T2 - l/Ri + 1/R2)
where:
V = The circuit potential (voltage)
7 = Applied current (amperage)
n = Distance between electrode #1 and #2 (meters)
n = Distance between electrode #3 and #4 (meters)
j?i = Distance between electrode #1 and #3 (meters)
R2 = Distance between electrode #3 and #4 (meters)
p = Apparent resistivity
Apparent resistivity is the resistivity measured at the ground surface and usually has units of
ohmmeters or ohmfeet. The apparent resistivity is a function of the distribution of actual
ground resistivities and the electrode geometry. Interpretation and reduction of the resistivity
sounding are beyond the scope of this compendium; interpretation and reduction often involve
curve matching or computer analysis. For further information, the reader should refer to the
references listed in Appendix 8.4B, particularly Zohdy (1975).
8.4.2.3 Seismic Methods Applicable to Hazardous Waste Site Characterization
Seismic techniques have been useful in some instances for assessing subsurface geohydrologic con-
ditions such as depth to bedrock; depth, thickness, dip, and density of lithologic units; horizontal and verti-
cal extent of anomalous geologic features (folds, faults, and fractures); the approximate depth to the water
table; and, in conjunction with geophysical well log data, the porosity and permeability of lithologic units.
Seismic techniques have also been used to delineate the boundaries of subsurface bulk waste trenches
and the depth of landfills.
8.4.2.3.1 Applicability
Seismic Refraction and Reflection Techniques
The method of seismic refraction consists of measuring the travel times of compressional waves that
are generated by a surface source and that are critically refracted from subsurface refraction interfaces and
received by surface receivers. First-arrival travel times of seismic energy plotted against source-to-receiver
distance on a time-distance curve are characteristic of the material through which they travel. The number
of line segments on the time-distance plot indicates the number of layers. The inverse slope of the line seg-
ments indicates the velocities of the layers.
The method of seismic reflection consists of measuring the two-way travel times of compressional
waves that are generated by a surface source and that are reflected from subsurface reflecting interfaces.
Depths to each reflecting interface can be deduced from reflection two-way travel times integrated with
layered velocity information.
8.4-18
-------
Higher subsurface resolution of shallower layers is possible with shallow reflection techniques. Modern
multichannel engineering seismographs have digital filtering capabilities that allow later arriving wide-angle
reflections to be detected from earlier refraction arrivals.
Seismic velocities obtained from a refraction survey over an area do not always agree with those ob-
tained from a reflection survey over the same area. This variance may be because refraction velocities are
obtained from rays traveling parallel to the top of a layer, whereas, reflection velocities are obtained from
waves traveling perpendicular to the strata at the bottom of a layer.
The technique of seismic refraction has been used to a greater extent than seismic reflection in the
subsurface characterization of hazardous waste sites.
8.4.2.3.2 Procedures
Preliminary Considerations
The planning, selection, and implementation of a shallow seismic survey require careful consideration
by qualified, experienced personnel. At a minimunMhe following steps are required:
• 1. Review existing site, area, and regional subsurface geologic and hydrogeologic information in-
cluding physical and chemical soil characteristics.
• 2. Define known hazards posing a threat to the safety of personnel who are conducting the seis-
mic survey and topographic survey.
• 3. Define the purpose of the subsurface investigation.
• 4. Choose the appropriate seismic method to be conducted.
• 5. Define anticipated survey area from either USGS 7.5-minute quadrangle maps or published
base maps of the particular site.
• 6. Add survey coordinates and elevations of all shot and geophone locations to be used before
the actual survey. Static elevations corrections are applied later to raw seismic data to compen-
sate for travel time differences because of elevation changes along seismic lines.
Survey Design
A. Seismic Refraction
The length of a seismic refraction line must be at least four times the maximum penetration
depth desired. This length will ensure that head-wave energy will be received from refractors
down to the maximum penetration depth. The spacing between individual geophones controls
the degree of resolution available, and a spacing of 3 to 15 meters is commonly used. Closer
spacings may be used for very shallow, high-resolution profiles. Long seismic lines are shot
using the method of continuous in-line reversed refraction profiling, whereby the entire seismic
line is shot in segments. Shot points are located at each end of and at intermediate points
along each spread segment. The end shot point of each spread segment coincides with an
end or intermediate position shot point of the succeeding spread segment. After a spread seg-
ment is shot, the geophone spread is moved to the next succeeding spread segment. The
procedure is repeated until the complete reversed seismic refraction profile along the line has
been developed.
8.4-19
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B. Seismic Reflection
The major application of seismic reflection is in the mapping of the overburden bedrock inter-
face where over burden thickness exceeds 30 meters. Reflections from the overburden-
bedrock interface show up prominently on seismograms where large contrasts between
acoustic layer velocities exist. To minimize the effect of low-frequency refraction arrivals, the
investigator should use geophones with natural frequencies higher than those used in refrac-
tion work. Filtering capability and amplifier gain control of modern seismic data acquisition
units allow these reflection events to be enhanced, making it possible for a high degree of ac-
curacy when mapping bedrock attitude.
Exhibit 8.4-6 represents the time-distance curve for bedrock at a depth of 90 meters with a P-
wave velocity of 5 km/sec overlain by an overburden layer with a P-wave velocity of 1.5
km/sec. The dark ground roll area on the curve is an area of shot-generated surface-wave
energy that travels along the surface of the ground and tends to mask reflection events. The
amplitude distance curve for rays reflected from the bottom of the overburden layer (Exhibit
8.4-6) increases at critical distances for P- and S-waves and remains uniform at small source-
to-receiver distances.
At wide angles of incidence, or large source-to-geophone distances, reflection events are sub-
ject to interference effects from earlier arriving refracted events. To eliminate interference ef-
fects caused by ground roll and earlier refraction arrivals, it is desirable to obtain an optimum
shot to first geophone distance at which to place geophones in shallow reflection work. This
optimum "window" is empirically developed in the field by observing seismograms recorded at
different shot-to-first-receiver distances. The optimum window for recording reflections from
bedrock at a depth of 90 meters is shown in Exhibit 8.4-6. This window is at a shot-to-receiver
distance range over which the reflected P-wave amplitude remains relatively uniform.
Part A of Exhibit 8.4-7 is a seismic record that was recorded on a portable 12-channel signal-
enhancement seismic data-acquisition unit with digital filtering capability. Drill logs from the
area over which the record was obtained indicate that bedrock is at a depth of 91 meters and
is overlain by glacial till and a surface layer of silt. The selected distance of optimum source to
first geophone was 22.9 meters with a geophone spacing of 7.6 meters. Two hammer blows
were necessary to enhance the record, and no digital filtering was applied. The direct P-wave
through the over burden layer is clearly visible as a first break on each trace. The reflected P-
wave from the base of the overburden layer is clearly visible in the 120 to 130 millisecond
range. The first trace from a geophone 22.9 meters away from the source illustrates masking
effects caused by ground roll. The actual shot-to-first-receiver distance should be increased
slightly to obtain optimum representation of the reflected event. Part B of Exhibit 8.4-7 is a
seismic record obtained from virtually the same location as in A, but low-cut digital filtering has
been applied to further enhance the data.
The next step in this procedure is to move the shot point and geophone spread along a line
and repeat the procedure. This step allows for multiple coverage and is known as common-
depth-point (CDP) profiling.
8.4.2.3.3 Miscellaneous Considerations
A. Instrumentation
Shallow seismic surveys conducted at hazardous waste sites generally do not require large
energy sources and can be either mechanical or explosive in nature.
8.4-20
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Exhibit 8.4-6
TIME-DISTANCE AND
AMPLITUDE-DISTANCE CURVES
A.
M9KOCK
B.
SOURCE: J. A. Hunter (1982).
8.4-21
-------
Mechanical and contained explosive sources are used in populated areas or when desired
penetration depths are less than 100 to 300 feet. Hammer surveys are conducted by striking a
steel plate coupled to the ground with a sledge hammer. An inertia! switch on the hammer is
connected to the seismic data acquisition system with a cable, enabling the moment of ham-
mer impact to be accurately recorded. Another technique commonly used is the weight drop
or "thumper" technique. Typically, a truck-mounted 3-ton weight is dropped from a height of
10 feet. The instant of group impact is determined by a sensor on the weight. A seismic ener-
gy source developed by EG&G Geometries involves an air-powered piston striking a steel
plate coupled to the ground. This method has the trade name Dynasource. The Betsy seis-
gun is a weak mechanical energy source in which a shotgun shell is detonated inside a cham-
ber that is coupled to the ground surface. The Dinoseis method uses a confined chemical ex-
plosion in a truck-mounted explosion chamber to drive a steel plate against the bottom of the
chamber, transmitting a pressure pulse into the ground.
Explosive sources are used sparsely in populated areas or when penetration depths are
greater than 100 to 300 feet. Two types of chemical explosives, gelatin dynamite and am-
monium nitrate, are commonly used in explosion surveys and are detonated in seated
boreholes. Gelatin dynamite is a mixture of gelatin, nitroglycerin, and an inert binder material
that can be used to vary the strength of the explosion. Ammonium nitrate is a fertilizer that is
mixed with diesel fuel and is detonated by the explosion of a primer. A charge of about 1
pound of explosives is usually sufficient to obtain penetration depths ranging from ap-
proximately 100 to 300 feet. Explosive sources generate wave fronts that are very steep and
show up as distinct arrivals on seismograms. These sharp pulses, however, are more likely to
cause damage to nearby structures. It may not be advisable to use explosive sources at haz-
ardous waste sites where unknown gases or buried containers may be present.
A complete seismic recording system or seismograph detects, records, and displays ground
motion caused by the passage of a seismic wave. A geophone (Exhibit 8.4-8) is commonly a
moving-coil electro-mechanical transducer that detects ground motion. The moving coil is free
to move in the annular gap between the poles of the permanent magnet, creating an output
voltage that is proportional to the actual ground motion or to the motion of the outer geophone
case. At frequencies below the resonant frequency of the coil or outer case suspension, the
coil and outer case move together and output voltage falls off rapidly. The selected resonance
frequency or natural frequency of a geophone must be below that of the lowermost frequency
anticipated.
Each geophone detects ground motion at a point on the surface and passes this information
through a single recording channel as a frequency modulated signal. This signal is trans-
formed into the time domain and appears as one trace on the resulting seismogram.
Single-channel systems are used in small-scale engineering surveys, and the source and
receiver are successively moved to create the characteristic travel-time curve. Multichannel
systems consisting of 12, 24, 48, and 96 channels are in more common use today. These sys-
tems are capable of recording energy generated by a single source that is detected by a series
of geophones at various distances.
Seismic recording systems are equipped with amplifiers that have individual gain controls,
which are set as high as possible, and with digital filters that exclude frequencies outside the
useful signal range between 20 and 200 Hz. A galvanometer converts the current generated
by the output voltage from each geophone into the time domain. This information is then
recorded onto ultraviolet sensitive paper for analysis.
Most seismic data-acquisition systems in use today have the ability to sort and sum waveforms
from repeated shots at the same shot point. This feature is known as signal enhancement and
8.4-22
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Exhibit 8.4-7
SEISMIC RECORDS
A.
TIME MS:
B.
SOURCE: J. A.'Hunter(19S2).
8.4-23
-------
is desirable because it serves to cancel out much of the systematic shot-generated and ran-
dom background noise from the characteristic waveform. This method is also known as stack-
ing of the individual wave traces. The following are some of the more common seismic data-
acquisition units in use today:
1. EG&G Geometries
a. Nimbus 125—2-channel signal-enhancement seismograph
b. Nimbus 121 OF -12-channel signal-enhancement seismograph
c. Nimbus 2415—24-channel signal-enhancement seismograph
2. BISON Instruments, Inc.
a. "Geo Pro" Models 8012A and 8024-12 and 24-channel seismic data-acquisition
and processing unit
b. Model 1580-6-channel signal-enhancement seismograph
c. Model 157C - single-channel signal-enhancement seismograph
3. Weston Geophysical Corporation
a. WesComp 11 -digital seismic data-acquisition and processing unit
b. USA 780-24-channel amplifiers
4. Dresser Industries
a. SIE RS-4—12-channel refraction seismograph
B. Data Interpretation and Reduction
1. Corrections Applied to Refraction Data
It is usually necessary to apply static elevation and weathering corrections to refrac-
tion data to correct for variations in surface receiver elevations and effects of the low-
velocity layer (LVZ). A reference datum below the LVZ is usually selected, and travel-
time corrections are calculated in reference to this datum surface. This process has
the effect of placing the source and group of receivers directly on the datum surface.
Various methods exist for correcting for near-surface effects, and the reader should
refer to Telford et al., 1976, for a more detailed discussion.
2. Errors Inherent to Refraction Interpretation
Errors in refraction interpretation result from incorrect reading of the data, incorrect
geologic interpretation of layer velocities derived, and incorrect underlying assump-
tions. At larger offset distances, the seismic signal decreases in amplitude as the
higher frequency components of the signal attenuate more rapidly. The probability of
picking the incorrect first arrival at a geophone increases with increasing distances.
This error may cause an inappropriate velocity to be assigned to a refractor and may
also lead to an erroneous estimate of the number of refractors present. Incorrect inter-
cept times may then be chosen, which will cause wrong estimates of refractor depths
and dips.
Seismic velocities that are determined are average values over the entire path traveled
by the head-wave. The relationship between the velocity of a refractor and the geol-
ogy may be complex. Detailed knowledge of the relationship between seismic velocity
and lithologic markers, facies boundaries, and geologic time markers are necessary
for accurate conclusions to be drawn from a refraction survey.
8.4-24
-------
Exhibit 8.4-8
GEOPHONE SCHEMATIC
Ui/spnnj
SOURCE: Te!ford et al., (1976).
8.4-25
-------
The primary assumption made in refraction interpretation is that the seismic velocity of
a layer is constant and increases with layer depth. If the velocity of a layer is less than
that of the layer immediately overlying it, no head-wave is returned to the surface from
the layer, and the layer is not represented on the time-distance curve. Velocity rever-
sals with depth, if undetected, lead to depth estimates that are too deep. If the seismic
velocity of a layer varies laterally, dip calculations will be affected. Another assumption
is that all velocity layers are recognizable as first arrivals at geophones. This assump-
tion is not always correct, however; some layers may not register as first arrivers. The
effect of this condition is opposite to that of a velocity reversal with depth and will lead
to depth estimates that are too shallow. -Finally, a refractor must be sufficiently thick
for it to be detected. These conditions may lead to incorrect paring of segments of the
time-distance curve for reversed refraction profiles and may lead to incorrect es-
timates of refractor dip.
3. Corrections Applied to Reflection Data
Static elevation and weathering corrections must be applied to reflection data. These
corrections are easier to apply to reflection data because reflection raypaths are
primarily vertical as opposed to refraction raypaths. Reflection data must be corrected
for normal moveout. Compressional wave energy that is generated from a sur face
source and reflected from a subsurface interface arrives at a near-source geophone
earlier than it arrives at a geophone located a distance away from the source. This dif-
ference in time is the normal moveout. Normal moveout must be removed to enhance
primary reflection events. Dip moveout can be calculated from reversed reflection
sections and is the quantity tdlhjc in Exhibit 8.4-9. Migrated reflection sections are
those for which we assume that the seismic line is perpendicular to layer dip, the true
dip to be calculated from the dip moveout. These corrections are dynamic correc-
tions; more complete discussion can be found in Dobrin, 1960, and Kleyn, 1983.
The main objective in the method of seismic reflection is to detect the reflected P-wave
from a background of random ambient noise and systematic shot-generated noise.
The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the more reliable the recording of the arrival time
of the reflected phase. In reflection work, only vertical high- frequency geophones are
used. These geophones are sensitive to the vertical component of ground motion,
which is high for P-waves and small for 5-waves, thus eliminating much of the sys-
tematic noise caused by S-waves. Shot-generated noise is further reduced through
the use of stacking of records from identical subsurface sections. Ambient noise is
reduced through the use of seismometer patterns and multicoverage techniques.
8.4.2.4 Magnetics
Magnetometer surveys are used to identify areas of anomalous magnetic field strength. Although
natural conditions may cause anomalies, shallow-buried ferrous metal objects (i.e., drums or other waste-
related metal) exhibit strong anomalies that are rarely confused with natural sources.
8.4.2.4.1 Applicability
The magnetic methods described in this subsection are applicable to locating buried drums and other
buried ferrous metal objects; locating waste pits that contain metal; locating underground utilities such as
pipelines, cables, tanks and abandoned well casings; clearing drilling sites; and identifying geologic fea-
tures that exhibit sufficient magnetic contrast.
8.4-26
-------
Exhibit 8.4-9
REVERSED REFLECTION PROFILE
8.4-27
-------
Exhibit 8.4-10
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF ROCK MATERIALS1
Magnetic Susceptibility
Material (K106, CGS units)
Magnetite 300,000-800,000
Pyrrhotite 125,000
llmenite 135,000
Franklinite 36,000
Dolomite 14
Sandstone 17
Serpentine 14,000
Granite 28-2,700
Diorite 46
Gabbro 68-2370
Porphyry 47
Diabase 78-1,050
Basalt 680
Olivine-Diabase 2,000
Peridotite 12,500
1Adapted from C.A. Helland, "Geophysical Exploration"
(from Costello, 1980
Metal location and depth of burial can be inferred from the shape and width of the anomaly. The loca-
tion of metal using magnetometry facilitates safe excavation without puncturing metal containers. Under-
ground utilities, which are traceable with magnetics, often lie within loosely filled trenches that may provide
permeable pathways for groundwater flow. Magnetrometry is used in clearing drilling sites to select loca-
tions that are free of drums, detectable under ground utilities, and other ferrous obstructions.
Under certain conditions where sufficient contrasts in magnetic susceptibilities between geologic units
exist, magnetic methods may be useful in identifying geologic structures such as folding, faulting, buried
drainage channels, bedrock topography, and igneous intrusions. The magnetic susceptibilities of some
rock materials are presented in Exhibit 8.4-10.
8.4.2.4.2 Procedures
Preliminary Considerations
Before conducting a magnetometer survey at a hazardous waste site, the following tasks should be
conducted:
• Review historical waste disposal practices to identify target and nontarget buried ferrous objects.
• Establish the minimum size target of interest.
8.4-28
-------
• Conduct onsite reconnaissance to evaluate the suitability of the method, possible interferences,
and terrain features.
• Review site geology to determine if any natural anomalies might exist.
• Estimate anticipated anomaly intensities.
For clearing drilling sites, utility maps should always be consulted.
Onsite reconnaissance is conducted to identify possible interferences and to evaluate accessibility of
the areas to be surveyed. Interferences may result from surface metal, fences, buildings, and powerlines.
Metal near the sensor may produce an anomaly great enough to mask an anomaly produced by a
buried object below it, depending on the relative anomaly strengths.
The presence of variable geologic conditions, such as mafic intrusions and local magnetite sand ac-
cumulations, may give rise to natural interferences. Geologic features that produce anomalies often lie
below the depth of burial of the target objects and thus may not affect detection of the targets significantly.
The following tasks are involved in the magnetometer survey:
• Establishing a survey grid over the study area
• Establishing a base station
• Collecting magnetometer measurements at each station
8.4.2.4.3 Survey Design
Magnetic measurements are usually taken either at equally spaced stations located across a rectan-
gular grid or at equal intervals along several profile lines. The spacing of the stations depends on the target
size. In general, the spacing between stations should be approximately one-fourth of the lateral extent of
the target. For a single 55-gallon drum, the maximum distance at which the station can be detected is typi-
cally 10 to 15 feet, and the grid spacing can be designed accordingly. The closer the stations are spaced,
the better the resolution becomes and the better the probability of detecting anomalies. More stations are
required to cover the same area, however, and the time required to conduct the survey increases cor-
respondingly.
It is helpful to lay out the survey grid so that the lines are oriented perpendicular to the strike of the tar-
get. If this orientation is not known, then north-south grid lines are preferable.
An accuracy of 5 percent is generally adequate for station locations for a magnetometer survey; hence,
a hand transit (Brunton compass) and tape measure are sufficient to survey the station locations. Wooden
stakes or other nonmetallic station markers should be used.
Magnetic Measurements
Magnetic measurements are taken by placing the magnetometer at a station, orienting the sensor
properly, and taking the reading in accordance with the operating instructions for the particular instrument
used. Jhe instrument operator should be free of any magnetic material such as keys, belt buckles, steel-
toed shoes, metal rim glasses, and so forth. To avoid effects of rocks that may be naturally magnetic and
8.4-29
-------
to avoid the effects of topography, it is important to hold the magnetometer sensor above the ground while
taking measurements. The sensor should be held at the same height above the ground for each measure-
ment.
Interferences
Interferences from surface metals, fences, powerlines, and other aboveground sources, which general-
ly lie closer to the magnetometer sensor than buried targets, may mask the targets and sometimes cannot
be corrected for. In some cases, data obtained near such interferences must be excluded. Corrections for
interferences from geologic conditions and surface objects that have small magnetic moments in com-
parison to the target may be possible. Some instruments have filters that eliminate powerline interferences.
Total Field Versus Vertical Gradient
Two types of magnetic measurements are generally used: total field and vertical gradient. The total
magnetic field intensity is a scalar measurement, or simply the magnitude of the earth's field vector inde-
pendent of its direction. The magnetic field gradient is a measurement of the difference in the total mag-
netic field between two sensors having a fixed distance between them. The gradient equals the change in
total magnetic field over distance (sensor spacing). For vertical gradient measurements, the sensors are
separated vertically. Gradient measurements may be made by using a gradiometer, which is a mag-
netometer with two sensors built in, or by using a normal total field magnetometer and taking two separate
readings at different heights. The gradiometer takes measurements at the two sensors simultaneously,
whereas measurements using a total field magnetometer have a small time separation. The sensitivity of
vertical gradient measurements is variable and depends in part on the vertical separation of the two sensor
positions. Commonly, vertical separations of one-half, 1, and 2 meters are used.
Vertical gradient measurements include several advantages over total field measurements:
The measurements give finer resolution of complex anomalies.
The measurements require no corrections for diurnal variation, micropulsations, and magnetic
storms. Measurements at the two sensors are made simultaneously or nearly so; these temporal
variations affect both readings essentially equally and are, therefore, removed on the differential.
The regional magnetic field affects measurements at both sensors equally, and these variations are
removed on the differential.
Gradient measurements provide vector direction as well as magnitude and can be used for more
quantitative determination of anomaly location, depth, shape, and magnetic moment.
The following are disadvantages of the gradiometer and reasons why total field measurements may be
preferred:
Gradiometers have a smaller radius of detection and thus require closer spacing of measurement
points to achieve their potential for finer resolution of anomalies. Finer grid spacing requires more
time. In some cases, targets at depth may be beyond the radius of detection for a gradiometer,
but not for a total field magnetometer.
8.4-30
-------
Exhibit 8.4-11
CONTOUR MAPS OF TOTAL FIELD AND
VERTICAL GRADIENT MEASUREMENTS
I tl*
ill in n» ]4«
it i»t lie *iz tit «zt «
TOTAL MAGNETIC FIELD
Contours are in gammas +50,000
'.Z IH ttl III lie IZC I»C
VERTICAL GRADIENT
Contours are in gamma/0.5 meter
8.4-31
-------
• Gradient readings using a total field magnetometer take longer to do than a simpler field measure-
ment.
• Calculations that are based on vector properties of gradient measurements to precisely determine
source location may be very complex and time consuming.
In summary, total field measurements are suitable for reconnaissance surveys because they enable
coverage of a larger area in a shorter amount of time than do vertical gradient measurements; they also
provide good information on the location, depth, shape, and magnetic moment of buried ferrous objects.
Vertical gradient measurements are best for detailed studies over small anomalies where more detailed
characterization of buried ferrous objects may be required. Contour maps of both total field and vertical
gradient measurements over a small anomaly are presented in Exhibit 8.4-11. Vertical gradient measure-
ments were taken at the same grid spacing as total field measurements, but the finer resolution of the verti-
cal gradient data is evident.
Data Interpretation
Interpretation of the data can yield location and depth of the magnetic sources. Interpretation is best
performed using computer modeling techniques. Reasonable estimates of depth can be made by using
methods described in Appendix 8.4D. Almost all interpretations are made using data profiles. Contour
maps establish the distribution of the source.
8.4.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar
8.4.2.5.1 Applicability
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) data are used to produce a continuous subsurface profile through the
use of a linear strip chart recorder. However, while GPR is useful to define subsurface conditions, it is more
limited in application than most other geophysical techniques. The following is a partial list of major uses
related to hazardous waste site investigations:
• Define or locate buried drums, tanks, cables, and pipelines.
• Define boundary of disturbed versus original ground (and strata), such as a landfill or a trench.
• Map water table (limited reliability).
• Delineate stratigraphic layers, such as clay, till, or sands.
• Define natural subsurface features, such as buried stream channels (preferential pathways), lenses,
and voids (caves).
In addition, GPR may be used whenever a significant change (or differential) in electrical properties is
encountered and when a change should be mapped. For more specific information on these properties,
the reader should refer to the theory or information sources subsections in this compendium.
Although GPR cannot provide definitive information on subsurface conditions, the data are desirable
for several reasons. GPR can quickly provide subsurface information about a hazardous waste site. Typi-
cal productivity with conventional graphic recording GPR equipment on low-relief terrain is several line
8.4-32
-------
miles per day. Often, this productivity rate makes GPR a very cost-effective reconnaissance method. For
example, if the objective of an investigation is to define suspected locations of buried drums, then GPR (or
other geophysical methods, electromagnetics, or magnetics) can be used to define suspected areas. Test
pit excavation (or other direct methods) can be used to further explore suspected areas and can provide
control for GPR data.
8.4.2.5.2 Procedures
Preliminary Considerations
A. Objectives
GPR capabilities should be evaluated against the objectives of hazardous waste site investiga-
tions. If the site study is simply to substantiate the possibility of buried drums on a site with
minimal effort, then typical radar surveys will provide only localized detail and no direct
evidence. If, however, a site is to be characterized in detail and the identification of any drum
location is a priority, GPR alone or in conjunction with other geophysical methods (such as
magnetometry) may be a cost-effective way of directing test pit operations and selecting sam-
pling points, etc.
B. Existing Data
If radar equipment is identified as theoretically capable of providing the type of information
desired, further evaluation should be made to determine if the equipment is appropriate to use
with the conditions found at a particular site. Evaluation of existing data can identify problems
that may be encountered in the field, such as the presence of buried electrical cables or a
near-surface conductive clay layer. Conditions such as these can cause noise in the data or
even "mask" (block out) the radar signal from a deeper target. An analysis of the site history
might aid in further defining a survey area and might result in a cost savings. Deep targets
may be out of the practical range of many typical GPR units. For example, most radar anten-
nae that are in general use would probably yield poor results if they were used to define the
top of a bedrock surface underlying 300 feet of highly conductive overburden.
8.4.2.5.3 Survey Design
A. Define Survey
Once the GPR survey objectives have been clearly defined, the existing information has been
reviewed, and reconnaissance of the site has been conducted, attention should be given to the
design of the geophysical survey. The detail (coverage, resolution) required of a radar survey
is a primary factor in designing and planning fieldwork. If the survey is to provide reconnais-
sance information on the possibility of buried drums onsite, then a grid using a wide (50- to
200-foot) line spacing may be appropriate. If the purpose is to define as many drum locations
as possible (such as for removal), then a detailed survey is probably required (10- to 20-foot
line spacing). The importance of designing and implementing a grid system tied into existing
"permanent" features (such as roads and buildings) cannot be overstated. This design will
allow the grid to be reproduced (if required) for enforcement purposes and will also help to lo-
cate anomalous areas for future fieldwork (such as sampling, drilling, or digging test pits) by
use of the grid for points of reference. Under certain circumstances, a reproducible grid may
not be needed, such as if the raw field data are going to be used to direct other field opera-
tions, but this situation is not typical.
8.4-33
-------
The anticipated size of the target compared with the proposed survey area should have an im-
pact on the detail of the GPR survey grid. To reliably locate a suspected target would require
more effort (such as denser line spacing or use of a higher resolution transmitter antennae) for
a smaller target than would be required for a larger one. In this compendium, a discussion of
reliably locating a target refers to the probability of the GPR unit passing over the surface ex-
pression of a target. Reliably locating a target does not mean that the target will be clearly
defined in the data. Site-specific factors such as poor field methods, target depth, and back-
ground noise may cause a target to be overlooked or misinterpreted.
B. Background Noise
Background noise can be a significant factor in the success of a GPR survey. Evaluation of ex-
isting data and a site reconnaissance will help to determine the probable background noise
level. A high noise level can make interpretation of data difficult. Noise often varies across a
large (several hundred acres) site as different site conditions (soils, overburden stratigraphy,
etc.) are encountered. If the natural soils have a wide variation in electrical properties, it would
be difficult to pick out a subsurface boundary between backfill material and natural undis-
turbed soils. Noise sources can be divided into two groups: natural, such as surface water,
discontinuous clay layers, extremes in topographic relief, and steeply dipping strata; and cul-
tural, such as powerlines, surface metal, and two-way radios. Experience is important, be-
cause there is little published information on instrument sensitivity to different noise sources.
Generally, however, the more conductive a target is above (or below) the normal background
noise, the easier targets are to define and interpret.
C. Limitations
GPR instruments are limited with regard to sensitivity, resolution, and penetration. Field ex-
perience, published references, and operator's manuals should be used when an evaluation of
instrumentation versus capability is desired.
Interpretation of radar data generally becomes more complex as the contrast in electrical
properties (between background areas and target areas) becomes less. Several small closely
spaced targets may not be sensed as multiple anomalies but as one large anomaly. This inac-
curacy is a result of the inherent resolution capabilities of the equipment. Penetration of the
signal varies with transmitter frequency, electrical conductivity, changes in conductivity, noise,
and so forth. Because there are many limitations with GPR equipment and methods, the SM
should consult a geophysicist before conducting the actual radar survey (as outlined in the
responsibilities subsection).
8.4.2.5.4 Miscellaneous Considerations
A. Calibration
Geophysical instruments require calibration; GPR is no exception. Because the often subtle
changes in the profile record chart can be interpreted in various ways, GPR equipment should
be subject to an intensive calibration process.
Because the internal timing mechanism is used to estimate depths, it should be checked peri-
odically with an internal or external timer. Because electrical properties (inherent to travel
times) are quite variable between sites, the radar unit should be calibrated to each condition
(strata) found at the site. This calibration can be as simple a process as taking some readings
on top of a conductor at a known depth, such as a buried pipeline, and seeing how this read-
ing translates to the strip chart profile. GPR subcontractors commonly make statements such
as "on the strip chart, 1 inch equals so many feet." Statements like these should be viewed
8.4-34
-------
skeptically because if materials vary across a site, then so do their corresponding electrical
properties, which are directly responsible for travel time and depth calculations. Records of
the calibrations and procedures that are used should be entered in the appropriate equipment
and/or project file.
Interpretation
The interpretation of GPR data requires professional training and experience and is beyond the scope
of this compendium. However, buried metal targets, such as steel drums, may be easily recognized by the
novice. Exhibit 8.4-12 has been included to give an example of radar data and to show how evident buried
metal targets can be. The ground surface is at the top of the page; depth increases toward the bottom of
the page. On the far left side (OE) of the profile, a strong signal is received at the bottom of the profile (at
depth). In the middle of the line (75E to 100E), however, the reflected signal is weak and badly distorted.
In this location, penetration does not extend to the bottom of the figure.
8.4.3 BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
Borehole geophysical techniques provide subsurface information on rock and unconsolidated sedi-
ment properties and fluid movement. Although the oil and mineral industries have been using these
borehole geophysics for many years, only recently have the techniques been adopted to the assessment of
site hydrogeologic conditions. This subsection provides an introduction to the basic borehole geophysical
techniques as they might be applied to a hazardous waste site investigation. References are included to
complement and expand on the technical interpretation of the logging results.
8.4.3.1 Applicability
Discussion in this subsection will introduce a variety of borehole geophysical methods. The general
logging categories discussed are electrical, nuclear, sonic, and mechanical. Although other borehole tech-
niques are available, such as three-dimensional vertical seismic profiling, borehole televiewing, and a
variety of crossbore techniques, these are not discussed in detail in this compendium. A combination of
surface and borehole techniques offers a three-dimensional understanding of subsurface conditions, but
that approach is also beyond the introductory detail in this compendium.
A very basic description of the log, the parameters that affect response, and the sensing devices are
presented here to aid in evaluating the applicability of logging functions.
A number of techniques are not discussed in this compendium; information on these techniques may
be obtained from the references at the end of this subsection. While examining the techniques that are in-
cluded in the following discussion, the reader should refer to Exhibit 8.4-13, which was taken in part from
the D'Apollonia report to the U.S. Army (1980). The exhibit presents each logging function and information
obtained for a variety of geologic and hydrologic parameters.
8.4.3.1.1 Electrical
Electrical logging includes spontaneous potential and single point resistance.
Spontaneous Potential (SP): The response is the result of small differences in voltage caused by
chemical and physical contacts between the borehole fluid and the surrounding formation. These voltage
differences appear at lithology changes or bed boundaries, and their response is used quantitatively to
determine bed thickness or formation water resistivity. Qualitative interpretation of the data can help iden-
tify permeable beds.
8.4-35
-------
In a consolidated rock aquifer system where groundwater flow is controlled by secondary permeability
(i.e., fractures), SP response may be generated from a streaming potential caused by a zone gaining or
losing water.
The SP log is a graphic plot of potentials between the downhole sonde and a surface electrode. The
system consists of a moveable lead electrode (located in the sonde) that traverses the borehole and a sur-
face electrode (mud plug) that measures potentials in millivolts. Noise and anomalous potentials are rela-
tively common in SP logs and are discussed in electric log anomalies later in this compendium.
Single-Point Resistance: This technique is based on the principle of Ohm's Law (E = Ir) where E
is voltage measured in volts, / is current measured in amperes, and r is resistance measured in ohms.
Single-point resistance measures the resistance of in situ materials (of the rock and the fluid) between an
in-hole electrode and a surface electrode. Resistance logging has a small radius of investigation and is
very sensitive to the conductivity of the borehole fluid and changes in hole diameter (caving, washouts, and
fractures). This condition is advantageous for the operator in that any change in the formation (resistance
or fractures) will produce a corresponding change in resistance on the log. These changes in resistance
are interpreted to be a result of lithology changes. The single-point log is very desirable for geologic cor-
relation because of its special response to lithology changes.
In crystalline rock (high resistance formations), single-point resistance logs are useful in locating frac-
tures and often appear as mirror images (opposite deflections) to the caliper log. Hole enlargement,
caving, washouts, and fractures appear as excursions to the left (indicating less resistance in normal
operation) of the more typical response observed in this log.
The principle of the function is quite simple. The current (7) remains constant while the voltage (E) is
measured between the movable lead electrode and the surface electrode. Voltage is then converted inter-
nally to resistance using Ohm's Law. A diagram of this arrangement can be found in Exhibit 8.4-14. SP
and single-point resistance logs are designed to be run simultaneously since single-point resistance
operates in alternating current (AC) (110 volt) while the SP operates in direct current (DC).
8.4.3.1.2 Nuclear
Nuclear logging includes natural gamma, gamma-gamma, and neutron.
Natural Gamma: This log measures the total of naturally occurring gamma radiation that is emitted
from the decay of radioisotopes normally found in rocks. Typical elements that emit natural gamma radia-
tion and cause an increase on the log are potassium 40 and daughter products of the uranium and thorium
decay series. The primary use of natural gamma logging is lithology identification in detrital sediments
where the fine-grained (most often clay) units have the highest gamma intensity. A natural gamma log can
be quite useful to the hydrologist, hydrogeologist, or geohydrologist, because clay tends to reduce per-
meability and effective porosity within a sedimentary unit. This log can also be used to estimate (within one
geohydrologic system) which zones are likely to yield the most water.
The sensing device is a scintillation-type receiver that converts the radioactive energy into electrical
current, which is transmitted to the instrument and generates the natural gamma log.
Natural gamma logs can be run in open or cased boreholes filled with water or air. The sensing device
is often built into the same sonde that conducts SP and single-point resistance logs. In essence, three
functions are available from the use of one sonde.
8.4-36
-------
Exhibit 8.4-12
TYPICAL GPR PROFILE
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8.4-37
-------
Gamma-Gamma: This nuclear log uses an activated source and measures the effect of the induced
radiation and its degradation. Gamma-gamma logs are widely used to determine bulk density from which
lithologic identification is based. They may also be used to calculate porosity when the fluid and grain den-
sity are known. The radius of investigation is dependent on two factors: source strength and source-
detector spacing. Typically, 90 percent of the response is from within 6 to 10 inches of the borehole.
Neutron: The neutron log response is primarily a function of the hydrogen content in the borehole
environment and surrounding formation. This content Is measured by introducing neutrons into the
borehole and surrounding environment and by measuring the loss of energy caused by elastic collision.
Because neutrons have no electrical charge and have approximately the same mass as hydrogen,
hydrogen atoms are, therefore, responsible for the majority of energy loss. Neutron logging is typically
used to determine moisture content above the water table and total porosity below the water table. Infor-
mation derived from this log is used to determine lithology and stratigraphic correlation of aquifers and as-
sociated rocks. Inferred data can be used to determine effective porosity and specific yield of unconfined
aquifers. Neutron logging is also very effective for locating perched water tables.
The equipment is identical to that described for the gamma-gamma log except for use of a different
source and the fact that the equipment must be able to handle higher count rates.
8.4.3.1.3 Mechanical
Mechanical logging includes caliper, temperature, fluid conductivity, and fluid movement.
Caliper: This log is defined as a continuous record of the average diameter of a drill hole. Caliper
sondes can have from one to four arms. The two basic types are bowstring units, which are connected at
two hinges, and finger devices, which have single hinges (see Exhibit 8.4-15).
Caliper resolution is broken into two categories: horizontal and vertical. The horizontal resolution is
the ability of the tool to measure the true size of the hole regardless of its shape (circular or elliptical). Verti-
cal resolution is controlled by the length of the feeler contact on the borehole wall.
Traditionally, caliper logs have been run to correct other logging functions. If this is the primary reason
for running caliper, the bowstring or single-hinged unit will both provide adequate data. Calipers using
single-hinged feelers provide the best vertical resolution. Interchangeable arms are available for the single-
hinged tools and should be selected on the basis of the hole diameter. Single-hinged tools can be used to
identify fractures in igneous and metamorphic rocks and solution openings in limestone.
Temperature: The temperature log provides continuous records of the borehole fluid environment.
Response is caused by temperature change of the fluid surrounding the sonde, which generally relates to
the formation water temperature. The borehole fluid temperature gradient is highly influenced by fluid
movement in the borehole and adjacent rocks. In general, the temperature gradient is greater in low-per-
meability rocks than high-permeability rocks, which is probably the result of groundwater flow. Therefore,
temperature logs can provide the hydrologist with valuable information regarding groundwater movement.
Logging speed should be slow enough to allow adequate sonde response with depth, because there is
a certain amount of lag time. The probe is designed to be run from top to bottom (downward) in the
borehole to channel water past the sensor. Because some disturbance is inevitable when the sonde
moves through the water column, repeat temperature logs should be avoided until the borehole fluid has
had time to reach thermal equilibrium.
8.4-38
-------
CD
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GEOPHYSICAL METHOD EVALUATION
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-------
Exhibit 8.4-14
CONVENTIONAL SIMULTANEOUS SINGLE-ELECTRODE
RESISTANCE AND SPONTANEOUS-POTENTIAL
LOGGING SYSTEM
(AC I AC
^RESISTANCE
SOURCE: Guyod (1952).
8.4-40
-------
Fluid Conductivity: These logs provide a continuous measurement of the conductivity of the
borehole fluid between two electrodes. The contrast in conductivity can be associated with water quality
and possibly with recharge zones. Conductivity logs are helpful when interpreting electric logs, because
both are affected by fluid conductivity.
The most common sonde measures the AC voltage drop across closely spaced electrodes. These
electrodes actually measure the fluid resistivity (which is the reciprocal of conductivity), but they are called
fluid conductivity logs to avoid confusion with resistivity logs. Simply, conductivity logs actually measure
the resistance of the borehole fluid; resistance logs measure the resistance of the rocks and the fluid they
contain.
Fluid Movement: Fluid movement logging can be broken into two components: horizontal and ver-
tical. Horizontal logging uses either chemical or radioactive tracers, is most often unacceptable for hazard-
ous waste investigations, and will not be discussed in detail.
Vertical movement of fluid in the borehole is measured by either an impeller flowmeter or chemical
tracers. Tracers will not be discussed in this subsection for the reason mentioned above. The impeller
flowmeter response is affected by the change in vertical velocity within the borehole. The best application
of this log is defining fluid movement in a multiaquifer artesian system.
The sonde consists of a rotor or vanes housed inside a protective cage or basket. This log should be
run both downhole and uphole. The logs should be compared side by side; only those anomalies that
have mirror (opposite) deflections are the zones that are providing the vertical movement (Exhibit 8.4-16).
Sonic: This logging (also called acoustic logging) uses sound waves to measure porosity and to
identify fractures in consolidated rock. Two general types of measurements are internal transit time, which
is the reciprocal of velocity, and amplitude, which is the reciprocal of attenuation. The amplitudes of the P-
and 5-waves are directly related to the degree of consolidation and porosity and to the extent and orienta-
tion of fractures.
The instrumentation of acoustic logging is very complex; it includes a downhole sonde with a transmit-
ter and two to four receivers. Sound waves are emitted from the transmitter and their propagation is
measured by the receivers.
8.4.3.2 Procedures
8.4.3.2.1 Preliminary Considerations
Equipment discussed in this compendium is capable of performing electric, nuclear, and mechanical
logging. This equipment is available from a variety of vendors and can usually be rented for short periods
of time or leased on a long-term basis. In any case, the application of these techniques is quite complex,
and the project geophysicist should be contacted to provide input for planning and implementing borehole
programs.
The study objectives must be defined clearly before the user can identify the proper equipment needs.
For instance, the Site Manager (SM) must generally understand the subsurface environment to determine
which logs are applicable. After evaluating this determination and the site-specific limiting factors (i.e., ac-
cess to well, well diameters, etc.), the SM can select the proper equipment.
8.4-41
-------
Exhibit 8.4-15
TWO TYPES OF CALIPER SONDES
THREE-ARM BOWSTRING
CALIPER
INGEO AT BOTH ENDS
THREE-ARM
FINGER DEVICE
HINGED AT
ONE END
8.4-42
-------
The following general types of information could be expected from borehole measurements:
• Vertical changes in porosity
• Relative vertical changes in permeability and transmissivity
• Lithology and structure
• Lithologic conditions
• Vertical distribution of leachate plumes
• Groundwater gradients, flow direction, and rate *
• Water quality parameters
To determine a logging program that will enhance evaluation of the site, the SM must thoroughly
evaluate two key items. First, the SM must identify the regional bedrock geology (i.e., igneous, sedimen-
tary, metamorphic) and typical surficial units. Then the SM must gather as much local information as pos-
sible regarding geologic units (i.e., boring logs of monitoring wells, domestic water supply depths, and well
yields) and any hydrogeologic reports or information.
Second, the SM must identify which logs are applicable in the site's geologic setting and which logs
will provide the required information for meeting program objectives. Exhibit 8.4-17 is a general guide to
data collection objectives that will aid in the selection process. However, each function under considera-
tion must be researched in more detail using publications listed in information sources in this compendium
and consulting with borehole geophysical logging specialists.
There are, of course, limiting factors for each of the logging techniques. Exhibit 8.4-18 identifies some
limiting factors for the logs.
Once the geologic environment has been evaluated and the logging functions narrowed, the SM must
select the appropriate equipment. Portable units that can be carried on a backpack enable access to most
well locations; however, they are limited to logging functions requiring low power operation (e.g., battery
packs).
Functions that require 110 volt AC usually operate from a larger unit that is typically mounted in a
vehicle. These units cost considerably more, and access to well locations can present problems in swam-
py areas. However, these units are able to run the majority of log functions available today. Exhibit 8.4-19
shows a generalized schematic diagram of geophysical well-logging equipment.
8.4.3.3 Survey Design
8.4.3.3.1 Log Selection
Once the SM has defined the logging program and has identified the general category of logs that will
supply the necessary information, the specific logging functions(s) can be selected. Exhibit 8.4-20
describes the type of log, a basic description, and the primary use of the technique.
8.4-43
-------
Exhibit 8.4-16
CONTINUOUS FLOWMETER LOG USED TO
LOCATE ZONES OF FLOW
DEPTH
FEET
240
250 -
260 -
270 '
280 -
290 .
300
310
T
INTERVAL OF
STATIONARY
MEASUREMENTS
SHOWN AT RIGHT
ZONE OF
UPWARD
FLOW
INCREASING FLOW
LOGGING SPEEDt 40 FEET PER MINUTE
SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resource* 'n. ->•.< gations
of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1 page 110.
8.4-44
-------
Exhibit 8.4-17
GENERAL GUIDE TO DATA COLLECTION OBJECTIVES
Data Collection Objectives
Lithology and stratigraphic correlation
Total porosity or bulk density
Effective porosity or true resistivity
Clay or shale content
Secondary permeability
(fractures, solution openings)
Specific yields of unconfined
aquifer
Water level and saturated
zones
Moisture content
Dispersion, dilution, and
movement of waste
Groundwater movement
through a borehole
Cementing
Casing corrosion
Available Techniques
Electric, caliper, nuclear, and sonic
Gamma-gamma, neutron, and sonic
Long-normal resistivity (records the
resistivity beyond the invaded zone)
Natural gamma
Caliper, electric, sonic,
and borehole televiewer
Neutron
Electric, neutron, gamma-gamma
temperature, and fluid conductivity
Neutron
Fluid conductivity and
temperature
Flowmeter (vertical)
and chemical tracers
(horizontal)
Caliper, temperature,
gamma-gamma, and sonic
Caliper
8.4-45
-------
Exhibit 8.4-18
LOGGING FUNCTIONS BOREHOLE LIMITATIONS
Limiting Factors
Logging Function
Spontaneous potential
Single-point resistance
Natural gamma
Gamma-gamma
Neutron
Caliper
Temperature
Fluid conductivity
Fluid movement
Sonic
Uncased Open
Boreholes
X
X
X
X
X
X
Minimum
Diameter
(inches)
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
Fluid
Filled
X
X
X
X
X
X
X = Required condition
8.4-46
-------
Exhibit 8.4-19
SCHEMATIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
GEOPHYSICAL WELL-LOGGING EQUIPMENT
7*
LOMM»
MtU AM
OI»CCT«M
I
L
LOQQINO CONTROLS
SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1 page 22.
8.4-47
-------
Exhibit 8.4-20
TYPES OF LOGS, DESCRIPTIONS, AND USES
Type of Log
Caliper
Description
A caliper produces a record of the
average diameter of drill hole.
Primary Utilization
Used for correction of other
logs, identification of lithology
changes, and locations of
fractures and other openings in
bedrock
Single-Point
Resistivity
This log measures the resistance
of the earth material lying between
an in-hole electrode and a surface
electrode.
Used to determine stratigraphic
boundaries, changes in
lithology, and the identification
of fractures in resistive rock
Spontaneous
Potential (SP)
SP is a graphic plot of the small
differences in voltage that develop
between the borehole fluid and
the surrounding formation.
Used for geologic correlation,
determination of bed thickness,
and separation of nonporous
from porous rocks in
shale-sandstone and
shale-carbonate sequences
Natural Gamma
This log measures natural gamma
radiation emitted from potassium
40, uranium, and thorium decay
series elements.
Used for lithology identification
and stratigraphy correlation;
most advantageous in detrital
sediment environments where
the fine-grained units have the
highest gamma intensity
Gamma-Gamma
Gamma photons are induced in
the borehole environments, and
the absorption and scattering are
measured to evaluate the medium
through which they travel.
Used for identification of
lithology, measurements of bulk
density, and porosity of rocks
8.4-48
-------
Exhibit 8.4-20
(continued)
Type of Log
Neutron
Description
Neutrons are introduced into the
borehole, and the loss of energy
is measured from elastic collision
with hydrogen atoms.
Primary Utilization
Used to measure the moisture
content above the water table
and the total porosity below the
water table
Temperature
Fluid Conductivity
Acoustic (sonic)
A temperature log is the
continuous record of the thermal
gradient of the borehole fluid.
This log provides a measurement
of the conductivity of the in-hole
fluid between the electrodes.
A transmitter and a receiver or
series of receivers that use
various acoustic frequencies.
These signals are introduced into
the borehole, and the elastic
waves are measured.
Used to determine seasonal
recharge to a groundwater
system
Used primarily in conjunction
with electric logs to aid in their
interpretation; useful for
identifying saltwater intrusion
into freshwater systems; can be
useful in evaluating water quality
Used to measure porosity and
identify fractures in igneous and
metamorphic rock.
8.4-49
-------
There are many combinations of logging functions. The reader should refer to Exhibit 8.4-12
(D'Apollonia, 1980) for more information on logging functions. Generally, several borehole techniques are
performed simultaneously or in a series to define any one of the geologic or hydrologic parameters.
8.4.3.4 Interferences / Anomalies
Electrical: Both SP and resistance logs are susceptible to the same types of interference. Buried
cables, pipelines, magnetic storms, and the flow of groundwater can all cause anomalous readings. The
most common noise in the SP logs is known as the battery effect and is caused by the polarization of the
wetted cable. This condition is most troublesome in highly resistive surface formations. A common inter-
ference with the resistance log is the result of ground currents from powerlines and other electrical sources
that interfere with the alternating current used in logging. This interference appears as a sine wave super-
imposed on the resistance curve.
Some common equipment problems with electric logs are presented in Exhibit 8.4-21.
Nuclear: The most common problems with nuclear logs are that they are all affected by borehole
diameter changes and changes in borehole media (air, water, mud). These problems are why caliper logs
are essential to correlate the results. A natural gamma log is the sum of the radiation emitted from the for-
mation and does not distinguish between elements (i.e., potassium, uranium, thorium). In quantitative ap-
plications of nuclear logs, the calibration, standardization, and correction for dead time are essential.
However, when the logs are used for qualitative interpretations (e.g., stratigraphic correlation), such correc-
tions may be unnecessary.
Mechanical: Caliper logging is a straightforward mechanical technique and exhibits few anomalies.
Instrumental malfunctions are more likely to cause anomalous readings than borehole parameters.
Impeller flow anomalies are most often caused by varying the probe position radially in the borehole.
Bouncing of the probe from side to side will erroneously indicate flow. Corrective action may include a
device that would hold the sonde in the middle of the borehole.
Temperature logs are susceptible to thermal lag time, self-heating, drift from the electronics in the
sonde, and borehole conditions. A slow logging speed and additional logging functions (i.e., caliper, fluid
conductivity) can aid in temperature log interpretation. Another problem with temperature logs is that after
one pass of the sonde, the thermal gradient is disturbed and repeat logs may not be representative. In
large diameter wells, convection can cause a disturbance of the thermal gradient.
Disturbances to the borehole fluid caused by changes in fluid density and thermal convection can
cause an erroneous log. Since fluid conductivity response is affected by the water chemistry, chemical
equilibrium must be reached before measurements are taken. Well water may take months to obtain
chemical equilibrium with the surrounding formation after drilling, and water wells with much internal move-
ment may never reach chemical equilibrium. Repeat logs are not usually representative because the sonde
disturbs the water column.
Cycle skipping is the most obvious unwanted signal in acoustic logging. It is caused by excessive sig-
nal attenuation in the fluid or by equipment malfunction. A problem with interpreting acoustic logs is that
the velocity is dependent on a variety of lithologic factors, and the widely used time-average equation does
not account for most of the factors.
8.4-50
-------
Exhibit 8.4-21
GEOPHYSICAL LOGS SHOWING SOME COMMON EQUIPMENT PROBLEMS
SINGLE POINT
RESISTANCE
LOG
SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL
LOG
NATURAL
GAMMA
LOG
Drift Eliminator
not operating
properly
Different logs on the
same recorder amplifier
Pan drive sticking or
amplifier gain lee low
SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL
LOG
SINGLE-POINT
RESISTANCE
LOG
SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL
LOG
SINGLE-POINT
RESISTANCE
LOG
Simultaneous logs
Regular noise due to
60-cycle AC
Simultaneous logs
Intermittent noise probably
caused by drilling equipment
of the well
SOURCE: Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter E1, page 23.
8.4-51
-------
APPENDIX 8.4A
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) INSTRUMENT
THEORY
The conductivity value resulting from an electromagnetic (EM) instrument is a composite; it represents
the combined effects of the thickness of soil or rock layers, their depths, and the specific conductivities of
the materials. The instrument reading represents a combination of these effects, extending from the sur-
face to the depth range of the instrument. The resulting values are influenced more strongly by shallow
materials than by deeper layers, and this influence must be taken into consideration when interpreting the
data. Conductivity conditions from the surface to the instrument's nominal depth range contribute general-
ly 75 percent of the instrument's response. However, contributions from highly conductive materials lying
at greater depths may have a significant effect on the reading.
EM instruments are calibrated to read subsurface conductivity in millimhos per meter (mm/m). These
units are related to resistivity units in the following manner:
1,000/(millimhos/meter) = 1 ohmmeter
1,000/(millimhos/meter) = 3.28 ohmfeet
The advantage of using millimhos/meter is that the common range of resistivities from 1 to 1,000
ohmmeters is covered by the range of conductivities from 1,000 to 1 millimhos/meter.
Most soil and rock minerals, when dry, have very low conductivities (Exhibit 8.4A-1). On rare oc-
casions, conductive minerals like magnetite, graphite, and pyrite occur in sufficient concentrations to great-
ly increase natural subsurface conductivity. Most often, conductivity is overwhelmingly influenced by water
content and by the following soil / rock parameters:
• The porosity and permeability of the material
• The extent to which the pore space is saturated
• The concentration of dissolved electrolytes and colloids in the pore fluids
• The temperature and phase state (i.e., liquid or ice) of the pore water
A specific conductivity value cannot be assigned to a particular material, because the interrelationships
of soil or rock composition, structure, and pore fluids are highly variable.
In areas surrounding hazardous waste sites, contaminants may escape into the soil and the
groundwater system. In many cases, these fluids contribute large amounts of electrolytes and colloids to
both the unsaturated and saturated zones. In either case, the ground conductivity may be greatly affected,
sometimes increasing by one to three orders of magnitude above background values. However, if the
natural variations in subsurface conductivity are very low, contaminant plumes of only 10 to 20 percent
above background may be mapped.
In the case of spills involving heavy nonpolar, organic fluids such as diesel oil, the normal soil moisture
may be displaced, or a sizeable pool of oil may develop at the water table. In these cases, subsurface con-
ductivities may decrease, causing a negative EM anomaly.
8.4A-1
-------
Exhibit 8.4A-1
CONDUCTIVITY (MILLIMHOS / METER)
Conductivity (millimhos / meter)
Clay and Marl
Loam
Top Soil
Clayey Soils
Sandy Soils
Loose Sands
River Sand and Gravel
Glacial Till
Chalk
Limestones
Sandstones
Basalt
Crystalline Rocks
103 102 101 1 10"
D'2 10'3
SOURCE: Benson (1983). (Range of electrical conductivities in natural soil and rock, modified after Culley et al.;
8.4A-2
-------
INFORMATION SOURCES
The following list of sources has been categorized into specific groups for easy use. A partial list of
equipment manufacturers follows the references:
Electromagnetic (EM) Theory and Interpretation
Textbooks
Grant, F.S., and G.F. West. Interpretation Ttieory in Applied Geophysics. McGraw Hill Book Company.
1965.
Griffiths, D.H., and R.F. King. Applied Geophysics for Geologists and Engineers. Pergamon Press. 1981.
Parasins, D.S. Principles of Applied Geophysics (3rd edition). Chapman and Hall Publishers. 1979.
Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldard, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys. Applied Geophysics. Cambridge University
Press.
Wait, J.R. Geo-Electromagnetism. Academic Press. 1982.
Journals
Hanneson, J.E., and G.F. West. "The Horizontal Loop Electromagnetic Response of a This Plate in a
Conductive Earth: Part I and II." Geophysics, Vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 411-432.
McNeill, J.D. "Electrical Conductivity of Soils and Rock." Technical Note #5. Mississauga, Canada:
Geonics Limited. 1980.
McNeill, J.D. "Electromagnetic Terrain Conductivity Measurement at Low Industion Numbers." Techni-
cal Note #6. Mississauga, Canada: Geonics Limited. 1980.
McNeill, J.D. "Interpretative Aids for Use with Electromagnetic (Non Contacting) Ground Resistivity
Mapping." Paper presented at European Association of Exploration Geophysicists Annual Meeting. Ham-
burg, Germany. 1979.
Wait, J.R. "A Note on the Electromagnetic Response of a Stratified Earth." Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp.
382-385.
EM General Manuals
Benson, R.C., R.A. Glaccum, and M.F. Noel. "Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and
Waste Migration." Las Vegas, Nevada: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory. 1983.
8.4A-3
-------
EM Case Histories and Examples
Journals
Fox, R.L, and D.A. Gould. "Delineation of Subsurface Contamination Using Multiple Surface Geophysical
Methods." Presented at the NWWA Eastern Regional Groundwater Conference (Technology Division).
Newton, Massachusetts. 1984.
Glaccum, R.A., R.C. Benson, and M.R. Noel. "Improving Accuracy and Cost-Effectiveness of Hazar-
dous Waste Site Investigations. Ground Water Monitoring Review. Summer 1982.
McNeill, J.D. "Electromagnetic Resistivity Mapping of Contaminant Plumes." Presented at the National
Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites-contact HMCRI. Silver Spring,
Maryland.
Rudy, R. J., and J.A. Caoile. "Utilization of Shallow Geophysical Sensing at Two Abandoned Municipal/
Industrial Waste Landfills on the Missouri River Floodplain." Ground Water Monitoring Review. Fall issue,
1984.
Slaine, D.D., and J.P. Greenhouse. "Case Studies of Geophysical Contaminant Mapping at Several
Waste Disposal Sites." Presented at the NWWA Second National Symposium on Aquifer Restoration and
Ground Water Monitoring. Columbus, Ohio. 1982.
Steward, M.T. "Evaluation of Electromagnetic Methods for Rapid Mapping of Salt-Water Interfaces in
Coastal Aquifers." Ground Water, Vol. 20. September-October 1982.
Manufacturers
Aerodat Limited
3883 Nashua Drive
Mississauga, Ontario L4V 1R3
416/671-2446 (airborne EM systems)
Crone Geophysics Limited
3607 Wolfedale Road
Mississauga, Ontario L5C 1V8
416/270-0096 (surface EM systems)
Geonics Limited
1745 Meyerside Drive
Mississauga, Ontario L5T 1C5
416/676-9580 (borehole and surface EM systems)
Phoenix Geophysics Limited
200 Yorkland Boulevard
Willowdale, Ontario M2J1R5
416/493-6350 (surface EM systems)
Scintrex
222 Snidercroft Road
Concord, Ontario L4K 1B5
416/669-2280 (surface EM systems)
8.4A-4
-------
APPENDIX 8.4B
RESISTIVITY
THEORY
The ability to conduct (or resist) current is dependent on the nature of the material to which the current
is applied. Geologic materials, such as clays or iron-rich saturated sands, are generally quite conductive
but are poor resistors, while organic-rich soils and granite bedrock are typically poor conductors and good
resistors. The electrical resistivities in naturally occurring materials run a range of magnitudes whose ex-
treme values differ by almost a factor of 10 to the 20th power (Grant and West). Exhibit 8.4B-1 gives some
examples of how water content and geologic material can affect resistivity.
Although ER instrumentation is variable in design and operation, the basic principles are constant.
Electrical resistivity has as its foundation Ohm's Law, which states that the electrical potential between two
points is defined by the supplied current multiplied by the circuit resistance. Mathematically, Ohm's Law
could be represented as follows:
E = IR
In the above equation,
E = potential of the circuit (volts)
/ = current (amperes)
R = the measured resistance (ohms), the desired parameter.
In practice, current (/) is introduced to the ground by conduction through (generally) two current
electrodes. Generally, two potential electrodes (£) are put a set distance from the current electrodes, and
the potential drop in current is measured. From this relationship, resistivity is calculated (Exhibit 8.4B-2).
To supply the electrical current, a power source such as batteries or a generator can be used, but for most
work done at hazardous waste sites, a DC battery supply will suffice.
INFORMATION SOURCES
The following list of sources has been categorized into specific groups for easy use and includes a par-
tial list of equipment manufacturers.
Electrical Resistivity (ER) Theory and Interpretation
Textbooks
Griffith, D.H., and R.F. King. Applied Geophysics for Geologists and Engineers. Pergamon Press. 1981.
Grant, F.S., and F.G. West. Interpretation Tlieory in Applied Geophysics. McGraw-Hill. 1965.
Telford, W.M., et al. Applied Geophysics. Cambridge University Press. 1976.
8.4B-1
-------
Exhibit 8.4B-1
NATURAL VARIATIONS IN RESISTIVITY
BECAUSE OF MATERIAL AND WATER CONTENT
Rock Type
Siltstone
Siltstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Dolomite
Dolomite
Peridotite
Peridotite
Granite
Granite
Basalt
Basalt
Olivine-Pyrox.
Olivine-Pyrox.
Material
Clays
Sands
Sea Water
Groundwater (bedrock)
Groundwater (overburden)
Water Content
(percent HgO)
0.54
0.38
0.39
0.18
1.16
0.45
2.0
0.96
0.1
0
0.31
0
0.95
0
0.028
0
Typical Resistivity
(ohmmeter)
1.5 x104
5.6 x108
9.6 X105
108
4.7 x103
5.8 x104
5.3 X103
8x103
3X103
1.8X107
4.4 X103
1010
4X104
1.3 X108
2X104
5.6 X107
1-100
10 - 800
0.2
0.5-100
100
Based on W.M. Telford, et al. Applied Geophysics. 1976.
8.4B-2
-------
Exhibit 8.4B-2
THEORY OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
POWER-(SUPPLIED CURRENT)
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
CURRENT LINES
CURRENT
ELECTRODE
GROUND
SURFACE
POTENTIAL
ELECTRODES
8.4B-3
-------
Journals
Zohdy, A.A.R. "Automatic Interpretation of Schlumberger Sounding Curves Using Modified Dar Zar-
rovk Functions." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1313E. Washington, D.C. 1975.
ER General Manuals
Benson, R.D., R.S. Glaccum, and M.R. Noel. Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste
Migration. Prepared byTechnos, Incorporated, for the US. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory.
Las Vegas, Nevada. 1983.
Costeilo, R.L. Identification and Description of Geophysical Techniques. Prepared by D'Appolonia for
U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. 1980.
Greenhouse, J.P. Surface Geophysics in Contaminant Hydrogeology. Manual for the Hydrology Field
School through the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. 1982.
Peffer, J.R., and P.G. Robelen. Affordable: Overburden Mapping Using New Geophysical Techniques. Pit
and Quarry. August 1983.
Technos, Incorporated. Application Guidelines for Selected Contemporary Techniques for Subsurface Inves-
tigations. (No publication date given.)
ER Case Histories and Examples
Journals
Bradbury, K.R., and R.W. Taylor. "Determination of the Hydrologic Properties of Lakebeds Using
Offshore Geophysical Surveys." Ground Water, Vol. 22, No. 6. 1984.
Evans, R.B., and G.E. Schweitzer. "Assessing Hazardous Waste Problems." Environmental Science
Technology, Vol. 18, No. 11. 1984.
Pennington, D. "Selection of Proper Resistivity Techniques and Equipment for Evaluation of
Groundwater Contamination." Presented at the NWWA Conference on Surface and Borehole Geophysical
Methods in Groundwater Investigation. Fort Worth, Texas. February 1985.
Ringstad, C.A., and D.C. Bugenig. "Electrical Resistivity Studies to Delimit Zones of Acceptable
Ground Water Quality." Ground Water Monitoring Review. Fall 1984.
Underwood, J.W., K.J. Laudon, and T.S. Laudon. "Seismic and Resistivity Investigations near Norway,
Michigan." Ground Water Monitoring Review. Fall 1984.
8.4B-4
-------
Manufacturers
ABEM-Atlas Copco
Distributed by Geotronics Corp.
10317 McKalla Place
Austin, Texas 78758
Bison Instruments, Inc.
5708 West 36th Street
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55416
BRGM-Syscal
Distributed by EDA Instruments
5151 Ward Road
Wheat Ridge, Colorado 80033
Phoenix Geophysics Limited
200 Yorkland Boulevard
Willowdale, Ontario M2J 1R5
Scintrex Limited
222 Snidercroft Road
Concord (Toronto), Ontario L4K1B5
8.4B-5
-------
APPENDIX 8.4C
SEISMICS
THEORY
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Compressional waves (F-waves), shear waves fi waves), and surface waves are generated by a seis-
mic disturbance such as a chemical explosion or weight drop; these waves propagate through the earth at
seismic velocities determined by the physical properties of the subsurface material through which they
travel (Exhibits 8.4C-1 and 8.4C-2). Particle motion associated with P-waves occurs in the direction of
wave propagation as a series of compressions and refractions. The f-wave velocity diminishes markedly
when the /"-wave encounters water bearing strata. Layer density can be empirically deduced from the ob-
served P-wave velocity by using the Nafe-Drake relation (Exhibit 8.4C 3).
Particle motion associated with 5-waves occurs in a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. 5 waves travel at slower seismic velocities than P-waves, S waves always arrive at surface
receivers after P-waves, and S-waves will not travel through fluids.
Surface waves are known as guided waves because they travel along a free surface of discontinuity
within the earth. Particle motion and seismic velocity for these waves depend on the type of surface waves
generated, but they all travel at lower velocities than either P- or 5-waves. Whenever a P- or 5-wave strikes
an interface at an oblique angle, both reflected and refracted P- and 5-waves are generated, serving to fur-
ther complicate the identification of later arriving phases.
Shallow refraction surveys conducted in hazardous waste site investigations are run at high amplifier
gain settings to record accurate arrival times of the first-arriving /"-waves or the "first breaks." No effort is
made to correlate arrival times of later-arriving phases.
.P-waves travel along ray paths that are determined by Fermat's Principle, Huygen's Principle, and
Snell's Law. P waves arrive at receivers with seismic wave amplitudes that are determined by the geometri-
cal rate of spreading of the wave and the attenuation of the spectral components of the wave form as a
result of the imperfect elasticity of earth materials. The direct ray travels directly from source to receiver
through the uppermost subsurface layer (layer 1 in Exhibit 8.4C-4) at P-wave velocity VQ. The total time
taken by this ray to travel through layer 1 is given by :
tdir = X/Vo
where .Y is the shot-to-receiver distance.
This equation describes straight line segment 1 of the travel-time curve in Exhibit 8.4C-4, which has
slope 1/Fo and passes through the origin.
When a P-wave encounters a boundary between two layers of different seismic velocities, part of the
original wave energy is reflected back into the underlying layer at an angle of reflection ir that is equal to
8.4C-1
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-1
SEISMIC VELOCITIES OF COMPRESSIONAL
AND SHEAR WAVES
Velocity (km/sec)
Material
Alluvium
Clay
Loam
Loess
Sand
Loose
Loose
Loose
Calcareous
Wet
Weathered layer
Glacial
Till
Till
Sand and gravel
Sand and gravel
Sandstone-shale
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Pennsylvanian
Ordovician
Sandstone
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Limestone
Soft
Hard
Solcnhol'cn
U.S. midconlinem
and Gulf Coast
Argillaceous. Texas
Argillaceous. Texas
Oolomitic. Pcnn.
Cement rock. Pcnn.
Crystalline. Texas.
N.M.. Okla.
Dense. U.S.S.R.
Sail, cornallitc. sylvite
Caprock, salt.
anhydrite, gypsum.
limestone
Anhydrite.
midcontinent and
Gulf Coast
Gypsum
Chalk. U.S.,
Germany, France,
Austin. Texas
Slate. Mass.
Hornfels slate
Magnetite ore
Marble
Quartzite
Wei clay. U.S.S.R.
Impermeable
argillaceous clay
Soil
Tuff
a
0.5-2.0
3.0-3.5
1.1-2.5
0.8-1.8
0.3-0.6
0.2-2.0
1.0
I.X
0.8
0.75-1.5
0.3-0.9
0.43-1.04
1.73
0.38-0.50
1.67
2.1-3.5
2.4-3.9
2.9-4.4
3.3-4.5
1.4-4.3
2.4
1.7-4.2
2.X-6.4
5.97
—
3.4-6.1
6.03
5.71
5.97
7.07
5.67-6.40
5.90-7.00
4.4-6.5
3.5-5.5
4.1
2.0-3.5
2.1-4.2
2.58
3.05
4.27
3.5-4.4
5.50
3.75-6.94
5.78
6.1
1.50-1.65
2.00
0.11-0.20
2.16
P
—
—
—
—
0.4
0.5
—
—
—
—
2.88
2.75
—
3.03
3.04
—
3.03-3.59
—
—
—
—
I.07SV
LUSH
—
2.86
—
—
2.02-3.86
3.22
—
—
0.59
—
0.83
Velocity (1000 ft/sec)
oc
1.64-6.56
9.84-11.48
3.61-8.20
2.62-5.91
0.98-1.96
0.66-6.56
3.28
5.91
2.62
2.46-4.92
0.98-2.95
1.4 1-3.41
5.67
1.25-1.64
5.48
6.89-11.48
7.87-12. 80
9.51-14.44
10.83-14.76
4.59-14.11
7.87
5.58-13.78
9.19-21.00
19.59
11.15-20.01
19.78
18.71
19.59
23.20
18.60-21.00
19.36-22.97
14.44-21.38
11.48-18.04
13.45
6.56-11.48
6.89-I3.7R
8.46
10.01
14.01
11.61-14.44
18.04
12.30-22.77
18.96
20.01
4.90-5.41
6.56
0.36-0.66
7.09
P
_
—
1.31
1.64
—
945
9.02
9.94
9.97
9.94-11.78
3.51 SV
3.71 SH
9.38
—
10.81-10.49
6.63-12.66
10.56
—
0.36-1.20
1.94
0.59-1.27
2.72
Remarks
Near surface
2000 m depth
Above water
table
llelnu water
table
Unsaturatcd
Salur.ited
Unsaluraled
Saturated
Depth range
0.3-3.6 km
0.3-2.1 km
Australia
II to bedding
I to bedding
1 bedding
II to bedding
W/V.S =
1.67-1.72
46 samples
Average of 46
samples
V,./VS ~
4.5-13.7
V,./V\ ~
1.7-2.0
Smircc. These values have been selected from the compilation by Frank Press in the
Htinilhiiiik of Phy.Mt nl Ct»u,iuin\. rev. ed.. Memoir 97, and are printed with permission
of the Geological Society of America. Copyright (0 1966.
8.4C-2
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-2
SEISMIC VELOCITIES OF COMPRESSIONAL
IN NEW ENGLAND
P-wav* velocity
MATERIALS
Overburden
iedrock
KM/sec
0.09-0.30
0.30-0.61
0.92-1.37
1.46-1.62
1.83-2.44
1.52-2.44
10" ft/sec
0.3-1.0
1.0-2.0
3.0-4.5
4.8-5.3
6.0-8.0
5.0-8.0*
REMARKS
Vtry loose unsaturated
silts, humus and fill.
Loose unsaturated coarse
gravel and ground moraine
Compact* dense glacial
tin.
Compact saturated
fluHogladal deposits.
Very dense glacial till.
Highly weathered, highly
fractured with high
permeability.
2.44-3.66 8.0-12.0 Slightly to moderately
weathered.
3.66-3.96 12 .0-13.0 Unweathered massive
bedrock.
* Bedrock velocities in the range of 5,000 to 8,000 ft/sec may be
highly fractured and be indicative of layers of extensive ground-
water flow.
""URGE: These values were compiled by iheWeston Geophysical
0" potation and listed in the Seismic Refraction Study of the
Tinkhams site in Londonderry N.H.
8.4C-3
-------
10 r
i
0.
Exhibit 8.4C-3
NAFE-DRAKE CURVE
2' 3
Density (g/cmj)
RCt: R fc Shftt••»! 0984.
Be1.'
8.4C-4
-------
the angle of incidence i. The remainder of this energy is refracted into the underlying layer at an angle of
refraction jr.
When a P-wave strikes an interface between two layers at an angle i = ic so that sin ic = Fi/F? and
it = 90, a pulse of small amplitude is generated in the overlying layer. This pulse Is called the "head wave"
and travels along the upper boundary of the underlying layer. The angle /c is the critical angle of refraction,
and seismic rays striking the interface as angles of incidence greater than ic are totally reflected back into
the overlying layer. The greater the velocity contract between the two layers, the greater the proportion of
incident wave energy returned to the surface in the form of the reflected ray and the smaller the amplitude
of the head wave.
Time-distance or travel-time curves are constructed from seismic data by plotting the source-to-
receiver travel time against the source to receiver distance X. Exhibit 8.4C-4 is the travel-time curve for a
series of horizontal refractors, each of which has a greater seismic velocity than the layer immediately over-
lying it.
X 2Zi (FiVo2)1^ _ X
Fi FrjFi ~ Fi
In Exhibit 8.4C-4 the total time taken by the head wave to propagate through layers 1 and 2 is given by
the following equation:
til FoFi
Zi
2(Fiz-Fr/)J
This equation describes straight line segment 2 of the travel-time curve, which has slope MV\ and time
intercept t\\. The thickness of layer 1 is given by the equation below:
This is also the depth to layer 2.
Fp V\ FiFo
Straight line segments 1 and 2 intersect at point Xc, tc', therefore,
FI-FQ
^ FI + FO
and
8.4C-5
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-4
RAY PATHS AND TRAVEL-TIME CURVE
FOR HORIZONTAL REFRACTORS
z.
\\
8.4C-6
-------
This equation uses the critical distance Xc to determine the thickness of layer 1.
The travel-time curve changes significantly for dipping refractors, and the above travel-time depth rela-
tions are no longer valid. Reversed seismic profiles yield travel-time curves that reveal dipping refractors.
Exhibit 8.4C-5 represents the cross section throuqh a dipping refractor and the reversed travel-time curve
associated with it.
ic
1
2
sin
Vd
0
1
2
sin"
Vd
The dip angle 6 and critical angle jc can be computed from velocities measured from straight line seg-
ments of the reversed travel-time curve.
(A) Zd
cos
COSIc
The down-dip and up-dip intercept times can then be measured to calculate the down-dip and up-dip
(B) Zu
thickness of the dipping layer:
and,
When the dip angle is very small, equations (A) and (B) can be approximated by letting cos of zc
equal 1.
Lateral variations in refractor velocity are manifested in reversed travel-time curves, and examples of
some of these situations are illustrated in Exhibit 8.4C-6.
Seismic Reflection
Refraction time-distance curves for the case of three velocity discontinuities is illustrated in Exhibit
8.4C-7, along with the related set of reflection time-distance curves. The segment of the time-distance
curve for rays that are reflected from the bottom of layer V approaches the straight-line segment of the
time-distance curve for rays that are critically refracted from the top of this layer asymptotically at large
shot-receiver distances. This similarity is because the ray paths traveled by these rays become identical at
8.4C-7
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-5
RAY PATH AND TRAVEL-TIME CURVES
FOR A DIPPING REFRACTOR
SOURCE: Telfordetai.(1976).
Best available copy
8.4C-8
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-6
LATERALLY DISCONTINUOUS STRUCTURES AND
SCHEMATIC REVERSED REFRACTION TRAVEL-TIME
GRAPHS ASSOCIATED WITH THEM
(c)
^<
x\
A \
V
V.
Some mamples of simple laierally discontinuous structures and schematic
reversed refraction travel-time graphs that would be associated with them, (a) A lateral
velocity change. The l-x graph is unchanged for any dip of the boundary so long as the
higher velocity material overlies the lower (hi If tj - l\, brunches of apparent velocities
V\
-------
Exhibit 8.4C-7
REFLECTION-REFRACTION GEOMETRY
FOR A FOUR-LAYER CASE
tOO m/r
A. Direct ray through layer 1.
B. Reflections from bottom of layer 1.
C. Wide-angle reflections from bottom of layer 1.
D. Refracted rays from layer 2.
E. Reflections from bottom of layer 2.
F. Wide-angle reflections from bottom of layer 2.
0. Refracted rays from layer 3.
H. Reflections from bottom of layer 3.
I. Wide-angle reflections fron hotton of layer 3.
J. Refracted rays from layer 4.
K.. L., M., Critical distances for layers 1. 2 and 3.
Best available copy
8.4C-10
-------
these distances. The straight-line segment of the time-distance curve for rays critically refracted from the
top of the underlying n + 1 is tangential to the curve for rays reflected from layer n.
At the critical distance Xcr, travel times for rays reflected from the bottom of layer n equal the travel
time for rays critically refracted from the top of the underlying layer n + 1. At this distance, rays reflected
from the bottom of layer n are reflected at the critical angle. The critical distance for the existence of head
waves from a layer is given by the following equation:
Xcr = 2 Zn taiu'c
At distances less than Xn, no head waves exist from the top of the underlying layer n + 1. At distan-
ces greater than Xct the head wave from the underlying layer exists and arrives at surface receivers ahead
of the ray received at distances greater than XCi, which are referred to as "wide angle reflections."
Reflected rays from the bottom of layer n undergo a large increase in amplitude nearer for that layer be-
cause of the constructive interference of the head wave refracted from the top of the underlying layer with
the reflected ray. Other large increases in the amplitude of the reflected ray occur at crossover points for
wide-angle reflections where two or more wide-angle reflections constructively interfere.
In this method, the source-to-receiver travel time of reflection events are squared and plotted against
the square of the source-to-receiver distance. Velocity is obtained from the square root of the inverse
slope of the straight line segment. The depth to the reflecting layer is obtained from the velocity and time
intercept.
INFORMATION SOURCES
Backus, M.M. "Water Reverberations: Their Nature and Elimination." Geophysics, Vol. 24, pp. 233-261.
1959.
Campbell, F.F. "Fault Criteria." Geophysics, Vol. 30, pp. 348-361. 1965.
Carmichael, R.S. Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks. Vol.2. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
1982.
Costello, R.L Identification and Description of Geophysical Techniques. D'Appolonia Consulting En-
gineers, Phase I Report. 1980.
Dobrin, M.B. Introduction to Geophysics Prospecting. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1960. 446pp.
Dix, C.H. "Seismic Velocities from Surface Measurements." Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 68-86. 1955.
Faust, L.Y. "Seismic Velocity as a Function of Depth and Geologic Time." Geophysics, Vol. 16, pp. 192-
206. 1951.
Garland, G.D., and R.F. King. Applied Geophysics for Geologists and Engineers. Pergamon Press.
Hagerhorn, J.G. "A Process of Seismic Reflection Interpretation." Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 2, pp.
85-127. 1954.
Howell, B.F. Introduction to Geophysics. New York: McGrawHill. 1959.
8.4C-11
-------
Hunter, J.A., R.A. Burns, R.L Good, HA MacAulay, and P.M. Gagne. "Optimum Field Techniques for
Bedrock Reflection Mapping with the Multi-Channel Engineering Seismogram." Current Research Part B.
Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 82-18, pp. 125-129. 1982.
Kleyn, A.H. Seismic Reflection Interpretation. Elsevier, New York. 1983. 269pp.
Kramer, F.S., R.A. Peters, and W.C. Walter. Seismic Energy Sources 1968 Handbook. Bendix United
Geophysical. 1968.
Musgrave, A.W., and R.H. Bratton. "Practical Application of Blondeau Weathering Solution in Seismic
Refraction Prospecting." Society of Exploration Geophysics, pp. 132-246. 1967.
Nettleton, L.L. Geophysical Prospecting for Oil. New York: McGrawHill. 1940.
Parasins, D.S. Principles of Applied Geophysics. New York: Wiley and Sons. 1979. 275pp.
Scheider, W.A., K.L. Larner, J.P. Burg, and M.M. Backus. "A New Data Processing Technique for the
Elimination of Ghost Arrivals on Reflection Seismograms." Geophysics, Vol. 26, pp. 783-805. 1964.
Steinhart, J.S., and R.P. Meyer. "Minimum Statistical Uncertainty of the Seismic Refraction Profile."
Geophysics, Vol. 26, pp. 574-587. 1961.
Telford, W.M., LP. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff, and D.A. Keys. Application Guidelines Selected Contemporary
Techniques for Subsurface Investigations. Technos, Inc. Miami, Florida: Cambridge University Press. 1976.
Treitel, S., and E.A. Robinson. "Optimum Digital Filters for Signal-to-Noise Enhancement." Geophysical
Prospecting, Vol. 17, pp. 248-293. 1969,
Watkins, J.S., LA. Walters, and R.H. Godson. "Dependence of In Situ Compressional-Wave Velocity
on the Porosity in Unsaturated Rocks." Geophysics, Vol. 37, pp. 417-430. 1972.
Wyllie, M.R.J., A.R. Gregory, and LW. Gardiner. "Elastic Wave Velocities in Heterogenous and Porous
Media." Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 41-70. 1956.
Zohdy, A.A.R., G.P. Eaton, and D.R. Mabey. "Application of Surface Geophysics to Groundwater Inves-
tigations." Techniques of Water Resources Investigations. USGS Book 2, pp. 1-116. 1974.
8.4C-12
-------
APPENDIX 8.4D
MAGNETICS
THEORY
Earth's Magnetic Field
A magnetometer measures the intensity of the earth's magnetic field. The earth's magnetic field, or flux
lines, resemble the lines of a bar magnet, with the magnetic poles being located near the geographic north
and south poles (Exhibit 8.4D-1). The intensity of the magnetic field varies; at the poles it is approximately
twice that at the equator, or approximately 60,000 and 30,000 gammas, respectively (Exhibit 8.4D-2).
The inclination of the magnetic field also varies with latitude, being horizontal at the equator and verti-
cal at the poles (Exhibits 8.4D-1 and 8.4D-3). Thus, the intensity of the earth's magnetic field at a given
study area is dependent on its location.
At a given location, fluctuations occur in the earth's magnetic field because of effects of the solar wind.
Normal diurnal (daily) variations occur in the magnetic field and may be as large as 100 gammas or more.
Superimposed on any diurnal variations are short-period micropulsations that are more random in be-
havior, are generally smaller in amplitude, and may occur at any time. Micropulsations may have durations
between 0.1 seconds and several tens of minutes with amplitudes from 0.001 gamma to several tens of
gammas. Magnetic storms, causing rapid variation of several hundred gammas in the magnetic field, may
occur as often as several days per month and have durations from one to several days.
A recording base station magnetometer is used to make corrections from diurnal variations and for
micropulsations, and to identify magnetic storms. The base station is located in an area where repre-
sentative measurements of the background magnetic field can be obtained on a continuous basis. A mag-
netometer survey should not be conducted during a magnetic storm. The U.S. National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has regional observatories that monitor the earth's magnetic field
and can provide information on the occurrence of magnetic storms.
Types of Portable Magnetometers
Three main types of portable magnetometers are in use:
• Proton precession magnetometer
• Flux gate magnetometer
• Optical-pumping magnetometer
The proton precession magnetometer consists of a coil wound around a bottle of proton-rich fluid,
such as water or hydrocarbon fluid. Sufficient current is introduced through the coil to induce within the
fluid an external magnetic field about 100 times stronger than the earth's magnetic field. As a result, the
magnetic moment of the protons will cause them to align themselves with the new field. When the external
field is removed, the magnetic moment of the protons returns, by precession, to its original orientation with
8.4D-1
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-1
EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
SOURCE: 8reiner(1973).
8.4D-2
-------
Exhibit 8.40-2
THE TOTAL INTENSITY OF THE
EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
NOTE: CONTOURS ARE IN THOUSANDS OP GAMMAS(KILOGAMMAS)
8.4D-3
-------
Exhibit 8.40-3
THE GEOMAGNETIC INCLINATION IN
DEGREES OF ARC FROM THE HORIZONTAL
w* iao*
SOURCE: Breiner(1973).
8.4D-4
-------
the earth's field. The precessional oscillation will induce a voltage in a second coil wound around the bot-
tle, and the total field strength is determined by measuring the frequency of the induced voltage. Typical
sensitivity for this type of magnetometer is one gamma or better.
The flux-gate magnetometer is used to measure any desired vector component of the earth's magnetic
field. This instrument uses a ferromagnetic element of such high susceptibility that the earth's field can in-
duce a magnetization which is a substantial proportion of its saturation value. With a sufficiently large alter-
nating current flowing through a coil around the element, the combined field will saturate the element. For
decreasing strength of the earth's field, more current will be required to saturate the element and vice
versa. The place in the energizing cycle at which saturation is reached gives a measure of the earth's field.
In actual practice, two parallel elements with oppositely wound coils connected in series are employed.
The magnetic field component that is parallel to the elements will reinforce the field created by one coil and
oppose the field of the other. Typical sensitivity for this type of magnetometer is 10 gammas. Some flux-
gate magnetometers provide continuous readings as well as spot readings.
The optical-pumping magnetometer is based on quantum theory. In the absence of a magnetic field,
the valence electron of an alkali-metal atom (such as rubidium or cesium) has two states: Level A (the nor-
mal level) and Level B (the excited level). In the presence of a magnetic field, Level A splits into two sub-
levels, A1 and A2. The energy difference between these levels is in the radio frequency range and is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. By irradiating a gaseous sample of the metal with light
from which spectral line A2B has been removed, electrons in Sublevel A2 will not be excited. When the ex-
cited electrons fall back to the ground state, they may return to either sublevel, but if they fall to Sublevel
A1, they can be removed by excitation to Level B again. The result is an accumulation of electrons in Sub-
level A2, and the gaseous sample becomes transparent to the irradiating light beam. This technique of
overpopulating one energy level is known as optical pumping. To determine the energy difference be-
tween A1 and A2 and, hence, the strength of the magnetic field, radio waves of continually varying frequen-
cy are passed through the sample until electrons start moving from A2 to A1 and the optical pumping
process is reinitiated. The resumption of optical pumping is indicated by a sharp drop in sample
transparency. The energy difference between A1 and A2 can be determined by measuring the correspond-
ing frequency of the radio waves. The optical-pumping magnetometer measures total magnetic field
strength with a typical sensitivity of 0.01 gamma.
Base Station
Base stations are one method used to remove diurnal variations from the data. Other methods involve
the use of tie-lines. If a base station is used, it should be located in an area free of magnetic anomalies and
away from roads, buildings, or other areas where cars may pass or electrical disturbances may occur. The
base station location may be screened by taking vertical gradient readings in the area. The vertical
gradient at the base station location should be near zero. It is best to have a separate base station mag-
netometer that will record total field measurements continuously throughout the field survey. Many
manufacturers of field and base station magnetometer systems allow for automatic correction for temporal
variations in the magnetic field. For automatic recording base stations, a reading interval of 30 seconds to
2 minutes is recommended. If only one magnetometer is available, readings should be obtained at the
base station location periodically (i.e., every one-half hour) throughout the field survey.
Correction of Diurnal Variations
Corrections for diurnal variations are made by plotting base station readings on a time-versus-total-field
graph (Exhibit 8.4D-4); total-field values for times in between actual readings are interpolated. A datum
value for total field is chosen, and the differences (AT) between the base station total-field reading and the
8.4D-5
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-4
TIME VARIATIONS OF THE EARTH'S TOTAL
MAGNETIC FIELD - DIURNAL VARIATIONS,
MICROPULSATIONS, AND MAGNETIC STORM
mexoimtom MO wO4ouTNtiM IATITVMU
a) TYPICAL DIURNAL VARIATIONS IN TOTAL FIELD INTENSITY
100AMMAS
b) TYPICAL MICRQPULSATIONS
c) TYPICAL MAGNETIC STORM
SOURCE: Breiner (1973).
8.4D-6
-------
datum value can be determined for any time during the survey. The corrected total-field reading for the
survey data is obtained by adding ATto the total-field reading.
Depth Estimates from Total Field
The width of a magnetic anomaly is proportional to the depth (or distance) of the source from the mag-
netometer sensor; the deeper the source, the broader the anomaly (Exhibit 8.4D-5). This relationship is of
primary importance in interpreting the results of a magnetic survey. The proportion between the width of
an anomaly and the depth of the source is a function of the fall-off rate, or the variation of anomaly
amplitude with distance(d). For a dipole, the total-field anomaly amplitude varies as l/d3, and for a
monopole as l/d2. In actual practice, source orientation and other factors may result in fall-off rates from
l/d to l/d3. The shape of the magnetic profile of an anomaly and knowledge of the source object help in
selecting the proper fall-off rate for depth estimation. A range of depths determined from several fall-off
rates may be the most appropriate way to present depth estimates. In general, the anomaly width is on the
order of one to three times the depth of the source. Thus, for an anomaly with a width of 100 feet, the
source probably lies between 30 and 100 feet deep (or distant). Several methods, including the half- width
rule and the slope technique, can be used to estimate source depths from total field profiles.
Half-Width Rule
The half-width (x\/d of an anomaly on a total field profile is the horizontal distance between the prin-
cipal maximum (or minimum) of the anomaly (assumed to be over the center of the source) and the point
where total field value is exactly one-half of the principal maximum (Exhibit 8.40-6). A profile that is used
for depth estimation by using the half-width rule should be oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the
anomaly to give the narrowest profile. This rule is valid only for forms such as spheres, cylinders, and other
simple shapes. For example, a single upright 55-gallon steel drum can be approximated as a vertical
cylinder (monopole) and the depth (d) = 1.3 x\n- A buried trench filled with drums can be approximated
by a horizontal cylinder, where d = 2x\ri.
Slope Techniques
Depth of the source can be estimated using the slope of the anomaly at the inflection points of the
profile. The horizontal extent (Xz) of the "straight" portion of the slope is determined as shown in Exhibit
8.4D-7. The depth is then estimated by the equation,
d = KXZ where 0.5 < K < 1.5
Calculation of Magnetic Moment and Mass
M
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-5
THE EFFECT OF DEPTH ON WIDTH AND
AMPLITUDE OF A DIPOLE ANOMALY
4d
*8d
10 d
Depth/Amplitude Behavior ol Oipole Anomalies
SOURCE: Breiner( 19731
8.4D-8
-------
Exhibit 8.40-6
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-7
APPLICATION OF THE SLOPE TECHNIQUE
TO A DIPOLE MAGNETIC PROFILE
SOURCE: Breiner(1973).
