vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office Of
The Administrator
(A-101F6)
EPA 101/F-90/040
October 1990
A Report On
Land-Based Sources Of
Marine Pollution
In The Carribbean
#89-6602
77 VJcsc .
Chicago, it.
Printed on Recycled Papei
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Disclaimer
This, report was furnished to the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency by the graduate student identified on the cover page, under
a National Network of Environmental Policy Studies fellowship.
The contents are essentially as received from the author. The
opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Mention, if any, of company, process, or product names is not to be
considered as an endorsement by the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
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A REPORT ON
LAND-BASED SOURCES
OF
MARINE POLLUTION
IN THE
CARIBBEAN
K«r»n E. Betz
Univ. of Michigan
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
Region 5, Library r1-1 "ii
77 West Jackscn B^^-ru, 12th fiOOI
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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ABSTRACT
This document presents information gathered during a series of
interviews with professionals from governmental agencies in each
of the Caribbean nations, with the exception of the U.S.
possessions. Interview questions centered on the roles of
various agencies in each nation with respect to the presence and
control of land based sources of marine pollution. In some cases,
individuals within particular countries were unavailable for
interview, or unable to provide the information needed. In those
cases, relevant information had to be gathered through published
sources.
The report provides, on a nation—by—nation basis, background
information regarding the sources of pollution and the agencies
within each nation which retain some authority to remedy or
otherwise manage these problems. Names of contact persons
within these agencies,their phone numbers and addresses are also
provided.
The audience for this report is persons within various
governmental and non-governmental organizations in the Caribbean
Basin nations working to coordinate activities aimed at
identifying and reducing land based sources of marine pollution.
The report is a resource for achieving unified environmental
efforts in the region. A brief introduction to the document
includes a description of what is meant by land based sources of
marine pollution, and which natural, human and economic resources
in the Caribbean are impacted by these pollution sources. The
final section briefly notes factors which may work in favor of
regional solutions and those that may not. Some methods of
approach to the problem of land based sources of marine pollution
are discussed.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express sincere appreciation to the numeroui
professionals in the region who were contacted and took tine to
speak with me and send information. Special thanks are due to
Marilyn Varela at the US Environmental Protection Agency and to
Edward Towle and Bruce Potter of Island Resources Foundation for
assistance in helping me to formulate my project and find
relevant information sources. Special thanks also go to Michael
Aliber at the University of Michigan for editorial assistance,
translation of documents and research for the French speaking
countries and, to Elena Delbanco at the University of Michigan
for additional editorial assistance.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. ANGUILLA a
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA 13
ARUBA 16
BAHAMAS S3
BARBADOS £8
BELIZE 33
BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS 37
CAYMAN ISLANDS 41
COLUMBIA 46
COSTA RICA 50
CUBA 55
DOMINICA 61
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC . 65
FRENCH GUIANA 70
GRENADA 73
GUADELOUPE 78
GUATEMALA 82
GUYANA 86
HAITI 90
HONDURAS 95
JAMAICA 99
MARTINIQUE 103
MEXICO 107
MONTSERRAT Ill
THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES 115
NICARAGUA 118
PANAMA 122
ST. KITTS AND NEVIS 126
ST. LUCIA 130
ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES 135
SURINAME 140
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 146
TURKS AND CAICOS 150
VENEZUELA 154
III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 159
BIBLIOGRAPHY 162
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CHAPTER I
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INTRODUCTION
Regional Coordination Efforts to Date that Addi
the Problem of Pollution of the Marin* Environment
In the early 1980s, the nations of the Wider Caribbean region
net to adopt the Caribbean Action Plan and develop its legal
counterparts to deal with growing concern about pollution of the
marine environment. The Wider Caribbean Region* as defined in
"Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme! A Framework
for Sustainable Development", published by the United Nations
Environment Programme's Caribbean Regional Coordinating Unit,
encompasses thirty-three nations and territories including the
islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles and the Bahamian
Chain, the US Gulf Coast states, Mexico, Central America and the
northern states of South America, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean Sea.