0.»<«VS
NOTE: Z - depth
8.4D-10
-------
Exhibit 8.4D-8
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF ROCK MATERIALS
1
Material
Magnetite
Pyrrhotite
llmenlte
Franklinlte
Dolomite
Sandstone
Serpentine
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro
Porphyry
Diabase
Basalt
Olivine-Diabase
Peridotite
Magnetic Susceptibility
(Kx106. CGS Units)
300,000-800,000
125,000
135,000
36,000
14
17
14,000
28-2,700
46
68-2,370
47
78-1,050
680
2,000
12,5000
1 Adapted from C.A. Holland, "Geophysical Exploration" (from Costello, 1980).
8.4D-11
-------
Depth Estimates from Vertical Gradient
The vertical gradient is the change in total field over a fixed distance. The vertical gradient is the
derivative of this equation with respect to distance (d):
-3M
(5) dTIdd = —£-
Solving equation (1) forM,
(6) M = Td3
and substituting equation (6) into equation (5),
-3Td3 -3T
(7) dT/dd = —4— =
a d
Solving equation (7) for depth (or distance) to the source,
-37
(8)
dTIdd
Thus, using equation (8), the depth to the source of a (dipole) anomaly can be determined by knowing
the anomaly intensity (7) above background, and the vertical gradient (dTIdd). For a monopole source,
-2T
(9) d =
dTIdd
In equation (5), note that the fall-off rate for vertical gradient is proportional to l/d4 for dipole, whereas
in equation (1), the fall-off rate for total field is proportional to 1/cr. This difference explains why vertical
gradient measurements provide finer resolution, but less range in detecting anomalies.
Exhibit 8.4D-8 shows magnetic susceptibilities of rock materials.
8.4D-12
-------
APPENDIX 8.4E
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
THEORY
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems are similar to electromagnetic (EM) systems in that a source
and a receiver are needed. A radar antenna (source) emits an EM pulse several times a second. These EM
impulses are then directed into the ground in the form of waves. As the waves penetrate deeper through
the geologic material, contrasts in electrical properties are encountered with changes in strata. These
electrical contrasts (anomalies) cause some of the wave to be reflected back toward the surface, where it is
received by an antenna, while some of the wave continues downward. When enough anomalies have been
encountered, there is very little remaining of the signal (to be reflected); this condition is what is termed the
effective penetration depth. The time interval between the point when the EM signal is emitted to when it is
reflected and received is dependent on the properties of the material and on the depth at which the signal
is reflected. The radar impulse travels in water at about 10 percent of the speed of light; in dry sands it
travels to as much as 50 percent of the speed of light. Variations in impulse travel speeds are also notice-
able when observing a material in a disturbed versus an undisturbed state (less dense). Knowledge of site
geology can be used to estimate the properties of the material (and travel time) so that the depth of the tar-
get can be determined.
The contrasts in electrical properties are a function of the composition of the materials and moisture
contents. Generally, good conductors, such as metal drums, reflect the entire radar signal (EM wave), so
there is no penetration below this point. Poor conductors (good resistors), such as unsaturated sands, will
generally allow for a deeper radar signal penetration than good conductors such as saturated clays or
saline water. For examples of natural variations in resistivity (the opposite of conductivity), the reader
should refer to Exhibit 8.4E-1. One possible way to increase penetration is to use a transmitter antenna of
lower frequency. The effect of frequency changes upon penetration is an inverse square relationship. As
the frequency is doubled, penetration is reduced to one-quarter (but resolution increases).
Typical GPR antennae range in frequency from 10 megahertz (MHz) to 1,000 MHz, with 300 to 600
MHz being considered as standard. The lower the frequency, the larger the antenna, so that some lower-
frequency antennae are commonly towed by vehicles, while the higher-frequency ones can be towed by
a technician. While lower-frequency antennae permit deeper penetration, they lack the resolution of the
higher-frequency antennae. Typical penetration in stratified saturated sands for the 300 MHz antenna is
perhaps 50 feet, and for the 600 MHz antenna it is perhaps 25 feet. These depth penetration estimates are
for guidance and should be used only for that purpose.
GPR equipment does not sense just straight below the antenna; instead, it senses forward, backward,
and to the sides at various angles. For this reason, some objects can be detected without having the
equipment pass directly overhead.
8.4E-1
-------
Exhibit 8.4E-1
NATURAL VARIATIONS IN RESISTIVITY
BECAUSE OF MATERIAL AND WATER CONTENT
Rock Type
Siltstone
Siltstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Coarse Grain Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Graywacke Sandstone
Dolomite
Dolomite
Peridotite
Peridotite
Granite
Granite
Basalt
Basalt
Olivine-Pyrox.
Olivine-Pyrox.
Material
Water Content
(percent HgO)
0.54
0.38
0.39
0.18
0.16
0.45
2.0
0.96
0.1
0
0.31
0
0.95
0
0.028
0
Resistivity
(ohmmeter)
1.5 x104
5.6 x108
9.6 x105
108
4.7 X103
5.8 x104
5.3 x103
8x103
3x103
1.8x107
4.4 x103
1010
4x104
1.3x108
2x104
5.6 X107
Clays
Sands
Sea Water
Groundwater (bedrock)
Groundwater (overburden)
1-100
10-800
0.2
0.5-100
100
Based on W.M. Telford, et al. Applied Geophysics. 1976.
NOTE: Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity.
8.4E-2
-------
INFORMATION SOURCES
The following list of sources has been categorized into specific groups for easy use.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Books
Uriksen, P.F. Application of Impulse Radar to Civil Engineering. Distributed by Geophysical Survey Sys-
tems, Inc. Hudson, New Hampshire. 1982.
Journals
Morey, P.M. "Continuous Subsurface Profiling by Impulses Radar." Presented at the ASCE Con-
ference-Engineering Foun dation Conference on Subsurface Exploration for Underground Excavation and
Heavy Construction. 1974.
Wright, D.L, G.R. Olhoeft, and R.D. Watts. "Ground- Penetrating Radar Studies on Cape Cod." Denver
Federal Center, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey. 1983.
GPR General Manuals
Benson, R.C., R.A. Glaccum, and M.R. Noel. Geophysical Techniques for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste
Migration. Prepared by Technos, Inc., for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Las Vegas, Nevada. 1983.
Costello, R.L. Identification and Description of Geophysical Techniques. Prepared by D'Apollonia for U.S.
Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. 1980.
Manufacturers
Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. 15 Flagstone Drive Hudson, New Hampshire 03051
8.4E-3
-------
APPENDIX 8.4F
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS
INFORMATION SOURCES
Borehole Theory and Interpretation
Costello, R.L. Identification and Description of Geophysical Techniques. Prepared by D'Apollonia for the
U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency. 1980.
Dresser Industries. Log Interpretation Fundamentals. Houston, Texas. 1975. 125pp.
Keys, W.S., and LM. MacCary. "Application of Borehole Geophysics to Water-Resources Investiga-
tions." Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey. Chapter El, Book 2.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1971.
Pirson, S.J. Handbook of Well Log Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1963.
Sammel, E.A. "Convective Flow and Its Effect on Temperature Logging in Small-Diameter Wells."
Geophysics. Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 1004-1012. 1968.
Schlumberger Limited. Log Interpretation. Vol.1. New York, New York. 1972.
Schlumberger Limited. Log Interpretation. Vol.2. New York, New York. 1974.
Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.F. Sheriff, and D.A. Keyes. Applied Geophysics. Pp. 774-781. Bingham-
ton, New York: Vail-Ballou Press, Inc. 1980.
Wheatcraft, S.W., J.W. Hess, and W.M. Adams. Equipment and Techniques Applicable to Subsurface Sens-
ing and Monitoring at Hazardous Waste Sites. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitor-
ing Systems Laboratory, Office of Research and Development. Las Vegas, Nevada.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. "Calibration Models for Geophysical Borehole Logging." USBM Rl 8148.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior. 1976. 21pp.
U.S. Geological Survey. "Application of Electrical and Radioactive Well Logging to Ground Water
Hydrology." Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1544-D. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office. 1963. 60pp.
U.S. Geological Survey. "Methods of Flow Measurement in Well Bores." Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1544-C. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962. 28pp.
8.4F-1
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Borehole Logging Instrument Manutacturers
Comprobe, Inc.
9632 Crowley Road
Crowley. Texas 76036
817/293-7333
Gearhart-Owen
P.O. Box1936
Fort Worth, Texas 76101
817/293-1300
Geotronic Corporation
10317 McKalla Place
Austin, Texas 78758
McPhar Geophysics
55 Tempo Avenue
Willowdale, Ontario M2H 2R9
416/497-1700
Mount Soprls Instrument Company
P.O. Box 449
Delta, Colorado 81416
303/874-4852
8.4F-2
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8.5 GROUNDWATER MONITORING
8.5.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general information on equipment and materials used in groundwater
monitoring programs.
8.5.2 Definitions
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
All other terms in this subsection are in common usage.
8.5.3 Applicability
Almost every investigation of hazardous waste sites entails groundwater sampling and monitoring.
Since each site is different, experienced hydrogeologists and geochemists should be consulted to estab-
lish the most suitable type of monitoring for a particular site. Monitoring well placement and sampling re-
quirements for each site are detailed in a site-specific sampling plan. The procedures described below
have all been used successfully on hazardous waste sites.
8.5.4 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for determining the type and placement of groundwater monitoring networks.
The SM is assisted by experienced hydrogeologists and geochemists. As discussed earlier in Section 8, an
experienced hydrogeologist will supervise the installation of monitoring wells.
8.5.5 Records
Field notes are kept in a bound, weatherproof logbook. Entries are made chronologically in indelible
ink on numbered pages, with the date, time, and notetaker's initials recorded for each entry. Certain forms
used in groundwater monitoring are discussed in the following subsections and in Sections 3, 4, 5, and 17
of this compendium.
8.5.6 Procedures
8.5.6.1 Water Wells
Production or traditional wells are often used to obtain samples in ambient groundwater monitoring
programs. Designed to yield large quantities of turbidity-free water for potable or irrigation supplies, these
wells generally tap the more permeable portions of an aquifer. They may be screened in unconsolidated
8.5-1
-------
material. Chemical data obtained from these wells depict the quality of water being delivered to the user
community. Because water pumped from these wells is often a composite of water from different strata in
the aquifer systems, the presence of relatively narrow or small plumes of polluted water may be masked by
dilution with water obtained from unaffected portions of the aquifer.
Production or traditional wells should not be used for the more detailed source, case-preparation, and
research types of monitoring. Such detailed monitoring efforts call for wells designed to determine the
groundwater quality at a given location and depth within the geologic materials being monitored. All avail-
able geologic and hydrologic information for the site of interest should be reviewed prior to the selection of
preliminary locations and depths for monitoring wells. The potential paths of pollutant movement from the
site should be estimated, and wells should be placed to define contaminant plumes. Information gained
during the drilling process should be used to modify the monitoring plan to make it more effective.
8.5.6.1.1 Monitoring Well Components
The principal reason that monitoring wells are constructed is to collect groundwater samples that,
upon analysis, can be used to delineate a contaminant plume and track movement of specific chemical or
biological constituents. A secondary consideration is the determination of the physical characteristics of
the groundwater flow system to establish flow direction, transmissivity, quantity, etc. The spatial and verti-
cal locations of monitoring wells are important. Of equal importance are the design and construction of
monitoring wells that will provide easily obtainable samples and yield reliable, defensible, meaningful infor-
mation. In general, monitoring well design and construction follow production well design and construc-
tion techniques. However, emphasis is placed on the effect these practices may have on the chemistry of
the water samples being collected rather than on maximizing well efficiency.
From this emphasis, it follows that an understanding of the chemistry of the suspected pollutants and
of the geologic setting in which the monitoring wells are constructed plays a major role in determining the
drilling technique and materials used.
There are several components to be considered in the design of a monitoring well including location,
diameter, depth, casing, screen, sealing material, and well development. As these components are dis-
cussed in detail, it may be helpful to refer to Exhibit 8.5-1, which portrays two typical well installations: one
for water supply and the other for groundwater quality monitoring.
8.5.6.1.2 Well Location
The location of a monitoring well should be selected on the basis of the purpose of the sampling effort.
This purpose may be to verify predictions of contaminant migration; to detect contaminants in drinking
water supplies and thus to protect public health; to activate a contingency plan, such as a program for
leachate collection; to protect the operator; to reassure the public by demonstrating that water quality is
being monitored; or to define a contaminant plume. Each of these purposes will require a somewhat spe-
cialized array of monitoring points and a somewhat different sampling program as defined by the project
sampling plan. The monitoring system must be designed to suit the purpose(s) in mind.
8.5.6.1.3 Well Diameter
A domestic water supply well is commonly 4 or 6 inches in diameter to accommodate a submersible
pump capable of delivering 5 to 10 gallons per minute (gpm). Centrifugal and jet pumps are also used.
Municipal and industrial supply wells have greater diameters to handle larger pumps for greater pumping
capacity. As in water supply wells, the diameter of a monitoring well is largely determined by the size of the
sampling device or pump. Pumping one or more well volumes of water from a large-diameter monitoring
well may present a problem, because large quantities of water must be disposed of or contained. With the
8.5-2
-------
Exhibit 8.5-1
TYPICAL INSTALLATIONS OF (a) WATER SUPPLY WELLS
AND (b) MONITORING WELLS
Pump Discharge
Removable Cap
on Well Protector
•' •'. ' Concrete *
4 . • or Cement
Schedule 80 Pipe -
(4" dia. or greater)
Backfill and/or
Clay Slurry "*"
Sand or — •-
Gravel Pack
Well Screen —
(length: entire
thickness of
water-bearing
material)
\
•+-
.-
_-».
v
i
T
ffe
r
tst
^:•
••&•
*
/
*
:'.
1
•••••'' ' . * .'•••'.
s .' V ' -TILL .' " • .' Pipe
Static >.'.' '•-':•• 's- •" <2" dia->
-Water Level '/'• o '. '*"'"•'/••'.•'
' '•! • .'«'/• ••.-.•• \-
'. •' » ' o ' ' • . • * •
'••:^-.V'':vN-. ••'/-.
vV:-V-:V>.:-:-:--V-:-:-V.^. f
;*.••"..• •; ';•'.'.;•'•;: •..'••.".'.•'•.•. •/ :.»»: 2-5'
i
/
.
2
i
|
/
/
/
x
/
'/;
Static
— Water Level
Cement or
••- Bentonite
Seal
Sand or
Gravel Pack
-..-T^SAND AND GRAVEL.;-.-- — I— L=^
.'. •; ' I .\ (water-bearing) . .". •?.'••'; • Well Screen
.".*•• .-""••• • • •*• .• •"•
•.'.'•'• • ••' f .' •'.'",.'• ' '• '.'.'..' ..'. •'• (Typically 2" diameter
•A'i'-'1 \. •'•'."•' •/•'•* -.:;':.» •'••°.";:
a. Water Supply Well
= SHALE BEDROCK ^-^
b. Monitoring Well Piezometer
8.5-3
-------
advent of several commercially available small-diameter pumps (less than 2 inches outside diameter)
capable of lifting water from several hundred feet, it is rarely necessary to construct monitoring wells larger
than 2 inches in diameter. Additionally, the smaller the diameter, the less it will cost for drilling and con-
struction. Small diameter wells with corresponding low-volume pumps may be preferable for sampling for
volatile organics, because they create less turbulence and provide a sample that is more representative of
aquifer conditions. Monitoring wells in high-transmissivity aquifers may be larger than 2 inches in diameter
if pumping test methods are used to determine aquifer characteristics. Larger diameter, high-capacity
pumps are needed to conduct pumping tests; these pumps require larger diameter wells.
8.5.6.1.4 Well Depth
The dep'th of each monitoring well is usually determined by the geohydrologic conditions at the site
being monitored. Most "detective" monitoring wells are completed in the first relatively permeable water-
bearing zone encountered, since potential pollution sources are frequently at or near ground surface.
Locating the monitoring well in the first relatively permeable zone, therefore, yields an indication of the
migration of pollutants in most situations. However, care must be taken to ensure that the well is com-
pleted at a depth sufficient to allow for seasonal water table fluctuations. Under confined or semi-confined
(leaky) conditions, the water level will rise above the top of the water-bearing zone. In this instance, the
well should be finished in the water-bearing zone and not above it.
If the water-bearing zone is thick (greater than 10 feet) or contamination is known or suspected in
deeper formations, multiple wells completed at different depths should be used. For sampling at various
depths, some geologists have nested several wells in a single borehole. This requires drilling a large-
diameter hole and exercising special care to ensure that the vertical integrity of the sampling points is main
tained. It may be more costly to drill separate wells, but the reduction of potential for cross contamination
often offsets the added expense. Formation samples (cuttings or core) would be taken only during boring
of the deepest well.
Where multiphase or nonaqueous phase liquids are suspected at a site, multilevel wells within a single
aquifer may also be needed. For example, if oil or gasoline is the contaminant, monitoring at the top of the
aquifer is needed. In contrast, sites with "sinking" contaminants, such as trichloroethylene, may warrant
monitoring at the base of the aquifer.
Monitoring wells should be constructed so that they are depth discrete (i.e., able to sample from one
specific formation or zone without interconnection to others). Where multiple aquifers exist, it may be
desirable to set multiple casing strings to ensure isolation of deeper aquifers from shallow, potentially con-
taminated ones. This procedure, called telescoping, is identical to that used in the oil and gas business
and necessitates the setting and cementing of successively smaller diameter casing strings until the target
aquifer is reached. Care must be taken with each casing string to cement with returns to surface to ensure
no interconnection between aquifers. Grout can be placed above and, if necessary, below the intake por-
tion of the well to make it depth-discrete.
8.5.6.1.5 Well Design and Construction Materials.
The type of material used for monitoring well casing may have a distinct effect on the quality of the
water samples collected. Galvanized casing will impart iron, manganese, zinc, and cadmium to many
waters. Steel casing may impart iron and manganese to the water samples. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe
has been shown to release and absorb trace amounts of various organic constituents to water after
prolonged exposure. PVC solvent cements-used to attach sections of PVC pipe have also been shown to
release significant quantities of organic compounds. Teflon and glass are among the most inert materials
that have been considered for monitoring well construction. Glass, however, is very difficult and expensive
to use under most field conditions. Stainless steel has also been found to work satisfactorily under most
monitoring conditions. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic has recently been used at sites where organic con-
8.5-4
-------
taminants are present. This material is not as expensive as stainless steel and does not have as strong a
tendency to sorb or release contaminants as PVC does. A detailed discussion of materials is presented in
later portions of the text.
All well screens should allow free entry of water. They should also produce clear, silt-free water. This
is especially important with regard to drinking water supplies, because sediment in the raw water can
create additional pumping and treatment costs and can lead to the general unsuitably of the finished
water. Also, in monitoring wells, sediment-laden water can greatly lengthen filtering times and create
chemical interferences with the collected samples.
Commercially manufactured well screens generally work best provided the proper slot size is chosen.
In formations where fine sand, silt, and clay predominate, sawed or torch-cut slots will not retain the
material, and the well may clog. If practical, it may be helpful to have well screens of several slot-sizes
available onsite so that the correct screen can be placed in the hole after the water-bearing materials have
been inspected. The use of sawed or torch-cut slotted screens is not recommended; indeed, most EPA
regions do not permit the use of such screens. Customized screens limit the reproducibility of data.
Gravel-packing materials compatible with the selected screen size and aquifer grain size will further help
retain fine materials and will also allow freer entry of water into the well by creating a zone of higher per-
meability around the well. The backfill material must be free of contaminants.
Well screen length is an important consideration. The transmissivity of the aquifer will be used to es-
tablish the length of screen. Low yield aquifers may require greater screen lengths to permit the collection
of adequate sample volumes in a timely manner. A monitoring program to describe contaminant plume
geometry requires the sampling of discrete intervals of the water-bearing formation. In this situation,
screen lengths of no more than 5 feet (1.5 m) should be used. Thick aquifers would require completion of
several wells at different depth intervals. In some situations, only the first water-bearing zone encountered
will require monitoring. Here the "aquifer" may be only 6 inches to a few feet (0.2 to 2 m) thick, and the
screen length should be limited to 1 or 2 feet (less than 1 m). In other circumstances where an aquifer with
a potable water supply is monitored, the entire thickness of the water-bearing formation should be
screened to provide an integrated water sample comparable to that found in the drinking water supply.
Monitoring for low-density organic solvents or hydrocarbons that may float on the surface of the water
creates a special problem. In such a case, the screen must be long enough to extend above the water
level in the formations so that these lighter substances can enter the well. Some companies have
developed probes or samplers that can be placed in a single borehole to monitor several zones simul-
taneously. The units are limited to low flow conditions, which necessitates longer sampling times.
However, the low cost of installation of these units (techniques are similar to monitoring well installation)
can be a factor in selecting these devices.
It is critical that the screened portion of each monitoring well have access to the groundwater from a
specific depth interval. Vertical movement of water in the vicinity of the intake and around the casing must
be prevented to obtain samples representative of the formation of interest. Specifically, rainwater can in-
filtrate backfill materials and dilute or contaminate samples collected from the screened portion of the well.
Vertical seepage of leachate or contaminated water from adjacent formations along the well casing may
also produce unrepresentative samples for the depth interval being sampled. More importantly, the crea-
tion of a conduit in the annulus of a monitoring well that could contribute to or hasten the spread of con-
tamination should be avoided.
8.5.6.2 Lysimeters
Pressure-vacuum lysimeters may be used to obtain samples of in situ soil moisture. They are used
predominantly in the unsaturated zone (i.e., above the water table, as shown in Exhibit 8.5-2). In its most
improved form, this device consists of a porous ceramic cup capable of holding a vacuum, a small-
diameter sample accumulation chamber of PVC pipe, and two sampling tubes leading to the surface.
8.5-5
-------
Exhibit 8.5-2
PRESSURE-VACUUM LYSIMETER INSTALLATION
2-Way Pump
Sample
Bottle
Bentonite
3/16" Copper
Tube
Plastic Pipe
(24") Long
608 mm.
Porous Cup
Bentonite -
152 mm.
(6") Borehole
Sand
Backfill
Super-Sil
Cross Section of a Typical Pressure-Vacuum
Lysimeter Installation
152 mm.
Diameter
Borehole
1 mm. — -
) Steel
face
ing — •
n. (6") ..
er
le
Refuse
, Def
*~~ Lys
Bel
3th ol
imet<
ow R
f
;r
efuse
Y Groundwater Table y
Cross Section of a Lysimeter Network
8.5-6
-------
Once the lysimeter is in place, a vacuum is applied to the cup. Soil moisture moves into the sampler under
this gradient, and a water sample gradually accumulates. Care must be taken in using samples from suc-
tion lysimeters for water quality assessments. The application of the vacuum to drive the water may
remove volatile organics or alter carbonate chemical equilibrium. When the vacuum is released and inert
gas pressure is applied, the accumulated water is forced to the surface through the sampling tube. A typi-
cal pressure-vacuum lysimeter installation is shown in Exhibit 8.5-2.
8.5.6.3 Piezometers and Tensiometers
The terms "piezometer" and "observation well" are commonly used interchangeably; however, there is
a significant difference between them. As implied by its name, a piezometer is a pressure-measuring
device that is frequently used for monitoring water pressure in earthen dams, under foundations, or in
aquifers.
A piezometer that is used to monitor earthen dams or foundations resembles a porous tube or plate. A
piezometer that is used to monitor aquifers resembles a screened well or open hole. An impermeable clay
or cement seal isolates the piezometer from other pressure environments. If the well screen is properly iso-
lated by an impermeable seal placed immediately above the screen, a piezometer can also be used to
measure vertical head differences under unconfined conditions. Any well constructed without this seal
cannot be considered a piezometer. In practice, piezometers are similar to the monitoring wells described
in Subsection 8.5.6.1. If the well is going to be used only for water level measurements, it is generally
called a piezometer. In that case, well construction materials are less critical.
Piezometers are not suitable for the measurement of pressure above the water table since water in the
unsaturated zone is held in the soil pores under surface-tension forces. The pressure head in the un-
saturated zone is called the tension head or suction head. Tensiometers are used to indirectly measure the
pressure head in the unsaturated zone to help determine the groundwater gradients and the flow in the un-
saturated zone.
Typically, a tensiometer consists of a porous cup attached to an airtight, water-filled tube. The porous
cup is inserted into the soil at the desired depth, where it comes into contact with the soil water and
reaches hydraulic equilibrium. The equilibrium process involves the passage of water through the porous
cup from the tube into the soil. The vacuum created at the top of the airtight tube is a measure of the pres-
sure head in the soil. The pressure head is usually measured by a vacuum gauge attached to the tube
above the surface of the ground. To obtain the hydraulic head, the negative value indicated by the vacuum
gauge on the tensiometer must be added algebraically to the elevation of the point of measurement. In
practice, the tensiometer is a tube with a gauge and a porous cup at the base; the piezometer is an open
pipe with a well point at the base,
8.5.6.4 Groundwater Sampling Equipment
The type of system used to collect groundwater samples is a function of the type and size of well con-
struction, pumping level, type of pollutant, analytical procedures, and presence or absence of permanent
pumping fixtures. Ideally, sample withdrawal mechanisms should be completely inert; economical to
manufacture; easily decontaminated, cleaned, and reused; able to operate at remote sites in the absence
of external power sources; and capable of delivering continuous but variable flow rates for flushing and
sample collection.
Most water supply wells contain semi-permanently mounted pumps that limit the options available for
groundwater sampling. Existing in-place pumps may be line shaft turbines, commonly used for high-
capacity wells; submersible pumps commonly used in domestic wells for high-head, low-capacity applica-
tions and, more recently, for municipal and industrial uses; and jet pumps commonly used for shallow, low-
8.5-7
-------
capacity domestic water supplies. The advantages of in-place pumps are that water samples are readily
available and that nonrepresentative stagnant water in the well bore is generally not a problem. The disad-
vantage is that excessive pumping can dilute or increase the contaminant concentrations so that they are
not representative of the sampling point. Another possible disadvantage is that water supply wells may
produce water from more than one aquifer and contamination or adsorption may be a problem when sam-
pling for organics.
The advantage to collecting water samples from monitoring wells without in-place pumps lies in the
fact that the selection of equipment and procedures is flexible. The principal disadvantage lies in the pos-
sibility of obtaining a nonrepresentative sample either through collecting stagnant water that is in the well
bore or through introducing contamination from the sampling equipment or procedures. Some commonly
used sampling systems are described below.
8.5.6.4.1 Bailers
One of the oldest and simplest methods of sampling water wells is the use of bailers. A bailer may be a
weighted bottle, a capped length of pipe on a rope, or some modification thereof that is lowered and
raised, generally by hand. Two examples are the modified Kemmerer sampler and the Teflon bailer repre-
sented in Exhibits 8.5-3 and 8.5-4. The modified Kemmerer sampler is more often used for sampling sur-
face water than groundwater. The Teflon bailer was developed specifically for collecting groundwater
samples for volatile organic analysis. Bailers are also made of PVC, copper, or stainless steel. The sam-
pling plan will specify equipment, materials, and procedures used in sampling. The material best-suited to
the purpose of the project should be selected.
The advantages of using a bailer are as follows:
• A bailer can be constructed from a wide variety of materials that are compatible with the parameter
of interest.
• It is economical and convenient enough that a separate one may be dedicated to each well to min-
imize cross contamination.
• It does not require an external power source.
• Its low surface-to-volume ratio reduces outgassing of volatile organics.
The folk /ing are disadvantages of using a bailer:
• It is sometimes impractical to evacuate stagnant water in a well bore with a bailer.
• An open-top bailer may allow nonaquifer material to enter the bailer as it is withdrawn from the well
(i.e., rust from casings).
• The transfer of a water sample from the bailer to the sample bottle can result in aeration.
• Cross contamination can be a problem ff bailers are not adequately cleaned after each use.
• Care must be exercised in handling the bailer rope to prevent introducing contamination into the
well.
8.5-8
-------
Exhibit 8.5-3
MODIFIED KEMMERER SAMPLER
8.5-9
-------
Exhibit 8.5-4
TEFLON BAILER
+4-
I I
Stainless Steel Wire Cable
or Monofilament Line
Top May Be Closed
or Open
1-1/4" O.D. x 1" I.D. Teflon
Extruded Tubing,
18" to 36" Long
3/4" Diameter
Glass Marble
1" Diameter Teflon
Extruded Rod
5/16" Diameter
Hole
8.5-10
-------
8.5.6.4.2 Suction-Lift Pumps
A variety of pumps can be used to flush wells prior to sampling or, in limited instances, to obtain
samples. When the water table is about 20 to~28 feet from the surface, a suction-lift pump can be used.
Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly available type of suction-lift pump, are highly portable, and have
a pumping rate of from 5 to 40 gpm. Most centrifugal pumps require a foot valve on the end of the suction
pipe to aid in maintaining a prime.
Peristaltic pumps are generally low-volume suction pumps suitable for sampling shallow, small-
diameter wells. Their pumping rates are generally low but can be readily controlled within desirable limits.
The low pumping rates are a significant limitation in flushing out the well bore. Another limitation is that
electrical power is required.
Hand-operated diaphragm pumps are available that can be operated over a wide range of pumping
rates, which facilitates rapid evacuation of a well bore initially and provides lower controlled pumping rates
for subsequent sampling. One major advantage of such pumps is their portability. A disadvantage is that
sampling is limited to groundwater situations where water levels are less than about 20 feet.
Suction pumps are not recommended because they may cause degassing, pH modification, and loss
of volatile compounds.
8.5.6.4.3 Portable Submersible Pumps
Groundwater investigations routinely require the collection of samples from depths that exceed the
capabilities of the systems discussed above. One alternative system consists of a submersible pump that
can be lowered or raised in an observation well, using as much as 300 feet of hose that supports the weight
of the pump, conveys the water from the well, and houses the electrical cable and an electrical winch-and-
spool assembly. A portable generator provides electricity for both the pump and the winch, and the entire
assembly can be mounted in a pickup or van.
The following are advantages of using submersible pumps:
• They are portable and can be used to sample several monitoring wells in a brief period of time.
• Depending upon the size of the pump and the pumping depths, relatively high pumping rates are
possible.
Existing bladder-type submersible pumps will operate in 2-inch monitor wells and are constructed of
materials to permit water quality samples from monitor wells. The pumps require dedication to a single well
or vigorous decontamination between sampling sites.
8.5.6.4.4 Air-lift Samplers
The basic method of applying air pressure to a water well can be adapted to force a water sample out
of the discharge tube. A high-pressure hand pump and any reasonably flexible tubing can be used as a
highly portable sampling unit. A small air compressor or compressed air cylinder and somewhat more
elaborate piping arrangements may be required at greater depths, as shown in Exhibit 8.5-5. The primary
limitations of the air-lift sampler are the potential alteration of water quality parameters, the amount of air
pressure that can be safely applied to the tubing, and the identification of a suitable source of compressed
air.
8.5-11
-------
Exhibit 8.5-5
AIR-LIFT SAMPLER
Discharge
Needle valve
Pressure 'gauge
Quick air hose
coupler
Ground surface
X8 noncollapsing tubing
1>4'or11/2 plastic
8.5-12
-------
The following are advantages of using the air-lift sampler:
• It can be used as a portable or permanently installed sampling system.
• It can be used both to flush the well and to sample.
Its disadvantages are as follows:
• It is not suitable for pH-sensitive parameters such as metals.
• It can damage the integrity of the filter pack around the well screen if the well is evacuated under
high pressure and if the intake of the sample line is located within the screened interval.
• If air or oxygen is used, oxidation is a problem
• Gas stripping of volatile compounds may occur.
8.5.6.4.5 Nitrogen-Powered, Continuous-Delivery, Glass-Teflon Sampler
Sampling groundwater for trace organic pollutants requires a noncontaminating, nonadsorbing pump.
Basing their work on an initial design by Stanford University, developers at Rice University created a
groundwater sampling system that consists of a two-stage, all-glass pump connected by Teflon tubing and
powered by nitrogen gas. The system (shown in Exhibit 8.5-6) contains four basic units: (1) a two-stage
glass pump, (2) a solenoid valve and electronic timer, (3) a nitrogen tank and regulator, and (4) columns for
removal of organics from the groundwater.
The following are advantages of using the glass-Teflon sampler:
• It is portable; AC power is not required
• It is constructed of noncontaminating, nonadsorbing materials.
• Variable flow rates up to 45 gallons per hour are obtainable.
• It can be used in well casings with minimum diameters of about 2 inches.
Its disadvantages are as follows:
• It requires high-purity nitrogen gas.
• Glass construction is somewhat more fragile than other materials.
• Stripping of COa from water may be a problem for pH-sensitive parameters.
• Gas stripping of volatile compounds may occur.
• Generally low pumping rates are experienced.
8.5-13
-------
Exhibit 8.5-6
NITROGEN-POWERED, GLASS-TEFLON PUMP
Thick Won Glass
Diameter 1.5"
Length 17"
TOP
PUMP
BOTTOM
PUMP
t in«!u«m Water
8.5-14
-------
8.5.6.4.6 Gas-Operated Squeeze or Bladder Pump
These systems consist of a collapsible membrane inside a long, rigid housing; a compressed gas
supply; tubing; and appropriate control valves. When the pump is submerged, water enters the collapsible
membrane through the bottom check valve. After the membrane has filled, gas pressure is applied to the
annular space between the rigid housing and the membrane, forcing the water upward through a sampling
tube. When the pressure is released, the top check valve prevents the sample from flowing back down the
discharge line, and water from the well again enters the pump through the bottom check valve. A diagram
of the basic unit is shown in Exhibit 8.5-7.
The following are advantages of using the gas-operated squeeze or bladder pump:
• A wide range in pumping rates is possible
• A variety of materials can be used, depending on the parameters of interest.
• The driving gas does not contact the water sample, eliminating possible contamination or gas
stripping.
• The pump can be constructed in diameters as small as 1 inch, permitting the use of small,
economical monitoring wells.
• The pump is highly portable.
Disadvantages of the system are as follows:
• Large gas volumes and long cycles are necessary for deep operation. Pumping rates cannot
match rates of submersible, suction, or jet pumps.
• Commercial units are relatively expensive (approximately $1,000 for currently available units).
• Use of the pump requires careful selection of bladder and tubing material, some of which is expen-
sive.
8.5.6.4.7 Gas-Driven Piston Pump
This pump is a double-acting piston type operated by compressed gas (Exhibit 8.5-8). The driving gas
enters and exhausts from the gas chambers between the two pistons and the intermediate connector that
joins them. Built-in check valves at each end of the pump allow water to enter the cylinders on the suction
stroke and to be expelled to the surface on the pressure stroke. Current designs are constructed basically
of stainless steel, brass, and PVC. Pumping rates vary with the pumping head, but pumping rates of 2.5 to
8 gallons per hour have been noted at 100 feet of pumping head.
The following are advantages of using the gas-driven piston pumps:
• It isolates the sample from the operating gas.
• It requires no electrical power source.
8.5-15
-------
Exhibit 8.5-7
GAS-OPERATED SQUEEZE PUMP
1/4" AIRLINE
CHECK VALVE
PIPE
FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAM
CHECK VALVE
t
8.5-16
-------
Exhibit 8.5-8
GAS-DRIVEN PISTON PUMP
Outflow
Piston
Pump
Pressurt
from Surfoct
Vilot Operotor
Normol Position
roted Position
Pilot Volve
P* - Pressure
£' - Exhaust
Needlt Valve
Restriction
Switching Unit
P - Pressure
E - Exhaust
Switching
•Unit Spindle
'o"-Ring seals
during up cycle
i ..« —,
0 -Ring seals
during down cycle
T Needlt Valve
^Restriction
Sueticn
8.5-17
-------
• It operates continuously and reliably over extended periods of time.
• It uses compressed gas economically.
• It can be operated at pumping heads in excess of 500 meters.
Disadvantages of the pump are as follows:
• Paniculate material may damage or inactivate the pump unless the suction line is filtered.
• Low pumping rates are experienced.
8.5.6.4.8 Special Sampling Considerations for Organic Samples
Sampling for organic parameters is not a standardized procedure at this time. Some of the equipment
and methods in use are in the research stage. However, the concepts are fundamental, and any particular
item or method can be modified to suit actual field needs. Furthermore, expensive and sophisticated pro-
cedures may not be necessary for sampling or monitoring all areas. The points that must be kept in mind
include the potential for sample contamination and the extremely fine detail, subject to expert rebuttal, that
may be necessary to support a legal action.
Grab samples of groundwater for nonvolatile analysis may be collected by using the system shown in
Exhibit 8.5-9. This system is used where the water table is within suction lift; the sampled water contacts
only sterile glass and Teflon. More sophisticated versions of the sampling configuration are available com-
mercially. The sampled water is then carefully transferred to appropriate glass sample containers for ship-
ment to the laboratory.
For sampling at depths beyond suction lift, a noncontaminating submersible pump should be used to
pump the groundwater to the surface through scrupulously clean Teflon tubing directly into appropriate
sample containers.
The most commonly employed sample containers are 40-ml glass vials for analyses requiring small
sample volumes, such as total organic carbon, and 1-gallon jugs for analyses requiring relatively large
volumes, such as extractable organics. Both types of containers are equipped with Teflon-lined screw
caps. Like all glassware used in the sampling and analytical procedures, sample containers are thoroughly
cleaned before use by washing with detergent, rinsing extensively with tap water, rinsing in high-purity
deionized water, and heating to 105°C for 2 hours. The bottles are most easily obtained from the EPA CLP
Sample Bottle Repository. The reader should refer to Section 6 of this compendium.
Grab samples of groundwater to be analyzed for highly volatile organics by the Bellar-Lichtenberg
volatile organic analysis (VOA) method are usually obtained by using a Teflon bailer, as noted in Exhibit
8.5-4. Bailers are used for VOA samples because of the possibility of stripping highly volatile constituents
from the sample under the reduced or elevated pressure occurring in the systems that use pumps.
Continuous procedures, using selected adsorbents to concentrate and recover organic constituents
from relatively large volumes of groundwater, may be employed to sample organic pollutants when the
analytical sensitivity and sample uniformity attainable by grab sampling are inadequate. These procedures
are applicable for most organic pollutants except those of very high volatility.
8.5-18
-------
Exhibit 8.5-9
SYSTEM FOR GRAB SAMPLING
TEFLON CONNECTOR
ONNECTOR^)
.0. -^
TEFLON TUBING
6 MM 00.
TYGON
TUBING
WELLCASING
OUTLET
PERISTALTIC
PUMP
1-LITER ERLENMEYER
8.5-19
-------
A special sampling system is shown in Exhibit 8.5-10. In this illustration, water is pumped directly from
the well through Teflon tubing (6 mm outside diameter (OD)) to two glass columns of adsorbent in series.
A peristaltic pump is located on the outlet side of the columns for sampling with suction lift. A noncon-
taminating submersible pump may be used at greater depths and may be superior for practically all sam-
pling uses.
All components of the system that contact the water sample before emergence from the second
column are, with the exception of the adsorbent, glass or Teflon. Exhibit 8.5-11 shows a typical sampling
system installed in specially constructed housing to form self-contained sampling units that are easily
transported and set up in the field.
Columns prepared from macroreticular resin, activated carbon, and polyamide particles have been
employed in sampling systems. Of these materials, macroreticular resin (XAD-2, Rohm and Haas Com-
pany, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) has been the most convenient and generally useful and is the current ad-
sorbent of choice.
Sampling is conducted by continuously pumping groundwater through the sampling system at flow
rates usually ranging from 10 to 30 ml per min. The volumes sampled are dependent on the desired sen-
sitivity of analysis. Sampling 50 liters of water is sufficient to provide a sensitivity of at least 1 ^g per liter (1
part per billion (ppb)) for almost all compounds of interest using gas chromatographic techniques.
Volumes sampled are determined by using calibrated waste receivers to measure the water leaving the
sampling systems.
8.5.6.4.9 Volatile Organics in the Unsaturated Zone
Water should be sampled in the unsaturated zone to detect and follow pollutants migrating toward the
water table. Highly volatile compounds, which include the low-molecular- weight chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as trichlorethylene, are difficult to detect. These compounds are released in significant quantities into
the environment, exhibit carcinogenicity, and are implicated in numerous cases of groundwater pollution.
Soil-water samples may be collected using the device depicted in Exhibit 8.5-12, which consists of a
sampler, a purging apparatus, and a trap connected to sources of nitrogen gas and a vacuum. The soil-
solution sampler consists of a 7/8-inch OD (2.2-cm) porous ceramic cup, a length of 3/4-inch OD Teflon or
PVC pipe, and a Teflon stopper fitted with 3-mm OD Teflon exhaust and collection tubes. The length of the
pipe is dictated by the depth of sampling desired, which is limited to a maximum of about 20 feet. The
device is basically a suction lysimeter with the attendant limitations. The purging apparatus and trap are
parts of the Tekmar LSC-1 liquid-sample concentrator to which have been added Teflon valves and "Tape-
Tite" connectors. The purging apparatus is borosilicate glass, while the trap consists of Tenax-GC porous
polymer (60/80 mesh), packed in a 2-mm x 28-cm stainless steel tube plugged with silane-treated glass
wool. The purge gas is ultrahigh purity, oxygen-free nitrogen. The vacuum is provided by a peristaltic
pump.
Before the sample is collected, the purging apparatus is cleaned with acetone and distilled water and
then baked at 105°C to 108°C for at least an hour. In the field, the device is rinsed thoroughly with distilled
or organic-free water between samples, and special care is taken to force the rinse water through the glass
frit.
The soil-solution sampler is driven to the bottom of a pre-augered 19-mm (0.75-inch) diameter hole.
This procedure is done very carefully to ensure intimate contact between the ceramic cup and the soil.
Before collecting a sample, the exhaust tube is opened to the atmosphere, and the collection tube is
disconnected and pumped to remove any solution that may have leaked into the tube through the porous
8.5-20
-------
Exhibit 8.5-10
CONTINUOUS SAMPLING SYSTEM FOR ORGANICS
Glass Tubing
6 mm O.D.
Teflon
Connector-
Tygon
Tubing
to Waste
Receiver
Peristaltic
Pump
Teflon Tubing
6 mm O.D.
8.5-21
-------
Exhibit 8.5-11
SELF-CONTAINED SAMPLING UNIT FOR ORGANICS
8.5-22
-------
Exhibit 8.5-12
SOIL-WATER SAMPLING DEVICE FOR
VOLATILE ORGANICS
TRAP
EXHAUST
TUBE
TO N*
SUPPUT
VACUUM
Soil Solution Sampler
Purging Apparatus
8.5-23
-------
cup. Then the collection tube is reconnected to the purging apparatus, the exhaust tube is closed with a
pinch clamp, and 5 to 10 ml of solution is collected by closing valve C and opening valves A and B (see Ex-
hibit 8.5-12). After sample collection, the exhaust tube is opened to remove from the sampler and collect
on the trap any of the compounds that may have volatilized in the sampler. Following this procedure, valve
A is closed and valve C is opened. Nitrogen gas Is then bubbled through the solution at a rate of 40 ml per
minute for 10 minutes to purge volatile organics from the solution. Traps are capped and returned to the
laboratory for analysis within 6 hours of collection or for storage at 20°C for later analysis. Chemical con-
centrations are determined according to procedures based on the Bellar-Lichtenberg method.
8.5.6.5 Water-Level Measurement Devices
Water-level indicators are portable Instruments used to determine the water level In boreholes, wells,
and other open underground structures. Generally, outside power sources are not required to operate
these devices. However, many require that batteries be replaced or recharged periodically. Measurements
may be made with a number of different devices and procedures. Measurements are taken to a scribed
point placed by a surveyor on the inner well casing. The reader should refer to Section 14 of this compen-
dium.
8.5.6.5.1 Steel Tape
The chalked steel tape with a weight attached to the lower end is one of the most accurate procedures
for measuring water levels. The weight keeps the tape taut and helps lower it into the well (see Exhibit 8.5-
13). The tape can be chalked with carpenter's chalk, ordinary blackboard chalk, or other chalk. The line
where the color changes on the tape indicates the length of tape that was immersed in water. Subtracting
this length from the reading at the measuring point gives the depth to water. Cascading water in a well
may mask the mark of the true water level. However, this situation usually occurs only in a well that is
being pumped. Another method of measuring may then be required. In small-diameter wells, the volume
of the weight may cause the water level to rise in the pipe, causing the measurement to be somewhat inac-
curate. Another problem associated with the steel tape measurement is that chalk or impurities in the chalk
may contaminate a monitoring well. If the integrity of a groundwater sample is critical, another method of
measuring the water level may have to be used.
8.5.6.5.2 Electric Sounders
Electric sounders may also be used to measure the depth to water in wells (Exhibit 8.5-13). There are
a number of commercial models available, none of which is entirely reliable. Many sounders use brass or
other metal indicators clamped around a conductor wire at 5-foot intervals to indicate the depth to water
when the meter indicates contact. The spacing of these indicators should be checked periodically with a
surveyor's tape to assure accurate and reliable readings.
Some electric sounders use a single-wire line and probe, and rely on grounding to the casing to com-
plete the circuit; others use a two-wire line and double contacts on the electrode. Most sounders are
powered with flashlight batteries, and the closing of the circuit by immersion in water is registered on a mil-
liammeter. Experience has shown that two-wire circuits with a battery are by far the most satisfactory
electric sounders.
Electric sounders are generally more suitable than other devices for measuring the depth to water in
wells that are being pumped because they generally do not require removal from the well for each reading.
However, when there is oil on the water, water cascading into the well, or a turbulent water surface in the
well, measuring with an electric sounder may be difficult. Oil not only insulates the contacts of the probe,
but it will also give an erroneous read ing if there is a considerable thickness of oil.
8.5-24
-------
aun
-------
In some instances, it may be necessary to insert a small pipe in the well between the column pipe and
the casing from the ground surface to about 2 feet above the top of the pump bowls. This pipe should be
plugged at the bottom with a cork or similar seal that is blown out after the pipe is set. Measurements with
the electric sounder can then be made in the smaller pipe where the disturbances are eliminated or dam-
pened, the true water level is measured, and the insulating oil is absent. When oil is present, it is necessary
to determine the thickness and density of the oil layer before calculating the true water level.
Exhibit 8.5-14 illustrates a convenient arrangement for direct measurement of drawdown during pump-
ing tests. A marker on the sounder wire is referred to a value on the tape, and the same marker is used as
a reference to determine drawdown through changes on the tape when contact with the water is made. A
new marker is used each time the water level drops by an increment of 5 feet.
8.5.6.5.3 Poppers
A simple and reliable method for measuring the depth to water in observation holes between 1-1/2 and
6 inches in diameter is the use of a steel tape with a popper (see Exhibit 8.5-13). The popper is a metal
cylinder that is 1 to 1-1/2 inches in diameter and 2 to 3 inches long with a concave undersurface; the pop-
per is fastened to the end of a steel tape. When the popper is raised a few inches and dropped to hit the
water surface, it makes a distinct "pop." Adjusting the length of tape determines the point at which the pop-
per just hits the surface. Poppers are generally not satisfactory for measuring pumping wells because of
the operating noise and lack of clearance, and they are not effective if the water surface is opposite the well
screen.
8.5.6.5.4 Floats
Float devices are similar to poppers for measuring depth to water. The popper is replaced with a small
float, and the depth to water is determined by the slack created by the tape when the float hits the surface
of the water.
8.5.6.5.5 Air Lines
Permanent pump installations should always be equipped with an access hole for probe insertion or for
an air line and gauge, or preferably both, to measure drawdown during pumping. An air line is accurate
only to about 0.5 foot unless it is calibrated against a tape for various drawdowns, but it is sufficiently ac-
curate for checking well performance.
Artesian wells with piezometric heads above the surface of the ground are conveniently measured by
capping the well with a cap that has been drilled, tapped, and fitted with a plug that is removed for the in-
sertion of a Bordon gauge or mercury manometer stem. The static level is determined from the gauge or
manometer reading after the pressure has stabilized.
For continuous records, a recording pressure gauge may be used.
8.5.6.5.6 Pneumatic Piezometers
Pneumatic piezometers are used to measure pore pressures or pore pressure changes within
boreholes or embankments (see Exhibit 8.5-15). Pneumatic piezometers are usually connected to the sur-
face with flexible tubing. To operate a pneumatic piezometer, a portable readout unit is usually required
(see Exhibit 8.5-16). The readout unit contains an internal pressure tank and data gauge. The pneumatic
piezometer measures hydrostatic pressure in a manner similar to that of a simple air line.
8.5-26
-------
Exhibit 8.5-14
DIRECT DRAWDOWN MEASUREMENT BOARD
Screws
Steel
tape
Pulley
15
ossembly
"2x4
o
c
o>
To Electric Sounder Reel
8.5-27
-------
Exhibit 8.5-15
PNEUMATIC PIEZOMETER
Flexible, Direct Burial Tubing
PMHIC
'MeatI He
Actual Size 0.6" Diam. x 2.5" L
8.5-28
-------
-------
The two primary advantages of using a pneumatic piezometer instead of a standpipe piezometer are
that a pneumatic piezometer eliminates filter tip plugging and time lag. These two interdependent
problems, inherent in all stand pipes, result from the large volumetric change and the time required for
groundwater to permeate through the soil and fill the pipe to the piezometric head. In low-permeability
soils, the time lag can become so long that it is impossible to obtain meaningful pore pressure data with a
standpipe. Instrument time lag is completely eliminated when pneumatic piezometers are used. Since the
time lag problem is eliminated, pneumatic piezometers are very useful for monitoring fast water level chan-
ges that occur during pump tests or other hydraulic conductivity tests. Since this procedure may be
model-specific, the manufacturer's recommendations for the equipment to be used should be called out in
the QAPjP.
8.5.6.5.7 Continuous Water Level Recorders
There are a large number of different models of continuous water level recorders. Typically, these re-
corders use floats, electric sounders, pneumatics, or other devices previously described. A float-balance
continuous recorder is shown in Exhibit 8.5-17.
8.5.6.5.8 Sonic Water Level Measurement
Under proper conditions, depth to water in a well can be measured by a sonic device. This device
uses a compressed air charge or fires a blank shell to generate a sonic wave down the well. The round-trip
wave travel time is measured, and the depth to water is calculated. Care must be taken in reading the
wave charts because discontinuities in the casing or in other well construction components may generate
anomalous wave forms and may cause inaccurate determinations of water level depth.
8.5.6.6 Field Parameter Measurements
8.5.6.6.1 Measurement and Interpretation of pH
The pH of natural water is ordinarily determined by measuring the potential between a glass electrode
and a reference electrode immersed in the solution. The potential must be measured with a sensitive
electrometer or similar device that does not permit a significant flow of current. The design of pH meters
has been greatly improved in recent years, and equipment now available measures pH to the nearest 0.01
pH unit with excellent stability and consistency either in the field or laboratory. Because the pH is a
logarithm, measurements to two decimal places may still be imprecise as compared to the usual measure-
ments of concentrations of the other solute species.
The equilibria in a groundwater system are altered when the water is taken into a well and pumped to
the surface. A pH measurement taken at the moment of sampling may represent the original equilibrium
conditions in the aquifer satisfactorily; however, if the water is put into a sample bottle and the pH is not
determined until the sample is taken out for analysis (days, weeks, or months later), the measured pH may
have no relation to the original conditions. Besides gaining or losing carbon dioxide, the solution may be
influenced by reactions such as oxidation of ferrous iron, and the laboratory pH can be a full unit different
from the value at the time of sampling. A laboratory determination of pH can be considered as applicable
only to the solution in the sample bottle at the time the determination is made. Accurate measurement of
pH in the field should be standard practice for all groundwater samples.
Typical procedures for calibrating the instrument and for obtaining the pH vary with manufacturer and
model. Equipment should be recalibrated at each sample location and when ambient temperature chan-
ges significantly. Equipment manuals provide guidance for calibration.
8.5-30
-------
Exhibit 8.5-17
CONTINUOUS WATER-LEVEL INDICATORS
8.5-31
-------
8.5.6.6.2 Specific Electrical Conductance
Electrical conductance, or conductivity, is the ability of a substance to conduct an electric current. The
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has defined electrical conductivity of water as 'the
reciprocal of the resistance in ohms measured between the opposite faces of a centimeter cube of
aqueous solution at a specified temperature." This definition further specifies that units for reporting con-
ductivity shall be "micromhos per centimeter at temperature °C." Geophysical measurements of resistivity,
however, are commonly expressed in ohmmeters, referring to a cube 1 meter on a side, so it should be
emphasized that conductances of water refer to a centimeter cube. The standard temperature for
laboratory measurements is 25°C, but some values taken at other temperatures exist; thus it is important to
specify the temperature.
Because conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, the units in which specific conductance is
reported are reciprocal ohms, or mhos. Natural waters have specific conductances much less than 1 mho;
to avoid inconvenient decimals, data are reported in micromhos. That is, the observed value in mhos is
multiplied by 106.
The specific conductance of a groundwater sample is dependent upon the total dissolved solids (TDS)
content of the sample. Typically, the ratio of TDS (mg per I) to specific conductance (mmhos per cm) is
between 0.6 and 0.8. Because the TDS concentration and specific conductance of a sample may be pH-
dependent, measurements of specific conductance should occur in the field along with the measure ment
of pH. Accuracy in both measurements is important. Before the start of sampling for chemical analysis,
the measurements for temperature, specific conductance, and pH should be stable over two or three well
volumes. Equipment manuals should be referenced for proper calibration and operation of all field analyti-
cal equipment.
8.5.6.6.3 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) Measurement
The ability of a natural environment to bring about an oxidation or reduction process is measured by a
quantity called its redox potential and is designated as Eh. Eh is a measure of the ability of an environment
to supply electrons to an oxidizing agent or to take up electrons from a reducing agent. The redox poten-
tial system is a measure of the cumulative redox potential of a number of individual oxidation-reduction
reactions.
The measurement of redox potential is not simple or unambiguous. Some reactions that determine
redox potentials are slow, so instantaneous readings with the platinum electrode do not give true equi-
librium potential differences. This slowness means that most redox potential measurements in nature give
only qualitative or semi-quantitative information. When accurate determinations of redox potential are
necessary, it is desirable to measure the concentrations of redox couples, such as SO"24/H2S, COa/ChU,
Fe+3/Fe"", NOaVNa, and so forth.
Qualitative measure of Eh is conducted using a noble metal (usually platinum) and a reference
electrode system or a combination electrode using a specific-ion meter that will measure in millivolt units.
Reference solutions with known Eh are used to obtain the potential and to check the accuracy of the
electrode system.
If Eh is to be measured, it should be measured in the field using the following procedures:
Prepare and calibrate equipment according to manufacturer's specifications.
Bring the reference ZoBell solution to sample temperature and record temperature.
8.5-32
-------
• Measure potential, in millivolts, of the ZoBell solution at sample temperature (EhzoBeii(obs)) and
check against theoretical value at measured temperature (should be ± 10 millivolts) (EhzoBeii+Ret).
* Place electrode in Eh cell and allow readings to stabilize (20 minutes plus).
• Turn off water flow to prevent streaming potential and immediately take reading.
• Record data (Ehobs) and calculate Eh relative to standard hydrogen electrode.
Calculate system Eh as follows:
Ehsys = Ehobs + EhZoBell + Ref - EZoBell(obs)
Report Eh to the nearest ±10 millivolts. It should be noted that oil and grease in the sampled solution
may coat the noble-metal electrode and provide erroneous readings.
8.5.6.7 Filtration
The need and desirability of filtering samples is dictated by the objectives of the study and sampling as
specified in the investigation sampling plan. If the objective is to assess migration mechanisms in conjunc-
tion with migration pathways, then it is necessary to know the concentration of dissolved versus total con-
stituents. This comparison permits an assessment of mobility in a true dissolved state as opposed to a par-
ticulate or colloidal state. The assessment of the former requires the analysis of filtered samples; the latter
requires analysis of both filtered (for dissolved) and unfiltered (for total) samples. The difference permits a
determination of suspended contribution.
Filtering is necessary to analyse samples for inorganic constituents, many of which are acidified before
or during analysis. This acidification may release ions held on particles and change the constituent
chemistry of the solution.
The removal of suspended solids may be accomplished through several techniques. Filtration through
a 0.45-micron micropore membrane filter is the most common field method used to remove suspended
solids. This filter permits a reasonable and practical distinction between true solute material and material
that may be considered particulate or not in true solution. For extremely turbid samples, large particulates
can be removed with a coarse filter before the 0.45-micron filter is used. Large-capacity 0.45 micron filters
exist but are expensive when a large number of turbid samples must be collected.
Pressure and suction filtering devices are commonly used in the field. A typical filter holder is shown in
Exhib it 8.5-18. Small peristaltic pumps are commonly used with this type of filtering device (see Exhibit
8.5-18). Inert gas pressure-filter devices are preferred to suction or compressed air pumps. Hand pump fil-
tering apparatuses have been used.
8.5.6.8 Materials for Well Construction
The selection of materials for well construction and sample collection, handling, and storage is a criti-
cal consideration in planning the monitoring program. The materials should retain their structural integrity
for the duration of the monitoring program under subsurface conditions. The material should neither ad-
sorb nor leach chemical constituents. The material combinations must also be compatible with each other
and with the goals of the sampling effort. (The reader should refer to Exhibit 8.5-19 for a typical monitoring
well installation.)
8.5-33
-------
Exhibit 8.5-18
FILTERS AND PERISTALTIC PUMP
GEOTECH MEMBRANE
FILTER HOLDERS
BACKFLUSH FILTER HOLDER
Parts Break Down
VACUUM
PERISTALTIC PUMPS
Electric or Hand Powered
8.5-34
-------
8.5.6.8.1 Overview of Subsurface Conditions
Most common piping materials (steel, polyvinyl chloride, and iron) meet the structural requirements
needed for well casings to withstand normal subsurface pressures for depths of up to approximately 30
meters (90 feet). In deeper monitoring situations, the use of corrosion-resistant metallic casing for large-
diameter (greater than 10 centimeters or 4 inches) may be required to provide necessary structural in-
tegrity. The practices of local water well construction and regional EPA requirements should serve as a
guide.
Metallic corrosion problems may be encountered under either oxidizing or reducing conditions and are
aggravated by high dissolved-solids content. Other materials (thermoplastics) may deteriorate under the
influence of dissolved chemical substances or direct contact with wastes. Whether the well construction
retains its integrity or not, there are also potential problems because of microbiaS attachment and growth
and the sorptive capacity of the exposed materials for the chemical species of interest. Representative
sampling depends on the choice of materials that can retain their integrity over the entire length of a well
casing, from the aerobic, unsaturated surface zone to the unusual conditions in the saturated zone.
8.5.6.8.2 Chemical Properties of Water and Their Effects on Various Materials
A groundwater monitoring network is designed and constructed with the casing and materials that are
compatible with the subsurface environment. The materials should be compatible with probable mixtures
of groundwater and chemical substances from the contaminant source. Compatibility must be judged
from a structural and chemical standpoint. Structural considerations are treated in detail in the 1980 Na-
tional Water Well Association publication, Manual on the Selection and Installation of Thermoplastic Water Well
Casing. The main criterion for chemical compatibility should be that the long-term interaction of the casing
or sampling materials with the groundwater will not cause an analytical bias in the interpretation of the
chemical analysis of the water samples.
The study of the effects of water or aqueous solutions on materials (and vice versa) presents many
obstacles to the investigator. For leaching effects alone, there are at least six critical system variables that
must be controlled or considered, including chemical composition of the solution, temperature, rate of
flow, and composition of the material (its age, pretreatment, and the surface area exposed). For purposes
of material selection for ground water monitoring, static or flowing tests with solutions approximating the
expected range of solution composition should be sufficient.
Well casing materials are rigid and nonporous. They present a very low surface area to water in the
wellbore relative to that of the adjacent soil or aquifer particles. An extensive body of literature deals with
sorptive interactions of dissolved chemical species in natural waters with solid surfaces. Most of these
studies describe the adsorption of trace metals or organic compounds (adsorbates) on mineral particles
(adsorbents). Surface area (or particle size) and the organic content of the solid phase are cited almost
universally as important variables in the adsorption process. Mineral phases such as quartz, aluminum,
hydrous metal oxides, and clays, as well as natural sediments, have been studied with surface areas rang-
ing from 5 to more than 250 square meters per gram. These active surfaces have been observed to
routinely absorb up to several hundred micro grams of adsorbate per square meter of surface area. The
applicability of laboratory adsorption experiments to the condensed media of the subsurface is a matter of
some controversy. However, a simple qualitative comparison of well casing versus subsurface solids
should suffice to discount adsorptive interferences from materials selection considerations.
8.5.6.8.3 Teflon Well Casing
Teflon represents a nearly ideal well construction material. Inertness to chemical attack, poor sorptive
properties, and low leach potential are clear advantages of rigid Teflon for well screens and casing.
8.5-35
-------
Exhibit 8.5-19
TYPICAL MONITORING WELL INSTALLATION
GUARD POST
3 IN. DIA (MINIMUM)
GROUND
SURFACE
CAP WITH AIR VENT
STEEL CASING WITH LOCKING CA=
6 IN. DIA (MINIMUM)
CONCRETE PAD, SLOPED TO DRAIN
VARIABLE
CEMENT/BENTONITE GROUT
2 IN. DIAMETER, FLUSH JOINT
THREADED P] PE
6 TO 8 INCH NOMINAL
DIAMETER BOREHOLE
BENTON1TE PELLET SEAL
(2 FT. MINIMUM LENGTH)
2 IN. DIAMETER FLUSH JOINT
WELL SCREEN (5 FT. MINIMUM LENGTH)
SAND PACK
CONCRETE PAD
PROTECTIVE
CASING
BOTTOM PLUG
GUARD POST
WELL PIPING
GUARD POST PLAN
8.5-36
-------
However, Teflon is expensive compared to other materials. When situations allow, using Teflon casing and
screens in the saturated zone with another suitable material as the upper casing may be a viable, less ex-
pensive alternative. The structural properties of Teflon are sufficient for the most exacting environments,
giving Teflon a clear advantage over glass. Teflon has not been reported to contribute to or remove or-
ganic or inorganic contaminants from aqueous solutions.
8.5.6.8.4 Stainless Steel Well Casing
Stainless steel has been the material of choice for casing and screens when subsurface conditions re-
quire a durable corrosion-resistant material or when organic adsorption problems might exist. In tests,
type 316 stainless steel proved better for use as a well casing than type 304. The principal compositional
difference between the two types is the inclusion of 2 to 3 percent molybdenum in type 316. The molyb-
denum content gives type 316 stainless steel improved resistance to sulfur-containing species and sulfuric
acid solutions. Resistance to oxidizing acids is somewhat poorer than other chromium-nickel steels.
However, reducing conditions are more frequently encountered in well-casing applications. The type 316
stainless steels are less susceptible to the pitting or pin-hole corrosion caused by organic acids or halide
solutions. They are the materials of choice in industries, such as Pharmaceuticals, in which excessive
metal contamination of process streams must be avoided. Provided that surface coating residues from
manufacture or storage are removed, stainless steel well casing, screen, and fittings can be expected to
function nearly as well as Teflon in most monitoring applications. Chromium or nickel contamination may
result after long exposure to very corrosive conditions. However, physical failure of the casing would
probably accompany or precede such an occurrence. Proper well purging before sampling should be suf-
ficient to minimize problems with these materials.
8.5.6.8.5 Polyvinyl Chloride Well Casing
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-Type 1) thermoplastic well casing is composed of a rigid, unplasticized
polymer formulation that has many desirable properties for monitoring well construction. It has very good
chemical resistance except to low-molecular-weight ketones, aldehydes, and chlorinated solvents. PVC is
a close second to Teflon and type 316 stainless steel in its resistance to acid solutions, and it may be ex-
pected to outperform any of the ferrous materials in acidic environments of high ionic strength. There may
be potential problems when PVC is used in contact with aqueous organic mixtures or under conditions that
might encourage leaching of substances from the polymer matrix. Manufacturers, however, do not recom-
mend the use of threaded schedule 40 PVC well casing because of potential mechanical failures. Schedule
80 threaded PVC well casing is sufficiently durable for most well construction applications.
All well casings should, at a minimum, be cleaned with detergent and rinsed with clean water before
well construction to remove processing lubricants and release agents. This procedure is particularly
necessary for PVC well casing, which may be coated with natural or synthetic waxes, fatty acids, or fatty
acid esters. In addition, more thorough cleaning may be required; steam cleaning is often used.
Threaded joints are the preferred means of connecting sections of PVC well casing. In this way,
problems associated with use of solvent primers and cements can be avoided. Threaded joints on PVC
well casing (or pipe) can be provided in three ways: (1) by solvent cementing a molded thread adapter to
the end of the pipe (not recommended), (2) by having molded flush-threaded joints built into each pipe
section, and (3) by cutting tapered threads on the pipe with National-Pipe-Thread sized dies. The latter
method is recommended only by the industry for schedule 80 PVC well casing or pipe.
Furthermore, manufactured casing and screen is preferable to off-the-shelf PVC pipe. The practice of
sawing slots in the pipe (e.g., homemade screens) should be avoided since this procedure exposes fresh
surfaces of the material, increasing the risk of releasing compounding ingredients or reaction products. In
addition, it is very difficult to properly slot casing materials by sawing them.
8.5-37
-------
8.5.6.8.6 Casing Made From Other Ferrous Materials
Ferrous metal well casing and screen materials, with the exception of stainless steels, include carbon
steel, low-carbon or copper (0.2 percent) steels, and various steels with a galvanized coating. The carbon
steels were formulated to improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion. To achieve this increased resis-
tance, it is necessary for the material to undergo alternate wetting and drying cycles. For noncoated steels
buried in soils or in the saturated zone, the difference between the corrosion resistance of either variety is
negligible. Both carbon- and copper-steel well casings may be expected to corrode, and corrosion
products may include oxides of Fe and Mn (and trace constituents), as well as various metal sulfides.
Under oxidizing conditions, the principal products are solid hydrous oxides of these metals, with a large
range of potential particle sizes. The solids may accumulate in the well screen, at the bottom of the well, or
on the casing surface. The potential also exists for the production of stable colloidal oxide particles that
can pass through conventional membrane filtration media. Reducing conditions will generally provide
higher levels of truly dissolved metallic corrosion products in well storage waters. Galvanized steels are
protected by a zinc coating applied by hot dipping or electroplating processes. The corrosion resistance
of galvanized steel is generally improved over conventional steels. However, the products of initial cor-
rosion will include iron, manganese, zinc, and trace cadmium species, which may be among the analytes
of interest in a monitoring program.
Corrosion products from conventional or galvanized steels represent a potential source of adsorptive
interference. The accumulation of the solid products has the effect of increasing both the activity and the
exposed surface area for adsorption, reaction, and desorption processes. Surface interactions can, there-
by, cause significant changes in dissolved-metal or organic compound concentrations in water samples.
Flushing the stored water from the well casing may not be sufficient to minimize this source of bias be-
cause the effects of the disturbance of surface coatings or accumulated products in the bottom of the well
would be difficult, if not impossible, to predict. In comparison with glass, plastic, and coated-steel sur-
faces, galvanized metal presents a rather active surface for adsorption of orthophosphate. The age of the
surface and the total area of exposure have been found to be important variables in the adsorption
process. However, adsorption is not a linear function of the galvanized-metal surface area.
Field data for conventional and galvanized steels provide additional reasons for the use of caution
when choosing these materials for well casings or screens. The water well industry routinely chooses alter-
native nonconductive or corrosion-resistant materials in areas where normal groundwater conditions are
known to attack the common steels. Regional or local practices in the selection of water well construction
materials provide valuable preliminary guides for routine monitoring efforts.
8.5.6.8.7 Pumps Used in Development
The large variety of centrifugal, peristaltic, impeller, and submersible pump designs precludes an in-
depth discussion of their potential effects on the results of groundwater monitoring efforts. According to
the situation, the compatibility of the materials found in high-capacity pumps with subsurface conditions
must be carefully considered. The methodology of monitoring well development (see Exhibit 8.5-20) is
probably far more critical than the pumping mechanism or water-contacting materials. Use of a Teflon, air-
driven, well-development device with filtered air or compressed breathing-grade air minimizes the potential
effects on groundwater monitoring.
8.5.6.8.8 Grouts, Cements, Muds, and Drilling Fluids
Various drilling aids, cements, and sealant formulations are used to achieve two main goals: (1) to
maintain an open borehole in rotary and cable tool operations in unconsolidated formations, and (2) to ef-
fect a seal between the surface or overlying formations and the casing or screened intervals so that runoff
or other sources of water do not enter the wellbore.
8.5-38
-------
Exhibit 8.5-20
AIR-DRIVEN, WELL-DEVELOPMENT DEVICE
Flattened nozzle with
1/8" opening
3/8" OD stainless or
copper pipe
Overall dimension
less than 1-%"
1/8" diameter hole (both sides)
8.5-39
-------
Water-based drilling fluids are usually used in freshwater applications where the total-dissolved-solids
content of groundwater is below 10,000 mg per liter. The fluids are introduced for several purposes includ-
ing cooling and lubricating the bit, suspending and removing cuttings, stabilizing the borehole by building
up a cake on the sides of the hole, and minimizing formation damage that results from water loss or
penetration of solids.
There are three main types of freshwater muds: (1) bentonite, attapulgite, or clay-based muds with pH
adjusted to between 9 and 9.5 with caustic; (2) polymer-extended clay (organic) muds; and (3) inhibited
clay muds that use lignosulfonates or lignin to counteract the effects of contaminants that would otherwise
destabilize the slurry and prevent effective cutting removal. The first two types of mud are used most fre-
quently in water-well drilling applications. Both of these mud formulations and a spectrum of combined
compositions have been used in the construction of monitoring wells. The main distinction between ben-
tonite and organic muds is the addition of natural or synthetic organic polymers to adjust consistency, vis-
cosity, or surface tension.
For monitoring applications where conditions permit, augering, air-rotary, or clear-water rotary drilling tech-
niques have a distinct advantage over the use of drilling muds. It is preferable to introduce the least pos-
sible amount of foreign materials into the borehole. Compressor lubricants for air-rotary rigs may rule out
this method for trace organic monitoring work, although filters are available to minimize such problems. In
geologic situations in which water-based drilling fluids are a necessity, the predominantly inorganic clay
muds are preferable over those containing organic materials, because the introduction of these organics
can lead to substrates microbial activity that can seriously affect the integrity of water samples. The
decomposition of the organic components of drilling muds may be expected to be a function of their
chemical structure, the microbial populations, the presence of nutrients, and various physical and chemical
factors controlling the distribution of organic substances in the subsurface.
Inorganic clay muds do have disadvantages. If these materials are not completely removed during the
development process, attenuation of organic and metal contaminants in the groundwater may be caused
by the highly sorptive bentonite muds. In zones where concentrations of contaminants are in the low parts
per billion (ppb) range, this phenomenon may be very important.
Seals, grouts, and cements are the primary safeguards against the migration of water from the surface
and from overlying or adjacent formations into monitoring wells. Faulty seals or grouts can seriously bias
the analytical results on water samples from the formation of interest, particularly if water quality conditions
vary or surface soils are badly contaminated. The impact of leaking seals may go far beyond the realm of
analytical interferences or nonrepresentative samples. A leaky wellbore may act as a conduit to permit
rapid contamii nt migration that otherwise would not have occurred. This aspect of a groundwater
monitoring program should not be left to an unsupervised drilling crew, and last-minute substitutions for
preferred materials should not be made. Surface seals must also be completed with concern for the
security at the wellhead by including casing sheaths and locking caps. Most seals between the formation
of interest and regions above or below are made by adding clay materials or cement.
Bentonite clay can increase in volume by 10 to 15 times after wetting with deionized water. Variations
in the composition of the contacting solution can severely reduce the swelling of clay seais. Swelling
volumes of 25 to 50 per cent of the maximum values are not uncommon. The organic content of the solu-
tion in contact with the clay can have a dramatic effect on the integrity of the seal. Organic compounds
can cause significant disruption of normal shrinking, swelling, or dehydrating of the clay lattice during alter-
nate wetting and drying cycles. Alcohols, ketones, and other polar organic solvents have a significant
potential for these changes. On the microscopic level, these phenomena can materially increase the per-
8.5-40
-------
meability of the clay seal. This active area of research has wide application in the fields of well construc-
tion, landfill liners, and slurry or grout cutoff walls. Macroscopic changes in the permeability of clay or ce-
ment seals can occur because of solution channeling by aggressive solvents, compaction or subsidence,
and freezing and thawing processes at the surface. Chemical-resistant and expanding cement formula-
tions effectively minimize these problems.
8.5.6.8.9 Evaluation of Sample Collection Materials
The choices of sample collection devices, procedures, and all materials that ultimately contact water
samples are probably the most critical considerations in a groundwater monitoring program. The monitor-
ing program planner must evaluate the collection mechanisms and all materials to determine whether they
would introduce interference or bias into the final analytical result. For example, a collection mechanism
that creates turbulent transfer of the sample and the opportunity for gas exchange (e.g., air-lift pumping
mechanisms) is clearly inappropriate in sampling for volatile organic compounds and pH- or redox-sensi-
tive chemical species.
The following are desirable attributes for sample collection materials:
• Durability
• Ability to be decontaminated and cleaned effectively to prevent cross-contamination between sam-
pling points (i.e., low permeation of material by contaminants)
• Verified low potential for introducing contamination, bias, or interferences into the analytical results
Each of these attributes plays an important role in the overall performance of monitoring efforts and
bears directly on the successful retrieval of representative water samples. The combinations of com-
ponents in pumps (or other samplers) and the properties of polymeric and elastomeric materials for tubing
or transfer lines make the selection of the sample collection apparatus difficult.
Apart from the actual sampling mechanisms, the materials used for a sampler are of prime importance.
Fortunately, most devices are constructed in different models for specific situations. For example, bailers
are fabricated in Teflon, stainless / Teflon, stainless / PVC 1, or PVC 1. These materials satisfy the major
specifications. Problems arise with nonrigid components of samplers. A single pair of 0-rings may limit
the application of a device.
Teflon incorporates most of the characteristics of an ideal sampling material. It is, however, a difficult
material to machine, and threaded components are easily damaged. For chemical resistance and
durability, several materials other than stainless steel may be expected to perform satisfactorily in low-or-
ganic environments. These materials include polypropylene, linear polyethylene, plasticized PVC, Viton,
and conventional polyethylene. Viton is a preferred material for elastomeric parts since it may be expected
to give improved chemical resistance over silicone and neoprene.
Tubing and transfer lines are available in a variety of polymeric or elastomeric materials. Certain ap-
plications (e.g., peristaltic or bladder pumps) demand a high- resiliency material, and it may be necessary
to sacrifice chemical resistance to achieve the desired structural performance. The bulk of common tubing
materials, except for Teflon, contains a wide range of additives. Plasticizers, lubricants, antistatic agents,
tackifiers, and other ingredients may be present in flexible synthetic materials. In general, true polymers
(e.g., polyolefins like polyethylene and polypropylene) contain much lower amounts of such ingredients.
Formulations change frequently as manufacturers strive to keep production costs low, so a particular
8.5-41
-------
material may show significant variation from lot to lot. Plasticizers are frequently present at levels between
15 and 50 percent of the total weight of flexible products. As a result of this fact and because of the
widespread use of plastic, major plasticizers, such as phthalate esters, have been consistently identified in
environmental samples.
Teflon is the tubing material of choice in monitoring for low-level organic compounds in complex,
chemically aggressive environments. Polyethylene and polypropylene are clearly superior plastic materials
when Teflon is not cost-effective. Silicone rubber tubing for moving components is a special case in which
alternate choices of material may not be feasible. The material is available in several grades that have
widely varying compositions and additives. Metallic contamination from certain laboratory grades of
silicone rubber tubing can be quite serious at the ppb level. Iron and zinc concentrations two to five times
those of control samples are not uncommon even after short contact times. Medical grade silicone rubber
tubing is, however, relatively free of unreacted organic initiators (peroxides) or zinc. Silicone rubber tubing
is generally a poor choice of sampler for detailed organic analytical schemes. Other elastomeric materials,
such as natural rubber, latex, neoprene, or chloroprene, are not recommended for transfer lines or surfaces
that contact groundwater samples.
Little information is available on the performance of flexible materials in groundwater applications.
From the available observations, Teflon, polypropylene, and linear polyethylene may be expected to out-
perform plasticized PVC, since they have superior chemical resistance over a range of environments and
are less likely to cause contamination or bias problems. Microbial transformation of additives in plastics in-
troduces another dimension to the problem posed by materials with high concentrations of additives.
There are a number of reports on the microbial colonization of flexible PVC and the degradation of plas-
ticizers from the polymer matrix.
8.5.6.9 Groundwater Sampling Considerations
The importance of proper sampling of wells cannot be overemphasized. Even though the well being
sampled may be correctly located and constructed, special precautions must be taken to ensure that the
sample taken from that well is representative of the groundwater at that location and that the sample is
neither altered nor contaminated by the sampling and handling procedures.
To select proper sampling procedures, it is essential that sampling objectives be firmly established
before field activities begin. These objectives will dictate the parameters to be measured, the reliability of
the water quality data, and the analytical methodology, which determines the sampling procedures neces-
sary to meet these objectives. In addition, the physical limitations of the well, depth to water, length and
location of the well screen, availability of power, and accessibility of the well site all have a bearing on the
practical application of various sampling procedures.
Sample withdrawal mechanisms should be completely inert; economical to manufacture; easily
cleaned, sterilized, and reused; able to be operated at remote sites in the absence of external power sour-
ces; and capable of delivering continuous but variable flow rates for well flushing and sample collection.
Sampling equipment is described in Subsection 8.1. The physical characteristics of the well largely deter-
mine the sampling mechanism to be used for inorganic and nonvolatile organic analysis. Volatile organics
are usually sampled with Teflon or stainless steel bailers, and extra care should be used to handle samples.
Before use, all sampling devices should be carefully cleaned. A dilute hydrochloric acid rinse followed
by successive rinses with deionized water, acetone, and distilled organic-free water is routinely used. In
badly contaminated situations, a hot-water detergent wash before the above rinsing procedure may be
necessary. Hexane rinses before the final distilled inorganic water rinse will aid in the removal of sparingly
soluble organic materials before sampling for low-level organic pollutants.
8.5-42
-------
The static water level should be measured and recorded at the time of sampling. Water levels can be
obtained using one of the devices discussed previously. In older wells not previously sampled, the bottom
of the well should be established by sounding.
To obtain a representative sample of the groundwater, a volume of stagnant water in the wellbore must
first be purged. The recommended length of time required to pump or bail a well before sampling depends
on the well and aquifer characteristics, the type of sampling equipment being used, and the parameters
being sampled. A common procedure is to pump or bail the well until at least three to five bore-volumes
have been removed. A more reliable method is to pump or bail until the measurements of pH, temperature,
and specific conductance have stabilized over three well volumes.
In the case of monitoring wells that will not yield water at a rate adequate to be effectively flushed, dif-
ferent procedures must be followed. One suggested procedure includes removing water to the top of the
screened interval to prevent the exposure of the gravel pack or formation to atmospheric conditions. The
sample is then taken at a rate that would not cause rapid drawdown. The wells may also be pumped dry
and allowed to recover. The samples should be collected as soon as a volume of water sufficient for the in-
tended analytical scheme reenters the well. Exposure of water entering the well for periods longer than 2
to 3 hours may render samples unsuitable and unrepresentative of water contained within the aquifer sys-
tem. In these cases, it may be desirable to collect small volumes of water over a period of time, each time
pumping the well dry and allowing it to recover. Whenever full recovery exceeds 3 hours, samples should
be collected in order of their volatility as soon as sufficient volume is available for a sample for each analyti-
cal parameter or compatible set of parameters. Parameters that are not pH-sensitive or subject to loss
through volatilization should be collected last. Few reliable data exist on when to choose one sampling
method over another in "tight" formations.
To collect a sample for other than volatile organics analysis, the cap should be removed carefully from
the previously decontaminated sample bottle. The person doing the sampling should not lay the cap down
or touch the inside of the cap. At no time should the inside of the bottle come in contact with anything
other than the sample. The bottle should be filled, in a manner to minimize aeration, to within 2.5 cm (1
inch) of the top. The cap should be replaced carefully, and the bottle should be placed in a cooler (4°C to
10°C) unless the sample is going to be processed immediately in the field. Sampling equipment should be
decontaminated between samples. For volatile organic analysis, the bottles should be filled in a manner to
minimize aeration of the samples so that no headspace exists in the bottle. No air bubbles should be
trapped in the bottle.
8.5.7 Information Sources
Barcelona, M.J., J.P. Gibb, and R.A. Miller. A Guide to the Selection of Materials for Monitoring Well Con-
struction and Ground-Water Sampling. ISWS Contract Report 327. Champaign, Illinois: Illinois State Water
Survey. 1983. 78pp.
Gillham, R.W., M.L Robin, J.F. Banker, and J.A. Cherry. Groundwater Monitoring and Sample Bias. API.
1983.
Scalf, M.R., J.F. McNoll, W.N. Dunlop, R.L Cosby, and J. Fryberger. Manual of Groundwater Sampling
Procedures. NWWA/EPA Series. Ada, Oklahoma: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
8.5-43
-------
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Practical Guide to Groundwater Sampling. EPA 600/2-85-104.
Ada, Oklahoma: NTIS, ERL
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. RCRA Groundwater Monitoring Technical Enforcement Guidance
Document. EPA 530/SW-86-055 NTIS. September 1986.
8.5-44
-------
SECTION 9
EARTH SCIENCES LABORATORY PROCEDURES
9.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 9 identifies the laboratory procedures used to determine the physical and chemical properties
of soil materials. Procedures are given for volumetric, strength, and transport relationship tests and for
testing chemical properties.
The purpose of Section 9 is to provide general guidance for the planning and implementation of
laboratory testing of earth science materials for hazardous waste projects. This section provides both a
broad overview of the types of routine laboratory techniques available for use and a brief, genera! discus-
sion of their purpose and applicability. It also lists references to specific testing techniques and standards,
where available. The reader should refer to Exhibit 9-1 for an index of test parameters as related to test
methods.
Test types and techniques presented herein cover routine methods that may be applicable at the site
investigation, feasibility study, predesign, design, or construction phases of hazardous waste projects.
This section is not intended to be all-inclusive, because the application of laboratory testing to a par-
ticular project, demands careful and knowledgeable planning and experimental design. Detailed specifica-
tion is required for all work, for quality assurance (QA) and/or sampling plans, and for each laboratory test-
ing request, both for the U.S. EPA Contract Laboratory Program (CLP) and for private laboratories. The
specifications should be included in work plan, QA plan, and/or sample plan.
9.2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions may be found in ASTM D653-82, Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil
and Rock Mechanics and in some of the individual test method terminology subsections.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
9.3 APPLICABILITY
Soil samples collected during field investigations may be analyzed using the procedures identified in
this section. The analyses will determine the physical and chemical soil properties listed here. The results
of these procedures can be used in soils engineering determination, contaminant migration evaluation, and
design considerations. Health and safety aspects of using these test procedures on contaminated
materials must be addressed in a site-specific, or laboratory health and safety plan.
9-1
-------
Exhibit 9-1
TEST PARAMETER VERSUS TEST METHOD
9.6.3 Physical Properties
9.6.3.1 Soil
9.6.3.1.1 Index Property Tests
Visual Classification
Moisture Content
Atterberg Limit
Grain Size
Specific Gravity
Soil Classification
Sand Equivalent
Centrifuge Moisture
Capillary-Moisture Relationship
9.6.3.1.2 Density Tests
Unconfined Compression
Moisture-Density Relationship
Relative Density
9.6.3.1.3 Strength Tests
Unconfined Compression
Direct Shear
Triaxiai Compression
Vane Shear
Moisture Penetration Resistance
Bearing Ratio
9.6.3.1.4 Deformation Tests
One-Dimension Consolidation
Swell Test
9.6.3.1.5 Permeability Tests
Undisturbed Samples (cohesive)
Recompacted Samples
9.6.3.2 Rock
9.6.3.2.1 Index Property Tests
Apparent Specific Gravity
Soundness
9.6.3.2.2 Strength Tests
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Direct Tensile Strength
Splitting Tensile Strength
Flexural Strength
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
D 2488-84
D 2216-80
D 4318-84
D 422-63
D 854-83
D 2487-85
D 2419-74
D 425-79
D 2325-68
D 3152-72
ASTMD 1587-83
ASTM D 3550-84
ASTM D 698-78
ASTMD 1557-78
ASTM D 4253-83
ASTM D 4254-83
ASTMD 2166-85
ASTM D 3080-72
ASTM D 2850-82
ASTM D 2573-72
ASTMD 1558-84
ASTM D 1883-73
ASTM D 2435-80
ASTM D 4546-85
ASTM D 2434-68
ASTM C 127-83
ASTM C 88-83
ASTM C 170-85
ASTM D 2936-84
ASTM D 3967-81
ASTM C 99-85
9-2
-------
Exhibit 9-1
(continued)
9.6.3.3 Materials
9.6.3.3.1 Concrete
Compressive Strength
Extrained Air
Flexural Strength
Specific Gravity
Splitting Tensile Strength
9.6.3.3.2
Soil Cement
Miscellaneous
9.6.3.3.3 Portland Cement
Blended Hydraulic Cement
9.6.3.3.4 Asphalt Cement
9.6.3.3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
9.6.3.3.6 Geotextiles
Fabric Weight
Fabric Thickness
Grab Strength and Elongation
Abrasion Resistance
Puncture Resistance
Mullen Burst Strength
Trapezoid Tearing Strength
Equivalent Opening Size (EOS)
Planar Flow
Normal Permeability
Coefficient of Friction (soil to fabric)
Coefficient of Friction (fabric to fabric)
Alkali or Acid Stability
Thermal Shrinkage
Ultraviolet Stability
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
C 39-83
C 231-82
C 173-78
C 78-84
C 293-79
C 642-82
C 496-85
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
D 2901-82
D 806-74
D1632-63
D1633-84
D1634-63
D1635-63
D 558-82
D 559-82
D 560-82
ASTM C 150-85a
ASTM D 4223-83
ASTMD
ASTMD
ASTMD
ASTMD
ASTMD
ASTMD
3773-84
3774-84
3775-85
3776-85
3777-64
1682-64
ASTMD 751-79
ASTM D 3786-80a
ASTMD 1117-80
U.S. Army COE
9-3
-------
Exhibit 9-1
(continued)
9.6.3.3.7 Geomembranes
Thickness
Specific Gravity
Tensile Strength
Elongation
Tear Resistance
Dimensional Stability
Bonded Seam Strength
Peel Adhesive
9.6.4 Chemical Properties of Soil and Rock
9.6.4.1 Waste Evaluation Procedures
1.1 Ignitability
1.2 Corrosivity
1.3 Reactivity
1.4 Extraction Procedure
1.5 Mobility
9.6.4.2 Pollutant Analysis
2.1 Organics
2.2 Metals
2.3 Total and Amenable Cyanide
2.4 Total Organic Halides (TOX)
2.5 pH
2.6 Lime Requirement
9.6.4.3 Other Tests
3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity
3.2 Extractable Cations
3.3 Exchangeable Hydrogen
3.4 Total Soluble Salts--
Electrical Conductivity
3.5 Carbon
Total Organic and Inorganic
3.6 Sulfides
3.7 Total Nitrogen
3.8 Extractable Phosphorus
3.9 Total Phosphorus
3.10 Mineralogy
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
D1593-81
D 412-83
D 792-66
D 882-83
D 412-83
D 638-84
D 882-83
D 412-83
D 638-84
D1004-66
D 624-86
D 751-79
D1204-84
D 3083-79
D 751-79
D 413-82
EPA SW-846 1010, 1020
EPASW-8461110 .
EPA SW-846
EPA SW-846 1310
EPA SW-846 1410
EPA SW-846 8010-8310
3510-3550
EPA SW-846 7040-7951
3010-3060
EPA SW-846 9010
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
Ref.
U.S. Army COE
EPA SW-846 9030
Ref.
Ref.
U.S. Army COE
Ref.
9-4
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Exhibit 9-1
(continued)
9.6.5 Compatibility Testing
9.6.5.1 Soil
1.1 Clay
1.2 Silt
1.3 Sand
1.4 Gravels/Aggregates
9.6.5.2 Rock
9.6.5.3 Materials
3.1 Concrete
3.2 Soil-Cement
3.3 Portland Cement
3.4 Asphalt Cement
3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
3.6 Metal Products
3.7 Plastic Products
3.8 Wood Products
3.9 Geotextiles
3.10 Geomembranes
3.11 Synthetic Drainage Media
9.6.6 Laboratory/Analysis Records
9.6.6.1 Sample Log
6.1 Data Sheets
6.2 Recordkeeping
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9.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM or designee is responsible for ensuring that these procedures are followed. The SM may ap-
point the project geotechnical engineer or soil scientist as the responsible person.
9.5 RECORDS
Records will be kept in a bound notebook with numbered pages (see also Sections 6 and 17). Infor-
mation to be recorded includes the following:
• Project name and number; EPA work authorization number
• Date of sample collection
• Collector's name
• Sample location and depth
• Method of collection (see Section 8, Earth Sciences)
• Date of laboratory analysis
• Name of laboratory
Other laboratory records specific to certain test procedures are discussed in the following subsections.
9.6 PROCEDURES
9.6.1 Introduction
Most of the procedures described below are derived from the 1984 American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Book of Standards, Section 4-Construction, Volume 04.08 Soil and Rock; Building Stones
(ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103. 734 pages). Revisions to some of these pro-
cedures are due soon. In addition, certain procedures listed below have been found to be not wholly satis-
factory for work on highly contaminated materials. Users of this compendium should review the most
recent ASTM procedures for changes. Applicable ASTM standards should be included in work, QA, and
sample plans. The subsection below discusses the evaluation of the suitability of a laboratory to conduct
the procedures, and it discusses the various tests. The standards are listed in the categories of sample
handling; physical tests (volumetric, strength, and transport relationships); chemical tests (mineralogy, cat-
ion exchange capacity, and distribution coefficient); and laboratory records.
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9.6.2 Laboratory Selection
9.6.2.1 Evaluation of Agencies (Laboratories)
The evaluation of agencies engaged in testing and inspecting materials used in engineering design and
construction is important to quality assurance goals.
This subsection discusses criteria for the evaluation of a testing or inspection agency's organizational,
human, and physical resource capabilities. These criteria require disclosure of those factors on which the
objectivity of the agency can be judged.
The reader should refer to ASTM D 3740-80 Standard Practice for the Evaluation of Agencies Engaged in
the Testing and/or Inspection of Soil and Rock as Used in Engineering Design and Construction and ASTM E 329-
77 (1983) Standard Recommended Practice for Inspection and Testing Agencies for Concrete, Steel, and
Bituminous Materials as Used in Construction.