The Caribbean Action Plan, a plan for control and mitigation of
pollution in the region, was developed within the Regional Seas
Programme of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and
is being implemented via the efforts of UNEP's Caribbean Regional
Co-ordinating Unit (RCU) in Kingston, Jamaica. Throughout the
world, similar Action Plans have been developed under the
Regional Seas Programme| they include the East Asian Seas Action
Plan, the Eastern African Action Plan, the Kuwait Action Plan,
the Mediterranean Action Plan, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Action Plan, the South Asian Seas Action Plan, the South East
Pacific Action Plan, the South Pacific Action Plan, and the West
and Central African Action Plan. Activities of the various
Action Plans are organized through Regional Co-ordinating Units.
There are currently two legal instruments associated with the
Caribbean Action Plan; The Convention for the Protection and
Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean
Region and A Protocol Concerning Co—Operation in Combating Oil
Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region. Under the first, the
contracting nations to the Convention agree to take individual or
joint actions to control pollution in the region. Articles to
the Convention specify action be taken on the followingi
pollution from ships, pollution caused by dumping, pollution from
land-based sources, pollution from sea—bed activities, airborne
pollution, specially protected areas, co-operation in case of
emergency, environmental impact assessment, scientific and
technical co-operation, and liability and compensation.
Currently, protocols are being developed to address specially
protected areas and pollution from land-based sources. It is
with the eventual implementation of the second that this report
is particularly concerned, but information contained in the
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report may be useful in coordinating efforts on any or all of
the above.
Numerous activities are underway to implement the Caribbean
Action Plan, and inquiries with regard to the specifics of thi
activities and the particular organizations involved in carrying
these out may best be directed to the Caribbean Regional Co-
ordinating Unit in Jamaica. National, regional and international
organizations which have been involved in the effort to control
and manage various aspects of pollution control for the region
include, but most certainly are not limited toi the Inter-
American Development Bank (BID), the Organization of American
States (OAS), the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute
(CEHI), the Caribbean Community Secretariat (CARICOM), the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International
Oceanographic Commission (IOC), the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), the Island Resources Foundation (IRF), the
Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), the Pan American Health
Organization (PAHO), the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA), the US Agency for International Development
(USAID), the US Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB), the US
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the US
National Parks Service, the US Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Greenpeace, the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States—Natural Resources
Management Program (OECS—NRMP) and the Eastern Caribbean Natural
Area Management Program (ECNAMP).
For a more complete picture of organizations devoted to
protection of the environment in the Wider Caribbean Region, one
should refer to "A Directory of Natural Resource Management
Organizations in Latin America and the Caribbean" by Julie
Buckley-Ess/Partners of the Americas, "Organizational Profiles of
Who is Doing What in Support of Programs for Sustainable Resource
Development and Environmental Management in the Eastern
Caribbean" by Judith Towle and Bruce Potter of Island Resources
Foundation, "Directory of Marine Environmental Centers in the
Caribbean" by UNEP/FAO,and Directory of Environmental Education
Institution, Programmes and Resource People in the Caribbean
Region" by UNEP/FAO. These organizations can be contacted
directly.
What are Land—Based Sources of Marine Pollution?
In the "Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region* pollutipn from
land based sources (LBS) is defined as "pollution ... caused by
coastal disposal or by discharges emanating from rivers,
estuaries, coastal establishments, outfall structures, or any
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other source on ... territories. " The major sources of land-
based pollution are readily divisible into four categoriesi
agricultural, industrial, sewage, and solid waste. Agricultural
sources are fertilizers and pesticides applied to crops which
enter the marine environment through runoff processes. Soils
eroded by improper farming practices which wash into streams,
estuaries, or to the sea directly, are also agricultural sources
of LBS. Industrial sources are primarily organic or inorganic
pollutants released in conjunction with a production or mining
process. They may be disposed of directly into water, washed by
erosion into water, or leached out from burial sites into water
tables. Some of these sources may be pre—treated before release
or disposal and others not. Sewage waste sources are comprised
primarily of fecal wastes, which are disposed of via privy pit,
septic tank, packaged treatment plants, sewage system outfalls,
or disposal ponds. They may reach the Marine environment through
direct marine outfall pipes or indirectly via leaching into
aquifers.
Arthur Archer's "Report on Sewage Disposal Problems in the
Eastern Caribbean" details sewage pollution effects on the marine
environment. Archer's "Report on Land—Based Sources of Pollution
in Coastal, Marine and Land Areas of CARICOM States" covers
extensively the land—based sources of pollution problems for part
of the Caribbean region. Both of these works are cited on
numerous occasions throughout this document and should be
referred to directly for detailed information. Studies currently
underway by Naresh Singh of the Caribbean Environmental Health
Institute in Castries, St. Lucia and Ray Cote of Dalhousie
University in Halifax, Nova Scotia seek to address toxic
chemicals of concern in the region. A document which raises a
number of problems and solutions for solid waste management in
the region is Edward Towle's, "Solid Waste Management in the
Lesser Antilles: A Status Report and Planning Study for a Solid
Waste Management Workshop".
Unconstrained or improperly implemented development in sensitive
areas can also be a source of land—based marine pollution,
causing erosion and siltation in the marine environment. In the
Caribbean, this often includes development associated with the
tourism industry. For discussions on coastal erosion one might
refer to the work by Gillian Cambers, "Regional Survey of Coastal
Conservation". For discussions on how tourism development
affects the marine environment, one might wish to see "Tourism
and Environment in Caribbean Developmentt An Overview of the
Eastern Caribbean" by Eric Blommestein for ECLAC, and "Tourism
Styles and Management Strategies in Small Caribbean Islands" by
Klaus de Albuquerque and Jerome McElroy. This latter study also
has a particularly good bibliography on these topics. Case
studies concerning pollution of the marine environment and use of
environmental impact assessments can be found in "Proceedings of
The Caribbean Seminar on Environmental Impact Assessment"
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compiled by The Caribbean Conservation Association and the
Institute for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie
University. Reports on environmental legislation for some of the
islands in the Eastern Caribbean have been produced by Barbara
Lausche for the Organization of Eastern Caribbean State's Natural
Resources Management Project. A report by Pedro Pablo Morcillo
for the Inter-American Development Bank "Legislacion y Aspectos
Institucionales Ambientales En Algunos Paises Miembros
Prestatarios del BID" documents environmental legislation and
lists institutions for some of the Bank's member countries.
For specific, in—depth discussions with regard to land—based
sources it might be useful to consult some of the documents
produced in conjunction with the Meetings of Experts on the
Caribbean Environment Programme, such as "A Note on The Need to
Adopt a Protocol on Land—based Pollution in the Wider Caribbean",
prepared by the Advisory Committee on Pollution of the Sea
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Why is a Regional Approach Appropriate?
A regional approach i* appropriate for the control and management
of land based sources of Marine pollution for the following
reasons! first, the types of natural resources which need
protection are similar for each state and territory within the
region. Second, the flow of pollutants which nay enter the
Caribbean Sea from one land mass travel to and affect marine
resources off an adjacent land mass. Third, the economic and
human resources available to attack pollution problems within any
given country are limited. It makes most sense to coordinate
efforts so that the largest number of people and natural
resources can be reached most efficiently and effectively at the
lowest cost.
How This Document Can Help
The following section presents for each nation and territory in
the region, with the exception of the territories and states of
the United States (about which information can be obtained from
the EPA), the major sources of land—based pollution and the
institutions assigned to controlling them. Certain imbalances in
the information presented are the result of unavailability of
sources and time constraints on the project. This document
serves as a reference resource for achieving unified
environmental efforts in the region.
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CHAPTER XI
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AN6UXLLA
Basic Political, Econonic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
Anguilla is a British Dependent Territory located in the leeward
islands to the northwest of St. Kitts and Nevis and to the north
of St. Maarten/St. Martin. The territory of Anguilla is 96 sq km
including Anguilla at 91 sq km and Sombrero at 5 sq km. The
population of Anguilla Has estimated at 7,019 in 1984 and the
population density of Anguilla is approximately 73 persons per sq
km. The capital and principal town is The Valley. The official
language is English and the currency is the East Caribbean dollar
which has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
Economic activity in Anguilla centers around lobster fishing,
raising of livestock, salt production and boat building. These
industries provide export earnings for the economy and employment
for the population. Various vegetable, fruit and root crops
including maize, vegetable peas, and pigeon peas are produced for
domestic consumption. The tourism industry in Anguilla generated
15,414 visits in 1985. Improvements in tourist facilities are
underway, including hotel and airport development, as sustainable
expansion of this industry is being encouraged by the government.