9.6.2.2 Sample Integrity
Methods of sample handling in the laboratory may affect the physical and chemical state of samples
and the reliability of the test results. Special attention should be given to how samples are transported,
stored, and prepared for laboratory testing. Guidance is available in some ASTM standards for particular
tests.
Provisions for handling samples generally include the following:
• Temperature and humidity controls in the laboratory environment and storage areas
• Provisions for opening and reseating sample containers
• Tools for trimming and preparing samples
Where sample quantity is limited, it may be possible to perform sequence testing so that the same
sample can be used in multiple analyses. However, some sample types and some tests preclude reuse in
subsequent analyses because of irreversible alteration of the sample.
9.6.2.3 Laboratory Safety
The safe handling of samples in the laboratory depends on several factors that include design of the
laboratory facilities; laboratory policies and procedures for sample handling, analysis, and disposal; and
training of laboratory personnel in the safe handling of samples, personal protection, and emergency pro-
cedures.
Earth sciences laboratories engaged in analyzing hazardous materials should have secure, ventilated
storage and disposal areas with controlled access; readily available safety equipment (e.g., fire extin-
guishers, self-contained breathing apparatus, safety shower, eye wash station, first aid kit); ventilated
hoods for the handling and testing of samples; an emergency ventilation system in case of accidental
release of hazardous gases; routine inspection and maintenance of laboratory equipment (including safety
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equipment); fire-resistant walls, doors, and windows; an emergency alarm system; and access to a
telephone with emergency numbers displayed.
Laboratory policies should be established for using protective clothing and equipment; appropriate
training and medical surveillance of employees; collecting and disposing of hazardous or toxic wastes;
monitoring the laboratory atmosphere and equipment; investigating and reporting laboratory accidents;
and working alone. Spill prevention plans and a list of emergency procedures should be placed in a
prominent place, and employees should be familiar with the procedures.
9.6.3 Physical Properties
9.6.3.1 Soil
9.6.3.1.1 Index Property Tests
Visual Classification
Purpose: The visual classification of soils allows convenient and consistent comparison of soils using
a standard descriptive method. The use of this classification method provides a basis for comparing soils
from widespread geographic areas.
Synopsis: By visual observation, a soil is assigned to one of three primary groups: coarse-grained
soils (gravels and sand); fine-grained soils (silts and clays); and organic soils (soils containing organic mat-
ter, such as decayed roots, leaves, grasses, and other fibrous vegetable matter). After the soil is assigned
to one of the primary groups, other visual and'physical characteristics are observed, such as color, odor,
moisture condition, and structural characteristics.
Methods: ASTM D 2488-84, Standard Practice for Description of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
Limitations and Precautions: The ability to visually classify soils requires practice and experience.
Laboratory test ASTM D 2487-85 should verify visual classifications.
Moisture Content
Purpose: The moisture content test determines the mass of water contained in a given mass of soil.
The results are usually presented as the mass of water divided by the mass of dry solids, expressed as a
percentage. Moisture content (along with unit weight and specific gravity of solids) provides the basis for
determining the phase relationships of a soil. A comparison of the field moisture content of a soil with its
index properties (such as Atterberg Limits) may be useful in estimating soil consistency, compressibility,
and strength.
Synopsis: A sample of the soil is weighed as received, dried for 24 hours at 105°C, and then weighed
again. The difference in mass is attributable to water loss during drying. Results are presented as the
water mass divided by the dry solids mass, expressed as a percentage.
Methods: ASTM D 2216-80, Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil,
Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.
Limitations and Precautions: It is important to prevent moisture content changes during sampling,
shipping, and handling. Precautions may include sealing the sample in wax, foil, plastic, or a combination
thereof or shipping the entire sample in the Shelby tube used for sampling.
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Organic soil that contains items such as wood, fibers, or decayed vegetation demands careful monitor-
ing, since drying at high temperature may destroy some of the organic matter. Organic chemicals may be
driven off and their mass mistaken as water.
Atterberg Limits
Purpose: The Atterberg Limits include liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), and plasticity index (PI),
which are used for the following:
• To assist in classification of soils
• To indicate soil consistency (when compared with natural moisture content)
• To provide correlation to soil properties, including compressibility and strength
Synopsis: LL is the moisture content at which a soil becomes liquid and flows to close standard-size
groove when subjected to 25 impacts in the standard test device. PL is the moisture content at which soil
becomes plastic, as demonstrated by the moisture content causing incipient crumbling to occur in the soil
when it is rolled into 1/8-inch threads. PI is the difference between the LL moisture content and the PL
moisture content; it represents the range between plastic and liquid states of the soil.
A soil sample is prepared by starting the test at either natural or air-dried moisture content.
Methods: ASTM D 4318-84, Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: Soils may exhibit different liquid and plastic limits if they are prepared
from air-dried or natural moisture conditions. The liquid limit device must be calibrated before use.
Operator error in applying insufficient or excessive pressure or improper rolling rates while performing the
plastic limit procedure may affect results.
Grain Size
Purpose: Grain size distribution is used to assist in classifying soils and to provide correlation with
soil properties that include permeability and capillarity. In addition, grain-size analyses are essential for
adequate assessment and design of such specific features as granular drains, filters, well screens, and
gravel pack materials.
Synopsis: Three general procedures used to determine the grain-size distribution of soil include sieve
analysis, hydrometer analysis, and a combined analysis. A sieve analysis consists of shaking soil through
a stack of progressively finer meshed screens, each with a known opening size, and determining the por-
tion (by weight) of particles retained on each sieve. The hydrometer analysis is based on Stoke's Law for
the velocity of a freely falling sphere; the method determines the settling rate of soil particles by measuring
the density of the soil-water solution and calculating the particle size in suspension at particular time inter-
vals. The combined procedure consists of both the sieve and hydrometer analyses to determine the grain
size distribution throughout the full range of particle sizes.
Methods: ASTM D 422-63, (reapproved 1972), Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: Because the hydrometer method is extremely sensitive to a number of
variables, the accuracy of fine-grained soils distribution is more questionable than that of the coarser-
grained soils. The hydrometer analysis may be more sensitive to interferences from hazardous materials
than the sieve analysis.
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Specific Gravity
Purpose: The specific gravity of soil particles is used in determining the phase relationships of air,
water, and solids in soils. For example, specific gravity can be used to determine unit weights that are
used in pressure, settlement, and stability problems.
Synopsis: The specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of soil par-
ticles to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at 4°C. A pycnometer (volumetric bottle) is
calibrated, and a known weight of a soil slurry is introduced into the pycnometer. The pycnometer is
evacuated of dissolved air. It is then weighed, and the temperature of the slurry is recorded. The specific
gravity of the soil particles is calculated using the dry weight of the original soil sample; the weight of the
pycnometer, soil, and water; and the weight of the pycnometer plus water.
Methods: ASTM D 584-84, Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: It is generally recommended that soils containing soluble salts should
be slurried using kerosene. This, coupled with any hazardous waste within the soil being tested, may
greatly alter the specific gravity as calculated. Also, kerosene and hazardous materials may be susceptible
to fire or explosion. This test is susceptible to sources of error in the measurement of weights and
temperature because the equation used involves the differences in weights, which are small compared to
the weights themselves.
Soil Classification Systems
Purpose: Soil classification systems attempt to group soils having similar engineering behavior
(based on index tests). A number of classification systems have been developed, each for a specific ap-
plication. For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) has a classification system based on the
frost susceptibility of soils. The Bureau of Public Roads has a classification based on the applicability of
soils to highway construction. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the COE have developed a
classification system for soils used in airfield construction. The Bureau of Reclamation and the COE have
developed a classification system intended for use in all types of engineering problems that involve soils.
The system most generally accepted for a wide range of engineering applications is the Unified Soil Clas-
sification System (USCS).
Synopsis: Soil classification systems generally use index test methods to permit rational grouping of
soils. Some of the specific index test methods that are applicable to soil classification are discussed else-
where in this section (see Index Property Tests, Subsection 9.6.3.1.1).
Methods: ASTM D 2487-85, Test Method for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes. Addi-
tional methods are forthcoming.
Limitations and Precautions: Caution must be used in solving problems of flow, strength, compres-
sibility, and stability strictly on the information provided by a soil classification system. Many empirical cor-
relations between indexes and soil properties and behavior have large deviations.
Sand Equivalent
Purpose: A sand equivalent test is performed to allow an estimation of the amount of clay-like or plas-
tic fines in a granular soil. The test takes little time to perform and, therefore, may be used in either the field
or the laboratory as a quick check on the relative amount of fines in a granular soil. The results of the test
can be used for controlling types of materials placed in earthworks.
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Synopsis: A known volume of granular soil is placed with a flocculating agent into a graduated
cylinder and is shaken, which loosens clay-like or plastic fines. The material is then irrigated with more
flocculating agent. The granular soil settles, and the clay-like particles are forced into suspension. The
height of the granular soil and the flocculated clay-like particles are measured. The sand equivalent is the
ratio of the height of sand to the height of clay-like material, times 100.
Methods: ASTM D 2419-74 (reapproved 1979), Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and
Fine Aggregate.
Limitations and Precautions: The test results should be interpreted as an empirical value of the rela-
tive amount of fine material in the sample tested. Sample selection and variations in segregation as a result
of handling may significantly alter test results. Hazardous materials within the sample in combination with
the flocculating agent may create unusable results. This test is not intended to replace either ASTM D 422
or D 1140.
Centrifuge Moisture
Purpose: A centrifuge moisture test is performed to estimate the air-void ratio, the water-holding
capacity, or the specific retention of a soil. Test results are used in the phase relationships of soils, which
can be used as index properties. The results are also used in estimating the amount of water that can be
removed from a soil in the laboratory or in situ, by gravity drainage.
Synopsis: Duplicate soil samples are obtained, prepared, and saturated with distilled water. They are
then placed in a centrifuge, held at a constant temperature, and accelerated to a force equal to 1,000 times
the force of gravity. The speed of the centrifuge is held constant for 1 hour; the specimens are removed
and the mass of dry soil is obtained.
Methods: ASTM D 425-79, Test Method for Centrifuge Moisture Equivalent of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: The test results are affected by temperature and by the equipment
used in the test. Results are for extremely small samples, and extrapolation to in situ soils or consideration
of scale effects must be used with proper engineering judgment.
Capillary-Moisture Relationships
Purpose: The capillary-moisture test is performed to estimate the specific retention of a soil. Specific
retention is also referred to as field capacity or water-holding capacity. The specific retention is used in
determining the specific yield of soil, which is the ratio of the drainable volume to the bulk volume of a soil
material.
Synopsis: A saturated soil sample is placed in contact with a saturated porous plate or membrane. A
pressure drop is induced across the plate or membrane. The soil samples establish equilibrium with the
plate or membrane, and water that is held at a tension less than the pressure drop will flow out of the soil
through a drain hose. When equilibrium is reached for a given tension, flow will stop and the moisture con-
tent of the sample can be determined. A series of tests is performed at varying tensions, and a curve of
moisture content versus tension is prepared.
Methods: ASTM D 2325-68 (reapproved 1981), Test Method for Capillary Moisture Relationships for
Coarse and Medium-Textured Soils by Porous-Plate Apparatus; and ASTM D 3152-72 (reapproved 1977),
Test Method for Capillary Moisture Relationship for Fine-Textured Soils by Pressure-Membrane Apparatus.
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Limitations and Precautions: Results of the test provide only an indication of the capillary-moisture
relationship of the soil tested. Extrapolation of laboratory results to field or in situ conditions must be used
with proper engineering judgment.
9.6.3.1.2 Density Tests
Undisturbed Samples
Purpose: Undisturbed unit weight or density of undisturbed samples is used to determine the phase
relationships for soils and for correlation to soil properties.
Synopsis: A sample of undisturbed soil is obtained in conformance with the appropriate sampling
standards described below. The sample is weighed and measured for length, width, and height. The den-
sity (unit weight) is calculated as the sample weight divided by sample volume. With the moisture content
of the sample, the dry unit can be calculated.
Methods: ASTM D 1587-83, Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils; and ASTM D 3550-87,
Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: The term "undisturbed" is a relative term. Disturbance may occur
during sampling, shipment, and sample preparation. This disturbance may or may not be of consequence
in determining the unit weight of the soil. Proper engineering judgment and familiarity with the type of soil
sampled will minimize the effects of sample disturbance.
Moisture-Density Relationships
Purpose: Laboratory determinations of moisture-density relationships are used in the phase relation-
ships of soils, in specifying density for other laboratory tests, and for comparing in-place field densities to
laboratory standard curves for construction of earthwork control.
Synopsis: A soil sample is obtained and divided into at least four specimens. Each specimen is
prepared by adjusting the moisture content and compacting into a volumetric mold using a specified ener-
gy. A relationship is developed between the dry unit weight and the percentage of moisture content for
each specimen. The results are generally presented in the form of a curve showing the relationship of dry
density versus moisture content.
Methods: ASTM D 698-78, Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures Using 5.5-lb Rammer and 12-in. Drop; and ASTM D 1557-78, Test Methods for Moisture-Density
Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 10-lb Rammer and 18-in. Drop.
Limitations and Precautions: The methods used to determine compaction densities are generally
applicable to fine-grained soils or to those that are not free draining. The methods have been used on free-
draining soils. However, a well-defined relationship between soil density and moisture may not exist, and
engineering judgment is required to interpret the results.
Relative Density
Purpose: The relative density expresses the degree of compactness of a soil with respect to mini-
mum and maximum index densities.
Synopsis: The minimum index density is obtained by pouring the soil as loosely as possible into a
volumetric mold. Weight and volume relationships are determined, and a minimum density is obtained.
The maximum index density is obtained by placing the soil in a volumetric mold, placing a surcharge
weight on top of the soil, and then densifying the soil by vibration using a specified amplitude and frequen-
cy.
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Methods: ASTM D 4253-83, Test Methods for Maximum Index Density of Soils Using a Vibratory
Table; and ASTM D 4254-83, Test Methods for Minimum Index Density of Soils and Calculation of Relative
Density.
Limitations and Precautions: The determination of relative density is subject to variations in the
vibration apparatus used and in the degree of care used to determine minimum density. Materials with
greater than approximately 8 per cent fines (i.e., fines are silts and clays) are generally not appropriate for
the relative density determination; other methods of determining density should be used (i.e., laboratory
moisture-density relationships).
9.6.3.1.3 Strength Tests
Unconflned Compression
Purpose:: The unconfined compressive strength provides an indication of the strength of the soil in
unsaturated, undrained conditions without lateral confinement on the sample. Unconfined compression
test results assist in evaluating the consistency of soils and can be used in stability analyses of foundations,
excavations, and embankments.
Synopsis: A cylindrical soil sample is prepared and loaded in uniaxial compression to failure. The un-
confined compressive strength is determined as the peak uniaxial stress that is twice the maximum shear
stress,
Methods: ASTM D 2166-85 (reapproved 1979), Test Methods for Unconfined Compressive Strength
of Cohesive Soil.
Limitations and Precautions: Strength estimates based on the unconfined compression test are
only approximate estimates of the in situ strength of soil because of effects of disturbance, lack of confine-
ment, and unsaturation in test samples. Strain rates, sample preparation, and sample disturbance may
alter the results of the test.
Direct Shear
Purpose: The results of the direct shear test are generally used in stability and strength analyses for
foundations, excavations, and embankments.
Synopsis: A soil sample is placed and consolidated within a direct shear box, which allows horizontal
loading and differential movement of the top half of the sample. Soil samples are sheared horizontally
under different normal loads. A plot of maximum shear stress versus normal stress is presented for each
normal load. The resulting relationship of normal stress to maximum shear stress provides the shear stress
parameters of cohesion intercept and angle of internal friction.
Methods: ASTM D 3080-72 (reapproved 1979), Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Con-
solidated Drained Conditions.
Limitations and Precautions: The test is generally performed on granular soils, but it has been used
for fine-grained soils. Because the direct shear test does not allow control or measurement of some impor-
tant factors in the test (e.g., pore pressure, actual state of stress), experienced judgment must be used in
interpreting and applying the results. Pore pressure increase or decrease during shear may occur,
depending on the rate of shear and soil type.
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Triaxial Compression
Purpose: Triaxial compression tests are used to determine the strength of soils; these tests have an
advantage in that many of the important factors that control soil strength can be simulated in the test.
These factors include preloading conditions of the soil, initial stress state in the soil, drainage conditions
during loading, and stress changes during soil loading. Triaxial test results are used for stability analyses
of foundations, excavations, and embankments.
Synopsis: A cylindrical soil specimen is prepared and installed within a rubber membrane and is
placed within the triaxial testing cell. A predetermined lateral or confining pressure is applied, and the
sample is loaded until the maximum stress constituting failure is reached. The test may be performed at a
controlled strain rate or at a controlled stress rate.
Methods: ASTM D 2850-82, Test Method for Unconsolidated, Undrained Compressive Strength of
Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compression.
Limitations and Precautions: A thorough discussion of triaxial testing is beyond the scope of this
subsection. Application of triaxial testing demands careful attention to, and clear specification of, test
methods to properly simulate desired conditions; use of "standard" methods can be made only in the most
general sense. These tests should be used only under the direct supervision of a geotechnical engineer.
Vane Shear
Purpose: The vane shear test provides a rapid estimate of the shear strength of a cohesive soil. It is
useful for approximating allowable soil pressures, safe slopes, and lateral soil pressures on buried struc-
tures. This estimate of shearing resistance may also be compared with empirical results of similar soils
with regard to strength properties.
Synopsis: The vane shear instrument consists of a bladed vane on the end of a rod. The vane is
pushed into the soil sample and rotated. The maximum torque required to turn the vane is measured and
the results can be used to compute the shearing resistance of the soil. A torvane is a small vane shear in-
strument that can be pushed into a flat surface of a soil specimen. It gives only a general indication of the
shearing resistance of cohesive soils.
Methods: ASTM D 2573-72 (reapproved), Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil.
Limitations and Precautions: The shearing resistance obtained by the torvane is only an estimate of
the actual resistance that may exist in a soil mass. Operator procedure and instrument condition may
greatly affect the results of the test. The pocket torvane is useful only as a rough indicator of soil consisten-
cy. This test is applicable only to fine-grained soils.
Moisture-Penetration Resistance
Purpose: Moisture-penetration tests are used to develop a correlation between penetration of a
standard-size penetrometer needle and the density at a specific moisture content of a soil. The results of
the test allow rapid collection of estimates of densities and moisture content for various soils used in
earthworks.
Synopsis: The resistance of the soil to penetration is determined on each soil sample by penetration
of the sample with a soil penetrometer, which consists of a spring-loaded tube with a graduated pressure
scale and a needle of known length and end area. The penetration-pressure reading is divided by the area
of the needle and presents values of force per unit area. The results are presented as plot of the penetra-
tion resistance values versus moisture content of the samples.
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Methods: ASTM D 1558-84, Test Method for Moisture Content Penetration Resistance Relations of
Fine-Grained Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: Penetration resistance of granular or extremely dry soils is difficult; the
results obtained, if any, may not be applicable.
Bearing Ratio
Purpose: This test determines the bearing ratio of a compacted soil by comparison of the penetration
toad of the compacted soil with that of a standard crushed gravel material. The results of the test are used
with empirical relationships in evaluating the relative strength of near surface soils to be used as roadways.
Synopsis: A sample is divided into at least four equal portions, the moisture content is adjusted, and
the sample is compacted in accordance with ASTM D 698 or D 1557. The sample is surcharged with a
predetermined weight, and a penetration piston is seated on the sample. A load is applied to the sample
through the penetration piston at a specified strain rate. Load versus penetration is recorded during the
test. A load-versus-penetration curve is prepared. The bearing ratios are then calculated by dividing the
loads from the test by standard loads of 1,000 psi and 1,500 psi. The bearing ratio reported for the soil is
normally based on 0.1 inch of penetration.
Methods: ASTM D 1883-73 (reapproved 1978), Test Method for Bearing Ratio of Laboratory-Com-
pacted Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: The test is an empirical relationship that compares the penetration of
remolded compacted soils to the penetration of uniformly crushed gravel material. Proper engineering
judgment must be used in applying the results of this test.
9.6.3.1.4 Deformation Tests
One-Dimensional Consolidation
Purpose: The one-dimensional consolidation test results are used to predict the amount and rate of
settlement (or consolidation) of a soil mass subjected to sustained loads.
Synopsis: A soil sample is trimmed and placed in a consolidation ring that restrains it laterally.
Porous stones are placed on the top and the bottom of the sample to allow drainage of pore water. The
sample is then loaded, and the change in the sample height is recorded with time. Loads are applied in in-
crements, and the test is repeated. The time-rate deformation of the sample is presented as plots of log of
time or square root of time versus deformation. Plots of void ratio (or percent compression) versus log of
pressure curve are prepared for use in assessing total settlement.
Methods: ASTM D 2435-80, Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: Sample disturbance, scale differences between a laboratory sample
and actual conditions, and interpretation of primary and secondary compression are areas requiring en-
gineering judgment in application of the test results.
Swell Test
Purpose: The swell test is used to determine the percentage of volume change or the maximum
swelling pressure of a soil as a result of changes in moisture content. The test results are used to deter-
mine the suitability of a soil for use in earthworks and to minimize the impact of swelling soils on engineer-
ing projects.
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Synopsis: A sample is prepared and placed in a consolidation ring that provides lateral restraint. The
sample is subjected to a small vertical pressure, and water is introduced to the sample; the vertical expan-
sion with time or the force required to prevent expansion is then recorded. A percentage of volume change
or swell pressure is presented as the results of the test.
Methods: ASTM D 4546-85, Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Settlement Potential of
Cohesive Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: The results of the test will yield information on soils under extreme
conditions. Changes in moisture content, soil structure during sampling, sample handling, and preparation
will lead to results that are only rough approximations. Proper engineering judgment must be used in ap-
plying the test results to actual problems.
9.6.3.1.5 Permeability Tests
Undisturbed Samples (Cohesive)
Purpose: Permeability tests are performed to estimate the ability of a soil to transmit water under
saturated conditions. Results of the permeability test are used to estimate the quantity and flowrate of
water through the soil.
Synopsis: The sample is trimmed, measured, weighed, placed in the triaxial cell, and back-pressure
saturated. The sample can be consolidated to approximate anticipated field conditions. Flow across the
sample is induced by application of differential pressure across the sample and is measured until flow
reaches steady-state conditions.
Methods: No standard method exists at this time for performing the test. Information concerning the
generally accepted test methods is found in the references.
Limitations and Precautions: Test methods, temperature, sample disturbance variability, and
sample preparation may affect the test results.
Recompacted Samples (Cohesionless and Cohesive)
Purpose: This permeability test is performed to estimate the permeability of a compacted soil. Per-
meability is a measure of the ease with which water can move through a compacted soil. Results of the
permeability test are used to estimate the quantity and flowrate of water through embankments and liners.
Synopsis: Laboratory determination of permeability (also termed hydraulic conductivity) can be per-
formed as falling-head or constant-head tests. Permeameters that apply a constant head to the sample are
generally used to test noncohesive or granular soils. Permeameters that apply a falling or varying head are
generally used to test cohesive or fine-grained soils. Samples to be tested are prepared and generally
compacted to approximate field densities in the proper type of permeameter. The flow through the sample
is initiated. For the constant-head permeameters, the quantity of flow through the sample versus time is
recorded. For the falling-head permeameter, the change in head or pressure across the sample and the
change in volume with respect to time are recorded. Hydraulic conductivity is calculated by applying data
obtained during the test to Darcy's equation.
Methods: ASTM D 2434-68 (reapproved 1974), Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Con-
stant Head). No standard currently exists for performing the falling-head test. Generally accepted test
methods are given in the references.
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Limitations and Precautions: Laboratory samples are extremely small when compared to condi-
tions. Disturbance of samples occurs, methods of testing are not universally standardized, and extrapola-
tion to field conditions may be approximate at best. Determinations of the coefficient of permeability are
generally considered to be accurate only within an order of magnitude. Therefore, the quantities and the
rates of flow must also be considered accurate within an order of magnitude. These factors dictate the use
of proper engineering judgment in applying the results of a permeability test.
9.6.3.2 Rock
9.6.3.2.1 Apparent Specific Gravity
Purpose: The apparent specific gravity of rock is determined to obtain the rock unit weight (bulk den-
sity), from which vertical and horizontal loads on subsurface installations can be estimated.
Synopsis: Specimens of regular shape (cylinders or blocks) can be weighed, and the volume can be
determined by measurement. The apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the specimen to the
weight of a volume of water having the same volume as the specimen. For irregularly shaped specimens,
each may be weighed in air and again while suspended and submersed in water. A formula can be used to
determine the apparent specific gravity.
Methods: ASTM C 127-83, Standard Test Methods for Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity of Natural
Building Stones.
Limitations and Precautions: Depending on the character of the rock in its natural deposits, the
overall bulk density of the deposits may be less than that estimated on the basis of the specific gravity of
the sample. This difference is because joints and cavities and other discontinuities reduce the overall den-
sity of the natural deposits.
9.6.3.2.2 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Purpose: The uniaxial compressive strength of the rock can be used as an indicator of rock quality
and can be used in forming judgments about the allowable bearing pressure for foundations.
Synopsis: A prismatic or cylindrical sample of rock is loaded to failure in a compression-testing
machine. A record of stress versus strain is made to enable determination of the elastic modulus of the
rock.
Methods: ASTM C 170-85, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Natural Building Stone.
Limitations and Precautions: The number of factors that can affect the test results significantly in-
cludes flatness of the bearing surfaces, specimen size and shape, moisture content in the specimen, effect
of friction between the bearing platens and the specimens, alignment of the swivel head, and rate of load-
ing. A standardized procedure to account for most of these factors has been proposed by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines. The most significant limitation of the uniaxial compressive strength test is that the strength of an
individual specimen of rock in a laboratory will probably not be representative of the strength of a large
mass of rock in the field. An exception may be a massive unjointed, unweathered rock deposit. Any dis-
continuities found in the rock mass (such as fractures, joints, and cavities) will lower the compressive
strength of the rock mass.
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9.6.3.2.3 Direct Tensile Strength
Purpose: The direct tensile strength of rock is useful in calculating rock stability and strength in situa-
tions where the rock is stressed in tension.
Synopsis: A regularly shaped specimen of rock (usually cyclindrical) is cemented to grips or loading
heads that can be used to pull on the specimen without inducing undue local stress concentrations that
would cause premature failure of the specimen. The specimen is then lowered in tension in a testing
machine. A record of stress versus strain can be made to compute the elastic modulus in tension.
Methods: ASTM D 2936-84, Test Method for Direct Tensile Strength of Intact Rock Core Specimens.
Limitations and Precautions: The applied tensile load must be uniformly distributed over the end of
the specimen. The load must be parallel to the specimen's central axis. The grips used for holding the
specimen must not produce significant lateral stresses in the specimen. The end of the specimen must be
perpendicular to the specimen's central axis within a very small tolerance. As with other tests on rock
specimens, the laboratory properties of an individual specimen may not be representative of the properties
of a rock mass. The behavior of a rock mass is primarily controlled by its imperfections, such as joints,
bedding planes, fractures, and cavities, rather than by the mechanical properties of the individual particles
of rock in the mass.
9.6.3.2.4 Splitting Tensile Strength
Purpose: The direct tensile strength of rock is useful primarily in calculating the permissible span of
roofs above openings in rock. It may also be useful in calculating allowable slopes for excavations in rock.
Synopsis: A cylindrical test specimen of the rock is placed in a testing machine so that a load is ap-
plied to the sides of the cylinder along two lines 180 degrees apart. The specimen is then loaded to failure.
Loading in this manner generally results in a fracture that develops on a plane through the central axis of
the specimen and extends from one loading platen to the other.
Methods: ASTM D 3967-81, Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Intact Rock Core
Specimens.
Limitations and Precautions: Care must be taken to prevent local stress concentrations at the load-
ing heads. The tensile strength that is determined from a splitting tensile test will generally be greater than
that determined from a direct tensile test. This result occurs because the splitting tensile test forces the
plane of failure to be near the center of the specimen, whereas in the direct tensile test there is a greater
opportunity for the specimen to fail at the weakest plane in the specimen.
9.6.3.2.5 Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
Purpose: The flexural strength or modulus-of-rupture test provides a measure of the tensile strength
of the material when loaded as a beam. This result can be used in the stability analysis of conditions in-
volving rock flexural stresses.
Synopsis: A small rectangular specimen is supported on either end on knife edges and is then
loaded at midpoint on the opposite side of the specimen until the specimen fails.
Methods: ASTM C 99-85, Test Method for Modulus of Rupture of Natural Building Stone.
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Limitations and Precautions: A number of specimens should be tested, since this test will produce
variable results even with careful specimen preparation. Tests should be made both parallel to and perpen-
dicular to any naturally occurring planes of weakness in the rock. The tensile strength determined by the
flexural test will generally be higher than that determined by the direct tensile test. The properties of the
rock mass will probably be less than those computed based on individual laboratory specimens because of
defects in the rock mass such as joints, bedding planes, fractures, and cavities.
9.6.3.2.6 Soundness
Purpose: This test furnishes information that aids in judging the resistance of rock to weathering,
especially as a result of freezing and thawing.
Synopsis: Rock specimens are repeatedly submerged in saturated solutions of sodium or mag-
nesium sulfate and are oven dried to partially or completely dehydrate the salt-precipitated impermeable
pore spaces. When the specimen is reimmersed, the rehydration of the salts creates an internal expansive
force that simulates the expansion of water when freezing.
Methods: ASTM C 88-83, Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
Magnesium Sulfate.
Limitations and Precautions: This test is intended to give only a preliminary indication of the prob-
able weathering resistance of the rock material. A better method for judging the weathering durability of
rock material is to observe specimens that are the same material and that have been in service for a num-
ber of years.
9.6.3.3 Materials
9.6.3.3.1 Concrete
Compressive Strength
Purpose: The test determines the compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens, such as
molded cylinders or drilled cores, for conformance to specifications of concrete primarily under compres-
sive loadings.
Synopsis: The test method consists of applying a compressive axial load to cylindrical concrete
specimens at a rate within a prescribed range until failure occurs. The compressive strength of the
specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load attained during the test by the cross-sectional area
of the specimen.
Methods: Refer to ASTM C 39-83b, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens.
Limitations and Precautions: Special sample handling and curing procedures must be followed.
Testing equipment must be in current calibration to a standard load. The test result relates more to the
conformance of the concrete batch to the mix design specified than to the actual strength of concrete in
place.
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Entrained Air
Entrained air in concrete improves resistance to freezing and thawing damage in hardened concrete.
Purpose: The test determines the air content of freshly mixed concrete for conformance to specifica-
tions.
Synopsis: Freshly mixed concrete Is placed in a measuring bowl. A cover assembly containing an air
pump, gauge, and valves is sealed to the bowl. The operation employs the principle of Boyle's law to ob-
serve the change In volume of the concrete with a change in pressure.
Methods: ASTM C 231 -82, Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure
Method; and ASTM C 173-78, Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method.
Limitations and Precautions: Calibration of equipment is essential to achieve accurate test results.
Start tests within 5 minutes after obtaining the final portion of the composite sample.
Flexural Strength
Concrete specimens are subjected to flexural or tension loadings. The test yields the flexural strength
of the concrete.
Purpose: The flexural strength of concrete is determined by the use of a simple beam specimen of
concrete with third-point loading.
Synopsis: A rectangular prism of hardened concrete is supported by two load-applying blocks near
each end. Two load-applying blocks are located on top of the specimen at third-points. A controlled rate
load is applied until failure. The modulus of rupture is calculated for the specimen.
Methods: ASTM C 78-84, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with
Third-Point Loading); and ASTM C 293-79, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple
Beam with Center-Point Loading) (not an alternative to C 78-84).
Limitations and Precautions: Special handling and curing procedures must be followed. Testing
equipment must be in current calibration to a standard load.
Specific Gravity and Absorption
Purpose: This test determines the specific gravity, absorption, and voids in hardened concrete. It is
useful in developing data required for mass/ volume conversions for concrete, allowing conformance to
specifications, and showing variability from place to place within a mass of concrete.
Synopsis: An oven-dried specimen of concrete is weighed in air, submerged for a period of time,
weighed under saturated surface dry conditions, and then boiled for 5 hours. After cooling and reweighing
surface dry, the specimen is immersed and weighed in water. The values of specific gravity, absorption,
and voids are calculated from the measurements taken.
Methods: ASTM C 642-82, Test Method for Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Con-
crete.
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Limitations and Precautions: Specimens may be pieces of cylinders, cores, or beams; specimens
must be free from observable cracks, fissures, or shattered edges.
Splitting Tensile Strength
Purpose: When tensile strength values are not available from concrete beam specimens or are re-
quired from existing structures, compressive strength cylinders or drilled cores may be used. This test
method covers the determination of the splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete specimens, such as
molded cylinders or drilled cores.
Synopsis: The cylindrical specimen is positioned horizontally with a bearing plate or bar that extends
the full length of the specimen and that is diametrically opposed on the top and bottom. A constant rate of
load is applied until failure of the specimen. The splitting tensile strength is calculated from the maximum
applied load and specimen dimensions.
Methods: ASTM C 496-85, Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens.
Limitations and Precautions: Special handling and curing procedures must be followed. Testing
equipment must be in current calibration to a standard load. Special alignment jigs, bearing strips, and
loading apparatus are required.
9.6.3.3.2 Soil-Cement
Purpose: Proportions of soil-cement mixtures are determined by trial batch mix designs. Strength
and resistance to degradation of the mixture are evaluated by compressive strength, flexural strength,
moisture-density relationship, freezing and thawing, and wetting and drying tests. Soil-cement stabilization
may also be considered for solidification of some hazardous wastes.
Synopsis: Various amounts of cement are added to soil. The mixture is moistened to optimum water
content and is compacted into specimens. The specimens are cured and removed from the molds for fur-
ther curing and testing. Samples are tested at various intervals to determine compressive strength
development. Other specimens are run through repetitive cycles of freezing, thawing, wetting, and drying
to identify the most appropriate proportions for the soil-cement mixture.
Methods: ASTM D 2901-82, Test Method for Cement Content of Freshly Mixed Soil-Cement; ASTM D
806-74 (reapproved 1979), Test Method for Cement Content of Soil-Cement Mixtures; ASTM D 1632-63,
(reapproved 1979), Method for Making and Curing Soil-Cement Compression and Flexural Test Specimens
in the Laboratory; ASTM D 1633-84, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Molded Soil-Cement
Cylinders; ASTM D 1634-63 (reapproved 1979), Test Method for Compressive Strength of Soil-Cement
Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexural (Modified Cube Method); ASTM D 1635-63 (reapproved 1979),
Test Method for Flexural Strength ot Soil-Cement Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading; ASTM D
558-82, Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement Mixtures; ASTM D 559-82, Methods for
Wetting-and-Drying Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures; and ASTM D 560-82, Methods for Freezing-
and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures.
Limitations and Precautions: Not all soils are appropriate for soil-cement treatment, especially fine-
grained or clayed soils. Special equipment and space are required.
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9.6.3.3.3 Portland Cement, Blended Hydraulic Cement
Purpose: Several types of Portland cement are used to achieve specific properties when making con-
crete. Blended hydraulic cements are also available in several types to provide specific properties. It is
beyond the scope of these procedures to present the physical property tests used to evaluate Portland ce-
ment and blended hydraulic cement. The reader should refer to the methods listed below.
Methods: ASTM C 150-85a, Specifications for Portland Cement; and ASTM C 595-86, Specification
for Blended Hydraulic Cements.
9.6.3.3.4 Asphalt Cement
Purpose: Several grades of asphalt cement are available for paving and using hydraulic mixtures with
aggregates. It is beyond the scope of these procedures to present the physical property tests used to
evaluate asphalt cements. The reader should refer to the methods listed in ASTM Volumes 04.03, 04.04,
and 04.08.
9.6.3.3.5 Asphalt-Stabilized Soils
Purpose: Emulsified or cutback asphalt may be blended with soil to increase strength and reduce
permeability to water. Asphalt stabilized soils may also be considered for solidification of some hazardous
waste materials.
Synopsis: Specimens of soil-asphalt mixtures are prepared and tested for strength, specific gravity,
permeability, and stability to determine the most appropriate proportions of the soil-asphalt mixture.
Methods: ASTM D 4223-83, Practice for Preparation of Test Specimens of Asphalt-Stabilized Soils.
Limitations and Precautions: Special equipment and space are required. Special handling of as-
phalt materials and associated solvents is necessary.
9.6.3.3.6 Geotextiles
Fabric Weight
Purpose: The fabric weight is directly related to the fabric tensile strength and, therefore, provides an
index of strength.
Synopsis: The fabric weight test is conducted by cutting a sample of fabric and measuring its dimen-
sions and weight. The fabric weight is calculated as the total weight of the sample divided by its area.
Methods: ASTM D 3773-84, Test Method for Length of Woven Fabric, 07.01; ASTM D 3774-84, Test
Method for Width of Woven Fabric, 07.01; ASTM D 3775-85, Test Method for Fabric Count of Woven Fabric,
07.01; and ASTM D 3776-85, Test Methods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of Woven Fabric, 07.01.
Limitations and Precautions: Potential error is reduced by using as large a sample as possible.
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Fabric Thickness
Purpose: The thickness of a geotextile is an index to its ability to absorb impacts and transport water
(for constant density).
Synopsis: A sample of fabric is placed on an anvil, and gradual pressure is applied by means of a
fixed-weighted, mechanical foot. The thickness (distance between the anvil and foot) is measured.
Methods: ASTM D 1777-64 (reapproved 1975), Method for Measuring Thickness of Textile Materials,
07.01.
Limitations and Precautions: Different methods of finishing geotextiles (e.g., spun-bonding, needle
punching, heat bonding) may alter the deformation properties of the material, thus affecting the thickness
measurement.
Grab Tensile Strength and Elongation
Purpose: The grab tensile test is the most commonly used strength and elongation index for woven
fabrics. The test provides a good indication of strength and deformation during installation.
Synopsis: The grab tensile test involves using a specified size sample of fabric loaded in tension be-
tween two clamps. The clamps are moved apart at a constant rate until failure of the fabric is achieved.
The load at failure is the ultimate grab tensile strength; the deformation at failure is the elongation.
Methods: ASTM D 1682-64 (1975), Test Methods for Breaking Load and Elongation of Textile Fabrics,
07.01.
Limitations and Precautions: Because fabrics are often subjected to multidirectional stresses in ac-
tual use, this method may not provide a good indication of the strength or deformations after placement.
Creep
Purpose: Creep tests of fabrics are used to assess potential loss of a reinforcing capability because
of time-dependent fabric deformation.
Synopsis: Creep tests are conducted by hanging a constant weight on a strip of fabric and measur-
ing the deformation (elongation) of the fabric over a period of time.
Methods: Standard methods are not currently available. Creep tests must be carefully designed on a
case-by-case basis considering the specific loading conditions anticipated. Proprietary methods
developed by manufacturers are available.
Limitations and Precautions: Creep tests that apply loads and measure deformation in only one
direction have limited application to actual field conditions.
Abrasion Resistance
Purpose: Abrasion tests are used to assess the resistance of a fabric to wear by friction. Abrasion
may be a concern in applications where relative movement occurs frequently (perhaps cyclically) between
the fabric and adjacent soils or materials (e.g., under riprap at shoreline or under heavily loaded road or rail
beds).
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Synopsis: Not applicable.
Methods: No standards are currently available. The reader should refer to manufacturers for informa-
tion and methods.
Limitations and Precautions: Current test methods may not be relevant to most hazardous waste
applications.
Puncture Resistance
Purpose: The puncture resistance is important in assessing the ability of a fabric to resist abuse
during installation (e.g., compaction of gravels on top of or around a fabric).
Synopsis: A sample of fabric is placed in a ring clamp, and the fabric is penetrated by a hemispheri-
cally tipped steel cylinder advanced at a specified rate. The load required to penetrate the fabric is the
puncture strength.
Methods: ASTM D 751 -79, Method of Testing Coated Fabrics, 09.02.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the standard method.
Mullen Burst Strength
Purpose: The Mullen Burst Test is used to assess fabric strength when fabric is subjected to multi-
dimensional loads that may be more representative of actual field loads after placement.
Synopsis: A sample of fabric is placed in a circular clamp and loaded hydrostatically at a constant
rate through an inflatable membrane. The pressure required to rupture the fabric is the burst point.
Methods: ASTM D 3786-80a, Test Method for Hydraulic Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods and Non-
woven Fabrics: Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method, 07.01.
Limitations and Precautions: The test results must be carefully interpreted because of the small
sample size and potential edge effects of the clamp.
Trapezoid Tearing Strength
Purpose: The trapezoid tearing strength test is useful in assessing the tendency of a fabric to con-
tinue to tear when tearing is initiated.
Synopsis: A sample of the fabric is marked with an outline of a trapezoid, and the nonparallel sides
are clamped in parallel jaws of the testing machine. The jaws are separated at a constant rate, and a con-
tinuously increasing load is applied to continue tearing the sample. The load versus deformation curve is
recorded, and the maximum (peak) load determined is the tearing strength.
Methods: ASTM D 1117-80, Methods of Testing Nonwoven Fabrics, 07.01.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the standard method.
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Equivalent Opening Size (EOS)
Purpose: The equivalent opening size test compares opening size in fabrics to U.S. standard sieve
sizes to help evaluate the performance of filter fabric.
Synopsis: A sample of filter fabric is attached to a U.S. standard sieve with openings larger than the
largest beads to be used. The beads are placed in the sieve and shaken for a fixed period. The size of
beads, of which 5 percent or less (by weight) pass through the fabric, is determined by sieving. The EOS
of the fabric is the U.S. standard sieve number which retains this fraction of the glass beads.
Methods: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Guidelines.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the standard method.
Planar Flow
Purpose: Planar flow test results are used to help evaluate the capacity of a fabric to transmit fluid in
the plane of the fabric.
Synopsis: Circular fabric samples are placed between flat plates and compressed at a set pressure.
Fluid flow is induced under constant hydraulic head from the middle of the sample to the edges. The trans-
missibility is used as a measure of flow capacity because it includes both permeability and thickness.
Methods: No standard methods are available.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the manufacturer.
Normal Permeability
Purpose: Normal permeability test results are used to evaluate the capacity of a fabric to transmit
fluid perpendicular to the plane of the fabric. The test helps evaluate infiltration and evaporation rates
across fabrics and is important in evaluating fabrics for drainage applications.
Synopsis: Normal permeability tests can be conducted by clamping a sample of fabric across the
base of cylinder, filling the cylinder with fluid, and measuring the rate of fluid flow through the sample as in
a falling-head test.
Methods: No standard methods are available.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the manufacturer.
Coefficient of Friction (Soil to Fabric)
Purpose: Determining the coefficient of friction between a fabric and soil is essential in evaluating the
ability of the fabric to provide lateral reinforcement of the soil. The coefficient of friction provides a measure
of the ability to transfer stresses to the fabric, which may affect the thickness of cover required to prevent
shifting of the fabric.
Synopsis: Samples of fabric are placed on a horizontal surface, and a sample of soil is placed at one
end. The end is raised and the angle of the incline at which the soil starts to slide is measured. The coeffi-
cient of friction is the trigonometric tangent of the angle of inclination at incipient sliding.
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Methods: No standard methods are available.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the manufacturer.
Coefficient of Friction (Fabric to Fabric)
Purpose: The coefficient of friction between two fabrics is essential for evaluating the required overlap
needed to keep fabrics in place (unbonded seams) and to evaluate the ability of layered fabric systems to
transmit lateral stresses or to resist sliding.
Synopsis: Samples of fabric are overlapped and clamped together at fixed pressures. The fabrics
are pulled at a constant rate to cause differential movement between the fabric samples, and the force is
measured. The first peak load corresponds to the static friction load.
Methods: No standard methods are available.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the manufacturer.
Alkali or Acid Stability
Purpose: Alkali or acid stability tests are used to assess potential fabric deterioration caused by ex-
posure to or contact with acidic or basic solutions. Potential deterioration may affect the performance and
effective service life of fabrics in drains, liners, and covers.
Synopsis: Fabric samples are attached to frames and placed in alkali or acid baths at constant pH.
Samples are periodically removed from the baths, dried, and tested (e.g., grab tensile test). The changes
in tensile strength with prolonged bath exposure provide information on the rates of deterioration.
Methods: No standards currently exist.
Limitations and Precautions: Within practical limits, the duration of bath exposure may not be repre-
sentative of field conditions. Extrapolations to estimate actual field service life may be questionable.
Thermal Shrinkage
Purpose: The results of thermal shrinkage tests can be used to evaluate potential deformations of
fabric in hot environment applications (e.g., contact with hot asphalts or exothermic chemical reactions).
Synopsis: Samples of fabric are placed in ovens at various temperatures and are periodically
measured for unrestrained deformation.
Methods: The reader should see ASTM methods for width and length measurements that are listed
earlier in this compendium under "Fabric Weight."
Limitations and Precautions: Because measurements are made on unrestrained fabric samples, the
test may not be representative of field conditions. Since thermally induced stresses are not measured, the
results cannot be used to assess these potential effects.
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Ultraviolet Stability
Purpose: The results of ultraviolet stability tests allow assessment of potential deterioration of fabrics
that are subjected to sunlight. These assessments can be used to evaluate changes in effectiveness and to
predict the service life of the fabrics.
Synopsis: Fabric samples are exposed to ultraviolet light (either artificial or natural sunlight) and are
periodically tested (e.g., grab tensile test). The changes in tensile strength indicate the rate of fabric
deterioration.
Methods: The reader should see the ASTM method listed earlier in this compendium under "Grab
Tensile Strength and Elongation Tests" in this subsection.
Limitations and Precautions: Practical limits on the duration of testing may not represent actual field
conditions. Extrapolations of test results to assess long-term effects may be questionable.
9.6.3.3.7 Geomembranes
Polymeric flexible membranes are available supported (reinforced) or unsupported (nonreinforced).
The general types of materials used are elastomeric (rubber), thermoplastic, semicrystalline, or alloys of the
various polymers. The physical test specifications to be used depend on the polymer and whether it is
supported or not. Many of the test specifications used by manufacturers and listed In National Sanitation
Foundation Standard 54 were developed for other purposes and are being used since specifications for
specific geomembrane materials and properties are unavailable at this time.
Thickness
Purpose: The thickness of a geomembrane is proportional to the strength and elongation properties.
Synopsis: Three methods for measurement of thickness are presented below. The method selected
will depend on the specification for the particular geomembrane.
Methods: ASTM D 1593-8, Specification for Nonrigid Vinyl Chloride Plastic Sheeting; ASTM D 751-79,
Method of Testing Coasted Fabrics; and ASTM D 412-83, Test Methods for Rubber Properties in Tension.
Limitations and Precautions: A special apparatus is required to make measurements.
Specific Gravity
Purpose: The specific gravity measurement of a geomembrane is useful in determining the unit
weight of materials.
Synopsis: The test method covers the determination of specific gravity and density of solid plastics
by displacement of liquid and the determination of change in weight.
Methods: ASTM D 792-66, Test Methods for Specific Gravity and Density of Plastics by Displacement.
Limitations and Precautions: Special equipment may be required.
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Tensile Strength
Purpose: The tensile strength of a geomembrane is an important design parameter related to the
ability to withstand the movement of the geomembrane into place, to support itself on slopes, and to
withstand operational stress.
Synopsis: There are four methods for determining the tensile strength of geomembranes. The ap-
propriate method will depend on the type of polymeric geomembrane being tested.
Methods: ASTM D 882-83, Test Methods for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting; ASTM D 751 -
79, Method for Testing Coated Fabric; ASTM D 412-83, Test Method for Rubber Properties in Tension; and
ASTM D 638-84, Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to test methods listed above.
Elongation
Purpose: The elongation of a geomembrane is an extension produced by tensile stress. Elongation
provides some measure of the material's ability to accommodate minor deformation.
Synopsis: There are four methods for determining the elongation of geomembranes. The measure-
ment is usually an adjunct to the tensile strength test. The appropriate method will depend on the
polymeric geomembrane being tested.
Methods: The reader should see the methods that are listed earlier in this compendium under "Ten-
sile Strength."
Limitations and Precautions: Refer to the test methods listed above.
Tear Resistance
Purpose: The tear resistance is a measure of the strength of the geomembrane at a point of stress.
The tear resistance of a geomembrane is the stress required to propagate a cut or slit at the edge of a
membrane specimen under strain.
Synopsis: There are three methods for determining the tear resistance of geomembranes. The ap-
propriate method will depend on the polymeric geomembrane being tested.
Methods; ASTM D 1004-66(1981), Test Method for Initial Tear Resistance of Plastic Film and Sheet-
ing; ASTM D 51-79, Method of Testing Coated Fabrics; and ASTM D 624-86, Test Method for Rubber
Property.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the test methods listed above.
Dimensional Stability
Purpose: The measurement of linear dimensional changes of geomembranes at elevated tempera-
ture suggests the behavior of the materials in the field when exposed to solar heating during placement.
Synopsis: The reader should refer to National Sanitation Foundation Standard 54 for Flexible
Membrane Liners, 1983, for details of the test. This method is proposed for all geomembranes listed in
Standard 54.
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Methods: ASTM D 1204-84, Test Method for Linear Dimensional Changes of Nonrigid Thermoplastic
Sheeting or Film at Elevated Temperature.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to the test method listed above.
Bonded Seam Strength
Purpose: The seam strength is the single most important concern for lining integrity, and it applies to
both factory-made and field-made seams.
Synopsis: A tensile strength test is performed on a specimen prepared to have a seam under shear-
ing stress. The specimen is tested to failure to determine the maximum stress. The specimen is examined
to determine if the failure was within the seam or in the parent material.
Methods: ASTM D 3083-76(1980), Specification for Flexible Poly (Vinyl Chloride) Plastic Sheeting for
Pond, Canal, and Reservoir Lining; and ASTM D 751-79, Testing Coated Fabrics.
Limitations and Precautions: Specimens require special handling and curing before testing. The
testing machine must be currently calibrated to a standard. A special testing apparatus is required.
Peel Adhesion
Purpose: The tensile strength of geomembrane seams by 180 degree peel is the definitive test of the
bond strength.
Synopsis: The tensile stress is applied to material on adjacent sides of the seam to create a 180 de-
gree strain on the bonded seam. The sample is tested to failure, and the failure location is noted as being
in the seam or in the parent material.
Methods: ASTM D 413-82, Test Methods for Rubber Property-Adhesion to Flexible Substrate.
Limitations and Precautions: Specimens require special handling and curing prior to testing. The
testing machine must be currently calibrated to a standard. A special testing apparatus is required.
9.6.4 Chemical Properties of Soil and Rock
9.6.4.1 Waste Evaluation Procedures
Section 262.11 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations requires that a
generator of a "solid waste"-i.e., any garbage, refuse, sludge, or other waste that is not excluded under
Section 261.4(a) - must do the following:
1. Determine if the waste is excluded.
2. If the waste is not excluded, determine whether the waste is listed as a hazardous
waste.
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3. If the waste is not excluded and not listed, then evaluate the waste in terms of the
four hazardous characteristics -ignitability, corrosh/ity, reactivity, and extraction pro-
cedure toxicity—unless the generator can properly evaluate the waste based upon
previous experiencd (e.g., corrosivity testing may not be required if the generator has
a long history of running the waste through steel pipes without any evidence of cor-
rosion).
9.6.4.1.1 Ignitability (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose: The ignitability test identifies wastes that either present fire hazards under routine storage,
disposal, and transportation, or are capable of severely exacerbating a fire once it has started.
Synopsis: The following two methods are approved by the EPA:
1. The Pensky-Martens closed-cup method uses the closed-cup tester to determine the flash
point of fuel oils, lubrication oils, suspension solids, liquids that tend to form a surface film
under test conditions, and other liquids.
The sample is heated at a slow, constant rate and is continually stirred. A small flame is
directed into the cup at regular intervals while simultaneously interrupting the stirring. The
flash point is the lowest temperature at which application of the test flame ignited the vapor
above the sample.
2. The Setaflash closed-cup method uses the Setaflash Closed Tester to determine the flash
point of paints, enamels, lacquers, varnishes, and related products and their components that
have flash points between 0°C and 110°C (32°F and 230°F) and viscosity lower than 150 stokes
at 25°C. Tests at higher or lower temperatures are possible.
The procedures may be used to determine whether a material will or will not flash at a specified
temperature, or to determine the finite temperature at which a material will flash.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Methods 1010 and 1020.
Limitations and Precautions: Ambient pressure, sample homogeneity, drafts, and operator bias can
affect flash point values. Quality control data as specified under Method 1010 and Method 1020 should be
available for review.
9.6.4.1.2 Corrosivity (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose: The corrosivity test identifies wastes that might pose a hazard to human health or the en-
vironment because of their ability to do the following:
• Mobilize toxic metals if discharged into a landfill environment
• Corrode handling, storage, transportation, and management equipment
• Destroy human or animal tissue in the event of inadvertent contact
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To identify such potentially hazardous materials, EPA has selected two properties on which to base the
definition of a corrosive waste. These properties are pH and corrosivity toward SAE Type 1020 steel. The
procedures for pH are described in this Subsection 9.6.4.2.5. Corrosivity toward steel is used for both
aqueous and nonaqueous liquid wastes. This test exposes coupons of SAE Type 1020 steel to the liquid
waste to be evaluated and, by measuring the degree to which the coupon has dissolved, determines the
corrosivity of the waste.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 1110. Corrosivity of Steel.
Limitations and Precautions: In laboratory tests, such as Method 1110, corrosion of duplicate
coupons is usually reproducible to within 10 percent. However, large differences in corrosion rates may
occasionally occur under conditions in which the metal surfaces have become passivated. Therefore, at
least duplicate determinations of the corrosion rate should be made. Exact requirements are to be in-
cluded in the QA plan and specified in the laboratory.
9.6.4.1.3 Reactivity (RCRA Requirement)
Purpose: The reactivity test identifies wastes that, because of their extreme instability and their ten-
dency to react violently or explode, pose a problem at all stages of the waste management process.
Synopsis: The EPA gives a descriptive definition of reactivity, because the available tests for measur-
ing the variegated class of effects embraced by the reactivity definition suffer from a number of deficien-
cies.
Methods: See regulatory definition in EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Section
2.1.3-Reactivity.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should refer to Subsection 2.1.3 in EPA SW-846.
9.6.4.1.4 Extraction Procedure (EP) Toxicity Test Method and Structural Integrity Test
Purpose: This test is used to simulate the leaching a waste may undergo if it is disposed of in a
landfill. The test is applicable to liquid, solid, and multiphaslc samples.
Synopsis: If a representative sample of waste contains more than 0.5 percent solids, the solid phase
of the sample is extracted with deionized water that is maintained at a pH of 5 ± 0.2 using acetic acid. The
extract is analyzed for the specified priority pollutants (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag, endrin, lindane,
methoxychlor, toxaphene, 2,4 D, 2,4,5-TP Silvex]) by the appropriate tests as described under organic and
inorganic priority pollutant analyses. Wastes that contain less than 0.5 percent are not subjected to extrac-
tion, but they are directly analyzed and evaluated in a manner identical to that for extracts.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 1310.
Limitations and Precautions: Potential interferences that may be encountered during analyses per-
tain to the individual analytical methods.
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9.6.4.1.5 Mobility
Purpose: This test is used to determine the mobility of various components in a waste to evaluate
contaminant transport.
Synopsis: A multiple extraction procedure currently is being developed by the EPA. (Method 1410)
Although these procedures are used to evaluate a waste, they are not to be confused with a hazardous
characteristic as defined by the RCRA regulations.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 1410.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the test method.
9.6.4.1.6 Acid-Base Potential (Potential Acidity With Peroxide, Neutralization Potential, Mine Spoil
Potentials)
Purpose: Within impounded mine tailings, the potential for in situ acid formation may exist whenever
pyritic sulfide is present in the waste material. If acid were to be formed by the oxidation of pyritic sulfur,
the acid theoretically could dissolve and mobilize transition metals. The possibility that acid formation will
occur is evaluated by measuring the acid-base potential.
Synopsis: Determination of the acid-base potential is the result of two independent analyses: one is
an acidometric measure of the base equivalent (as calcium carbonate) of the tailings solids, and the other
is a measure of the hydrogen peroxide-oxidizable sulfur that could produce sulfuric acid. The acid-base
potential is the base content minus the acid content.
Methods: Report No. EPA-670/2-74-070, Mine Spoil Potentials for Soil and Water Quality.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the test method.
9.6.4.2 Pollutant Analysis
9.6.4.2.1 Organics
Purpose: Organics tests are used to identify and quantify the organic contaminants of the soil.
Synopsis The EPA has a list of organic priority pollutants for which well-defined analytical and quality
control procedures have been developed. These pollutants are classified in four groups based on the ex-
traction procedures employed before analysis: volatiles, acid extractables, base or neutral extractables,
and pesticides. The major analytical procedures employed are gas chromatography and mass spectro-
scope. For organics other than the priority pollutants, procedures need to be obtained from literature. Ap-
propriate descriptions should be presented to the laboratory on a special analytical services (SAS) form.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Methods 8010-8310, 3510-3550.
Limitations and Precautions The reader should see the test methods and the literature.
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9.6.4.2.2 Metals
Purpose: Metals tests are used to identify and quantify the metal contaminants in the soil.
Synopsis: The EPA has a list of metal priority pollutants for which well-defined analytical and quality
control procedures have been developed. In analysis requests, distinctions need to be made in total metal
or extractable metal analysis. The soil is digested with a strong acid to dissolve all metals in the first,
whereas an appropriate extraction method is employed in the second. The analysis methods are mainly
atomic absorption and inductively coupled plasma emission. For metals that are not on the priority pol-
lutant list, procedures need to be obtained from literature and appropriate descriptions given on the SAS
form.
Methods EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Methods 7040-7951, 3010-3060.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the test methods and the literature.
9.6.4.2.3 Total and Amenable Cyanide
Purpose: This test is used to determine the concentration of inorganic cyanide. The method detects
inorganic cyanides that are present as either simple soluble salts or complex radicals. The test is used to
determine values for both total cyanide and cyanide amenable to chlorination. It does not determine the
"reactive" cyanide content of wastes containing iron-cyanide complexes.
Synopsis: The waste is divided into two parts. One is chlorinated to destroy susceptible complexes.
Each part is distilled to remove interferences and is analyzed for cyanide. The fraction amenable to
chlorination is determined by the difference in values.
During the distillation, cyanide is converted to hydrogen cyanide vapor, which is trapped in a scrubber
containing sodium hydroxide solution. This solution is titrate with standard silver nitrate.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 9010.
Limitations and Precautions: Sulfides interfere with the titration, but they can be precipitated with
cadmium. Fatty acids form soaps under alkaline titration conditions and interfere. The fatty acids can be
extracted with a suitable solvent. Oxidizing agents can decompose the cyanide; the oxidizing agents can
be treated with ascorbic acid. Thiocyanate presence will interfere by distilling over in the procedure. This
situation can be prevented by adding magnesium chloride. Aldehydes and ketones can convert cyanide to
cyanohydrin under the acid distillation conditions.
9.6.4.2.4 Total Organic Halides (TOX)
Purpose: This test is used to determine the total organic halides (TOX) as CI" extract.
Synopsis: A sample of water that has been protected against the loss of volatiles by the elimination of
headspace in the sampling container is passed through a column containing activated carbon. The
column is washed to remove any trapped inorganic halides and is analyzed to convert the adsorbed or-
ganohalides to a titratable species that can be measured by a microcoulometric detector.
Methods: The reader should see the test methods. EPA SW-946, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 9020, Total Organic Halides (TOX).
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Limitations and Precautions: All samples must be run in duplicate. Under conditions of duplicate
analysis, the reliable limit of sensitivity is 5 ^1 per liter.
The method detects all organic halides containing chlorine, bromine, and iodine that are adsorbed by
granular-activated carbon under conditions of the method. Fluorine species are not determined by this
method.
The method is applicable to samples whose inorganic-halide concentration does not exceed the or-
ganic-halide concentration, by more than 20,000 times.
9.6,4.2.5 pH
Purpose: This test is used to measure the pH of the soil
Synopsis: The soil is stirred with water and, after equilibration, the pH of the supernatant solution is
measured with a glass electrode pH meter.
Methods: The EPA is currently developing a method, EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Method 9045.
Limitations and Precautions: The measured pH value may shift slightly with each change in the soil-
to-water ratio used in the preparation of the soil samples, and seasonal fluctuations in pH may also be an-
ticipated.
9.6.4.2.6 Lime Requirement
Purpose: This test is used to determine the pH of acidic soils for estimating the amounts of lime
needed to neutralize the soil.
Synopsis: The dried soil is mixed with a buffer solution and allowed to equilibrate, and the pH is
measured with glass electrodes and a pH meter. The amount of lime needed can be estimated from ex-
perimental lime versus pH correlation curves specific to the region.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, revised September
1978.
Limitations and Precautions: Electrodes should be rinsed very well between samples to eliminate a
constant increase in the pH measured, because of electrode contamination.
9,6.4.3 Other Tests
9.6.4.3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity
Purpose: This test is used to determine the exchangeable cation content of the soil. Many of the as-
similative capacity determinations for constituents in industrial waste are based on cation exchange
capacity measurement.
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Synopsis: Determination of soil cation exchange capacity involves removal of all exchangeable ca-
tions by leaching the soil with an excess of neutral ammonium acetate solution and saturating the ex-
change material with ammonium. This procedure is followed by leaching with Na4CI. The soil is then
washed with isopropyl alcohol until all chloride is removed. The ammonium adsorbed on the exchange
complex is displaced by treating the soil with acidified NaCI. The displaced solution is distilled and then
titrated to calculate the cation exchange capacity.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, revised September
1978.
The EPA is developing a cation exchange capacity method entitled Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, SW-846, Methods 9080, 9081. This method includes the ammonium acetate and the sodium
acetate methods.
9.6.4.3.2 Extractable Cations: K+, Na+, Ca+ +, Mg+ +
Purpose: Extractable cation content of the soil, along with extractable hydrogen, is used to estimate
the cation exchange capacity and the percentage of base saturation required for soil taxonomy.
Synopsis: The ions are extracted from the soil with a neutral ammonium acetate solution. The quan-
tities of the individual ions in the solution are then determined by atomic absorption.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321,, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Method 17, revised
September 1978.
Limitations and Precautions: The four cations are determined on the same soil extract but with dif-
ferent dilutions. The single-extraction technique for cations in noncalcerous soil gives values that are
equivalent to at least 35 percent of the values obtained by multiple extraction. For samples that contain
carbonates of Ca++ or Mg++, the multiple extraction with ammonium acetate may dissolve these car-
bonates and give higher values for Ca++ and Mg++ than are obtained with a single extraction. For
routine testing, there is usually no interest in determining the extractable Ca++ and Mg++ in alkaline
samples that contain free lime.
9.6.4.3.3 Exchangeable Hydrogen
Purpose: To determine the amount of acidic hydrogen that can be removed from the soil by a buffer
solution. The extractable hydrogen content, along with the extractable cations, is used to estimate the cat-
ion exchange capacity, as well as the percentage of base saturation required for soil taxonomy.
Synopsis: The soil is mixed with a buffer solution and kept for 30 minutes while being shaken to dis-
solve the acidic hydrogens. The soil is then filtered. This process is repeated two more times; then the
filtrate is titrated to determine the acid content.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, revised September
1978.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the test method.
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9.6.4.3.4 Total Soluble Salts-Electrical Conductivity
Purpose: This test is used to measure the electrical conductivity of the soil extract as an indication of
its ionic content (soluble salts).
Synopsis: Water is added to the soil to prepare a saturated soil paste. This paste is then filtered, and
the conductivity of the filtrate is measured.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Method 1, revised September 1978.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the literature.
9.6.4.3.5 Carbon, Total Organic and Inorganic
Purpose: This test is used to determine the total organic carbon and/or the total inorganic carbon
content of the soil. Carbon may exist in sediment and water samples as either inorganic or organic com-
pounds. Inorganic carbon is present as carbonates and bicarbonates and possibly as free carbon dioxide.
Specific types of organic carbon compounds are nonvolatile organic compounds (sugars), volatile organic
compounds (mercaptans), partially volatile compounds (oils), and paniculate carbonaceous materials (cel-
lulose).
Synopsis: The basis of the method is the catalytic or chemical oxidation of carbon in carbon-contain-
ing compounds to carbon dioxide, followed by the quantification of the carbon dioxide produced. Alter-
nately, the carbon may be reduced to methane and appropriately quantified. It then follows that the dis-
tinction between inorganic carbon and organic carbon is the method of sample pretreatment. There are
presently two procedures for defining this separation. One method is based on sample treatment with a
strong acid. Analysis of an untreated sample is a measure of total carbon, while analysis of the acid-
treated fraction is a measure of organic carbon. Inorganic carbon is calculated by subtraction. The
second method of separation is based on differential thermal combustion with organic compounds being
converted to carbon dioxide at 500°C to 650°C, and inorganic carbon being converted to carbon dioxide at
950°Cto1,300°C.
Methods: Procedures for Handling and Chemical Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples, Russell
H. Plumb, U.S. EPA and Army Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for Dredged and Fill
Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
9.6.4.3.6 Sulfides
Purpose: This test is used to measure the concentration of total and dissolved sulfides.
Synopsis: Excess iodine is added to a sample, which may or may not have been treated with zinc
acetate, to produce zinc sulfide. The iodine oxidizes the sulfide to sulfur under acidic conditions. The ex-
cess iodine is back-titrated with sodium thiosulfate or phenylarsine oxide.
Methods: EPA SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 9030; EPA Method
376(1979).
Limitations and Precautions: The method does not measure acid insoluble sulfides; copper sulfide
is the only common acid-insoluble sulfide.
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The method is suitable for measuring sulfide in concentrations above 1 mg per liter. Reduced sulfur
compounds that decompose in acid, such as sulfite, thiosulfate, and hydrosulfite, may yield erratic results.
Also, volatile iodine-consuming substances will give high results. Samples must be taken with a minimum
of aeration to avoid volatilization of sulfides and reaction with oxygen that may convert sulfide to un-
measurable forms. If the sample is not preserved with zinc acetate, analysis must start immediately.
9.6.4.3.7 Total Nitrogen
Purpose: This test is used to determine the total nitrogen content of the soil.
Synopsis: In the micro-Kjeldahl method, the nitrogen in different forms is converted to the ammonium
ion by digestion in sulfuric acid. The digest is distilled, and the distillate is titrated for the ammonium con-
tent from which the nitrogen content can be calculated.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Method 3, revised
September 1978.
9.6.4.3.8 Extractable Phosphorus
Purpose: This test is used to determine the amount of phosphorus that can be extracted with a
sodium bicarbonate solution from the soil.
Synopsis: The sodium bicarbonate extract of the soil is treated with a complexing agent; the phos-
phorus complex is determined colorimetrically.
Methods: Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State University,
Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Method 15, revised
September 1978.
Limitations and Precautions: The pH of the NaHCOa solution increases over time when exposed to
the atmosphere. When the pH of the extractant exceeds 8.5, a notable increase in extractable soil is an-
ticipated. A thin layer of mineral oil that is spread over the surface of the extracting solution will effectively
decrease the rate at which the pH will change. Chemical reactions that tend to decrease the activity or
concentration of soluble Ca, Al, and Fe will allow for a potential increase in soluble phosphate. The amount
extracted is also dependent on the shaker time and temperature.
9.6.4.3.9 Total Phosphorus
Purpose: This test is used to determine the total phosphorus content of the soil after digestion.
Synopsis: Numerous methods are available for the digestion of sediment samples to be analyzed for
phosphate. Most procedures consist of strong acid digestion or treatment with an oxidizing agent and a
strong acid. A common feature of the digestion procedures is that the sample treatments are designed to
convert all the phosphate compounds to orthophosphate. The orthophosphate is then quantified
colorimetrically.
Methods: Procedures for Handling and Chemical Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples, Russell
H. Plumb, U.S. EPA and Army Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for Dredged and Fill
Material, Contract EPA-4805572010.
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Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the test method.
9.6.4.3.10 Mineralogy
Purpose: This test is used to determine the mineral characteristics of soil.
Synopsis: The most widely used techniques in mineral identification and composition determination
are X-ray diffraction and optical techniques; the underlying principles are beyond the scope of this com-
pendium. References are given in Subsection 9.8.
Methods: Ford, W. E. Dana's Textbook of Mineralogy, Optical Techniques. 4th ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons. 1966.
Huriburt, C. S., Jr. Manual of Mineralogy, 19th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1977.
"X-Ray Diffraction Techniques for Mineral Identification and Mineralogical Composition," Methods of Soil
Analysis, Agronomy Monograph No. 9, Part 1, American Society of Agronomy, 1965. (The second edition of
this reference is soon to be published.) This reference provides qualitative and semiquantitative soil
mineralogical analyses.
Limitations and Precautions: The reader should see the methods.
9.6.5 Compatibility Testing
Materials considered for hazardous waste applications should be analyzed for compatibility with the
wastes. The analyses should determine the changes in material properties caused by contact or exposure
to wastes. Materials of concern for compatibility may include natural materials (e.g., soils and rock) and
synthetic materials (e.g., construction materials).
Although analytical methods are being developed, few standards for compatibility testing exist at
present. Decision-makers must use their judgment and experience in evaluating the need for, and use of,
compatibility test data. Those laboratories conducting the testing must be appropriately staffed and
equipped. The test method must clearly document the test scope, limitations, and materials used, and
provide quantification of the degree of alteration and projected useful life of the material.
In general, compatibility testing involves rational use of both chemical tests and tests of physical
properties (see Subsections 9.6.3 and 9.6.4) to assess the effects of wastes on the materials. Chemical
analyses may be used to determine the types and concentrations of wastes to which the material is sub-
jected. The aggressive substance in a hazardous waste may be of low total concentration, but the sub-
stance may accumulate in a particular phase or level in the waste. Under such conditions, the concentra-
tion level may be high enough to act aggressively. Physical tests provide the basis for measuring resultant
changes.
The following discussions are not intended to be all-encompassing, but they should heighten general
awareness about potential effects on various materials. Specific needs and details of such testing must be
evaluated on a site-specific basis.
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9.6.5.1 Soil
The compatibility of soils with wastes is primarily concerned with the effects of the presence of liquid
wastes in the pore fluids of the soils. Compatibility effects may include chemical alteration of the soil itself
or alteration of soil properties, such as permeability, compressibility, and strength (since many of the
properties of soils depend on the characteristics of the pore fluids).
9.6.5.1.1 Clay
Clay has traditionally been used for water containment because of the low permeability of most clays
and clay mixtures. Recent evidence suggests that permeability and other properties are altered by liquid
contaminants. Clays are subject to alteration by organic chemicals, pH changes, ion exchange, and so
forth.
9.6.5.1.2 Silt
Silt is a major constituent of alluvial soils and usually appears in combination with various amounts of
clay and sand. The parent material from which the silt is derived will influence the effects of wastes on the
alteration of silts. Concern for the alteration of silts relates more to structural and strength property chan-
ges, than to chemical changes.
9.6.5.1.3 Sand
Sand used for bedding and drainage media must be evaluated for alterations that may affect its struc-
tural and fluid conductivity suitability. Tests using the liquid phase of hazardous wastes on sands to deter-
mine leaching, permeability, strength, and particle size changes should be performed.
9.6.5.1.4 Gravels and Aggregates
Gravels used for structural and drainage systems must be evaluated for alterations that may affect their
suitability. Aggregates used in Portland cement and asphaltic concrete products should be evaluated in
the same manner as the gravels and sands.
9.6.5.2 Rock
In situ properties of rocks underlying or adjacent to hazardous wastes should be evaluated for poten-
tial effects of exposure to wastes. Alteration of strength, permeability, competence, and so forth should be
considered.
Samples of rock removed from the site will be useful in determining some physical and chemical
property changes in contact with wastes. However, the value of that determination is limited. The overrid-
ing concern should be with the behavior of the rock mass as a unit.
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9.6.5.3 Materials
9.6.5.3.1 Concrete
Cast-in-place and precast concrete products to be used in hazardous waste control systems must be
evaluated for effects caused by the waste materials. The effects of some chemicals are known to cause ex-
pansion, cracking, spelling, surface deterioration, and dissolution of cement paste or matrix. A few stand-
ard methods for resistance of concrete to some chemical and physical stresses may be found in ASTM Vol.
04.02.
9.6.5.3.2 Soil-Cement
Minor amounts of Portland cement may be added to soils to strengthen them and to reduce per-
meability of soil materials. An evaluation of the soil-cement system, using specimens from the mix-design
procedures, must be made using contaminated soils or involving hazardous waste materials. Cement is
often used to solidify contaminated materials. The solidification procedure should be evaluated for proper-
ties to remain within an allowable range over the long term.
9.6.5.3.3 Portland Cement
There are many types of Portland cement and blended hydraulic cements. Some have properties that
may be more or less resistant to chemical exposure to hazardous wastes. The compatibility of the cement
products must be assessed and evaluated to make successful Portland cement concrete.
9.6.5.3.4 Asphalt Cement
Many types of bituminous products or asphalt cement are used to control leakage. The alteration of
properties, such as impermeability, by hazardous wastes must be evaluated to determine product
suitability. Evaluation may involve visual observation of changes, as well as physical property changes
measured according to ASTM procedures.
9.6.5.3.5 Asphalt Stabilized Soils
Asphaltic cement may be added to soils for strengthening and reducing permeability. The appropriate-
ness of this method must be evaluated by testing with hazardous waste to determine the alteration of the
stabilized soil's properties.
9.6.5.3.6 Metal Products
Metal products are mentioned in this subsection to draw attention to any materials that may be buried
in soil or contaminated soil or exposed to hazardous wastes. Since exposure of metal products to hazard-
ous waste materials is possible, the corrosion, deterioration, and alteration of the product or its function
must be evaluated to determine the most suitable material or the need for an alternative.
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9.6.5.3.7 Plastic Products
A broad range of material compatibility information for plastics is available from manufacturers. The
potential exposure of plastics to hazardous waste must be defined and the most suitable products tested.
Adaptations of the U.S. EPA SW-846 Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Method 9090 for Flexible
Membrane Liners, may be considered for testing plastics.
9.6.5.3.8 Wood Products
Wood products and lumber that may be subjected to hazardous waste should be evaluated before
use. Such evaluation is especially important if wood and lumber products are to be used structurally.
9.6.5.3.9 Geotextiles
The use of woven and nonwoven geotextiles is common in hazardous waste facilities. The functions
these synthetic fibrous materials provide may be altered by exposure to wastes. Geotextiles should be
tested and evaluated for their continued ability to provide the functions required. The nature of geotextiles
presents a challenging task to the development of meaningful test methods. The U.S. EPA, SW-846 Test
Methods for Evaluation Solid Waste, Method 9090, may provide some guidance.
9.6.5.3.10 Geomembranes
Flexible membrane liners or geomembranes are 10- to 100-mil thick sheets of polymeric materials.
Compatibility test information and results for most polymeric materials are available from the manufacturers
and some independent sources. An accepted method of test for geomembranes is the U.S. EPA Method
9090. Properties of membrane specimens are determined before and after soaking in the hazardous waste
liquid, extract, or leachate. Another recommended test method for estimating long-term performance of
membrane liners in a chemical environment is provided in Appendix D of National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF) Standard 54 for Flexible Membrane Liners.
9.6.5.3.11 Synthetic Drainage Media
In place of sand and gravel drainage systems, synthetic drainage media may be used. The synthetic
media may be separated from the soil above and below by a geotextile fabric. The media may be
polymeric mesh mat-like material with favorable strength and hydraulic properties. The material should be
evaluated using methods similar to those used for geomembranes, since the materials used are similar.
9.6.6 Laboratory and Analyses Records
A general description of the laboratory recording procedures is presented below. Specific require-
ments may be established as contractual obligations with the laboratories (e.g., U.S. EPA's CLP). The user
should be familiar with the contractual obligations for sample and data recording when using contract
laboratories. Review of existing CLP recording requirements is beyond the scope of this subsection.
9.6.6.1 Sample Log
All samples should be recorded upon receipt at the laboratory. The sample should be logged into a
bound record book and assigned a sequential identification number. The log should be used to track the
sample through the laboratory by recording date received, date and location stored, date tested, and date
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disposed of. Chain of custody should be maintained on all samples throughout the process (see Sections
4, 5, and 6). The numerical identification should be used on all laboratory record sheets, together with
other pertinent information such as project name and number and case number.
9.6.6.2 Data Sheets
The data and analysis results for each sample should be recorded on data sheets as the test is con-
ducted. The format for specific test sheets may follow those presented in the ASTM standards, as ap-
plicable. Data sheets should be developed and consistently used for tests that do not have standards.
At a minimum, the following identifying information should be provided on each data sheet:
• Project name and number
• EPA authorization number or case number
• Sample identifier (number, location, depth, and name of sampler)
• Date of laboratory analysis
• Laboratory and analyst names
In addition to the identifying information, the data sheet should refer to the standard used including a
specific statement of any deviations from the standard. Where standards are not available, a detailed
description of the test method should be attached with the data sheets.
The data section of the sheet should be legibly completed without erasures. Any changes to the data
should be done by crossing out the original entry, writing in the correction, and initialing it.
Calculations should be orderly and should be done on the data sheet or attached separately. Calcula-
tions should follow the same guidelines as for data recording (i.e., it should be legible without erasures).
9.6.6.3 Recordkeeping
Originals of all laboratory sheets and records should be retained in a secure file by the analyzing
laboratory. Legible copies should be provided to EPA and its contractors, as required.
In addition to data sheets, all pertinent correspondence, chain-of-custody records, quality assurance
records, and other records should be retained. Originals should be retained for the duration of the project
including completion of any litigation.
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9.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Many of the methods and procedures discussed in this subsection have not been accepted as stand-
ard by the EPA CLP. Because information on variances is rapidly dated, users should consult with the
laboratory in each EPA region to obtain clarification of specific regional variations. Changes in variances
will be included in Revision 01 to this compendium.
9.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Oregon State University. Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at Oregon State
University. Special Report 321, Agricultural Experiment Station. Corvallis, Oregon. Revised September
1978.
American Concrete Institute, Chapter 318.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1984 Annual Book ofASTM Standards. Section 4: Con-
struction. Vol. 04.08, 1984, and Vol. 08.01 and 09.02. 1984.
Bower, C. A., and L V. Wilcox. "Soluble Salts." Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 62. American
Society of Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 933-951.
Bremner, J. M. 'Total Nitrogen." Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 83. American Society of
Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1143-1176.
Ford, W. E. "Optical Techniques," Dana's Textbook of Mineralogy. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and
Sons. 1966.
Grewling, T. and M. Peech. "Chemical Soil Tests." Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station
Bulletin 960. 1960.
Hurlburt, C. S., Jr. Manual of Mineralogy. 19thed. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1977.
Jackson, M. L. Soil Chemical Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1958. pp. 151-
154.
Lambe, T. W. Soil Testing for Engineers. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1951.
Lambe, T. W., and R.V. Whiteman. Soil Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1969.
McWhorter, David B. and Daniel K. Sunada. Groundwater Hydrology and Hydraulics. Ann Arbor,
Michigan: Water Resources Publications. 1977.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Laboratory Corrosion Testing of Metals for the Process In-
dustries. Houston, Texas: NACE Standard TM-Q1-69 (1972 Revision).
Natural Sanitation Foundation. Standard 54 for Flexible Membranes. 1983.
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Obert, L, and W.I. Duvall. Rock Mechanics and the Design of Structures in Rock. New York: John Wiley
and Sons. 1967.
Obert, L, S. L Windes, and W. I. Duvall. "Standardized Tests for Determining the Physical Properties
of Mine Rock." U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 3891. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1946.
Olsen, S. R., et al. "Estimation of Available Phosphorous in Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicar-
bonate." USDA Circular No. 939. 1954.
Olsen, S. R., et al. "Phosphorous." Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 73. American Society of
Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1035-1048.
Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn. Foundation Engineering. 2nd ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons. 1974.
Plum, Russell H. Procedures for Handling and Chemical Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples, U.S. EPA
and Army Corps of Engineers Technical Committee on Criteria for Dredged and Fill Material, Contract EPA-
4805572010.
Pratt, P. F. "Potassium." Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2, Chapter 71. American Society of
Agronomists. Madison, Wisconsin. 1965. pp. 1022-1030.
Richards, L. A. "Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils." USDA Handbook 60. U.S.
Salinity Laboratory. 1954.
Schollenberger, C. J., et al. "Determination of Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Bases in Soil-
Ammonium Acetate Method." Soil Science, Volume 59,13-24. 1945.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "Laboratory Soil Testing." Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1906. Depart-
ment of the Army, Office of the Chief of Engineers. Washington, D.C. 30 November 1970.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Earth Manual. 2nd ed. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington,
D.C. 1974.
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Methods and Procedures
ASTM 1635-63 (reapproved 1979), Flexural Strength of Soil-Cement Using Simple Beam with Third-
Point Loading.
ASTM 1682-64 (1975), Test Methods for Breaking Load and Elongation of Textile Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM C 39-83b, Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM C 78-84, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading).
ASTM C 88-83, Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate.
ASTM C 150-84, Portland Cement, and ASTM C 595-83, Blended Hydraulic Cements.
ASTM C 170, Compressive Strength of Natural Building Stone.
ASTM C 178-78, Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method.
ASTM C 231 -82, Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method.
ASTM C 293-79, Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) (not an
alternative to C 78-84).
ASTM C 496-71 (reapproved 1979), Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM C 642-82, Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete.
ASTM C 9951, Modulus of Rupture of Natural Building Stone.
ASTM C 9783, Standard Test Methods for Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity of Natural Building
Stones.
ASTM D 93-85, Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester.
ASTM D 297, D 412, D 624 (for rubber).
ASTM D 422-63 (reapproved 1972), Particle-Size Analysis of Soils.
ASTM D 425-79, Centrifuge Moisture Equivalent of Soils.
ASTM D 558-82, Moisture-Density Relations of Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 559-82, Wetting-and-Drying Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 560-82, Freezing-and-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures.
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ASTM D 584-83, Specific Gravity of Soils.
ASTM D 638, D 972, D 1004, D 1204, D 3083 (for plastics).
ASTM D 653-82, Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil and Rock Mechanics.
ASTM D 698-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils.
ASTM D 698-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 5.5-lb Rammer
and 12-in. Drop.
ASTM D 751 (for supported geomembranes).
ASTM D 751-79, Methods of Testing Coated Fabrics, 09.02.
ASTM D 806-74 (reapproved 1979), Cement Content of Soil-Cement Mixtures.
ASTM D 882 (for thin plastic).
ASTM D 1117-80, Methods of Testing Nonwoven Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 1557-78, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 10-lb. Ram-
mer and 18-in. Drop.
ASTM D 1558-71 (reapproved 1977), Moisture-Penetration Resistance Relations of Fine-Grained Soils.
ASTM D 1587-83, Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D 1593 (for polyvinyl chloride).
ASTM D 1632-63 (reapproved 1979), Making and Curing Soil-Cement Compression and Flexure Test
Specimens in the Laboratory.
ASTM D 1633-63 (reapproved 1979), Compressive Strength of Molded Soil-Cement Cylinders.
ASTM D 1634-63 (reapproved 1979), Compressive Strength of Soil-Cement Using Portions of Beams
Broken in Flexure (Modified Cube Method).
ASTM D 1777-64 (reapproved 1975), Method for Measuring Thickness of Textile Materials, 07.01.
ASTM D 1883-73 (reapproved 1978), Bearing Ratio of Laboratory-Compacted Soils.
ASTM D 2166-66 (reapproved 1979), Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil.
ASTM D 2216-80, Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Ag-
gregate Mixtures.
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ASTM D 2325-68 (reapproved 1981), Capillary-Moisture Relationships for Coarse and Medium-Textured
Soils by Porous-Plate Apparatus.
ASTM D 2419-74 (reapproved 1979), Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and Fine Aggregate.
ASTM D 2434-58 (reapproved 1974), Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head).
ASTM D 2435-80, One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils.
ASTM D 2487-83, Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes.
ASTM D 2488-69 (reapproved 1975), Description of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
ASTM D 2850-82, Unconsolidated, Undrained Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Com-
pression.
ASTM D 2901-82, Cement Content of Freshly Mixed Soil-Cement.
ASTM D 2936-78, Direct Tensile Strength of Intact Rock- Core Specimens.
ASTM D 3080-72 (reapproved 1979), Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Condi-
tions.
ASTM D 3152-72 (reapproved 1977), Capillary-Moisture Relationships for Fine-Textured Soils by Pres-
sure-Membrane Apparatus.
ASTM D 3550-77, Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils.
ASTM D 3740-80, Standard Practice for the Evaluation of Agencies Engaged in the Testing and/or In-
spection of Soil and Rock as Used in Engineering Design and Construction.
ASTM D 3775-84, Test Method for Fabric Count of Woven Fabric, 07.01
ASTM D 3773-84, Test Method for Length of Woven Fabric, 09.02.
ASTM D 3774-84, Test Method for Width of Woven Fabric, 07.01.
ASTM D 3776-84, Test Methods for Weight (Mass) per Unit Area of Woven Fabric, 07.01.
ASTM D 3782-80, Test Method for Bow and Skewness (Bias) in Woven and Knitted Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 3783-80, Test Method for Fabric Crimp or Takeup of Woven Fabrics, 07.01.
ASTM D 3786-80a, Test Method for Hydraulic Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods and Nonwoven
Fabrics: Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method, 07.0.
ASTM D 3967-81, Splitting Tensile Strength of Intact Rock-Core Specimens.
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ASTM D 4223-83, Preparation of Test Specimens of Asphalt-Stabilized Soils.
ASTM D 4253-83, Maximum Index Density of Soils Using a Vibratory Table
ASTM D 4254-83, Minimum Index Density of Soils and Calculations of Relative Density.
ASTM D 4318-83, Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils.
ASTM E 329-77, Standard Recommended Practice for Inspection and Testing Agencies for Concrete,
Steel, and Bituminous Materials as Used in Construction.
Anderson, C.H., et al. Preliminary Interim Procedure for Fibrous Asbestos. U.S. EPA Analytical
Chemistry Branch, Athens, Georgia. July 1976.
Plumb, Russell H. Procedures for Handling and Chemical Analysis of Sediment and Water Samples.
U.S. EPA and Army Corps of Engineers' Technical Committee on Criteria for Dredged and Fill Material,
Contract EPA-4805572010.
Shrestra, Sharad, and J.R. Bell. 'Tensile and Creep Behavior of Geotextiles." Transportation Research
Report 81-30. Oregon State University. January 1981.
U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. Plastic Filter Fabric. CW 02215. November 1977.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Interim Method for Determination of Asbestiform Minerals
in Bulk Insulation Samples. 1 June 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 'Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste." Methods 9030,
9045, 9010, 7040-7951, 3010-3060, 8010-8310, 3510, 3550, 1310, 1110, 1010, 1020, and Section 21.3. EPA
SW-846.
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SECTION 10
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
Note: This section is organized by the topics "Flow Measurement" and "Sampling" for greater useful-
ness.
10.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT
10.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the planning, method selection, and implementation of
surface flow measurements for hazardous waste site field investigations that require information on flows
for streams, rivers, or surface impoundments.
10.1.2 Definitions
Flow (or Volumetric Flowrate)
That volume of water which passes through a cross-sectional plane of a channel in some unit
of time.
Flow Measurement
The act or process of quantifying a flowrate.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
10.1.3 Applicability
This subsection discusses general and special flow-measurement techniques that may be applied to
the majority of site field investigations. There is no universally applicable procedure, because flows must
be measured under a variety of conditions. For any given site, the technique selected must be appropriate
for that site's specific conditions. For example, the choice of flow-measurement device can depend on the
following criteria:
• Is the flow continuous or intermittent?
• Is the flow channel open or closed?
• What is the channel geometry?
• Are there hydraulic discontinuities in the channel (standing waves, hydraulic jumps, dams, etc.)?
• Is there access to the channel at a suitable point for measuring flow?
10-1
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• How often will flow measurements need to be made?
• Will the flow-measuring device require freeze protection or shelter?
• What water constituents may affect the reliability of the flow-measuring device? For example, will
sediment in the stream clog flow tubes?
• Would there be a need for installing a more permanent flow measuring device for long-term sur-
veys?
• Are utilities (electrical, air, or clean water) available onsite?
The following discussions apply only to water moving from one point to another, not to surface water
lying still in an impoundment or liquid waste pond. Such water does not fit the flow definition cited above.
Flowing water moves because it has a sloping surface that is subject to the pull of gravity and/or a pressure
head. This movement from point to point is opposed by frictional forces between the water and the sides
of the channel. This friction leads to wide variations in velocity over the cross-sectional plane of the chan-
nel. No matter which flow-measurement technique or device is chosen, it will have to accurately account
for these variations. Field crews conducting flow measurements must be made aware of the strengths and
limitations that apply to any flow-measurement technique.
Another type of "flow" not covered by the following discussion may be called "overland flow" or "emer-
gent subsurface flow," wherein water moves across a land surface without being constrained by definable,
continuous channel boundaries. Examples of this type of flow occur during floods or heavy storm runoffs.
Such flows are mostly ephemera!, nonuniform, and very shallow. Since there is no definite cross-sectional
measurement available, flow measurement by any of the following methods is not practical. Problems re-
lated to quantification of such flows are discussed in the National Handbook of Recommended Methods for
Water Data Acquisition compiled by the Department of Interior's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) staff.
10.1.4 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for obtaining proper flow measurements. The most important tool in carrying
out this responsibility is the site operations sampling plan. Details of this plan are site-specific, usually fol-
lowing a site reconnaissance by the site or field team leader.
The field team leader is responsible for implementing the requirements of the site operations sampling
plan and for reporting any unusual conditions to the SM as soon as it becomes apparent that plan
modifications may be needed. The field team leader must also make certain that all required documenta-
tion is properly originated, maintained, completed, and forwarded to the proper authorities.
The field investigation team is responsible for the actual installation of the proper equipment and the
performance of flow measurements. Selected members of the work crew must be familiar with the objec-
tives, the site operations plan, the equipment designated for use, the recordkeeping requirements, the ap-
propriate safety measures, and the importance of accurate measurements.
10-2
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10.1.5 Procedures
10.1.5.1 General Considerations
The planning, selection, and implementation ot any flow-measurement program require careful con-
sideration by qualified, experienced personnel. A preliminary site visit should be made to review actual
conditions and to confirm or correct site plans, diagrams, or layouts.
The purpose of making flow measurements should be clearly defined before commencing this activity.