There is also an offshore financial sector in Anguilla. While
there is no real industrial production in Anguilla, there are
imports of a variety of products for domestic and tourist
consumption and these products add to the waste streams and may
include various chemical compounds and fuel oils.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Livestock
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook and Archer 1988)
Crop production in Anguilla is limited to the cultivation of
various vegetable, fruit and root crops,including maize,
vegetable peas, and pigeon peas. This production is undertaken
primarily on small plots for domestic use. There is some use of
chemicals on crops. Effects to the marine environment from use
of these chemicals appear to be undocumented. The extent of
soil erosion problems is unknown but suspected to be small. It
was noted in Archer's report that a CIDA financed study of the
Valley Aquifer did find contamination by nitrates of
agricultural and sewage origin.
There is production and export of livestock in Anguilla. Effects
to the environment from abattoirs may or may not be presenting
a
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problems to the marine environment, depending upon their
locations and waste disposal practices.
The fisheries of Anguilla produce lobsters and other fish which
provide a major source of income, export earnings, and
employment. Because of the large dependence of the economy on thi
fisheries it is particularly crucial and beneficial to Anguilla
to see that these areas are protected from pollution.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook and Interviews)
In Anguilla, the industry, mining, and manufacturing sector is
not developed. There is salt mining and some boat building. In
an interview it was noted that pollution concerns from these
types of sources appear to be minimal. Concern was expressed
with regard to fuel oil storage tanks in The Valley that may be
subject to leaks and could damage the aquifer. It was also
feared that cooling oils from electricity transformers that may
still contain PCBs, and non-gaseous chlorine used for treating
water supplies could pose a hazard to the marine environment.
Imports of fuel oils and other materials may also be of some
concern if not used, transported, and disposed of with proper
care.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Archer 1988 and Interviews)
There is at present no sewerage system in Anguilla. Sewage
disposal is primarily via septic tank with some package sewage
treatment plants being used by businesses, hotels, and the
hospital. There are some regulations in place that require new
builders to verify what type of method will be used for sewage
disposal but there is not much enforcement and inspection
capability and it has been- recommended that this be strengthened
in order to ensure protection of both aquifers and the marine
environment from sewage tank and package treatment plant
effluents. A CIDA financed study found contamination of the
Valley aquifer by nitrates suspected to be of sewage and
agricultural origin.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Interviews)
Solid Waste in Anguilla is disposed of in a landfill at Carritto,
about a quarter mile from the sea. wastes are burnt and covered
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and compacted with bulldozers but leachate is not monitored.
There appears to be no separate disposal of, inventory of, or
regulations regarding storage, use, and disposal of materials
which may contain toxins or other environmentally damaging
chemical substances.
There has been anti-litter legislation drafted and a public
education campaign regarding litter in Anguilla. There is a
competition once a year for the cleanest village. Part of the
litter problem, which is a common complaint of tourists, results
from inadequate supplies of collection drums, though there have
been donations of disposal drums by the Government of Canada.
:
There has been some pollution from solid wastes being dumped from
boats.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Interviews)
Currently, the responsibility for environmental protection does
not rest solely with any one organization and there appears to be
no one body responsible for coordination of environmental work
and protection. Within the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture,
Fisheries and Health, the Agriculture Department and the
Fisheries Department are responsible for conservation of land and
water resources, the Public Health Department is responsible for
environmental health questions and water quality monitoring, and
the Lands Department is responsible for physical planning. The
Public Works Department within the Ministry of Communications,
Public Utilities, and Works holds responsibility for sewage and
solid waste disposal and also for some water quality monitoring.
The Public Health Department does have a small lab to monitor
water quality and is starting to try to work with the Agriculture
and Public Works Departments to set up a monitoring system, but
at this point the staffing and funding to carry out such a
program is under constraint. Responsibility for water quality
monitoring appears to be shared by the Public Health Department
and the Public Works Ministry's Water Department. Persons from
the health and the water departments have been sent to a training
course in monitoring of waste water, coastal water, cistern
water, etc at a program based out of Jamaica. Anguilla hopes to
also become involved in the program CEHI is running for
monitoring of water quality in the Caribbean.
Resource data maps of Anguilla were compiled by the Eastern
Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program (ECNAMP) in 1982. The
maps include land-use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
10
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population densities and pollution.
Us* of computers for storage of data on the environment is quiti
limited at this time. The Water Department expects to get a
computer soon and there are no computers for any such uses in
the Public Health Department.
11
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Professionals Contacted During Thim Study
Mr. Barry Hontarth
Water Engineer
Public Works Department
The Valley
Anguilla
Phonei 809-497-2753
Mr. Leslie V. Richardson
Director of Agriculture and Fisheri«
Department of Agriculture
The Valley
Anguilla
Phonei 809-497-2615
Mr. Stevenson Rodgers
Public Health Officer
Public Health Department
The Valley
Anguilla
Phones 809-497-2631
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Sifford Connors
Director of Lands & Surveys
Physical Planning, Lands ft Survey Department
The Valley
Anguilla
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ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
Antigua and Barbuda is an independent state within the British
Commonwealth. It is located to the north of Guadeloupe and to.
the east of St. Kitts and Nevis. The country has a total area of
441.fi *q km and is comprised of three islands Antigua (280 sq
km), Barbuda (160 sq km), and Redonda (uninhabited 1.6 sq mi).
The population of Antigua and Barbuda Mas estimated at 76,295 in
mid-1986. Its capital and principal town is St.John's, Antigua
with a population estimated at 36,000. Population density in 1986
was estimated at 172 per sq km. The official language is
English. The official currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar
which has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
The main economic activity in Antigua is tourism, and in 1986 it
was estimated to account for around 60 percent of GDP. The
Government is currently seeking to expand tourism and double the
number of available rooms in hotels from 3,636 in 1986 to 6,000
by 1991. In 1986 there were an estimated 40 hotels on the
islands and in 1987 there were 12 additional facilities under
construction with an estimated additional 1400 rooms. In 1986
the number of tourist arrivals to the islands numbered 149,322.
The government is also acting to encourage manufacturing, crop
and livestock production and fishing, as well as offshore
banking, in attempts to diversify the economic base and to lessen
dependence on imported food, much of which is used for the
tourism industry. There are currently operations manufacturing
garments, household appliances, rum, and assembling electronic
components operating on the islands. Various mineral fuels and
chemicals are imported for domestic, tourist and industrial
consumpt ion.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook
and Archer 1984)
The principal crops produced on the islands of Antigua and
Barbuda are cucumbers, eggplants, pumpkins, limes, mangoes,
coconuts, sea island cotton and sugar.
Archer's 1984 report cited use of herbicides, fungicides, and
insecticides on crops. He identified that Riglou and Dioquot
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were being used as herbicides and fungicides on fruit trees and
vegetables, and noted the contact was short, 1/2 life, and
limited persistence in water. Larox was shown to be used on
sugar crops and is persistent in water. (Archer 1984)
There is production of livestock on Antigua and Barbuda and,
as noted by Archer 1984, wastes from the abattoirs which process
these products have caused problems for the marine environment.
The fisheries off Antigua and Barbuda produce fish and lobster
used for domestic production and for the tourist industry and
concern for protection of these fisheries from contamination
could be justified on economic grounds.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcest Europa Yearbook,
Archer 1984 and CARDI 1985)
In Archer's 1984 study on LBS pollution the main types of
industrial processes identified as impacting the coast and seas
were noted as follows! sugar cane and molasses, winery, edible
oil, animal feed, appliances, distillery, dairy products, soft
drinks, abattoir, tire retread, power plants.
Archer's study remarked that oil waste from oil storage and
refining appeared to be destroying a mangrove system and
affecting the coral reefs in the northwest portion of the island
at McKinnon's Pond. (This refinery has currently ceased
operations.) Destruction of mangroves at Fitches Creek by sugar
and other wastes was noted along with suspected damage to coral
reef and shoal 2 km offshore from the Creek. Other coastal
industrial wastes and distillery wastes may also be affecting the
marine life. In the northeast near Fitches Creek and Winthorp
Bay recordings revealed that approximately 50 percent of waste
loads reach the sea and toxic waste is minimal with the exception
of wastes from industrial appliances manufacture and to a lesser
degree the power station. As noted above, these industrial
effluents are extensively damaging the mangroves in the area.
At St. John's in the northwest the St. John's Harbor receives the
majority of the industrial waste with high BOD being the greatest
problem (Archer 1984).
A 1985 study by Hammerton for CARDI/USAID compiled a listing of
chemicals available for use in agriculture in Antigua and noted
that 7 varieties of fungicides, 14 varieties of herbicides, 18
varieties of insecticides, acaricides, and nematicides
were available for use.
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Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Archer 1984 and 1988)
As noted in Archer 1988 there is at present no sewerage system in
Antigua and Barbuda, though studies have been undertaken to
design such a system for the islands* main city of St. John's.