Some common reasons for measuring flowrates include the following:
• Assessing impacts on receiving streams
• Acquiring data on flow volume, variability, and average rate to design and operate wastewater
treatment facilities
• Determining compliance with load limitations placed on selected pollutants
• Flow-proportioning composites to comply with permit requirements that govern composite sam-
pling
• Estimating chemical addition requirements or treatment costs for effective wastewater treatment
• Establishing the requirements for sampling frequency or the need for continuous monitoring of
flowing streams
Whatever the reason for conducting flow measurements, the parties involved in such work must be
made aware of the purpose, so that their contribution to this effort will be better defined. Most of the tech-
niques described below depend on two critical measurements:
• The geometry of the cross-sectional plane through which the water is passing
• The velocity at which the water is moving, typically expressed in terms of length per unit of time
(e.g., meters per second, feet per second)
At times, the velocity may drop to zero and the water may stand still. This phenomenon further divides
surface flows into two distinct types: intermittent and continuous. The flow-measurement method chosen
must be able to account for periods of zero flow whenever they occur. The measurements themselves may
be made continuously using automatic instruments or intermittently by manual methods. Human ob-
servers must be aware of flow variations including periods of no flow. But other factors, such as the cost,
accessibility, climate, available time for measurements, and the relative accuracy of measurement desired,
will also contribute heavily to the choice of method used. The type of measurement technique used will ul-
timately depend on conditions encountered at each location.
10-3
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10.1.5.2 Methods and Applications: General
Selection and implementation of flow-measurement practices require that consideration be given to the
following issues that are common to all surface flow measurements at or near hazardous waste sites:
• Preventing the spread of contamination
• Minimizing the risk to health and safety
• Maintaining a high level of accuracy in measuring flows
• Causing the least possible disruption to onsite activities
• Reporting all readings in an organized fashion as required by the sampling plan
• Reducing, where possible, any additional long- and short-term impacts
For most sites, flow measurements are made in open channels that consist of a bed, two banks or
sides, and a free or open water surface. The term also may apply ta water movement through closed con-
duits or sewers that are flowing only partially full. The most typical cross-sectional shape encountered is
either circular or rectangular. On occasion, measurements are taken in pressurized closed channels that
are completely full of water at a pressure greater than atmospheric, either because of gravity or the use of
pumps. Some of the measurement techniques described in the following discussion are applicable only to
open channels, while others work only in closed channels. Some may be used in either type of channel.
Also, some methods are best suited for making single measurements, while others work best on a con-
tinuous basis. Individual site conditions will determine the user's options. The most appropriate option is
selected and incorporated into the site sampling plan.
Most flow measurements are based on determining two key variables cited in Subsection 10.1.5.1:
cross-sectional area and velocity across that area. For open channels, especially the smaller ones, the
cross section is often best measured directly using a meter or yardstick and weighted chains or lines. Care
must be taken to find a location where the dimensions are not likely to change during the time period in
which flow measurements will be taken. Width and depth are expressed in terms of meters or feet, and the
cross-sectional area is expressed as square meters or square feet.
I
Velocity is determined using one of the methods that follow, either directly or by calculation, from head
differential or pressure differential relationships. Units are commonly given in meters/sec or feet/sec for
most flow velocities. When cross-sectional area and flow velocity are multiplied, their product is the
volumetric flowrate, expressed as cubic meters/sec or cubic feet/sec for large flows and as liters/sec or gal-
lons/mil for small flows.
At times, the entire flow from a discharge pipe or a notched weir or dam can be caught in a collector of
known volume, such as a 5-gallon can or 55-gallon drum. By clocking the amount of time needed to fill the
vessel, one may obtain a direct measurement of volumetric flowrate without resorting to cross-sectional
area and velocity measurements. A minimum of 10 seconds to fill the container is recommended. Several
fill-ups should be timed, and the results should be averaged to improve the quality of this measurement.
But other means of flow measurement will be used more often than this direct estimate, which is valid only
for flows between 0.06 liter/sec (1 gallon per minute (gpm)) and about 6.3 liter/sec (100 gpm).
The equipment listed in this subsection is the most commonly used at hazardous waste sites. For
selected special applications, the reader should refer to Subsection 10.1.5.3.
10-4
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Current Meter: A current meter can be a mechanical device with a rotating element that, when sub-
merged in a flowing stream, rotates at a speed proportional to the velocity of the flow at that point below
the surface. The rotating element may be either a vertical shaft or a horizontal shaft type. Meter manufac-
turers usually provide the user with calibration tables to translate rotation into linear speed in meters/sec or
feet/sec (Price, undated).
Current meters can also be electromagnetic sensors where the passage of fluids between two
electrodes in a bulb-shaped probe causes a disturbance of the electromagnetic field surrounding the
electrodes. This disturbance generates a small voltage that can be made proportional to fluid velocity by
internal electronic circuitry. A direct readout of velocity in meters/sec or feet/sec is provided for the user
(Marsh-McBirney, undated).
Applicability: Vertical axis meters are more commonly used because they are simpler, more rugged,
and easier to maintain than horizontal shaft meters. They also have a lower threshold velocity, on the order
of 0.03 meters/sec (0.1 feet/sec). The electromagnetic current meters can be used in making measure-
ments in situations where mechanical meters cannot function, such as weedy streams where mechaical
rotating elements would foul. However, the electromagnetic meters must always be carefully aligned to be
normal to the stream cross section, since the meter measures only one velocity vector (the one parallel to
the probe's longitudinal axis). Current meters will operate at depths ranging from 0.1 meter (0.3 feet) to
any depth where the meter can be held rigidly in place using cables or extension poles. For most hazard-
ous site investigations, depths rarely exceed 2 or 3 meters (6.5 to 10 feet). Since current meters provide
readings at a single point, the mean velocity must be based on multiple readings along a vertical line, or on
a single reading that can be converted to an estimated mean velocity using standard coefficients. Methods
for estimating mean velocity include the following:
• Six-tenths depth method-Uses the observed velocity at a point 0.6 of the total depth below the
surface as the mean velocity for the vertical. Flow is calculated for each subsection defined by the
verticals and is the product of the depth times the mean velocity for that subsection. Total dis-
charge flow is the sum of all individual subsection flows, while the average stream velocity is that
sum (total discharge) divided by the total cross-sectional area. The number of readings to be
taken to increase accuracy will depend on the width of the stream, from 2 or 3 for streams less
than 5 feet across to 15 to 25 for streams wider than 50 feet across. Ideally, the stream should be
partitioned into sections small enough that less than 10 percent of the total stream flow passes
through each section. In this manner, individual measurements that may be in error will have less
impact on the overall average velocity determination. However, practical consideration, such as a
rapidly changing stage or limited time available to conduct measurements, often may preclude the
use of the ideal number of partial sections. Users must recognize the potential impact on the over-
all accuracy of velocity measurements from an inadequate number of verticals within a given cross
section. This method works best at depths between 0.09 and 0.16 meters (0.3 to 2.5 feet) and is
the method of choice when measurements must be made quickly.
• Two-point method-Measures velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the total depth below the surface. The
average of the two readings is considered to be the average for the vertical. Several different verti-
cals are averaged across the cross section. This method is more accurate than the six-tenths
depth method, but it cannot be used at depths less than 0.76 meters (2.5 feet) because the obser-
vation points would be too near the surface and the streambed.
• Three-point method - Measures velocities at 0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 of the total depth below the surface.
Readings at 0.2 and 0.8 are averaged; then that result is averaged with the reading at 0.6. This
method provides a better mean value when velocities in the vertical are abnormally distributed, but
it should not abnormally be used at depths less than 0.76 meters (2.5 feet).
• Vertical-velocity method — Primarily for deep channels, this method measures velocities at 0.1
depth increments between 0.1 and 0.9 of the total depth for several verticals. Because of the multi-
plicity of readings, this method is rarely used.
10-5
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A step-by-step summary of a typical flow or discharge measurement is as follows:
• Assemble current meter and test for proper operation in accordance with the manufacturer's in-
structions. Collect data form or notebook, pencil, stop watch, 50-foot tape, etc.
• Partition stream into sections (with tag-line or bridge railing), visually observing the velocity and
general flow of the stream. Enough stations should be established to prevent more than 10 per
cent of the total discharge from passing through any individual partial section. Remember, the par-
tial section in question is not the same as the interval between two successive stations. Mark sta-
tions appropriately. A check of measurements may indicate the need for readjustment of the parti-
tioned sections to upgrade the quality of the readings.
• Record stream stage as indicated by one of the staff gauges, and record this value on the water
level recorder chart at the point of pen contact.
• Record a minimum of the following items on the data form or in the notebook:
- Project
- Site
- Date
- Time at start of measurements
- Stream stage at start of measurements
- Approximate wind direction and speed
General stream condition (e.g., turbid, clear, low level, floating debris, water tempera-
ture, type of streambed material, etc.)
- Other factors having a bearing on discharge measurements
- Location of initial point
- Total width of stream to be measured
- Type of current meter and conversion factor, if applicable
Name of investigator taking the above reading
• Determine the depth and mean velocity at the first station or "initial point" if the situation allows;
record this information.
• Measure depth at the second station from initial point and record. Determine whether the velocity
should be measured at the 0.6 depth from the surface (six-tenths depth method), at the 0.2 and 0.8
depths (two-point method), or by either of the other methods available. Calculate respective
depths from the surface, measure the velocity at each point, and record these values.
• Continue to each successive station as rapidly as possible, following the same procedure.
• Determine the depth and mean velocity at the last station, or endpoint, and record.
• Record on the data form the ending time of this series of measurements and the stage, since the
stage may have been changing during the measurements.
• Enter the ending stage value on the recorder chart at the point of pen contact. This information will
illustrate the interval of time and stage variations during the cross-sectional measurements. Also
enter the date and indicate that a calibration has taken place over this interval.
• Remove the tag-line (if used); rinse the current meter in clean water, if necessary; allow the current
meter to dry; then pack it away in its carrying case.
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There are a few other comments regarding stream discharge calibrations that should be mentioned:
• Where practical, make the measurements with the investigator standing behind and well to the side
of the meter.
• Avoid disturbing or standing along the streambed beneath the cross-sectional measuring points.
This location is part of the control area and should remain constant, if possible, from calibration to
calibration of the stream. This step is especially important if soft, mucky sediment is encountered
somewhere along the cross section.
* Where possible, try to use the same cross section throughout the study period and during all of the
stream calibrations. However, the number and position of stations within the cross section may be
changed, if necessary, to accommodate changing flow conditions.
* Always hold the wading rod vertical, and be aware of how KNORM is determined with each of the
various types of meters, if it becomes necessary to switch meters during a calibration.
• Repeat the stream calibration at regular intervals throughout the study period to account for
seasonal changes in streambank vegetation and streambed alterations that may affect measure-
ments.
Once the mean velocity for each stream subsection is determined, that value is multiplied by the area
of the subsection; the product is the volumetric flow through the subsection per unit of time. The total dis-
charge rate is the sum of all volumetric flows for each subsection across the entire cross section of the
stream. The reader should refer to USGS Water Supply Paper 2175 for additional information (USGS,
1982). Customary units are cubic meters/sec (cm ft/sec) for large flows and liters/sec (ga!/mil) for small
flows.
Current Meters and Stage Gauges: Where repeated measurements of a volumetric flowrate at a cer-
tain cross-sectional area are required, it is best to install a permanent stage gauge along the stream's back
or side wall to facilitate measurement of the depth. The gauge should be a rigid rod or board, precisely
graduated and firmly mounted with the streambed serving as a possible reference point. Where stream
characteristics are such that significant bed erosion from scouring may be expected, it is best not to set the
streambed as a zero point, because this could lead to confusion from generation of negative numbers for
gauge height readings. An arbitrary datum plume should be selected that is below the elevation of zero
flow expected for the stream site. Gauges may be mounted vertically (perpendicular lo the stream surface)
or may incline along the slope of the stream bank. Vertical gauges are simpler to construct and calibrate,
while inclined gauges provide more accurate readings and are less likely to be damaged by material float-
ing by. The gauge provides one of the measurements needed to estimate area. Width is fixed for channels
with vertical sides and can be readily determined for other configurations. Velocity is determined using a
current meter as described above.
Discharge rating curves can be used to define the relationship between stage and stream discharge,
and to allow conversion of stage hydrographs to discharge hydrographs. The discharge calibration points
are hand or machine plotted onto a log-log paper graph of stage versus stream discharge. Stream stage is
plotted on the vertical Y axis, and stream discharge is plotted on the horizontal ^axis. Ideally, enough
calibrations are conducted over the full range of stage variations to allow a smooth hand-drawn curve to be
drawn through these points on the graph. '
The slope and rate of change of slope may vary significantly over the length of this curve. At certain
gauging stations, the slope of this curve may break sharply, or the distribition of points may require the
construction of two partial curves rather than one continuous curve. These latter two situations would
10-7
-------
apply to more complex stage discharge relationships. It is the task of the investigator to derive a mathe-
matical relationship that describes this curve as closely as possible (i.e., an equation). The development of
an equation would allow calculation of discharge flow by simply plugging in the stream elevation. This
equation will allow computerization of the process of converting stage records into discharge and will even-
tually allow conversion to volume by noting the time interval on the recorder chart at which this rate of flow
applies.
More complicated rating relationships may be required at a particular gauging station. Discharge may
be not only a function of stage but also a function of slope, rate of change of stage, or other variables
specific to each site. Additionally, stage-discharge relationships are rarely permanent, and discharge
calibrations should be carried out at periodic intervals to define the effects of various factors including the
following:
• Scouring and deposition of sediment
• Alteration of streambed roughness as a result of the creation and dissemination of dunes, anti-
dunes, ripples, and standing-wave features in sandy bottoms; the deposition of leaves and other
debris during different seasons; and the seasonal variation in the growth of macrophytes
• Ice effects that may cause additional resistance to flow (If monitoring is carried out during the
colder months, a complete ice-over and additional freeze will tend to constrict the stream channel
with time and may increase the stage, when in fact the flow may not be increasing at all.)
• Human-related activities, such as upstream construction, recreation, etc.
Applicability: This method applies to sites where many flow measurements will be made over a long
period of time. Care must be taken to maintain a known zero reference point elevation. The point does not
have to be the stream's bottom. Where bed erosion over the course of flow measurements may become a
problem, provisions must be made to recalibrate the gauge at regular intervals (e.g., weekly). The gauge is
lowered or raised as necessary to conform with changing bed conditions. Calculation of flow rate is the
same as in the preceding subsection for current meters alone.
Weirs: Weirs are commonly used flow measurement devices. They are relatively easy to install and
inexpensive to construct. All weirs are deliberate restrictions inserted into an open channel or a partially full
pipe to obstruct flow by forcing the weir through a calibrated cross section. The weir causes water to back
up and create a higher level (head) than the level below the barrier. The height of that head is a function of
the velocity of the flow. Standard tables and nomographs are available for many different types of weirs,
based on different general equations for each type. The reader should refer to Exhibit 10-1 for a typical
profile of an installed weir.
The three most common weir configurations are triangular (or V-notch), rectangular, and Cipolletti (or
trapezoidal). The reader should refer to Exhibit 10-2 for examples. Triangular weirs can have submerged
angles of any size, but the most common angles are 22-1/2:, 30:, 45:, 60:, and 90:. Rectangular weirs may
be designed with no end contractions (the water flows over the full width of the weir) or with contractions
on one or both ends (water flows over a notch in the weir). The former case is referred to as a surpressed
weir, but this type is often subject to problems when a vacuum develops under the nappe (the sheet of
water breaking free from the crest of the weir). The most common type of rectangular weir is the con-
tracted or notched weir with end contractions. Standard contracted weirs have two end contractions
whose width is at least twice the maximum head expected above the weir crest. The Cipolletti weir has
standardized end slopes of one horizontal to four vertical, which provide a correction for the contraction of
the nappe over the crest. Other weir profiles exist, but they are much less common. The reader should
refer to the flow-measurement references in U.S. Department of Interior (USDA), 1974; Instrument
Specialists Company (ISCO), 1985; and USGS, 1982, for information on other types of weirs.
10-8
-------
Exhibit 10-1
PROFILE OF SHARP-CRESTED WEIR
K = approx. 1/8"
K
POINT TO
MEASURE
DEPTH, H
— I
20 Hmax.
STRAIGHT '
INLET RUN N-
•
i"
SHARP-CRESTED WEIR
at least
4H
..m.
10-9
-------
Exhibit 10-2
THREE COMMON TYPES OF SHARP-CRESTED WEIRS
H
Max. Level
RECTANGULAR WEIR
4
Umax.
X
1
4:1 slope
CIPOLLETTIWEIR
/ Hmax.
0
TRIANGULAR OR
V-NOTCHWEIR
L at least 3 Hmax.
X at least 2 Hmax.
x
i
10-10
-------
Flumes: Flumes are specially shaped open-channel flow sections with a restriction in channel area
and, in most examples, with a change in channel slope. Either or both of these shape changes cause
velocities to increase and water levels to change while passing through the flume. Typical flumes consist of
three sections:
• A converging section to accelerate the approaching flow
• A throat section, whose width is used to designate flume size
A diverging section, designed to ensure that the level downstream is lower than the level in the
converging section
Ideally, flowrate through a flume may be determined by measurements at a single point some distance
downstream from the inlet and above the throat. This single measurement indicates the discharge rate
only if critical or supercritical flow is achieved in the flume. By definition, critical flow is that for which the
Froude number (the ratio of force due to inertia to the force due to gravity) is unity. Supercritical flow oc-
curs when the Froude number exceeds unity. If the Froude number is less than one, subcritical flow oc-
curs; a second depth reading must be taken in the throat section to determine the true discharge rate.
Refer to USGS Water Supply Paper 2175, Volume 2, Chapter 10, for discussion of flumes and weirs under
all flow conditions, including submergence.
The most widely used flume type is the Parshall flume. These flumes may be constructed of wood,
fiberglass, concrete, plastic, or metal. The dimensions and capacities for 12 different standard Parshall
flumes are given in Exhibit 10-3. The reader should note that considerable overlap exists in capacities, in-
dicating that several different sizes can apply to most flow measurement requirements. Flow curves for
free-flow conditions are shown in Exhibit 10-4 for 17 Parshall flumes, ranging in size from 3 inches to 50
feet.
Another useful, more portable flume is the Palmer-Bowlus type, which uses the existing channel con-
figuration, but provides a level section of floor and some side contraction to produce supercritical flow.
Four commonly used shapes of Palmer-Bowlus flumes are illustrated in Exhibit 10-5. Note that in each
case, the floor length is approximately the same as the channel width. Materials of construction include
fiberglass, stainless steel, cast iron, or, for permanent installations, concrete. The principal advantage of
Palmer-Bowlus flumes is their ease of installation, while the main disadvantage is their smaller useful flow
range.
For measurement of low flowrates (less than 2.8 m3/sec or 100 cfs), one of the H-type flumes may be
used. These flumes are more nearly weirs than flumes or are more properly called open-channel flow noz-
zles, but they are included with flumes because of historical precedence. Because of their configuration,
design of these flumes combined the accuracy of a weir with the self-cleaning feature of a flume. H-type
flumes have the advantage of simple construction and can monitor flow over a wide range. They have flat,
unobstructed bottoms, sloping side contractions (much like the converging section of a flume), and a
trapezoid-shaped opening that tilts backwards toward the approaching flow. This opening is the flow con-
trol section; the flowrate is a function of the convergence angle, the side wall top slope, and the width of
the opening. H-type flume size is designated by the depth, D, of the flume at its entrance. There are three
basic configurations of H-type flumes, ranging from H flumes for low flows, through H flumes for medium
flows, to H flumes for high flows. Dimensions and capacities for H flumes are given in Exhibit 10-6. The
reader should consult standard flow references or manufacturers' published data for information on other
H-type flumes.
10-11
-------
Exhibit 10-3
DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES OF THE PARSHALL MEASURING
FLUME, FOR VARIOUS THROAT WIDTHS, W
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10-12
-------
Exhibit 10-4
FLOW CURVES FOR PARSHALL FLUMES
SPM
1,000,000
800,000
•00000
500,000
4OO000
300000
200000
100000
80000
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30000
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10-13
-------
Exhibit 10-5
VARIOUS SHAPES OF PALMER-BOWLUS FLUMES
End View
Longitudinal Mid-Sections
Vertical
Horizontal
(O
(d)
10-14
-------
Applicability: Flumes are more versatile than weirs, in that they can be used to measure higher
flowrates than comparably sized weirs; they are, to a large extent, self-cleaning because of higher velocities
through the throat section. They also operate with much smaller head losses than weirs. Their major dis-
advantage is the cost of construction and installation. As a result, flumes tend to be used only where many
measurements over a long period of time are contemplated. Another disadvantage is their insensitivity at
low flows because of the rectangular section.
In most cases, the smallest flume that can handle the maximum expected flow is chosen, but the chan-
nel width should also be considered when selecting a flume size. Generally, the flume's width should be
one-third to one-half of the channel width.
Palmer-Bowlus flume flowrates are best estimated from discharge tables published by the flume
manufacturers. The reader should note that tables covering flumes made by one manufacturer may not
apply to those of another manufacturer because of subtle discrepancies in shape or physical dimensions.
Also, field calibrated tests of flumes have indicated up to a 7 percent difference at low heads between ac-
tual and theoretical discharge rates. For Palmer-Bowlus flumes in general, the following equations state
some of the applicable relationships:
Q2 Ac3 Vc2
8 b ^ 2g
Where:
Ac = area at the critical depth in ft2
Q = discharge flow in cfs
32.2 ft/sec (acceleration because of gravity)
width of the flume in ft
Vc = critical velocity in ft/sec
dc = critical depth in ft
Discharge equations have been developed for various H-type flumes by Gwinn and Parsons. These
are quite complex and are not listed here. For further details on HS, H, and HL flumes, the reader should
refer to Subsection 10.1.7.
Submerged Orifices: An orifice flow-measuring device consists of a well-defined, typically circular or
rectangular hole that is designed to restrict flow when installed In a pipe or on a wall or bulkhead through
which flow can occur. Orifices may discharge freely into air or into water as a submerged flow. The sub-
merged orifice is more likely to be used in field investigations, especially where there is insufficient fall for a
weir, and a flume cannot be justified. As in the case of weirs, installation of thin plate orifices is relatively in-
expensive and simple, and variations in flowrate are easily accommodated by varying the size or shape of
the orifice. Exhibit 10-7 illustrates four common types of orifices: the sharp-edged, the rounded, the short
tube, and the Borda-type orifices. The reader should note that each offers different resistances to flow
even though the diameters are identical. The coefficient, C, shown for each type is used in calculations to
account for the different resistances.
Applicability: Submerged orifices may be used to measure flows where the opening can be kept full
of water and where the pressure head upstream and downstream of the orifice can be measured. If the
upstream water surface drops below the top of the orifice, flow will cease to follow the laws of orifice flow.
Instead, the partly submerged orifice will begin to function more like a weir. Orifices should be installed in
straight sections of the channel or pipe. Orifice diameter (or area for noncircular orifices) is a function of
the expected flow and may range in size from 10 percent to 90 percent of the cross sectional area. Flows
are estimated by measuring the pressure differential upstream and downstream, then relating this dif-
10-15
-------
1.9D
_i Type H flume
o
0$
Dike
Concrete, masonry or wood sides—,
A /
X
\
Concrete floor
A PLAN
• Stream channel
Concrete or mason
Dike
Slope 2X ± -f
SECTION ON CENTERLINE
STRAIGHT HEADWALL INSTALLATION
(for use when flume is to be installed in a well-defined natural channel)
I 190 J
r" ~ "*n
Front Elevation
0.3O
Side Elevation
Proportion! of the Type H Flume
Approximate
Depth -O
Feet
0.5
0./5
1.0
1 5
20
25
3.0
Capacities
Capacity
FT.3/s
0.3+
1-
2
5+
11
19
30+
m
CO
O
z
CO
61
31
m o
»o>
O
-n
I
T3
m
c
2
m
CO
Note For flumes less than 1 foot deep, the length
of flume is made greater than 1 35D so that
the float may be attached
-------
ference to the geometry of the orifice and channel cross section. For most applications the general equa-
tion is Q = CAK (Hi - H2)0'5, where Q is the discharge rate in cfs, A is the orifice area in ft2, H\ is the
pressure head at the center of the inlet to the orifice (in feet), Hi is the pressure head downstream of the
orifice (in feet), and C and ^"are constants derived from orifice shape and geometry. Values of Kmay be
calculated from the equation
K
0.5,
whereg = 32.2 ft/sec2 (acceleration as a result of gravity), ^2 is the orifice area in square feet and d\ is
the channel cross-sectional area in square feet. Alternatively, K may be approximated from the curve
shown as Exhibit 10-8 for known values of d\ and (h. The coefficient C will be relatively constant for most
d?]d\ ratios, but it will tend to increase for di]d\ ratios greater than 0.7. For example, the 0.61 coefficient
used with sharp-edged orifices covers all d^Jd\ ratios from 0.2 through 0.7, but it increases to 0.64 for the
case where d^Jdi = 0.8, and to 0.71 when dild\ = 0.9. In most cases, the orifice-to-channel ratio will be
less than 0.5, so the coefficient shown in Exhibit 10-8 will apply.
Water Stage Gauges, Recorders and Stilling Wells: In those instances where many repeated flow
measurements are to be made over a period of time, or where continuous flow readings are desired, it be-
comes necessary to provide a means for measuring surface elevation more efficiently. Water surface
elevation is the variable parameter for most applications, because the channel cross-sectional area at a
given point is usually fixed. Three ways of simplifying the measurement of surface water elevation are as
follows:
Installation of permanent water stage gauges at points where surface elevation readings are neces-
sary
Provision for automatic recorders that can track changes in elevation on a continuous basis
Installation of stilling wells for improving the reliability of surface-level measurements
Water stage gauges were discussed previously as an adjunct to the use of current meters, but they are
readily adapted to weirs and flumes as well. The graduated face of the gauge must be kept clean to ob-
serve the readings accurately. In addition to permanently mounted staff gauges, other types of calibrated
gages may be used (e.g., hook gauges, wire-weight gauges with graduated disk readouts, wire-tape
gauges, and chain gauges). All are designed to provide reference points so that surface elevations can be
more easily measured, but none allows for continuous measurements, because they are all dependent on
human observers.
Automatic recording devices can provide continuous readings of surface elevation by using graphic,
punched tape, or printed records of the rise and fall of the water surface. A common type of graphic re-
corder uses a weighted float and cable to rotate a float pulley, which in turn is linked to a flow cam and
base plate that cause a pen to move up or down the face of a recorder chart (Stevens, 1976). The reader
should refer to Exhibit 10-9 for a simplified sketch of this device. USGS prefers a digital punch-tape re-
corder because of its greater economy and flexibility and its compatibility with the use of computers to cal-
culate discharge records. The stages are recorded in increments of 0.01 feet and are transmitted to the re-
corder by rotation of an input shaft. Shaft rotation is converted by the instrument into a coded punch-tape
record. For details, the reader should refer to USGS Water Supply Paper 2175 (USGS, 1982). Other similar
10-17
-------
Exhibit 10-7
COEFFICIENTS OF FOUR TYPES OF ORIFICES
ORIFICES AND THEIR NOMINAL COEFFICIENTS
C
Sharp-Edged
L
0.61
Rounded
L
r
0.98
Short-Tube
;=5— *»
0.80
Borda
•— ' *>•
T
0.51
10-18
-------
Exhibit 10-8
CURVE FOR DETERMINING THE VALUES OF K USED IN THE
ORIFICE, VENTURI, AND FLOW NOZZLE EQUATIONS
10.4
10.2
10.0
9.8
9.6
X
2 9.4
> 9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.0
2g
1-r4
r =
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Values of r
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
10-19
-------
recorders sense changes in pressure at the water surface. A box containing a flexible diaphragm is
mounted at the water surface so that the rise and fall of the surface will increase or decrease the pressure
on the diaphragm. These changes in pressure are continuously recorded. The reader should refer to Ex-
hibit 10-10 for an example of this type of recorder mounted in a weir system. Another pressure-based re-
corder is shown in Exhibit 10-11; it is based on the fact that changes in water surface elevation will cause
increased or decreased resistance to air escaping from an immersed bubbler tube. A pressure-sensitive
translator drives the recording chart.
Stilling wells are specially designed reservoirs used to dampen the effects from surface variations or
ripples in the main channel, thus allowing for a more stable and steady surface-level measurement. Such
wells are especially desirable if float-type water level recorders are used. Several requirements must be
met when stilling wells are used:
They must be high enough to cover the entire expected range of surface levels. The well should
be long enough that its bottom is at least 0.3 m (1.0 feet) below the minimum stage expected.
They should be as vertical as possible, so that the float wire or tape can move vertically with no
drag or interference.
Intake pipes or holes should be large enough to make sure that water levels in the well do not lag
the rise or fall of levels in the stream.
They must have provisions to clean out and remove silt.
If used in freezing weather, they should be provided with a means for heating the devices unless
wells can be protected by surrounding ground and a subfloor.
Stilling wells should have sealed bottoms to avoid seepage if they are installed into streambanks.
Applicability: Calibrated water stage gauges are widely applicable to almost any flow measurement
problem. Custom-made gauges can even be calibrated to read cfs or m3/sec directly if all other conditions
besides surface elevation can be kept constant. This calibration is especially true for flumes and weirs
where cross-sectional areas are fixed.
Automatic recorders find their widest use where readings must be made continuously and where staff-
ing is not available around the clock. These recorders are relatively uncommon in site survey work be-
cause there are few occasions where continuous measurements are essential. Even flow readings for
nearby streams or rivers are rarely made on a continuous basis. However, the need may arise for special
application at certain sites, especially if ongoing remedial work is being done.
Stilling wells are beneficial for all flow measuring stations where multiple readings at a weir or flume
must be made. These wells are essential at any site where continuous recorders are installed. Because
stilling wells are isolated from the main flow by a small-diameter inlet, waves and surges in the main flow
will not appear in the well. But the well must be able to accurately reflect all steady fluctuations in the main
channel. The well may be made of concrete, wood, ceramic pipe, or metal pipe; it must have a solid bot-
tom; and, except for the inlet, it must be water tight. The stilling well inlet should be located at the desired
head measuring point in the primary flow measurement device (weir, flume, orifice). The inlet area should
be large enough to quickly reflect changes in the stream, but small enough to provide effective damping of
surges. Suggested sizes are as follows:
10-20
-------
Exhibit 10-9
FLOATING WATER ELEVATION MEASURING DEVICE
FLOAT PULLEY
FLOAT
PULLEY
FLOW CAM
PEN ARM I FLOW GEARS
10-21
-------
Exhibit 10-10
PRESSURE SENSOR
Shut Off Valve
Pneumatic Tube
American Integrating
Weir Meter
Atmospheric
Bleed Valve
Switch and Fuse
(115v. 60hz)
10-22
-------
Exhibit 10-11
AIR BUBBLER FOR MEASURING WATER DEPTH
An air bubbler will measure water depth in pipes and channels. The recorder
• gauges for the bubbler must be selected for the depth of flow because of low
• air back-pressure.
a i . i i
i i i i i i i i i r i TJ I7i
7-7*
Air Supply
O
Pressure gauges and reducing
valve • normally in meter
box as part of meter
o
Meter Box and Recorder
This method can be used in an
open channel or stilling well
to measure depth of flow
1/8 or 1/4 in. Pipe
10-23
-------
If the well is of 6-inch diameter, the inlet should be 3/8-inch diameter.
If the well is of 12-inch diameter, the inlet should be 1/2-inch diameter.
If the well is of 24-inch diameter, the inlet should be 3/4-inch diameter
If the well if of 30-inch diameter, the inlet should be 1-inch diameter.
If the well is of 36-inch diameter, the inlet should be 1-1/4-inch diameter.
USGS recommends at least 18-inch diameters for stilling wells, and prefers to use a 2- to 4-inch intake
line.
Selecting a site for the stilling well partially depends on locating an area where stream velocity cross-
sectional measurements can be carried out accurately under all variations of stage. The following criteria
are generally used, at least in part, for selecting a site for a stilling well.
• A fairly straight section of stream length should be chosen where turbulence is minimal and flow
maintains, as much as possible, a uniform flow under varying stages.
• This section should be accessible to a stable channel or control and should be where a stage dis-
charge relationship can be determined.
• An area should be selected that is proximate to where the cross-sectional measurements will be
made, possibly at some sort of permanent control structure (e.g., either a bridge where abutments
contain the stream width with increasing stages or an underwater rocky ledge). To be avoided are
undercut banks or areas where overland flooding will occur easily, or where streambed scour or
streambank erosion may occur over the study period.
• The site should be a position in the stream that is away from strong current areas, but where water
will be available to the stilling well under low flow conditions. A location should be chosen that will
also afford some protection to the installation from strong currents during flood events.
• The site should be at a location where the type of sediment is sand, gravel, consolidated clay, or a
mixture of these materials, since the substrate may be required to partially support the installation
and to resist settling or tilting of the structure.
• An area of low susceptibility to vandalism should be chosen.
For details on installation and maintenance of stilling wells, the reader should refer to USDI, 1965 and
1974; USGS, 1982; ISCO, 1985; and Stevens, 1978.
10.1.5.3 Methods and Applications: Alternative Flow Measurements
At times none of the foregoing flow measurements are applicable to the site-specific problem, so other
methods must be investigated. Some of the possibilities are briefly discussed below, but readers will need
to refer to other publications or manufacturers' instruction manuals for more details.
10-24
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Pitot Tubes: Although Pitot tubes are usually associated with flow measurements in closed pipes,
they can also be used to measure flow velocities in open channels. The principle is illustrated in Exhibit 10-
12, where the difference in pressure between an upstream reading and a downstream reading is directly re-
lated to flow velocity, at the point of measurement. Pitot tubes are available commercially, and
manufacturer's specifications should be consulted before use.
Applicability: Pitot tubes should be used where velocities are high enough to generate readable dif-
ferences in preasure. They are very inaccurate at low velocities, less than 1 fps. Measurements are best
made when the upstream straight section is 15 to 20 times the channel width. Pitot tubes are not reliable
for streams carrying high concentrations of suspended matter because the tube inlet plugs easily, giving in-
accurate pressure readings. The general formula for calculating discharge rates using Pitot tubes is Q =
AVwhere Q is flow in cfs,A is cross-sectional area of separate subsections of the channel in ft2, and V\s
flow velocity in ft/sec. Further, Kis calculated from
V
(P2-P1)
d
0.5
, where g = 32.2 ft/sec, P2-P\
is the change in pressure in Ib/ft2, and d is 62.4, the density of water in Ib/ft3. Substituting values for
the two constants gives V = 1.02 (Pz-Pi)0'5. The reader should note that/VPi is a pressure difference,
and not a measure of depth or head. For very small differences in P, the equation becomes meaningless.
The individual subsections' discharge rates are added together to define the total discharge rate for the en-
tire cross-sectional area.
Salt and Dye Solutions: The addition of salt or dye solutions provides a means for estimating
volumetric flow rates where channel geometry or inaccessibility render other methods useless. These
techniques depend on determining the amount of dilution that a known concentration of a salt or dye
receives as it mixes with a much larger volume of salt-free or dye-free water. As a result, the method does
not rely on accurate measurements of channel cross sections, water levels, or even velocity. The following
general conditions are relevant to successful use of this technique.
(The reader should refer to USDA, 1965; USGS, 1982; and Turner, 1976, for detailed information on salt
or dye dilution techniques.)
• The salt or dye used as a tracer should be absent in the original discharge flow, or, if salt or dye is
present, it must be of low enough concentration that additional salt or dye will yield a mixed con-
centration at least five times higher.
• The concentration and the injection rate of the tracer being added must be known. There are two
ways to add the tracer:
- At a constant rate so that downstream concentrations will eventually become constant
(best for low flows and inexpensive tracers; has long injection time).
- As a sudden injection or slug of tracer so that a relatively sharp peak concentration
can be detected downstream (best for higher flows; requires long sampling time and
many individual measurements to make certain peak is detected and quantified).
• The tracer must be stable both in solution and upon mixing with the discharge. It must not react
with any chemicals in the discharge.
10-25
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Exhibit 10-12
PITOT TUBE MEASURES VELOCITY HEAD
i
10-26
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• There must be sufficient mixing in the following stream to ensure that the tracer is evenly dis-
tributed on addition. The injection point should be far enough upstream to allow for turbulent
mixing before the first measuring point.
• Sufficient injection time must be provided to allow downstream samples to reach a concentration
plateau or reach a peak concentration, depending on which injection method is used.
Suitable tracers include sodium, potassium or lithium chloride, fluorescein, and Rhodamine WT dyes.
Ideally, concentrations are determined in the field to assure that the downstream concentration plateau
was reached and sustained.
Applicability: Salt and dye tracer methods have wide application since they do not rely on channel
geometry or the ability to measure velocities accurately. These methods do rely heavily on analyzing
chemicals, careful metering of concentrated salt and dye solutions, and being able to accurately determine
when tracers have reached a point far enough downstream to ensure complete mixing. Wide streams will
necessitate the collection of lateral samples for inclusion in the calculations. To guarantee low back-
grounds and the absence of materials that may react with the added salt or absorb the dyes, the natural
discharge must be analyzed before choice of salt or dye can be made.
Radioisotopes: Radioisotopes may be used as tracers instead of the salts and dyes discussed
above. Geiger or scintillation counters are used to determine background, concentrated injection solution,
and downstream levels of the radioisotopes added. Since radioactivity measurements are made on other
samples from hazardous waste sites, this flow measurement technique can be more easily practiced than
standard salt / dye tracer methods. The principles, procedures, and methods of calculating flowrates are
the same as for other tracers. The radioisotopes will give positive indications when downstream sampling
should commence, simplifying the sample collection task. Results are obtained in short order, since
analytical equipment and procedures need not be used. The major problem is the necessity for special
handling of the radioactive material to prevent exposure to the users and others at the site. Special licen-
ses are required prior to use, and considerable recordkeeping and documentation must be maintained.
Applicability: This procedure applies to all situations where salt and dye tracer methods apply. The
only exception that could occur would involve a site where background radioactivity is high enough to af-
fect the accuracy of the count. The radioisotopes chosen must have a high detectability range and a low
decay rate. The discharge formula for this method is Q = FAIN where Q is the flowrate, F is a calibra-
tion factor for the probe and the counting system (see the manufacturer's instructions), A is the total
amount of radioactivity injected, and N is the total count downstream.
Acoustic Flow Meters: Portable velocity meters, operating on the Doppler principle, have been suc-
cessfully used to measure flow passing through closed pipes. Use had been limited to situations where
bubbles or particles were evenly distributed through the flowing stream, since the meter transmits an
ultrasonic pulse that is reflected by the bubbles or particles. Under Ideal conditions, a Doppler shift occurs
and is directly related to the flow velocity. The meter translates this reading directly into velocity in feet/sec.
The pipe cross-sectional area is then multiplied by velocity to obtain discharge rate (U.S. EPA, 1984).
Recently, more sensitive meters have been developed for use in situations where the water is relatively free
of particles.
Applicability: In theory, this instrument is applicable to flow measurements in closed pipe, but in
practice many conditions have to be met to ensure reliable readings. The user must be careful to follow all
instructions for the particular instrument. All conditions specified for use must be met. Generally, all
measurements depend on the flowing stream's ability to transmit sound, on the presence of evenly dis-
tributed bubbles or small particles, and on the nonlaminar, turbulent flow of the water at the point of
measurement. The user should refer to the instruction manual for the selected instrument before commit-
ting it to service.
10-27
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Slope-Area Methods: In situations where installation of a weir or flume is impractical, but the cross-
sectional area and approximate slope of the channel are known, the Manning formula provides reasonable
estimates of flow velocity. Then the discharge flow rate is readily obtained by multiplying that velocity by
the cross-sectional area of the channel at the appropriate water level. No equipment or measuring device
is necessary other than a means for estimating water surface level in the channel. Tables are used to
simplify the calculation, or the basic Manning equation may be solved directly (USGS, 1982; USDA, 1974;
King, 1976; and Davis and Sorenson, 1969).
Applicability: The slope-area method is most useful when relatively few measurements are to be
made-too few to justify installation of permanent measurement equipment. The primary weakness in the
method is the fact that the slope of the hydraulic gradient is not always known, nor is it easy to estimate.
Another factor that seriously reduces the accuracy of the method is the need to estimate a roughness coef-
ficient for the channel surface. Because of the difficulties in assigning values to these two factors, the
slope-area method is subject to a 20 percent error rate, even when carefully practiced, and a much wider
potential error if estimated slopes or roughness coefficients are estimated inaccurately. The basic Manning
formula expresses velocity as
, where
Kis average velocity in feet/sec, n is the roughness coefficient, S is the slope of the hydraulic gradient,
and R is the hydraulic radius in feet. R, in turn, is calculated by dividing^, the cross-sectional area by P,
the wetted perimeter (that portion of the channel boundary that is under water).
Roughness coefficients, n, are listed in Water Measurement Manual by the Bureau of Reclamation for
most materials of channel construction. Ranges are given because the coefficients tend to increase with
time as a result of erosion, deposition of solids, and corrosion. For additional information on assessing ap-
propriate roughness coefficients, the reader should refer to USGS Water Supply Paper 1849.
10.1.6 Region-Specific Variances
In general, site-specific conditions and project requirements will strongly influence the selection of
flow-measurement methods. However, regional preferences may occur in method selection when past ex-
perience levels are considered. Region IV requires that all sampling and flow measurement events comply
with the procedures described in the "Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures and
Quality Assurance Manual" (ESBSOPQAM) dated 2 April 1986 and prepared by the Environmental Services
Divison of Region IV. Other similar region-specific variances may evolve as site work progresses and
methods are revised or newly published. The reader should contact the EPA RPM for the most up-to-date
information on revised methods or variances. Changes in variances will be included in Revision 01 of this
compendium.
10-28
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10.1.7 Information Sources
American Society for Testing and Materials. Manual on Water. 4th ed. Special Technical Publication
442A. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: ASTM. 1978.
Davis, C.V., and K.E. Sorenson. Handbook of Applied Hydraulics. 3rd ed. New York, New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill. 1969.
Fair, G.M., et al. Water Supply and Wastewater Removal. New York, New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. 1966.
Instrumentation Specialists Company. ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook. 2nd ed. Lin-
coln, Nebraska: ISCO. 1985.
King, H.W., and E.F. Brater. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th ed. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
1976.
Lythin, J.N. Drainage Engineering. Huntington, New York: R.E. Krieger Publishing Co. 1973.
Marsh-McBirney, Inc. Instruction Manual, Model 201 Portable Water Current Meter. Ga'rthersburg,
Maryland: Marsh- McBirney, Inc. Undated.
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission. Planning and Making Industrial Waste Surveys. Cincin-
nati, Ohio: ORSANCO. 1952.
Stevens. Stevens Water Resource Data Book. 3rded. Beaverton, Oregon: Lenpold-Stevens, Inc. 1978.
Turner. "Fluorometric Facts, Flow Measurements." Monograph. Mountain View, California: Turner
Designs Company. 1976.
U.S. Department of Interior, 1965a. "Discharge Measurements at Gaging Stations." Hydraulic Measure-
ment and Computations. Book I, Chapter 11. Washington, D.C.: USDA, Geological Survey. 1965.
U.S. Department of Interior, I965b. "Measurement of Discharge by Dye Dilution Methods." Hydraulic
Measurement and Computations. Book I, Chapter 14. Washington, D.C.: Geological Survey. 1965.
U.S. Department of Interior. Water Measurement Manual. 2nd ed. Revised. Washington, D.C.: USDA.
1974.
U.S. Department of Interior. National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition.
Reston, Virginia: USDA, OWDC, Geological Survey. 1977.
U.S. Department of Interior. Measurement and Computations of Streamflow: Volumes 1 and 2. Geological
Survey Water-Supply Paper 2175. Washington, D.C.: USDA. 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. ESB Standard Operating Procedures Quality Assurance Manual.
1986.
10-29
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Handbook for Monitoring Industrial Wastewater. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. EPA. 1979.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. NPDES Compliance Inspection Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
EPA. 1984.
10.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
10.2.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the collection of surface water, sediment samples, and
sludge at hazardous waste sites. The primary objective of any sampling program is the acquisition of
samples representative of the source under investigation. Such samples must be suitable for subsequent
analysis to enable identification of the types and amounts of pollutants present. Information derived from
sampling often forms the basis for litigation and development of remedial action, so all sampling programs
must be conducted in a manner that will stand the scrutiny of the court and the public.
10.2.2 Definitions
Sampling
The physical collection of a representative portion of the population, universe, or environment.
Environmental Samples
Usually offsite samples with mid- or low-contaminant concentrations, such as streams, ditches,
ponds, soils, and sediments, that are collected at some distance from direct sources of con-
taminants. Most surface waters are environmental samples.
Grab Samples
Discrete aliquots representing a specific location at a given point in time. The sample is col-
lected all at once and at only one particular point in the sample medium.
Composite Samples
Nondiscrete samples composed of more than one specific aliquot collected at various loca-
tions or at different points in time. Analyzing this type of sample produces an average value for
the locations or time period covered by sampling.
Surface Water Samples
Samples of water collected from streams, ponds, rivers, lakes, or other impoundments open to
the atmosphere. Surface waters flow over or rest on the land.
Sample Blanks
Samples of deionized or distilled water, rinsed collection devices or containers, sampling
media, etc., that are handled in the same manner as the unknown sample and are sub-
sequently analyzed to identify possible sources of contamination during collection, preserva-
tion, shipping, or handling.
Sediments
Particles derived from rocks or biological materials that have been transported by a fluid.
Sediments include solid matter (sludges) suspended in or settled from water.
10-30
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Sampling Plan
A detailed, site-specific plan that covers all sampling objectives and strategy for a given site.
The plan describes methods and equipment used, locations, number and type of samples,
safety requirements, transportation and shipping instructions, scheduling, and any other site-
related sampling requirements. The reader should refer to Section 4 for details.
10.2.3 Applicability
This subsection describes general methods for the physical sampling of surface waters, sludge, and
sediments. Iji most cases, such samples will be low- or medium-hazard wastes, rather than the more con-
centrated high-hazard wastes collected from drums or storage facilities. The individual site sampling plan
will always define the requirements for each sampling program. The reader should refer to Section 4 for
details.
The following procedures apply to surface water (streams, rivers, surface impoundments) and sedi-
ments (sludges, stream bottoms, solids settled out of water).
10.2.4 Responsibilities
Site Managers are responsible for identifying sampling team personnel, assuring that each team
member's responsibilities are assigned and understood, ensuring that the project-specific sampling proce-
dures are followed, maintaining chain-of-custody records, and determining that all sampling documents
have been completed properly and are accounted for.
Field personnel performing sampling are responsible for properly collecting samples, initiating chain-
of-custody forms (see Section 4), monitoring traffic reports, and over seeing the necessary sample docu-
ments, as required.
The sampling and analysis coordinator, equipment manager, or the EPA's Sample Management Office
authorized requester is responsible for arranging the sample bottle deliveries and coordinating the activities
of the field personnel and the Sample Management Office.
10.2.5 Records
The various documents, forms, labels, and tags that sampling teams will use in the field have been
standardized and are described in detail in Sections 4 and 17. These include field logbooks, sample log
sheets, sample labels, sample identification tags, traffic reports (organic, inorganic, and high hazard), cus-
tody seals, and chain-of-custody forms. Other forms are not usually standardized (e.g., sample shipping
documents that may vary according to the shipping company's requirements or photographic records that
necessarily must vary from site to site).
10-31
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10.2.6 Sampling Procedures
10.2.6.1 General Considerations
Regardless of the sampling methods or equipment selected, there are several general procedures that
are applicable to the collection of all surface water, sludge, or sediment samples. These procedures in-
clude the following:
Before commencing collection of samples, thoroughly evaluate the site. Observe the number and
location of sample points, landmarks, references, and routes of access or escape.
Record pertinent observations. Include a sketch, where appropriate, identifying sample locations.
Prepare all sampling equipment and sample containers prior to entering site. Provide protective
wrapping to minimize contamination.
Place sample containers on flat, stable surfaces for receiving samples. Use sorbent materials to
control spills, if any.
Plan to collect samples first from those areas that are suspected of being the least contaminated
so that areas of suspected contamination are collected last, thus minimizing the risk of cross con-
tamination.
Collect samples and securely close containers as quickly as feasible. Where possible, make field
observations (pH, temperature, conductivity) at the source rather than in containers.
Follow the sampling plan in every detail. Document all steps in the sampling procedures.
For potentially hazardous samples, dispose of sampling gear as determined in the sampling plan,
or carry it back to the contamination reduction corridor for decontamination and cleaning in a plas-
tic bag.
For potentially hazardous samples, deliver the sample containers and equipment to the decon-
tamination station for cleaning prior to further handling.
Always be attentive to the potential hazards posed by the sampling procedures and the material
sampled.
Sampling in the Superfund program is closely guided by many EPA documents that originate in several
offices. Guidance documents are listed in the subsection on information sources.
10.2.6.2 Methods and Applications: Surface Water
Because each hazardous waste site will contain a variety of waste substances, a variety of sampling
equipment and techniques will be necessary. By following the procedures out lined in this compendium,
the degree of uniformity necessary for defining characteristics of hazardous waste sites can be obtained.
Surface Water Sampling: Samples from shallow depths can be readily collected by merely submerg-
ing the sample container. The container's mouth should be positioned so that it faces upstream, while the
sampling personnel are standing down stream so as not to stir up any sediment to contaminate the
sample. The method is advantageous when the sample might be significantly altered during transfer from a
10-32
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collection vessel into another container. This is the case with samples collected for oil and grease analysis,
since considerable material may adhere to the sample transfer container and, as a result, produce inac-
curately low analytical results. Similarly, the transfer of a liquid into a small sample contained for volatile or-
ganic analysis, if not done carefully, could result in significant aeration and resultant loss of volatile species.
Though simple, representative, and generally free from substantial material disturbances, the act of trans-
ferring has significant shortcomings when applied to a hazardous waste, since the external surface of each
container would then need to be decontaminated.
In general, the use of a sampling device, either disposable or constructed of a nonreactive material
such as glass, stainless steel, or Teflon, is the most prudent method. The device should have a capacity of
at least 500 ml, if possibly, to minimize the number of times the liquid must be disturbed, thus reducing
agitation of any sediment layers. A 1-liter polypropylene or stainless steel beaker with pour spout and
handle works well. Any sampling device may contribute contaminants to a sample. The sampling devices
that should be selected are those that will not compromise sample integrity and will give the desired
analytical results.
Collecting a representative sample from a larger body of surface water is difficult but not impossible.
Samples should be collected near the shore unless boats are feasible and permitted. If boats are used, the
body of water should be cross sectioned, and samples should be collected at various depths across the
water in accordance with the specified sampling plan. For this type of sampling, a weighted-bottle sampler
is used to collect samples at any predetermined depth. The sampler (Exhibit 10-13) consists of a glass bot-
tle, a weighted sinker, a bottle stopper, and a line that is used to open the bottle and to lower and raise the
sampler during sampling. There are variations of this sampler, as illustrated in ASTM methods D 270 and E
300. This sampler can be either fabricated or purchased. The procedure for use is as follows:
• Assemble the weighted bottle sampler as shown in Exhibit 10-13.
• Gently lower the sampler to the desired depth so as not to remove the stopper prematurely.
• Pull out the stopper with a sharp jerk of the sampler line.
• Allow the bottle to fill completely, as evidenced by the cessation of air bubbles.
• Raise the sampler and cap the bottle.
• Wipe the bottle clean. The bottle can be also be used as the sample container.
Teflon bailers have also been used while feasible for collecting samples in deep bodies of water.
Where cross-sectional sampling is not appropriate, near-shore sampling may be done using a pond
sampler (refer to Exhibit 10-14).
In this instance, a modification that extends the reach of the sampling technician is most practical. The
modification incorporates a telescoping heavy-duty aluminum pole with an adjustable beaker clamp at-
tached to the end. A disposable glass, plastic container, or the actual sample container itself can be fitted
into the clamp. In situations where cross contamination is of concern, use of a disposable contained or the
actual sample container is always advantageous. The cost of properly cleaning usually outweighs the cost
of disposal of otherwise reusable glassware or bottles, especially when the cleanup must be done in the
field. The potential contamination of samples for volatile organic analysis by the mere presence of organic
solvents necessary for proper field cleaning is usually too great to risk.
10-33
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Exhibit 10-13
WEIGHTED-BOTTLE SAMPLER
Washer
Pin
Eyelet
Nut
1000-ml (1-quart) weighted-
bottle catcher
10-34
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Exhibit 10-14
POND SAMPLER
Varlgrip clamp
Bolt hole
Beaker, polyprop-
ylene, 250 ml
Pole, telescoping, aluminum, heavy
duty, 250-450 cm (96-180")
10-35
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Peristaltic
Pump
Medical-Grade Silicone Tubing
CO
O)
Intake
•CL
NZ
>t— Assn
Assorted Lengths
of Teflon Tubing
Discharge
to Sample Container
m
rm
H x
11
12
(001
>
TJ
-------
Another method of extending the reach of sampling efforts is the use of a small peristaltic pump (see
Exhibit 10-15). In this method the sample is drawn through heavy-wall Teflon tubing and pumped directly
into the sample container. This system allows the operator to reach into the liquid body, sample from
depth, or sweep the width of narrow streams.
If medical-grade silicon tubing is used in the peristaltic pump, the system is suitable for sampling al-
most any parameter including most organics. Some volatile stripping, however, may occur; though the
system may have a high flow rate, some material may be lost on the tubing. Therefore, pumping methods
should be avoided for sampling volatile organics or oil and grease. Battery-operated pumps of this type
are available and can be easily carried by hand or with a shoulder sling. It is necessary in most situations
to change both the Teflon suction line and the silicon pump tubing between sample locations to avoid
cross contamination. This action requires maintaining a sufficiently large stock of material to avoid having
to clean the tubing in the field.
When medical-grade silicon tubing is not available or the analytical requirements are particularly strict,
the system can be altered as illustrated in Exhibit 10-16. In this configuration, the sample volume accumu-
lates in the vacuum flask and does not enter the pump. The integrity of the collection system can now be
maintained with only the most nonreactive material contacting the sample. Some loss in lift ability will
result since the pump is now moving air, a compressible gas rather than an essentially noncompressible
liquid. Also, this system cannot be used if volatile compounds are to analyzed. The potential for losing
volatile fractions because of reduced pressure in the vacuum flask renders this method unacceptable for
use.
It may sometimes be necessary to sample large bodies of water where a near-surface sample will not
sufficiently characterize the body as a whole. In this instance, the above-mentioned pump is quite service-
able. It is capable of lifting water from depths in excess (but not much in excess) of 6 meters. It should be
noted that this lift ability decreases somewhat with higher density fluids and with increased wear on the
silicone pump tubing. Similarly, increases in altitude will decrease the pump's ability to lift from depth.
When sampling a liquid stream that exhibits a considerable flowrate, it may be necessary to weight the bot-
tom of the suction line.
Samples from various locations and depths can be composited where investigative goals indicate that
it is appropriate; otherwise, separate samples will have to be collected. Approximate sampling points
should be identified on a sketch of the water body. The following procedures are used for samples col-
lected using transfer devices:
Submerge a stainless steel dipper or other suitable device with minimal surface disturbance. Note
the approximate depth and location of the sample source (for example, 1 foot up from bottom or
just below the surface).
Allow the device to fill slowly and continously.
Retrieve the dipper or device from the surface water with minimal disturbance.
Remove the cap from the sample bottle and slightly tilt the mouth of the bottle below the dipper or
device edge.
Empty the dipper or device slowly, allowing the sample stream to flow gently down the side of the
bottle with minimal entry turbulence.
Continue delivery of the sample until the bottle is almost completely filled. Check all procedures
for recommended headspace for expansion.
10-37
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Exhibit 10-16
MODIFIED PERISTALTIC PUMP SAMPLER
Teflon Connector
6mm I.D.
-Liter Erlenmeyer
or Sample Bottle
Stopper to Fit
Flask or Sample Bottle
Teflon Tubing
6 mm O.D.
Peristaltic
Pump
V
Outlet
10-38
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• Preserve the sample, if necessary, as per guidelines in sampling plan. In most cases, preservatives
should be placed in sample containers before sample collection to avoid over exposure of samples
and overfilling of bottles during collection.
• Check that a Teflon liner is present in the cap if required. Secure the cap tightly. Tape cap to bot-
tle; then date and initial the tape.
• Label the sample bottle with an appropriate sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parameters. Record the information in the field logbook
and complete the chain-of-custody form.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium / high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in
shipping soil samples, but ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
• Dismantle the sampler, wipe the parts with terry towels or rags, and store them in plastic bags for
subsequent disposal. Follow all instructions for proper decontamination of equipment and person-
nel.
The reader should refer to Sections 4,5, and 6 for additional details.
For samples collected using peristaltic pumps:
• Install clean, medical-grade silicone tubing in the pump head, as per the manufacturer's instruc-
tions. Allow sufficient tubing on the discharge side to facilitate convenient dispensation of liquid
into sample bottles but only enough on the suction end for attachment to the intake line. This
practice will minimize sample contact with the silicone pump tubing. (Some types of thinner Teflon
tubing may be used.)
• Select the length of suction intake tubing necessary to reach the required sample depth and attach
the tubing to intake side of pump tubing. Heavy-wall Teflon of a diameter equal to the required
pump tubing will suit most applications. (A heavier wall will allow for a slightly greater lateral
reach.)
• If possible, allow several liters of sample to pass through the system before actual sample collec-
tion. Collect this purge volume, and then return it to source after the sample aliquot has been col-
lected.
• Fill necessary sample bottles by allowing pump discharge to flow gently down the side of bottle
with minimal entry turbulence. Cap each bottle as filled.
• Preserve the sample, if necessary, as per guidelines in sampling plans. In most cases, preserv-
atives should be placed in sample containers before sample collection to avoid overexposure of
samples and overfilling of bottles during collection.
• Check that a Teflon liner is present in the cap, if required. Secure the cap tightly. Tape cap to bot-
tle; then date and initial the tape.
10-39
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• Label the sample bottle with an appropriate tag. Be sure to complete the tag with all necessary in-
formation. Record the information in the field logbook, and complete the chain-of-custody docu-
ments.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium/ high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in
shipping soil samples, but ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
• Allow system to drain thoroughly; then disassemble. Wipe all parts with terry towels or rags, and
store them in plastic bags for subsequent cleaning. Store all used towels or rags in garbage bags
for subsequent disposal. Follow all instructions for proper decontamination of equipment and per-
sonnel.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for additional details.
At times it is most convenient to collect surface water samples at the flow measuring device (e.g., a
weir, stream, or discharge pipe). Good representative samples can usually be collected because such
flows have been mixed well. Sampling personnel have been trained to seek out the best locations for col-
lecting representative samples. Requirements are spelled out in the site sampling plans, and the need for
deviation from the plans occurs only rarely. There is no substitute for experience when it comes to locating
"ideal" sampling points and collecting good samples.
10.2.6.3 Methods and Applications: Sediments and Sludges
Many of the same constraints that apply to surface water sampling also relate to the collection of sedi-
ments and sludges. Sediments are examined to measure whether contaminants are concentrating along
stream bottoms, creating hot spots that may have high concentrations of heavy metals, pesticides, or low-
solubility organic matter. Sediments may be watery, with relatively little difference in density from water, or
they may be compacted semi-solids where water is a minor fraction of the mass. Because of such dif-
ference, a variety of sampling methods and equipment may be necessary.
If the sediment has the potential for being considered a hazardous material, disposable sampling
equipment should be considered. For watery sludges from stream bottoms near shore, the pond sampler
shown as Exhibit 10-14 can be used, since the plastic beaker can be disposed of, if the sampling plan so
ordains. Other devices could include plastic pails or ladles for scooping up sediments from shallow water.
The user should allow time for settling to occur, then decant the water off the top of the sediment before
transferring samples to their containers. The user should sample only with plastic beakers, pails, or ladles
where sample integrity of organics will not be compromised.
The semi-solid sediments near shore or above the water line are most easily collected using simple
tools (e.g., polypropylene scoops, trowels, or dippers). Other alternatives for small semi-solid sediments
include wooden tongue depressors or stainless steel tablespoons.
If stream-bottom samples of sediment are necessary, vertical-pipe or core samplers are used and can
be driven into stream beds to any selected depth. During retrieval, samples are retained inside the cylinder
by a partial vacuum formed above the sample and/or by a retainer at the lower end. For compacted sedi-
ment, sampling triers or waste pile samplers may be used as long as sample points are above the wator
10-40
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Exhibit 10-17
PONAR GRAB SAMPLER
10-41
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surface or in very shallow water. If deep water samples from large streams or lakes are specified, special-
ized samplers (e.g., Eckman or Ponar dredges) are used.
No matter what equipment is used, the following general conditions apply:
• Collect at least three small, equal-sized samples from several points along the sludge or sediment
deposition area. If possible, mark the location with a numbered stake, and locate sample points on
a sketch of the site. Deposit sample portions in a clean, 1/2-gallon wide-mouth jar. Carefully stir
portions together into one composite.
• Sediments from large streams, lakes, and the like may be taken with Eckman or Ponar dredgos
from a boat. Refer to Exhibit 10-17 for an example of a Ponar grab sampler. Ponar grab samplers
are more applicable to a wide range of sediments and sludges because they penetrate deeper and
seal better than spring-activated types (e.g., Eckman dredges).
• Streams and lakes will likely demonstrate significant variations in sediment composition with
respect to distance from inflows, discharges.or other disturbances. It is important, therefore, to
document exact sampling location by means of triangulation with stable references on the banks
of the stream or lake. In addition, the presence of rocks, debris, or organic material may compli-
cate sampling and preclude the use of, or require modification to, some devices. Sampling of sedi-
ments should, therefore, be conducted to reflect these and other variants.
• Transfer 100 to 200 grams of the composite sludges or sediments from the 1/2-gallon jar to a 250-
ml sample bottle. Attach identification label number and tag. Record all necessary information in
the field logbook and on the sample log sheet. Return unused sample to its source.
• Store the sampler and jars in a plastic bag until decontamination or disposal.
• Tape the lid on the sample bottle securely, and mark the tape with the date and the sample
collector's initials.
• Pack the samples for shipping. Attach a custody seal to the shipping package. Make certain that
a traffic report and chain-of custody forms are properly filled out and enclosed or attached.
The reader should refer to Sections 4, 5, and 6 for additional details.
Specific sampling equipment for collecting sediment and sludge specimens and procedures for their
use are as follows:
Scoops and Trowels: This method provides for a simple, quick, and easy means of collecting a dis-
turbed sample of a sludge or sediment.
• Collect the necessary equipment, and clean according to the requirements for the analytical
parameters to be measured.
• Sketch the sample area, or note recognizable features for future reference.
• Insert scoop or trowel into material, and remove sample. In the case of sludges exposed to air, it
may be desirable to remove the first 1 to 2 cm of material prior to collecting sample.
10-42
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• If compositing a series of grab samples, use a plastic or stainless steel mixing bowl or Teflon tray
for mixing.
• Transfer sample into an appropriate sample bottle with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop,
or spatula.
• Check that a Teflon liner is present in cap, if required. Secure the cap tightly. The chemical
preservation of solids is generally not recommended. Refrigeration to 4°C is usually the best ap-
proach, supplemented by a minimal holding time.
• Label the sample bottle with the appropriate sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody documents,
and record in the field logbook.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium / high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in
shipping soil samples, but ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4,5, and 6 for additional details.
Hand Corers: (see Exhibit 10-18) Hand corers are applicable to the same situations and materials
as the scoop described above. Corers have the further advantage of collecting an undisturbed sample that
can profile any stratification in the sample as a result of changes in the deposition.
Some hand corers can be fitted with extension handles that will allow the collection of samples under-
lying a shallow layer of liquid. Most corers can also be adapted to hold liners generally available in brass or
polycarbonate plastic. Care should be taken to choose a material that will not compromise the intended
analytical procedures.
• Inspect the cores for proper precleaning.
• Force cores in with smooth continuous motion.
• Twist cores; then withdraw in a single smooth motion.
• Remove nosepiece and withdraw sample into a stainless steel or Teflon tray.
• Transfer sample into an appropriate sample bottle with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop,
or spatula.
• Label the sample bottle with the appropriate sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody documents,
and record In the field logbook.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No Ice is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium / high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in
10-43
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Exhibit 10-18
HAND CORER
Check Valve
Nosepiece
10-44
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shipping soil samples, but ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4,5, and 6 for additional details.
Gravity Corers: (see Exhibit 10-19). A gravity corer is a metal tube with a replaceable tapered
nosepiece on the bottom and a ball or other type of check valve on the top. The check valve allows water
to pass through the corer on descent but prevents washout during recovery. The tapered nosepiece
facilitates cutting and reduces core disturbance during penetration. Most corers are constructed of brass
or steel, and many can accept plastic liners and additional weights.
Corers are capable of collecting samples of most sludges and sediments. The corers collect essential-
ly undisturbed samples that represent the profile of strata which may develop in sediments and sludges
during variations in the deposition process. Depending on the density of the substrate and the weight of
the cores, penetration to depths of 75 cm (30 inches) can be attained. Care should be exercised when
using gravity corers in vessels or lagoons that have liners, since penetration depths could exceed that of
substrate and result in damage to the liner material.
• Attach a precleaned corer to the required length of sample line. Solid braided 5 mm (3/16 inch)
nylon line is sufficient; 20 mm (3/4 inch) nylon, however, is easier to grasp during hand hoisting.
• Secure the free end of the line to a fixed support to prevent accidental loss of the corer.
• Measure and mark distance to top of sludge on sampler line to determine depth of sludge or sedi-
ment coring.
• Allow corer to free fall through liquid to bottom.
• Determine depth of sludge penetration.
• Retrieve corer with a smooth, continuous lifting motion. Do not bump corer because this may
result in some sample loss.
• Remove nosepiece from corer, and slide sample out of corer into stainless steel or Teflon pan.
• Transfer sample into appropriate sample bottle with a stainless steel laboratory spoon, scoop, or
spatula.
• Check that a Teflon liner is present in cap, if required. Secure the cap tightly. The chemical
preservation of solids is generally not recommended. Refrigeration to 4°C is usually the best ap-
proach, supplemented by a minimal holding time.
• Label the sample bottle with the appropriate sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody documents,
and record in the field logbook.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in shipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium / high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxin samples. Ice is not required in
shipping soil samples, but ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4,5, and 6 for additional details.
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Exhibit 10-19
GRAVITY CORER
Stabilizing Fins
r
Nosepiece
10-46
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Ponar Grab Sampler: (see Exhibit 10-17) The Ponar grab is a clamshell-type scoop activated by a
counter-lever system. The shell is opened, latched in place, and slowly lowered to the bottom. When ten-
sion is released on the lowering cable, the latch releases and the lifting action of the cable on the lever sys-
tem closes the clamshell.
Ponars are capable of sampling most types of sludges and sediments from silts to granular materials.
They are available in a "petite" version with a 232-square-centimeter sample area that is light enough to be
operated without a winch or crane. Penetration depths will usually not exceed several centimeters. Grab
samplers are not capable of collections undisturbed samples. As a result, material in the first centimeter of
sludge cannot be separated from that at lower depths. The sampling action of these devices causes agita-
tion currents that may temporarily resuspend some settled solids. This disturbance can be minimized by
slowly lowering the sampler the last half-meter and by allowing a very slow contact with the bottom. It is
advisable, however, to collect sludge or sediment samples only after all overlying water samples have been
obtained. Steps in using Ponar dredges are as follows:
• Attach a precleaned Ponar to the necessary length of sample line. Solid braided 5 mm (3/16 Inch)
nylon line is usually of sufficient strength; however, 20 mm (3/4 inch) or greater nylon line allows for
easier hand hoisting.
• Measure and mark the distance to top of sludge on the sample line. Record depth to top of sludge
and depth of sludge penetration.
• Open sampler jaws until latched. From this point on, support the sampler by its lift line, or the
sampler will be tripped and the jaws will close.
• Tie free end of sample line to fixed support to prevent accidental loss of sampler.
• Begin lowering the sampler until the proximity mark is reached.
• Slow rate of descent through last meter until contact is felt.
• Allow sample line to slack several centimeters. In strong currents, more slack may be necessary to
release mechanism.
• Slowly raise dredge clear of surface.
• Place Ponar into a stainless steel or Teflon tray and open. Lift Ponar clear of the tray, and return
Ponar to laboratory for decontamination.
• Collect a suitable aliquot with a stainless steel laboratory spoon or equivalent, and place sample
into appropriate sample bottle.
• Label the sample bottle with the appropriate sample tag. Be sure to label the tag carefully and
clearly, addressing all the categories or parameters. Complete all chain-of-custody documents
and records in the field logbook.
• Place the properly labeled sample bottle in an appropriate carrying container. Water samples for
low- or medium-level organics analysis and low-level inorganics must be shipped cooled to 4°C
with ice. No ice is to be used in snipping inorganic low-level soil samples; medium / high-level
water samples, organic high-level water or soil samples, or dioxln samples. Ice is not required in
shipping soil samples, but Ice may be used at the option of the sampler. All cyanide samples,
however, must be shipped cooled to 4°C. Use a custody seal on the shipping package and make
certain that traffic report forms are properly filled out.
The reader should refer to Sections 4,5, and 6 for additional details.
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10.2.7 Region-Specific Variations
The reader should refer to Subsection 10.1.6 for discussion. In addition to examples cited there, cer-
tain specific procedures may be subject to continuous revisions, so users should contact the EPA RPM for
to the most recent procedures advocated by each region. For example, sediment sampling for possible
TCDD contamination contains special precautions as outlined in Section 13. Some regions will incorporate
these precautions, whereas others will prohibit use of certain equipment. Such variances change from
month to month, so a special effort has to be made by SMs and field team leaders to keep current on the
various requirements. Revision 01 to this compendium will include updated variances.
10.2.8 Information Sources
deVera, E.R., B.P. Simmons, R.D. Stephens, and D.L Storm. "Samplers and Sampling Procedures for
Hazardous Waste Streams." EPA 600/2-80-018. January 1980.
Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory (EMSL), ORD, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Characterization of Hazardous Waste Sites-A Method Manual, Volume II-Available Sampling Methods. Las
Vegas, Nevada 89114. 1983.
Lind, Orent. Handbook of Common Methods of Limnology. St. Louis, Missouri: C.V. MosbyCo. 1974.
OWDC, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. National Handbook of Recommended
Methods for Water-Data Acquisition. Prepared cooperatively by agencies of the U.S. Government. Reston,
Virginia. 1977.
Smith, R., and G.V. James. 77ie Sampling of Bulk Materials. London: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
1981.
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SECTION 11
METEOROLOGY AND AIR QUALITY
11.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 11 describes the meteorological data that are required to make preliminary (screening) assess-
ments of exposure to hazardous air pollutants before site-specific monitoring data are available. Similarly,
the meteorological data requirements for conducting analyses of more refined air quality modeling are
described in terms of using both representative offsite and site-specific data. The section also identifies
procedures for obtaining the appropriate meteorological information both from existing sources and by
conducting site-specific monitoring programs.
11.1.1 Meteorological Parameters for Screening Model Analyses
11.1.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection describes the meteorological data required to make preliminary assessments of ex-
posure to hazardous air pollutants through the use of screening dispersion models. These models are
generally used before site-specific monitoring data are available. Screening models purposely over es-
timate air quality input. This over-estimation is largely a result of the generalization of model inputs and the
assumption inherent in the models that certain meteorological conditions, which produce high impacts
occur and persist at the site. It is useful to describe the required meteorological parameters, how they are
obtained and applied in screening models, and how the results may be used. Such information provides a
more complete perspective in determining the possible need for more refined modeling analyses and the
associated meteorological data requirements. This subsection provides a general discussion of model
selection with more specific guidance provided in the references. Selection of an appropriate model
depends on project- and site-specific considerations.
11.1.1.2 Definitions
Specific descriptions of the following generic terms are provided in the text.
Dispersion Model
A set of algorithms designed to simulate the transport and diffusion of airborne pollutants to
obtain estimates of pollutant concentrations at specific receptor locations for specific time
periods.
Hazardous Air Pollutant
An air pollutant to which no ambient air quality standard applies and that, in the judgment of
the Administrator of the U.S. EPA, causes, or contribute to, air pollution that may reasonably
be anticipated to result in an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible illness
or incapacitating reversible illness.
Joint Frequency Distribution
A statistical distribution that lists the frequency of concurrent wind speed, wind direction, and
atmospheric stability data by individual wind speed groups, wind direction sectors, and atmos-
pheric stability classes.
11-1
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Receptors
The fixed locations relative to modeled sources at which concentration estimates are
predicted.
Screening Technique
A relatively sirnpie analysis technique to determine if a given source is likely to pose a threat to
air quality. Concentration estimates from screening techniques are conservative,
Site Manager (SRfl)
The Individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager end is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Source
The point or a/a^ of origin of hazardous pollutants emitted into the ambient air.
Source Terms
The set of information rhat describes the rates, locations, dimensions, and operational and
physical release characteristics of hazardous pollutants emitted into the ambient air.
11.1,1.3 Applicability
Screening models are used to provide a conservative estimate of the air quality impact of a specific
source or source category (U.S. E.PA, 1978, p. 17). Depending on the level of refinement, screening model
analyses can also be used to determine: the meteorological conditions that result in maximum short-term
and long-term impacts; the potential for exceeding acceptable ambient concentrations; the receptor loca-
tions at which maximum ambient levels are predicted to occur (for use if refined modeling is needed); and
impacts on sensitive receptors (State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators / Association of
Local Air Pollution Control Officials (STAPPA/ALAPCO), 1984, pp. 135-136). The guidance for use of
screening models was developed primarily in relation to the evaluation of sources of "criteria" air pollutants
(e.g., particulates, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide) for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards
exist (U.S. EPA, 1981 a). The need for equivalent standards for the host of hazardous air pollutants is
recognized by federal, state, and local agencies charged with protecting the air quality in their jurisdictions
(STAPPA/ALAPCC, 1984).
These currently evolving standards are expressed in terms of a concentration averaged over some
period of time. The averaging time depends on the specific health impacts known to be associated with a
hazardous substance. The ability of these substances to have an impact on health over the short term
(e.g., a 24 hour average) and the long term (e.g., an annual average) creates the need for screening
analyses to be performed over these different time scales (STAPPA/ALAPCO, 1984, pp. 132-134). The
meteorological input data requirements differ between screening models that produce short-term and long-
term concentration estimates. These requirements are discussed in Subsection 11.1.1.6.2.
11.1.1.4 Responsibilities
Project Meteorologist and Air Quality Analyst: This person is responsible, through coordination
with the appropriate regulatory agencies, for selecting appropriate screening methodologies and model(s),
selecting representative meteorological data required as model input, performing model calculations,
evaluating and reporting results, and maintaining records that document these activities. The execution of
air quality models requires the input of source-term data. If they have the requisite engineering skills,
project meteorologist and air quality analysts may develop this information; if they do not have this
capability, they will need to work closely with the SM.
11-2
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Site Manager: The SM is responsible for the program design and coordination. The project engineer
also interacts with the project meteorologist in modeling and monitoring applications, such as source term
development.
11.1.1.5 Records
Records of the meteorological data selected for use in the screening model analyses must be main-
tained to validate these data and to evaluate the modeling results. Selection and determination of the rep-
resentativeness of meteorological parameters should be documented, as well as the selection, application,
and results of the model analyses. The level of detail in these records must support the program's quality
assurance requirements, which are to be established before making the screening model analyses.
Quality assurance records include those records that furnish documentary evidence of the quality of
items and of activities affecting quality. Examples of such records include, but are not limited to, the follow-
ing: raw data records (e.g., strip charts), data validation findings, equipment maintenance and calibration
records, work instructions, work scopes (design control documents), model inputs and outputs, modeling
assumptions, and software documentation and verification.
11.1.1.6 Procedures
11.1.1.6.1 Screening Model Selection
The screening methodology to be used is selected in coordination with the appropriate federal, state,
or local agencies. Technical considerations (based on the level of refinement required) that should be
made include the appropriate averaging periods for acceptable ambient concentrations; source release
characteristics (e.g., point, area, or line / volume sources; elevated or ground-level releases); the topog-
raphy of the site and surrounding area; and the availability of appropriate meteorological data. As dis-
cussed earlier, the averaging period determines the selection of a short- or long-term screening model.
Source release charateristics influence the selection process by defining the need for either simplistic
models (e.g., one source or source type) or more sophisticated models (e.g., multiple source types and
release characteristics). Topography and receptor locations influence the selection process by defining
the need for models capable of representing airborne pollutant transport over flat, rolling, or complex ter-
rain. Screening models approved by the U.S. EPA are provided in the User's Network for Applied Modeling of
Air Pollution (UNAMAP), Version 6 (U.S. EPA, 1986). U.S. EPA provides guidelines for screening model
selection and application (U.S. EPA, 1977, 1981b, and 1986). The project meteorologist and air quality
analyst should be familiar with this guidance and with the available screening models before coordinating
with the appropriate regulatory agencies.
11.1.1.6.2 Meteorological Data Selection
Screening model analyses are generally made before site-specific meteorological data are available.
This process requires the selection of a meteorological database that will provide a conservation assess-
ment of the air quality impact at the hazardous waste site and surrounding area. The selection of
meteorological data for use in screening assessments depends on the level of refinement of the modeling
methodology and the representativeness of the available data. These input data vary from selected "worst
case" meteorological scenarios to a source of data, such as the National Weather Service (NWS) whose
routine observations are archived by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) in Asheville, North Carolina.
Data from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and military stations (U.S. EPA, 1981c, p. 5) or from
universities, industry, pollution control agencies, and consultants (U.S. EPA, 1980, p. 31) may be used if
these data are equivalent in accuracy and detail to the NWS data. The project meteorologist and air quality
analyst must determine the representativeness of any offsite data and the validity of their use, along with
the screening model, in providing a conservative assessment. The representativeness depends on the
11-3
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proximity of the station to the area under consideration, the complexity of the terrain, and the exposure of
the meteorological monitoring equipment at the station. This selection process is also made in consult-
ation with the appropriate regulatory agencies. Model selection governs the specific meteorological data
that are required as input. For short-term analysis, screening models employ a "worst case" meteorological
scenario. This scenario may consist either of a specific worst-case meteorological condition or a com-
prehensive set of meteorological conditions that, when evaluated, will determine the worst-cast meteorol-
ogy.
Long-term models require that hourly meteorological data be summarized over longer periods of time
(e.g., months, seasons, years). Hourly wind speed, wind direction, and atmospheric stability are refor-
matted into a stability atray (STAR). If determined to be representative, STAR data sets compiled by the
NCDC for NWS stations throughout the United States (U.S. NCDC, 1983) could be used. Otherwise, the
assumptions described for long-term screening in U.S. EPA, 1977, should be used. The average tempera-
ture and the average morning and afternoon mixing heights are required inputs of the long-term models.
Mixing height data have been summarized on seasonal and annual bases by Holzworth, 1972, for 62 NWS
stations in the United States. The NCDC can also compile daily morning and afternoon mixing-height data
for NWS stations that routinely make balloon-borne measurements of meteorological conditions in the
upper air (above ground). Since the spatial coverage of NWS stations making these measurements is not
dense, the project meteorologist and air quality analyst must carefully select the most representative
source of the data to be used.
11.1.1.7 Source Term Development
Another concern in modeling releases from a hazardous waste site is the determination of the source
configuration (e.g., release type) and source term (i.e., emission rates). Source term determination can be
complex for many types of sites such as surface impoundments, landfills, and land treatment facilities. The
source term can be determined with a specifically designed onsite monitoring program, which is receptor
modeling based on near-site monitoring or on air emission modeling. Emission modeling guidance is sum-
marized in U.S. EPA, 1981b, and in GCA Corporation, 1983. Appropriate, conservative assumptions for
emission rates can be applied for screening model analyses. Determination of the source configuration
should be accomplished in conjunction with the SM after careful consideration of all possible release
scenarios.
11.1.1.8 Region-Specific Variances
Besides the site-specific considerations to be made in selecting the appropriate screening model and
meteorological input data, no region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances
will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become
dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional prac-
tices and requirements.
11.1.2 Meteorological Parameters for Refined Modeling Analyses
11.1.2.1 Scope and Purpose
Refined modeling analysis uses site-representative hourly meteorological data. When such data are
unavailable, onsite meteorological monitoring may be necessary. This subsection provides generic
guidance for the site-specific measurement of meteorological parameters that may be required to make
detailed short-term and long-term assessments of exposure to hazardous air pollutants through the use of
refined models for estimating dispersion of gases and particulates. The need for refined model analyses
will generally be identified as a result of the preliminary screening model analyses discussed in Subsection
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11.1.1. The procedures indicated here are applicable for use for field work at hazardous waste sites. This
subsection briefly discusses model selection with more specific guidance cited by reference. Specific
models are not recommended since selection of an appropriate model depends on project- and site-
specific considerations. Meteorological parameters that can be readily obtained from other data sources
are identified. The references listed in Subsection 11.1.2.8 provide more detailed discussions of field
measurement procedures.
11.1.2.2 Definitions
Definitions of key terms as they apply to this procedure are provided below. Subsection 11.1.1.2 con-
tains additional definitions of terms used in Subsection 11.1.2.
Atmospheric Diffusion
The process by which minute particles of a substance that is suspended in the atmosphere are
distributed throughout an increasing volume of air. This process, then, reduces the concentra-
tion of the substance since the amount of the substance relative to the amount of air is
decreased. Atmospheric diffusion is controlled in the atmosphere by wind speed and atmos-
pheric turbulence.
Atmospheric Dispersion
As used in the context of this procedure, atmospheric dispersion combines the effects of at-
mospheric transport and diffusion on a substance.
Atmospheric Stability
Terms that describe the ability of the atmosphere to diffuse (see "atmospheric diffusion") a sub-
stance. An unstable, turbulent atmosphere provides for more diffusion than a stable atmos-
phere. For use in dispersion modeling and impact assessment, stability is represented by
Pasquill-Gifford stability Classes A (unstable) through F (stable).
Atmospheric Transport
The process by which a substance is carried through the atmosphere.
Mixing Height
The height above the surface through which relatively vigorous vertical mixing occurs.
Refined Model
An analytical technique that provides a detailed treatment of physical and chemical atmos-
pheric processes and requires detailed and precise input data. The estimates are more ac-
curate than those obtained from conservative screening techniques.
Sigma Theta
Terms that describe the measure of variability of the wind direction. Sigma theta is used as an
indicator of the diffusion capacity of the atmosphere and can be used to classify atmospheric
stability.
11.1.2.3 Applicability
The purpose of conducting refined model analyses is to provide a more accurate and representative
estimate of the impacts of a specific source (U.S. EPA, 1978, p. 17). These analyses are conducted when a
potential for exceeding an acceptable ambient concentration of a hazardous air pollutant has been deter-
mined through screening model analyses (STAPPA/ALAPCO, 1984, p. 136).
As Subsection 11.1.1.3 indicates, acceptable concentrations of hazardous air pollutants (and stand-
ards based on these acceptable levels) are currently evolving. Refined model analyses may also be re-
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quired in situations in which source and/or receptor characteristics are complicated (see Subsection
11.1.2.6.1). The meteorological input data requirements differ between models that produce short-term
and long-term concentration estimates. These requirements are discussed in Subsection 11.1.2.6.2.
11.1.2.4 Responsibilities
Project Meteorologist: This person is responsible for the collection of site-specific meteorological
data and/or selection of other representative meteorological parameters. Using input from project
management, technical personnel, and appropriate regulatory agencies, the project meteorologist would
design the measurement program; oversee the data collection, validation, and quality assurance proce-
dures; and maintain records that document these activities.
Project Meteorologist and Air Quality Analyst: This person is responsible, through coordination
with the appropriate regulatory agencies, for selecting appropriate refined model (s), performing model cal-
culations, evaluating and reporting results, and maintaining records that document these activities.
Site Manager: The SM is responsible for the program design and coordination. The project engineer
also interacts with the project meteorologist in modeling and monitoring applications including source term
development.
Field Maintenance Engineer: This person is responsible for installing, calibrating, maintaining, and
decommissioning the designed program, and for maintaining records that document these activities.
11.1.2.5 Records
Maintenance of records of the meteorological data collection program is required for validation pur-
poses and future use in air quality modeling. These records include not only the data themselves (data can
be recorded on an analog strip for future data reduction, digitally on hard copy such as a printer, or digital-
ly on a magnetic tape) but also appropriate calibration and operational logs. These logs document ac-
tivities performed on the instrumentation for future use in validation. Selection and determination of the
representativeness of meteorological parameters, if applicable, should be documented, as well as the
selection, application, and results of the refined model analyses.
Depending on the level of validation and quality assurance applied, additional records to be maintained
could include system design drawings, data review logs, data correction logs, audit documents, instruc-
tions for data handling and use, and so forth. The level of detail in these records must support the quality
assurance requirements of the program, which are to be established before collecting data.
11.1.2.6 Procedures
11.1.2.6.1 Refined Model Selection
The refined dispersion model (s) to be used is selected in cooperation with the appropriate federal,
state, and local regulatory agencies. The same technical considerations made during selection of an ap-
propriate screening model apply in selection of refined models (see Subsection 11.1.1.6.1), although rela-
tively more detailed input is often required because the refined models are more sophisticated.
The nature of atmospheric releases from hazardous waste sites dictates the need for a detailed evalua-
tion of the appropriate model type and methodology to be applied. Depending on the source characteris-
tics, the model may have to account for neutrally buoyant (i.e., approximately the same density as air),
11-6
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!ighter-than-air, or heavier-than-air plumes; continuous or instantaneous (i.e., puff) releases; gases or par-
ticulates; a single or many individual point sources or area sources; and an urban or rural environment.
Consideration of these source characteristics plus the required application (i.e., short or long-term assess-
ment) will influence model selection. In addition, it may be necessary to consider removal and transforma-
tion processes on the pollutant as it is transported downwind. Examples of these processes are gravita-
tional settling, adsorption, and oxidation. Models with appropriate algorithms must be selected to account
for these processes.
As with screening models, determination of the appropriate source term is an important factor in
refined modeling and in the analysis of the results (see Subsection 11.1.1.7). Since refined modeling at-
tempts to provide a more realistic and accurate assessment, source term and source characteristic as-
sumptions should be representative of expected conditions.
A set of refined models is available through the U.S. EPA Exposure Evaluation Division, Office of Toxic
Substances. The modeling system, known as Graphical Exposure Modeling System (GEMS), consists of a
series of atmospheric models with various levels of refinement (GSC Corporation, 1984). These models
can also be used for screening assessments. In addition to atmospheric models, GEMS includes models
capable of assessing contaminant migration in surface water, ground water, and soils. Examples of EPA-
approved atmospheric models available for use through GEMS include CDM, ISCST, and ISCLT. These
computer codes can address short-term and/or long-term assessments with various source configurations.
Some GEMS models also can account for removal and transformation mechanisms. Based on expected
considerations at a hazardous waste site, the ISC computer code will probably be the most applicable
model for many evaluations. The previously mentioned EPA-approved computer codes are also available
through the UNAMAP on computer tape (U.S. EPA, 1986). UNAMAP also contains many other EPA-ap-
proved codes that may apply to some hazardous waste sites. All the UNAMAP models are also available
through GEMS.
The GEMS atmospheric models do not account for all types of site-specific source and atmospheric
dispersion considerations. The U.S. EPA is formulating guidance for the use of refined models with sour-
ces in complex terrain. Appropriate models may include accurate wind field analysis to account for terrain-
induced variations in plume transport. In lieu of an adequate refined model that appropriately accounts for
plume transport, complex terrain screening models (e.g., VALLEY) may need to be used and the results
evaluated on a site-specific basis, considering model limitations as related to the intended application.
Another consideration is models that can account for nonuniform or instantaneous releases An example
of a model that .can address dispersion in complex terrain, as well as instantaneous releases, would be a
plume element type such as a three-dimensional puff model. The ERT Model for Pipeline Ruptures (Hanna,
1982), the SPILLS Model (Fleisher, 1980), and the PFPL Model (Garrett and Murphy, 1981) are examples of
plume element / puff models.
Another modeling concern for hazardous waste sites is the transport and diffusion of heavier-than-air
gases. Various field measurement programs and analyses of the physical concepts of dense gas disper-
sion show that standard, Gaussian atmospheric diffusion models (e.g., the EPA-approved models) are in-
adequate until the plume has been diluted to where its density approximates that of the ambient air. This
situation will occur at some distance from the source. The initial dispersion of dense gases is described by
low, flat plumes that disperse in part because of their own density. Unless modified, Gaussian models can-
not simulate this. Accordingly, if dense gas dispersion must be considered, especially close to the source,
an appropriate model must be used. Discussions of dense gas dispersion modeling is provided in Britter
and Griffiths (1982).
The project meteorologist and air quality analyst, when selecting the appropriate mode! for the applica-
tion, must be familiar with any technical shortcomings of the models. For example, because of concerns
over source size versus downwind distance and the applicability of modeling dispersion parameters at
close-in distances, EPA-approved models do not calculate concentrations at distances less than 100
11-7
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meters from the source. Some evaluations at hazardous waste sites may require assessments at these
short distances from the source. These special situations may require site-specific analyses and should be
discussed with the appropriate regulatory agency for guidance and approval on proposed methodologies.
11.1.2.6.2 Meteorological Data Collection
Site-specific meteorological data are preferred when conducting screening or refined model analyses
(U.S. EPA, 1978, p. 31). An onsite monitoring program is necessary when there is a lack of representative
meteorological data. Collection of meteorological data in the field requires the design of a system that
provides the necessary model input information and that takes into account the logistics of siting and
operation. Some data are best collected from visual observations or other representative sources (e.g.,
NWS stations) rather than from erected, in situ towers. In practice, acquiring all of the meteorological in-
puts to the model (s) will often require a combination of all of these collection techniques.
Model selection governs the specific meteorological data that are required as inputs. Appropriate input
parameters and averaging times for screening models producing short-term and long-term concentration
estimates are described in Subsection 11.1.1.6.2. The averaging time for meteorological data measured
onsite should be consistent with the project requirements. For meteorological parameters, a consecutive
period of at least 15 minutes can generally be used to represent the 1-hour period (U.S. NRC, 1980, p. 11).
These hourly parameters are input directly to the refined models.
The duration of the monitoring program depends on the application of the measurements. If the
project requirements are to assess potential impacts during periods of site activity, then the meteorological
data measured during these periods is directly applicable to modeling analyses. However, if the project re-
quirements are to assess short-term and long-term impacts not specific to any period (which is the scope
of Subsection 11.1), then the monitoring program should be of a duration that will include meteorological
characteristics representative of conditions that would produce maximum impacts. In practice, it may be
feasible to conduct the monitoring program only for less than a year. The EPA has prepared guidance on
using data periods of less than 1 year (U.S. EPA, 1980, pp. 9, 39). However, it should be noted that this
guidance was developed primarily in relation to the evaluation of "criteria" pollutants. Therefore, in applying
this guidance to evaluations of noncriteria hazardous air pollutants, the project meteorologist and air
quality analyst must establish the monitoring program requirements in cooperation with the appropriate
regulatory agencies.
For data to be collected in the field, a system should be chosen for the required application. The
monitoring system should be designed so that the measurements represent the conditions that determine
atmospheric dispersion in the area of interest. Since the atmospheric conditions can vary dramatically with
the physical characteristics of the surrounding area, the system (equipment and location) should be
designed based on specific site characteristics and program objectives.
Discussions concerning the collection of various meteorological parameters are presented below.
More specific guidance on siting, equipment specifications and accuracies, and applications has been
prepared by the U.S. EPA (U.S. EPA, 1983; U.S. EPA, 1984), the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(U.S. NRC, 1980), and its successor, the U.S. Department of Energy (1984). In all cases, specifications and
accuracies should be based on requirements determined according to the appropriate regulatory agen-
cies.
The following discussions concern measurements to support atmospheric dispersion modeling using
most regulatory agency-approved methodology and models for licensing and permitting activities. Some
of the more refined models may require input data for meteorological parameters not discussed here. For
special cases, the references provided in this compendium or by the appropriate regulatory agency should
be consulted for the accepted measurement techniques.
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Horizontal Wind Speed
Description: Horizontal wind speed sensors (anemometers) are available in a number of different
designs. The most common types are the rotational cup and the propellor anemometers. The cup sensors
are generally more accurate. The design of the anemometer cups dictates the durability, sensitivity, ac-
curacy, and response of the instrument. Three conical cups usually provide the best performance. Propel-
lor anemometers (similar to windmills in design) revolve about a pivoted shaft that is oriented by a vane
into the direction from which the wind is blowing. The number of blades normally varies from three to six.
For most atmospheric dispersion studies, anemometers should have a starting threshold of 0.5 meters per
second (m/sec) or less and a system (i.e., sensor through readout device) accuracy of ±0.2 m/sec.
Applicability: Measurement of horizontal wind speed is an important factor for determining the dis-
persive capability of the atmosphere. The speed of the wind provides an indication of the transport (e.g.,
travel speed) and diffusion of a pollutant and is a direct input to air quality models. Wind speed is an im-
portant parameter in plume rise and is used as a factor in determining an atmospheric stability class for
some stability classification schemes.
Horizontal Wind Direction
Description: Most sensors for measuring horizontal wind direction consist of a vane rotating on a
fulcrum. The shapes and designs of the vane surface vary but are generally rectangular or curved. The
vanes are designed to orient into the direction from which the wind is blowing. For atmospheric dispersion
studies, wind vanes should have a starting threshold of less than or equal to 0.5 m/sec and a system ac-
curacy of ±5 degrees.
Applicability: Horizontal wind direction is directly used as an indicator of pollutant transport and is
used as a direct input to air quality models.
It is also preferred that the meteorological system be designed to calculate directly and to give the
standard deviation of the horizontal wind direction fluctuations (sigma theta). Sigma theta provides an in-
dicator of the atmospheric stability by measuring horizontal turbulence. Some atmospheric diffusion
models use sigma theta as a direct input in determining horizontal plume dimensions. Care should be ex-
ercised with this method to ensure that the data are representative. It may be desirable, for example, to in-
stall the meteorological tower at a complex-terrain site to ensure that the sigma theta data reflect the sur-
face inhomogeneity.
Vertical Wind Speed and Direction
Description: Vertical wind speed and direction can be measured with a vertical propellor
anemometer, a UVW anemometer, or a bivane. The vertical propellor anemometer has a propellor-type
sensor mounted on a fixed vertical shaft. Since the propellor can reverse its direction, the sensor can indi-
cate whether wind flows are directed upward or downward. A UV anemometer has three fixed propellers.
Two, located 90 degrees apart, measure the horizontal wind vector (both magnitude and direction). The
third, like the vertical propellor anemometer, is located on a vertical shaft at right angles to the first two.
This anemometer will then measure the total (i.e., U, V, and W components) wind vector. The UVW
anemometer, when coupled with an onsite microprocessor to reduce the data, can provide real-time dis-
plays of wind speed, azimuth (horizontal wind components), and elevation (vertical wind component). The
bivane consists of a vane with two flat plates perpendicular to each other, counterbalanced and mounted
on a gimbal that allows the vane to rotate horizontally and vertically. Unlike the UVW anemometer, it does
not provide the wind speed (and hence all three wind vector components) unless mounted with a propellor
anemometer in place on the counter weight. It does provide both the azimuth and elevation components
of the wind direction.
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Vertical wind measurement systems should have a starting threshold of less than 0.25 m/sec and an
accuracy of ±0.2 m/sec for wind speed and ±5 degrees for wind direction. Because of the sensitivity of
these types of instruments, long-term use in the field or use in harsh environments may necessitate special
maintenance activities. Individual manufacturers should be consulted about each application.
Applicability: The measurement of vertical wind components may be required as input to certain
refined atmospheric dispersion models. Some refined models may use atmospheric turbulence data
directly to define vertical and horizontal plume spread instead of indirectly from stability class. These
models use the standard deviation of horizontal and vertical wind direction fluctuations—sigma theta and
sigma phi, respectively. Some models also use both sigma theta and sigma phi measurements classified
into atmospheric stability class. Vertical wind speeds can be used for plume downwash considerations
(e.g., onsite hazardous waste incineration). The reader should refer to the subsection on atmospheric
stability for further discussion.
Ambient Temperature
Description: The two most commonly used temperature measurement devices for air quality studies
are the resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistors. Thermistors are electronic semiconduc-
tors that are made from certain metallic oxides. The resistance of the thermistor varies inversely with its ab-
solute temperature so the electrical output through the sensor can provide an indication of the ambient
temperature. The RTD is used in a similar manner. These RTD sensors are made of different pure metals
such as silver, copper, nickel, or platinum. Normally, platinum provides the best material. The RTD
operates on the principle that the electrical resistance of a pure metal increases with temperature.
Care must be taken to avoid solar radiation error in temperature measurements. This error can be
avoided by using naturally or mechanically aspirated radiation shields. The radiation shields should face
downward when mounted on a tower. Temperature system accuracies should be approximately ±0.5°C.
Applicability: The measurement of ambient temperature can be used to determine relative humidity
when used with the dew point temperature or to determine source terms for air releases of chemicals when
used in the calculation of vaporization or volatization rates. In addition, surface temperature is used to cal-
culate mixing height. Temperature is also put in air quality models to determine plume rise for buoyant
(lighter-than-air) atmospheric releases. Variation of ambient temperature helps characterize local
meteorological conditions.
Cloud Cover
Description: Cloud cover is best determined from data collected at a representative NWS station as
there are trained observers available to provide this information. If representative NWS cloud cover data
are not available, then the total amount of cloudiness above the apparent horizon should be estimated as a
fraction (in tenths) by a visual observation (Turner, 1964).
Applicability: Instead of other data, cloud cover is used as one of the indicators of atmospheric
stability in the Pasquill-Turner stability classification scheme. In this scheme, cloud cover, ceiling height,
wind speed, and solar radiation are used to determine an atmospheric stability class (Turner, 1964).
Ceiling Height
Description: A ceiling is defined as a layer of clouds that covers more than one-half of the sky. The
height of a ceiling is best determined by experienced observers at NWS stations. It can be estimated
visually at the waste site by determining the height of the lowest layer of clouds that cover more than 50
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percent of the sky. It is necessary for the onsite observer to estimate only whether the ceiling is less than
7,000 feet, between 7,000 and 16,000 feet, or more than 16,000 feet, based on the application of this
parameter (Turner, 1964). Rough estimates of altitude can be made by noting the types of clouds when the
ceiling height observation is made. Cloud forms with bases of less than 7,000 feet generally include fair-
weather cumulus, stratus and stratocumulus, and towering cumulus. Cloud forms with bases between
7,000 and 16,000 feet generally include altostratus, altocumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus.
Cloud forms with bases higher than 16,000 feet are usually of the cirrus type. A pocket-sized cloud atlas
may be a useful tool for the field observer.
Applicability: Ceiling height is used in the Pasquill-Turner stability classification scheme to determine
atmospheric stability class.
Mixing Height
Description: Mixing heights are best determined from representative NWS stations that record upper
air (i.e., above the surface) data. Instrumentation packages called radiosondes are carried aloft twice daily
(7:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m., EST) throughout the United States by nontethered balloons. These packages
measure wind speed and direction, temperature, and humidity as they ascend. Algorithms exist to com-
pute mixing heights from the data collected by the radiosonde. Care should be taken to select data from a
representative station and for the appropriate time, as applicable. Subsection 11.1.1.6.2 discusses the
sources of this parameter. Estimates of the mixing height can also be made at the site through the use of
balloonsondes (tethered and nontethered balloons) and with remote sensors such as acoustic sounders.
This equipment requires special expertise to use, to evaluate, and to apply the collected data.
Applicability: The mixing height is the level of the atmosphere below which pollutants could be
mixed. Mixing height indicates the vertical limit of pollutant dispersion. It is also an important considera-
tion in air quality model in for nonground-level releases, including ground-level sources with high effective-
release heights (e.g., a large plume rise because of a fire).
Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric stability can be determined in the field for air quality modeling applications by using a
number of alternative methods. These methods use the applicable meteorological parameters discussed
in previous subsections.
The Pasquill-Turner method of classifying atmospheric stability uses the combination of wind speed, in-
coming solar radiation, cloud cover, and time of day. This scheme is indicated in Exhibit 11-1.
The neutral Class D is assumed for overcast conditions during day or night.
The incoming solar radiation intensities are determined from the solar altitude (a function of time of day
and day of the year) and modified for existing cloud cover and cloud ceiling height (Turner, 1964).
The EPA provides further guidance for adjusting sigma phi to account for increased surface rough-
ness, and for adjusting the stability category to account for wind speed restrictions on the occurrence of
unstable and stable conditions (U.S. EPA, 1981c). If measurements of sigma phi are not available, sigma
phi may be determined using the transform:
11-11
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Exhibit 11-1
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY THE PASQUILL-TURNER METHOD
Surface Wind
Day
Speed (at 10m) Incoming Solar Radiation
m/sec
<2
2-3
3-5
5-6
>6
Strong
A
A-B
B
C
C
Moderate
A-B
B
B-C
C-D
D
Slight
B
0
C
D
D
Night
Thinly Overcast
or
> 4/8 Low Cloud
E
D
D
D
<3/8
Cloud
F
E
D
D
If vertical wind direction fluctuations (sigma phi) or vertical wind speed fluctuations are collected, at-
mospheric stability may be classified as follows in Exhibit 11-2 (from U.S. EPA, 1966):
Exhibit 11-2
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY SIGMA PHI
Stability
Classification
Extremely unstable
Moderately unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Moderately stable
Stability
Categories
A
B
C
D
E
F
11.5
10
7.8
5
2.4
Sigma Phi
Categories
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
Sigma phi
11.5
10
7.8
5
2.4
ns (Radians)
— nw/
Where ns (Sigma phi) =
nw
e
The standard deviation fluctuations over a 1-hour period
The standard deviation of the vertical wind speed fluctuations over a 1 -hour
averaging period
The average horizontal 10-m wind speed for a 1 hour averaging period
(U.S. EPA, 1966)
Using the values of sigma theta computed from the meteorological system, atmospheric stability is
classified as follows in Exhibit 11-3 (U.S. NRC, 1980):
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Exhibit 11-3
CLASSIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
BY SIGMA THETA
Stability
Classification
Extremely unstable
Moderately unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Moderately stable
Extremely stable
Stability
Categories
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
22.5
17.5
12.5
7.5
3.8
2.1
Sigma Theta
Categories
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
Sigma theta
22.5
17.5
12.5
7.5
3.8
2.1
The U.S. EPA provides further guidance for adjusting sigma theta to account for increased surface
roughness and for adjusting the stability category to account for low-level wind direction meander at night
and wind speed restrictions on the occurrence of unstable and stable conditions (U.S. EPA, 1966).
Current EPA guidance (U.S. EPA, 1981c) recommends that when onsite meteorological data sets are
being used, atmospheric stability categories should be determined from one of these schemes, which are
listed in the order of preference:
1. Pasquill-Turner method using onsite data, which include cloud cover, ceiling height, and sur-
face winds (approprimately 10-m height)
2. Sigma phi method
3. Sigma theta method
4. Pasquill-Turner method using onsite wind speed with cloud cover and ceiling height In
nearby NWS site
Applicability: The use of atmospheric stability is an important consideration in determining the at-
mospheric diffusion of a pollutant. Excellent diffusion conditions exist for the unstable categories, while
poor diffusion occurs during stable conditions. Estimates of downwind pollutant concentrations are not
possible unless atmospheric stability conditions are determined.
The EPA-preferred dispersion models used for short-term and long-term analyses are designed to
recognize six stability classes, A through F. Stability classes determined by the Turner method and other
associated meteorological data are directly applicable to these models. In the case of stability classes
determined by the sigma theta method, Classes F and G and other associated meteorological data are
combined into one class, which is designated F.
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11.1.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
Besides the site-specific considerations to be made in selecting the appropriate refined model and rep-
resentative meteorological input data, there are no known region-specific variances for collecting
meteorological data for use in refined modeling analyses. No region-specific variances have been iden-
tified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium. Infor-
mation on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full
details on current regional practices and requirements.
11.1.3 Information Sources
The following references will be useful in providing additional, detailed information on meteorological
monitoring.
Britter, R.E., and R.F. Griffiths. Dense Gas Dispersion. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com-
pany. 1982.
Fleisher, M.T. Mitigation of Chemical Spills: An Evaporation I Air Dispension Model for Critical Spills on
Land. Houston, Texas: Shell Development Co. 1980.
Garrett, A.J., and C.E. Murphy, Jr. A Puff-Plume Atmospheric Deposition Model for Use at SRP in Emergen-
cy Response Situations. DP 1595. Aiken, South Carolina: Savannah River Laboratory. 1981.
GCA Corporation. Evaluation and Selection of Models for Estimating Air Emissions from Hazardous Waste
Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities. GCA-TR-82-83-G. May 1983.
GSC Corporation. GEMS User's Guide. June 1984.
Hanna, S.R. Diffusion From Sour Gas Pipeline Ruptures. Report PB-226. Concord, Massachusetts: En-
vironmental Research and Technology, Inc. 1982.
Holzworth, G.C. Mixing Heights, Wind Speeds, and Potential for Urban Air Pollution Through the Contiguous
United States. Office of Air Programs Publication Number AP-101. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
January 1972.
National Climatic Data Center. Star Tabulations, Master List. Prepared by the National Climatic Data
Center, National Environmental Satellite, Information, and Data Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. May 1983.
Randerson, D., ed. Atmospheric Science and Power Production. DOE/TIC-27601. U.S. Department of
Energy. July 1984.
STAPPA/ALAPCO. Toxic Air Pollutant: State and Local Regulatory Strategies. A survey conducted by the
State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and the Association of Local Air Pollution Control
Officials, Washington, D.C. January 1984.
Turner, D.B. "A Diffusion Model for an Urban Area", Journal of Applied Meteorology. February 1964.
Pp. 83-91.
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United States Code Annotated. Title 42-The Public Health and Welfare, Section 9604. As amended and
enacted through May 15,1983. Washington, D.C. 1983.
U.S. Congress. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, Section 3019. Washington, D.C.
1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977. Guidelines for Air Quality Maintenance Planning and
Analysis, Volume 10 (Revised): Procedures for Evaluating Air Quality Impact of New Stationary Sources.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. October 1977.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978. Guideline on Air Quality Models. DAQ PS No. 1.2-080.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. April 1978.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980a. OAQPS Guideline Series, Guideline on Air Quality
Models. Proposed Revisions. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. October. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980b. Ambient Monitoring Guidelines for Prevention of Sig-
nificant Deterioration (PSD). EPA 450/4 80-012. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards. November 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981 a. "National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality
Standards." Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR 81.344, amended through October 22, 1981).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 198lb. Evaluation Guidelines for Toxic Air Emissions from Land
Disposal Facilities. Washington, D.C.: Office of Solid Waste. August 1981.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983. Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement
Systems, Volume IV Meteorological Measurements EPA-600/4-82-060. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina: Environmental Mentoring Systems Laboratory. February 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984a. "Proposed Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment;
Request for Comments (Part VII)." Federal Register (49 FR 46294-46301), Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23
November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984b. "Proposed Guidelines for Exposure Assessment; Re-
quest for Comments (Part VIII)." Federal Register (49 FR 46304-46312), Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23
November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984c. "Proposed Guidelines for Mutagenicity Risk Assess-
ment; Request for Comments (Part IX)." Federal Register (49 FR 46314-46321), Number 227. Washington,
D.C. 23 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984d. "Proposed Guidelines for the Health Assessment of
Suspect Develop mental Toxicants and Requests for Comments (Part X)." Federal Register (49 FR 46324
46331). Number 227. Washington, D.C. 23 November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986. User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution (UN-
AMAP), Version 6 (Computer Programs on Magnetic Tape). NTIS No. PB 86-22361. Springfield, Virginia:
National Technical Information Service. 1983.
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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Proposed Revision 1 to Regulatory Guide 1.23, Meteorological
Programs in Support of Nuclear Power Plants. September 1980.
Weinberg, D.B., G.S. Goldman, and S.M. Briggum, 1983. Hazardous Waste Regulation Handbook, A
Practical Guide to RCRA and Superfund. New York, New York: Executive Enterprises. 1983. (Authors are
members of the law firm of Wald, Harkrader, and Ross, Washington, D.C.)
11.2 OTHER METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS
11.2.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides guidance for the site-specific measurement of certain meteorological
parameters used in evaluating air releases from a hazardous waste site and in determining the operation of
various air sampling instrumentation. These parameters include precipitation, relative humidity / dew point,
atmospheric pressure, incoming solar radiation, soil temperature, evaporation, and visibility. The proce-
dures indicated in this subsection are applicable for use during fieldwork at these sites. More detailed dis-
cussions are provided in the references listed in Subsection 11.2.8.
11.2.2 Definitions
Definitions of key terms as they apply to this procedure are provided below. Subsection 11.1.1.2 gives
generic definitions for this section.
Dew Point Temperature
The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure and con-
stant water vapor content for water saturation to occur.
Incoming Solar Radiation
Also referred to as "insolation," the total electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun and fall-
ing on the earth.
Relative Humidity
The ratio (normally expressed in a percentage) of the actual water vapor content of the atmos-
phere to the amount of water vapor when the atmosphere is saturated.
11.2.3 Applicability
The collection of site-specific meteorological data, other than those parameters required for dispersion
model analyses, may be necessary for evaluating air releases from hazardous waste sites and for determin-
ing the operation of various air sampling instrumentation. The level of sophistication in the design of the
meteorological monitoring program depends on how the particular data are applied. These data primarily
support other activities associated with a hazardous waste site investigation (e.g., operating air sampling
instruments, interpreting air sampling results, determining volatilization and vaporization rates of hazardous
substances into the air). The applicability of each parameter to other activities is discussed in Subsection
11.2.6.1.
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11.2.4 Responsibilities
Project Meteorologist: This person is responsible for the collection of site-specific meteorological
data and/or selection of representative meteorological parameters from other data sources. The project
meteorologist, using input from project management, technical personnel, and appropriate regulatory
agencies, will design the measurement program; oversee data collection, validation, and quality assurance
procedures; and maintain records that document these activities. In addition, the project meteorologist will
provide any meteorological data required by other program personnel involved in the air sampling program
or in the analysis of those results.
Field Engineer: This person is responsible for installation, calibration, maintenance, and decommis-
sioning of the designed program, and for maintaining records that document these activities.
11.2.5 Records
Maintenance of records of the meteorological data collection program is required for validation pur-
poses and future use in air quality assessments. These records include not only the data themselves (data
can be recorded on an analog strip for future data reduction, digitally on hard copy such as a printer, or
digitally on a magnetic tape) but also appropriate calibration and operational logs. These logs document
activities that are performed on the instrumentation for future use in validation. Selection and determina-
tion of the representativeness of meteorological parameters, if applicable, should be documented.
Depending on the level of validation and quality assurance applied, additional records to be maintained
could include system design drawings, data review logs, data correction logs, audit documents, instruc-
tions for data handling and use, and so forth. The level of detail in these records must support the quality
assurance requirements, which are to be established before making refined model analyses or conducting
air sampling programs.
11.2.6 Procedures
11.2.6.1 Meteorological Data Collection
Collecting meteorological data in the field requires the design of a system that addresses the project
requirements as well as the logistics regarding siting and operation. Some required data are best collected
from visual observations or other representative sources (e.g., NWS stations) rather than from in situ sen-
sors. In practice, acquiring all of the meteorological data to meet program requirements will often require
some combination of all of these collection techniques.
For parameters that are to be collected in the field, monitor placement or siting is important. Monitor
placement is intended to site the sensors so that the measurements made are representative of the condi-
tions in the area of interest. Depending on the complexity of the terrain in the area of interest and the
parameters being measured, more than one measurement location may be required.
Discussions concerning the collection of various meteorological parameters are presented below.
Subsection 11.2.8 contains more specific guidance on siting, equipment specifications and accuracies, and
applications of the parameters discussed below.
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Precipitation
Description: The recording gauge is the primary precipitation monitor for use in air quality assess-
ments. Recording gauges not only provide the total precipitation but measure the time of the beginning
and ending of the precipitation and the rate of fall. There are two basic types of recording gauges-the
weighing gauge and the tipping bucket gauge. Both can record liquid or frozen precipitation. Frozen
precipitation is usually melted by some type of heating device incorporated into the gauge design. The
weighing gauge, which is less precise than the tipping bucket type, normally incorporates a collector buck-
et and a drum-type recorder. As precipitation fills the bucket, the increasing weight moves a pen across
the recorder, indicating the total amount. The tipping bucket-type directs the falling precipitation into buck-
ets that tilt with each 0.01 inches of precipitation. The motion of the buckets causes a mercury switch
closure. Each closure is indicated on a counter or recorder. The selected gauge should record precipita-
tion totals with a resolution of 0.01 inches and an accuracy of ±10 percent. Measurements should be
made near ground level and away from obstacles that could cause a nonrepresentative value.
Applicability: Precipitation measurements can be used as input to complex air quality dispersion
models that can account for pollutant plume depletion by precipitation scavenging (i.e., pollutant washout).
Care must be taken in applying precipitation data in this manner to assure that the measurements are rep-
resentative of the area of interest. This care is necessary because precipitation, especially over short
periods of time (e.g., 1 hour to 24 hours), tends to be variable over relatively short distances. If such an ap-
plication is required, the project meteorologist needs to evaluate other available data sources or to expand
the monitoring program by establishing a precipitation monitoring network that will satisfy the model input
requirements.
Precipitation measurements can also be used as a basis for examining groundwater and surface water
migration of pollutants by leaching through soil and runoff.
Relative Humidity / Dew Point
A wide range of sensors is available to monitor relative humidity or dew point. Instrument types vary
from handheld sling psychrometers to sensitive electronic units that use an optical chilled-mirror technique.
Some of these monitors provide relative humidity directly, and others provide dew point directly. For
recording systems in the field, relative humidity sensors that incorporate a capacitor (the electrical charac-
teristics of which vary with humidity or hygroscopic materials that undergo dimensional changes from ab-
sorption of moisture) have been used. Dew point sensors using the chilled-mirror technique, or sensors
that undergo chemical changes because absorption or adsorption of moisture, are commonly used. The
dew point sensors are generally more reliable and accurate. Dew point or relative humidity monitoring
equipment should be installed with the same considerations given to temperature measurements (see Sub-
section 11.1.2.6.2). The height of the measurement should be based on the program requirements, but
care should be taken to avoid any nonrepresentative near-ground effects. The accuracy of the selected
system should be contingent on the project requirements and applications. The reader should refer to the
manufacturer's literature to determine appropriate accuracies and measurement limitations.
Applicability: Values of atmospheric humidity (relative humidity can be calculated from the dew point
temperature and ambient dry bulb temperature) are used to determine vaporization or evaporation rates of
volatile compounds. Relative humidity is also important in an air sampling program, because it can indi-
cate the efficiency of certain filters in collecting various chemical compounds.
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Atmospheric Pressure
Description: Atmospheric pressure is measured with barometers that operate with different types of
sensors. Analog signal-output barometers that are used in the field sense variations in pressure primarily
with aneroid (or bellows) cells that flex as the pressure changes. Other types of barometers use techni-
ques such as capacitors, which change in electrical characteristics as the pressure changes. Most of these
barometers can attain a ±0.5 millibar accuracy or better, which is adequate for hazardous waste site ap-
plications.
Atmospheric pressure can also be obtained using handheld aneroid barometers, which use a dial
readout or a microbarograph that uses a direct mechanical readout on a chart. Both of these barometers
provide sufficient resolution (1.0 millibar graduations or better). Atmospheric pressures for different
averaging times are not easily provided with the handheld barometer since these barometers would
provide only "instantaneous" values. Since barometric pressure is a conservative parameter (i.e., variations
with time are normally small), this pressure may not be a major consideration. Pressure measurements
should be made near ground level and should reflect the outside pressure at the measurement location.
Another source of atmospheric pressure is from a representative NWS station. The NWS can provide ac-
tual station pressure or pressure corrected to sea level for station elevation.
Applicability: Atmospheric pressure is used to calculate vaporization or evaporation rates of chemi-
cal compounds. Pressure is also used in an air sampling program to determine flowrates for sampling
pumps (see Subsection 11.4.6). Both of these applications require the station pressure, not a value cor-
rected for elevation.
Incoming Solar Radiation
Description: Incoming solar radiation (insolation) is measured with instruments known as
pyranometers. These instruments measure the solar radiation received from the hemispherical part of the
atmosphere it sees. The pyranometer is mounted near ground level facing toward the sun's zenith. Care
should be taken to avoid possible local interference from nearby obstructions that could block the incom-
ing solar radiation (i.e., there should be no shadows). Logistics of the measurements dictate daily inspec-
tions and data validation. Accuracy requirements should be based on the final application of the data.
Applicability: Normally, solar radiation measurements are secondary to wind and temperature
measurements in air quality evaluations. The solar radiation data can be directly related to atmospheric
stability. Existing standard air quality models do not currently use measured solar radiation data. Models
to compute rates of chemical volatilization or vaporization may use solar radiation data quantitatively.
Soil Temperature
Soil temperatures can be measured with any of the temperature sensors discussed in Subsection
11.1.2.6. A representative surface temperature of the soil into which a contaminant has been deposited
should be determined. The depth at which this measurement should be made varies with soil type. Typi-
cally, a measurement of 1 to 5 cm depth is used. Care must be exercised to not disturb the soil when
making the measurement.
Applicability: Soil temperature measurements are used to determine vaporization rates of chemicals
spilled on the ground surface.
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Evaporation Data
The measurement of evaporation in the field is a difficult and imperfect procedure. Most measure-
ments involve the same type of instrumentation used by the NWS, a Class A evaporation pan. This pan is
mounted near the ground on supports, and measurements of water loss are made routinely. These pans
must be carefully maintained and monitored. Instead of obtaining these data onsite, it would be preferable
to obtain the information from a representative NWS station that makes these measurements or to calcu-
late climatological average values with any of several equations available.
Applicability: These data can indicate evaporation from lagoons or ponds (and hence a source term)
although the relationship between the evaporation rate of the liquid with the chemical makeup of the
lagoon or pond compared to that of the pan must be considered. In addition, the relationship between the
pan evaporation and evaporation over a larger water body must be considered. Long-term evaporation
data, along with precipitation data from representative sources, can also indicate the potential for con-
taminants to leach to groundwater.
Visibility
Description: A wide variety of instrumentation is available to measure visibility in the field. Some of
these instruments were developed for use in aviation while others were developed specifically for air pollu-
tion applications. Instruments such as nephelometers and transmissometers are simple to use in the field,
but detailed calculations are required to convert their readings to meaningful values for visibility. Other in-
struments such as telephotometers are more difficult to use and, like nephelometers and transmis-
someters, require calculations for visibility determinations.
Studies have shown that the more subjective method of observing visibility with the human eye
provides results comparable to the field instruments.
Use of the human eye to determine visibility is based on observing techniques of the NWS. In its
simplest form, the technique for using the human eye is to select markers at various distances in the direc-
tion^) of interest, determine the distance of these markers from the observation point, and then estimate
visibility by noting which markers can be seen. The distance at which the markers are placed and the
separation distance depend on the project requirements and the availability of objects that can serve as
markers. Visibility markers should be at least 1/2 degree in angular size. C™e object, when held at arm's
length, will fill a 5/16-inch diameter hole.) Daytime markers should be dark, while nighttime markers should
be unfocused lights of moderate intensity.
Applicability: Visibility measurements can indicate the relative impact on visual impairment of pol-
lutant releases to the atmosphere.
11.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances are known to exist for the measurement of the meteorological parameters
discussed in this subsection; however, any future variances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to
this compendium. Because information on variances may become dated rapidly, users should contact the
regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
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11.2.8 Information Sources
More detailed information concerning measurements and applications of the meteorological
parameters discussed in this subsection are listed below: Air Pollution Control Association. Proceedings,
View on Visibility-Regulatory and Scientific. November 1979.
Bruce, J.P., and R.H.Clark. Introduction to Hydrometeorology. New York: Pergamon Press. 1969.
Fritschen, L.J., and LW. Gay. Environmental Instrumentation. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1979.
Thibodeaux, L.J. Chemodynamics, Environmental Movement of Chemicals in Air, Water, and Soil. New
York: John Wiley and Sons. 1979.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Sys-
tems: Volume IV, Meteorological Measurements. EPA-600/4-82-060. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina:
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. February 1983.
11.3 AIR QUALITY
Air quality measurements employ a number of instruments and techniques. Section 15 of this compen-
dium discusses a number of the more commonly used direct-reading field instruments. This subsection
discusses the general air and gas sampling methods for determining air quality.
11.3.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection applies to field air quality monitoring and air sampling activities related to site charac-
terization activities. It describes the methods and equipment necessary for real-time air quality monitoring
in the field, and for collecting air samples for laboratory analysis. With regard to site characterization ac-
tivities, real-time monitoring will help in selection of sampling locations and screening of samples (e.g.,
screening of split-barrel samplers to select samples for laboratory analysis). Real-time monitoring is also
used for health and safety purposes. Air samples collected for laboratory analysis can be used for charac-
terizing the atmospheric transport of contaminants and for risk assessment.
11.3.2 Definitions
Continuous Monitoring Instrument
An instrument that gives quantified measurements of the concentration of usually only one
specific pollutant (e.g., CO, HaS, SOa) on a real-time basis. A variety of instruments can be
used for this purpose, including GC, UV, and IR devices.
Detector Tubes
Small glass tubes filled with solid adsorbents, such as silica gel, activated alumina, or inert
granules, and impregnated with detecting chemicals through which air is aspirated at a con-
trolled rate. The detector chemical undergoes a color change in the presence of the con-
taminant; the contaminant concentration is proportional to the intensity of color change, or the
length of the stain. Detector tubes are also known variously as "colorimetric tubes" or "in-
dicator tubes."
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Direct Reading Instruments (DRIs)
Instrumentation operating on flame-ionization, photoionization, or infrared principles providing
real-time readings of ambient contaminant, usually in parts per million in air.
FID Meter
A portable air monitoring instrument (e.g., OVA-128) that operates by flame-ionization detec-
tion (see Section 15).
PID Meter
A portable air monitoring instrument (e.g., HNU PI-101) that operates by photoionization
detection (see Section 15).
Representative Sampling
Sampling over a fixed period of time, usually 8 to 24 hours, using a sorbent medium (for
volatiles) or filter (for paniculate material) to determine the representative concentration of a
contaminant in the air volume sampled.
Sorbent Sampling Medium
A material that quantitatively adsorbs volatile or semi-volatile organic compounds from air
passing through the medium. These compounds are desorbed in the laboratory (using sol-
vents or thermally) and analyzed. Commonly used sorbent media include Tenax, XAD resins,
and activated carbon.
11.3.3 Responsibilities
Site Manager: The SM is responsible for determining the need for, and scope of, an air monitoring
and sampling program.
Field Team Leader: This person is responsible for implementing the air monitoring program as it is
detailed in the work plan and Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP) for the specific site. Air monitoring
requirements may be included in both the work plan and the site-specific health and safety plan. In the
case of air monitoring for health and safety requirements, the site safety officer has a lead role in evaluating
the data and taking required action as detailed in the health and safety plan.
11.3.4 Procedures
11.3.4.1 Introduction
The purpose of air and gas sampling is to define the concentration of airborne contaminants in a dis-
crete air mass. Because of the wide spectrum of measurement technology and expense of instrumenta-
tion, it is critical to clearly define the data quality objectives of the air sampling program. Key considera-
tions are pollutant(s) of interest, turnaround time required for results, sampling frequency, degree of
measurement accuracy required, and the level of quality assurance / quality control (QA/QC) documenta-
tion required for the intended use of the data.
An initial screening program should be included during site reconnaissance activities for sites that may
have significant onsite levels and/or offsite transport of airborne contaminants. This screening will help to
refine or redefine the air monitoring requirements for the remedial response activities. The screening would
be accomplished using an FID (e.g., OVA), PID (e.g., HNU), and possibly air sampling pumps and/or
detector tubes. The results of the screening will provide input to the site safety plan and help in selecting
the proper site and the number of sampling locations.
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Continuous air monitoring is performed by drawing air samples continuously from one or more fixed
sampling points. The analyzing instrument may be located at or very near the point of air aspiration or may
be several hundred feet from the sampling locations.
When long sampling lines are used, transport time to the analyzer must be taken into account when
relating the contamination episodes near the sample point to the real-time analytical record reported at the
analytical instrument. Similarly, it should be noted that if the analyzer draws samples successively from
several sampling points, important contaminant-releasing events could be missed if sampling was not oc-
curring from the nearest sampling point at the moment of release.
Analytical instrumentation for continuous monitoring may use fixed- or variable-wave-length UV, IR
spectrograpbic, flame-ionization, or electrochemical detection principles. Fixed-site analytical devices for
continuous sampling may require AC power, weatherproof housing, climate control, and various
laboratory-grade compressed gases.
Fixed-site continuous monitoring is expensive and uses complex analytical equipment. Monitoring
may be used to provide the detailed input necessary for atmospheric simulation modeling or may provide
an early emergency warning and/or a legal record when extremely toxic contaminants or sensitive com-
munity relations are involved at the site.
Representative air sampling is subdivided into two general categories: gaseous and participate. The
two principal methods for gaseous sample collection are adsorption of the compounds of interest onto sor-
bent media (such as Tenax, activated carbon, or XAD resin) through which a metered volume of gas has
been passed, or collection of a gas sample in a bag constructed of nonreactive material such as Mylar. In
all cases using sorbent media, two tubes must be linked in series to evaluate breakthrough from the first
tube in the series. Tables of breakthrough values for most common volatile organics are available from the
sorbent suppliers; if the concentration in the first tube approaches a breakthrough value, the second tube
should be analyzed. Alternately, a two-phase tube with tandem sorbent media may be used.
Use of sorbent media for air sampling is further described below. Paniculate (aerosol) sampling is
generally performed using a high-flow pump (about 2 liters per minute) to which a filter assembly is at-
tached. Commonly, filters with 0.8 micron average pore size are used. Calibration and use of air sampling
pumps are described in Subsection 11.3.4.3.
11.3.4.2 Air Monitoring
Air monitoring is used to help establish criteria for worker safety, to document potential exposures, to
determine protective measures for the public, to evaluate the environmental impact of the site, and to
determine mitigation activities. An effective air surveillance program, tailored to meet the conditions found
at each work site, must be established to accomplish these tasks.
Air contaminant data, including any changes that occur, are needed during site operations. Surveil-
lance for vapors, gases, and particulates is accomplished using DRIs and air sampling systems. DRIs can
be used to detect many organics and a few inorganics and to provide approximate total concentrations. If
specific organics (and inorganics) have been identified, then DRIs calibrated to those materials can be
used for more accurate onsite assessment.
The most accurate method for evaluating any air contaminant is to collect samples and analyze them
at a reliable laboratory. Although accurate, this method has two disadvantages: the cost and the time re-
quired to obtain results. Analyzing large numbers of samples in laboratories is very expensive, especially if
results are wanted quickly. Onsite laboratories tend to reduce the turnaround time, but unless they can
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analyze other types of samples, they also are costly. In emergencies, time is often not available for
laboratory analysis of samples either onsite or offsite.
To obtain air monitoring data rapidly at the site, site operations may include instruments using flame-
ionization detectors (FIDs), photoionization detectors (PIDs), and other similar instruments. This equip-
ment may be used as survey instruments (total concentration mode) or operated as gas chromatographs
(gas chromatograph mode). As gas chromatographs, these instruments can provide real-time qualitative /
quantitative data when calibrated with standards of known air contaminants. Combined with selective
laboratory analysis of samples, they provide a tool for evaluating airborne organic hazards on a real-time
basis, at a lower cost than analyzing all samples in a laboratory.
11.3.4.3 Air Sampling
For more complete information about air contaminants, measurements obtained with ORIs must be
supplemented by collecting and analyzing air samples. To assess air contaminant more thoroughly, air
sampling devices equipped with appropriate collection media are placed at various locations throughout
the area. These samples provide air quality information for the period of time they operate; they can indi-
cate contaminant types and concentrations over the entire period of site operations. As data are obtained
(from the analysis of samples, DRIs, knowledge about materials involved, site operations, and potential for
airborne toxic hazards), adjustments are made in the type of samples, number of samples collected, fre-
quency of sampling, and analysis required. In addition to air samplers, area sampling stations may also in-
clude DRIs equipped with recorders and operated as continuous air monitors. Area sampling stations may
be located in various places, as dictated by project and site needs:
• Upwind: Because many hazardous incidents occur near industries or highways that generate air
pollutants, samples may be taken upwind of the site to establish background levels of air con-
taminants.
• Support Zone: Samples may be taken near the command post or other support facilities to en-
sure that they are in fact located in a clean area, and that the area remains clean throughout opera-
tions at the site.
• Contamination Reduction Zone: Air samples may be collected along the decontamination line
to ensure that decontamination workers are properly protected and that onsite workers are not
removing their respiratory protective gear in a contaminated area.
• Exclusion Zone: The exclusion zone represents the greatest risk of exposure to chemicals and
requires the most air sampling. The location of sampling stations should be based upon hot-spots
detected by DRIs, types of substances present, and potential for airborne contaminants. The data
from these stations, in conjunction with intermittent walk-around surveys with DRIs, are used to
verify the selection of proper levels of worker protection and exclusion zone boundaries, as well as
to provide a continual record of air contaminants.
• Downwind: One or more sampling stations may be located downwind from the site to indicate if
any air contaminants are leaving the site. If there are indications of airborne hazards in populated
areas, additional samplers should be placed downwind.
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11.3.4.4 Media for Collecting Air Samples
Remedial response activities concerning hazardous material, especially those activities conducted on
abandoned waste sites, involve thousands of potentially dangerous substances-gases, vapors, and
aerosols-that could become air borne. A variety of media-liquids and solids-are used to collect these
substances. Sampling systems typically include a calibrated air sampling pump that draws air into
selected collection media. Some of the most common types of samples and their collection media are
described next.
Organic Vapors: Activated carbon is an excellent adsorbent for most organic vapors. However,
other solid adsorbents (such as Tenax, silica gel, and Florisil) are routinely used to sample specific organic
compounds or classes of compounds that do not adsorb or desorb well on activated carbon. To avoid
stocking a large number of sorbents for all substances anticipated, a smaller number-chosen for collect-
ing the widest range of materials or for substances known to be present-is generally used. The vapors
are collected using an industrial hygiene personal sampling pump with either one sampling port or a
manifold capable of simultaneously collecting samples on several sorbent tubes—for example, a manifold
with four sorbent tubes (or individual pumps with varying flowrates). The tubes might contain the following:
• Activated carbon to collect vapors of materials with a boiling point above zero degrees Centigrade
(0°C). These materials include most odorous organic substances (such as solvent vapors).
• A porous polymer (such as Tenax or Chromosorb) to collect substances (such as high-molecular-
weight hydrocarbons, organophosphorous compounds, and vapors of certain pesticides) that ad-
sorb poorly onto activated carbon. Some of these porous polymers also adsorb organic materials
at low ambient temperatures more efficiently than carbon.
• A polar sorbent (such as silica gel) to collect organic vapors (such as aromatic amines) that exhibit
a relatively high dipole moment.
• Another speciality adsorbent selected for the specific site. For example, a Florisil tube could be
used if polychlorinated biphenyls are expected.
Inorganic Gases: The inorganic gases present at an incident would primarily be polar compounds
such as the haloacid gases. These gases can be adsorbed onto silica gel tubes and analyzed by ion
chromatography. Impingers filled with selected liquid reagents can also be used.
Aerosols: Aerosols (solid or liquid particulates) that may be encountered at an incident include con-
taminated and noncontaminated soil particles, heavy-metal particulates, pesticide dusts, and droplets of or-
ganic or inorganic liquids. An effective method for sampling these materials is to collect them on a panicu-
late filter (such as a glass fiber or membrane-type filter). A backup impinger filled with a selected absorbing
solution may also be necessary.
Other Methods: Colorimetrlc detector tubes can also be used with a sampling pump when monitor-
ing for some specific compounds. Passive organic vapor monitors can be substituted for the active system
described if passive monitors are available for the types of materials suspected to be present at a given
site.
Information Resource: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH) Manual
of Analytical Methods, Volumes 1-7, contains acceptable methods for collecting and analyzing air samples
for a variety of chemical substances. The reader should consult it for specific procedures.
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11.3.4.5 Collection and Analysis
Samples are analyzed to determine the types and quantities of substances present. The following
paragraphs provide additional guidance on sample collection and analysis.
Aerosols: Samples for aerosols should be taken at a relatively high flowrate (generally about 2 liters
per minute) using a standard industrial hygiene pump and filter assembly. To collect particulates, a
membrane filter having a 0.8 micrometer pore size is common. The sample can be weighed to determine
total particulates, then analyzed destructively or nondestructively for metals. If the metals analysis is done
nondestructively or if the filter is sectioned, additional analysis (for example, organics, inorganics, and opti-
cal particle sizing) can be performed.
Sorbent Samples: The sorbent material chosen, the amount used, and the sample volume will vary
according to the types and concentrations of substances anticipated at a particular site. Polar sorbent
material, such as silica gel, will collect polar substances that are not adsorbed we'll onto activated carbon
and some of the porous polymers. The silica gel sample can be split and analyzed for the haloacid gases
and aromatic amines.
Activated carbon and porous polymers will collect a wide range of compounds. Exhaustive analysis to
identify and quantify all the collected species is prohibitively expensive at any laboratory and technically dif-
ficult for a field laboratory. Therefore, samples should be analyzed for principal hazardous constituents
(PHCs). The selection of PHCs is based on the types of materials anticipated at a given site, on gener-
ator's records, and on information collected during the initial site survey. To aid in the selection of PHCs, a
sample could be collected on activated carbon or porous polymer during the initial site survey and could
be exhaustively analyzed offsite to identify the major peaks within selected categories. This one thorough
analysis, along with what is already known about a particular site, could provide enough information to
select PHCs. Standards of PHCs could then be prepared and used to calibrate instrument used for field
analysis of samples. Subsequent routine offsite analysis could be limited to scanning only for PHCs, there-
by saving both time and money. Special adsorbents and sampling conditions can be used for specific
PHCs, if desired, while continued multimedia sampling will provide a base for analysis of additional PHCs
that may be identified during the course of cleanup operations.
Other sample techniques involve the extraction or desorption of various solid sorbents. While many
NIOSH analytical methods are available for a variety of individual compounds, the most useful methods in
remedial response investigation involve some form of gas chromatography coupled with mass
spectrophotometry identification (GC/MS).
The main advantage to GC/MS is the relatively high qualitative accuracy obtainable when looking for
specific compounds. In addition, unexpected compounds can be identified by comparing sample mass
chromatograms to the National Bureau of Standards' standard mass chromatograms. While this method is
not infallible, it is very useful in identifying organic vapors at hazardous waste sites.
In addition, when using sorbent tubes, it is wise to check a certain number of traps to assure that they
are not channeled or plugged, which would affect collection efficiency. This activity is accomplished by
checking pressure drop across the trap.
Passive Dosimeters: A less traditional method of sampling is the use of passive dosimeters. The
few dosimeters now available are only for gases and vapors. Passive dosimeters are used primarily to
monitor personal exposure, but they can be used to monitor areas. Passive monitors are divided into two
groups:
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• Diffusion Samplers: Molecules move across a concentration gradient, usually achieved within a
stagnant layer of air, between the contaminated atmosphere and the indicator material.
• Permeation Devices: These devices rely on the natural permeation of a contaminant through a
membrane. A suitable membrane is selected that is easily permeated by the contaminant of inter-
est and impermeable to all others. Permeation dosimeters are, therefore, useful in picking out a
single contaminant from a mixture of possible interfering contaminants.
Some passive dosimeters may be read directly, as are DRIs and colorimetric length-of-stain tubes.
Others require laboratory analysis similar to that for solid sorbents.
11.3.4.6 Personnel Monitoring
In addition to area atmosphere sampling, personnel monitoring, both active and passive, can be used
to sample for air contaminants. Representative workers are equipped with personal samplers to indicate
contaminants at specific locations or for specific work being done. Placed on workers, generally within 1
foot of the mouth and nose (breathing zone), the monitors indicate the potential for the worker to inhale the
contaminant.
11.3.4.7 Calibration
As a rule, the total air sampling system should be calibrated, rather than the pump alone. Proper
calibration is essential for correct operation and for accurate interpretation of resultant data. As a mini-
mum, the system should be calibrated before and after use. The overall frequency of calibration will
depend on the general handling and use of a given sampling system. Pump mechanisms should be
recalibrated after repair, when newly purchased, and following suspected abuse.
11.3.4.8 Meteorological Considerations
Meteorological information is an integral part of an air surveillance program. Data concerning wind
speed and direction, temperature, barometric pressure, and humidity, singularly or in combination, are
needed for the following:
• Selecting air sampling locations
• Calculating air dispersion
• Calibrating instruments
• Determining population at risk or environmental exposure from airborne contaminants
Knowledge of wind speed and direction is necessary to effectively place air samplers. In source-
oriented ambient air sampling, samplers need to be located at different distances downwind of the source
and other samplers need to be placed to collect background samples. Shifts in wind direction must be
known, and samplers must then be relocated or corrections must be made for the shifts. In addition, at-
mospheric simulation models for predicting contaminant dispersion and concentration need wind speed
and direction as inputs for predictive calculations. Information may be needed concerning the frequency
and intensity with which winds blow from certain directions (windrose data); consequently, the wind direc-
tion must be continually monitored when use of this type of data is contemplated.
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Air sampling systems need to be calibrated before use, and corrections in the calibration curves should
be made for temperature and pressure. After sampling, sampled air volumes are also corrected for
temperature and pressure variations. This requires knowledge of air temperature and pressure.
Air sampling is sometimes designed to assess population exposure (and frequently potential worker
exposure). Air samplers are generally located in population centers irrespective of wind direction. Even in
these instances, however, meteorological data are needed for air dispersion modeling. Models are then
used to predict or verify population oriented sampling results.
Proper data are collected by having meteorological stations onsite or by contacting one or more of
several government or private organizations that routinely collect such data. The choice of an information
gathering method depends on the availability of reliable data at the location desired, the resources needed
to obtain meteorological equipment, the degree of accuracy of information needed, and the use of informa-
tion.
11.3.5 Information Sources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating Safety Guides. November 1984.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Manual of Analytical Methods. Vols. 1-7. April
1977 through August 1981.
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SECTION 12
BIOLOGY/ECOLOGY
12.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Section 12 discusses the general types of field and laboratory activities that can be used to assess
biological or ecological impacts resulting from remedial response activities at a hazardous waste site.
This section is divided into four basic components: (1) introductory remarks about biological and
ecological evaluations of hazardous waste sites (Subsections 12.1 through 12.6.2); (2) a summary of the
methods and applications that have been used to date, and their limitations; (3) a list of references to lead a
user to more details about methods (Subsection 12.8); and (4) Appendix 12A, which shows additional
details on methods. The information sources subsection provides a partial list of methods sources that
users should refer to if the site conditions or the questions being asked do not appear to be compatible
with the methods described herein. The reader may also refer to "Standard Practice for Conducting Acute
Toxicity Tests with Fishes, Macroinvertebrates, and Amphibians," ASTM Designation E 729-80, pages 285-
309, by the American Society for Testing and Materials.
For purposes of this discussion, the greatest emphasis in Section 12 is placed on terrestrial habitats
and the lowest emphasis is placed on marine habitats. Aquatic (freshwater) habitats are given intermediate
emphasis because of the general pattern of hazardous waste site locations. To date, marine hazardous
waste sites or sites associated with marine areas have been near the shore, generally in shallow water
areas. Many of the study techniques described for aquatic (freshwater) studies will also work in marine
areas.
In summary, this section is a compendium of past biological and limited ecological work that has been
requested at hazardous waste sites. It includes other suggested methods that may work in some varying
situations.
12.2 DEFINITIONS
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
All other terms in Section 12 are in common use. If a term is unfamiliar, the user should check the
glossary.
12.3 APPLICABILITY
The information in this section is applicable to those hazardous waste sites in which the SM determines
the need for such studies (see Subsection 12.4). Biological, especially ecological, investigations have not
been a major requirement of remedial response activities in the past; however, requirements may change
as more sophisticated evaluations of environmental impacts are required at selected sites.
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Detailed biological dr ecological studies are not always required. If other studies define the onsite and
offsite contaminant migration patterns, this information may be adequate for the analysis and completion of
remedial actions. However, the fact that some stated criterion (usually for single parameters) for a con-
taminant is or is not exceeded does not always result in an observable impact on biological systems. The
biological impact projection process is made complex by contaminants that are often a mix of parameters,
which may also vary in space and/or time. Single parameters may not exceed any known criterion; yet an
impact may still be possible from such complex mixtures. Biological and ecological site investigations may
be triggered in situations where questions exist about the presence or absence of measurable impacts
both onsite and offsite.
Biomonitoring can be conducted to better determine whether the substances detected in soil, sedi-
ment, air, and water analyses are affecting or could affect natural systems either directly or through food
chain accumulation and, if an impact is possible, what risk there might be to humans. There are two major
types of biomonitoring: ecological surveys and individual assays. Ecological surveys involve comparing
various ecological parameters, such as species diversity or abundance, in a reference or control site with
the same parameters in an affected area. Individual assays include measuring tissue levels of con-
taminants in organisms collected on or near the site and from reference areas, as well as performing bioas-
says using site materials or leachates to test for toxicity and bioconcentration in various standard or-
ganisms. The determination of contaminant levels in the tissues of organisms that are consumed by
humans can assist in human health risk assessment.
Control or reference areas are not necessarily considered to be free from any type of contamination,
but rather these areas provide information on local background or ambient levels of contamination.
Because of project schedule and reference area constraints and because of the importance of im-
mediate public health concerns, detailed ecological surveys have not often been conducted. Some limited
ecological surveys, which focused on a segment of the community such as aquatic invertebrates, have
been used to examine possible offsite contaminant migration. Biota tissue analysis and bioassays, both in
situ and in the laboratory, have been the primary types of biological surveys conducted on hazardous
waste sites.
12.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The SM determines the need for biological and ecological surveys and tasks the necessary personnel
to execute the study.
12.5 RECORDS
Field observations are kept in bound notebooks with numbered pages. Entries are initialed by the
notetaker. Laboratory data are recorded on the appropriate forms and in logs. Photographs are recorded
in the field notebook; the reader should see also Sections 6 and 17 of this compendium.
12.6 PROCEDURES
The following discussions describe the types of biological field sampling techniques and laboratory
analyses that have been used or are being used in biological or ecological assessments of hazardous
waste sites.
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12.6.1 Presence of Toxic Substances
To determine site contaminants of concern, the project staff should review the results of soil, sediment,
groundwater, and surface water testing and should list the priority pollutants present in these media. Then
they should review data and make a final listing of onsite pollutants. The data should be compared to ap-
plicable or relevant and appropriate requirements, such as state and federal drinking water standards, and
to ambient water quality criteria that have been established to protect either human health or aquatic sys-
tems. The methodology to use in this comparison is described in EPA's Draft Superfund Public Health
Evaluation Manual (1985b), which focuses on human health protection. However, if the goal of the project
is to protect aquatic ecosystems, emphasis should be placed on EPA's ambient water quality criteria as
well.
Project personnel need to clearly define the overall objectives of the site sampling program, which in-
cludes physical parameter sampling, before designing the overall field sampling program. If a biological or
ecological study is made at the site, an environmental scientist must become involved early in the deter-
mination of initial physical parameters for the field sampling program and for any subsequent sampling
programs. Biological or ecological studies often cannot be redesigned around the physical parameter of
sampling programs that are intended for other purposes.
Site Managers should note that an increase in parameter testing or a requirement for lower detection
limits to allow comparison to water quality criteria can dramatically increase study costs. For example,
aquatic life criteria for chromium are set separately for the two chromium species, chromium VI and
chromium III (EPA, 1980a and 1985a). Data on total chromium are not adequate to determine whether
criteria have been exceeded. The cost increases for additional analyses may have to fit into available
budgets. In some cases, added costs for better biological and ecological assessments will be at the ex-
pense of other studies. Therefore, biological and ecological studies must be well thought out and must jus-
tify the added time and the costs required to complete them. Overall data quality objectives must be able
to justify these added costs.
If the decision is made to complete these increased parameter tests, the laboratory that analyzes the
samples needs to know the detection levels and the types of test results required for a comparison to
standards and criteria.
Possible goals of conducting biological field studies are (1) to detect differences between biological
parameters at the site and those at a reference location, (2) to detect biological contamination, or (3) to
quantify risks to humans from contamination of an important food web. It is important that the goals of the
study are clearly identified before developing a sample plan. The location and number of sample collection
sites, experimental procedures, and analytical techniques are chosen to achieve the goals of the study
plan.
Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements relate primarily to air quality and water quality
(EPA, 1985b). Soil standards or criteria have not been determined, although EPA is developing soil
cleanup guidance. The levels of soil contaminants that are of concern to ecological systems can be deter-
mined by comparing data to background levels or to state or federal cleanup levels or by using a model to
determine potential migration levels of soil contaminants into groundwater. Cleanup levels, too, are often
based on protection of groundwater systems. In some cases, this criterion may not be totally appropriate,
because direct contact with surface or subsurface soils or volatiles can also have an impact on ecosys-
tems.
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12.6.2 Field Collection Techniques - General
12.6.2.1 Field Sampling Program Development
After the pollutants of concern have been identified, their probable transport routes or possible human
or biota exposure routes are determined by studying the chemical and physical properties of the pollutant
(e.g., octanol/ water partition coefficient, solubility, volatility) and by identifying site characteristics that as-
sist in the transport of the chemicals (e.g., topography, wind, groundwater aquifers, surface water
drainages, stormwater runoff patterns).
Important factors for the analysis of general ecological system impacts are (1) frequency and degree of
exposure, (2) persistence of the material, (3) substrate composition, (4) geographic location, and (5) sen-
sitivity of the habitat exposed and species present. Additional factors that are important in the aquatic sys-
tem are water depth, velocity and discharge rate, and range in natural water quality parameters at the time
of exposure. Other factors important in analyzing terrestrial system impacts include the physical and
chemical nature of soil and the nature of vegetation, especially plant rooting depth.
Once the nature of the contaminants of concern is better understood, the first step is to develop the
field study program. Several preliminary activities are necessary in the evaluation of both the general
biological and ecological survey to be conducted onsite and the specific field sampling program. These
activities include (1) an information search, (2) a preliminary site survey, and (3) identification of site-
specific issues of concern.
An initial information search is conducted to identify the following types of data:
• Prior uses of the site including a chronology of events
• Date of last activity onsite
• Any biological and ecological surveys available on the study area and the immediate vicinity
• Species used locally for human consumption and the degree of such usage
• Species most likely present
• The most appropriate sampling method for the species of interest that is also permitted by law
• Appropriate identification keys for species to be sampled
• Background levels of contaminants of concern in soils, water, and biota
• Research on the contaminants of concern as to known effects on local biota or related species
Additional information is obtained on any nearby habitat or any species of special concern such as
rare, threatened, or endangered species (both federal and state lists). Possible sources of the above infor-
mation include state or local game and fishery agencies; conservation agencies; state or local agricultural
agencies; and local college or university departments such as the biology, ecology, forestry, or fishery
departments. Ecological organizations, museums, Forest Service representatives, the National Park Ser-
vice, state and local park officials, and local sportsman's clubs may also prove useful.
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The second step is a preliminary site survey, which identifies habitat types on and near the site, prob-
able pollutant transport routes, and possible indicator species to serve as the focus of the study.
In preparation for the site survey, the study team prepares a checklist of necessary field gear. The fol-
lowing items can be included in this checklist:
• Site health and safety plan
• Site and vicinity topographic base map (Aerial photographs are valuable in identifying habitat
types, but a base map is important for use in the field.)
• Field notebooks
• Camera (Telephoto lenses may be necessary.)
• Collection containers for items such as vegetation or scats
• Appropriate identification keys
• Required personal safety gear
• A summary of important notes collected during the information search
The site survey includes the following types of activities:
• Mapping of vegetation types including areas that are unnaturally denuded
• Mapping of animal tracks, trails, and burrows
• Noting proximity of the site to aquatic or marine habitat
• Noting aquatic habitat type (water temperature, flow, substrate, cover)
• Noting presence of aquatic species (algae, macrophytes, invertebrates, fish)
• Photographing ecological features onsite and in the vicinity
At the completion of these preliminary activities, the project task leader will have sufficient information
to determine the type of field sampling program that will most effectively address the site-specific issues of
concern. The primary concern is usually possible risk to human health. If human exposure from surface
soil contamination is a concern, the staff can conduct a vegetation and small mammal study. Aquatic sur-
veys are important if the site may affect surface waters. Groundwater concerns are generally evaluated
through laboratory bioassays, which will be discussed later.
The staff must obtain any collecting permit required by the appropriate regulatory agency before
beginning field collection programs.
Field biology and ecology survey data can vary greatly among sites because of differences in species
and habitats. Therefore, the U.S. EPA Corvallis Laboratory (Porcella, 1983) is developing a standardized
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bioassessment protocol for hazardous waste sites. This protocol uses site soils, sediment, and water
samples in bioassays on standard organisms such as freshwater fish (fathead minnow), freshwater inver-
tebrates (Daphnids), earthworms (Eisenia), freshwater algae (Selenastrum), seed germination and root elon-
gation tests, and soil respiration tests. The protocol is currently experimental, and interpretation of the
results is not well defined.
These tests are summarized briefly in Subsection 12.6.4.3. This type of standardized bioassessment
has been suggested to enable setting priorities for cleanup efforts; more importantly, bioassessment can
provide a consistent and relatively inexpensive method for monitoring the effectiveness of any cleanup ac-
tion.
12.6,3 Field Methods - Specific
12.6.3.1 Introduction
The field methods, their applications, and their limitations are discussed below. The discussions are
grouped by terrestrial, aquatic (freshwater), and near-shore marine environments. Near-shore marine
methods are quite similar to many of those discussed for aquatic or freshwater systems and are renamed,
but those discussions are not repeated in the marine subsection (12.6.3.4). A parallel description of these
methods is discussed in more detai! in Appendix A.
The people who collect biological samples at a hazardous waste site must be trained and fully certified
to be on that site in accordance with the regulations contained in 29 CFR 1910.120, "Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency Response; Interim Final Rule," OSHA, December 1986. Depending on the per-
sonal protection levels determined for a specific hazardous waste site, the collector may need to modify
the field methods to adapt to the dress and equipment requirements of the level of protection. Some per-
sonal proctective ensembles will limit the field methods that biologist are physically capable of carrying out.
The SM must be made aware of these limitations, and their effects on the project schedule. Also, people
planning to collect biota from hazardous waste sites need to be aware of any federal and state endangered
species that may be present on the site, as well as having appropriate collection permits as required by the
state in which the site is located.
Subsection 12.6.3.2 and Appendix 12A discuss how to collect and process plants and animals before
transport to the laboratory. Laboratory methods follow in Subsection 12.6.4.
12.6.3.2 Terrestrial Field Methods Summary
VEGETATION
Methods
1. Collection — General
Applications: Collection is useful on any terrestrial site with vegetation; it provides a per-
manent record of plant species present and any gross morphological abnormalities caused by
pollutants. Some perennial woody plants may incorporate a temporal record of pollutant im-
pacts in their structural tissues, either as changes in the chemical composition or in the size of
growth rings or shoots. These methods may provide a good qualitative estimate of the size
and severity of pollutant impact.
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Limitations: Collection is not useful on denuded sites; it requires careful comparison against
sites that are very similar, but uncontaminated. Finding these "control" sites might be difficult
for highly disturbed situations like landfills. Plant stress caused by pollutants at a site might be
moderated or aggravated by other site stressors such as low water availability or abnormally
high temperature. Variation in response to pollutants between species may require that the
response of many species to pollutants he understood if a large number of pollutant sites are
to be examined or studied. Unrecognized genetic variation in response to pollutants within a
species may cause difficulties. The transitory nature of pollution damage symptoms or of plant
species may require multiple site visits at different times of the year to develop a complete pic-
ture.
2. Visual
Applications: Visiting the site provides a quick, inexpensive assessment of the extent and
severity of damage by pollutants. A visit is particularly valuable in scoping out the impacted
area when the pollutants are being moved by some physical factor such as wind (downwind)
or water (downgradient).
Limitations: Seasonal changes in weather, plant morphology, and plant occurrence may
necessitate multiple visits to the site during different seasons for the collector to construct an
accurate overview of the site. Nonpollutant factors such as plant diseases and drought stress
may produce symptoms similar to or identical to pollutant symptoms, obscuring pollutant im-
pacts. Several different pollutants may produce symptoms that are indistinguishable from
each other. Small quantities of different pollutants may combine to produce a single symptom
in plant population. Data tend to be very subjective and require comparison to similar, but un-
polluted, areas or to the subject site before the presence of pollutants at the site.
3. Remote Sensing
Applications: Color infrared (CIR) aerial photography can be used on vegetated sites to
identify (on a broad scale) those areas that are under stress, possibly from pollutants. CIR can
be very useful in defining impacted areas in a general way.
Limitations: Many factors other than pollutants can cause stress symptoms in plants (insect
infestation, excessively drained pockets of soil, or some diseases), which must be differen-
tiated from pollutant caused symptoms, probably by examination of the area by an ex-
perienced person on the ground. Because different species will show different levels of stress
from pollutants, interpretation of CIR photos may be difficult unless the site is covered more or
less uniformly by one type of vegetation. Optimum time to perform aerial photography is in
late summer or early fall; taking CIR photos at other times of the year may be useless because
abundant moisture will limit stress in plants. Data tend to be subjective, require comparison to
similar unpolluted sites, can be used only on vegetated areas, and may be costly.
4. Ecological Assessments
Applications: An assessment is a good technique to collect quantitative data on the species
composition and the percentage of groundcover.
Limitations: An assessment requires the use of an unpolluted (control) area similar to the
one suspected of being polluted. This control area may be either an adjacent unpolluted site,
or more rarely, data that were collected from the subject site before the first pollutant impact.
Sensitivity of technique depends in large part on the control area being very similar to the
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treated area. The amount of pollutant cannot be quantified satisfactorily using these techni-
ques; it is useful only on vegetated sites.
5. Tissue Analyses
Applications: These analyses are suitable for collecting quantitative data on levels of con-
taminants in plants growing on polluted sites. The data indicate the extent to which the pol-
lutant may be moving into the animal food web.
Limitations: Plants selectively absorb various chemicals or elements from the soil; therefore,
plant tissue analysis could give a very poor indication of absolute quantities of a pollutant
present on a site. Variation in soil characteristics over a polluted site could markedly affect the
quantity of a pollutant present in plant tissues. Normal plant metabolism could chemically alter
the pollutant and obscure results of tissue analysis. The amount of pollutant in plant tissue
would probably vary among species and possibly among individuals within a species, neces-
sitating the collection of multiple samples per site. Death of pollutant-sensitive species on a
site before sampling could result in collection of misleading data. Collections during various
seasons may be required for a complete picture.
VERTEBRATES
Methods
1. Collection - General
Applications: Collection of terrestrial vertebrates will document the presence of species.
Collection techniques can be used to estimate population sizes. Vertebrate collection can be
used to gather tissue for pollutant analysis.
Limitations: Some vertebrate collection techniques are unsuitable for certain sites (for ex-
ample, shooting animals near residential areas). Vertebrate collection may generate opposi-
tion from animal-rights activists. Some sites might not contain enough animals to ensure
statistical validity of the study.
2. Live Trapping
Applications: Live trapping can be used for collection of "sensitive species" when lethal traps
or hunting would be inappropriate. Population sizes can be estimated using live traps in a
"mark-and-recapture" context. A list of species present on the site can be generated. The size
of the home range of the species can be estimated either through use of marked and
retrapped animals or through radiotelemetry of animals that were trapped alive, marked, and
released. Animals can be trapped alive to collect tissue (especially blood) for analysis.
Limitations: Humane live trapping can be a very time consuming activity; trappers can be in-
jured by animals that are trapped alive. Successful live trapping requires experienced person-
nel for trap placement and rapid field identification of species. Trapping may need to conform
to local laws on animal capture. Some species are not very susceptible to live-trapping techni-
ques.
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3. Lethal Trapping
Applications: Lethal trapping can be used to establish which species are present on a site
and to collect tissue-donor specimens for analysis of pollutants.
Limitations: This method is not suitable for work with "sensitive species" and may agitate
animal-rights activists. Lethal traps may cause injury or death to domestic animals on a site
and may conflict with local laws or require a special permit. An experienced trapper is re-
quired for best results. Proper frequency of checking the traps can make this method ex-
tremely time-consuming. Depending on the type of tissue analysis being conducted, tissues of
interest may be mangled beyond use during trapping. Some species may not be susceptible
to lethal trapping.
4. Hunting
Applications: Hunting allows the documentation of species present on the site and is
suitable for collecting tissues for analysis. It is most useful on medium- to large-sized species
and may be best for species not susceptible to trapping.
Limitations: Hunting is impractical for smaller species. It may be a dangerous technique in
urban areas where people or property are nearby; hunting may also be illegal or may require
special permits. Hunting is not suitable for collecting "sensitive species," is poorly adapted to
collection of nocturnal animals, can be a very time-consuming method for collecting certain
species, and may result in damage to the tissues being collected for analysis.
5. Ecological Analysis - Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP)
Applications: HEP provides an integrated analysis of the habitat values on a site. The impact
of the pollution on the site's most important habitat values can be assessed by using an un-
contaminated comparison area or information on a polluted site before it was polluted.
Limitations: A full HEP analysis is a very time-consuming activity. It provides an assessment
of impact but does not identify causes of the impact.
12.6.3.3 Aquatic (Freshwater) Field Methods Summary
VEGETATION
Some collection techniques discussed for the terrestrial environment can be applied to most fresh-
water systems. Remote sensing techniques are limited to emergent vegetation or other vegetation on or
above the water's surface, which creates a major limitation of this terrestrial technique to freshwater
studies. In addition, artificial substrate techniques discussed below for freshwater macrovertebrates can
also be used to collect or monitor colonization rates of lower forms of aquatic vegetation.
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MACROINVERTEBRATES-
Methods
1. Sediment Grabs
Applications: Sediment grabs are used in lakes and slower moving rivers and in softer bot-
toms with invertebrates either in or associated with the sediments down to shallow depths.
The grabs can concurrently collect surface sediment for contaminant analyses and charac-
terization.
Limitations: Complex gear can be required for deeper water use, and harder sediments re-
quire heavier grabs. A boat with a winch may be required in many applications. The use of a
boat on a hazardous water body will need to be assessed for human health risks.
2. Core Samplers
Applications: Core samplers are used in lakes and slower moving rivers and in softer bot-
toms where a deeper penetration is required than a grab. Core samplers are needed for bot-
toms that are harder than a grab can sample and that can be pushed in by hand during shal-
low water applications. Core samplers can concurrently collect surface and deeper sediments
for contaminant analyses and characterization.
Limitations: As with grabs, the size of target invertebrates must be considered along with in-
side barrel diameter of the core and retaining devices in the core mouth. Core samplers (in-
cluding sophisticated vibracores) can require multiple-ton winch capacities on larger ships to
retrieve longer cores.
3. Shovel
Applications: Shovels are used for shallow sediment collection in substrate that will stay on
the shovel when lifted through shallow water.
Limitations: Use of a shovel is qualitative only; very shallow water must be over the sedi-
ments. Sediment must be somewhat cohesive to stay on shovel (clays, fine sands); porous
gravels or cobbles may allow invertebrates to leave the sample.
4. Box Sieves (used in conjunction with grab, core, and shovel sediment samples)
Applications: Box sieves separate invertebrates of interest from sediments collected.
Limitations: The choice of screen size determines the size of retained invertebrates; the
smaller the screen size the greater the time and cost to process the invertebrate sampled but
the better definition of the invertebrates present.
5. Surber Samplers
Applications: Surber samplers are used in moving river water to depths less than 12 inches
and are best on a bottom that can be disturbed to 2 to 4 inches deep.
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Limitations: These samplers cannot be used in waters too deep, too slow, or too swift to
deploy the gear; the bottom cannot be a solid substrate (rock or very hard clays).
6. Invertebrate Drift Nets
Applications: These nets are used in river water moving faster than 0.5 feet per second for
invertebrates that migrate or are dislodged from the substrate. The nets can be modified for
use in lakes with the net inverted (net opening faces the bottom of lake) to capture vertically
migrating invertebrates.
Limitations: The nets will not sample species that do not migrate or dislodge from the sub-
strate. Currents can be too swift and may either tear the gear or mutilate the invertebrates
sampled, making it difficult to quantify what the samples represent.
7. Other Trawls (The reader should see the fish methods subsection that follows.)
Many larger macroinvertebrates associated with the bottom or near bottom at certain times of
the day or night can be collected in conjunction with demersal fish. Applications and limita-
tions discussed in the fish subsection apply.
8. Traps
Applications: Traps are used in river or lake bottoms too rough for trawls and for larger mac-
roinvertebrates (i.e., crayfish) that are attracted to bait.
Limitations: Traps should be used with mobile macroinvertebrates only. The collector
should consider the contaminant content of the bait used to capture animals in traps if the
animals are to be used for tissue analyses close to the digestive process.
9. Artificial Substrates
Applications: This method is good as a quantitative benthic invertebrate colonization tool
and is best for smaller attached or less mobile invertebrate species.
Limitations: The method is time consuming; interpretation is more complex if test substrate
is not representative of the natural substrate present. This method is not suited to larger, slow-
growing, mobile macroinvertebrates.
10. In Situ Bioassays (The reader should see the laboratory tests and analyses in Subsection 12.6.4.)
Applications: In situ bioassays are a good toxic challenge or bioaccumulation tool for multi-
parameter contaminants.
Limitations: This method is time consuming for bioaccumulation and requires healthy test in-
vertebrates (crayfish, mussels, etc.) that occur either naturally in the site area (beyond the
site's influence) or from other sources (including artificially reared invertebrates) that could in-
habit the site area. A cautious assessment of test animal response is required to be certain
that noncontaminant-related site parameters (water temperature, low dissolved oxygen (DO),
starvation) are not involved. The method lacks control of dependent variables that exist in
laboratory bioassay.
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11. Miscellaneous (hands, hand tools, dip nets, plankton nets)
Applications: Miscellaneous methods have limited gear needs, if at all, and are adaptable to
shallow water areas. Diving is presumed unsafe for human health reasons.
Limitations: This method is only qualitative, except if fixed-opening nets are metered. The
collectors must be gloved or otherwise protected as dictated by site personal protection levels.
12. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
These methods do not lend themselves to applications and Limitations The investigators must
compare the contaminants expected or known on a hazardous waste site with the macroinver-
tebrates that are likely to be present to decide which may be the best species and tissues to
monitor from that species. Local human consumption and tissues consumed must be con-
sidered. In many cases, the available aquatic macroinvertebrates to choose from may be quite
limited. The same process must be gone through to select a bioassay or bioaccumulation
species that is brought into the site. Many aquatic macroinvertebrates are small in size, and
whole body samples may be needed. Since different metals and organic chemicals may ac-
cumulate in certain tissues in these invertebrates, tissue selection by organ and by pooled
samples (if the quantity permits) may yield a higher resolution of what is being accumulated
and of what level of risk the bioaccumulation is to the invertebrates that are involved.
FISH
Methods
1. Trawls
Applications: These methods are used in the flatter, smooth-bottom areas of lakes or ponds
or in large, slow-moving rivers. The methods are quantitative if net opening, distance traveled,
and gear avoidance by the target species is understood. Other trawls can be modified to fish
in midwater or in surface areas for nondemersal fish species.
Limitations: The gear can become cumbersome and labor intensive, especially as larger
trawls are used and greater boat capacity is required. Gear avoidance in high-visibility water is
a problem with larger-sized individuals and with more mobile species. Distance trawled can be
difficult to calculate on larger bodies of water; gear is easy to entangle and damage or to lose
on bottom obstructions and debris.
2. Electrofishing
Applications: This method is quantitative in small confined water bodies that have good in-
water visibilitity. Fish can usually be examined and returned without harm. The method is
portable for remote applications, if required, and is boat-deployable for larger river or lake ap-
plications. Electrofishing is a good choice where bottom type or stream course precludes
trawls or seines.
Limitations: The method has variable efficiency with conductivity in freshwater or in estuarine
(saline) areas. Depending on the gear and settings, electro fishing can be very selective for
the size of fish taken. In low-visibility water, capturing stunned fish can be difficult. The
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method is qualitative in larger water bodies and has added risks to investigators. Behavioral
and habitat preference differences among species will influence sampling efficiency. Electro
fishing is not effective on very small fish that are in large cobble or rock-type bottoms. Gear ef-
ficiency declines with depth in larger bodies of water.
3. Seining
Applications: Smoother-bottomed, lower-sloped beaches are suited to this gear. If a person
can wade in the area to sample, a seing can be used without a boat, although a boat can be
very useful to sample multiple shore areas around some water bodies. Seining gear is com-
pact, easy to store, and easy to use; it is general ly reliable (little risk of loss or great damage).
Limitations: Net avoidance can be a problem with some larger individuals and mobile
species in higher visibility waters. Seining is semiquantitative in most applications and is dif-
ficult to use in faster flowing river areas.
4. Hook and Line
Applications: The hook and line method is a simple method if target fish are suited to it. It is
a good approach to collect a few larger individuals for tissue analyses (artificial lures rather
than bait are preferred). The method is usually better for larger individual fish than smaller fish
and is independent of bottom condition, depth, or water current conditions.
Limitations: This method is very selective to the fish attracted to the lures or bait used. In-
vestigators may need a license as well as a collector's permit. The hook and line method is
not quantitative.
5. Other Fish Collection Approaches
Additional collection approaches that may be adaptable to hazardous waste sites include gill
nets, trammel nets, fyke nets, or rotenone. The reader is referred to Nielsen and Johnson
(1983) for a discussion of a large number of collection techniques.
6. In Situ Bioassay (The reader should see the laboratory tests and analyses in Subsection 12.6.4.)
Applications: In situ bioassay is a good toxic challenge or bioaccumulation tool for multi-
parameter contaminants that vary in concentration with space and time.
Limitations: The bioaccumulation method is time consuming and requires healthy test fish
that occur either naturally in the site area (beyond the site's influence) or that could inhabit the
site area. The latter type of fish can be obtained from other sources (including fish that are ar-
tificially reared) that could inhabit the site area. A cautious assessment of test animal response
is required to be certain that noncontaminant-related site parameters (water temperature, low
DO, starvation) are not involved. This method lacks control of dependent variables when com-
pared to laboratory bioassay.
7. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
These methods do not lend themselves to applications and Limitations The investigators must
compare the contaminants expected or known on a hazardous waste site with the fish that are
12-13
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likely to be present before deciding which may be the best species and tissues of that species
to monitor. Local human consumption and tissues consumed must be considered. In some
cases, the available fish species to choose from may be quite limited. The investigators must
go through the same process before selecting a bioassay or bioaccumulation species that is
brought into the site. Some aquatic (freshwater) fish are small in size, and whole body
samples may be a necessity. Since different metals and organic chemicals may accumulate in
certain tissues in these fish, tissue selection by organ and by pooled samples (if the quantity
permits) may yield a higher resolution of what is being accumulated and what degree of risk
the bioaccumulation poses to the fish species involved. The collector should avoid the spawn-
ing season when sampling fish species.
The reader should see Appendix 12A for samples of target fish species.
12.6.3.4 Marine Field Methods Summary
For near-shore marine studies anticipated in hazardous waste sites, nearly all of the collection and
other practices in Subsection 12.6.3.3, Aquatic (Freshwater) Field Methods Summary, can be applied here.
In the interest of conserving space, only those methods that require an approach different from ap-
proaches listed in the freshwater section will be discussed in this subsection. The reader should refer to
the previous subsection for method applications and Limitations Three gear types discussed in the aquatic
(freshwater) subsection are not applied in the marine environment (Surber Sampler, Invertebrate Drift Net,
and Electrofishing).
Attached or nonmigratory species are best for the investigator to assess, if at all possible; these
species allow interpretation of plant and animal condition in the zoned influence of the contaminants reach-
ing the marine environment.
VEGETATION
The reader should see the terrestrial and freshwater discussions (Subsections 12.6.3.2 and 12.6.3.3).
In intertidal zones, tidal levels can be used to an advantage in marine vegetation collection and can in-
crease the reliability of remote sensing applications over the limited use of such techniques in freshwater.
MACROINVERTEBRATES
• 1. Sediment Grabs
• 2. Core Samplers
• 3. Shovel
• 4. Box Sieves
In the near-shore zone, tidal levels can be used to eliminate water over sampling areas in the intertidal
zone or to reduce water levels in areas beyond the intertidal zone. The size of larger targeted macroinver-
tebrates in marine sediments must be considered relative to the opening of grabs, especially core samplers
and any core-retaining devices.
• 5. Otter Trawls
• 6. Traps
• 7. Artificial Substrates
• 8. In Situ Bioassays
Limitations: In addition to limitations for freshwater, fairly protected marine waters would be
required to attempt in situ marine bioassays.
12-14
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• 9. Miscellaneous (hands, hand tods, dip nets, plankton nets)
• 10. Tissue Analyses and Species Selection
FISH
• 1. Trawls
• 2. Electrofishing (not applicable in marine waters)
• 3. Seining
• 4. Hook and Line
• 5. Other Fish Collection Approaches
• 6. In Situ Bioassays
Limitations: In addition to limitations for freshwater, fairly protected marine waters would be
required to attempt in situ marine bioassays.
• 7. Tissue Analyses / Species Selection
Several of the field techniques described in Appendix 12A can yield subjective evidence of the impact on
biotic systems. Examples of this subjective evidence include unnatural vegetation growth (or lack of
growth) and tissue result analyses from an affected area only. While helpful in determining relative risk to
humans and natural systems, this type of information is not often defensible because it does not define a
statistical basis for impact assessment. Such information can, however, provide another measure for rank-
ing sites relative to other sites. Subjective evidence of harm to natural systems can also provide informa-
tion on areas of interest that should be included in the physical and biological parameter sampling
program.
12.6.3.5 Vegetation
Subjective evidence of harm to vegetation (terrestrial, aquatic, and marine) is primarily from visual ob-
servation of lack of growth where growth would be expected or of unusual growth of species or specific in-
dividuals. For example, Ulva is a marine algae susceptible to introduced pollutants. In areas with a high
nutrient loading, the Ulva can be excessively abundant. In areas where the composition of pollutants in-
cludes hazardous materials, areas can be locally devoid of Ulva or of any other algae.
The impact on vegetation is obvious in some areas where spills or leaks have discolored the soil and
no vegetation is found. Other areas that appear natural but are devoid of vegetation for extended periods
of time indicate possible contamination of soils or water sources. In some cases, field botanists and
ecologists can determine harm to the community if the species composition favors tolerant species and if
more sensitive species are absent or reduced. Some vegetation, trees in particular, can appear to be un-
healthy or dying in a contaminated area.
When the area to be inspected is large, remote sensing can be useful in collecting subjective evidence
of harm to biotic systems, as discussed in Subsection 12.6.3.2 and in Section 14, Land Surveying, Aerial
Photography, and Mapping. Aerial reconnaissance surveys are common tools in evaluating hazardous
waste sites.
12.6.3.6 Terrestrial Animals
Compared to vegetation, potential impacts to terrestrial animals resulting from hazardous wastes are
much more difficult to subjectively assess in the field. Either a lack of animals and animal tracks in areas
expected to support some wildlife or a trapping effort that yields no organisms during the field survey might
12-15
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be indications of an adverse impact. While avoidance behavior in free-ranging populations should not be
interpreted without an adequate data base, an absence of wildlife indicates a possible impact on these
populations in the vicinity of the site.
Disturbances to wildlife habitats as a result of hazardous waste site operations may suggest impacts to
wildlife populations. This disturbance is especially apparent in cases where the waste site is in or adjacent
to a sensitive habitat such as a wetland or estuary. In these habitats, there are many opportunities, includ-
ing high productivity, for wildlife to come in contact with contaminants.
Other subjective assessments of harm to biota can result from cases of animal poisoning, abnormal
behavior, or other potential toxic responses reported to local authorities that have occurred in either wildlife
species or domestic animals (including pets) found near of the site.
As stated in Subsection 12.6.3, wildlife bloaccumulation data can also be considered subjective be-
cause of the possible lack of an adequate reference sample, because of low sample size, and because of a
general lack of data amenable to statistical analysis.
12.6.3.7 Aquatic Invertebrates
*
Subjective field assessment of benthic aquatic invertebrate communities can include evidence of poor
water quality or visual observations of an extremely low or extremely high abundance of plants in the sys-
tem. Subjective evidence of possible harm to aquatic invertebrates would include oil sheens on the water;
abnormal water color; or results of water-quality parameter testing that shows low oxygen content, abnor-
mally high salinity or temperature, or extreme ranges in pH.
12.6.3.8 Fish
The same sources of subjective evidence described for aquatic invertebrates can be used to subjec-
tively determine possible harm to fish populations. Additional subjective evidence of an impact on fish
populations would include reported fish kills and observations of abnormal growths or tumors in fish
caught near the hazardous waste site.
12.6.4 Laboratory Tests and Analyses
12.6.4.1 Introduction
Laboratory bioassessment analyses and tests are used to obtain more objective and more detailed in-
formation regarding the impact of pollutants on natural systems than would be possible from either the ini-
tial subjective biotic field surveys or from chemical testing of site-contaminated soil and water. Laboratory
bioassessments include determination of levels of contaminants in organisms that were collected from the
site vicinity and in bioassays or toxicity testing using site media, in reference organisms from unaffected
areas near the site, or in standard assay organisms.
Bioconcentration and biomagnification tests are conducted when the investigator suspects that an
identified food web may be affected by site contaminants. These tests are particularly important if site
chemicals are known to bioconcentrate or if the octanol/ water coefficient indicates that a potential for
bioconcentration exists. This information is important in the assessment of possible human health risks
resulting from the site. Tissues are collected from food web organisms, such as fish or mammals, found on
or near the site (Subsection 12.6.2) and analyzed according to laboratory protocol (Subsection 12.6.4.3).
12-16
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Laboratory bioassays or toxicity tests are used for a variety of reasons including preliminary site
screening, monitoring cleanup efforts, or determining the toxicity of complex and/or unusual mixtures of
chemicals. An example of a screening test for bioassessment of hazardous waste sites is the experimental
protocol being developed by the EPA research laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon. This protocol is composed
of a series of tests that use site soils, ground water, surface water, and extracts of site soils to deter mine
their respective toxicities to bacteria, algae, seeds, earthworms, aquatic invertebrates, and fish (Porcella,
1983). EPA is assessing the use of this protocol as a standard screening test to establish priorities for site
clean ups and as a monitoring tool for cost-effective site clean up. If the procedures for regular analytical
testing of site chemicals of concern are expensive and if turnaround time is extensive, some or all of the
proposed bioassessment protocol might be used to yield more cost-effective monitoring data.
Toxicity test methods for hazardous waste sites are in the development stage, with no one set of
protocols mandated for use. Until some future date when toxicity tests are better established for these
sites, investigators must keep up with the developing protocols as discussed above, and they must use ex-
isting methods that were designed for other uses. Since most hazardous waste site waters can be charac-
terized as complex effluents, wastewater bioassays can be adapted for use. These techniques are
published by EPA and are required to be used in state and regional National Pollutant Discharge Elimina-
tion System (NPDES) procedures. Hazardous waste sites that may have (or had) point or nonpoint dis-
charges may have ongoing (or past) bioassays completed by some of these methods. Two recent publica-
tions that characterize the present techniques for effluents can be applied to hazardous waste sites (EPA,
1985cand1985d).
These manuals and other documents referenced in them provide details on methods beyond the
developing protocols (Porcella, 1983) that can also be applied to hazardous waste sites.
The most common bioassay or toxicity test currently used is the static acute bioassay using aquatic in-
vertebrates or fish. This test can be used as a quick toxicity screening device or can be employed when
chemical analyses indicate the presence of a complex mixture of contaminants. There are often syner-
gisms or antagonisms among the site contaminants that are difficult to describe from available literature or
from a comparison to criteria. Bioassays can be important tools in identifying actual toxic responses to the
unusual combination of contaminants found onsite. Acute bioassays do not address long-term or chronic
toxicity concerns. The reader should see EPA (1985d) for short-term approaches to chronic toxicity issues.
Exhibit 12-1 provides recommended species, test temperatures, and life stages for measuring acute
toxicity.
Data interpretation of the results of EPA's draft bioassessment protocol can yield an indication of the
relative acute toxicity of a specific hazardous waste site based on toxicity criteria (Exhibit 12-2). Low or
nondetectable levels of toxicity do not necessarily mean that the site is "safe." Long-term or chronic
toxicity is not addressed by this protocol.
Theoretically, hazardous waste sites can be compared by this protocol if the study plans are designed
to incorporate randomness in sample collection and to minimize the variability of site-specific characteris-
tics. Ultimately, the protocol is aimed at allowing EPA to rank hazardous waste sites for cleanup priority
and to monitor the cleanup efforts to more effectively protect human life and natural systems.
12.6.4.2 Test Material Handling Requirements
12.6.4.2.1 Collection Techniques
As described in Subsection 12.6.2, types of biotic test materials collected from sites can include
vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, tissues from terrestrial animals, and whole fish or tissues from fish. Ap-
proximately 30 grams of vegetative material and 100 grams of animal tissue are needed to run most tissue
12-17
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Exhibit 12-1
RECOMMENDED SPECIES, TEST TEMPERATURES, AND LIFE STAGES
Species
Test
Temperature8
Lifeu
Stageb
Freshwater
Vertebrates
Cold Water
Brook trout
Coho slamon
Rainbow trout
Warm Water
Bluegill
Channel catfish
Fathead minnow
Invertebrates
Cold Water
Stoneflies
Crayfish
Mayflies
Warm Water
Amphipods
Cladocera
Crayfish
Mayflies
Midges
Marine and Estuarine
Vertebrates
Cold Water
English sole
Sanddab
Winter flounder
Salvelinus fontinalis
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Salmo gairdneri
Lepomis macrochirus
Ictalurus punctatus
Pimephales promelasc
Pteronarcys spp.
Pacifastacus leniusculus
Baetis spp. or Ephemerella spp.
Hyalella, spp.,
Gammanis lacustris, G. fasciatus,
or G. pseudolimnaeus
Daphnia magna or D. pulex,
Ceriodaphnia spp.
Orconectes spp., Cambarus spp.,
Procambams spp.,
Hexagenia limbata or H. bilineata
Chironomus spp.
12
12
12
20
20
20
12
12
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30 to 90 days
30 to 90 days
30 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Larvae
Juveniles
Nymphs
Juveniles
Juveniles
Juveniles
1 to 24 hours
1 to 24 hours
Juveniles
Juveniles
Nymphs
Larvae
Parophrys vetulus
Citharichthys stigmaeus
Pseudopleuronectes americanus
12
12
12
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Post-metamorphosis
12-18
-------
Exhibit 12-1
(continued)
Species
Test
Temperature8
Warm Water
Flounder
L'ongnose killifish
Mummichog
Pinfish
Sheepshead minnow
Silverside
Spot
Threespine
stickleback
Invertebrates
Cold Water
Dungeness crab
Oceanic shrimp
Green sea urchin
Purple sea urchin
Sand dollar
Warm Water
Bluecrab
Mysid
Grass shrimp
Penaid shrimp
Sand shrimp
Pacific oyster
American oyster
Paralichthys dentatus
P. lethostigma
Fundulus similis
Fundulus heteroditus
Lagodon rhomboides
Cyprinodon variegatus
Menidia spp.
Leiostomus xanthurus
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Cancer magister
Pandalus jordani
Strongylocentrotus
droebachiensis
S. purpuratus
Dendraster excentricus
Callinectes sapidus
Mysidopsis spp.
Neomysis spp..
Palaemonetes spp.
Penaeus setiferus
P. duorarum
P. aztecus
Crangon spp.
Crassostrea gigas
Crassostrea virginica
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
12
12
12
12
12
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Life.
Stage6
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
1 to 90 days
Juvenile
Juvenile
Gametes/embryo
Gametes/embryo
Gametes/embryo
Juvenile
1 to 5 days
1 to 5 days
1 to 10 days
Post larval
Post larval
Post larval
Post larval
Post larval
Embryo/larval
To avoid unnecessary logistical problems in trying to maintain different test temperatures for each
test organism, it would be sufficient to use one temperature (12°C) for cold water organisms and one
temperature (20°C) for warm water organisms.
The optimum life stage is now known for all test organisms.