Sewage disposal is mainly via septic tank in the main commercial
areas of St. John's and by extended aeration package plants in
government buildings and hotels, with an oxidation pond located
at the airport. In outlying areas and those adjacent to St.
John's there is disposal via septic tank, privy pit, and pail
closets. Percentages of populations served by the various
systems are as follows! 6.17 percent package plants, 40 percent
septic tanks, 23.7 percent by privy pits, and the remainder by
pail closets or other. (Archer 1984 & 1988)
Pollution to St. John's Harbor from septic tanks in commercial
and urban residential sectors is of serious concern. At Uinthorpe
Bay septic tank and package plant effluents are endangering
mangroves, beaches, coral reefs and inshore fishery ecosystems.
Homes without sewage/excreta disposal facilities are contributing
to marine/coastal pollution. Recordings of waste volumes and
loads from domestic effluents are presented in Archer*s report
for a number of areas in and around the city of St. John's and in
the areas of Half Moon Bay, Halcyon Cove and Uinthorpe Bay.
(Archer 1984)
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Archer 1984)
Solid waste is disposed of in open dumps with periodic burning of
combustibles at Cook's Dump and Burma Dump Coolidge.
Additionally there are illegal dumps country wide according to
Archer's 1984 study. There is no sanitary landfill equipment and
there is need for general solid waste management.
Industrial sources of solid waste are also having environmental
impacts. Archer's study noted that oily paper and waste cloth
from power stations and metal scraps and boxes from appliance
manufacture are disposed of at the public dumps but with
negligible impact; bones, skins, and entrails from abattoirs are
causing high BODS levels at sea with 50 percent of these wastes
being disposed at sea and 50 percent reused.
Disposal and storage of imported chemicals and fuel oils must
also be of some concern.
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Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Archer 1988 and Cambers 1988)
There does not appear to be a central authority in the islands
with a Mandate for environmental protection akin to the EPA in
the United States. It appears that coordination of development
projects falls under the Ministry of Economic Development,
External Affairs, Tourism, and Energy. The Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Lands appears to administer lands and
fisheries under their Agriculture and Fishery Department and
also seem to have some development responsibilities under their
Physical Planning Department and Development Control Authority.
The Ministry of Health appears to have responsibility over
environmental health concerns and sewage treatment and disposal.
It is unclear to this consultant whether authority and
responsibility for solid waste disposal falls under the Ministry
of Health or the Ministry of Public Works.
Monitoring of water quality is being undertaken by the Ministry
of Health, using the laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture,
and under a program administered by CEHI.
Resource data maps of Antigua and Barbuda were compiled by the
Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program in 1982 and
include maps of land use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
Marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities and pollution.
A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in Antigua and Barbuda has been compiled by
B. Lausche for OECS-NRMP.
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Contacts •for Environmental Coordination
Mr. E. Ben j an in
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Lands
Long Street
St. John's
Antigua
Phonei 809-462-1007
Hon. L. B. Bird
Minister
Ministry of Economic Development,
Tourism and Energy
Queen Elizabeth Highway
St. John's
Antigua
Phonei 809-462-0092/6092/9
Mr. Jaap
Director of Public Works
Ministry of Public Works
St. John's Street
St. John's
Antigua
Phonei 809-462-0894
Dr. R. Jones
Chief Medical Officer
J. Reid
Public Health Inspector
Public Health Department
Ministry of Labour and Health
St. John's
Antigua
Phones 809-462-0011
Mr. Tyrone Peters
Director of Physical Planning
Planning Dept
P.O. Box 895
St. John's
Antigua
Phones 809-462-2038
(Suggest contact by mail, since most phones appear to bi
restricted from international access.)
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ARUBA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Aruba currently has a separate status within the Kingdom of the
Netherlands and Mill achieve full independence in 1996. Aruba is
an island which lies north and off the coast of Venezuela and to.
the west of the islands of Curacao and Bonaire in the Netherlands
Antilles, of which Aruba was once a member. Aruba occupies an
area of 193 sq km. In mid-1983 its population was estimated at
£7,000; thus its population density at that time was
approximately 347 persons per sq km. The capital is Oranjestad
and this and St. Nicholas are the principal towns on Aruba.
While the official language is Dutch, the most widely spoken is
Papianento. English and Spanish are also spoken. The currency
of Aruba is the Aruban guilder.