In tests with nine toxicants, Mayes et al. (1983) found no significant difference in the sensitivity of fish
ranging in age from 10 to 100 days.
Daphniapulex is recommended over A magna because it is more widely distributed in the United
States, test results are less sensitive to feeding during tests, and it is not as easily trapped on the
surface film.
Source: EPA(1985c).
12-19
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ro
o
Sample
Assay
Freshwater
Fish
Freshwater
Invertebrate
Freshwater
Algae
Seed Germination and
Root Elongation
Earthworm Test
Soil Respiration Test
Activity Measured
96-hr LCso
(lethality)
48-hr ECso
(immobilizition)
96-hr ECso
(growth inhibition)
11 5-hr ECso
(inhibited root
elongation)
336-hr LCso
336-hr ECso
Type
S
L
S
L
S
L
L
S
S
L
aS = solid, L = aqueous liquid, includes water samples and
an individual basis
a MAD0
1
100
1
100
1
100
100
500
500
100
elutiate or leachate.
Units
g/i
percent
g/i
percent
g/i
percent
percent
g/kg
g/kg
percent
Respons
High
<0.01
<20
<0.01
<20
<0.01
<20
<20
<50
<50
<20
;e Levels for LCso or ECso Concentrations0
Moderate
0.01-0.1
20-75
0.01-0.1
20-75
0.1-0.1
20-75
20-75
50-500
50-500
20-75
Low or Not Detectable
0.1-1
75-100
0.1-1
75-100
0.1-1
75-100
75-100
500
500
75-100
Nonaqueous liquids are evaluated on
because of variations In samples, such as vehicle, percent organic vehicle,
and percent solids.
MAD = Maxium applicable dose.
°LCso = Calculated concentration expected to kill 50 percent of population within the specified time interval.
O
m
•Jl
1 1
z|
,z
mo
3J Tl
Ec3
H*
3JOm
>=JX
mo 5"'
OH-
OOio
= 33
> m
r-co
COO
CO 30
coO
O
ECso = Calculated concentration expected to product effect in 50 percent of population within the specified time interval.
Source: Porcella, 1983
-------
analyses (EPA, 1980b and 1980c). Surface soils, groundwater, sediment, and surface waters are collected
to run bioassay types of tests.
Initial screening bioassays are usually performed using site soils collected from three sample sites:
one at the point of greatest contamination, one at the boundary of the hazardous waste site, and one from
a reference or control area. If the boundary-site contamination level is found to be higher than the control,
additional offsite samples are taken to identify the contaminant boundary. Additional screening bioassays
can be run using onsite or near-site surface water or groundwater.
Surface soils and sediments from the site are collected according to the protocol as described in other
sections (Sections 8 and 10) of this compendium. Typically, three subsamples of soil are collected from
the top one-half meter of depth in a square meter area at the desired sample location and are thoroughly
mixed. The size of the sample depends on the test being performed. Soil and sediment samples are
sampled and stored according to procedures described in other sections (Sections 6, 8, and 10) of this
compendium.
Groundwater and surface waters are also collected and handled according to procedures described in
other sections (Sections 6, 8, and 10) of this compendium. The size of the sample depends on the test
being performed.
12.6.4.2.2 Laboratory Techniques
Sample Storage
Biological samples, including fish and mammal tissues frozen in the field, are stored in a designated
freezer until extracted. The biological samples should be stored separately from other samples. Water and
soils / sediments that were collected from the site and are to be used in bioassays are stored on ice during
shipment and are kept at 4°C until testing begins. The temperature of the stored water sample is allowed to
equilibrate to that of the bioassay test temperature before being diluted. All samples are labeled and kept
in designated storage areas. If sample jars are breakable, outer unbreakable containers are used to trans
port samples to the test area.
Equipment Cleaning
Test containers are primarily made of glass, No. 316 stainless steel, and perfluorocarbon plastics.
Each test container is cleaned as follows:
1. Wash with nonphosphate detergent.
2. Rinse with distilled water.
3. Rinse with 100 percent acetone. If volatile analyses are required, acetone use is dis-
couraged and methanol is often used as a substitute.
4. Rinse with distilled water.
5. Rinse with nitric acid (5 percent).
6. Rinse thoroughly with distilled water.
12-21
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7. Rinse finally with distilled, deionized, or organic-free water (three times), as appropriate to
required analyses.
12.6.4.3 Specific Tests and Analyses
12.6.4.3.1 Vegetation
Tissue Analysis
Before plant tissues are analyzed, samples need to be prepared for the type of analysis being done. If
airborne sources of contamination are suspected, it may be necessary to wash all samples before analysis.
Washing will remove loose surface contaminants and provide for an analysis of tissue concentrations. If
surface contamination data are required, samples are not washed. Roots are thoroughly washed because
of the possibility that contaminants could be adsorbed to soil particles and not to root tissue.
Samples are weighed before washing to determine weight gain as a result of water absorption. Plant
material to be analyzed is washed slowly in distilled or deionized water. The material is gently moved in the
water and is not scrubbed. Detergents are not used. Washed material is placed on clean blotter paper and
is not allowed to air dry. Each sample is prepared for analysis immediately following washing.
The laboratory also analyzes a sample of the clean wash water, of the wash water after washing plants,
and of a piece of the blotter paper.
Vegetative samples are homogenized through mincing, grinding, or blending. For nonvolatile con-
taminant analyses, these plant tissues can be dried and then processed through a Wiley mill or other tool
as appropriate to the analyses planned. For volatile contaminant analyses, these plant tissues need to be
processed "wet" with no drying during the analytical process. In this situation, a separate sample is dried
for measurement of wet and dry weight ratios and is not used in the volatile analyses.
The amount and types of planned analyses dictate the required sample size of plant tissue. In most
cases, 30 grams (wet weight) will suffice, although many different types of analyses may require a larger
amount of plant material. If the investigator anticipates that an organic contaminant is very dilute in plant
tissues, large quantities of the plant tissue may have to be collected and subjected to extraction proce-
dures before achieving the required analytical result. For nonvolatile analyses, 1 gram (dry weight) of plant
tissue is often used.
For the most part, "standard methodology does not currently exist for plant (or animal) tissue
analyses. Methods originally designed for water or sediment will usually address plant tissue analyses;
however, the sample preparation process is not included. In some cases, the analytical technique or the
interpretation of gained results must be modified because of matrix-related interferences and other tissue
problems not encountered in water and sediment testing. Pesticides are well covered in the EPA 1980d
manual. In other cases, modified water or sediment analytical techniques exist in an "interim" or "draft"
status that may cover only a subset of the required analyses.
Because of the current lack of a standard methodology for plant tissue analyses, the reader should
contact the region al EPA laboratory for the latest available plant tissue processing and analytical chemistry
techniques for the contaminants of concern. The Information sources subsection lists several EPA
methods manuals that can provide some assistance, including EPA 1980b, 1980c, 1980d, 1982, and 1983.
12-22
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Seed Germination and Root Elongation Bioassay
Toxic substances that inhibit plant germination or root elongation (often the most sensitive phase in
plant growth) can decrease primary productivity, reduce crop yields, and change natural systems by selec-
tion for tolerant species. A brief description of this test is provided below. For additional details, the
reader should see Porcella (1983). Although inhibition of both seed germination and root elongation is an
observable toxic response, root elongation inhibition is more likely at lower concentrations and is a
preferred end point in this bioassay.
Untreated seeds (i.e., seeds not treated with fungicide, other pesticides, or fertilizers) can be obtained
from commercial seed companies, state agricultural experiment stations, and U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture laboratories. Seeds are sized and individually examined, and tests are conducted using the most
common size of seed.
Five test species representing commercially important and different plant families are used in this
assay: lettuce (butter crunch), Lactuca sativa L.; cucumber (hybrid Spartan valor), Cucumis sativa L.; red
clover (Kenland), Trifolium praetense L.; wheat (Stephens), Triticum aestivum L.\ and radish (Cherry Belle),
Raphanus sativa L.
Equipment needed to conduct this assay includes one-piece molded glass tanks (6-liter capacity) out-
fitted with glass pegs or rods to hold at least five glass plates at a 67-degree angle, a spray bottle with a fog
or mist nozzle, a metric ruler, forceps, a Soxhiet extraction apparatus, Whatman No. 3 mm chromatog-
raphy filter paper, single-ply cellulose tissues (e.g., Kimwtpes), a triple-beam balance, a pH meter, storage
bottles, and plastic bags to enclose the test tanks (described above).
The test medium is an extract of a solid sample and is prepared according to the procedure listed in
Exhibit 12-3. Dilutions of the extract should be made with distilled water, which is used as a negative con-
trol. The plate is then placed in the test chamber along with enough test medium solution to immerse by 2
to 3 centimeters the bottom of the test plate and filter paper (500 mililiters). This procedure is repeated for
each plant species in the test. The whole chamber is enclosed in a plastic bag to maintain a humid atmos-
phere and is placed in a dark, temperature-controlled area at 252°C for 115 hours. Extracts should be
tested for pH and salinity. Generally, pH >6.5 and salinity <0.01 N salt will not be toxic. If the medium is
outside these ranges, an artificial control should be assayed.
A filter paper is soaked in the test medium, and then 15 seeds are placed on the test paper. A narrow
strip of previously cleaned (using the Soxhiet extraction apparatus) cellulose tissue is placed over the
seeds and misted to cause the tissue to adhere.
The plate is then placed in the test chamber along with enough test medium solution to immerse by 2
to 3 centimeters the bottom of the test plate and filter paper (500 milliliters). This procedure is repeated for
each plant species in the test. The whole chamber is enclosed in a plastic bag to maintain a humid atmos-
phere and is placed in a dark, temperature-controlled area at 25 ±2°C for 115 hours.
Each assay is composed of a tank for each test concentration, positive controls, and negative (distilled
water) controls. The concentration range of NaF used for the positive control that causes an ECso (effec-
tive concentration causing inhibition of 50 percent of growth compared to control) for each seed species is
radish, 400 to 500 mg NaF/Iiter; wheat, 300 to 400 mg NaF/liter; lettuce, 100 to 200 mg NaF/liter; cucumber,
150 to 200 mg NaF/liter; and red clover, 80 to 100 mg NaF/liter.
Seeds and roots must be examined and measured at 30 minutes from the end of the 115 hours to have
a valid test. The root length Is measured from the transition point between hypocotyl and root to the tips of
the root. At the transition between the hypocotyl and the primary root, the axis may be slightly swollen,
12-23
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Exhibit 12-3
METHODS FOR PREPARING SOIL EXTRACT
Steps
1. Weigh an adequate amount of air-dried soil sample for all desired tests.
2. Add a weight of distilled water equal to four times the soil weight.
3. Shake for 48 hours (150 rpm) at constant temperature (20 ± 2°C) in the dark.
4. Allow to settle, decant, and filter with 0.45 ^.m membrane to obtain the extract. Soil sample
extracts with high clay content will have to be centrifuged and decanted before filtration.
5. Relate all extracts to the original weight of soil. Measure volume of extract and relate to ini-
tial soil weight. For example, if 3,100 ml of extract is obtained from 1,000 grams of air-dried
soil, there are 3.1 ml/gram of soil. Then, if 25 ml of extract are added to 100 grams of soil for a
test, this combination would be equivalent to 8 grams of soil (25/3.1) or a 7.4 percent soil solu-
tion (8/108). This soil solution would be the highest concentration. For a geometric series of
tests, subsequent samples would be decreased by halves. For example, for 7.4, 3.7, 1.85,...
the percent extract plus sample volumes would be 25 + 0,12.5 + 12.5,6.25 + 18.75,....
6. Do not concentrate extracts; extracts should be prepared within 24 hours of collection. Ex-
tracts should be checked for salinity using conductivity.
Source: Porcella, 1983.
12-24
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may contain a slight crook, or may change noticeable in size for the radish, lettuce, cucumber, and red
clover. In wheat, the single longest primary or seminal root is measured from the point of attachment to
the root tip.
A range-finding test that consists of one control tank and one test tank each of 100,10,1, 0.1, and 0.01
percent extract is conducted to see if a definitive test is necessary. If the 100 percent tank has mean root
lengths that are 65 percent of control and if at least 10 of the 15 seeds germinate, no further testing, ex-
amination, or root measurement is done. No ECso is possible with these results. If a definitive test is called
for, at least six extract concentrations must be chosen in geometric series; the highest concentration used
will be the next higher concentration than that concentration which reduced the mean root length to less
than 50 percent of the control.
Freshwater Algae 96-Hour Test
Unicellular algae are important primary producers in aquatic food webs and are often sensitive to en-
vironmental changes. Algal growth can be either inhibited or stimulated in the presence of contaminants.
In EPA's Corvallis laboratory, the bioassessment protocol includes a simple screening test to be conducted
in 96 hours for freshwater algae. This 96-hour screening test exposes algae to various concentration of test
material and growth (measured by cell counts or other methods listed below). Typical results of this test
are reported as ECgo and ECso if growth is inhibited or as SCao if growth is stimulated. (ECso is the lowest
test concentration causing growth inhibition of 50 percent relative to control. SCso is the lowest concentra-
tion causing growth stimulation of 20 percent relative to the control.)
The proposed test species is Selenastntm capricornutum, a nonmotile chlorophyte that is easily main-
tained in laboratory cultures. The test algae is kept in flasks containing standard Algal Assay Medium
(AAM) in a constant-temperature room or incubator at 24±2°C (from Miller et al., 1978, as reported by Por-
cella, 1983). Exhibit 12-4 lists nutrient components of the AAM. Continuous illumination of 4300 ±430
lumens/m2 (400 ft-c) is required, and overhead cool-white fluorescent bulbs are recommended. The algal
culture is checked microscopically to ensure that the culture is healthy and is composed only of the test
algae. The concentration of cells at the beginning of the test should be approximately 10,000 cells/ ml.
According to Porcella, test material can be aqueous liquids (groundwater, surface water, or soil ex-
tracts in water); nonaqueous liquids (aqueous samples with greater than 0.2 percent organics, nonaqueous
liquids, solvent exchange samples, and extracts or leachates in a nonaqueous or organic vehicle); or
solids. Nonsolid test material should be filtered (preferably onsite) using a 0.45-micrometer cellulose
acetate filter to remove indigenous algae. The minimum sample size needed to run the algae test is 1 gram
of soil (or solid material), 0.06 liter of aqueous liquid, or 0.05 liter of nonaqueous liquid. Test material is ob-
tained from areas specified in the study plan by using standard collecting methods.
Preliminary tests are run with 100 percent test material with and without nutrients contained in the AAM.
If the 100 percent test with nutrients shows a less than 50 percent inhibition compared to a control sample,
the material is considered relatively safe and no further testing is done. If there is a greater than 50 percent
Inhibition, test material should be assayed by either a range-finding test (dilutions of 80 percent, 10 percent,
1 percent, and 0.1 percent using three replicates each) or a definitive test, or both. A definitive test is con-
ducted after a range-finding test by spanning the moderate response concentration using a geometric
series. For example, if 1 percent (0.01) and 10 percent (0.10) gave toxic responses, the definitive test
series would include 0.1, 0.05, 0.025, 0.0125, 0.00625, and 0.003125. All tests are conducted with nutrients
added essentially equivalent to 100 percent AAM, with AAM used to make dilutions.
Controls include the AAM (negative control) to check standard organism response; the receiving water,
if applicable (reference control); and a solvent control, if applicable (dilution water plus solvent). The posi-
tive control is applied with ZnCLa in AAM at a concentration of 80 mg 2n+ +/1 to give a range of inhibition
of 51 to 66 percent (long-term mean = 58.8).
12-25
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Exhibit 12-4
COMPOSITION OF ALGAL ASSAY MEDIUM (AAM)
Stock Solutions*
Macronutrients
Nutrient Composition
Prepared Medium
Concentration
Compound (g/1)
NaNOs i
NaHCOa
teHPCU
MgSCWHaO
MgCl2.6H20
CaCl2.2H20
Stock Solutions
Compound
HsBOa
MnCl2.4H2O
ZnCI2
CoCl2.6H2O
CuCl2.2H2O
Na2MoO4 .2H2O
FeCI3.6H20
N32EDTA.2H2O
25.500
15.000
1.044
14.700
12.164
4.410
Micronutrients
Nutrient Composition
Concentration
(g/i)
185.520
415.610
3.271
1.428
0.012
7.250
160.000
300.00
Concentration
Element (mg/1)
N
Na
C
P
S
Mg
Ca
Prepared
Element
B
Mn
Zn
Co
Cu
Mo
Fe
4.200
11.001
2.143
0.186
1.911
2.904
1.202
Medium
Concentration
(mg/1)
32.460
115.374
1.570
0.354
0.004
2.878
33.051
* Other forms of the salts may be used as long as the resulting
concentrations of elements are the same.
Source: Porcella, 1983, from Miller et al., 1978.
12-26
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After 96 hours of exposure, algae growth is measured by any one of the following methods: electronic
particle counting, biomass (dry weight), absorbance (as measured by a spectrophotometer), or micro-
scopic counting. Electronic particle counting is preferred, but cursory microscopic examination is impor-
tant to identify abnormal cell shape or condition.
Exhibit 12-5 contains a summary of the possible methods used in counting cells, the equipment used,
and the appropriate format used for results.
The investigator must use the definitive test to obtain data to calculate the ECso, ECgo, or SCao and
should assay a minimum of four test concentrations. The ECso, ECgo, and SCao are calculated using any of
several statistical methods. Exhibit 12-2 lists the toxic categories for results of the freshwater algal 96-hour
test (Porcella, 1983).
12.6.4.3.2 Terrestrial Animals
Laboratory tests and analyses pertinent to terrestrial animals include bioaccumulation and biomag-
nification analyses that are performed on vertebrate tissues taken from animals collected on or near the
study site. The analyses also include laboratory assays of toxicity of soils and soil extracts to invertebrates
(i.e., earthworms).
Bioaccumulation and Food Web Transfer Tests
Laboratory protocols for determining the presence of pesticides and related compounds in tissue and
blood samples are contained in the information sources under Sherma (1976). An additional reference
containing protocols for determining other contaminants in tissue is EPA 1980d.
In general, tissues to be analyzed are collected and stored in glass jars or vials with foil- or Teflon-lined
screw caps and are either refrigerated (if analyses will be conducted within 24 hours) or frozen. The
amount of tissue needed depends on the expected degree of contamination and the detection levels re-
quired for data interpretation. If low concentrations are expected, more tissue will be needed. If the degree
of contamination is unknown, 100 grams of tissue is the typical amount collected. Specific procedures for
the extraction of pesticides and their residues will vary. Solvents range from hexane or petroleum ether for
nonpolar organochlorine and organophosphorus compounds to methylene chloride for polar carbamates.
Some prior knowledge of the pesticides of concern is necessary in determining the laboratory methodol-
ogy to be used. Details of these methodologies are contained in previously cited references.
Briefly, tissue samples are broken down into small pieces and blended before extraction. In most
cases, the Soxhlet extraction method is used. High-performance liquid chromatography is EPA's recom-
mended technique for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures (Sherma, 1976). However, gas or
column chromatography is also used. Thin layer chromatography can be used to confirm residues follow-
ing initial screening and quantification by gas chromatography.
Earthworm Toxicity Test
In EPA's laboratory in Corvallis, the bioassessment protocol includes a two-phase test involving the
earthworm Eisenia foetida. The reader should contact the regional EPA laboratory to obtain the current
status of this procedure and a source for this earthworm. Although it is not common, this earthworm is
regularly used in testing, grows easily in organic soils (commonly found in sewage beds), has a short life
cycle, and readily reproduces. The proposed tests closely approximate actual conditions encountered by
earthworms and do not require elaborate equipment or extensive personnel training.
12-27
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Exhibit 12-5
ALGAE ASSAY PROCESSING METHODOLOGIES
Method
Equipment/Procedure
Resulting Data Format
Electronic Particle
Counting
Biomass
Absorbance
Microscopic Counting
Model ZB1 Coulter Counter
with Mean Cell Volume (MCV
or MHR) computer
Measured portion of algal
suspension filtered with tared
0.6 micrometer PVC
membrane filter-dried for 2
hours at 70°C-cool in
desiccator weighed. Test
culture volume filtered and
handled same. Subtract tare
weight and divide by volume
of culture filtered
Spectrophotometer or
colorimeter at wave-length of
750 nm with optical density
greater than 0.05 and less
than 1.0
Hemacytometer counting
chamber and microscope
mg dry weight
S. Capricomutumfliter or
Number of S. Capricomutum
cells/liter
mg/liter dry weight
Absorbance units per mg dry
weight per liter
cells/liter
The calculations used to interpret data results are as follows:
(MM) - P (C-IN)
P(C-IN)
x 100 =( + )% = Stimulation
(—) % = Inhibition
where: P = percent volume of AAM used to dilute test sample (> 20 percent)
T = maximum standing crop (mg/l) in test sample
IN = dry weight (mg/l) of inoculum at start of test
C = maximum standing crop (mg/l) in AAM control
Source: Porcella, 1983.
12-28
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Briefly, the first phase of the test is a simple contact test where individual worms are exposed to
various concentrations of soil extracts on filter paper. The second phase exposes earthworms to actual
test soils or to extracts in a defined soil medium. The contact test consists of a range-finding and definitive
test, while the soil test is usually just definitive. The end point of these definitive tests is an LCso, with
worms classified as dead when they do not respond to a gentle mechanical stimulus to the anterior end.
The first earthworm test is the range-finding contact test where individual worms are placed in vials
lined with filter paper (Whatman Grade 1) soaked in varying concentrations of extracts and a negative con-
trol (distilled water). Extracts are prepared as described in Exhibit 12-3. Dilutions used in this preliminary
test are 100 percent, 10 percent, and 1 percent. Ten replicate test vials for each dilution are laid on their
sides in a dark, temperature-controlled area (20 ±2°C) for 48 hours. The number of dead worms is counted
at the end of the test and compared to the control tests.
A geometric dilution series is used in the definitive contact test, with the concentrations used deter-
mined by the results of the range-finding test. A positive control is run using 0.354 mg Cu/liter of copper
sulfate. This concentration will provide a response range of 0.9 to 1.1 of the LCso. A negative control is
also run. Test procedures are the same as for the range-finding tests.
Earthworm toxicity tests using soils are conducted in two ways: one with artificial soil to which test soil
extract is added in varying concentrations, and a second in which test soil is used directly and "diluted"
with artificial soil. Artificial soil is made of three general constituents: 70 percent industrial sand, 20 percent
Kaolinite clay, and 10 percent sphagnum peat. Exhibit 12-6 provides a detailed list of two of these com-
ponents. Calcium carbonate is used to adjust the pH to 7.0. The moisture content is adjusted to ap-
proximately 20 percent of dry weight with either test extract and/or distilled water. Site soil is prepared
using the procedure outlined in Exhibit 12-7.
Test containers are 500-ml crystallizing dishes covered with plastic lids, petri dishes, or plastic film. In
each dish, 400 grams of moist test medium are used. For each test, four replicates of each concentration
are run on 10 test worms. Four negative controls (distilled water) and one positive control, containing cop-
per sulfate at a concentration of 600 mg Cu/kg of soil, are also run for each test. Test containers are held
at a constant temperature (20 ± 1°C) in a continuously lighted area for 14 days. The average weight of the
test and control worms is determined at the beginning and at the end of each test. Again, mortality is
determined by sorting the worms from the soil and recording their reaction to mechanical stimulation.
An assessment of mortality at 7 days and continuation of the test to 28 days is optional. However, soil
moisture may need to be adjusted because moisture is lost during sorting.
Test results are plotted on log probit graph paper and the median lethal concentration (LCso) and its
confidence limits are estimated. The LCso values are given as percent of test soil sample. Mortality in the
negative controls should not exceed 10 percent. If some mortality does occur (< 10 per cent), a correction
is made using the following formula: Corrected mortality percent = (observed mortality percent - control
mortality percent)/100 - control mortality.
Acute Toxicity Test
The acute toxicity test is a standard test that is commonly used to describe the toxicity of a compound
or mixture of compounds to aquatic systems. Daphnia is the most common freshwater organism used.
However, many crustaceans, mollusks, and fish have been used. The following is a brief description of the
acute-static toxicity test used as a part of the EPA's bioassessment protocol.
The daphnid, Daphnia magna, was the basis for much of the preliminary work in acute toxicity testing as
described by Porcella (1983). EPA (1985c) now recommends D.pulex overZ). magna because the former
12-29
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Exhibit 12-6
COMPONENTS OF ARTIFICIAL SOIL
General Composition by Weight
1. 70% Industrial Sand
2. 20% Kaolinite Clay
3. 10% Sphagnum Peat
Specific Composition
1. Industrial Sand
Diameter in Microns Percent
45 1.7
45 9.3
63 29.0
90 34.3
125 20.8
180 4.0
250 & greater 0.8
2. Kaolinite Clav
Composition Percent
Si02 58.5
TiOa 1.3
28.0
1.0
MgO 0.3
CaO 0.2
KaO 2.0
NaaO 0.3
loss on ignition 8.4
Source: Porcella, 1983.
12-30
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Exhibit 12-7
PROCEDURE FOR HOMOGENIZING SOIL SAMPLES
1. Air dry the soil to be tested. (Air drying is considered completed when an aliquot of soil has no more
weight loss.)
2. Add 25 burundum cylinders and about 2 liters of air-dried soil to a ball mill.
3. Mill about 5 minutes (until soil is coffeeground size). Then sieve through a 2mm-mesh sieve.
4. Return larger particles to the ball mill, and repeat steps 2 through 4 until the sample is completely
ground with the exception of rocks. Discard rocks.
5. Before use, thoroughly homogenize soil using a laboratory or small cement mixer.
6. Clean the ball mill by adding 1 quart of silica sand and 10 burundum cylinders. Mill for 15 minutes,
discard, and then brush out mill.
Sources: Lighthart, 1980; unpublished procedures as reported by Porcella, 1983.
12-31
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species is "more widely distributed in the United States, test results are less sensitive to feeding during
tests, and it is not as easily trapped on the surface film." D.pulex is, therefore, preferred in these studies, if
available.
EPA's test uses early instars of Daphnia in a static type of assay (i.e., the same body of water is used
throughout the test as compared to a flow-through test in which the water is replaced). The exposure time
is 48 hours, and because death is not always easily determined in Daphnia, e test results are given as ef-
fective concentration (48-hour ECso)- A summary of test conditions for the Daphnia acute test is presented
in Exhibit 12-8.
It should be noted that static bioassay has a limited application for compounds that become volatile or
undergo rapid chemical change in water.
Dilution water can be water from the site (upstream of possible contamination), local dechlorinated tap
water, or reconstituted water, as long as it can support healthy organisms for the duration of the test proce-
dure without having the organism show any sign of stress. The water chosen for dilution water is tested to
ascertain that none of the following substances exceeds the maximum allowable concentration as shown:
Maximum
Pollutants Concentration
Suspended solids 20 mg/l
Total organic carbon 10 mg/l
Unionized ammonia 20 n,g/l
Residual chlorine 3 ji.g/1
Total organophosphorus pesticides 50 ^g/l
Total organochlorine pesticides plus PCBs 50 (j.g/1
Other water quality considerations are pH, hardness, temperature, alkalinity, and conductivity.
The test animal, Daphnia, was chosen because of its wide geographic distribution, importance in the
food web, temperature requirements, wide pH tolerance, ready availability, and ease of culture. Daphnia is
obtained from laboratory cultures in its early instar stages (less than 24-hour neonites), and each test is
conducted using organisms that are from the same source and that are as healthy and uniform in size and
age as possible. Care is taken to maintain the cultures in as ideal a situation as possible. Avoidance of
stress and disturbances is important.
Unless the approximate toxicity of the sample material is already known, a minimum of six concentra-
tions of test material should be prepared, with the maximum concentration being the maximum applicable
dose (MAD) for that sample type (see Exhibit 12-2). Test organisms are placed in test vessels no later than
30 minutes after test solutions are prepared.
12.6.4.3.3 Fish
Fish, especially those species consumed by humans, are common test organisms in acute and biocon-
centration tests. Because of the relative difficulty in maintaining saltwater aquariums, most testing is done
on freshwater species.
12-32
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Exhibit 12-8
RECOMMENDED TEST CONDITIONS FOR DAPHNIDS
(DAPHNIA PULEX? AND D. MAGNA)
1. Temperature (°C)
2. Light quality
3. Light intensity
4. Photoperiod
5. Size of test vessel
6. Volume of test solution
7. Age of test animals
8. No. of test animals per test vessel
9. No of replicate test vessels per
concentration
10. Total no. organisms per concentration
11. Feeding regime
12. Aeration
13. Dilution Water
14. Test duration
15. Effect measured
20 ± 2°C
Ambient laboratory illumination
50 to 100 footcandles (ft c)b
(ambient laboratory levels)
8 to 16 hours light/24 hours
100 ml beaker
50ml
1 to 24 hours (neonates)
10
20
Feeding not required first 48 hours. For longer
tests, feed every other day beginning on the third
day (Appendix A).
None, unless DO concentration falls below 40% of
saturation, at which time start gentle, single-bubble
aeration.
Receiving water or other surface water,
groundwater, or synthetic water: hard water for
Daphnia magna; moderately hard or soft water for
D. pulex.
Screening test-24 hours (static tests)
Definitive test--48 hours (static tests)
Mortality-no movement of body or appendages
on gentle prodding (LCso)
Use of D. pulex is preferred.
ft o = foot candles
12-33
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A 96-hour static toxicity test using the freshwater fish species fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, is
part of EPA's bioassessment protocol (Porcella, 1983). The following is a brief discussion of that test
protocol. Details on test protocols using other species and flow-through systems are contained in Appen-
dix 12B, which is the ASTM Standard Practice for Conducting Acute Toxicity Tests with Fishes, Macroinver-
tebrates, and Amphibians (ASTM Designation: E 729-80).
As with Daphnia, the fathead minnow was chosen because of its commonness, range of pH tolerance,
temperature requirements, importance in the food web, and ready availability. Fish can be obtained from
state, federal, or local hatcheries or from wild populatons in relatively unpolluted areas. Fish collected by
electroshocking should not be used. The fathead minnows used in testing should weigh between 0.5 and
1.0 gram each, and the standard length (tip of snout to end of caudal peduncle) of the longest fish should
be no more than twice that of the shortest fish. Weights and lengths are recorded before and after the test.
The same water-quality considerations discussed for Daphnia testing are true for fathead minnow test-
ing. Test procedures are contained in Exhibit 12-9. The test results in the case of minnows is the con-
centration causing 50 percent lethality (LCso) and is determined using any of the methods mentioned
above for determining Daphnia test results. The 96-hour LCso are evaluated according to Exhibit 12-2.
12.6.4.3.4 Aquatic Invertebrates
Laboratory tests and analyses using aquatic invertebrates include the classic acute toxicity tests and
bioconcentration analyses. The most common acute toxicity test is a static toxicity test using Daphnia, a
small freshwater crustaceans. Bioconcentration analyses are usually conducted on invertebrates con-
sumed by humans, such as mollusks (e.g., mussels and oysters) and crustaceans (e.g., crabs and
crayfish). The U.S. Mussel Watch program is an example of bioconcentration analyses using invertebrates
to determine the degree of contamination occurring along the U.S. coasts (Goldberg et al., 1978).
12.6.4.3.5 Bacteria
Bacteria can be used to assay a variety of potential impacts on biotic systems resulting from exposure
to a contaminant or chemical compound. The following two types of bacteria assays can be used in study
plans for hazardous waste sites.
Soil Respiration and Soil Litter Test
Soil micro-organisms are important recyclers of ecosystem nutrients. Their stress levels can be rela-
tively easy to determine by measuring the carbon dioxide (COa) evolved from their respiration process.
The results of this test show the percentage of inhibition (ECso) or stimulation (SCao) between COa evolved
in control and tested microcosms at specified time intervals.
This test used 1-quart (approximately 1 liter) wide-mouth jars with airtight lids and 1-ounce (30 ml)
glass bottles with airtight lids. One hundred grams of air-dried artificial soil (Exhibit 12-6) in combination
with test soil or soil extract (prepared as instructed in Exhibits 12-3 and 12-7) at specified concentrations
are added to the cleaned wide-mouth jars. Deionized water is used to adjust the moisture content. A 1-
ounce bottle containing COa trapping solution is then added, and the whole test container is tightly sealed
and placed in a dark, temperature controlled area (20±2°C) for 14 days. Three special blank jars are used
to correct for atmospheric COa by placing a COa trap in a clean, empty wide-mouth jar and running that jar
at the same time as the test jars.
The COa is typically measured twice weekly using the procedure for titrating COa (Exhibit 12-10).
Results are based on the total of all COa measurements taken during the 14-day test. End results are either
12-34
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Exhibit 12-9
SUMMARY OF TEST CONDITIONS
(from Brusick and Young, 1982)
Temperature °C
Photoperidd, hours
light:dark
Water quality, hardness*
mg/l as CaCOa
Container size
Test volume
Organism per container
Replicates
Feed
Duration, hours
Measurements of DO
and pH, hours
Fathead Minnow,
Pimeohales oromelas
22 ± 1
16:8
100
20 liters
15 liters
10
2
No
9P
0, 24, 48, 72, 96
''For dilution water only; the investigators add salts as appropriate to obtain 100 pug/l as CaCO3.
Source:
Brusick and Young, 1982, as reported by Porcella, 1983.
12-35
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an ECso (the lowest test concentration causing growth inhibition of 50 percent relative to control) or SC20
(the lowest concentration causing growth stimulation of 20 percent relative to the control).
Microtox System
The Microtox system (from Beckman Instruments, Inc., Microbics Operations, Carlsbad, California
92008) measures the mean toxic response of approximately one million bioluminescent organisms to the
introduced test medium. The system uses a Microtox analyzer to measure the light output of standardized
marine bioluminescent bacteria that are grown and harvested by Beckman Instruments, Inc. The bacteria,
called Microtox reagent, are lyophilized (freeze-dried under vacuum) and rehydrated by the user with a
Microtox reconstitution solution.
Because of the standardization of all the variables described above, this test can yield results that can
be compared from site to site. However, this method should be considered as a rapid screening tool that
will lead to other bioassay tests. If the temperature is held constant at the "normal test temperature" of
15°C (analyzer range 10°C to 25°C), the primary variable in this system is time. Data results are the deter-
mination of the ECso or the effective concentration causing a 50 percent decrease in the Microtox reagent
light output under specified time (t) and temperture (7). To compare information, the user must know time
and temperature data.
The length of time it takes for the reagent to react varies greatly with the test medium. However, the
normal reaction will occur after between 5 to 15 minutes have elapsed. Readings at 5 and 15 minutes are
recommended, with additional readings if it appears that more time is needed. For example, phenols are a
class of toxicants that cause immediate light loss followed by either a slight recovery or a stable light out-
put, whereas bivalent metals exhibit slow inhibition reactions and may require longer test times.
The reader should obtain the Microtox manual from Beckman Instruments, Inc., for detailed test proce-
dures.
Because this test is conducted with a single species, the results are primarily indications of relative
toxicities of sites and are not indications of the actual toxicity of the hazardous material.
12.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
Regional variances exist. Climatic differences will influence different responses with standardized test
organisms. Regional differences also exist in native plants and animals that are on hazardous waste sites.
The reader is urged to contact the appropriate EPA RPM for referral to the knowledgeable technical
specialists. Regional variances will be updated in Revision 01 to this compendium.
12-36
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Exhibit 12-10
PROCEDURES OF TITRATING COa IN TRAPS AND
METHODS FOR PREPARING REAGENTS
A. COaTITRATION PROCEDURE
1. Replace the C02 traps at the designated intervals by opening the microcosm, removing
the exposed COa trap, and replacing it with an unexposed one. (At the same time this
step is being performed, insert an open vacuum line to aid in properly replenishing the air
in the microcosm. Remove at least 3 times the volume of the air space.)
2. As quickly as is practical, place an airtight cap on the exposed C02 trap; return the
microcosms to the dark 20°C incubator.
3. Add 5 ml of 1.3N of BaCIa and a stir bar to each exposed COa trap immediately before
titration.
4. Titrate excess 0.6N NaOH remaining in the trap to pH 9.0 with a buret and pH meter (or
autotitrator) using Trizma standardized 0.6N HCI to measure milligrams of COa produced.
Formula for the Calculation of COa Production
mg of COa = (Blank ml - Sample ml) x 22 mg of COa/ml/N x Normality of Acid
e.g., mg of COa = (10.40 ml - 6.93 ml) x 22 mg of COa/ml/n x 0.6013 N
= 45.90 mg of COa produced
B. PREPARATION OF REAGENTS
1. 0.6N NaOH
a. Rinse 20-liter glass carboy with distilled HaO.
b. Place on a large magnetic stir plate; add degassed distilled HaO to the 18.9 liter
mark.
c. Add 454 grams (1 Ib) of NaOH pellets.
d. Stopper and stir overnight before use. (Maintain the NaOH stock solution in a COa-
free atmosphere by using ascarite traps.)
2. 0.6N HCI
a. Rinse 20-liter glass carboy with distilled HaO.
b. Add 1.0 liter of concentrated HCI.
c. Add distilled HaO until the 20-liter mark.
d. Stopper and stir overnight.
12-37
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Exhibit 12-10
(continued)
e. Titrate 5 "Tris" samples (0.5 to 0.9 grams of "tris" in 10.0 ml of distilled HaO and 5 ml
of 1.2 BaCte) to pH 5.0 with about 0.7 HCI; calculate mean and standard deviation
("s"). (If "s" is larger than 0.0015, do 5 more samples and combine results.)
(0.1211 g/meg) (ml of HCI used)
(Weight of Tris in grams)
Normality of HC! =
(0.1211 g/meg) (9.69ml)
0.7089 grams
e.g., Normality of HCI = 0.6041 N
3. 1.3N BaCl2
a. Weigh 3 1 7.56 grams BaCl2:2HaO
b. Dissolve in degassed distilled HteO in a 1 -liter volumetric flask.
4. Tris
Aminomethane (hydroxymethyl) tris-Trizma Base (Sigma Chemical Company, St.
Louis, Missouri).
Source: Lighthart, 1980; unpublished procedure as reported by Porcella, 1983.
12-38
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12.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
American Fisheries Society. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and
Canada. 4th ed. Special Publication No. 12. 1980.
American Public Health Association. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
16thed. APHA-AWWA-WPCF. Washington, D.C. 1984.
American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM Designation E 729-80. Pp. 285-309.
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. 1977.
Cox, George W. Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company.
1967.
FAO. Manual of Methods in Aquatic Environment Research. Part 1 —Methods for Detection, Measure-
ment, and Monitoring of Water Pollution. Technical Paper No. 137. FIRI/T137. Rome, Italy. 1975.
Freed, J.R., P.R. Abell, D.A. Dixon, and R.E. Huddleston, Jr. Sampling Protocol For Analysis of Toxic Pol-
lutants in Ambient Water, Bed Sediments, and Fish. Interim Final Report. Prepared by Versar, Inc.,
Springfield, Virginia, for EPA Office of Water Planning and Standards, Washington, D.C. 1980.
Goldberg, E.D., V.T. Bowen, J.W. Farrington, G. Harvey, J.H. Martin, P.L Parker, R.W. Risebrough, W.
Robertson, E. Schneider, and E. Gamble. 'The Mussel Watch." Environmental Conservation, Vol. 5, No. 2,
pp. 101-126. 1978.
Mosby, Henry S. Manual of Game Investigational Techniques. U.S. Wildlife Society. 1960.
Nielsen, Larry A., and David L. Johnson, eds. Fisheries Techniques. Bethesda, Maryland: American
Fisheries Society. 1983.
Phillips, E. A. Methods of Vegetation Study. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1959.
Platts, William S., Walter F. Megahan, and G. Wayne Minshall. Methods for Evaluating Stream, Riparian,
andBiotic Conditions. Draft. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report. INT-
-138. Ogden, Utah. May 1983.
Porcella, D. B. Protocol for Bioassessment of Hazardous Waste Sites. Prepared by Tetratech, Inc., for
U.S. EPA. Corvallis, Oregon. TC 3547-1. 1983.
Reeves, Robert G., Abraham Anson, and David Landen. Manual of Remote Sensing. Falls Church, Vir-
ginia: American Society of Photogrammetry. 1975.
Schemnitz, S.D., ed. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: The Wildlife
Society, 1980.
Sherma, Joseph. Manual of Analytical Quality Control for Pesticides in Human and Environmental Media.
U.S. EPA-600/1-76-017. 1976.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973. Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the
Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents. EPA 670/4-73-001. 1973.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria Documents. Washington,
D.C. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980b. Manual ofAnalytical Methods for the Analysis of Pesticides
in Human and Environmental Samples. EPA 600/8-800-038. 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980C. Extraction and Analysis of Priority Pollutants in Biological
Tissue. Method PPB. 10/80, EPA, S&A Division Region IV. Athens, Georgia: Laboratory Services Branch.
1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980d. Interim Methods for the Sampling and Analysis of Priority
Pollutants in Sediments and Fish Tissue. Cincinnati, Ohio: ESML October 1980.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1982. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste. Physically
Chemical Methods, SW-846. 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983a. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. EPA
600/4-79-020. 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983b. Technical Support Manual: Waterbody Surveys and As-
sessments for Conducting Use Attainability Analysis. OWRS. November 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985a. Water Quality Criteria; Availability of Documents. Federal
Register. Vol. 50, No. 145. 29 July 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985b. Draft Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual.
OSWER Directive 9285.4-1. Prepared by ICF, Incorporated, Washington, D.C. 18 December 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985c. Methods for Measuring the Acute Toxicity of Effluents to
Freshwater and Marine Organisms. 3rd ed. EPA 600/4-85/013, ORD. Cincinnati, Ohio. March 1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1985d. Short-Term Methods for Estimating the Chronic Toxicity of
Effluent and Receiving Water for Freshwater Organisms. EPA 600/4-85/014, ORD. Cincinnati, Ohio. December
1985.
Verschueren, Karel. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. 2nd ed. 1983.
Watts, Randell R. ed. Analysis of Pesticide Residues in Human and Environmental Samples. U.S. EPA-
600/8-80-038. 1980.
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APPENDIX 12A
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
A. VEGETATION COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Two general types of information can be used to determine the level of impact of any pollutant on
vegetation. First, the general health and stress level of plants on the site should be assessed. This can be
done with superficial visual observations, through remote sensing using color infrared photography, and by
tissue analysis. Second, the composition of the plant community can be measured through an ecological
survey to determine If the stress has been great enough to change the relative abundance of the vegeta-
tion.
Assessing the stress level of the plants growing on a site is appropriate for determining subtle environ-
mental effects. By the time an impact is severe enough to change the species composition of a site, it may
be pointless to review existing vegetation for stress effects.
Important factors to consider in analyzing the effects of pollutants on the terrestrial ecosystem include
how the pollutant entered the ecosystem (for example, by a spill on the soil surface, or through contamina-
tion of an underground water table); the time of entry of the pollutant in relation to the season of the year
and the life-cycle of principal life forms; the physical and chemical nature of the soil, especially infiltration
rates, internal drainage, buffering capacity, and soil pH; the nature of the vegetation, especially plant root-
ing depths, litter quantity, and rate of organic matter turnover; specific types of potential human and animal
food produced by the vegetation, such as crops, deer browse, edible nuts; and animal use of the area, in-
cluding identification of resident and migratory species.
A1, Visual Field Observations
During site surveys, an ecologist should observe the vegetation throughout the vicinity and in
downgradient (downwind, downstream, and downhill) areas. It may be desirable to make such observa-
tions at different times of the year, especially during the spring growth of the major species, during a period
of high heat-and-water stress in the summer, and just before leaf fall in the autumn. These are times when
symptoms of stress may be particularly obvious, especially if there is a chance that the pollutant has im-
paired the function of the root system.
Team personnel should determine the types of vegetation expected to be found and the successional
stages common to the area. It is imperative that the length of time since site disturbance or site abandon-
ment be known to interpret properly these visual assessments. Signs of stress that need to be assessed in
both the affected and unaffected areas include size of annual or biennial plants, leaf size of perennial
plants, leaf and stem necrosis, chlorosis, evidence of changes in levels of disease or insect damage that
may be linked to stressed plants, increases in size of seed crops of perennial plants (often associated with
stress), premature leaf fall, abnormal wilting of succulent plant parts, and abnormal plant coloration.
A2. Remote Sensing
When the site vicinity is large or the possible offsite pollutant pathways are extensive or unknown,
aerial photography using color infrared (CIR) film can be used to identify and delineate the extent of
vegetational stress. Field checks are necessary to substantiate conclusions made by the examination of
CIR photographs. The success of this method depends on the experience and interpretive abilities of the
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investigator and on the ampunt of information available about the expected effects of the pollutants on
vegetation.
Remote sensing may be applicable only at certain times of the year and is probably most effective
during the warmer, drier periods of the growing season. Additional information can be found in the follow-
ing:
• Reeves, Robert G., Abraham Anson, arid David Landen. Manual of Remote Sensing. Falls Church,
Virginia: American Society of Photogrammetry. 1975.
• Schemnitz, Sanford D., ed. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual. Washington, D.C.: The
Wildlife Society. 1980.
A3. Ecological Assessments
There are a number of ecological survey techniques available for obtaining quantitative, defensible in-
formation about the structure, composition, biomass, and productivity of plant communities. Ecological
surveys conducted simultaneously in a (possibly) affected area and a reference area can demonstrate
vegetational stress if exposure to site contaminants is the only difference between these two sites. The
most common survey techniques include plot sampling, plotless sampling, and line-intercept sampling.
Plot sampling is frequently used to quantify species composition within an area. For this purpose,
plots are laid out in the study area on either a random or systematic sampling basis. Plot sizes vary with
the size of the vegetation being sampled. (If the composition of a stand of large plants, such as trees or tall
shrubs, is being quantified, the plots may be, for instance, 10 m x 10 m; however, if the composition of a
stand of annuals is being measured, plot size may be only 1 m x 1 m.) The size and number of plots
sampled is also a function of the uniformity of the plant community. In plant communities with multiple
layers-for example, in a temperate forest with an over-story canopy, a shrub layer, and a herbaceous
layer—three different plot sizes may be used, each of the smaller plots being a subsample of the next
largest plot.
Once the plots are laid out, the scientist estimates the percentage of the plot covered by a projection of
the leaves of each species onto the ground. By taking several of these plots within a study area, an
average percent-cover is calculated for each plant species.
In a variation of this plot-sampling technique, the scientist harvests all plants growing within a plot,
sorts them by species, and weighs them. This technique gives a more precise measure of species com-
position, but it is more costly. Data gathered from harvested plots can be compared to data gathered from
"percent-cover" plots only with a great deal of care.
Plotless sampling is an alternative to the establishment of plots when the plants to be sampled are
widely spaced, as in arid or otherwise semi-barren areas. There are several plotless sampling procedures.
One common procedure involves the selection of random points in a plant community. At each point, four
quadrants of 90 degrees each are established. In each quadrant, the distance from the point to the nearest
plant is measured. The nearest plants can be measured for whatever parameters are of interest, including
the projected area of the leaves of the plant upon the ground. The point-to-plant distance squared is, on
the average, the mean area occupied by one plant. The percentage of coverage by species can be calcu-
lated from this data. Again, the number of sample points required depends on the accuracy required in the
study and the uniformity and distribution of plants within the community.
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The line-intercept sampling method is particularly useful in quantifying low-growing vegetation. In this
technique, a randomly oriented line is laid out on the ground. The scientist then moves along the line,
measuring and recording the length of the line under the projected leaf area of each plant. The length of
line covered by each species is divided by the total length of the line to determine a percent-cover for each
species. By laying out a number of short lines, or by arbitrarily dividing a long line into segments, species
frequency can be determined.
Each of the sampling techniques presented here can be used to gather a variety of information. The
examples above primarily illustrate the mechanics of each technique.
Quantitative ecological vegetation assessments are rarely done in hazardous waste site studies be-
cause they are labor intensive and because little additional information is gained for use in a human health
risk assessment beyond that information available from the visual site investigation. For these reasons,
vegetation sampling techniques should be selected on a site-specific basis. Several references are avail-
able for use in designing quantitative vegetation study plans, including the following:
Cox, G.W. The Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co. 1967.
Phillips, E. A. Methods of Vegetation Study. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1959.
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. 1977.
A4. Tissue Analyses
Plant tissues can become contaminated by metals, organics. and various other elements of environ-
mental concern. The type of plant and/ or plant tissue collected for analysis will depend on site conditions.
Approximately 30 grams (wet) of plant tissue are normally needed for analysis, but the number and type of
analyses required will determine how much material must be collected. The laboratory performing the
analysis will inform the collector of the amount of material needed and any special handling methods re-
quired. Grasses and forbs should be clipped just above ground level using scissors or plant shears. No
soil should be included in the material collected. Samples should be placed in clean 1-gallon paper bags
as described in Subsection E1 of this appendix.
Leaves collected for analysis should be clipped at the petiole and allowed to drop directly into the col-
lecting bag. All flowers, leaves, and other plant growth should be removed from plant stems collected.
Stems are then cut into 3- to 4-inch lengths and allowed to drop directly into the collecting bag.
All leaf, flower, or cover tissue is removed, if possible, from fruits, nuts, or seeds. If this is not possible
in the field, the sample label should indicate what part of the sample is to be analyzed.
Roots, tubers, or other underground plant growth are handled differently than above-ground plant tis-
sue. Underground structures are collected by digging with a trowel or other tool, rather than by pulling the
plant out of the ground. The entire root system is carefully collected, and attached soil is gently removed
by shaking or striking. (Some soil will remain, but the laboratory will clean the material prior to analysis.)
The root should be cut away from the stem at ground level, and each root placed in a separate bag and
labeled as described in Subsection E1 of this appendix.
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B. TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE FIELD COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Assessments of effects on terrestrial vertebrates can be accomplished through tissue analysis and
through ecological survey techniques. Collection techniques for tissue analyses of terrestrial vertebrates
normally involve small to medium-sized animals. The most common techniques are live trapping, lethal
trapping, and hunting with a gun. Other assessments used on terrestrial vertebrates include mark and
recapture studies and scatological studies. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife's Habitat Evaluation Procedure
(HEP) incorporates vegetation and wildlife survey techniques to estimate natural resource losses expected
over time as a result of a specific project. The reader should also refer to Subsection B4-Habitat Evalua-
tion Procedure of this appendix.
The collection of terrestrial vertebrates at any site can serve a multitude of functions, including iden-
tification of species present, estimation of total numbers of each species, and securing of tissue for chemi-
cal analysis. Because of the time and expense involved, the collection procedures are usually used only
when tissue residue studies are needed.
B1. Live Trapping
Live traps completely enclose the captured animal. This system normally does not kill the captive;
however, some animals may become hurt in their attempts to gain freedom or may die from exposure if the
traps are not properly insulated. Death because of exposure occurs most frequently during cold or rainy
weather. Live traps should be checked frequently.
Live traps can be used in ecological surveys or, more typically, for capturing specimens for tissue
analysis. Live traps allow the collector to be selective because unwanted species can be released un-
harmed.
The most commonly used live traps are small, medium, or large Havahart traps or Peterson live traps
(Exhibit 12A-1). Havahart traps are used for squirrel-sized or larger mammals, while Peterson traps (with
dimensions of 3 x 3 x 9 inches) are used for small, rodent-sized animals. Traps can be baited with a variety
of food such as smoked fish, oatmeal and peanut butter, birdseed and peanut butter, or other appropriate
attractants.
Before it is used for the first time, a trap is specially cleaned with a trap dye to remove the scent ac-
crued during manufacture; it is then treated with sealing wax to reduce rusting. Gloves are used to handle
the trap so that human scent is not associated with it.
Trap placement is determined by the species to be captured. Carnivores, omnivores, or herbivores
with relatively small home ranges (less than 20 acres) are considered to be the most likely terrestrial ver-
tebrates to have come in contact with site contaminants. Mammals such as opossums, rabbits, wood-
chucks, mice, moles, shrews, muskrats, and raccoons are the most commonly collected mammals.
The site vicinity is examined by biologists to identify likely habitats and animal trails. Live traps are
baited, wired open, and placed in likely areas for 2 to 3 days to acquaint animals with the foreign object.
Following the acquaintance period, the trap is baited and set to close when tripped.
The number of animals needed for tissue analysis depends on the species available, the target tissue
(e.g., muscle, liver, brain), the number and types of analyses to be done, and the detection limit required
for study objectives. The primary laboratory protocol used (see EPA, 1980c in Subsection 12.8) requires a
minimum of 10 grams for base/ neutrals and acids, 10 grams for pesticides and PCBs, 5 grams for volatiles,
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Exhibit 12A-1
LIVE ANIMAL TRAPS
1
ANIMAL ENTERS. Lured by bait on
bait pan or fooled by trap MI on run-
way, animal enters trap Animal can
Mt through open ends of trap and
enters unsuspectingly.
DOORS SLAM AND LOCK. Animal
trips bait pan and doors slam shut.
Door design restricts animal move-
ment to help prevent injury.
HEADY TO GO. Pets and norwtarget
wildlife can be released immediately
Pests can be transported in trap for
relocation and release Trap doubles
** a handy animal carrier
For Foxes, Raccoons, Bobcats, Otters
Special tingle-door trap with compartment for live chicken.
rabbit or other bait. Size 55" x 12" x 12"
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and 10 grams for metals. Approximately 100 grams of the target tissue is usually required. Trapping an
adequate number of a single species may sometimes be difficult within the schedule of the sampling
program.
Field notebooks (bound, with numbered pages) are kept to record all field data, including sampling
locations, date, weather conditions, species caught, weight, length, sex, and any unusual biotic condition
observed. Photographs including a scale object, are made of all specimens retained for sacrifice.
Animals to be used in tissue analyses can be killed with a shot to the head, by suffocation, or by break-
ing the neck. The animal is dissected according to the procedure described by Henry S. Mosby in Manual
of Game Investigational Techniques (U.S. Wildlife Society, 1960). Another important reference in wildlife col-
lection is the 1980 Wildlife Management Techniques Manual (The Wildlife Society, S.D. Schemnitz, ed.). (See
Subsection 12.8 for information source.) Additional details on tissues sampled and sample preservation
are provided in Subsection E2 of this appendix.
The "mark-and-recapture" system of live trapping is useful for estimating population sizes. In this sys-
tem, a number of animals of a particular species are trapped alive, marked in some way, and returned to
the ecosystem. After allowing a brief interval for the marked animals to meld into the population, a large
number of traps are set and animals are captured. The population of animals in the ecosystem can be cal-
culated based on the number of animals marked, the number of marked animals recaptured, and the total
number of animals captured in the second trapping. Information on the size of animal populations might
reveal whether or not the environment has been seriously disturbed by some factor, such as a pollutant,
but this technique is not likely to be useful when the polluted area is very small.
B2. Lethal Traps
Lethal traps physically grab and retain animals once the trap is tripped. This type of trap is used to col-
lect such animals as muskrats, raccoons, minks, or skunks (which are more easily handled by this method)
for tissue analysis. Common traps used include the Victor No. 1 coil spring leg trap, the Conibear No. 1
body trap, and the museum special, Victor rat traps (Exhibit 12A-2). Traps are baited and/or set along
identified animal trails, preferably at night. As with live traps, lethal traps are specially cleaned and
prepared to reduce human scents and improve the catch.
The ambient temperature helps to determine how often a trap should be checked, because heat and
low humidity can decay or dessicate samples. The following frequency is recommended:
• Below SOT at night, traps can be left out overnight.
• Below 50°F during day, traps should be checked every 4 hours.
• Between 50°F and 80°F at night, traps should be checked every 4 hours.
• Between 50°F and 80°F during day, traps should be checked every 2 hours, especially on sunny
days.
• Above 80°F at night, traps should be checked every 2 hours.
• Traps should not be set during daylight hours if the temperature is above 80°F unless traps are
continuously checked.
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Exhibit 12A-2
LETHAL ANIMAL TRAPS
12A-7
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Captured organisms are killed and processed in the same manner as described in the live trap subsec-
tion above:
B3. Hunting
Species not easily captured by trapping methods are occasionally obtained by standard hunting
methods using a .22-caliber gun. Large aquatic turtles are an example of such a species. Once the or-
ganism is killed, it is processed in the same manner as described In the live trap subsection above. Hunt-
ing is used to collect organisms for tissue analysis.
B4. Additional Ecological Assessments
Ecological assessments of hazardous waste sites to date have been very limited. Terrestrial, aquatic,
and marine ecological studies may be called for in the future. The following references will provide
guidance:
Brown and Zan. Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. 1977.
Cox, George, W. Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. Dubuqu'e, Iowa.: William C. Brown Co. 1967.
Updates of this compendium will incorporate any ecological techniques applied through the date of
preparation. The Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP) discussed below is a tool that can be applied to haz-
ardous waste site evaluations.
Habitat Evaluation Procedure (HEP)
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services (FWS) HEP is part of the methodology being assessed by the
Department of Interior for use in establishing a monetary value for natural resources lost because of haz-
ardous waste sites. This procedure might be used in rural settings where wildlife resources have been lost,
but it would have limited use in urban areas.
There are two possible objectives to this type of study. The first is to evaluate the impacts of the site on
wildlife, using the HEP methodology. The second is to develop a conceptual mitigation plan describing the
possible replacement of wildlife habitat or other mitigation to compensate for the habitat affected by the
site. Following is a brief summary of the major tasks involved in conducting the HEP.
Task 1. Literature Review and HEP Evaluation Team Formation
Wildlife biologists meet with personnel from federal and state resource agencies and other appropriate
agencies to gather existing published and file data and to identify significant issues or resources related to
the site vicinity. Representatives of these entities will form an HEP evaluation team. This team identifies
species of interest, clarifies agency concerns, and provides an opportunity for agency input into the design
phase of the study. This task also includes a site visit.
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Task 2. Study Definition
The results of Task 1 activities are used to determine several elements of the study. The study area is
roughly defined, and an initial selection of evaluation species is made. The inclusion of species is deter-
mined jointly by representatives of the HEP evaluation team.
Selection of evaluation species is determined by several criteria and may include species of special
concern, such as threatened or endangered species, or species of interest to the wildlife resource agencies
because of their management significance as game species. Additionally, the list of evaluation species
may include representatives of several guilds (that is, species with similar nesting or foraging require-
ments), to provide an ecologically balanced approach to the study. A maximum of eight evaluation
species are usually selected. If possible, the study should select only species for which published verified
models or habitat suitability index (HSI) curves are available.
An evaluation team meeting is then held to discuss species selection, modify species models as neces-
sary, and clearly establish study goals and objectives.
Task 3. Habitat Inventory and Study Site Selection
Aerial photographs taken from before site development to the present are obtained for the study area.
These photos, combined with onsite visual verification and any other available data sources (such as tim-
ber harvest records, land use maps, or old zoning records) are used to classify the cover types in the area
under existing and baseline conditions. Photos are also helpful in determining succession and agricultural
or silvicultural practices on lands adjacent to the site.
In evaluating an existing site using the HEP methodology, it is necessary to identify cover types in the
study area that can be used to represent uncontaminated baseline conditions. An underlying assumption
is that these baseline areas represent conditions at the site before contamination. This assumption is criti-
cal because baseline conditions establish the standard against which impacts are measured.
The results of the habitat inventory can be presented in several ways. Each cover type can be
described using standard FWS habitat classifications (where appropriate), and can include a description of
the dominant species in the tree, shrub, and ground layers as well as estimates of canopy coverage, tree
height, and diameter breastheight (d.b.h.), as appropriate. Specific methodologies that can be used are
described in Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. (See Subsection 12.8 for Cox, G.W. Dubuque, Iowa:
Wm. C. Brown Co. 1967.)
A copy of the draft report of the habitat inventory results is to be sent to each HEP evaluation team
member along with HEP models for the evaluation species. The evaluation team then meets to select
specific sampling locations, develop the sampling design, and make any final modifications to the evalua-
tion species models.
Sampling sites are selected in each of the major plant communities and successional stages, as repre-
sented by the cover types described in the habitat inventory. Sampling sites are selected by a stratified,
random process whereby the number of sampling sites per cover type will be approximately proportional
to the total area and to the amount of variability within each type. Where possible, an equal number of
sample sites are selected and evaluated in each of the three major areas of study: baseline, impact, and
mitigation sites.
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Task 4. Conduct, Analyze, and Interpret HEP Assessment
Following the selection of study sites and evaluation species and the finalization of the study design,
the actual field methodology used to collect data is fairly straight forward. Each study site is sampled by
the evaluation team in accordance with the HEP guidelines. Target years for analysis usually include a year
before the contamination (a year that has aerial photos available), a year close to the present (again deter-
mined by the availability of aerial photos), and a year 1 or 2 years in the future, usually after remediation.
In the HEP methodology, each species model uses a number of measurable variables that are com-
bined into a simple equation, resulting in a sample site HSI. The average HSI from all sample sites is used
as the HSI value for a given evaluation species in the study area. This overall HSI, which is a number be-
tween 0 and 1.0, is a quality index or a measure of the capacity of the project area to meet the life requisi-
tes of the evaluation species.
The overall HSI, when multiplied by the number of habitat acres for the evaluation species, yields the
number of habitat units (HUs), a measure of the quality and quantity of habitat available to the evaluation
species. The difference in HUs for each evaluation species between the target years represents the losses
or gains of the habitat in terms of quantity and quality as a result of the project or mitigation measures.
C. AQUATIC MACROINVERTEBRATE FIELD COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Collection techniques for freshwater and marine macroinvertebrates are discussed below. These tech-
niques include quantitative and qualitative methodologies focused on benthic infauna or epifauna and can
be used to collect specimens for tissue analysis or ecological surveys. All of the methods that identify col-
lection of invertebrates from sediment require the use of personal protective gear appropriate for the level
of contamination expected.
C1. Grabs / Coring Devices / Sediment Sampling Methods
Aquatic invertebrates inhabiting soft substrate can be sampled by collecting the substrate and seiving it
through one or more standard screens to extract organisms. Sampling methods include bottom grabs,
sediment coring devices, and shovels. The screening extraction method is described in Subsection C2 of
this appendix.
Invertebrates collected by sediment sampling devices live on or in sediments where many pollutants
can accumulate. For this reason, these organisms are often good indicators of the effects of contamina-
tion. Invertebrates can be used in tissue analysis studies or ecological assessments. Bivalves and larger
crustaceans are normally used in tissue analyses, while the invertebrate population as a whole can be
studied in ecological surveys.
Marine and freshwater invertebrates are collected primarily by grabs such as the Ekman, Ponar, Smith-
Mclntyre, or Petersen. Intertidal or shallow-water sediment-dwelling invertebrates are commonly collected
with a Surber sampler (or other standard gear) or with a shovel. Sediment coring devices, while impracti-
cal for collecting organisms for tissue analysis or ecological surveys because of their small sample area,
can be useful in obtaining a relatively undisturbed sediment sample for analysis of pollutant accumulation
over time.
The various sediment grabs operate by digging into the bottom using their weight and leverage. Shal-
low waters can be sampled with some of these grabs by rigging them on poles or rods and pushing them
into the substrate. Grabs can sample substrate ranging from soft muds through gravel. The Ekman grab is
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most useful in sampling soft sediments; for clay hardpan and coarse substrates, the heavier grabs such as
the orange peel or clam shell type (including the Ponar, Petersen, Shipek, and Smith-Melntyre) are better.
Exhibit 12A-3 shows various grab samplers.
Medium-sized boats equipped with winches are normally necessary to deploy and retrieve grab
samplers. The substrate collected is funneled into either a box screen or a bucket to await screening.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 16th ed. (APHA AWWA-WPCF, 1984), con-
tains detailed descriptions of the most popular grab samplers.
Core samplers vary from hand-push types to gravity-operated types. The length of core taken by
gravity or by, hand will vary with substrate texture and density and the amount of weight or effort expended.
Grabs and corers are operated according to manufacturers' specifications. If the study plan calls for
ecological data, invertebrates are collected according to the methodologies described in EPA's Biological
Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents (Weber, 1973) or in
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 16th ed. (APHA-AWWA-WPCF, 1984). In both
tissue analysis and ecological survey studies, samples are collected from both the test or affected area(s)
and a reference site. Ecological surveys require replicate sampling, while tissue analysis sampling requires
approximately 100 grams of tissue of a single species. As discussed in Subsection B1 of this appendix, the
amount of tissue needed can vary.
Sampled organisms are handled and preserved in the field according to the procedures described in
Subsection E3 of this appendix.
C2. Sieving Devices
Sieving devices remove aquatic invertebrates from their habitats, either by capturing organisms larger
than the sediments in which they live or by capturing organisms drifting in the water column. In the first
case, box-type sieves are used in conjunction with grab-collection methods (Subsection C1 of this appen-
dix). In the second case, invertebrates are sampled from rubble and gravel riffles in streams using a Surber-
type sieving device (Exhibit 12A-4) or from the water column using an invertebrate drift net.
Sieving devices can be used to collect specimens for tissue analysis. These devices are especially
useful in collecting sediment-dwelling mollusks, both freshwater and marine species. Sieves can also be
used in ecological survey studies when a quantitative sediment sampling method is employed (Subsection
C of this appendix). Surber samplers can be used with relative ease as sampling devices for small streams
and are useful for comparative types of ecological studies (i.e., upstream versus downstream). Surber
samplers can be used only in flowing water with a depth of less than 12 inches.
Surber samplers are composed of a stainless steel square frame and attached nylon net, typically 0.21 -
mm mesh. The sampler is placed over the sample site, and all sediments within the frame are disturbed to
loosen attached invertebrates. Larger rocks are lifted, scrubbed, and removed. Remaining sediment is dis-
turbed to a standard depth (usually 2 to 4 inches) by digging and stirring either by hand or using a tool.
Net contents are rinsed into the bottom of the net with local water and then carefully removed to the collec-
tion container. Stainless steel forceps are often useful in removing small specimens.
Benthos screens used to process grab.-type samples are usually about one-half-meter-square, low-
sided boxes with bottoms made of 0.25-inch or finer stainless steel or nylon mesh. Sediment samples are
placed in the box, and local water is used to wash sediment through the mesh. The washing process is
usually performed from the bottom upward so as not to mutilate more delicate organisms of interest. Col-
lected specimens are then removed to collection jars or aluminum foil, depending on the type of study
12A-11
-------
,1
,
uiO
Ul
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Exhibit 12A-3
(continued)
c
12A-13
-------
Exhibit 12A-4
SURBER SAMPLER
12A-14
-------
being conducted. Sample handling techniques and preservation are discussed in Subsection E3 of this ap-
pendix.
Invertebrate drift nets are small, funnel-shaped, fine-meshed nets with a rectangular opening and a
typical bag length of 1.3 meters. These nets are anchored in small, swift streams (minimum current of 0.5
feet per second) above the bottom and slightly below the surface. This type of net is useful for collecting
macroinvertebrates that migrate or are dislodged from the substrate.
This sampling methodology can be used to collect organisms for tissue analysis or for ecological sur-
veys. Important factors in obtaining quantitative ecological data are net opening size, duration of opera-
tions, stream flow, time of day, and season.
Examination trays, either stainless steel or white enamel, are often used in the field to do the initial sort-
ing of collected invertebrates. Sample handling techniques and preservation are discussed in detail in Sub-
section E3 of this appendix.
C3. Otter Trawl
Marine macroinvertebrates associated with the surface sediment are collected in oner trawls along with
demersal fish. This sampling method is described in Subsection 01 of this appendix.
Invertebrates collected by this method are handled and preserved by the techniques described in Sub-
section E3 of this appendix.
C4. Traps
Minnow or crab traps are screened devices that are baited with an attractant to lure species of interest.
These traps are most commonly used to collect organisms such as crayfish or marine crabs to be used in
tissue analysis.
Traps are baited with items that will attract the species of interest. Crayfish, for example, are
scavengers and will be attracted to any odorous food item such as fish or cat food. The traps are then set
on or near the site and at a reference site and are checked at appropriate time intervals. Specific trapping
methodologies will vary with the organism of interest. Once the organisms are collected (at least 100
grams per sample), they are handled as described in Subsection E3 of this appendix.
C5. Artificial Substrate
Artificial substrate samplers are devices that are placed in the water for an extended period for
colonization by macroinvertebrates. This sampling technique can be used to collect invertebrates (such as
small crustaceans, Insects, and other arthropods) for tissue analysis. These devices can be used in
ecological studies if a standard artificial substrate sampler is used at both the reference and study locations
and if care is given to placing the substrates in equal water depth and under equal conditions for equal time
periods.
Because artificial substrate sampling methods can take extended amounts of time (4 to 6 weeks), other
available methods may be preferable. However, in monitoring studies, artificial substrates can provide in-
formation concerning relative environmental conditions. This is one of the only means for obtaining quan-
12A-15
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titative data relative to benthic colonization in areas where substrate conditions may not allow invertebrate
colonization or where organisms are scarce, making other collection efforts difficult.
The most common standard samplers are the multiplate or Hester-Dendy sampler and the basket
sampler (Exhibit 12A-5). The multiplate sampler is positioned (preferably) in the top meter of water, using
floats and stainless steel cable, for 4 to 6 weeks. For maximum retention of organisms during retrieval, the
sampler is placed in a bag or large dip net while still positioned in the water.
A basket sampler is a cylindrical basket containing approximately 30 rocks of equal size. This device is
often used in creeks and rivers where rocks are the preferred habitat for most invertebrates. Such
samplers are also left in place for 4 to 6 weeks.
Organisms removed from either artificial substrate are processed using techniques described in Sub-
section E3.
C6. In Situ Bioassays
During this procedure, local invertebrates from a comparatively clean area or invertebrates raised in
laboratories under known conditions are confined in traps and held at the site and at a reference site to
determine the acute toxicity of the area of suspected contaminants "or to determine whether bioaccumula-
tion is occurring.
Approximately 40 to 50 organisms such as bivalves or crayfish are obtained. Then 10 to 15 organisms
are placed in two cages—one for the test area and one for the reference area. If the purpose of the study
is to determine bioaccumulation, 10 to 15 additional specimens are sacrificed and processed immediately
to establish baseline conditions. The test and reference cages are checked on a regular schedule to deter-
mine mortalities. If bioaccumulation is being studied, several specimens are sacrificed at set time intervals
over the study period. Specimens for analysis are handled and preserved as described in Subsection E3 of
this appendix.
C7. Miscellaneous Invertebrate Collection Techniques
Aquatic invertebrates can be collected in a variety of other ways, depending on the species and
habitats being sampled.
Other sampling devices that can be used include garden rakes, pocket knives, buckets, tongs, dip
nets, and hands. Any of these methods would best be used for collection of organisms for tissue analysis
and not for ecological surveys since they are difficult to quantify.
D. FISH FIELD COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Collection techniques for gathering biotic information on both freshwater and marine fish species in-
clude trawling, seining, hook and line, and in situ bioassays. Electroshocking is used in freshwater systems
only.
12A-16
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Exhibit 12A-5
SUBSTRATE SAMPLERS
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12A-17
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D1. Trawls
The trawl method of sampling fish consists of dragging an open net through a body of water with a
boat. The net is set at the appropriate operating depth to catch the species of interest. This sampling
method is used in large, open-water areas of reservoirs, lakes, rivers, estuaries, and oceans. Irregular bot-
toms or areas with snags or large debris items are difficult to sample by trawl. Otter trawls (Exhibit 12A-6)
are commonly used because they can be operated from a relatively small boat.
The otter trawl method is used to sample bottom species while midwater species are often sampled by
a modified otter trawl (beam trawl) system.
Because many pollutants concentrate in sediments, bottom trawling is useful in collecting organisms
that are associated with sediments. This sampling method can be used to collect specimens for tissue
analysis or for ecological surveys to describe comparative populations (i.e., potentially impacted area ver-
sus reference area). However, there are limitations to using trawls to describe the entire population be-
cause some species are able to avoid being captured in the net.
Otter trawls are composed of two rectangular "otter boards" attached to the forward end of each side
of the net. These boards are used to hold the mouth of the net open. The opening of the smaller trawls is
about 16 to 20 feet. The length of line used to fish the trawl depends on the depth of the body of water.
The preferred angle on the line is at least 5 feet of line per foot of depth. The net is a semi-balloon modified
shrimp trawl with .75-inch mesh, and it often has an additional liner of .25-inch mesh in the end of the net
(cod end) to retain smaller fish. The bottom line of the net mouth is a lead line to keep the net fishing the
bottom, and the top line includes floats to keep the net open.
Small trawls can be operated by two people in a medium-sized power boat. While the trawl can be
hauled in by hand, a winch is more useful, especially when the catch is expected to be large.
The length of time for fishing with the trawl depends on the expected abundance of organisms. The
time usually varies from 5 to 15 minutes and begins when the net starts fishing the bottom. After the net is
hauled back on deck, specimens collected are handled as appropriate for the study program. A detailed
discussion of fish handling and preservation techniques used in the field is included in Subsection D5 (Tar-
get Fish Species) of this appendix.
Other miscellaneous gear includes life jackets, wet-weather gear (even in dry weather), gloves, and
containers to hold the catch into for sorting and examination. Before collecting fish with bottom trawls,
some information is required to determine expected sediment contamination levels. Personal protective
gear is used when necessary.
D2. Electrofishing
Electrofishing is a freshwater fish sampling method that uses a pulsating direct current (DC)
electroshocker, which stuns fish when the electric current travels through water with a resistance between
300 ohms and 30,000 ohms. Alternating current (AC) or nonpulsing DC methods are available but are not
as desirable because higher fish mortality occurs with AC. Pulsating DC often gives better results than
nonpulsing DC (Smith-Root, n.d.).
Electrofishers can readily be used to collect specimens for tissue analysis or to obtain population es-
timates or other population factors for creeks or small rivers in ecological surveys. When using electrofish-
ing in ecological studies, several factors should be considered. These include size selectivity (larger fish
12A-18
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Exhibit 12A-6
OTTER TRAWL
12A-19
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Exhibit 12A-7
BACKPACK AND BOAT ELECTROSHOCKERS
12A-20
-------
are more easily stunned than smaller fish); behavioral and habitat preference differences between species;
and water conductivity, temperature, depth, and turbidity.
Electrofishing in creeks and small rivers can be done with a backpacking model pulsating DC
electroshocker (top of Exhibit 12A-7). The backpacker system includes the electroshocker control unit and
a 12-volt battery mounted in a specially designed backpack unit, the anode pole, and the cathode screens.
The circular anode unit is mounted on a pole, which can be outfitted with a small mesh net to capture
stunned fish. Other gear needed includes a long-handled, fine-mesh dip net to capture fish and a bucket to
hold specimens. Because electroshockers have a high-voltage output, other important equipment includes
nonleaking, chest-high wading boots and nonleaking rubber electrician's gloves with long cuffs. Life jack-
ets are also worn.
Waters that cannot be waded in can be electrofished by boat (Exhibit 12A-7). The anode is clamped
rigidly ahead of the boat and extends into the water. One person guides the boat with oars or a motor
while one or two operators dip stunned fish. In waters too deep to wade, larger fish are more often taken
by the boat method rather than by the backpack method. The same safety equipment is used in boat
electro shocking as for the backpack method. The boat electroshocker is equipped with a "dead man"
switch that allows for a quick disconnect of the electrical impulse if a person falls in the water.
Some knowledge of expected species and their suitable habitat is helpful in electrofishing. When
stunned with a DC system, a fish will often be drawn toward the anode. However, in running waters, it can
be swept downstream. Polarized dark glasses can aid in finding stunned fish. Collected organisms are
placed in a water-filled bucket until processing can take place. Organisms to be used for tissue analysis
are processed as described in Subsection D5 (Target Fish Species) of this appendix.
D3. Seining
Seining involves the use of a long strip of netting hung between a float line and a lead-weighted line
that is pulled through the water either by boat or, in shallow waters, by hand. This method is most often
used in shallow sandy beach areas in either fresh or salt water. Beach seining is a simple sampling method
that can collect fish samples for tissue analysis and can provide some information on species variability in
ecological studies. Because certain sizes and types of fish can easily escape a beach seine, its use in
ecological studies is limited.
A small beach seine consists of a nylon net equipped with cork or plastic floats on the top and a lead-
or steel-weighted line on the bottom. The size of the net will depend on the area to be sampled, but a typi-
cal size is approximately 10 meters long and 3 meters deep. Mesh size can vary with the species of inter-
est. Hauling lines are attached to the top and bottom lines by a short bridle. This type of small seine can
be operated by two people. If the water is shallow, no boat is needed. One person anchors one side of the
seine on the beach, while the other deploys the seine through the area to be fished. Both ends are then
pulled on shore as quickly as possible, making sure that the bottom line remains on the bottom. Collected
organisms are processed according to the study plan using techniques as described in Subsection D5 —
Target Fish Species of this appendix.
D4. hook and Line
Fishing with a hook and line involves the use of a hand-held rod or trolling baited hooks or other lures.
While this method is not usually acceptable in ecological surveys, it is often the best way to obtain a few
specimens for chemical analysis when other methods are not possible. Occasionally, fish freshly caught by
12A-21
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nonstudy-team personnel are used in tissue analysis studies if enough information is known regarding the
location of catch. This study can also pro vide information regarding human consumption of local species.
D5. In Situ Bioassay
Local fish species can be used in field bioassays in the same manner as was described for macroinver-
tebrates in Subsection C3 of this appendix.
Target Fish Species
Before sampling fish for tissue analysis, the study team identifies possible target species based on the
following:
• Geographic location
• Available habitat
• Ease of capture and identification
• Pollution tolerance
• Use as a sport fish
• Nonmigratory habits
Exhibit 12A-8 lists possible target species by geographic location. While trout are identified as one of
the preferred target fish species, caution is exercised in using these fish because in many areas, especially
in the east, trout are stocked on a "put and take" basis. The local agency responsible for stocking can be
contacted to determine when fish were stocked in a particular area. A period of 3 months is considered to
be the minimum time span for trout to acquire a reasonable concentration of ambient pollutants (Freed et
al., 1980).
The season during which fish are collected for tissue analysis is also an important consideration. The
spawning season should be avoided whenever possible because fish are often stressed during this time;
they also have different feeding habits, fat content, and respiration rates, which can influence pollutant up-
take and clearing.
12A-22
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Exhibit 12A-8
TARGET FISH SPECIES FOR USE IN TISSUE ANALYSIS
I. Target Species (East of Appalachian Mountains)
***Brook Trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) **Bluegill (Lepomis macrochims)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui) **Pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) **Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus)
***Channel Catfish (fctaluruspunctatus) **Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
**Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) *Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
**Rainbow Trout (So/mo gairdneri)
II. Target Species (West of Appalachian Mountains and East of Rocky Mountains)
***Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri) **Yellow Perch (Percaflavescens)
***Brook Trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) **Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui) **Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) *Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
***Channel Catfish (fctalurus punctatus) *Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
**Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
III. Target Species (West of and including Rocky Mountains)
***Rainbow Trout (So/mo gairdneri) **Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
***Brook Trout (Salvenilus fontinalis) **Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)
***Small Mouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieui) *Cut-throat Trout (Salmo clarki)
***Large Mouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) *Brown Trout (Salmo trutta)
***Channel Catfish (fctaluruspunctatus) *Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
*** Preferred target species
** Good target species
* Acceptable target species
Source: Freed et al., 1980.
12A-23
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E. BIOLOGICAL FIELD SAMPLE PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION
TECHNIQUES
E1. Vegetation
Samples of vegetation collected from the site and intended for classification are initially placed in a
ridged collector's box. Samples should be kept moist and may be refrigerated when the collector returns
to the laboratory. After identification, samples may be pressed and mounted for permanent records.
Vegetation samples collected for tissue analysis are placed in 1-gallon paper bags and labeled. Infor-
mation on the label includes the date, time, weather, collector, plant type, site, identification number, and
proposed analysis.
The bag is stapled or clipped shut, labeled with the identification numbers, and placed in a larger plas-
tic bag. Several paper bags may be necessary to collect 30 grams of material; 1 gram of plant tissue can
suffice for most analyses that require the same analytical processing. However, more than 30 grams
should be taken if multiple testing or other special processing are required. The plastic bag is then placed
in a cooler with ice, ice packs, or dry ice. Care is taken to keep cooler water from contacting collected
plant material. Samples remain in coolers for shipment.
E2. Terrestrial Vertebrates
Once the specimens are collected, organisms to be used for tissue analysis are killed. Each animal is
described by weight, measurement, sex, and other general items. All specimens are photographed. The
following tissues can be removed using stainless steel scalpels: muscle and associated fatty deposits
(lipids), liver, kidneys, and possibly hair and claw samples for metal analysis. Stomach or crop contents
can be removed and preserved for identifi cation. Any anomalies are noted and photographed. Sections
of the anomalous tissues may be taken for analysis. Tissues are immediately wrapped in cleaned
aluminum foil (dull side in), labeled, and frozen in the field using dry ice. Hair and claw samples are placed
in plastic bags and labeled. Tissue samples are kept frozen until they are delivered to the laboratory. Sur-
gical gloves are used during the dis secting process.
E3. Aquatic Macroinvertebrates
Invertebrates collected for tissue analysis are sorted by species, counted, measured (when ap-
propriate), and weighed to assure that each single sample consists of at least 100 grams. Crustaceans are
washed using distilled water to remove paniculate matter, either wrapped in cleaned aluminum foil (dull
side in) or placed in Contract Laboratory Program cleaned glass vials, labeled, and frozen using dry ice.
Samples are packed in ice chests and kept frozen until they are delivered to the laboratory. Bivalve mol-
lusks are removed from their shells with a stainless steel knife for the examination of organochlorine com-
pounds or with a plastic knife for the examination of metals. Tissues are purged using distilled water,
wrapped in aluminum foil (dull side in), labeled, and frozen as described above. For organic analysis, or-
ganic-free water and blanks should be employed to document contamination control. Surgical gloves are
worn while handling invertebrate samples. Glove manufacturers should be contacted to determine if
gloves are a source of contamination and, if so, what compounds are typical.
12A-24
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Exhibit 12A-9
FISH PROCESSING PROCEDURES
1. Wash fillet board and table with local water supply (river, lake, etc.). Distilled water may be used.
2.** Clean knives with acetone and wipe board and table with acetone rinse. Rinse all with local water
supply or distilled water.
3. Rinse table and knives between specimens with distilled water; alternately, a previously cleaned
knife (#2 above) can be used for each specimen.
4. Take scale sample just posterior of gill and place in scale envelope.
5. Take weight (kg) and length (mm), and record on data sheets.
6. Fillet according to Exhibit 12A-11.
7. Wrap fillets in aluminum foil, and secure with 2-inch masking tape.
a. If large, individually
b. If small, combine
8. Label package with
a. Date and time of collection and preparation
b. Location (river, lake, etc.)
c. Species
d. Sample number
e. Project number
f. Sampler's/preparer's name
9. Place in bag and store In ice chest with dry ice.
**Note: if volatile analyses are required, acetone use is discouraged and methanol can be used as a substitute.
Source: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
12A-25
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Exhibit 12A-10
FISH COLLECTION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
Fillet table (formica top with long legs)
Wrapping table (aluminum, folding)
Fillet knives (1 large and 1 small)
Steel
Clear plastic packaging bags
Garbage bags
Fillet boards-polycarbonate
Water bucket
Wash brush
Garbage pail--6-gallon plastic or wastebasket
Data sheets
Procedure forms-fillet technique, skin-on or skin-off
Plastic bag ties
Scissors
2-inch masking tape
Marking pens and pencil
24-inch-wide roll of heavy-duty aluminum foil
Fish-scale envelope
Tripod
Fish-spring scale
Fish-measuring board
Ice chests
Paper towels
Acetone (wash bottle)**
Dry ice
**May need to substitute methanol (see Exhibit 12-9).
Source: Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
12A-26
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Exhibit 12A-11
PREPARATION OF "STANDARD FILLETS"
1. Make a cut behind the entire
length of the operculum (gill
cover) cutting through the skin
and flesh to the spinal column.
2. Make a shallow cut through
the skin (on either side of the
dorsal fin) from the base of the
caudal peduncle.
3. Make a cut along the belly from
the base of the pectoral fin to
the posterior end of the caudal
peduncle. This cut is made on
both sides of the anus and the
anual fin.
4. Remove the fillet and then
remove any major bones.
12A-27
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Exhibit 12A-12
STANDARD EDIBLE PORTIONS OF SELECTED
SPORT AND COMMERCIAL FISH
Standard Edible Portion
Skin-on Fillet
(all below to next heading)
Skin-on
Fillet
Common Names
Yellow perch
Walleye
Sauger
Largemouth bass
Smallmouth bass
Bluegill
Pumpkinseed
Rock bass
White perch
Black crappie
White crappie
Green sunfish
Longear sunfish
Warmouth
Sucker family
Lake whitefish
Lake trout
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Brook trout
Splake
Lake trout
Atlantic salmon
Coho salmon
Chinook salmon
Pink salmon
Black bullhead**
Brown bullhead**
Yellow bullhead**
Channel catfish
Muskellunge
Northern pike
Round whitefish
Scientific Name
Perca flavescens
Stizostedion vitreum
Stizostedion canadense
Micropterus salmoides
Micropterus dolotnieui
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis gibbosus
Ambloplites rupestris
Morone americana
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Pomoxis annularis
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis gulosus
Catostomidae
Coregonus clupeaformis
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Salvelines fan tinalis
Salvelinus poticalis *
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo salar
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus punctatus
Esox masquinongy
Esox lucius
Prosopium cylindraceum
12A-28
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Exhibit 12A-12
(continued)
Standard Edible Portion Common Names Scientific Name
Skin-off Fillet Lake herring (cisce) Coregonus artedii
(all below to next heading) Chubs (bloater) Coregonus hoyi
Carp Cyprinus carpio
Freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens
Bigmouth buffalo Ictiobus cyprinellus
Burbot Lota lota
Quillback Carpiodes cyprinus
Lake sturgeon Adpenser fulvescens
Headless, gutted, whole fish Rainbow smelt Osmems mordax
* Hybrids between brook trout (S. fontinalis) and lake trout (S. namaycush) are known as splake.
"Depending on local consumptive practice, bullheads may be considered "skin-off" species since
they are skinned before consumption.
Source: Modified from Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
12A-29
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Invertebrates collected for ecological assessment are preserved in the field with either a 4- to 7-percent
formalin solution (dependent on sample use and fragile nature of animals) or with 70-percent buffered
ethanol. Each sample is labeled with sampling location, depth, sample number, species (or lowest
taxonomic level practicable), number of individual organisms collected, sampling method, date, project
number, sampler, and team leader.
E4. Fish
Fish collected for tissue analysis are handled according to procedures outlined in the Michigan Depart-
ment of Natural Resources (MDNR) Fish Processing Procedures (Exhibit 12A-9) and in the Field Collection
Equipment Checklist (Exhibit 1PA-10). Exhibit 12A-11 shows the procedure for preparation of MDNR's
"standard filiets," and Exhibit 12A-12 lists the standard edible portions of selected sport and commercial
fish. Any marine fish that may be associated with a hazardous waste site and is not on this list will require
input from local individuals as to which tissues are consumed. Other fish tissues (i.e., liver, bone, etc.) may
need to be analyzed depending on contaminants involved and where they may accumulate.
12A-30
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SECTION 13
SPECIALIZED SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
13.0 GENERAL
This section discusses several specialized sampling techniques that have been used by contractors on
hazardous waste sites. The reader may develop other techniques for specific site needs. In those cases
and in cases where the techniques listed here are modified for use on a specific site, careful documentation
of the exact procedures used should be provided. This section does not discuss analytical techniques,
since analytical methods would vary depending on the data quality objectives, the compounds of concern,
the media, and the exact sampling technique. The Contract Laboratory Program plans to issue a "Field
Methodology Catalog" in the summer of 1987 that will contain field analytical techniques suitable for
analyses of the samples collected by using the techniques in this section.
13.1 WIPE SAMPLING
13.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This guideline discusses the steps required for obtaining a wipe sample. Wipe samples may be used
to document the presence of carcinogenic substances or other toxic materials. In addition, wipe sampling
is commonly used to ascertain that site or equipment decontamination has been acceptably effective.
13.1.2 Definitions
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Wipe Sample
A sample used to assess surface contamination. The terms "wipe sample," "swipe sample,"
and "smear sample" have all been used synonymously. For purposes of this section, the
sample will be termed "wipe sample."
13.1.3 Applicability
This guideline is applicable when a sample of the substances on a surface is needed. Surfaces may in-
clude walls, floors, ceilings, desk tops, equipment, or other large objects that are potentially contaminated.
13.1.4 Responsibilities
The SM or designee is responsible for deciding when wipe sampling is needed.
13-1
-------
Field personnel are responsible for performing the actual sampling, maintaining sample integrity, and
preparing the proper chain-of-custody forms.
13.1.5 Records
Records of wipe sampling include completed chain-of-custody forms and appropriate entries in the
field logbook. If the sample collected is to be analyzed using the National Contract Laboratory Program
(CLP), then CLP forms must be completed as discussed in Section 5.
13.1.6 Procedures
Wipe sampling can be an integral part of the overall sampling program. Wipe sampling can help to
provide a picture of contaminants that exist on the surface of drums, tanks, equipment, or buildings on a
hazardous waste site or that exist in the homes of a populace at risk.
Wipe sampling consists of rubbing a moistened filter paper over a measured area of 100 cm2 to 1 m2.
The paper is then sent to the laboratory for analysis' The results are related back to the known area of the
sample. A proper sampling procedure is essential to ensure a representative, uncontaminated sample.
13.1.6.1 Equipment Required
The following equipment is needed for wipe sampling:
• Whatman 541 filter paper or equivalent, 15 cm
• Disposable, chemical-protective gloves
• Solvent to wet filter paper
13.1.6.2 Wipe Sampling Steps
The steps involved in obtaining a wipe sample are listed below:
• Using a clean, impervious disposable glove, such as a surgeon's glove, remove a filter paper from
the box. (Note: Although it is necessary to change the glove if it touches the surface being wiped,
a new glove should be used for each sample to avoid cross contamination of samples. A new
glove should always be used when collecting a new sample.)
• Moisten the filter with a collection medium selected to dissolve the contaminants of concern as
specified in the sampling plan. Typically, organic-free water or the solvent used in analysis is used.
The filter should be wet but not dripping.
• Thoroughly wipe approximately 1 m2 of the area with the moistened filter. Using a 1 m2 stencil will
help in judging the size of the wipe area. If a different size area is wiped, record the change in the
field logbook. If the surface is not flat, be sure to wipe any crevices or depressions.
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• Without allowing the filter to contact any other surface, fold it with the exposed side in, and then
fold it over to form a 90-degree angle in the center of the filter.
• Place the filter (angle first) into a clean glass jar, replace the top, seal the jar according to quality
assurance requirements, and send the sample to the appropriate laboratory.
• Prepare a blank by moistening a filter with the collection medium. Place the blank in a separate jar,
and submit it with the other samples.
• Document the sample collection in the field logbook and on appropriate forms, and ship samples
per procedures listed in Section 6.
13.1.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revision to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
13.1.8 Information Sources
EBASCO. "Dioxin Sampling." REMIII Program Guidelines. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. 28 February 1986.
NUS Corporation. "Site-Specific Site Operations Plans." REM/FIT Contract.
13.2 HUMAN HABITATION SAMPLING
13.2.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the planning, method selection, and implementation of
sampling activities used to determine the potential for human exposure to contaminants that are present in
residential environment.
13.2.2 Definitions
Human Habitation Areas
Any place people may spend extended periods of time, such as their homes or offices.
13.2.3 Applicability
This subsection discusses sampling techniques that are similar in collection methodology to other
types of samples, such as environmental soil and water, but are biased to emphasize potential human ex-
posure to contaminants moving into the residential environment.
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13.2.4 Responsibilities
Human habitation sampling is the most sensitive of all environmental sampling activities. This sen-
sitivity must be addressed by community relations, health and safety, and sample collection personnel and
should be their key responsibilities. Community relations personnel must coordinate with the EPA to gain
site access for the samplers by care fully informing the residents of activities being performed and by
answering any questions the residents might ask. This difficult task must be performed in a manner that
will not overly alarm or excite people before definitive data can be collected to determine the true exposure
assessment.
The health and safety (risk assessment) personnel must be responsible for informing management and
community relations personnel of the potential exposure risks. Health and safety personnel will assist in
sample plan preparation and will aid the community relations personnel in correctly answering questions.
The risk assessment is also used in determining safety measures for samplers. Later the health and safety
personnel will use the analytical data to make a final health risk assessment. Finally, the sampling person-
nel, aside from their normal responsibilities, must be made aware of the resident's perspective. Workers
who are educated and more comfortable with hazardous environments must understand the potential
health and economic impacts on the people involved and must conduct themselves in a comparable man-
ner.
13.2.5 Records
Records generated during human habitation sampling will include telephone conversation notes, ac-
cess permission slips, field notebooks, sample result databases, and quality assurance review documenta-
tion.
13.2.5.1 Telephone Conversation Notes
As part of the initial community relations and site investigative activities, the EPA will make telephone
calls to public officials, property owners, and other involved persons. These telephone conversations must
be documented, taking care to note any commitments that are made or activities that are discussed. The
EPA should make calls again just before sampling to reaffirm permission to sample.
13.2.5.2 Access Permission Slips
A critical record that pertains to human habitation sampling activities is the property owner's consent
to enter the property. Records such as these are important in the event that any litigation activities take
place. Sampling personnel must be aware, however, that consent can be withdrawn at any time.
13.2.5.3 Field Notebooks
Specific field records should be documented in accordance with the requirements set forth in the
Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP). (See Section 6.)
13.2.5.4 Sample Results Databases
Human habitation sampling efforts will create sample result database records that are critical for health
risk analysis and statistical evaluations.
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13.2.5.5 Quality Assurance Review Documentation
To ensure the quality, consistency, and completeness of the data, reports and other records generated
must be reviewed by persons other than those involved with the record generation. Records documenting
this review should be kept as a check against errors.
13.2.6 Procedures
This subsection describes several types of samples pertaining to human habitation. These samples
can be related to the potential for human exposure to contaminants in the residential environment.
Samples taken from the air in and near the house or from the lawn, gardens, swimming pools, crops, farm
animals, and other media related to human habitation are collected generally in the same manner as other
environmental samples. (See Sections 7, 8,10,11, and 12 of this compendium.)
13.2.6.1 Vacuum Bag
If a vacuum cleaner is present in a residence being sampled, the vacuum bag can be an excellent
source for a representative sample. The bag contains material from the air and home surfaces that may
potentially expose humans through dermal, ingestion, and inhalation pathways. The vacuum bag should
be removed from the vacuum and the sample collected as if it were a normal soil sample. Information on
the period of use of the bag should be obtained.
13.2.6.2 Air Conditioner Filter
If there is a central air conditioner or heating unit present in a residence, the filters used with the system
are another source for collecting samples representative of the residential environment. Filters are
removed and placed in large plastic bags for shipment to the laboratory for analysis. Information on the
period of use of the filter(s) should be obtained.
13.2.6.3 Dust Sweep
Dust sweep samples are applicable to residential sampling if an area exists where sufficient volume can
be found. Areas such as attics, craw! spaces, basements, and garages are possible locations. Dust sweep
samples are collected by sweeping dust into a pile and then transferring the dust to the sample containers
by using an appropriate tool, such as a stainless steel spoon. Alternately, an industrial vacuum cleaner
with a high-efficiency filter, such as used for asbestos removal, can be used. The sample volume needed
will vary depending on the types of contaminants suspected. If only low-volume areas exist, surface wipe
samples may be an alternative method. Infrequently dusted furniture (tall cabinets, refrigerator tops or
coils, etc.) may be a good source.
13.2.6.4 Sump or Drain Sediment
Sump or drain locations are potential sampling points for representative samples. The sediment that
collects over a period of time, or backs up in the sump, is collected as a normal soil sample.
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13.2.6.5 Lint Traps
The lint traps in clothes washers and dryers may contain sufficient quantities of material for a sample.
It is important to recognize that such material has been subjected to heat, water, and various laundry
products.
13.2.7 Region-Specific Variances
Human habitation sampling should have a site-specific sampling plan, and all regions should be in-
formed about current innovative developments. No region-specific variances have been identified;
however, all future variances will be incorporated in subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information
on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus, users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details
on current regional practices and requirements.
13.2.8 Information Sources
NUS Corporation. Superjund Training Manual
13.3 TCDD SAMPLING
13.3.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general information on performing 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD) analysis. The user should be aware that the procedures for use in sampling TCDD are often
revised and should refer to the latest procedures. EPA Regional Sample Control Center (RSCC) should be
contacted about preferred collection techniques.
13.3.2 Definitions
None.
13.3.3 Applicability
This sampling is applicable to sample collection work that deals with the collection and analysis of
TCDD.
13.3.4 Responsibilities
The SM for a particular site or the designee is responsible for deciding when TCDD sampling is re-
quired.
Field personnel are responsible for performing the actual sampling, maintaining the sample integrity,
and preparing the proper chain-of-custody forms.
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13.3.5 Records
Records of TCDD sampling include chain-of-custody forms, TCDD sampling forms, and appropriate
entries in the field logbook. Samples collected and sent to a CLP lab must be accompanied by the CLP
forms discussed in Section 5.
13.3.6 Procedures
13.3.6.1 Sampling Activities
TCDD is usually sampled as a contaminant in soil or sediment. Because TCDD binds tightly to the soil,
it is most often found in near-surface soils, unless the contaminated material was used as fill or consists of
transported sediments. Sampling for TCDD in soils is similar to other types of soil sampling with the excep-
tion that a thorough blending of the sample is of greater importance and that the sampling equipment must
be rigorously cleaned. Because the "action levels" associated with TCDD contamination are very low, the
SM should consider using sampling equipment (stain less steel spoons, etc.) that has been cleaned in a
laboratory using CLP procedures. The SM should dispose of the equipment after only one sample is taken.
This greatly decreases the possibility of cross contamination.
13.3.6.2 Blending Procedure
Samples for TCDD must be properly blended before analysis. One technique involves using a 1 -quart
stainless steel blender cup. The blender cup should be no more than three-quarters full. Personnel should
avoid placing stones in the blender cup. In addition, large clumps of soil should be broken up.
The sample is then returned to the blending station. The blender is placed on a sample drop sheet,
and the following occurs:
• Pulse blender five times.
• Invert blender cup several times and shake.
• Repeat this procedure six times for a total of 30 pulses.
• Allow the blender to sit for 2 to 5 minutes to allow all dust to settle. The blended sample is then
dispersed into a jar that has been placed in a plastic bag or "baggie" with a rubber band closure at
the neck to reduce the possibility of contaminating the outside of the sample jar.
The sample is removed from the blender cup by using scoopulas, which will be disposed of when the
sample jar has been filled. The baggie and rubber band are removed and put in the designated receptacle.
The sample jar may be spray rinsed with 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCE) to further reduce the possibility
of contamination.
The jar is rebagged in a clean baggie, tagged, and processed for shipping.
Any material remaining in the blender cup is disposed of in the waste receptacle. The blender cup is
filled (one- quarter to one-half full) with soapy water, agitated (blended) for 30 seconds, and, if necessary,
scrubbed with a brush. The cup is then rinsed with distilled water, alcohol, and 1,1,1-TCE and allowed to
drip dry.
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13.3.6.3 Field Quality Control Requirements
The quality control requirements listed below for dioxin sampling may be used.
• Do not composite field samples.
• Homogenize solid samples in the field using a mechanical blender or send an undisturbed sample
to the laboratory for homogenization. Laboratory soil homogenization techniques are discussed in
Subsection 13.6.
• Keep samples away from light.
For each batch of up to 20 samples from one site, the following samples should be added for quality
control purposes to the shipment:
• Include two performance audit samples.
• Include one field blank composed of soil taken by field personnel from a clean area at the site.
• Add another field blank of soil that will be labeled on the bottle and on the packing list with "to be
spiked by laboratory".
• Include one decontamination rinsate sample that was obtained from the last 1,1,1-TCE rinse of the
blender. Label the bottle and packing list with "1,1,1 -trichloroethane decontamination rinsate."
13.3.7 Region-Specific Variances
Sampling and blending techniques for TCDD vary from region to region. In Region III, each sample
"batch" consists of 24 samples. The laboratory duplicates one analysis to bring the total number of results
to 25. The QA samples included as part of each batch include the following:
• One field duplicate
• One field blank (actually background soil)
• One field background marked 'to be spiked"
• One PE sample (selected and provided by the QA section after discussion with the SM or RPM)
If the number of samples is fewer than 19, an additional PE or duplicate may be added to the batch.
Because variances become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for current variances and
the RSCC for the latest procedures before initiating TCDD sampling. Other regional variances will be incor-
porated within Revision 01 of this document.
13.3.8 Information Sources
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Engineering Support Branch Standard Operating Procedures
and Quality Assurance Manual." Region IV, Environmental Services Division. 1 April 1986. (See Appendix
13-B.)
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13.4 CONTAINER SAMPLING
13.4.1 Purpose and Scope
This subsection provides general information on available references for use in planning and im-
plementing sampling programs involving the movement and opening of closed containers of sizes varying
from bottles to large tanks. Collecting samples of containerized materials can be an important part of a
field investigation. The samples are analyzed to determine the presence and magnitude of the threat to the
environment.
13.4.2 Definitions
Containers
Any drum, bottle, can, bag, and the like, with a capacity of 120 gallons or less.
Tanks
Bulk tanks, such as railroad tank cars, and large above- and below-ground tanks with a
capacity of more than 120 gallons including tank trailers.
13.4.3 Applicability
This guideline is applicable when a sample of the contents of a closed container is needed. In general,
a container sampling program will have one of the following objectives:
• To determine the presence of hazardous materials onsite
• To characterize the range of materials onsite
• To characterize container contents for such purposes as bulking for disposal
13.4.4 Responsibilities
The SM or designee is responsible for deciding when container sampling is needed. Sampling person-
nel will be responsible for collecting representative samples, preserving sample integrity, and adhering to
chain-of-custody procedures.
13.4.5 Records
Conditions, markings, and observations of containers found on a hazardous waste site, will^ be
recorded in the site logbook. Chain-of-custody forms and the appropriate CLP forms will be completed.
Photographs are important.
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13.4.6 Procedures
Detailed procedures for closed-container sampling can be found in the following documents:
Drum Handling Practices at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA Contract No. 68-03-3113. EPA/600/2-86/013.
PB-86-165362. Cincinnati, Ohio. January 1986.
Guidance Document for Cleanup of Surface Tank and Drum Sites. OSWER Directive 9380.0-3. (NTIS PB-
87-110672.) 28 May 1985.
"Drum Opening Techniques and Equipment" and "Containerized Liquids Sampling." Sampling at Hazar-
dous Materials Incidents. EPA Training Manual. Cincinnati, Ohio.
NUS Corporation. "Drum Opening and Sampling." NUS Operating Guidelines Manual. Procedure No.
4.28.
Camp Dresser & McKee Inc. Site Investigation Procedures Manual. Vol. III. EPA Contract No. 68-01-
6939. Document Control No. 999-PM1-IO-BRNL-1.. 1985.
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SECTION 14
LAND SURVEYING, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, AND MAPPING
14.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section provides information for use in the planning and implementation of land surveying, aerial
photography, and mapping for hazardous waste sites.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
Azimuth
A horizontal direction expressed as an angular distance between the direction of a fixed point
and the direction of the depth.
Bearing
The direction of one point with respect to another on the compass.
Bench Mark
A mark on a permanent object indicating elevation and serving as a reference in topographic
surveys.
Second (")
The 60th part of a minute of angular measurement.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Third-Order Plane Survey
The lowest level of accuracy used in topographic mapping, usually limited to small-scale
projects.
Transit
A theodolite with the telescope mounted so that it can be transited; a surveyor's instrument.
Traverse
A series of connected lines of known length related to one another by known angles.
14.3 APPLICABILITY
This section focuses on the methods of obtaining maps through field surveys, property surveys, sur-
veys of monitoring wells, aerial photography, and photogrammetric mapping. In performing these
methods, other survey requirements may need to be fulfilled (e.g., monument construction, boundary sur-
veys, and time / method / accuracy / cost considerations of using an electronic distance meter instrument).
Other surveying and mapping methods include plane table and alidade mapping, transit-stadia mapping,
three-wire leveling, and trigonometric leveling. While these methods may have applications on a specific
site, the methods discussed below apply to all mapping activities conducted for the U.S. EPA at hazardous
waste sites.
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14.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
It is the responsibility of the survey and mapping task leader to ensure that the proper techniques are
followed throughout the project.
14.5 RECORDS
All field notes should be kept in bound books. Each book should have an index. Each page of field
notes should be numbered and dated and should show the initials of all crew members. The person taking
field notes will be identified in the log. Information on weather (wind speed / wind direction, cloud cover,
etc.) and on other site conditions should also be entered in the notes. Graphite pencils or water proof
ballpoint pens should be used. Erasing is not acceptable; use a single strike-through and initial it. The
notekeeping format should conform to the Handbook of Survey Notekeeping by William Pafford. A survey
work drawing with grid lines and at the scale of the topographic map should be prepared for all survey field
work.
Aerial photography film annotation should include, at a minimum, the date of exposure, flight number,
and exposure number. Additional information would include radar and barometric altitude, time, latitude,
longitude, heading, pitch, roll, and drift angles.
Photogrammetric mapping should be in ink on mylar or scribed; maps should be 22 inches by 34 in-
ches or as directed by the survey and mapping task leader.
14.6 PROCEDURES
14.6.1 Surveying-General
Survey requirements may necessitate survey accuracies of the third order; however, the second order
may be required on some occasions and lower accuracies on other occasions. For the majority of sites, all
surveys shall be third-order plane surveys as defined in the standards and specifications in Exhibit 14-1.
Third-order plane surveys and horizontal angular measurements should be made with a 20-second or
better transit. Angles should be doubled, with the mean of the doubled angle within 10 seconds of the first
angle. Distance measurements should be made with a calibrated tape corrected for temperature and ten-
sion or with a calibrated electronic distance meter instrument (EDMI). When using EDMI, the
manufacturer's parts per million (ppm) error continues to be applied, as well as corrections for curvature
and refraction.
14.6.1.1 Third-Order Vertical Survey
Land surveys are to be completed by a surveyor who is licensed and registered in the state where the
survey is conducted. When practical, vertical control will be referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical
Datum (NGVD) of 1929, obtained from a permanent bench mark. If possible, level circuits should close on
a bench mark whose elevation is known (other than the starting bench mark). If the circuit closes on the
original bench mark, the last point in the circuit must be used as a turning point. The following criteria
should be met in conducting the survey:
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Exhibit 14-1
STANDARDS FOR THIRD-ORDER PLANE SURVEYS
Principal Use:
Small engineering projects and small-scale topographies mapping.
Traverse „
Number of bearing courses 30 to 30 [30]
between azimuth checks
Astronomical bearings: 8".0 [6".0]*
standard error of results
Azimuth closure at azimuth 30" yN or 8".0 per [20"
checkpoint not to exceed station
(use the smaller value)
Standard error of the mean 1 in 30,000 [1 in 20,000]*
for length measurements
Position closure per loop in 1:5,000 checkpoint or
feet after azimuth 3.34 V M, whichever is smaller
adjustment
Leveling
Levels of error of closure per 0.05 \/M
loop in feet
'Figures in brackets are commonly used in preparing specifications for bid.
N = then number of stations for carrying bearing
M = the distance in miles
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• Instruments should be pegged regularly.
• Rod levels should be used.
• Foresight and backsight distances should be reasonably balanced.
• No side shot should be used as a turning point in any level loop.
• Elevation readings should be recorded to 0.01 foot and estimated to 0.005 foot using a calibrated
rod.
Temporary monuments should be set and referenced for future recovery. All monuments should be
described in the field notes and should consist of a permanent mark scribed on facilities such as sidewalks,
paved roads, or curbs. Sufficient description should be provided to facilitate their recovery. .
14.6.1.2 Property Surveys
All property surveys should be performed in accordance with good land surveying practices and
should conform to all pertinent federal and state laws and regulations governing land surveying in the area
where the work is being accomplished. The surveyor shall be licensed and registered in the state where
the survey is conducted.
Upon completion of the project, all original field note books, computations, and pertinent reference
materials should be delivered to the SM for retention in the site file. The surveyor may keep photostatic
copies of the material.
All field note reductions should be checked and marked in such a way that a visual inspection of the
field notes will confirm that checks have been made. All office entries in field notebooks should be made in
colored pencil.
The office worker who reduces or checks field notes should initial each page worked on in the color
used on that page.
14.6.1.3 Traverse Computations and Adjustments
Traverses will be closed and adjusted in the following manner:
• Step one—Bearing closures will be computed and adjusted if within limits.
• Step two- Coordinate closures will be computed using adjusted bearings and unadjusted field dis-
tances.
• Step three-Coordinate positions will be adjusted if the traverse closes within the specified limits.
The method of adjusting shall be determined by the surveyor.
• Step four-Final adjusted coordinates will be labeled as "adjusted coordinates." Field coordinates
should be specifically identified as such.
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• Step five-The direction and length of the unadjusted error of closure, the ratio of error over
traverse length, and the method of adjustment should be printed with the final adjusted coor-
dinates.
14.6.1.4 Level Circuit Computations and Adjustments
Level circuits will be closed and adjusted in the following manner:
• For a single circuit, elevations will be adjusted proportionally, provided the raw closure is within the
prescribed limits for that circuit.
• In a level net where the elevation of a point is established by more than one circuit, the method of
adjustment should consider the length of each circuit, the closure of each circuit, and the com-
bined effect of all the separate circuit closures on the total net adjustment.
14.6.1.5 Monitoring Well Surveys
Monitoring well locations are surveyed only after the installation of the tamperproof locking cap well
casing cover, which is set in concrete. The horizontal plane survey accuracy is ± 1 foot (unless greater ac-
curacy is desired) and is measured to any point on the well casing cover. The vertical plane survey must
be accurate to ±0.01 foot. Three elevations are measured, including the following:
• Top of the inner well casing (on the lip)
• Top of the outer protective casing (on the lip, not the cap)
• Finished concrete pad adjacent to the outer well casing
The point at which the elevation was measured should be scribed so that water level measurements
may be taken at the same location. Note: The SM should ensure that the surveying party is given the keys
to the locking cap before starting the survey.
14.6.2 Aerial Photography
Aerial photography for nonphotogrammetic use can be obtained from the following agencies:
• Environmental Monitoring System Laboratory (EMSL), Las Vegas, Nevada
• Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC), Warrenton, Virginia
• National Cartographic Information Center, Reston, Virginia
• Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Eastern or Western Laboratory,
Asheville, North Carolina, or Salt Lake City, Utah, respectively
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Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. (for the eastern United States
and Alaska), or the appropriate regional forester in Forest Service Regions 1-6 (Montana,
Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, San Francisco, and Portland)
State and local transportation departments, zoning commissions, and planning divisions or local
universities may also have useful aerial photographs. The EPA Enviropod, which consists of two 70-mm
cameras mounted in a pod that can be attached to a light plane, is available through EPA regional offices.
Aerial photographs may be obtained rapidly using the Enviropod and EPA photographic laboratories for
developing the film. The photographs are not suitable for photogrammetric use. Photogrammetric aerial
photography is usually contracted.
14.6.2.1 Contracting Aerial Photography
The following provisions should be included in the contract:
• Business Arrangements-These include such items as the cost of the aerial survey, posting of a
performance bond, assumption of risks and damages, provision for periodic inspection of work,
reflights, cancellation privileges, schedule for delivery and payments, and ownership and storage
of negatives.
• Area to be Photographed-This includes location, size, and boundaries. These are ordinarily in-
dicated on flight maps (1:24,000 scale) supplied by the purchaser.
• Type of Photographic Film and Filter-This includes such items as ASA exposure rating (ASA
100 is usually specified). The dimensional stability of the film base may also be specified.
• Negative Scale-The maximum scale deviation normally allowed is ±5 percent.
• The Aerial Camera—A National Bureau of Standards calibration report meeting U.S. Geological
Survey standards for photogrammetric mapping is required. Other camera specifications include
size of negative format, method of flattening film during exposure, type of shutter, focal length
(usually 6 inches), distortion characteristics of the lens, and resolving power.
• Position of Flight Lines-Lines are to be parallel, oriented in the correct compass direction, and
within a stated distance from positions drawn on flight maps.
• Overlap—This is usually set at 55 to 65 percent (the average is 60 percent) along the line of flight
and 15 to 45 percent (the average is 30 percent) between adjacent lines. At the ends of each flight
line, two photo centers should fall outside the boundary of the tract.
• Print Alignment—Crab or drift is not to affect more than 10 percent of the print width for any three
consecutive photographs.
• Tilt—This should not exceed 2 or 3 degrees for a single exposure, or average more than 1 degree
for the entire project.
• Time of Photography—The season of the year and the time of day (or minimum sun angle) are
usually specified. The aerial photography should be conducted in the spring or fall when
deciduous vegetation is bare and the ground is essentially free of snow cover. Ideal flight times
are between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. local standard time, or when the sun is at a minimum of 30
degrees above the horizon. Cloud or fog cover should not exceed 10 percent.
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• Base Maps-If base maps or radial line plots are required, responsibility for ground control (field
surveying) should be established.
• Film Processing-Included here are procedures for developing and drying negatives and for in-
dexing and editing film rolls, plus a description of the type of photographic paper (weight, finish,
and contrast) to be used.
• Quality of Negatives and Prints-Negatives and prints should be free from stains, scratches, and
blemishes that detract from the intended use.
• Materials to be Delivered-Two sets of contact prints and one set of index sheets are usually
supplied. A copy of the original flight log may also be specified. Additional items such as enlarge-
ments, mosaics, maps, or plan -and profile sheets should be listed in detail. One set of contact
prints should be delivered to the project manager within 5 days of the date of the photography, un-
less otherwise specified. The SM should arrange for additional sets of prints to be delivered at the
same time if needed.
14.6.2.2 Photogrammetrlc Mapping
The scale of the mapping photography should be suitable for the preparation of a topographic map by
photogrammetric methods at a scale and contour interval requested by the project, usually a 1" = 50'
scale and 2-foot contour intervals. Larger areas or areas with great differences in elevation may require a
different scale.
Map accuracy shall meet or exceed the following minimum standards:
• For horizontal accuracy, 90 percent of all defined points should be within 1/ 40 inch of their true
position, and 100 percent of all defined points should be within 1/ 20 inch of their true position.
• For vertical accuracy, 90 percent of all contours shall be within one-half of a contour interval, and
100 percent of all contours shall be within one contour interval. Ninety percent of all spot eleva-
tions should be accurate to within one-fourth of the contour interval, and all spot elevations should
be within one-half of the contour interval.
• Mapping should show all planlmetric features including, but not limited to, buildings, walks, roads,
fences, ditches, trees, utility poles, tanks, drums, lagoons, pits, ponds, and other such features
visible on the photograph, as well as contours and spot elevations on roads, dikes, and ditch in-
verts. Assemblages of containers (e.g., drums, laboratory bottles) may be indicated by a symbol
rather than by depicting individual containers. The height and estimated number of such con-
tainers should be depicted within the symbol.
• All horizontal and vertical control points should be shown on the final map along with a tabulation
of coordinates and elevations. The description, origin, and elevations of the bench marks used for
the mapping control should be shown on the map.
• The horizontal coordinate system should be referenced to a local recoverable baseline at the site.
The state plane coordinate system should be used when it is readily available near the site. s
• Photographic control points must be kept outside the hazardous areas where possible.
• The map should show the basis of bearing, north arrow, date of photography, names of streets
and highways, project number, project name, and a bar scale.
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14.6.3 Remote Sensing
The standards for remote sensing imagery will be determined on a project specific and instrument-
specific basis. Remote sensing data are used in environmental surveys and risk assessments. Methods in-
clude, but are not limited to, the following:
• Satellite photography (LANDSAT, Skylab)
• Radar (side-looking airborne radar, plan positive indicator)
• Thermal imagery (infrared detectors, line scanning, infrared photography)
• Multiband spectral imagery
« Low-altitude helicopter photography (stereograms)
• Continuous strip photography
The National Cartographic Information Center (NCIC) provides information about and access to car-
tographic data generated by federal, state, and local governmental bodies and by private sources. NCIC
does not hold these data; it functions as a link between the user and the desired material. Requests for in-
formation may be submitted to the following agency:
National Cartographic Information Center
U.S. Geological Survey
507 National Center
Reston, Virginia 22092
Records of aerial photographic coverage of the United States and outlying areas and of space imagery
are maintained at the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The Earth Resources Observation
Systems (EROS) program gathers and uses remotely sensed data, collected by satellite and aircraft, of
natural features and those made by humans on the earth's surface. Reference files, consisting of
microfilms of available data primarily from LANDSAT I and II, formerly known as Earth Resources Technol-
ogy Satellite (ERTS), may be viewed at 20 locations across the United States. Purchases of such data may
be made from the following:
EROS Data Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198
14.6.4 Hydrographic Surveys
Hydrographic surveys deal with the measurement and definition of the configuration of the bottom and
adjacent land areas of oceans, lakes, rivers, harbors, and other bodies of water.
The size of the body of water will dictate the type of survey required to perform the necessary mapping.
Surveys should conform to the requirements set forth in the Hydrographic Survey Manual by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce.
14-8
-------
14.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
14.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
American Society of Photogrammetry. Manual ofPhotogrammetryy. 4th ed.
Averes, T. Eugene. Interpretation of Aerial Photographs. 2nd ed. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgens
Publishing Company.
Federal Geodetic Control Committee. Specification to Support Classification, Standards of Accuracy, and
General Specifications of Geodetic Control Surveys. July 1975. (Revised June 1980.)
Manual of Photographic Interpretation. Menasha, Wisconsin: Banta Publishing Company.
Moffitt, Francis H., and Harry Bouchard. Surveying. New York: Mtext Educational Publishers.
Pafford, William F. Handbook of Survey Notekeeping.
Umbach, Melvin J. Hydrographic Survey Manual. 4th ed. U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.
14-9
-------
SECTION 15
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION
15.0 INTRODUCTION
Section 15 provides basic information on operating various pieces of equipment that are typically used
in the field. The purpose of this section is not to provide standard operating procedures or to establish per-
formance criteria for field instruments. The purpose is to provide a narrative description of some instru-
ment use approaches and techniques that have been tested on certain projects. In Fall 1987, the Contract
Laboratory Program (CLP) will publish a "Field Screening Methods Catalog" that will contain detailed dis-
cussions of field analytical methods, including use of field instruments for analysis. The CLP catalog will
provide a consolidated reference for use by EPA, contractors, state and local agencies, and potentially
responsible parties (PRPs) who will be conducting field analysis. When this compendium is updated, it will
reflect the information contained in the CLP catalog. The updated compendium will also contain informa-
tion on any additional instruments that were found useful by contractors but were not included in the
catalog. Field monitoring instruments are used whenever the data quality objectives specify Level I and II
analytical support as adequate.
The objective of Level I analysis is to generate data that are generally used in refining sampling plans
and in estimating the extent of contamination at the site. This type of support provides real-time data for
health and safety purposes. Additional data that can be obtained effectively by Level I analyses include pH,
conductivity, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen for water (see Sections 8 and 10), as well as
some measurement of contamination using various kits (see Subsection 7.6).
Level I analyses are generally effective for total vapor readings using portable photoionization of flame
ionization meters that respond to a variety of volatile inorganic and organic compounds (see Section 15).
Level I analysis provides data for onsite, real-time total vapor measurement, evaluation of existing con-
ditions, refinement of sampling location, and health and safety evaluations. Data generated from Level I
support are generally considered qualitative in nature, although limited quantitative data also can be
generated. Data generated from this type of analysis provide the following:
• Identification of soil, water, air, and waste locations that have a high likelihood of showing con-
tamination through subsequent analysis
• Real-time data to be used for health and safety consideration during site reconnaissance and sub-
sequent intrusive activities
• Quantitative data if a contaminant is known and the instrument is calibrated to that substance
On the other hand, field analysis (see Section 7) involves the use of portable or transportable instru-
ments that are based at or near a sampling site. Field analysis should not be confused with the process of
obtaining total organic readings using portable meters. These instruments typically are used in obtaining
data that is defined by data quantity objectives as Level I. (See Section 7 for a discussion of DQO data
levels.) The analytical techniques associated with these instruments are derived from the experiences of a
number of contractors and EPA personnel.
15-1
-------
Equipment users also should consult the applicable manufacturer's operating manuals, which will
provide a more comprehensive guide to all facets of using field equipment. Several of the procedures dis-
cussed below refer to sections of the manufacturer's manual that are too voluminous to reproduce here.
Finally, all equipment calibrations and readings that occur in the field must be recorded in the site-specific
logbook.
Exhibit 15-1, modified from Tables 7-1 and 7-2 of "Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for
Hazardous Waste Site Activities," NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA, October 1985, presents a summary of the
characteristics of classes of instruments, specific examples of which are discussed in detail below.
15.1 PHOTOVAC10A10
15.1.1 Scope and Purpose
Subsection 15.1 discusses the use, calibration, and maintenance of the Photovac 10A10.
15.1.2 Definitions
Carrier Gas
The gas used to transport a gaseous sample through the chromatographic column and on to
the detector of a gas chromatograph. In the Photovac, the carrier gas is ultra-pure air.
Photoionization Detector (PID)
The detector uses an ultraviolet light source to ionize individual molecules that have an ioniza-
tion potential less than or equal to that rated for the ultraviolet light source. Gaseous con-
taminants are ionized as they emerge from the column, and the ions are then attracted to an
oppositely charged electrode, causing a current and finally an electric signal to the strip chart
recorder.
Retention Time
The total time required for a volatile chemical to traverse and emerge from chromatographic
column into the detector, measured from the time of injection onto the column.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Standard
This is a known concentration of a known chemical that is used to perform quantitative
analysis. Either the chemical constituent(s) can be in a solution with distilled water so that a
headspace is present, or it can be completely vaporized in the volatile organic analysis (VOA)
vial. A syringe can be used to withdraw some of the headspace gas after the vial is agitated,
and this gas can be injected into the column for chromatographic analysis. The retention
times of the standard are then compared to the retention times of unknown peaks in a sample.
Volatile Contaminants
Chemicals that are characterized by low boiling points and high vapor pressures.
15-2
-------
Exhibit 15-1
FIELD INSTRUMENTS*
in
GJ
Hazard
Instrument Monitored
Ultraviolet Many organic
(UV) Photoionl- and some inor-
zation Detector ganic gases and
(PID) vapors.
(Photovac 10MO)
(HNU PI-101)
Application
Detects total
concentrations
of many organic
and some inor-
ganic gases and
vapors.
Some identifi-
cation of com-
pounds is
possible if more
than one probe
is used.
Detection
Method
Ionizes
molecules using
UV radiation;
produces a cur-
rent that Is
proportional
to the number
of ions.
Limitations
Does not detect
methane.
Does not detect
a compound if
the probe used
has a lower
energy level
than the com-
pound's ionlza-
tion potential.
Response may
change when
gases are mixed.
Other voltage
sources may
interfere with
measurements.
Ease of
Operation
Effective use
requires that
the operator
understands the
operating prin-
ciples and pro-
cedures, and Is
competent in
calibrating,
reading, and
interpreting
the instrument.
General Care
and Maintenance
Recharge or
replace battery.
Regularly clean
and maintain the
Instrument and
accessories.
Typical
Opera! ln^
Times
10 hours;
5 hours with
strip chart
recorder.
Readings can only
be reported rela-
tive to the cali-
bration standard
used.
Response is affect-
ed by high humidity.
m
= x
II
* I!
is
m
Flame loniza- Many organic
tion Detector gases and
(FID) with Gas vapors.
Chroma tography
Option
(OVA 128)
In survey mode,
detects the
total concen-
trations of many
organic gases
and vapors. In
gas chromato-
graphy (GO
mode, identifies
and measures
specific
compounds .
In survey mode,
all the organic
compounds are
Gases and
vapors are
ionized in a
flame. A cur-
rent is pro-
duced In
proportion to
the number of
carbon atoms
present.
Does not Jetect
inorganic ».jases
or some synthe-
tics. Sensitiv-
ity depends on
the compound.
Should not be
used at temper-
atures less
than 40°F (4°C)
Difficult to
absolutely iden-
tify compounds.
Requires exper-
ience to inter-
pret data
correctly, espe-
cially In the
GC mode.
Specific iden-
tification
requires cali-
bration with
specific ana-
lyte of
interest.
Rectidrye or
replace battery.
Monitor fuel
ami/or combus-
tion air supply
gauges.
Perform routine
maintenance as
described in the
manual.
Check for leaks.
8 hours;
3 hours with
strip chart
recorder.
-------
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Hazard
Monitored
Application
are ionized and
detected at the
same time. In
GC mode, volatile
species are
separated.
Detection
Method
Limitations
High concentra-
tratlons of con-
taminants or
oxygen-deficient
atmospheres
require system
modification.
In survey mode,
readings can be
only reported
relative to the
calibration
standard used.
Ease of
Operation
General Care
and Maintenance
Typical
Operating
Times
Cn
Combustible Combustible
Gas Indicator gases and
(CGI) vapors.
(MSA Explosi-
meter)
Measures the A filament,
concentration usually made
of a combustible of platinum,
gas or vapor. is heated by
burning the
combustible qas
or vapor.
The Increase
in heat is
measured.
Accuracy
depends, in
on the differ-
ence between the
the calibration
and sampling
temperatures.
Sensitivity Is
a function of
the differences
In the chemical
and physical
properties be-
tween the cali-
bration gas and
the gas being
sampled.
Effective use
requires that
the operator
understands the
operating prin-
ciples and
procedures.
Recharge or Can be used
replace battery, for as long
as the battery
Calibrate imme- lasts, or for
diately before the recommended
use. Interval
between cali-
bration which-
ever is less.
sii cr
5' 'si
The filament can
be damaged by
certain compounds
such as sillcones,
hallfics, tetra-
ethyl lead, and
oxygen-enriched
atmospheres.
CGI does not
provide a valid
reading under
oxygen-deficient
conditions.
-------
01
en
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Oxygen Meter
(MSA Oxygen
Meter)
Direct-Reading
Colorlraetric
Indicator Tube
(Draeger)
Hazard
llonitored Application
Oxygen (0 ) . Measures the
percentage of
0, In air.
JL
Specific gases The compound
and vapors. reacts with
the Indicator
chemical in the
tube, producing
a stain whose
length or color
change Is pro-
portional to
the compound's
concentration.
Detection
Method
Uses an electro-
chemical sensor
to measure the
partial pressure
of 0. in the air
and converts
that reading to
0, concentration.
The measured
concentration
ot* the sane
compound may
vary among dif-
ferent manufac-
turer's tubes.
Many similar
chemicals
Interfere.
Limitations
Must be cali-
brated before
use to compen-
sate for alti-
tude and
barometric
pressure.
Certain gases,
especially
oxidants such
as ozone, can
affect readings
Carbon dioxide
(C02) poisons
the detector
cell.
Minimal opera-
tor training
and expertise
required.
Ease of
Operat ion
Effective use
requires that
operator under-*
stands the
operating prin-
ciples and
procedures .
.
Typical
General Care Operating
and Maintenance Times
Replace detector 8 to 12 houib
cell according
to manufacturer's
recommendations.
Recharge or
replace batteries
before expiration
of the specified
interval.
If the ambient
air is more than
0.5% CO^, replace
or rejuvenate the
03 detector cell
frequently.
Do not use a
previously opened
tube even i f the
indicator chemi-
cal is not
stained.
Check pump for
leaks before and
after use.
Refrigerate before
Greatest sources
of error are
(1) how the opera-
tor judges stuin'
end-point anil
(2) the tube's
limited accuracy.
Affected by high
humidity.
s
use to maintain
shelf life of
about 2 years.
Check expiration
date of tubes.
Calibrate pump
volume at least
quarterly.
Avoid rough
handling that
may cause
channeling.
"o x
o 3.
ll
3 ?*
C _j.
2 01
•3 It.
-------
cn
Exhibit 15-1
(continued)
Instrument
Gamma Radiation
Survey
Instrument
(Thyac III)
Portable Infra-
red UR)
Spectrophoto-
meter
Hazard
Monitored Application
Gamma radiation. Environmental
radiation
monitor.
Many gases Measures con-
and vapors. centratlon of
many gases and
vapors In air.
Designed to
quantify one-
or two-compo-
nent mixtures.
Detection
Method
Scintillation
detector.
Passes different
frequencies of
IP. through the
sample.
The frequencies
adsorbed are
specific for
each compound.
Limitations
Does not mea-
sure alpha or
beta radiation.
In the field,
must make
repeated passes
to achieve
reliable
results.
Requires 115-
volt AC power.
Not approved for
use in a poten-
Ease of General Care
Operation and Maintenance
Extremely easy Must be call-
to operate, but brated annually
requires exper- at a special-
ience to inter- ized facility.
pret data.
Rugged, good in
field use.
Requires per- As specified
sonnel with by manufacturer.
extensive exper-
ience in IR
spectrophotoraetry .
Typical
Operating
Times
Can be used
for as long
as the battery
lasts, or for
the recom-
mended Interval
between cali-
brations,
whichever Is
less.
tlally flammable
or explosive
atmosphere.
Interference by
water vapor and
carbon dioxide.
a
3 5-'
C _i
2 01
Certain vapors
and high moisture
nay attach the
Instrument's
optics, which
must then be
replaced.
'Source: Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Haste Site Activities,
Tables 7-1 and 7-2, NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA, October 1985.
-------
15.1.3 Applicability
This procedure is applicable to Photovac 10A10s used for field and laboratory analysis.
15.1.4 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of these procedures.
15.1.5 Records
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration records will be generated and maintained by
the responsible organization. Maintenance, calibration, and results obtained in the field will be recorded in
the site logbook.
15.1.6 Procedures
Before beginning the set-up and operation of 10A10, the following precautions should be carefully
reviewed. Because of its special capabilities, 10A10 requires special treatment.
1. NEVER remove the top panel with the instrument connected to the MAINS (electrical supp-
ly); always disconnect the instrument first because of the danger of electric shock.
2. The 10A10 must always be connected to the carrier gas supply, and a continuous stream of
carrier gas must be passed through the column. This arrangement maintains the column in
/ peak condition and ready for use with a minimum of delay.
3. NEVER inject liquid samples, however small, into the 10A10. It is an all-gas system and is
not designed to accept liquids, which will cause gross contamination and necessitate a
thorough overhaul.
4. Read carefully the section in the manufacturer's manual on battery care. Avoid overcharg-
ing the batteries; otherwise, their life will be impaired.
5. Except when charging batteries, always unplug the unit from the MAINS (electrical supply)
when it is not in use.
6. When transferring the unit from extremely cold environments into warm, humid conditions,
be alert to the likelihood of condensation; if possible, allow some time for the instrument to
warm up before using.
7. Establish that the Photovac 10A10 can detect the contaminate being tested for (see Exhibit
15-2). Two criteria can be followed:
a. The ionization potential of the compound must be less than 11 electron volts (eV).
15-7
-------
b. The boiling point of the compound must allow for its elution through an ambient
temperature column. Higher boiling points will not allow this to occur.
15.1.6.1 Startup Procedure
1. The preferred carrier gas is Linde Air Ultra Zero or its equivalent (with less than 0.1 ppm
total organic contamination). Fit the supply cylinder with a high-quality, two-stage gas
chromatograph (GC) regulator. Connect the regulator to the CARRIER IN fitting with 1/8-inch
Teflon tubing and a brass, quick-disconnect fitting.
2. Set the flowrate to 10 ±1 ml/min by adjusting the CARRIER FLOW adjustment. Make a
note of the setting for future use. Check the flowrate by attaching a flow meter with 1 ml/min or
better accuracy to the OUT gas fitting.
3. Check that the electrical controls are set as follows:
a. Move POWER SWITCH to OFF.
b. Move CHARGE SWITCH to OFF.
c. Move ATTENUATION SWITCH to 100 (least sensitive).
d. Move OFFSET dial to zero.
e. Connect chart recorder to the coaxial OUTPUT connector, using the lead provided.
f. Set the chart recorder to 100 mV full scale and chart speed to 2 cm/min.
g. Plug the POWER CORD into the panel socket and connect to the 115V 60 Hz AC supply;
the red AC indicator light will come on.
The instrument is now in its POWER DOWN condition and is ready for starting.
4. With the chart recorder off, switch on the POWER switch. The red source OFF indicator
may light and stay on for up to 5 minutes. During this time, the lamp-start sequence is being
automatically initiated. If more than 5 minutes is required, an adjustment must be made to the
screw next to the lamp (under the aluminum housing).
5. As soon as the SOURCE OFF light is extinguished, the meter will show a high reading that
should fall rapidly as conditions in the photolonizing chamber stabilize. The reading should
become steady after approximately 5 minutes.
6. Establish an acceptable baseline on the chart recorder.
7. The instrument is now ready for calibration and use.
8. The user may now make sample injections from 1 to 1,0001 (can be larger in certain situa-
tions, i.e., low-level air monitoring).
9. Reminder: NEVER inject liquid samples into the Photovac.
15-8
-------
Exhibit 15-2
SOME COMPOUNDS THAT CAN BE DETECTED USING
THE PHOTOVAC 10S SERIES OF PORTABLE GCs
eV
Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone
Acetylene
Acetylene dichloride
Acetylene tetrabromide
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Allene
Ally) alcohol
Allyl chloride
Aminoethanol
Ammonia
Aniline
Anisole
Arsine
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzenethiol
Benzyl chloride
Benzonitrile
Benzotrifluoride
Bromobenzene
1-Bromobutane
2-Bromobutane
1-Bromobutanone
1 -Bromo-2-chloroethane
Bromochloromethane
Bromodichloromethane
1 -Bromo-3-chloropropane
Bromoethane
Bromoethene
Bromoform
1 -Bromo-3-hexanone
Bromoethane
Bromoethyl ethyl ether
1 -Bromo-2-methylpropane
2-Bromo-2-methylpropane
1 -Bromopentane
1 -Bromopropane
2-Bromopropane
1-Bromopropene
2-Bromopropene
3-Bromopropene
2-Bromothiophene
O-bromotoluene
M-bromotoluene
P- bromotoluene
1,3-Butadiene
10.21
10.37
9.69
11.41
9.80
10.10
10.91
9.83
9.67
10.20
9.87
10.15
7.70
8.22
9.89
9.53
9.25
8.33
10.16
9.71
9.68
8.98
10.13
9.98
9.54
10.63
10.77
10.28
9.80
10.48
9.26
10.53
10.08
10.09
9.89
10.10
10.18
10.08
9.30
10.06
9.70
8.63
8.79
8.81
8.67
9.07
15-9
2,3-Butadione
N-Butanal
2-Butanal
N-Butane
1-Butanethiol
2-Butanone
Iso-butand
Sec-butanol
Tert-butanol
2-Butanol
1-Butene
Cis-2-butene
Trans-2-butene
3-Butene nitrite
N-butyl acetate
Sec-butyl acetate
N-butyl alcohol
N-butyl amine
l-butyl amine
S-butyl amine
T-butyl amine
N-butyl benzene
l-butyl benzene
T-butyl benzene
Butyl cellosolve
N-butyl mercaptan
l-butyl ethanoate
Iso-butyl mercaptan
l-butyl methanoate
1-Butyne
2-Butyne
N-butyraldehyde
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetrachloride
Cellosolve acetate
Chlorobenzene
Chlorobromomethane
1 -Chloro-2-bromoethane
1 -Chlorobutane
2-Chlorobutane
1 -Chlorobutanone
1-Chloro-2,3 epoxy propane
Chloroethane (ethyl chloride)
Chlorethene
2-Chloroethoxyethene
1 -Chloro-2-fluorobenzene
1 -Chloro-3-fluorobenzene
1-Chloro-2-flouroethene (cis)
1 -Chloro-2-fluoroethene(trans)
Chloroform
eV
9.23
9.83
9.73
10.63
9.14
9.53
10.47
10.23
10.25
10.1
9.58
9.13
9.13
10.39
10.01
9.91
10.04
8.71
8.70
8.70
8.64
8.69
8.68
8.68
8.68
9.15
9.95
9.12
10.46
10.18
9.85
9.86
10.13
11.28
9.07
10.63
10.67
10.65
9.54
10.60
10.97
10.00
10.61
9.16
9.21
9.87
9.87
11.37
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
eV
0-chloroiodobenzene
1 -Chloro-2-methylbenzene
1 Chloro-3-methylbenzene
1 -Chloro-4-methylbenzene
Chloromethylethyl ether
Chloromethylmethyl ether
1 -chloro-2-methylpropane
Chloroprene
1 -Chloropropane
2-Chloropropane
3-Chloropropene
P-chlorostyrene
2-Chlorothiophene
O-chlorotoluene
M-chlorotoluene
P-chlorotoluene
Cumene (i-propyl benzene)
Crotonaldehyde
Cyanoethene
Cyanogen bromide
3-Cyanopropene
Cyclobutane
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexene
Cyclo-octatetraene
Cyclopentadiene
Cyclopentane
Cyclopentanone
Cyclopentene
Cyclopropane
2-Decanone
1,3-Dibromobutane
1,4-Dibromobutane
Dibromochloromethane
Dibromochloropropane
1,1-Dibromoethane
Dibromemethane
1,2-Dibromopropane
2,2-Dibromopropane
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4-Dichlorobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobutane
1,4-Dichlorobutane
1,4-Dichloro-2-butene (cis)
2,2-Dichlorobutane
2,3-Dichlorobutane
3,4-Dichlorobutene (Freon 12)
8.35
8.72
8.61
8.78
10.08
10.25
10.66
10.82
10.78
10.04
8.68
8.83
8.83
8.70
8.75
9.73
10.91
10.91
10.39
10.50
9.98
9.14
8.95
7.99
8.55
10.52
9.26
9.01
10.06
9.40
10.59
10.19
10.49
10.26
9.07
9.12
8.94
15-10
Dichlorodifluoromethane
1,1-Dichloroethane
1,2-Dichloroethane
Cis-dichloroethene
Trans-dichloroethene
Dichloroethyl ether
Dichloromethane
1,2-Dichloropropane
1,3-Dichloropropane
1,1 -Dichloropropanone
2,3-Dichloropropene
Dicyclopentadiene
Dibutyl amine
Diethoxymethane
Diethyl amine
Diethyl ether
N-diethyl formamide
Diethyl ketone
Diethyl sulfide
1,2-Difluorobenzene
1,4-Difluorobenzene
Difluorodibromomethane
Difluoromethyl benzene
1,1 -Dimethoxyethane
Dimethoxymethane
Dilodomethane
Dilosobutyl ketone
Dilsopropylamine
Dimethyl amine
2,3-Dimethylbutadiene
2,2-Dimethyl butane
2,2-Dimethyl butane-3-one
2,3-Dimethyl butane
2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene
3,3-Dimethyl butanone
Dimethyl disulfide
Dimethyl ether
Dimethylformamide
3,5-Dimethyl-4-heptanone
2,2-Dimethyl-3-pentanone
2,2-Dimethyl-propane
Dimethyl sulfide
Di-n-propyl disulfide
Di-n-propyl ether
Di-i-propyl ether
Di-n-propyl amine
Di-n-propyl sulfide
Epichlorohydrin
Ethane
Ethanal
eV
11.75
11.06
11.04
9.65
9.66
11.35
10.87
10.85
9.71
9.82
7.74
7.69
9.70
8.01
9.53
8.89
9.32
8.43
9.31
9.15
11.18
9.45
9.65
10.00
9.34
9.04
7.73
8.24
8.72
10.06
9.18
10.02
8.30
9.17
8.46
10.00
9.45
9.04
8.98
10.35
8.69
8.27
9.27
9.20
7.84
8.30
10.60
11.65
10.21
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
eV
Ethanol
Ethanethiol (ethyl mercaptan)
Ethene (ethylene)
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl amine
Ethyl amyl ketone
Ethyl benzene
Ethyl bromide
Ethyl butyl ketone
Ethyl chloride (chloroethane)
Ethyl chloroacetate
Ethyl ethanoate
Ethyl disulfide
Ethylene chlorohydrin
Ethylene dibromide (EDB)
Ethylene glycol dinitrate
Ethylene oxide
Ethyl formate
Ethyl iodide
Ethyl methanoate
Ethyl isothiocyanate
Ethyl methyl sulfide
Ethyl propanoate
Ethyl trichloroacetate
Ethylidene chloride
Ethynyl benzene
Mono-fluorobenzene
Mono-fluoroethene
Mono-fluoromethanal
Fluorotribromomethane
O-fluorotoluene
M-fluorotoluene
P-fluorotoluene
Freon 11 (CFCIa)
Freon 12 (CF2Cl2)
Freon 13 (CF3CI)
Freon 13 B-1
Freon 14 (neat)
Freon 22 (CHCIF2)
Freon 113 (CFsCCIa)
2-Furaldehyde
Furan
Furfuryl alcohol
Furfural
Hexachloroethane
N-hexane
N-heptane
2-Heptanone
4-Heptanone
1 -Hexene
10.62
9.29
10.52
10.11
8.86
9.10
8.76
10.29
9.02
10.98
10.20
10.10
8.27
10.90
10.37
10.56
10.61
9.33
10.61
9.14
8.55
10.00
10.44
8.82
9.20
10.37
11.4
10.67
8.92
8.92
8.79
11.77
12.91
12.91
12.08
16.25
12.45
11.78
9.21
8.89
9.21
10.18
10.07
9.33
9.12
9.46
15-11
Hexanone
Hexamethylbenzene
Hydrazine
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen telluride
Iodine
lodobenzene
1-lodobutane
2-lodobutane
lodoethane (ethyl iodide)
iodomethane (methyl iodide)
1 -lodo-2-methylpropane
1 -lodo-2-methylpropane
1-lodopentane
1-lodopropane
2-lodopropane
O-iodotoluene
M-iodotoluene
P-iodotoluene
Isoamyl acetate
Isoamyl alcohol
Isobutane
Isobutyl amine
Isobutyl acetate
Isobutyl alcohol
Isobutyl formate
Isobutyraldehyde
Isopentane
Isoprene
Isopropyl acetate
Isopropyl alcohol
Isopropyl amine
Isopropyl benzene
isopropyl ether
Isovaleraldehyde
Mesitylene
Mesityl oxide
Methanol
Methyl acetate
Methyl acrylate
Methyl amine
Methyl bromide
2-Methyl-1,3-butadiene
2-Methylbutanal
2-Methylbutane
eV
7.85
13.91
9.88
10.46
9.14
9.28
8.73
9.21
9.09
9.33
9.54
9.18
9.02
9.19
9.26
9.17
8.62
8.61
8.50
9.90
10.16
10.57
8.70
9.97
10.47
10.46
9.74
10.32
8.85
9.99
10.16
8.72
8.75
9.20
9.71
8.40
9.08
10.85
10.27
10.72
8.97
10.53
8.85
9.71
10.31
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
eV
2-Methyl-1 -butene
3-Methyl-1 -butene
3-Methyl-2-butene
Methyl n-butyl ketone
Methyl butyrate
Methyl cellosolve
Methyl chloroacetate
Methyl chloride
Methyl chloroform
Methylcyclohexane
4-Methylcyclohexene
Methylcyclopropane
Methyl dichloroacetate
Methyl ethanoate
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl ethyl sulfide
2-Methyl furan
Methyl iodine
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methyl isobutyrate
1 -Methyl-4-isopropylbenzene
Methyl isopropyl ketone
Methyl methacrylate
Methyl methanoate
Methyl mercaptan
2-Methylpentane
3-Methylpentane
2-Methylpropane
2-Methylpropanal
2-Methyl-2-propanol
2-Methylpropene
Methyl n-propyl ketone
Methyl styrene
Morpholine
Naphthalene
Nitric oxide
Nitrobenzene
Nitrotoluene
N-nonane
5-Nonanone
N-octane
3-Octanone
4-Octanone
1-Octene
9.12
9.51
8.67
9.34
10.07
10.35
11.28
11.25
9.85
8.91
9.52
10.44
10.27
9.53
8.55
8.39
9.54
9.30
9.98
9.32
9.74
10.82
9.44
10.12
10.08
10.56
9.74
9.70
9.23
9.39
8.35
8.88
8.10
9.25
9.92
9.43
9.10
9.19
9.10
9.52
N-pentane
Pentachloroethane
1,3-Pentadiene(cis)
1,3-Pentadiene (trans)
Pentafl uorobenzene
Pentamethylbenzene
N-pentanal
2,4-Pentanedione
2-Pentanone
3-Pentanone
1-Pentene
Perchloroethylene
Perfl uoro-2-butene
Perfluoro-1 -heptene
N-perfluoropropyl iodide
(N-perfluoropropyl)-
iodomethane
(N-perfluoropropyl)-
methyl ketone
Phenol
Phenyl ether
Phenyl isocyanate
Phosphine
Pinene
Propadiene
N-propanal
Propane
1-Propanethiol
N-propanol
Propanone
Propenal (acrolein)
Propene
Prop-1 -ene-2-ol
Prop-2-ene-1 -ol
Propionaldehyde
N-propyl acetate
N-propyl alcohol
N-propyl amine
N-propyl benzene
Propylene
Propylene dichloride
Propylene oxide
N-propyl ether
N-propyl formate
Propyne
Pyridine
Styrene
eV
10.35
11.28
8.59
8.56
9.84
7.92
9.82
8.87
9.39
9.32
9.50
9.32
11.25
10.48
10.36
9.96
10.58
8.69
8.09
8.77
9.96
8.07
10.19
9.95
11.07
9.20
10.51
9.69
10.10
9.73
8.2
9.67
9.98
10.04
10.20
8.78
8.72
9.73
10.22
9.27
10.54
10.36
9.32
8.47
15-12
-------
Exhibit 15-2
(continued)
eV
Tetrabromoethane
Tetrachloroethene
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
1,2,3,4-Tetrafluorobenzene
1,2,3,5-Tetrafluorobenzene
1,2,3,5-Tetrafluorobenzene
Tetrafluoroethene
Tetrahydrofuran
Tetrahydropyran
1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene
2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-3-pentanone
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane
1,2,2,3-Tetrachloropropane
Thioethanol
Thiomethanol
Thiophene
1-Thiopropanol
Toluene
Tribromoethene
1,1,1 -Trichlorobutanone
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Trichloroethene
Trichloromethyl ethyl ether
1,1,2-Trichloropropane
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
Triethylamine
1,2,4-Trifluorobenzene
1,3,5-Trifluorobenzene
Trifluoroethene
1,1,1 -Trifluoro-2-iodoethane
Trifluoroiodomethane
Trifluoromethylbenzene
Trifluoromethylcyclohexane
1,1,1 -Trifluoropropene
Trimethyl amine
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene
2,2,4-Trimethyl pentane
2,2,4-Trimethyl-3-pentanone
N-valeraldehyde
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl benzene (styrene)
Vinyl bromide
Vinyl chloride
9.32
9.61
9.55
9.39
10.12
9.54
9.26
8.03
8.65
9.29
9.44
8.86
9.20
8.82
9.27
9.54
11.25
9.45
10.08
7.50
9.37
9.32
10.14
10.10
10.40
9.68
10.46
10.9
7.82
8.48
8.27
8.39
9.86
8.82
9.82
9.19
8.47
9.80
10.00
4-Vinylcyclohexene
Vinyl ethanoate
Vinyl fluoride
Vinyl methyl ether
0-xylene
M-xylene
P-xylene
eV_
8.93
9.19
10.37
8.93
8.56
8.56
8.45
Source: Photovac Technical Bulletin No. 11
* Many compounds with an ionization potential
of 10.6 eV or less will also be detected by the
Photovac TIP (Total lonizables Present)
Monitor.
15-13
-------
15.1.6.2 Field Operation
1. Before any field analyses, use the following steps to determine that the instrument is opera-
tional. This should occur before the instrument is taken into the field.
2. Check that the lecture bottle carrier gas supply is adequate (charge supply is 1,800 psi and
should last approximately 3 days).
3. Set the pressure regulator to zero (fully counter clockwise) and turn on the main valve of
the lecture bottle.
4. Slowly turn the regulator control clockwise until air begins to escape from the quick discon-
nect connection. Allow the line to purge for a few seconds.
5. Plug the quick-disconnect fitting into the free CARRIER IN port. Shut off and disconnect the
air supply in use (usually a laboratory supply). Adjust the lecture bottle regulator to ap-
proximately 40 pounds per square inch gauge (psig). Set the required flowrate by using a
bubble tube.
6. With the instrument in the power-down mode, disconnect the AC power supply. Allow 15
minutes for the effect of the gas line switchover to subside. This lack of AC power automatical-
ly switches the instrument to battery power. The instrument is now completely self-contained
and, together with a battery powered recorder, may be taken into the field. Check the battery
charge on the Photovac.
7. The instrument is now ready to be run through the startup procedures as discussed in Sub-
section 15.1.6.1.
8. If there are significant changes in ambient temperature (greater than 10F) when the instru-
ment is moved from place to place, the column will require time to stabilize thermally. At
higher sensitivities, a nonthermally stabilized column will manifest itself as baseline drift.
9. DO NOT conduct analyses while batteries are charging because heat generated during bat-
tery recharge will affect column retention times and may cause baseline drift.
15.1.6.3 Shutdown Procedure
1. Turn the POWER SWITCH to OFF.
2. Reduce the carrier gas flow to 2 cc/min.
3. If the instrument is being returned from the field, be sure to store the instrument hooked up
to a larger laboratory carrier-gas supply.
4. Maintain the battery as indicated in the manufacturer's manual.
5. Unplug the unit except when charging batteries.
15-14
-------
15.1.6.4 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule*
Function Frequency
• Battery charge when instrument has Every 3 months for 10 hours on LOW
been operating exclusively on WALL cur-
rent with no use of battery.
• Battery charge when instrument has After each use, 1-1/2 hours of HIGH charge for
been operated off batteries every hour of use (DO NOT OVERCHARGE)
• Calibration (running standards) With each use
• Septum change After approximately 50 injection
• Column reconditioning Every 3 months or after heavy use, or when in-
stalling a new column.
The maintenance and calibration functions must be documented
15.1.6.5 Calibration Procedure
1. Photovac Incorporated conducts an instrument calibration and includes the chromatogram
as a component of that instrument's instruction manual. A check of the instrument's perfor-
mance can be accomplished by duplicating the factory calibration check and comparing the
results. Since the Photovac is not a direct read out instrument and instrument response can
be checked by running standards and comparing retention times on different days, a calibra-
tion should be performed by running standards only. This should be done before, during, and
after an analysis. The concentration and identity of the standards are left up to the user, but it
is recommended that an aromatic (i.e., benzene) and a chlorinated hydrocarbon (i.e.,
trichloroethylene) be included. The calibration can be performed as follows:
• Prepare a standard for water or air analysis. Most standards run on the Photovac range
from 0.5 to 1.0 ppm.
• Obtain a syringe and withdraw an aliquot of headspace gas that will result in peaks that are
large enough to see and not so large that they do not fit on the chart paper. (Note: Water
standards should be vigorously shaken for approximately 2 minutes before an aliquot is
taken for injection.)
• Compare peaks of identical standard injections made before, during, and after analyses.
• If peak heights of the above injections change significantly, note the sensitivity lost or
gained on the chart paper and include this information on the resulting report.
15.1.6.6 Column Maintenance
1. The standard Photovac 10A10 is equipped with two columns. Column #1 is a 1-foot long,
1/8-inch outside diameter (OD) Teflon tube packed with CSP-20M. Column #2 is a 4-foot long,
1/8-inch OD Teflon tube packed with 5 percent SE-30 on 60-80 mesh Chromosorb G. Column
15-15
-------
#1 is suitable for running blanks and other quick scans but will not achieve significant separa-
tion. Column #2 is suitable for running field surveys and analyses requiring detailed separa-
tions.
2. New columns must be conditioned overnight with ultra-high purity helium (FR) or nitrogen
at a temperature of 100°C at a maximum flowrate of 100 cc/min. Reconditioning of older
columns is accomplished under the same conditions.
3. To gain access to the columns, use the following procedure:
a. Disconnect the AC cord.
b. Disconnect the chart recorder lead.
c. Disconnect the lecture bottle carrier gas supply.
d. Remove the four Phillips screws securing the panel to the case, and remove the
screw attaching the lid retainer to the lid. (Never remove the panel while the instru-
ment is connected to the main power supply.)
e. Grasp the panel assembly by the cylinder clamp. Gently lift the rear of the panel
clear of the case rim, and ease the panel assembly backward from the front rim. Lift
the panel assembly clear.
f. Gently unplug the circuit board from the wire harness connection. Remove the
nine Phillips screws from the gold box, and lift clear the lid / circuit board subassemb-
ly. The interior of the column/ ion cell chamber is now accessible.
g. To remove the column, locate the two fittings at each end of the column (ion cell
body and injection part). Using a 5/6 inch open-ended wrench, loosen these fittings.
Unscrew the fining with the finger and remove the column.
h. To replace the column, reverse the previous steps and take special care not to
damage the thread on the fitting. Make the fittings finger tight, and use the 5/16-inch
open-ended wrench to give an additional 1/8 turn to assure that the fittings seat.
15.1.6.7 Septum Change
The 10A10 contains a Teflon-faced, silicone-rubber, 0.25-Inch diameter septum. Hamilton "Micro Sep"
F-138 is suitable. The septum can easily be replaced as follows:
1. Unscrew the septum retainer.
2. Extract the old septum with a fine pair of tweezers.
3. Insert the new septum with the Teflon face down.
4. Carefully screw the retainer back into place firmly, but without over-tightening.
15-16
-------
5. A 10- to 20-minute stabilization period may be required because the carrier gas flow is tem-
porarily interrupted when the septum is changed.
15.1.6.8 Troubleshooting
A list of common troubleshooting techniques for the Photovac 10A10 is provided in Exhibit 15-3.
15.1.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.1.8 Information Sources
Horgan, L Proposed Guidelines for Photovac 10A10 for the Surveillance and Analysis Division. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1983.
Photovac Incorporated. Photovac 10A10 Operating Manual.
15.2 HNUPI-101
15.2.1 Purpose
Subsection 15.2 discusses the use, maintenance, and calibration of the HNU PI-101.
15.2.2 Definitions
None.
15.2.3 Theory and Limitations
15.2.3.1 Theory
The HNU is a portable, nonspecific, vapor / gas detector employing the principle of photoionization to
detect a variety of chemical compounds, both organic and inorganic.
The HNU contains an ultraviolet (UV) light source within its sensor chamber. Ambient air is drawn into
the chamber with the aid of a small fan. If the ionization potential (IP) of any molecule present in the am-
bient air is equal to or lower than the energy of the UV light source, ionization will take place, causing a
deflection in the meter. Response time is approximately 90 percent at 3 seconds. The meter reading is ex-
pressed in parts per million (ppm). All readings must be stated as equivalent readings that depend on the
calibration gas being used. For example, the standard gas used to calibrate the HNU is benzene, which al-
lows the instrument to provide results in benzene equivalence. Exhibit 15-4, modified from the "Instruction
15-17
-------
Exhibit 15-3
TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES
FIELD EQUIPMENT: PHOTOVAC 10A10
Problem
Probable Cause
1. No chromatographic
response
There is no carrier gas flow.
Batteries are flat (if on battery
operation).
Remedy
Check at OUT port with flow
gauge.
Plug into AC and check
again.
Electrometer is saturated.
Turn ATTENUATION to 10,
set meter toO. If OFFSET
reads 10 or more, the
instrument is saturated.
Allow to self-purge until
clear.
Syringe is plugged.
UV source is not on.
Try a new syringe.
Check SOURCE ON light; if
it is on, see item 9 in this
exhibit.
2. Unacceptable baseline drift
Unit has been subjected to
large temperature change.
Allow to stabilize.
A very concentrated sample
has recently been introduced,
resulting in excessive tailing.
Allow to self-purge until
clear.
Unacceptable baseline drift
Unacceptable contamination
levels are in carrier gas supply.
The unit is charging, and the
resulting heat is affecting the
column.
Change carrier gas supply,
and allow instrument to
stabilize.
Turn CHARGE switch to
OFF.
15-18
-------
Exhibit 15-3
(continued)
Problem
Probable Cause
3. Deterioration of sensitivity
Syringe has leaky plunger.
Column needs conditioning.
Septum is leaking.
Column fittings leak.
Remedy
4. Unacceptable low frequency Column needs conditioning.
noise
5. Peaks elute very slowly
6. Peaks eluting too fast
7. Peak has flat top
8. Peak is misshapen, with
considerable tailing
Peak is misshapen, with
considerable tailing
Carrier flowrate is too slow.
Carrier flowrate is too high.
Electrometer has saturated.
Flow is too slow.
There is an improper injection
technique.
Compound is wrongly
matched to column; perhaps
too polar.
Peak is developing from an
earlier injection (overlap of
peaks).
Try a new syringe.
Condition column.
Change septum.
Disassemble and check for
leaks around fittings, while
under pressure, with soap
solution.
Condition column.
Adjust flowrate.
Adjust flowrate.
Dilute sample and repeat.
Adjust flow.
Repeat.
Select appropriate column.
Allow greater time between
injections, or install shorter
column.
15-19
-------
Exhibit 15-3
(continued)
Problem Probable Cause Remedy
Source OFF light stays on Batteries are low (if battery Plug in AC connector.
after 5 min. operation).
Tube driver is mismatched. Contact Photovac for
advice (416/881-8225).
9. Electrometer does not Electrometer is saturated. Allow to self-purge.
return to zero after startup
If problems persist after trying all suggested remedies, contact Photovac Incorporated for advice.
Photovac Inc.
Unit 2
134 Doncaster Avenue
Thornhill, Ontario, Canada L3T 1L3
416/881-8225 Telex: 066-964634
15-20
-------
Manual for Model PI-101 Photoionization Analyzer" HNU Systems Inc., 1975, lists the relative sensitivities for •
various gases.
15.2.3.2 Limitations
1. If the IP of a chemical contaminant is greater than the UV light source, this chemical will not
be recorded. Some contaminants cannot be determined by any sensor / probes.
2. It should be noted, specifically, that the HNU will not detect methane.
3. During cold weather, condensation may form on the UV light source window, resulting in er-
roneous results.
4. Instrument readings can be affected by humidity and powerlines, making it difficult to inter-
pret readings.
5. Total concentrations are relative to the calibration gas (usually benzene) used.Therefore,
true contaminants and their quantities cannot be identified. Also, while the instrument scale
reads 0 to 2,000 ppm, response is linear (to benzene) from 0 to about 600 ppm. Greater con-
centrations may be "read" at a higher or lower level than the true value.
6. Wind speeds of greater than 3 miles an hour may affect fan speed and readings, depending
on the position of the probe relative to wind direction.
15.2.4 Applicability
This procedure is applicable to HNU PI-101 instruments used for air monitoring.
15.2.5 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of these procedures.
15.2.6 Records
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration records will be generated and maintained by
the responsible organization. The maintenance, calibration, and results obtained in the field will be
recorded in the site logbook.
15.2.7 Procedure
15.2.7.1 Maintenance and Calibration Responsibilities
The instrument user is responsible for properly calibrating and operating the instrument. When the in-
strument is scheduled for or requires maintenance, these functions should be conducted only by qualified
individuals. If possible, maintenance responsibilities should be restricted to one or two individuals who will
also bear responsibilities for logging the equipment in and out. Documentation of instrument user, dates of
15-21
-------
Exhibit 15-4
RELATIVE SENSITIVITIES FOR VARIOUS GASES
(10.2 eV Lamp)
Species
Photoionization
Sensitivity*
P-xylene
M-xylene
Benzene
Toluene
Diethyl sulflde
Diethyl amine
Styrene
Trichloroethylene
Carbon disulfide
Isobutylene
Acetone
Tetrahydrofuran
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Cyclohexanone
Naptha (86% aromatics)
Vinyl chloride
Methyl isocyanate
Iodine
Methyl mercaptan
Dimethyl sulfide
Ally! alcohol
Propylene
Mineral spirits
2,3-Dichloropropene
Cyclohexene
Crotonaldehyde
Acrolein
Pyridine
Hydrogen sulfide
Ethylene dibromide
N-octane
Acetaldehyde Oxime
11.4
11.2
10.0 (reference standard)
10.0
10.0
9.9
9.7
8.9
7.1
7.0
6.3
6.0
5.7
5.7
5.1
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.4
3.1
3.1
3.0
2.8
2.7
2.5
2.3
15-22
-------
Exhibit 15-4
(continued)
Species
Photoioniztion
Sensitivity*
Hexane
Phosphine
Heptane
Allyl chloride
(3-chloropropene)
Ethyl ene
Ethylene oxide
Acetic anhydride
Alpha pinene
Dibromochloropropane
Epichlorohydrin
Nitric oxide
Beta pinene
Citral
Ammonia
Acetic Acid
Nitrogen dioxide
Methane
Acetylene
Ethylene
2.2
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
,0.7
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.02
0.0
0.0
0.0
*Expressed in ppm (v/v).
Source: Instruction Manual for Model PI-101
Photoionization Analyzer, HNU Systems, Inc., 1975.
15-23
-------
use, instrument identification number, maintenance and calibration functions, and project identification
should be maintained.
15.2.7.2 Operator Qualifications
The HNU, although a relatively simple Instrument to use, can be incorrectly operated if the user is not
thoroughly familiar with its operation. An appropriate training and certification procedure must be
developed and incorporated into the responsible organization's training procedures. The users must com-
plete the training and be certified for HNU operation before using the instrument in the field. Refresher
courses should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are given by the manufacturer, by commercial en-
tities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.2.7.3 Startup / Shutdown Procedures
Startup
1. Check the FUNCTION switch on the control panel to make sure it is in the OFF position. At-
tach the probe to the readout unit. Match the alignment key, and twist the connector clock-
wise until a distinct locking is felt.
2. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the BATTERY CHECK position. Check that the indicator
reads within or beyond the green battery arc on the scale plate. If the indicator is below the
green arc, or if the red LED comes on, the battery must be charged before using.
3. To zero the instrument, turn the FUNCTION switch to the STANDBY position and rotate the
ZERO POTENTIOMETER until the meter reads zero. Wait 15 to 20 seconds to confirm that the
zero adjustment Is stable. If it is not, then readjust.
4. Check to see that the SPAN POTENTIOMETER is set at the appropriate setting for the
probe being used (5.0 for 9.5 eV probe, 9.8 for 10.2 eV, and 5.0 for 11.7 eV).
5. Set the FUNCTION switch to the desired ppm range. A violet glow from the UV lamp
source should be observable at the sample inlet of the probe / sensor unit. (Do not look direct-
ly at the glow, since eye damage could result.)
6. Listen for the fan operation to verify fan function.
7. Check instrument with an organic point source, such as a "magic marker," before survey to
verify instrument function.
Shutdown
1. Turn FUNCTION switch to OFF.
2. Disconnect the probe connector.
3. Place the instrument on the charger.
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15.2.7.4 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule
Function Frequency
• Perform routine calibration Prior to each use*
• Initiate factory checkout and calibration Yearly or when malfunctioning or after changing
UV light source
• Wipe down readout unit After each use
• Clean UV light source window Every month or as use and site conditions dictate
• Clean the ionization chamber Monthly
• Recharge battery After each use
During extended field use, the HNU PI-101 must be calibrated at least once every three days.
15.2.7.5 Calibration Procedure No. 1
For HNU calibration canisters without regulators:
1. Run through startup procedures as in Subsection 15.2.7.3.
2. Fill a sampling bag with HNU calibration gas of known contents.
3. Connect HNU probe to sampling bag by using flexible tubing.
4. Allow sample bag contents to be drawn into the probe, and check response in ppm.
5. Adjust the span potentiometer to produce the concentration listed on the span gas
cylinder.This procedure shall be followed only until the span potentiometer reaches the follow-
ing limits:
Maximum
Initial Span Acceptance Span
Probe Pot. Setting Pot Setting
9.5 eV 5.0 1.0
10.2eV 9.8 8.5
11.7eV 5.0 2.0
6. If these limits are exceeded, the instruments must be returned for maintenance and
recalibration. This maintenance will be done only by qualified individuals.
7. Each responsible organization must develop a mechanism for the documentation of calibra-
tion results. This documentation includes the following:
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a. Date inspected
b. Person who calibrated the instrument
c. The instrument number (Serial number or other ID number)
d. The results of the calibration (ppm, probe eV, span potentiometer setting)
e. Identification of the calibration gas (source, type, concentration)
15.2.7.6 Calibration Procedure No. 2
For HNU calibration canisters equipped with a regulator:
1. Run through startup procedures as described in Subsection 15.2.6.3.
2. Connect a sampling hose to the regulator outlet and the other end to the sampling probe of
the HNU.
3. Crack the regulator valve.
4. Take a reading after 5 to 10 seconds.
5. Adjust span potentiometer using the steps outlined in step No. 5 of Subsection 15.2.7.5.
6. Calibration documentation should be as in step No. 7 in Subsection 15.2.7.5.
15.2.7.7 Cleaning the UV Light-Source Window
1. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the OFF position, and disconnect the sensor/ probe from the
Readout / Control unit.
2. Remove the exhaust screw located near the base of the probe. Grasp the end cap in one
hand and the probe shell in the other. Separate the end cap and lamp housing from the shell.
3. Loosen the screws on the top of the end cap, and separate the end cap and ion chamber
from the lamp and lamp housing, taking care that the lamp does not fall out of the lamp hous-
ing.
4. Tilt the lamp housing with one hand over the opening so that the lamp slides out of the
housing into your hand.
5. The lamp window may now be cleaned using lens paper with any of the following com-
pounds:
a. Use HNU Cleaning Compound on all lamps except the 11.7 eV.
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b. Clean the 11.7 eV lamp with a freon or chlorinated organic solvent. Do not use
HNU cleaner, water, or water miscible solvents (i.e., acetone and methanol).
6. Following cleaning, reassemble by first sliding the lamp back into the lamp housing. Place
the ion chamber on top of the housing, making sure the contacts are properly aligned.
7. Place the end cap on top of the ion chamber, and replace the two screws. Tighten the
screws only enough to seal the O-ring. Do not overtighten.
8. Line up the pins on the base of the lamp housing with pins inside the probe shell, and slide
the housing assembly into the shell.lt will fit only one way.
9. Replace the exhaust screw.
15.2.7.8 Cleaning the lonization Chamber
1. Turn the FUNCTION switch to the OFF position, and disconnect the sensor/probe from the
Readout / Control unit.
2. Remove the exhaust screws located near the base of the probes. Grasp the end cap in one
hand and the probe shell in the other. Separate the end cap and lamp housing from the shell.
3. Loosen the screws on the top of the end cap, and separate the end cap and ion chamber
from the lamp and lamp housing, taking care that the lamp does not fall out of the lamp hous-
ing.
4. The ion chamber may now be cleaned according to the following sequence:
a. Clean with methanol using a Q-tip.
b. Dry gently at 50°C to 60°C for 1/2 hour.
5. Place the ion chamber on top of the housing, making sure the contacts are properly
aligned.
6. Place the end cap on top of the ion chamber and replace the two screws. Tighten the
screws only enough to seal the O-ring. Do not overtighten.
7. Line up the pins on the base of the lamp housing with pins inside the probe shell, and slide
the housing assembly into the shell. It will fit only one way.
15.2.7.9 Troubleshooting
The following steps should be performed only by a qualified technician:
1. The meter does not respond in any switch position (including BATT CHK).
a. Meter movement is broken.
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(1) Tip instrument rapidly from side to side. Meter needle should move freely
and return to zero.
b. Electrical connection to meter is broken
(1) Check all wires leading to meter.
(2) Clean the contacts of quick-disconnects.
c. Battery is completely dead.
(1) Disconnect battery.
(2) Check voltage with a volt-ohm meter.
d. Check 2 mp fuse.
e. If none of the above solves the problem, consult the factory.
2. Meter responds in BATT CHK position, but reads zero or near zero for all others.
a. Power supply is defective.
(1)Check power supply voltages as shown in Figure 11 of the HNU Instruction
Manual. If any voltage is out of specification, consult the factory.
b. Input transistor or amplifier has failed.
(1) Rotate zero control; meter should deflect up or down as control is turned.
(2) Open probe. Both transistors should be fully seated in sockets.
c. Input signal connection is broken in probe or readout.
(1) Check input connector on printed circuit board. The input connector
should be firmly pressed down.
(2) Check components on back of printed circuit board. All connections
should be solid, and no wires should touch any other object.
(3) Check all wires in readout for solid connections.
3. Instrument responds correctly in BATT CHK and STBY but not in measuring mode.
a. Check to see that the light source is on. Do not look directly at UV light source,
since eye damage could result.
(1) Check high-voltage power supply.
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(2) Open end of probe, remove lamp, and check high voltage on lamp ring.
(3) If high voltage is present at all above points, light source has probably
failed. Consult the factory.
4. Instrument responds correctly in all positions, but signal is lower than expected.
a. Check span setting for correct value.
b. Clean window of light source.
c. Double check preparation of standards.
d. Check power supply 180 V output.
e. Check for proper fan operation. Check fan voltage.
f. Rotate span setting. Response should change if span potentiometer is working
properly.
5. Instrument responds in all switch positions, but is noisy (erratic meter movement).
a. Open circuit in feedback circuit.Consult the factory.
b. Open circuit in cable shield or probe shield. Consult the factory.
6. Instrument response is slow and/or irreproducible.
a. Fan is operating improperly. Check fan voltage.
b. Check calibration and operation.
7. The battery indicator is low.
a. Indicator comes on if battery charge is low.
b. Indicator also comes on if ionization voltage is too high.
15.2.8 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
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15.2.9 Information Sources
HNU Systems, \ncJnstruction Manual for Model PI-101 Photoionization Analyzer. 1975.
Ecology and Env\ronmerA.FIT Operation and Field Manual: HNU Systems PI-101 Photoionization Detector
and Century Systems (Foxboro) Model OVA-128 Organic Vapor Analyzer. 1981.
Personal Communication with Fran Connel, HNU Systems, Inc. 4 January 1984.
CH2MHILL Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
Rabin, Linda J."Selectlve Application of Direct-Reading Instruments at Hazardous Waste Sites,"
presented at American Industrial Hygiene Conference, Dallas, Texas. 1986.
15.3 ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER (OVA-128)
15.3.1 Scope and Purpose
The purpose of this subsection is to discuss the use, maintenance, and calibration of the OVA-128.
15.3.2 Definitions
None.
15.3.3 Theory and Limitations
15.3.3.1 Theory
The OVA uses the principle of hydrogen flame ionization for the detection and measurement of organic
compounds. The OVA contains a diffusion flame of hydrogen and air that is free of ions and is noncon-
ducting. When a sample of organic material is introduced into the flame, ions are formed, causing the
flame to become conductive. Eventually this conductivity provides a meter reading because of a change in
current.
15.3.3.2 Limitations
1. The OVA will not see any inorganics.
2. The OVA will "see" methane, which is explosive but relatively nontoxic. The user should,
determine if the contaminant involved is or is not methane.
3. DOT shipping regulations are strict for the OVA when shipped containing pressurized
hydrogen.
4. A relative humidity greater than 95 percent will cause inaccurate and unstable responses.
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5. A temperature less than 40°F will cause slow and poor response.
6. Actual contaminant concentrations are measured relative to the calibration gas used.
Therefore, specific contaminants and their quantities cannot easily be identified.
7. As with the HNU Photoionizer, the OVA responds differently to different compounds. The
table below is a list, provided by the manufacturer, of the relative sensitivities of the OVA to
some common organic compounds. Since the instrument is factory calibrated to methane, al!
relative responses are given in percent, with methane at 100.
Compound Relative Response
Methane 10n
Ethane 90
Propane 64
N-butane 61
N-pentane 100
Ethylene 35
Acetylene 200
Benzene 150
Toluene 12Q
Acetone ^g
Methyl ethyl ketone 80
Methyl isobutyl ketone 100
Methanol 15
Ethanol 25
Isoproply alcohol gg
Carbon tetrachloride 1Q
Chloroform JQ
Trichloroethylene 72
Vinyl chloride 35
8. When operated in the gas chromatography (GC) mode, chemical standards of known con-
stituents and concentration must be analyzed by the GC. These standards must be run at the
same operating conditions used in the sampling procedure, i.e., carrier gas flowrate, column
type and temperature, and ambient conditions. The purpose of running standards is to deter-
mine retention times, concentrations (or instrument response), and optimal instrument operat-
ing conditions.
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15.3.4 Applicability
This procedure is applicable to all OVA-128s used for field or laboratory applications.
15.3.5 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for monitoring the implementation of these procedures.
15.3.6 Records
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration records will be generated and maintained by
the responsible organization. The maintenance, calibration, and results obtained in the field will be
recorded in the site logbook.
15.3.7 Procedure
15.3.7.1 Maintenance and Calibration Responsibilities
It is preferable to minimize the number of people responsible for maintenance and calibration of the
OVA. These people should also be responsible for logging the equipment in and out. Documentation of in-
strument user, dates of use, instrument identification number, maintenance and calibration procedures,
and project identification should be maintained.
15.3.7.2 Operator Qualifications
Although it is a relatively simple instrument to use, the OVA can be incorrectly operated if the user is
not thoroughly familiar with its operation. An appropriate training and certification procedure must be
developed and incorporated into the responsible organization's training procedures. The user must com-
plete the training and be certified for OVA use before taking the instrument into the field. Refresher courses
should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by the manufacturer, various commercial en-
tities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.3.7.3 Startup Procedures
1. Connect the probe / readout connectors to the side-pack assembly.
2. Check battery condition and hydrogen supply.
3. For measurements taken as methane equivalent, check that the GAS SELECT dial is set at
300.
4. Turn the electronics on by moving the INST switch to the ON position, and allow 5 minutes
for warm-up.
5. Set CALIBRATE switch to X10; use CALIBRATE knob to set indicator at 0.
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6. Open the Ha tank valve all the way and the Ha supply valve all the way. Check that the
hydrogen supply gauge reads between 8.0 and 12.0 psig.
7. Turn the PUMP switch ON, and check the flow system according to the procedures in Sub-
section 15.3.7.6.
8. Check that the BACKFLUSH and INJECT valves are in the UP position.
9. To light the flame, depress the igniter switch until a meter deflection is observed.The igniter
switch may be depressed for up to 5 seconds. Do not depress for longer than 5 seconds, as it
may burn out the igniter coil. If the instrument does not light, allow the instrument to run
several minutes and repeat ignition attempt.
10. Confirm OVA operational state by using an organic source, such as a "magic marker."
11. Establish a background level in a clean area or by using the charcoal scrubber attachment
to the probe (depress the sample inject valve) and by recording measurements referenced to
background.
12. Set the alarm level, if desired.
15.3.7.4 Shutdown Procedure
1. Close Ha supply valve and Ha tank valve (do not overtighten valves).
2. Turn INST switch to OFF.
3. Wait until Ha supply gauge indicates system is purged of Ha; then switch off pump (ap-
proximately 10 seconds).
4. Put instrument on electrical charger at completion of day's activities.
15.3.7.5 Maintenance and Calibration Schedule
Check particle filters Weekly or as needed
Check quad rings Monthly or as needed
Clean burner chamber Monthly or as needed
Check secondary calibration Prior to project startup
Check primary calibration Monthly, or if secondary check is off by more
than ± 10 percent
Check pumping system Before project startup
Replace charcoal in scrubber attach- 120 hours of use, or when background readings
ment are higher with the inject valve down than with
the inject valve up in a clean environment
Factory service At least annually
Note: Instruments that are not in service for extended periods of time need not meet the above schedule.
However, they must be given a complete checkout before their first use, addressing the maintenance
items listed above.
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Calibration Procedures
The following steps are to be used only by qualified service technicians:
Primary Calibration
1. Remove instrument components from the instrument shell.
2. Turn on ELECTRONICS and ZERO INSTRUMENT on X10 scale. Gas select dial to 300.
3. Turn on PUMP and HYDROGEN. Ignite flame. Go to SURVEY MODE.
4. Introduce a methane standard near 100 parts per million (ppm).
5. Adjust R-32 Trimpot on circuit board to make meter read to standard.
6. Turn off hydrogen flame, and adjust meter needle to read 40 ppm (calibrate @ X10) using
the calibration adjust knob.
7. Switch to X100 scale. The meter should indicate 0.4 on the 1-10 meter markings (0.4 x 100
= 40 ppm). If the reading is off, adjust with R33 Trimpot.
8. Return to X10 scale, and adjust meter needle to 40 ppm with calibration; adjust knob, if
necessary.
9. At the X10 scale, adjust meter to read 0.4 on the 1 to 10 meter markings using the calibra-
tion adjust. Switch to X1 scale. The meter should read 4 ppm. If the reading is off, adjust
using the R31 Trimpot.
Secondary Calibration
1. Fill an air sampling bag with 100 ppm (certified) methane calibration gas.
2. Connect the outlet of the air-sampling bag to the air-sampling line of the OVA.
3. Record the reading obtained from the meter on the calibration record.
Documentation
Each responsible organization should develop a system whereby the following calibration information
is recorded:
• 1. Instrument calibrated (I.D. or serial number)
• 2. Date of calibration
• 3. Method of calibration
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• 4. Results of the calibration
• 5. Identification of person who calibrated the instrument
• 6. Identification of the calibration gas (source, type, concentration, lot number)
15.3.7.6 Pump System Checkout
The following steps are to be used only by qualified technicians:
1. With the pump on, hold unit upright and observe flow gauge.
2. See if ball level is significantly below a reading of 2; if so, flow is inadequate.
3. Check connections at the sample hose.
4. Clean or replace particle filters if flow is impaired or if it is time for scheduled service.
5. Reassemble and retest flow.
6. If flow is still inadequate, replace pump diaphragm and valves.
7. If flow is normal, plug air intake.Pump should slow and stop.
8. If there is no noticeable change in pump, tighten fittings and retest.
9. If there is still no change, replace pump diaphragm and valves.
10. Document this function in the maintenance records.
15.3.7.7 Burner Chamber Cleaning
1. Remove plastic exhaust port cover.
2. Unscrew exhaust port.
3. Use wire brush to clean burner tip and electrode. Use wood stick to clean Teflon.
4. Brush inside of exhaust port.
5. Blow out chamber with a gentle air flow.
6. Reassemble and test unit.
7. Document this function in the maintenance records.
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15.3.7.8 Quad Ring Service
1. Remove OVA instruments from protective shell.
2. Remove clip ring from bottom of valve.
3. Unscrew nut from top of valve.
4. Gently pull valve shaft upward and free of housing.
5. Observe rings for signs of damage; replace as necessary.
6. Lightly grease rings with silicone grease.
7. Reassemble valve; do not pinch rings during shaft insertion.
8. Document this function in the maintenance records.
15.3.7.9 Troubleshooting
Indication
• High background reading
(More than 10ppm)
• Continual flameout
• Low air flow
Flame will not light
No power to pump
Hydrogen leak
(Instrument not in use)
Possible Causes
Contaminated hydrogen
Contaminated sample line
Hydrogen leak
Dirty burner chamber
Dirty air filter
Dirty air filter
Pump malfunction
Line obstruction
Low battery
Igniter broken
Hydrogen leak
Dirty burner chamber
Air flow restricted
Low battery
Short circuit
Leak in regulator
Leak in valves
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15.3.7.10 Hydrogen Recharging
1. High-grade hydrogen (99.999 percent) is required. Maximum pressure the instrument can handle
is 2,300 psig.
2. Connect the fill hose to the REFILL FITTING on the side pack assembly with the FILL/BLEED valve
in the OFF position.
3. Open H2 SUPPLY BOTTLE valve.
4. Place FILL/BLEED valve on fill hose in BLEED position momentarily to purge any air out of the sys-
tem.
5. Open the instrument TANK valve.
6. Open REFILL valve on instrument.
7. Place FILL/BLEED valve in FILL position until the instrument pressure gauge equalizes with the H2
SUPPLY BOTTLE pressure gauge.
8. Shut REFILL valve, FILL/BLEED valve, and H2 SUPPLY BOTTLE valve, in quick succession.
9. Turn FILL/BLEED valve to BLEED until hose pressure equalizes to atmospheric pressure.
10. Turn FILL/BLEED valve to FILL position; then turn the valve to the BLEED position; then turn to
OFF.
11. Close TANK on instrument.
12. Disconnect the FILL HOSE, and replace protective nut on the REFILL FITTING.
15.3.7.11 Particle Filter Servicing
Filters have been placed at two points in the air sampling line of the OVA to keep particulates from
entering the instrument. The first filter is located in the probe assembly, and the second filter (primary filter)
is located on the side pack assembly. Cleaning procedures are as follows:
1. Detach the probe assembly from the readout assembly.
2. Disassemble the probe (unscrew the components).
3. Clean the particle filter located within the probe by blowing air through the filter.
4. Reassemble the probe.
5. Gain access to the primary filter, located behind the sample inlet connector on the side pack as-
sembly, by removing the sample inlet connector with a thin-walled, 7/16-inch socket wrench. Remove the
filter, and clean as above.