Tourism is one of the major economic activities in Aruba at
present. In 1984 estimated earnings from tourism were US $15Om,
tourism employed 4,850 workers in 198&, and there were an
estimated 206,747 visitors to Aruba in 1985. Previously the
refining and shipment of oil played a greater role in the
economy, but this role has diminished markedly with the closing
of the Lago Oil refinery| although there still is a large
petroleum transhipment terminal on the island and three oil
terminals. There is an industrial base in Aruba comprised of the
production of various products including beverages, tobacco
products and consumer goods. Industrial production is further
described below. Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry do not play
a prominent role in the economy with the possible exception of
aloe cultivation.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
The low levels of rainfall and poor soil quality in Aruba do not
permit much in the way of agriculture, though there is some
production of aloe for export and limited cultivation of other
crops for domestic consumption. There is some use of pesticides
in agricultural production in Aruba and this is monitored and
controlled by both the Agriculture Department and Public Health
Department.
There does not appear to be any extensive fishery, forestry, or
livestock production in Aruba.
18
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Industry in Aruba includes production and processing of mattress
foam, batteries, run, ceramics, and laminates, metals, asphalt,
dairy goods, bakery goods, tobacco products, aloe products,
animal/meat products, cement blocks, printed products and
electrical power. There is also a large transhipment port
facility and three oil terminal facilities.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Archer 1988)
There is a sewage system serving Oranjestad and St. Nicholas. In
Oranjestad public buildings, hotels (coastal), commercial
establishments and limited residential sites are on this system.
Oranjestad does have a sewage treatment facility, the Bubali
Oxidation Ditch Sewage Treatment Plant. Treated sewage effluent
is released to the sea via a lagoon. In 1987, during Archer* s
visit the lagoon had gone septic because waste sludge was not
being removed. Profuse vegetation in lagoon was noted as well as
a smell of hydrogen sulfide as far away as hotel areas. There
are plans to upgrade Bubali to meet new tourism strains on
capacity and/or to change the system from lagoon for effluent
discharge. At St. Nicholas there is a sewage system but currently
there is no sewage treatment and raw sewage is discharged via
short marine outfall upcurrent of a nearshore reef. The need for
a sewage treatment facility at St. Nicholas is recognized. In
the more rural areas, disposal is primarily via septic tanks and
privy pits. (Archer 1988)
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interview)
The current method of solid waste disposal in Aruba is collection
on a weekly basis and disposal at open dumps, with no linings.
Plans have been drafted by a consultant for a combination
incineration/inert/chemical-secured landfill facility. Toxic
and radioactive wastes disposal is regulated by the Environmental
Protection Division via a permitting and approval process.
Shipments abroad of any wastes are subject to regulation and
monitoring.
19
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Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcei Interview)
The Environmental Protection Division within the Ministry of
Public Works has responsibility for environmental protection,
monitoring, and coordination. Plans are under way to reorganize
the division and to create an Environmental Department and
Council which would be comprised of a permanent staffing of
experts in various areas of environmental concern and could have
an even stronger coordinative role.
The Environmental Protection Division is responsible for
permitting, approving, and monitoring of both solid and liquid
disposal and release of toxic, hazardous, and radioactive wastes
by various industrial, hospital and other sources. Radioactive
waste disposal is required to be reported to the Dutch Atomic
Energy Commission. An inventory of all chemical substances being
imported is currently being compiled by the division. The
Environmental Protection division is also responsible for
environmental impact assessments and permitting of new industrial
and other development. The division draws upon the help of Dutch
Environmental Labs when unable to carry out required assessments
and monitoring due to lack of proper facilities or expertise in a
particular area of concern. USEPA labs have also been called
upon in the past for assistance with analyses.
The Water and Electricity Department under the Ministry of
Economic Affairs manages the operation and maintenance of the
Bubali Plant's sewage treatment. Public Works Department manages
sewer collection system lines and sludge drying beds. The Public
Health Department and the Sewage Authorities both carry out
monitoring of water for sewage effluent loads.
Solid Waste disposal for non—hazardous municipal wastes is
handled by the Sanitation Department but disposal of any chemical
or hazardous wastes is handled by the Sanitation Department with
the assistance of the Environmental Protection Division to assure
proper disposal.
Baseline Coastal Water Analyses have been undertaken by the
Environmental Protection Division and Analyses of Sewage Plant
Discharges into the estuary have been carried out by the
Agriculture Department as it has been investigating use of
discharges for irrigation purposes.