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6. Reassemble the sample inlet fitting and filter to the side pack assembly.
7. Check sample flowrate.
15.3.7.12 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.3.7.13 Information Sources
The following references were used in generating this subsection of the compendium:
Region II FIT. Proposed Guidelines for the Organic Vapor Analyzer. 1984.
Ecology and Environment. FIT Operation and Field Manual: HNU Systems PI-101 Photoionization Detec-
tor and Century Systems (Foxboro) Model OVA-128 Organic Vapor Analyzer. 1981.
Century Systems (Foxboro). Service Procedures: Organic Vapor Analyzer; 128GC.
CH2MHILL Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
15.4 EXP LOS I METER
15.4.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the understanding, use, and application of an ex-
plosimeter. The methodologies refer to explosimeters manufactured by Mine Safety Appliances Company.
15.4.2 Definitions
Explosimeter
An instrument used to test an atmosphere for concentration of combustible gases and vapors.
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
The lowest concentration of a gas or vapor in air, by volume, that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source present.
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
The maximum concentration of a gas or vapor in air, by volume, that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source present.
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15.4.3 Applicability
Explosimeters have been used during installation of monitoring wells and in and around landfills where
methane gas is of primary concern. Once a monitoring well is installed, methane gas can accumulate in-
side the well casing and can create a potentially explosive environment.
Explosimeters have also proved useful during the excavation of buried drums and tanks. In what can
sometimes seem like an innocuous situation because of the adequate ventilation around the trench,
heavier-than-air vapors can collect at the bottom of the trench to produce an explosive environment. Addi-
tionally, the explosimeter has provided service when investigative work has discovered abandoned
warehouses and storage sheds containing drums of volatile substances. The explosimeter is typically used
when entering any confined space or for initial entry on hazardous waste sites.
15.4.4 Responsibilities
Before the instrument is taken into the field, it should be inspected and calibrated to ensure that it is
operating properly. If possible, maintenance and calibration should be restricted to one or two qualified in-
dividuals.
15.4.5 Records
Logbooks should contain records of the instrument checkout and calibration procedures. Although a
relatively simple instrument to use, the explosimeter can be incorrectly operated if the user is not thorough-
ly familiar with its operation. An appropriate training and certification procedure must be developed and in-
corporated. The users must complete the training and be certified for operation before using the ex-
plosimeter in the field. Refresher courses should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by the
manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey,
facilities.
15.4.6 Procedures
15.4.6.1 Theory
A typical explosimeter draws a sample of the atmosphere over a heated catalytic filament that forms a
balanced electrical circuit. Combustibles that are present in the atmosphere are burned on the filament,
which raises its resistance in proportion to the concentration of the combustibles in the atmosphere. The
resulting imbalance of the circuit causes a deflection of the meter needle on the instrument.
15.4.6.2 Operation
The instrument must be calibrated before each field use. Calibration is performed by using a known
concentration of a combustible gas that can be obtained from Mine Safety Appliances Company. Once the
calibration gas is introduced to the instrument, adjustments can be made on an internal span control inside
the explosimeter. If the explosimeter cannot be adjusted to read the standard, then the detector filament
must be replaced.
To establish a zero background reading, the explosimeter should be prepared for operation in an area
known to be free of combustible gases and vapors. A flush of fresh air should be passed through the in-
15-39
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strument to zero the meter needle. The sampling line should then be placed at the point where the sample
is to be collected, and the highest reading on the meter should be recorded. The graduations on the scale
of the meter are in percentages of the lower explosive limit. A deflection of the meter needle between zero
and 100 percent shows how closely the atmosphere being tested approaches the minimum concentration
required for an explosion. When the needle deflects to the extreme right side of the meter during a test, the
person performing the test can reasonably assume that the atmosphere being tested is explosive. If the
needle deflects to the extreme right side and then quickly returns to a position within the scale or below
zero, this movement indicates that the atmosphere tested has exceeded the concentration of the DEL
This means that an overabundance of the gas or vapor has displaced or consumed the "normal" air
(oxygen levels of about 21 percent), creating an environment that will not explode but could explode if the
oxygen levels return to normal; therefore, it is important to continue monitoring. The user should always
have the instrument on until the field team has left the atmosphere being tested and a final flush of fresh air
has passed through the explosimeter to be sure that the atmosphere has been thoroughly analyzed.
15.4.6.3 Limitations and Warnings Associated with an MSA Explosimeter
As with all instruments, the user should appreciate the limits of the explosimeter's capabilities and
should be sure to operate the instrument within those limits. The following represents several important
limitations:
1. The instrument is not designed to work in an oxygen-enriched environment (oxygen above
25 percent), nor will it function properly in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere (below 19.5 per-
cent). Therefore, it must be used in conjunction with an atmospheric oxygen indicator.
2. The instrument will not indicate the presence of explosive or combustible mists or sprays,
such as lubrication oil, or explosive dusts, such as grain or coal dusts.
3. Care should be taken when sampling over liquids so the liquid is not drawn into the instru-
ment.
4. The following substances may poison the detection filament: leaded gasoline, silanes,
silicones, silicates, or any silicon-containing compound.
5. The relative humidity must be in the range of 10 to 90 percent.
6. The instrument has a tolerance of 40 percent. For example, a reading of 20 percent LEL
could be as high as 28 percent or as low as 12 percent.
7. The instrument must not be switched on or off unless the user is in a known combustible-
free atmosphere.
8. The explosive limits for many gases and vapors are far above the threshold limit values
(TLVs) for those substances.
9. Fuming acids, such as sulfuric acid and nitric acid, will also poison the detection filament.
10. The instrument is typically calibrated with methane gas. Many other materials are ex-
plosive at concentrations below that of methane. Care must be used in a test atmosphere that
may contain these types of materials. The readings obtained by the instrument are not
specific. The readings indicate only that the atmosphere being measured is some percentage
of the LEL of the calibration atmosphere. Therefore, the National Institute for Occupational
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Safety and Health-criteria shown below must be used in interpreting the readings when using
the instrument in an atmosphere of unknown contaminants.
15.4.6.4 NIOSH Criteria
NIOSH guidelines on the use of the explosimeter are as follows:
1. Ten percent LEL-Limit activities in area to those that do not generate sparks; wear non-
sparking gear; use spark-proof equipment.
2. Twenty percent LEL- Limit all activities in area.
15.4.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be Incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.4.8 Information Sources
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual, Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen
Alarm." Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities. October 1985.
15.5 OXYGEN INDICATOR
15.5.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the understanding, use, and application of an oxygen in-
dicator. The methodologies that are described refer to oxygen indicators manufactured by Mine Safety Ap-
pliances Company.
15.5.2 Definitions
Oxygen Indicator
An instrument that provides a means to measure atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The
volume percent for atmospheric oxygen is 20.95 percent.
Partial Pressure
The pressure that each gas exerts in a gas mixture (i.e., oxygen is 159 mmHg at sea level).
Partial pressure is also temperature dependent.
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15.5.3 Applicability
Wherever contaminants have been detected, a certain percentage of the atmosphere has been dis-
placed, subsequently lowering the partial pressure of oxygen. In respiration, it is not the percentage of
oxygen in the air, but rather its partial pressure that is important in sustaining life.
Oxygen-deficient atmospheres at hazardous waste sites often include confined spaces, such as aban-
doned warehouses where solvent drums are typically stored. Oxygen-deficient atmospheres could possib-
ly be created during drum excavation in test pits where heavier-than-air vapors accumulate at the bottom of
the test pit.
15.5.4 Responsibilities
Before taking the oxygen indicator into the field, the user should inspect and calibrate it to ensure its
proper operation. If possible, maintenance and calibration should be restricted to one or two qualified in-
dividuals.
15.5.5 Records
Logbooks should record the oxygen indicator's checkout and calibration procedures. Although it is a
relatively simple instrument to use, the oxygen indicator can be incorrectly operated if the user is not
thoroughly familiar with its operation. An appropriate training and certification procedure must be
developed and incorporated. The users must complete the training and be certified for operation before
using the instrument in the field. Refresher courses should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are of-
fered by the manufacturer, by various commercial entities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and
Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.5.6 Procedures
15.5.6.1 Theory
The MSA Oxygen Indicator tests the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. The actual sensing
device consists of an oxygen-specific permeable membrane that allows oxygen to pass into the sensor
until the partial pressures equalize on both sides of the membrane. Inside the sensor is an electrolyte solu-
tion that surrounds two electrodes. An oxidation-reduction reaction occurs In which the amount of current
generated is directly proportional to the oxygen concentration. The change in current is detected by the
meter circuit, and the needle is calibrated to indicate oxygen concentration in percentage, which is read
out directly. The sensor is temperature compensated from 32°F to 104CF. The indicator response time is
increased in temperatures beyond the compensated range, partially below 32°F.
The instrument must be calibrated before using it in the field. Calibration is performed by adjusting a
calibration screw when the probe is exposed to fresh air. Readings should be checked every hour in sam-
pling areas where the temperature is not constant to attain the greatest accuracy possible.
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15.5.6.2 Limitations and Warnings Associated with an MSA Oxygen Indicator
As with all instruments, the user should appreciate the limits of the oxygen indicator's capabilities and
should be sure to operate it within those limits. The following represents several of the important limita-
tions:
1. Condensation of moisture on the sensor face will cause low oxygen readings. To avoid
this problem, allow the sensor to reach ambient temperature before taking readings.
2. Strong oxidants such as fluorine, chlorine, and ozone will lead to erroneously high oxygen
readings when these oxidants are present in concentrations exceeding 5,000 ppm or 0.5 per-
cent.
3. Concentrations of COa greater than 1 percent will reduce sensor life.
4. Changes in barometric pressure because of altitude will also affect the meter reading. The
instrument is calibrated for 20.8 percent oxygen at sea level (one atmosphere).
5. Relative humidity operating range is 10 to 90 percent.
6. The sensor must not be touched by hands or other objects; the membrane is easily
damaged.
7. Fuming acids, such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid, will poison the probe.
8. Once exposed to air, the oxygen sensor has a shelf life of approximately 1 year.
15.5.6.3 Recommended Action Levels
If the oxygen level is less than 19.5 percent, the inspection should be continued only with a self-con-
tained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or a similar unit; the oxygen-deficient area should be identified.
If the oxygen level is more than 19.5 percent, the inspection can continue without breathing apparatus.
If the cartridge will provide adequate sorbent efficiency, a cartridge respirator is acceptable. Also, the con-
taminant must have good warning properties, and must not react with the sorbent material in the cartridge.
If the oxygen level exceeds 25 percent, the area should be vacated, since an oxygen-rich atmosphere
exists and an explosion or fire is possible.
15.5.6.4 NIOSH Criteria
Oxygen levels lower than 19.5 percent require the use of supplied-air respirators.
15.5.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
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15.5.8 information Sources
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual, Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen Alarm."
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities. October 1985.
15.6 COMBINED COMBUSTIBLE GAS (EXPLOSIMETER) AND OXYGEN ALARM
15.6.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance for the understanding, use, and application of a combined
combustible gas and oxygen alarm. The methodologies refer to combined combustible gas and oxygen
alarm instruments manufactured by Mine Safety Appliances Company.
15.6.2 Definitions
Explosimeter
An instrument used to test an atmosphere for concentration of combustible gases and vapors.
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
The minimum concentration of a gas or vapor in air by volume that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source.
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
The maximum concentration of a gas or vapor in air by volume that will explode or burn when
there is an ignition source.
Oxygen Indicator
An instrument that provides a means to measure atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The
volume percent for atmospheric oxygen is 20.95 percent.
Partial Pressure
The pressure that each gas exerts in a gas mixture (i.e., oxygen is 159 mmHg at sea level).
Partial pressure is also temperature dependent.
15.6.3 Applicability
The combined combustible gas and oxygen alarm can be extremely useful, since both the combustible
gas and oxygen alarm are incorporated into one unit. For example, when combustible vapors are present
in sufficient concentrations to displace a certain percentage of the atmosphere, this condition should be
reflected as a low reading on the oxygen indicator and an elevated reading on the explosimeter. In turn,
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the oxygen indicator also establishes the limits of oxygen concentration (19.5 percent to 25 percent) in
which the explosimeter can function properly.
This instrument has been useful during installation of monitoring wells in and around landfills where
methane gas is of concern. Confined spaces at hazardous waste sites, such as abandoned warehouses
and storage sheds containing drums of volatile substances, pits, trenches, or sewers are prime examples
of where the instrument has provided service.
15.6.4 Responsibilities
Before the instrument is taken into the field, it should be inspected and calibrated to ensure that it is
operating properly. If possible, maintenance and calibration should be restricted to one or two qualified in-
dividuals.
15.6.5 Records
Logbooks should record the instrument checkout and calibration procedures. Although a relatively
simple instrument to use, the oxygen alarm can be incorrectly operated if the user is not thoroughly familiar
with its operation. An appropriate training and certification procedure must be developed and incor-
porated. The users must complete the training and be certified for operation before using the instrument in
the field. Courses are offered by the manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at their Cincin-
nati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.6.6 Procedures
The procedures for the confined explosimeter and oxygen indicators are the same as for the separate
instruments. The reader should refer to Subsections 15.4 and 15.5.
15.6.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.6.8 Information Sources
Mine Safety Appliances Company. "Instruction Manual, Model 260, Combustible Gas and Oxygen
Alarm." Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Standard Operating Guides. December 1984.
NIOSH / OSHA / USCG / EPA. Occupational Safety and Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site
Activities. October 1985.
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15.7 VAPOR DETECTION TUBES - DRAEGER GAS DETECTOR MODEL 21/31
15.7.1 Scope and Purpose
This procedure discusses the use of Draeger tubes to determine the concentrations of specific
gaseous pollutants in the field.
15.7.2 Definitions
None.
15.7.3 Theory and Limitations
15.7.3.1 Theory
A known volume of air is drawn through a reagent by using the pump and tube. The length of the color
change observed in the tube translates to a ppm value.
15.7.3.2 Limitations
1. Cross sensitivity is typical.
2. Readings are not specific; there is a large degree of error (35% at 1/2 the permissible ex-
posure limit (PEL) to 25% at 1 to 5 times the PEL).
3. A slow response time is typical.
4. Shelf life can be maintained for 2 years by refrigerating tubes.
5. Operator error in "reading" the jagged edge where the contaminant meets the indicator
chemical (end point) is a major source of inaccuracy.
15.7.4 Applicability
The colorimetric tube and pump measure the concentrations of specific inorganic and organic vapors
and of gases that cause a discoloration which is proportional to the amount of material present. The detec-
tor tubes are specific for individual compounds, or groups of compounds, and require specific sampling
techniques. This information is supplied with the tubes; it details the required sample volume, the proper
tube preparation and insertion into the pump, and the applicability and limitations of the individual tube.
Since several hundred different tubes are available, the user must consult the specific instructions for each
tube.
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15.7.5 Responsibilities
The SM is responsible for determining when the use of the Draeger tube is appropriate and for monitor-
ing that the tube is properly set up for field sampling.
Personnel must be trained in the use of the detector tubes. Refresher courses should be obligatory
every 6 months. Courses are offered by the manufacturer, various commercial entities, and by EPA at their
Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.7.6 Records
The comments dealing with the Draeger tube sampling episode should be detailed in the field logbook.
15.7.7 Procedures
15.7.7.1 Operation
A pump check should be performed each operational day. To complete this check, place an unbroken
tube into the suction inlet of the pump and completely depress the bellows. The bellows should not com-
pletely extend (taut chain) in fewer than 30 minutes.
15.7.7.2 Field Use
• Break off both tips of the Draeger tube(s) in the break-off eyelet located on the front pump plate.
• Tightly insert the tube into the pump head with the arrow pointing toward the pump head. If multi-
ple tubes are used (e.g., vinyl chloride), join the tubes with the rubber tube provided, then insert
the tube into the pump head.
• Fully compress the bellows and allow the bellows to re-extend until the chain is taut. Repeat as
often as specified in the tube operating instructions.
• Evaluate the tube according to instructions.
15.7.7.3 In-House Handling Procedures (Check In)
• Each unit on return from the field should be subjected to the following tests with results being
entered in the logbook.
• The unit will be visually examined for surface dirt, deformities, cracks, and cuts.
• The pump integrity will be checked in the following manner:
Block the inlet with an unopened tube.
Fully compress; then release the pump bellows. If the bellows do not completely fill
(limit chain slack) in 30 minutes, the unit is operating properly. If the unit does not
pass the leak test, proceed as follows:
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- Remove the pump plate.
- Unscrew the valve with the special wrench.
- Clean the valve in water and dry.
- Replace the disc if it is sticky, brittle, hard, or cracked.
- Reassemble and retest.
15.7.8 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.7.9 Information Sources
Manual of Calibration, Maintenance, Service and Operation ofNUS H&S Equipment and Monitoring Instru-
ments. November 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Hazardous Waste Sites, Volume II, Available
Sampling Methods. EPA600/X-83-018. March 1983.
15.8 FIELD EQUIPMENT-RADIATION MONITORS
15.8.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides guidance in the use and implementation rationale in determining possible ex-
posure^) to ionizing radiation by radiation monitors. Radiation or radioactivity is the property of the
nucleus of an atom to spontaneously emit energy in the form of high-energy electromagnetic waves or par-
ticles. Types of radiation that are of concern are alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma and X-radia-
tion.
Stable atoms of an element are composed of a dense nucleus containing an equal number of protons
and neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus are clouds or orbits of electrons. The number of electrons in the
atom of an element equals the number of protons. The number of neutrons in the atom can vary and, if it
does, the atom is known as an isotope. Most isotopes are synthetic although some, such as Cs123 and
U238, occur naturally in nature. In addition, most isotopes are radioactive; they are unstable and tend to
transform into an atom of a different element called a "daughter" by releasing a particle (either alpha or beta
particles) or by emission of gamma and X-rays. The type of energy released and the rate of this release
(decay rate or half life) is particular to each isotope. If desired, the isotope can be identified by determining
the type of energy released and by measuring the decay rate.
Radiation, unlike other chemical and physical exposures, has no real-time warning properties that are
detectable by the human sensories. However, reliable radiation detectors are available.
All radiation detectors other than passive dosimeters (radiation badges) operate on the same principle;
radiation causes ionization in the detection media. The ions produced are counted electronically, and a
relationship is established between the number of ionizing events and the quantity of radiation present.
Types of radiation detectors include the following:
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• lonization detection tubes are used primarily in high-range instruments, predominantly for detec-
tion of gamma and X-radiation.
• Proportional detection tubes inherently do not detect beta or gamma radiation; they are used
primarily for detection of alpha radiation.
• Geiger-Mueller detection tubes are very sensitive to gamma and beta radiation.
• Scintillation detection media are crystal media that interact with radiation; they are highly sensitive
to alpha and gamma radiation.
15.8.2 Definitions
Radiation Alert-Mini
Portable unit that detects ionizing radiation and that indicates, by using three-level scales, the
actual radiation onsite with sound and light warnings and a level indicator.
ROENTGEN
The amount of gamma or X-radiation that will produce one electrostatic unit of charge in 1
cubic centimeter of dry air.
Radiation Absorbed Dose (RAD)
The quantity of radiation required for 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by 1 gram of body
tissue.
Radiation Dose Equivalent in Humans (REM)
A measure of the dose received in terms of its estimated biological effect(s) on humans.
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) Badge
A clip-on badge containing a substrate impregnated with either lithium or calcium fluoride.
These materials are phosphors that store energy when exposed to ionizing radiation. When
the phosphor is heated to several hundred degrees centigrade, energy is released in the form
of visible light that is measured with a photometer, providing an exposure reading.
15.8.3 Applicability
For the purpose of field work and site investigations, field teams should use several types of exposure
monitors during field activities. It is conceivable that during different activities (recon versus sampling), dis-
turbing different areas of a site may expose previously undetected radiation sources.
The cross conversion of ROENTGEN, REM, and RAD depends on a "quality factor" that is specific to
each radioisotope and on the energy level of the radiation. With various forms of radiation, each has a
"quality factor" that is based on its estimated biological effect on humans. It, therefore, stands to reason
that each radioisotope has its own respective "quality factor."
Survey-type radiation detectors are normally calibrated against a cesium-137 gamma source. In es-
sence, the detector is not calibrated for other isotopes. It does, however, serve as a good reference and
relative indicator for other radiosotopes. The results of survey-type radiation detectors are usually dis-
played by a counter or audio response, along with a readout of milliroentgen per hour (mR/hr).
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15.8.4 Responsibilities
The SM should see that field personnel are equipped with TLD badges and a Radiation Alert-Mini (or
similar unit) during any aspect of field work. Health and safety personnel are responsible for addressing
these safety subjects in the safety plan and for seeing that TLD badges are issued and collected quarterly.
15.8.5 Records
15.8.5.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) Badge
The responsible health and safety manager or designee will maintain records of TLD issuance and
results, as well as badges that are lost or exposed through nonfield (airport or dentist) activity.
15.8.5.2 Other Radiation Monitors
Health and safety personnel or their designees maintain records relative to the following:
1. Periodic calibration (according to factory specifications).
2. Major repairs (in which case the unit is to be labeled "Out of Service").
3. Usage in the field.
4. Site safety personnel will keep records of any above background readings and action taken
(to be noted on the site safety follow-up report or by emergency phone call) to be submitted to
the responsible health and safety manager.
15.8.6 Procedures
15.8.6.1 Radiation Alert-Mini
An example of a survey-type radiation detector is the Radiation Alert-Mini, manufactured by Solar
Electronics, which uses a miniature geiger detector tube with a thin mica end window called the alpha win-
dow. This arrangement makes the Radiation Alert-Mini sensitive to all forms of radiation. The detector indi-
cates all incoming radiation with an audio response and counter. The level of radiation is measured in mil-
liroentgens per hour (mR/hr). At lower elevations natural background radiation can produce 10 to 20
counts per minute. The detector has three ranges (X1, X10, and X100) with two alarm lights that indicate
counts of 10 and 30 percent for each range, e.g., .1 mR/hr and .3 mR/hr for the X1 range, and 1 mR/hr and
3 mR/hr for the X10 range, and so on. Checkout procedures are as follows:
1. Check to see the unit is "field-ready."
2. Check battery by switching to ON position. (Note: Field teams should bring extra bat-
teries, especially for lengthy projects.)
3. Switch unit to AUDIO. A periodic beep and flash will indicate the unit is working, especially
because of background radiation. (.01-.02 mR/hr) (Note: 10to20CPM on unit.)
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4. Set the scale on the unit so it falls within precautionary guidelines as follows:
If less than 2 mR/hr, continue investigation with caution.
If greater than 2 mR/hr, stop work and evacuate site.
(Note: Exact readings cannot be determined with most alert-minis. If readings above back-
ground are determined with the alert-mini, a radiation survey meter or equivalent must be used
to determine exact readings before continuing operations.)
5. Note any areas that display above-background readings. If any site evacuation is needed,
contact the responsible health and safety manager upon reaching an offsite "safe zone."
6. Limitations and precautions:
• When testing for alpha radiation, be sure to position the alpha window about 1.4 inch from
the material under test. Alpha particles will not penetrate more than about 1 inch of air and
can be shielded by thin paper or similar material.
• Avoid exposing the Radiation Alert-Mini directly to liquids and corrosive gases; also avoid
extreme temperatures and direct sunlight.
• Avoid contamination by not touching the surface of material being tested.
• Calibration must be checked and performed by the factory. Annual calibration is recom-
mended, although its operation should be checked periodically with a low-emission source
such as mantals used in gas lanterns.
15.8.6.2 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) Badge
(Note: The TLD badge measures total quarterly cumulative dosage to the body. It is by no means to
be used as a substitute for Radiation Alert-Mini or Thyac III, which measures actual site radiation.
Radiation badges are commonly based on film dosimetry or chemical dosimetry. It is important to un-
derstand the usefulness and limitation of passive radiation dosimeters.
The conditions under which one must work are generally complex, ill defined, and irregular. Perhaps
the most practical method, although less accurate than real-time monitors, is to monitor radiation exposure
by using dosimeters. The dosimeter, or radiation badge, usually provides enough information that the ab-
sorbed dose can be inferred from the data. The dosimeter serves as a reliable assessment of radiation ex-
posure on a time-weighed average and activity basis. Dosimetry is a convenient method of monitoring ex-
posure for a whole crew of individuals where other methods would otherwise be impractical, if not impos-
sible.
Upon receipt of TLD badges for each quarter, the responsible health and safety personnel implement
the following procedures:
1. Distribute TLD badges to personnel subject to potential radiation exposure during field and
laboratory activities.
2. Personnel who are issued a TLD badge wear the badge on their front pockets while onsite
or performing laboratory work.
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3. Field team members required to go through airport baggage checks (en route to or from
the site) MUST WEAR THE BADGE. (Badges packed in luggage may become exposed if
passed through X-ray machines.) Qo. not wear badges during visits to the dentist.
4. At the end of each quarter, health and safety personnel collect the badges and return them
(including the control badge) to the manufacturer (or the designated company representative)
and issue new badges for the coming quarter.
5. Limitations and precautions
• Dosimetry is a measure of after-the-fact exposures.
• Badges that are not worn by workers provide little information; compliance must be
monitored.
• Badges that are exposed to direct sunlight for extended periods produce false readings.
• Badges that are exposed to ionizing radiation when not in use, as in the case of security
checks at airports and in the presence of color TV and microwave ovens, will produce
false positive readings.
15.8.6.3 Model 490 Victoreen Thyac III Survey Meter
The Model 490 is a pulse-count ratemeter and power supply. With the pancake detector probe, it acts
as a survey meter for alpha-beta-gamma radiation. Its range of operation is 0-80,000 cpm or 0-20 mR/hr
approximate radiation intensity with appropriate detector.
Use and Operation
The instrument should be used only by persons who have been trained in the proper interpretation of
its readings and in the appropriate safety procedures to be followed in the presence of radiation. Training
courses are mandatory for all field personnel, and refresher courses should be obligatory every 6 months.
Failure to follow instructions may result in inaccurate readings and/or user hazard. Indicated battery and
operational (check source) tests must be performed before each use to ensure that the instrument is
functioning properly. Failure to conduct periodic performance tests in accordance with ANSI N323-1978,
paragraphs 4.6 and 5.4, and failure to keep records thereof in accordance with paragraph 4.5 of the same
standard could result in erroneous readings of potential danger. Do not connect or disconnect any detec-
tor while the instrument is on. Wait 2 minutes after the instrument is turned off before connecting or dis-
connecting any detector. Failure of transistors will occur if these instructions are not followed.
The Thyac III is designed for 100 hours of continuous use on two "D" cell batteries and longer with in-
termittent use. Trained personnel are required to interpret its readings. The user must be sure to read the
instruction manual before using. The instrument is in a weatherproof case, which contains the two operat-
ing controls (the function switch, and the response switch) on top.
A low-intensity beta check source is provided on the case. Temperature limits are -30° to +50°C (limits
for batteries may be different). The check source may be used with a headset or an audio speaker; it may
be put in a plastic bag, when appropriate, to prevent contamination.
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Maintenance
Do not store the instrument with the batteries inside. Replace the batteries as indicated during the bat-
tery check performed before each use. Recalibrate the instrument periodically according to
manufacturer's specifications.
15.8.6.4 Eberline Model E-120 Radiation Monitor
The Model E-120 is a gamma response radiation monitor that has dual scales (0-5 mR/hr and 0-6
CPM). This unit has three range multipliers (xO.1, xl.O, and xlO.O) and has adjustable response times. The
general operating procedures are as follows:
Field Operation
• Switch to the battery check position to indicate the battery condition.
• Check the instrument's operation by placing a check source in a repeatable position adjacent to
the detector. Move the selector switch to a range that will give an upscale reading greater than 10
percent of scale. Adjust the response control to minimize the erratic meter movements.
• Log the instrument's response value on the green tag.
In-House Handling Procedures (Check In)
• When each instrument returns from the field or at alternate 6-month maximum storage intervals,
—Clean and visually examine the instrument for defects
—Check its battery status
—Validate its response to an operation check source
— Enter the above data and any green tag data into the appropriate logbook
• At least once per year, ship each instrument to the manufacturer for recalibration.
15.8.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.8.8 Information Sources
Sax, N.I.. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Material. 6th ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
1984
CH2M HILL. Field Surveillance Equipment. 1984.
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15.9 PERSONAL SAMPLING PUMPS
15.9.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection provides general guidance regarding the plans for, method of selection, and use of
personal sampling pumps for field investigations of hazardous waste sites.
15.9.2 Definition
Personal Sample
An air sample that is collected by a device worn on the worker; the device measures actual ex-
posure during the work routine.
15.9.3 Applicability
This subsection discusses the use of sampling pumps for personal monitoring purposes. These
guidelines are based on the objective of determining the potential exposure to a worker of air con-
taminants. Subsection 11.6 contains information on area sampling of ambient air.
15.9.4 Responsibilities
Field personnel must be adequately trained in the operation of personal sampling pumps. Refresher
courses should be obligatory every 6 months. Courses are offered by the manufacturer, various commer-
cial entities, and by EPA at their Cincinnati, Ohio, and Edison, New Jersey, facilities.
15.9.5 Records
Training records, maintenance records, and calibration records must be generated and maintained by
the responsible organization. Specific records of field use should be noted in field notebooks as suggested
in Sections 6 and 17.
15.9.6 Procedures
15.9.6.1 Preliminary Considerations
The planning, selection, and implementation of any monitoring program using personal sampling
pumps require clearly defined objectives. The following considerations must be examined to define what
the user wants to measure:
• Worker exposure versus ambient air
• Long-term (8 hours) versus acute (momentary releases) exposure
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• Vapors versus particulates
The sampling pump that is selected must also be lightweight, portable, and not affected by motion or
position.
15.9.6.2 Description and Application
Personal sampling pumps come in various models. Several models offered by MSA include the
Monitaire Samplers; Models S and TD; Model C-210 Portable Pump; and the Fixt-Flo Pump, Model 1. All
these models consist of a compact pump that may be clipped to the worker's belt or carried in a shirt pock-
et so that continuous air sampling can be made. A sampling head containing the sorbent tube, filter, or
other collection medium is clipped to the lapel of the worker as close to the breathing zone as possible.
The contaminant(s) of interest will determine the type of collection medium used with the pump. Or-
ganic and inorganic vapors, as well as paniculate in the breathing zone of the worker, may be measured.
MSA Colorimetric Detector Tubes are available for measuring toxic concentrations of ammonia, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, mercury
vapor, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide.
Charcoal sampling tubes are also available to provide efficient collection of organic and mercury
vapors for subsequent analysis using laboratory instrumentation.
The organic vapor tube will collect compounds such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
dioxane, ethylene dichloride, trichloroethylene, and xylene. The mercury vapor sampling tube collects
both elemental and chemically bound mercury vapors, plus particulates containing mercury.
All the above-mentioned MSA sampling pumps are rechargeable battery-operated diaphragm pumps.
Flowrates may be adjusted on all models.
As general guidance, the following procedures should be followed when using personal sampling
pumps:
1. Fully charge the pump.
2. Calibrate the pump.
3. Make sure assembly does not leak by assembling the unit, covering the inlet to the sam-
pling device, and drawing a vacuum on the assembly.
4. If no leaks occur, the sampler is ready for use.
Manufacturer's instructions should be followed for more complete guidance on using a specific model.
Certain information should be recorded in a field notebook when a personal sampling pump is used.
This may include, but not be limited to the following:
• Date
« Name
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• Site
• Pump number
• Type of sample
• Time sampler started
• Time sampler turned off
• Flowrate
• Weather conditions
15.9.7 Region-Specific Variances
No region-specific variances have been identified; however, all future variances will be incorporated in
subsequent revisions to this compendium. Information on variances may become dated rapidly. Thus,
users should contact the regional EPA RPM for full details on current regional practices and requirements.
15.9.8 Information Sources
MSA Safety Equipment Catalog. 600 Penn Center Boulevard, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235.
Cralleyand Cralley. Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volume III. 1979.
U.S. Steel Corporation. Environmental Health Services. Environmental Health Monitoring Manual.
1973.
15.10 OTHER MONITORING DEVICES
15.10.1 Electrochemical Gas Detector
There are many manufacturers of gas detector monitors that use electrochemical cells for detection of
toxic inorganic gases. Many of these detectors are mixed oxide semiconductors (MOS) of a proprietary
design, although many are of a galvanic cell type, as previously described for the MSA oxygen indicator,
but specific to the analyt gas.
Typically, one manufacturer may provide a monitor with one or more replaceable cells. In certain in-
stances, MOS cells for different gases can be interchanged in the same monitor. Electrochemical gas
detectors are quite compact, are battery operated, have lower explosive detection (LED) readouts, and
have audio alarms for present concentrations.
The Monitor Compur 4100 is an example of the MOS-based electrochemical gas detection system.
The monitor offers MOS cells for hydrogen sulfide (HaS), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), nitrogen dioxide
and phosgene (COCIa).
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The monitor system is designed in particular to monitor and alert the user when threshold limit values
(TLV) are exceeded as follows:
- 10ppm
HCN - 10ppm
NO2 - 5 ppm
COCI2- - 0.1 ppm
Of greatest consequence many times to site investigations are phosgene and hydrogen cyanide.
Electrochemical gas detection such as the monitox system offers a real-time measure of phosgene and
hydrogen cyanide. Neither of these chemicals has warning properties (i.e., odor, taste) at TLV levels.
15.10.1.1 Limitations and Precautions
• Cross sensitivity to other gases can trigger false alarms.
• Chemical filter (activated charcoal) for the COCIa cell needs to change frequently if monitoring is in
the presence of HaS, HCI, and Cl_2.
• High concentration of analyt gas, typically 100 times the TLV, can irreparably change the sensor
cell.
• Sensor cells must be protected from excessive moisture and dust-laden air.
• Service life of sensor cells is typically 6 months during normal use.
15.10.2 Passive Dosimeters
The use of passive dosimeters or gas badges is a recent development in sampling. No energy or ac-
tion is required to take the sample. Currently badges are available to sample from 15 minutes to 8 hours.
These badges can be used for sampling organic vapors, formaldehyde, mercury vapor, ammonia, sulphur
dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.
Most passive dosimeters work on the principle of diffusion. Gases and vapors enter the monitor by dif-
fusion and are absorbed by a sorbent medium in the interior of the badge. The amount of gas or vapor ad-
sorbed is determined by expo sure time and concentration present in the monitored environment. A
measured volume of an eluent is added to the monitor to desorb and dissolve the contaminants. An ali-
quot of the eluent solution is then analyzed by analytical procedure specific to the contaminant. The
weight of the contaminant is used in conjunction with the diffusion constant, as determined by the badge
manufacturer, to calculate the time-weighted average worker exposure.
15.10.3 Miniram Monitor
The MINIRAM (Miniature Real-Time Aerosol Monitor) is a compact, personal size, airborne paniculate
monitor whose operating principle is based on the detection of scattered (nephelometric principle)
electromagnetic radiation in the near infrared. The radiation scattered by airborne particles passing freely
through the open sensing chamber of the monitor is sensed by a photovoltaic detector. An optical inter-
ference filter screens out light whose wavelength differs from the narrow-band pulsed source. Aerosol con-
15-57
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centration is displayed as milligrams per cubic meter every 10 seconds. The readings are stored and in-
tegrated to provide time-weighted averages.
Calibration of the monitor is performed by the factory against a filter gravimetric reference. The MINI-
RAM has application to measuring all forms of aerosols: dusts, fumes, smokes, fogs, etc. The MINIRAM is
unique in that it provides real-time semi-quantitative measurements of aerosol concentrations, unlike filtra-
tion-gravimetric methods, which require both time and laboratory facilities to complete.
The MINIRAM has particular application in monitoring ambient air for toxic aerosols or toxic elements
associated or transported by aerosols.
15-58
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SECTION 16
DATA REDUCTION, VALIDATION, REPORTING,
REVIEW, AND USE
16.0 GENERAL
This section discusses the data validation procedures that are specific to the Contract Laboratory
Program (CLP). A more detailed discussion is available in the User's Guide to the CLP. The section also
describes data validation procedures that the Site Manager uses in evaluating any laboratory data.
16.1 NATIONAL CONTRACT LABORATORY PROGRAM - LABORATORY DATA
16.1.1 Scope and Purpose
This subsection summarizes the validation procedures used to review laboratory analyses conducted
for the Contract Laboratory Program (CLP). The CLP offers routine analytical services (RAS) that deliver
analyses of the Target Compound List (TCL) organic compounds, Target Analyte List (TAL) inorganic
parameters, and dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). Special analytical services (SAS) also are available through the
CLP. These include customized or specialized analyses, quick turnaround analyses, verification analyses,
analyses requiring lower detection limits than RAS methods provide, identification and quantification of
nonpriority pollutant and non-TCL or non-TAL constituents, general waste characterizations, and analysis
of nonstandard matrices. The validation process compares a body of data against a set of performance
criteria to determine consistency and applicability to specific purposes.
16.1.2 Definitions and Abbreviations
Contract Laboratory Program (CLP)
The reader should see the User's Guide to the CLP.
Target Analyte List (TAL) Inorganics
23 metals and cyanide (See Section 7 of this compendium for a listing or consult the User's
Guide to the CLP.)
Target Compound List (TCL) Organics
127 organic compounds are included on the TCL (35 volatiles, 65 semivolatiles, and 27 pes-
ticides or PCBs) (See above.)
Routine Analytical Services (RAS)
(See the User's Guide to the CLP.)
Sample Management Office (SMO)
(See the User's Guide to the CLP.)
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. This person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Special Analytical Services (SAS)
16-1
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Special Analytical Services (SAS)
(See the User's Guide to the CLP.)
16.1.3 Applicability
The procedures in this section apply to analyses conducted by laboratories in EPA's Contract
Laboratory Program.
16.1.4 Responsibilities
Scheduling of analyses is the responsibility of the EPA Regional Sample Control Centers (RSCC). Con-
tract laboratories analyze samples from Superfund sites under the CLP and send the reports to the En-
vironmental Services Division (ESD). Assessment of the laboratory data package is authorized by the
RSCC, which approves release of the information to the SM. Before release for use, all CLP data are
reviewed and approved by the ESD of the specific EPA regional office or by its contractors to assess the
applicability of each data package to its intended use. Data validators will assess the laboratory product as
specified in the referenced protocols and region-specific protocols, and the validators will then make a
recommendation to the ESD's regional office. ESD provides technical oversight and assistance and makes
the final decision on qualifications of the laboratory data. No data are considered usable without notifying
the ESD of the validation.
16.1.5 Records
The CLP RAS protocols for analyzing TCL organics, TAL inorganics, and dioxin in Superfund samples
specify the report format. Examples of laboratory report forms and validation procedures for TCL organics,
TAL inorganics, and dioxin are given in Appendix B, "RAS Deliverables and Data Reporting Forms," of the
User's Guide to the CLP. Several other lengthy examples are available to the SM, such as EPA's analytical
statements of work (see information sources). Laboratory report forms for SAS analyses are specified in
the user-provided analytical protocol and associated quality control (QC) procedures for each SAS re-
quest.
16.1.6 Procedures
Detailed procedures for CLP data reduction, validation, and reporting are found in the User's Guide to
the CLP. Specific procedures for CLP validation of data are found in the standardized organic, inorganic,
and dioxin CLP analytical methods; each CLP user is provided with a sample data package that contains
documentation of a series of QC operations that permit an experienced chemist to determine the quality
and applicability of the data. Each EPA region and CLP laboratory has established additional QC and data
validation procedures.
16.2 DATA VALIDATION
16.2.1 Scope and Purpose
This section discusses both sources of data errors and approaches to reduce these errors.
16-2
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16.2.2 Definitions
The reader should see Subsection 6.1.2.
16.2.3 Applicability
The procedures discussed below can be used by the SM on any project, since measurements made
have inherent limitations that include the equipment and procedure used, the skill of the person performing
the analysis, and the conditions under which it is performed. Environmental measurements are often trace
analyses made at extremely low concentrations. These measurements are subject to chemical and physi-
cal interferences, instrument limitations, and uncertainties that affect the accuracy of the determination. It
is essential, therefore, to minimize these factors so that the measurements accurately reflect the character
of the sample collected. A systematic process to consider when measuring environmental contaminants is
recommended by the American Chemical Society in "Guidelines for Data Acquisition and Data Quality
Evaluation in Environmental Chemistry." This process considers the planning, measurement, calibration
standardization, quality assurance, statistical procedures, and documentation needed for high-quality
analytical chemical data.
16.2.4 Responsibilities
Site Managers are ultimately responsible for obtaining valid, usable data. They are assisted by project
personnel, corporate quality assurance / quality control (QA/QC) personnel, and the analyzing laboratories.
16.2.5 Records
Data validation records are included as part of the QA/QC package.
16.2.6 PROCEDURES
16.2.6.1 Exploratory (Qualitative) Investigations
Generally, analytical measurements are considered to follow a continuum of analyte concentration as
shown in Exhibit 16-1. At some finite concentration, the analyte is detected at an instrument response level
greater than the instrument background noise level or field blank value. Qualitative measurements depend
on both the analytical method used and the concentration of the analyte in the sample.
16.2.6.2 Quantitative (Remedial, Enforcement Site Dynamics) Investigations, Reduction, and
Validation
As shown in Exhibit 16-1, the numerical significance of the apparent analyte concentration increases as
the analyte signal increases above the LOD. The limit of quantitation (LOD) is determined by the expres-
sion
St-Sb > Ks
16-3
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where:
Xq = quantitation factor, which is usually equal to 10
LOQ = Sq
Sample analyte concentrations in the range of 3 to 10 s are highly variable and are more consistent at
values greater than 10 s. Every analytical system contains sources of inaccuracy and imprecision that are
demonstrated in the variability of replicate analyses. These inaccuracies include both systematic and ran-
dom errors. Random errors are the result of (a) inherent limitations of the equipment, (b) limitations of ob-
servations, and (c) lack of care in making measurements. Random errors can be above or below the
sample mean. Replicate analyses are recommended to minimize the effect of possible errors. Examples of
random errors include weighing uncertainties, aliquot variabilities, sample heterogeneity, and instrument
noise.
Systematic errors are consistent and bias the measurement in one direction (unless two or more sys-
tematic errors are present that affect the data in differing directions). Examples of such errors include in-
strument calibration error, uncompensated instrument drift, or operational errors.
These errors combine to produce measurement variability that is reflected by the indicators of
measurement quality, precision, and accuracy.
• Precision is the degree of agreement among individual measurements made under prescribed
conditions using a single test procedure.
• Accuracy is the difference between an average value and the true value, when the latter is known
or assumed.
Precise measurements reflect the proper use of good laboratory practices, proven methodology, and
low noise instrumentation. Accuracy is confirmed by using standard reference materials and participating
in interlaboratory comparison activities. Prepared standards and performance samples are available from
the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Food and Drug Ad-
ministration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and various commercial sources.
16.2.6.3 Data Review and Use
The SM will perform the following for data review:
• Review data summaries and reports for transcriptional and typographical errors.
• Review and determine if sampling protocols were appropriate.
• Review and compare the data against the field and trip blanks to detect contamination from sam-
pling (see Subsection 16.2.3).
• Review and compare field sampling replicates.
• Review laboratory QC including laboratory blanks, spike recovery, method standards, and dupli-
cates. Are the data usable from a QC perspective?
16-4
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Exhibit 16-1
CONTINUUM OF ANALYTE CONCENTRATION
where:
St
St
St-Sb >
gross signal
blank signal
response factor
standard deviation of measurement
This expression defines the limit of detection (LOD) where Ka is generally accepted as a value of 3.
Zero
Sd
Sq
Analyte
Not Detected
Region of
Detection
Region of
Quantitation
Sb
LOD
Analyte Concentrations
6 + lQs
LOQ
Chem., 1980, 52, 2242.
16-5
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Exhibit 16-2
THE CONTENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS IN SOILS
Element
Silver
Aluminum
Arsenic
Boron
Barium
Beryllium
Bromine
Carbon
Calcium
Cadmium
Chlorine
Cobalt
Chromium
Cesium
Copper
Fluorine
Iron
Gallium
Germanium
Mercury
Iodine
Potassium
Lanthanum
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Sodium
Nickel
Oxygen
Potassium
Lead
Rubidium
Sulfur
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Tin
Strontium
Common Range
for Soils
(pern)
0.01-3
10,000-300,000
1-50
2-100
100-3,000
0.1-40
1-10
7,000-500,000
0.01-0.70
20-900
1-40
1-1,000
0.3-25
2-100
10-4,000
7,000-550,000
5-70
1-50
0.01-0.3
0.1-40
400-30,000
1-5,000
5-200
600-6,000
20-3,000
0.2-5
200-4,000
750-7,500
5-500
200-5,000
2-200
50-500
30-10,000
5-50
0.1-2
230,000-350,000
2-200
50-1,000
Selected Average
for Soils
(pern)
0.05
71,000
5
10
430
6
5
20,000
13,700
0.06
100
8
100
6
30
200
38,000
14
1
0.03
5
8,300
30
20
5,000
600
2
1,400
6,300
40
490,000
600
10
10
700
7
0.3
320,000
10
200
16-6
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Exhibit 16-2
(continued)
Common Range Selected Average
for Soils -or Soils
Element (com)
Titanium 1,000-10,000 4,000
Vanadium 20-500 100
Yttrium 25-250 50
Zinc 10-300 50
Zirconium 60-2,000 300
Sourca: W. Lindsay. Chemical Squilibriua In Soils.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.1979.
16-7
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• Delete unusable data and attach appropriate qualifiers to usable data. Explain limitations of
qualified data.
• Review and summarize detection limits for nondetectable results.
• Review detection limits for positive but nonquantifiable data. Are appropriate qualifiers assigned?
• Review sampling design for dealing with media variability.
Background concentrations are important in the identification of site specific contamination. For each
medium or operable unit, the reader should consider the following:
• Are site-specific background samples available?
• Are the data of sufficient quality to estimate site-specific background concentrations?
• If background data are lacking, can local, regional, or national averages be found and used?
It is important to understand the "background" levels of chemicals in environmental media (air, surface
water, groundwater, and soil) so that remedial actions may distinguish between the elimination of all risks
and the reduction of risks to levels normally associated with the area.
"Background" is defined as the "normal ambient environmental concentration of a chemical." Back-
ground includes "natural" background and the contribution from anthropogenic (human-made) sources
other than the site. "Natural" background is the range of concentrations of chemicals (primarily inorganics)
naturally occurring in the environmental media. These concentrations may vary from aquifer to aquifer,
depth to depth within one creek, and soil type to soil type. Anthropogenic sources include auto exhaust
emissions, industrial discharges, and highway runoff.
Site-specific background samples should be taken for each environmental medium. These samples
should be representative of the media on the site and should be taken at a location that is not influenced by
the site. It is especially important in urban areas to take samples that can differentiate between site sour-
ces and other urban sources. When selecting the location and number of background samples, consider
the variability of the medium, the number required for statistical validity, and the size of the area being
defined. A minimum of three background samples should be taken in each identifiably different medium
(i.e., shallow aquifer versus deep aquifer). Background values can be presented as a range, a mean, or a
median; when appropriate, the confidence intervals around the mean. The appropriate measure depends
on the ultimate use of the information.
If site-specific background values are not available, the reader should consult the following categories
of information sources as a means of approximating background. The sources are presented in order of
preference as follows:
1. Other local values, including those from other background samples taken at nearby Super-
fund sites; local surveys by the soil conservation service, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS); local
universities; or other area-specific data sources, such as doctoral theses
2. Regional ranges and averages from USGS or other sources
3. Natural concentration ranges and averages in soil (see Exhibit 16-2)
16-8
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Professional judgment will have to be exercised in selecting background values and in deciding which
samples reflect site sources and which samples are consistent with background.
Once the range of background has been established, evaluation of remedial alternatives and estima-
tion of risk can proceed.
16.3 REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF DATA VALIDATION
Each EPA region has developed variations of the CLP validation protocols for organics, inorganics,
and dioxins." Because information on variances can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the
EPA RPM or the RSCC that is within the ESD to obtain specific information on exceptions to these
protocols. Future changes in variances will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this compendium.
16.4 INFORMATION SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Laboratory Data Validation, Functional Guidelines for Evaluating
Organics Analyses. Technical Directive Document No. HQ-8410-01. Hazardous Site Control Division. May
1985.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work, Dioxin Analysis, Soil/Sediment and Water
Matrices, Multi-Concentrations, Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM) GC/MS Analysis. IFB WA 86-K356. Sample
Management Office. September 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work, Organics Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Con-
centration. IFB WA-87J001, J002, J003. Sample Management Office. October 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Statement of Work, Inorganics Analysis, Multi-Media, Multi-Con-
centration. IFB WA-85J839. Sample Management Office. July 1985. (Note: Inorganic statement of work
will be updated with a new IFB to be issued in the summer of 1987.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide to the Contract Laboratory Program. Office of Emer-
gency and Remedial Response. December 1986.
16-9
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SECTION 17
DOCUMENT CONTROL
17.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
This section describes procedures for the identification and control of documents that may affect the
product quality for project activities. The procedures established should ensure that documents are
reviewed for adequacy, completeness, and correctness and for release by authorized personnel. Changes
to documents should be reviewed and approved by the authorized personnel that perform the original
review and approval process or by their designees. Provisions should include identification and distribu-
tion of controlled documents; identification of personnel, position, or organizations responsible for prepar-
ing, reviewing, approving and issuing documents; and establishment of a document filing, numbering, and
inventory system.
17.2 DEFINITIONS
Accountable Documents
Those documents where there is reasonable belief that they will be used as evidence during
litigation. In addition to controlled documents, these documents include logbooks, field data
records, sample tags / labels, chain-of-custody records, bench cards, photographs, and cor-
respondences that contain project data of evidentiary nature.
Controlled Documents
Those documents that describe activities affecting quality which will be used for evidentiary
purposes during litigation. These documents are released by authorized personnel and dis-
tributed for use by the individuals performing the activities.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
17.3 APPLICABILITY
This procedure is an applicable method to appropriately maintain the controlled and accountable
evidentiary documents.
17.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The originating organization will be responsible for identifying and maintaining the controlled docu-
ments in accordance with this or other quality-assurance-approved procedures.
17.5 RECORDS
Records provide the direct evidence and support for the necessary technical interpretations, judg-
ments, and discussions concerning project activities. These records, particularly those that are anticipated
17-1
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to be used as evidentiary data, must directly support current or ongoing technical studies and activities and
must provide the historical evidence needed for later reviews and analyses. The control of records is es-
sential in providing evidence of technical adequacy and quality for all project activities. Records that fur-
nish documentary evidence related to quality assurance activities will be specified, prepared and main-
tained. Other records to be generated during the project are specified in the work plan or task outline.
Records must be legible, identifiable, and retrievable and will be protected against damage, deterioration,
or loss. Requirements and responsibilities for record preparation, transmittal, distribution, retention, main-
tenance and disposition must be in accordance with quality-assurance-approved instructions such as
those identified in this procedure.
17.6 PROCEDURES
17.6,1 Project Files
Project files are established upon issuance of Technical Directive Documents (TDDs), Work Assign-
ments (WAs), or award of a contract. Each project file should be Identified according to site name and
TDD / WA / contract number or by other appropriate means that have been documented and approved by
the Site Manager (SM) or higher authority.
The SM is responsible for assuring the collection, assembly, and inventory of all documents related to
the project. The SM will designate a document custodian who will be responsible for record maintenance.
The document custodian is responsible for itemizing and, if the project size warrants, giving to the ac-
cumulated documents a unique sequential docket number. Each docket number should be logged in on a
file inventory form (Exhibit 17-1). Documents should be placed into segregated file folders according to the
controlled document project Individuals who remove documents from the project file should sign out the
document, give the date documents were removed, and enter the date that the documents were returned
to the project file.
Access to project files must be controlled to restrict nonproject personnel from having free and open
access. An authorized access list should be placed on the central filing room door or outside each in-
dividual filing cabinet and should name the personnel who have unrestricted access to the files. Personnel
not identified on the authorized access label must obtain project file access from the document custodian
or designee.
The document custodian or designee must assure that the central filing room and individual filing
cabinets are locked at the end of each day.
17.6.2 Document Identification and Numbering
Every controlled document should have a unique identifier (number).
Each work plan should be identified as to project and task number (TDD/WA number), revision level
number, and report status (draft / final).
Procedures and instructions must be identified and referenced as to their origination or preparer, the
approving organization or personnel, the effective date, and the revision level.
17-2
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Exhibit 17-1
FILE INVENTORY
Site Name
JOB No.
TDD NO.
Date
Docket Date of Title of
Number Entry Document
17-3
-------
Exhibit 17-2
CONTROLLED DOCUMENT PROJECT FILES PROCEDURES
Project Plans
Project Logbooks
Field Data Records
1. Equipment
Calibration
Chain-of-Custody
Records
Analytical
Laboratory Data
Document
Docket Log
Number
Enter Number
Under Project
Name
Check Off Master
Index Card
Project File
Correspondence
1. MTG
2. Telecons
3. Memo Internal
4. Memo EPA
References,
Literature
Litigation
Documents
Miscellaneous
1. Maps
2. Photos
3. Drawings
4. Notes
5. News Articles
Final Report
QA/QC
1. Quality Notices
17-4
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Each procurement document should have a sequential purchase order number or subcontract number
assigned to it.
Accountable documents used by employees must be uniquely identified by serialized number or by
other appropriate means. Each accountable document must be listed in a project's document inventory at
the completion of each task or assignment.
Black waterproof ink must be used to record all data on or in serialized accountable documents.
Documents related to field activities, such as sample'tags/ labels, chain-of-custody forms, and log-
books, will be numbered serially and their distribution will be controlled. This control is usually through the
EPA office issuing the documents. The reader should refer to Section 4 of this compendium.
17.6.3 Document Distribution
Controlled documents, such as manuals, procedures, instructions, and guidelines that are required for
use in performing project work, should be distributed on the basis of a written, approved distribution list
using a formal transmittal form, such as shown in Exhibit 17-3, with a return receipt required.
17.6.3.1 Document Distribution to Third Parties
All project documents generated by the Superfund contractors are the property of EPA. The distribu-
tion of such documents to state agencies, potential responsible parties, lawyers, other regulatory agencies,
or branches within the EPA must be in accordance with recommended regional EPA practices. Requests
for document distribution should be in the form of a TDD, WA, or memorandum from EPA.
Distribution of internal project documents, including but not limited to photographs, logbooks, work
plans, operating guidelines, sampling procedures, documentation protocols, and health and safety proce-
dures, should be inventoried onto a chain-of-custody form by recording the transfer of the requested docu-
ments. A document transmittal form should also accompany the requested information and must record
the receipt of said information as specified by the EPA. The originating request to transmit the information
must come from the EPA. Otherwise, all requests from outsiders must be referred to the EPA.
The return receipt must be documented on the controlled document transmittal log.
17.6.4 Revisions to Documentation
Major revisions to documents are subject to the same level of review and approval as the original
document. Distribution of revised documents should include all holders of the original document.
Minor changes to documents, such as inconsequential editorial corrections, do not require that the
revised documents receive the same review and approval as the original documents; however, they must
be reviewed and approved at the highest level previously involved in review.
17-5
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Exhibit 17-3
FORMAL TRANSMITTAL FORM
DOCUMENT TRANSMITTAL
TO
DATE
REFERENCE NUMBER
SENDER
THE FOLLOWING OOCUMENTlSI IS TRANSMITTED TO YOU FOR Q USE G RECORDS Q INFORMATION
TITLE/ 1 0 NO I^Q
NO OF
COPIES
CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED
NUMBERS NUMBERS
NOTE
G ABOVE OOCUMENTlSI IS TO BE USED FOR WORK PLAN
Q ABOVE DOCUMENTS! IS RESTRICTED TO USE ONLY FOR WORK PLAN
I] DESTROY PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI
H RETURN PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI TO SENDER
[j RETAIN PREVIOUS REVISION OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI FOR YOUR
RECORDS
H THIS DOCUMENT IS PROPRIETARY INFORMATION
0 THIS DOCUMENT IS CONFIDENTIAL.
O OTHER
PLEASE ACKNOWLEDGE RECEIPT OF THE ABOVE OOCUMENTISI BY SIGNING THIS TRANSMITTAL
FORM ANDPROMPTLYBETURNING IT TO THE ADDRESS NOTED BELOW IF PREVIOUS REVISION
OF THE OOCUMENTISI IS TO BE DESTROYED. THE FOLLOWING SIGNATURE ALSO CERTIFIES THE
DESTRUCTION OF THE OOCUMENTlSI
SIGNATURE
DATE.
SIGNED COPY OF THIS TRANSMITTAC SHOULD BE RETURNED TO
17-6
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17.6.5 Project Logbooks
Site Managers who are responsible for conducting field investigations must be issued serialized log-
books. The SM is responsible for recording all pertinent project information including, but not limited to,
field work documentation; field instrumentation readings; calculations; calibration records; work plan dis-
tributions; photograph references; sample tag/ label numbers; meeting information; and important times
and dates of telecons, correspondences, or deliverables.
Onsite measurements and field operations are recorded in the logbooks with pertinent information
necessary to explain and reconstruct sampling operations. Entries made in the log book must be dated
and signed by the individual who made the entry unless entry is by the individual to whom the logbook was
originally assigned. The SM or designee must sign the logbook at the close of each day; the SM may wish
to review and initial each page daily.
Project logbooks are the property of the regional office and are to be turned over to the project file
when a project assignment has been concluded.
As an alternative to recording detailed sampling information or instrument calibration in logbooks,
separate sampling record forms may be used. However, general site information must be recorded in the
logbook, and the use of such forms should be referenced in the logbook. The reader should refer also to
Section 4 of this compendium.
17.6.6 Computer Codes and Documentation
Computer codes used for analysis, modeling, or design applications should be baselined, controlled,
and documented. Documentation stored by computer system (e.g., chain-of-custody records and analysis
reports) must be adequately safeguarded.
17.6.6.1 Documentation, Verification and Retention of Software Programs
One person must be designated as responsible for ensuring that all computer programs, whether
developed internally or acquired from an outside source, are documented in sufficient detail so that each
can be understood and verified by an independent reviewer. The program documentation should contain
the following:
• Program Identification: Give the program name, descriptive title, and information necessary to
uniquely define the current version.
• Description of Problem or Function: Define the problem to be solved or function to be per-
formed by the program.
• Method of Solution: Summarize mathematical techniques, procedures, and numerical algo-
rithms employed for solution.
• Related Material: List any auxiliary programs or external data files required for implementation of
this program.
• Restrictions: Discuss limitations imposed by the mathematical model or computer facilities.
• Computer(s): Identify the computer(s) on which the program has been successfully executed.
17-7
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Programming Languages: Indicate the languages used and approximate function of each.
Operating Systems: Identify the software system and versions used.
Machine Requirements: List the computer hardware required for implementation of the
program.
Authors: Give the names and addresses of the author(s) and the individuals currently responsible
for the program.
References: List directly related publications and other reference materials.
User's Manual: Describe all input required for the program including input format. Include all in-
formation required for a successful computer run (e.g., special input techniques, handling of con-
secutive cases, default values of input parameters). Provide sample problems with control cards
and physical interpretations of input and output.
Source: List the source program as compiled or assembled.
17.6.6.2 Verification
Verification is the process of ensuring that the program performs correctly and is required for all com-
puter programs used for quality affecting work. The extent and degree of verification will depend on the
end use of the results of the analysis for which the program is employed. The extent of verification should
be documented on a formal record, such as shown in Exhibit 17-4, and retained.
For programs that are widely used and accepted, verification may be limited to running originator-sup-
plied sample problems. For other programs, verification should be accomplished by checking the mathe-
matical modeling, numerical analysis, and computer program logic, and then by doing either of the follow-
ing:
• Demonstrate that the computer program solutions to a series of test problems are in substantial
agreement with those obtained by a similar, independently written program in the public domain.
The program from the public domain should be a generally recognized program with sufficient his-
tory to justify its applicability and validity without further demonstration.
• Demonstrate that the program's solutions to a series of test problems are in substantial agreement
with those obtained by hand calculations or from accepted experimental or analytical results
published in the technical literature.
The test problems chosen for program verification should be demonstrated to be representative of the
range of applicability of the problems to be analyzed by the program.
The program verification should be fully documented including methods used, details of independent
calculations (manual or computer), results, and conclusions. This document must be attached to the
record of computer software verification.
17-8
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Exhibit 17-4
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICATION
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICA TION
DESCRIPTION Of VERIFICATION ACTIVITlf S AND FINDINGS (CONT'OI:
PAGE OF
VERIFIED BY-
DATE
ACCEPTED IV (REGIONAL/OFFICE MANAGER):
DATE.
REVIEWED BY QA:
DATE
17-9
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Exhibit 17-4
(continued)
RECORD OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE VERIFICATION
SOFTWARE PACKAGE NAME.
PAGE OF
DEVELOPER:
PROGRAMMER-
COMPUTER TYPE:
VERIFICATION SCOPE:
O SAMPLE PROBLEM FROM ORIGINATOR
O MATHEMATICAL MOOEUNQ
D COMPUTE O SPOT CHECK
O NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
D COMPUTI O SPOT CHECK
O DATA LIBRARIES USED
G COMPLETE 0 SPOT CHECK
O SENCHMARK AGAINST EXISTING PROGRAMS
O BENCHMARK AGAINST EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
O BENCHMARK AGAINST HAND CALCULATIONS)
O VERIFICATION TESTING PROGRAM
DESCRIPTION OF VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES AND FINDINGS.
PROGRAM USI.
O DESIGN
Q CALCULATIONS
Q MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
O ANALYSIS
D OTHEH
17-10
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17.6.6.3 Retention
The documentation generated for a software program should be labeled with sufficient information to
uniquely identify the version of the program to which it is applicable and should be retained in the files of
the project in accordance with the applicable sections of the document control procedure described
herein. A master copy of the production program disk must be maintained. No changes to this disk will be
made without the proper authorization. Such authorization may be granted only after the modifications
have complied with the provisions of the document control procedure.
17.6.7 Corrections to Documentation
As previously noted, the documentation in logbooks, sample tags/ labels, custody records, and other
data sheets must be filled out with black ink. None of the accountable serialized documents listed are to
be destroyed or thrown away, even if they are illegible or if they contain inaccuracies that require they be
replaced. The person will simply void the document, note such void in the appropriate sign-out log, and
maintain voided documents in a file.
If an error is made with an entry into the project logbook, a chain-of custody form, or sample tag/ label,
the individual in error will draw a single line through the error and initial the error along with the appropriate
date of change. The site sampler is responsible for completing necessary reports that detail sampling er-
rors or omissions. This procedure also applies to words or figures inserted or added to a previously
recorded statement.
If a sample tag/ label is lost in shipment, if a tag/ label was never prepared for a sample(s), or if a
properly tagged/ labeled sample was not transferred with a formal chain-of-custody record, a written state-
ment is prepared by the Site Manager detailing how the sample was collected. The statement should in-
clude all pertinent information, such as field logbook entries, regarding the sample and whether the sample
was in the sample collector's physical possession or in a locked compartment until hand-transferred to the
laboratory. Copies of the statement are distributed to the project files.
17.6.8 Confidential Information
Potentially responsible party site owners or their representatives may disclose information during inves-
tigative activities with a request for confidentiality, thus making such documents exempt for public access
under the Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. 9552. Only information that is specifically exempt from dis-
closure by other pollution control laws, (i.e., trade secret information, information compiled as investigatory
records for enforcement purposes, classified information related to national security, internal rules and
practices, inter-agency and intra-agency memorandums or letters, medical records and personal files,
reports and data prepared in the regulation of financial institutions, and geological and geophysical data for
oil and gas well owners and operators) must be handled as confidential in accordance with EPA's requests.
A separate, locked file must be maintained for the segregation and storage of all confidential and trade-
secret information. Upon receipt, this information is directed to and recorded in a confidential inventory by
the responsible individual. The information is then made available to authorized personnel, but only after it
has been logged out. The information must be returned to the locked file at the conclusion of each work-
ing day. Confidential information may not be reproduced except upon approval by, and under the super-
vision of, the responsible manager. Reproduction of confidential information should be kept to an absolute
minimum.
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17.6.9 Disposition of Project Documents
Upon termination of the project, the contents of the file are processed for storage as quality assurance
records.
The cognizant project manager and document custodian are responsible for disposition of all project
quality assurance records as prescribed in the work plan for that project and in the applicable procedures.
The quality assurance records retained must be dispositioned as required by the EPA. Current proce-
dures are that all Superfund contractors' files are microfiched for transmittal to the National Archives.
17.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
These procedures are applicable to activities carried out in all 10 EPA regions; however, slight varia-
tions in the application of these procedures may occur. EPA Region V has indicated the following varia-
tions. Regarding Section 17.6.1, Project Files, Region V does not use the authorized-access listing ap-
proach to limit access to files. All Region V personnel have access to files unless the files are identified as
confidential. Also, Region V does not use separate file folders to segregate information. Pertaining to Sec-
tion 17.6.2, Document Identification and Numbering, Region V handles field activity documents, such as
sample tags and traffic reports, through a system that is independent from office file document control sys-
tems.
For Section 17.6.6, Sample Identification Documents, all unused filed sampling documents in Region V
are kept by the person to whom they were assigned and maintained for future use. This information should
be recorded in the sampling logbook.
Exhibit 17-1, File Inventory, is the same as Region V's Document Control Log Sheet. Because varian-
ces can become dated rapidly, the user should contact the EPA RPM for current information. All further
regional variations will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this compendium.
17.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
Environmental Law Institute. Duties to Report or Disclose Information on the Environmental Aspects of
Business Activities. September 1984; revised September 1985.
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado. April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/ Con-
tractors. Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for Geologic Investigations. National Waste Ter-
minal Storage Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines and Specifications for Preparing Quality As-
surance Project Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance, Office of Research and
Development. Washington, D.C. 29 December 1980.
17-12
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SECTION 18
CORRECTIVE ACTION
18.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
The corrective action program covers the analysis of the cause(s) of any negative audit findings and
the corrective actions required. This program includes the investigation of the causes of significant or
repetitious unsatisfactory conditions relating to the quality of the materials, components, or services, or the
failure to implement or adhere to required quality assurance practices.
This procedure establishes the methoods for implementing and documenting corrective actions.
18.2 DEFINITIONS
Corrective Actions
Those actions taken in response to nonconformance reports, audit findings, or surveillance or
monitoring findings. Audit reports require some stated specific action; other reports may often
be implemented as well.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within a budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as Site Project Manager or the Project Manager,
and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
18.3 APPLICABILITY
The corrective action procedure is applicable to those activities that affect quality control carried out at
hazardouus waste site investigations and that require corrective actions.
18.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The quality assurance representative is responsible for reviewing audit reports and nonconformance
reports to determine the significant or repetitious conditions adverse to quality, or the failure to implement
or adhere to required quality assurance practices.
When such problems are identified, the responsible manager or the designee must investigate the
causes of the problems and is responsible for defining and implementing the necessary actions to correct
the problems. The responsible manager must identify the person or persons responsible for initiating the
actions for remedying any immediate effects of the problems.
18.5 RECORDS
Documentation that supports major corrective actions should be maintained in the project files and in
the quality assurance files using the techniques discussed in Section 17, Document Control, of this com-
pendium.
18-1
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18.6 PROCEDURES
18.6.1 Limits for Data Acceptability
The quality of data generated by sampling, monitoring, or analyzing, is defined in terms of the follow-
ing:
Accuracy: The degree of agreement of a measurement (or an average of measurements of the same
thing), X, with an accepted reference or true value, T, usually expressed as the difference between the two
values, X-T, or the differences as a percentage of the reference or true value, 100 (X-T}/T, and some-
times expressed as a ratio, X/T. Accuracy is a measure of the bias inherent in the system.
Precision: A measure of mutual agreement among individual measurements of the same property,
usually under prescribed similar conditions. Precision is best expressed in terms of the standard deviation.
Various measures of precision exist depending on the prescribed similar conditions.
Completeness: A measure of the amount of the valid data obtained from a measurement system,
compared with the amount that was expected to be obtained under correct normal conditions, and that
was needed to be obtained in meeting the project data quality objectives.
Representativeness: The degree to which data accurately and precisely represent a characteristic of
population, the parameter variations at a sampling point, a process condition, or an environmental condi-
tion. It also includes how well the sampling point represents the actual parameter variations that are under
study.
Comparability: The confidence with which one data set can be compared with another; a qualitative
characteristic that must be assured in terms of sampling, analysis, reporting, etc.
The exact values of these quality characteristics will vary depending on the analytical processes and
procedures involved. The processes and procedures used throughout the project are based on estab-
lished techniques and methods. In many cases, existing EPA standard operating procedures will be used.
Where these are not available or suitable, nationally recognized procedures, such as those established by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) will be employed.
Individual work plans will detail the recommended field activity and analytical methodology to establish
that these variables are adequate to support future decisions.
18.6.2 Control of Data Acceptability
Measures must be established and documented so that conditions adverse to quality, such as deficien-
ciies, deviations, nonconformances, defective material services and/or equipment, can be promptly iden-
tified and corrected.
The identification of conditions adverse to quality, the cause of the condition, and the corrective action
taken, must be documented and reported to appropriate levels of management.
The area of concern must be audited in a timely manner to establish that the corrective action has
been accomplished.
18-2
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18.6.3 Reviews
The results of audits must, within 30 days of receipt, be reviewed by the quality assurance repre-
sentative to determine the need for corrective action beyond the corrective action in the audit report. If this
audit review reveals that major or long-term corrective actions are needed, the responsible managers will
obtain from their staffs a commitment to define and implement the necessary actions to correct the
cause(s) of the problem, as well as to remedy any immediate effects of the problem. In addition, several
time critical field events are short-term activities that must recieve immediate corrective-action attention. In
other words, the deficiency must be effectively remediated well before completion of the event to ensure
data acceptability.
18.6.4 Nonconformance
If a deficiency that affects the quality, validity, or both, of a work product is discovered after final quality
verification, the project work and verification process should be reviewed for adequacy. Modifications to
project work will be initiated if necessary.
18.6.5 Corrective Action Approval
Proposed major corrective actions shall be approved by the responsible manager. The quality as-
surance representative must be consulted and must concur with proposed major corrective actions.
18.6.6 Corrective Action Review
The quality assurance representative must review the results of major corrective actions after im-
plementation to determine the effectiveness of the actions and report the results of this review to the
program manager.
18.6.7 Corrective Actions for Data Acceptability
Corrective action procedures for data acceptability have been determined by EPA accepted practices
and methods. Section 16, Data Reduction, Validation, and Reporting, of this compendium also contains in-
formation on corrective action procedures.
18.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
All region-specific variations to this section will be incorporated in Revision 01 of this document, be-
cause no variations were identified during the draft review. Users information on variations.
18.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado. April 1980.
18-3
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Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Con-
tractors. Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for Geologic Investigations. National Waste Ter-
minal Storage Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines and Specifications for Preparing Quality As-
surance Project Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance, Office of Research and
Development. Washington, D.C.
18-4
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SECTION 19
QUALITY ASSURANCE AUDIT PROCEDURES
19.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Each project plan must describe the internal and external performance and systems audits that will be
required to monitor the capability and performance of the total measurement system(s).
Section 19 describes the activities usually accomplished in the performance of audits. The preaudit
meeting, audit performance, evaluation of audit findings, postaudit meeting and audit reporting are ad-
dressed.
19.2 DEFINITIONS
Audit (Office, Field, Laboratory)
A documented activity performed in accordance with written procedures or check lists to
verify, by examination and evaluation of objective evidence, that applicable elements of the
quality assurance program have been developed, documented and effectively implemented in
accordance with specific requirements.
Auditor
A staff member who can perform audit activities under the directions of a lead auditor. Per-
sons classified as auditors shall not serve as audit team leaders nor perform audits inde-
pendently.
External Audit
An external audit is performed by an auditor(s) not employed by the company or organization
being audited. External audits are performed to verify that a subordinate participant in a
project is exercising effective controls over its responsibilities for the implementation of the
overall quality assurance program.
Internl Audit
An internal audit is performed by an auditor(s) employed by the company or agency to which
the audit activity belongs. Internal audits are performed to verify that the developments or or-
ganizations within the company are conforming with the quality assurance program.
Lead Auditor(Audit Team Leader)
A staff member who, by virtue of education, training and experience, can organize and direct
audits, can report audit findings, and can evaluate corrective actions.
Performance Audits
Performance audits are normally conducted after the data production systems are operational
and are generating data. Such audits independently collect measurement data by using per-
formance evaluation samples to determine the accuracy of the total measurement system or
portions thereof.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
Systems Audits
19-1
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Systems audits are regularly performed and encompass all aspects of the program. For pur-
poses of this procedure, systems audits will consist of evaluations of all components of the ap-
plicable measurement systems to determine their proper selection and use. The total data
production process, which includes onsrte reviews of both field and laboratory systems and
facilities for sampling, calibration, and measurement protocols, is normally covered by systems
audits.
Technical Expert
A staff member who is knowledgeable in the technical discipline being audited but is not
qualified as an auditor.
19.3 APPLICABILITY
The audit procedure is applicable to the quality assurance audits conducted on projects dealing with
Superfund hazardous waste site investigations.
19.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The quality assurance representative is responsible for preparing and maintaining a schedule of audits
as described in this procedure.
Qualifications and certification of the audit personnel should be reviewed and documented by the
quality assurance representative.
The audit team leader is responsible for preparing an audit. These responsibilities include the selection
of an audit team, preparation of an audit plan and audit checklist, special training and orientation of the
audit team, and notification of the organization being audited.
The audit team leader and, where applicable, the other members of the audit team are also responsible
for complying with the instructions identified in this procedure for conducting audits.
Audit follow-ups should be conducted by the audit team leader to verify that corrective action on audit
findings is adequate and complete.
Documented findings identified during audits are to be completed on the quality notice form (Exhibit
19-1). The quality notice form should be completed in accordance with the procedures outlined in Exhibit
19-2 (instructions) and is the responsibility of the audit team members.
19.5 RECORDS
The following records are generated in support and completion of the quality assurance audits for Su-
perfund projects:
• Audit schedules and revisions thereto
• Audit qualification records
• Certification records (current and historical)
19-2
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• Audit checklists and audit guides
• Audit plan
• Audit reports
• Written response to audit reports
• Response evaluations
• Records of audit closure
19.6 PROCEDURES
The following procedure describes the methods used in establishing and conducting an audit. Office,
field, and laboratory audits may vary in context but follow the generic guidelines of this procedure.
19.6.1 Audit Schedules
An audit schedule should be established for each year of the project. The schedule will include both
internal and external audits, providing external audits are required.
The schedule is reviewed periodically and revised as necessary to reflect current scheduling of ac-
tivities that affect quality and to provide adequate coverage of the implementation of the quality assurance
program.
The frequency of audits is based on the level of participation of the audited organization in activities
that affect quality.
The published schedule contains the following information:
• Name and project organization (or subcontractor or consultant) to be audited
• Subject of the audit
• Scheduled date of the audit
• Audit team leader
Audits are scheduled so that the quality assurance programs covering the activities are effective during
all phases of the program.
The audit schedule is distributed to all appropriate management personnel of the offices being audited.
Audit schedules prepared by the quality assurance representative for specific office activities (e.g., field
audits, laboratory audits, and/or office audits) are distributed to the cognizant manager.
19-3
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Quality assurance personnel may conduct unscheduled audits when one or more of the following con-
ditions exist:
• When it is necessary to determine the capability of a supplier's quality assurance program prior to
award of a subcontract
• When, after the award of a contract, sufficient time has elapsed for implementation of the quality
assurance program, and when it is necessary to determine that the organization is performing in
accordance with the program
• When significant changes are made to activities affecting quality, such as reorganization or major
revision of quality assurance manuals, procedures, or other controlling documents
• When it is suspected that the quality of the services provided is in jeopardy because of non confor-
mance with the quality assurance program
• When a systematic, independent assessment of the program's effectiveness is considered neces-
sary
• When it is necessary to verify that required corrective actions have been implemented
19.6.2 Qualification and Certification of Quality Assurance Personnel
19.6.2.1 Auditor Qualification
Three categories of personnel perform audits: auditor, lead auditor and technical expert. The
qualifications for these three categories are as follows:
Auditor: To be classified as an auditor, an individual must, as a minimum, be given specific training in
the content and objectives of the quality assurance program and in audit procedures and be evaluated on
knowledge of these documents.
Lead Auditor: To be classified as lead auditor, the individual must meet the requirements for auditors.
In addition, the individual should have served as a team member in the conduct of at least two audits led by
a lead auditor.
Technical Expert: The technical experts are not required to be qualified as auditors. They are
selected on the basis of technical expertise in the area being audited and are part of an audit team led by
an auditor. They are given specific training in the preparation and use of checklists and in the conduct of
an audit.
19.6.2.2 Certification
The quality assurance representative documents the basis for auditor certification and provides written
certification. The program office manager certifies the quality assurance representative. The certification
must state the classification of the individual and the expiration date of the certification.
19-4
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19.6.3 Preparation for Audits
19.6.3.1 Audit Team Selection
The audit team leader for internal audits is selected by the quality assurance representative. Audit
team members are also selected by the quality assurance representative.
Individuals are selected for quality assurance audit team assignments on the basis of experience or
training commensurate with the complexity or special nature of the activities to be audited. Any special
abilities, specialized technical training, previous experience, personal characteristics, education, or physi-
cal capability that is applicable to the assignment are to be considered during selection.
19.6.3.2 Written Audit Plan
The audit team leader is responsible for the preparation of a written audit plan, when specifically re-
quested by the quality assurance representative.
The audit plan includes the following information:
• Audit number
• Audited organization
• Subject of the audit
• Scope of the audit
• Projects or activities to be audited
• Names of the audit team members
• Schedule
• Applicable documents
19.6.3.3 Audit Checklists
The audit team leader is responsible for directing the preparation of audit checklists or an audit guide.
The following guidelines are used in preparing checklists:
Initial Baseline Audits: Checklists are based on quality assurance program documents (e.g., quality
assurance manuals, plans, procedures, applicable standards).
Follow-up Audits: Checklists are based on a review and evaluation of findings from previous audits,
responses to these findings, and available objective evidence of implementation of corrective action.
Periodic Audits: Checklists emphasize areas considered critical to the program at the time of the
audit or found weak but not reported as a finding during a previous audit.
19-5
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Exhibit 19-1
QUALITY NOTICES
QUALITY NOTICE
[11 QN NO (2) CODE
(3) CATEGORY
O OFFICE D SOO/TDD/WA
D PROGRAM
(4) SOURCE
Q QA INTERNAL AUDIT Q QA EXTERNAL AUDIT Q OTHER
IS) PROJECT
|7) AUDITED ORGANIZATION
[81 ORGANIZATIONAL UNIT
110) RESPONSE ASSIGNED TO
I13I
Q OBSERVATION
16) AUDIT GUIDE REFERENCE
[9| ACTIVITY
[1 1) REPORTED BY
112) DATE
(1*)
D DEFICIENCY
(151 REFERENCE DOCUMENT
[16) REQUIREMENT (CITE)
(17) DESCRIPTION
[181 RESPONSE DUE DATE 1
19) SCHEDULED RE AUDIT DATE
1201 APPROVED BY
121) DATE
[221 RESPONSE [TO BE COMPLETED BY AUDITED ORGANIZATION)
TO SUBSTANTIATE COMPLETION OF CORRECTIVE ACTION.
ATTACH DOCUMENTATION AS APPROPRIATE
(231 SUBMITTED BY
[24) DATE
TO BE COMPLETED BY AUDITING ORGANIZATION
125)
O SATISFACTORY
(291
[] SATISFACTORY
1261
D UNSATISFACTORY
130)
O UNSATISFACTORY
133) REMARKS
127) REVIEWED BY
[3D REAUDITDATE
(34)
D QUALITY NOTICE
CLOSED
(351 APPROVED BY
(28) DATE
[321 REFERENCE QN NOdl
(FOR UNSATISFACTORY
REAUOIT)
(36) DATE
19-6
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Exhibit 19-2
QUALITY NOTICE INSTRUCTIONS
Tha Quality Notio* Form shall b* uiad by persons performing Qualtty Assurance (QA) Audit or Surveillance of activitiat affecting tha timely and
effective formulation or implement a tton of a defined QA program. Tha form if applicable to all type* of goods and service* (hardware end soft-
ware) provided
-------
19.6.3.4 Audit Team Orientation
The team leader prepares the team prior to initiation of the audit and assigns specific areas for each
member to audit in accordance with checklists the team has prepared. Pertinent policies, procedures,
standards, instructions, manuals plans, codes, regulatory requirements, prior audit reports, and responses
should be made available to the team for information and review. Also, each auditor is provided with
copies of the audit plan, procedures, and checklists necessary to ensure an orderly audit. The team leader
established that the auditors understand the internal and external organization and contractual interfaces
and responsibilities of the organization to be audited.
19.6.4 Conduct of Audits
19.6.4.1 Audit Meeting
Upon arrival at the audit site, the audit team leader conducts a meeting with the audit team members
and cognizant management of the organization to be audited.
The following are purposes of the preaudit meeting:
• Introduce auditors
• Meet counterparts
• Confirm the scope of the audit
* Present the audit plan
• Discuss the audit sequence
• Establish channels of communication
• Schedule a postaudit meeting
19.6.4.2 Audit Performance
The audit team leader prepares audit checklists or audit guides. The depth and scope of the audit are
determined and incorporated into the checklists or guides. The audit team leader establishes the ground
rules for the audit and assigns to the various team members the specific areas each is to cover in the audit.
The audit checklists and guides are used to guide the audit and to provide adequate depth, scope, and
continuity. However, the audit is not restricted to the checklists when evidence raises questions not
specifically addressed in the checklists. The audit activity includes the review of objective evidence to
verify adequate implementation of the quality assurance program.
Audit team members record each finding (observation or deficiency) on a formal record such as a
quality notice form (Exhibit 19-1). This form is prepared in accordance with the information contained in
this section. When a finding is identified, sufficient investigations should be conducted to determine the
basic cause of the finding.
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The quality notice form is used to document the findings of internal audit activities and the resolution of
the findings. Findings can be categorized as follows:
• Category A (Deficiency): Recognition of a specific requirement (e.g., program, procedure,
process) that has been violated.
• Category B (Observation): Recognition of an activity or action that might be improved but is not
in violation of a specific requirement. Left alone, the activity or action may develop into a deficien-
cy (Category A).
The processing of the quality notice form is outlined in Subsection 19.6.5, Audit Follow-Up.
Deficiencies are written only when there is a clear violation of a specific quality assurance requirement.
Any identified findings that require immediate corrective action are reported immediately to the
management of the audited organization and recorded on a quality notice form. For internal audits, the
quality assurance representative is notified immediately.
19.6.4.3 Evaluation of Audit Findings
Members of the audit team draft their own findings on quality notice forms. These drafts are reviewed
by the audit team leader. Findings are stated in clear, concise statements of facts that identify the problem.
19.6.4.4 Postaudit Meeting
At the conclusion of the audit, a postaudit meeting is conducted. The meeting is chaired by the audit
team leader. Those in attendance should include members of the audited organization who can verify the
validity of the findings and members of management who can correct the problems identified by the audit.
The objectives of the postaudit meeting are to:
• Discuss the audit findings
• Determine and resolve any errors or misunderstandings regarding the findings
• Achieve agreement of the validity of the findings and on those findings that constitute noncom-
pliance.
• Recommend improvements or corrective actions to the audited organization
• Establish a tentative plan and schedule for the development and implementation of the corrective
actions
• Schedule a follow-up audit, if appropriate
19-9
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19.6.4.5 Audit Reporting
The audit team leader is responsible for preparation of the audit report, which provides the following:
• Description of the audit scope
• Identification of the audit team
• Identification of persons contacted
• A summary of the audit findings
• Any agreements and/or recommendations for correcting deficiencies or for improving the quality
assurance program, as appropriate
The report or transmittal letter must require response by the audited organization. The distribution of
audit reports for internal audits includes the cognizant project managers, the quality assurance repre-
sentative, and the management of the audited organization. The report is usually issued within 30 days
after the audit is completed.
19.6.4.6 Audit Response
The manager of the audited organization is requested to respond to the audit report within 30 days of
receipt. The response relates the corrective action taken or outlines the plan and schedule for corrective
action. In the case of long-term corrective action, periodic progress reports are submitted by the manager
of the audited organization to the lead auditor, the quality assurance representative and the appropriate
manager.
19.6.5 Audit Follow-Up
19.6.5.1 Audit Response
The program office manager takes, in a timely manner, those actions necessary to correct the deficien-
cies identified during the audit.
19.6.5.2 Audit Follow-Up
The audit team leader follows up all open findings in audit reports, receives audit report responses, and
evaluates the responses to determine that the corrective action for each finding has been adequately com-
pleted or scheduled.
The audit team leader may accomplish follow-up as required through written communication, reaudit,
or other appropriate means.
The audit team leader informs the audited organization in writing of any unsatisfactory response, indi-
cates why the response is considered unsatisfactory, and specifies a reply due date. The quality assurance
representative is informed of unsatisfactory responses by copy of the written notification.
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19.6.5.3 Audit Finding Closure
Each audit finding is considered open until a satisfactory written reply (e.g., report follow-up response)
has been received from the audited organization documenting that corrective action has been completed.
Only the audit team leader or, in the case of unavailability, the designee can close an audit finding.
This individual indicates the closure by signing and dating the quality notice form.
All closed quality notice forms are retained as quality assurance records.
19.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
This procedure is applicable to all contractor, regional EPA, and state personnel who conduct hazard-
ous waste investigations. Slight variations in the application of the project file numbers, control methods of
accountable documents, or use of a transmittal letter rather than a document transmittal form may occur.
However, these variations can occur only after a suitable alternative method for these control mechanisms
has been reviewed, approved, and documented by the responsible RPM. The user should contact the EPA
RPM for up-to-date information on variances. Future variances will be included in Revision 01 of this com-
pendium.
19.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado. April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Con-
tractors. Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for Geologic Investigations. National Waste Ter-
minal Storage Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines and Specifications for Preparing Quality As-
surance Project Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance, Office of Research and
Development. Washington, D.C. 29 December 1980.
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SECTION 20
QUALITY ASSURANCE REPORTING
20.1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE
On a periodic basis, usually monthly, quality assurance (QA) reports should be issued to the ap-
propriate Project Manager and, as appropriate, to the responsible higher management. These reports
summarize the quality assurance and quality control status of the project and any conditions adverse to
quality. The QA reports address the assessment of measurement data accuracy, precision and complete-
ness, results of any performance audits, results of system audits, any reported nonconformances, and any
significant quality assurance problems, together with recommended solutions, and any new quality as-
surance and quality control processes as dictated by the client.
20.2 DEFINITIONS
Report
A document that gives information for record purposes.
Site Manager (SM)
The individual responsible for the successful completion of a work assignment within budget
and schedule. The person is also referred to as the Site Project Manager or the Project
Manager and is typically a contractor's employee (see Subsection 1.1).
20.3 APPLICABILITY
This reporting procedure is applicable to the QA tasks associated with Superfund remedial response
activities.
20.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
The QA representative is responsible for providing to management the periodic reports on perfor-
mance of measurement systems and data quality for the respective projects.
20.5 RECORDS
The records to be generated in compliance with this procedure are the monthly QA reports.
20.6 PROCEDURES
The following subsection describes the parameters used in assessing the quality assurance and quality
control (QA/QC) status of project activities and the means of reporting such assessments.
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20.6.1 Assessment of Measurement Data Accuracy
The routine procedures used for assessing the precision, accuracy, and completeness of measure-
ment and monitoring data should be evaluated and reviewed for compliance with nationally recognized
practices and with regionally approved and documented procedures. This review should include, but not
be limited to, assessment of the completeness of work plans and their reference documentation of field
data collection and analytical guidelines, calibration and standardization procedures, measurement and
monitoring equipment maintenance and repair records, and personnel qualification records, as well as as-
sessment of documentation provided by field and laboratory logbooks and data sheets. Such assess
ments, favorable or unfavorable, should be identified in the QA report.
20.6.2 Assessment of Performance and Systems Audits
Quality assurance performance and system audits are routinely conducted, in accordance with Section
19, Quality Assurance Audit Procedures, to determine the effectiveness of the quality assurance program
and implementation. A summary of findings or observations resulting from the audits is assessed and
reported to the responsible manager. The summary includes a brief description of the organization or sec-
tion^) being audited, responsible personnel, dates of audit activities, and particular type of audit (internal
or external), as well as, a concise description of particular activity findings and recommended actions to be
taken to clear up such findings.
20.6.3 Nonconformances
The QA representative reports any nonconformances that may have occurred during the course of
project activities. Nonconformances may occur as a result of an identified or suspected deficiency in an
approved document (e.g., technical report, analysis, calculations, or computer program) or an activity that
is not conducted in accordance with the established plans or procedures. The reported nonconformances
are also accompanied by a brief description of the activity or activities to be performed to clear up the non-
conformances.
20.6.4 Assessment of Quality Assurance Problems and Solutions
A section of the QA report is devoted to identifying any problems, solutions, or accomplishments of the
overall quality assurance program. This section analyzes the general QA/QC status of the program and
identifies any satisfactory or unsatisfactory trends in the implementation of the program.
Any problems in the program or problems in the implementation of the program must be detailed clear-
ly and documented along with the appropriate and complete actions needed to solve the problem.
Any new QA program development or any unusual QA project activities should also be documented in
this section.
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20.7 REGION-SPECIFIC VARIANCES
EPA Region VI requires the submittal of a final QA report for each project. The final report must be
complete enough to evaluate the objectives for data quality, the audits, the laboratory data, and so on. It
should include method validation and sampling designs. The user should contact the EPA RPM for up-to-
date information on variances. Future regional variations will be identified and incorporated in Revision 01
of this compendium.
20.8 INFORMATION SOURCES
National Enforcement Investigations Center. Enforcement Considerations for Evaluations of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites by Contractors. Denver, Colorado. April 1980.
Toledo Edison Company. Quality Assurance Program Specifications for Operations Phase Suppliers/Con-
tractors. Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. (No date of publication.)
U.S. Department of Energy. Quality Assurance Handbook for Geologic Investigations. National Waste
Terminal Storage Program. October 1982.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interim Guidelines and Specifications for Preparing Quality As-
surance Project Plans. Office of Monitoring Systems and Quality Assurance, Office of Research and Develop-
ment. Washington, D.C. 29 December 1980.
i8-15ar67077
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