The Agriculture Department and the Public Health Department
cooperate regarding monitoring and control of pesticides.
Resource data maps have been compiled for Aruba by ECNAMP and
include maps of land use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
20
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marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities and pollution.
-------
Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Gerald Adolf Engelbrecht
Director
Environmental Protection Division
Ministry of Public Works
Kerkstraat 16 C
San Nicholas
Aruba
Phones 297-8-23073/24571
Faxi 297-8-33895
22
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BAHAMAS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources The Europa Yearbook)
The Bahamas are an independent state within the British
Commonwealth and are located off the east coast of Florida and to
the north of Cuba. They occupy an area of 13,939 sq km and are
comprised of a number of islands including: New Province (where
the capital, Nassau, is located), Grand Bahama, Andros, and
Eleuthera. The population was estimated at 235,000 in mid-1986.
The capital, Nassau, is home to approximately half of the
population of the Bahamas. The population density in mid-1986
was estimated at 16.9 persons per sq km. The official language
of the Bahamas is English. The currency is the Bahamian dollar
and has had a fixed parity with the US dollar.
Economic activity is centered around tourism. In 1985 there were
2,631,970 visitors to the Bahamas. Revenue generated from
tourism was *900m which is thought to be low given the number of
visitors and is due largely to limited stays. The government
has been working on promotion of tourism through further
improvements to the airport and harbour at Nassau and aims for
increased accommodations. There is also an extensive off-shore
banking and shipping registry sector, and a manufacturing and
industrial sector. Agricultural and fisheries development is
expected to increase under new government plans.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook and
Archer 1984)
Fruit, especially citrus, cultivation is increasing. Other
agricultural products produced are various fruits and vegetables
including sugar cane, tomatoes, and bananas but most foods are
imported. Agricultural and fisheries production is being
encouraged to limit dependence on imports of food. Livestock is
also raised to meet domestic consumption needs. While most
farming is at subsistence levels, there is some commercial
farming in Andros, Great Abaco, Eleuthera and Grand Bahama.
Archer's 1984 study on LBS noted that pesticides are used on
vegetables and fruits and some of those used are very toxic and
persistent in water.
There are forestry resources in the Bahamas which are being
23
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managed under a joint project by the Bahamian government, the
IDB, and FAO.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook,
Archer 1984, and Interview)
Archer's 1984 study indicated the following industries operating
in the Bahamast poultry processing, abattoirs, dairies,
distilleries, pesticide production, vegetable canneries, fish
processing, bleach manufacture, laundries, asphalt plants,
printers, a cement plant, power plants, an oil refinery, drug
manufacture, oil terminal. There is now also a brewery, but the
cement plant is closed. He cited that impacts to the coastal
areas might arise from discharge of chlorophenols from the
pesticide industry that are discharged into sewers. Also, it was
suspected that other industrial wastes discharged to sewers it
might be infiltrating into ground waters and the marine
env i ronment.
In my discussion with island officials it was noted that there is
pre—treatment of wastes by some industry. The pharmaceutical
plant, the oil refinery, and the rum facility wastes are pre-
treated. There are some regulations and there is monitoring of
discharges by industries.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984, Tonetti
and Norton 1989, and Interviews)
There is a city sewage system in New Providence with disposal via
deep well injection. There is also use of septic tanks, pumped
and discharged into the deep well injection system. Pit
latrines remain in use in poorer areas. A recent study of sewage
disposal was done by Humphries (1988> and may be referred to for
further information.
The Archer 1984 study noted impacts to the coast through
infiltration of sewage and effects on ground and coastal waters.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984, Tonetti
and Norton 1989, and Interviews)
Archer's 1984 study noted solid waste disposal sites at Harold
Road and Nassau where waste disposal was via sanitary landfill
24
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after pulverization. At Freeport disposal is also by sanitary
landfill with industrial waste buried or burnt after treatment.
On the islands of N. Andros, Grand Bahama, Bimini and Eleathera
disposal is by open burning with periodic dumping of
combust i b1es.
A recent study by EPA consultants Norton and Tonetti for the
Inter-American Development Bank and the Commonwealth of the
Bahamas appraises the solid waste management and needs in New
Providence and should be referred to for further information.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources! T & S 1989, Interviews,
and BID Conference Paper)
The Department of Environmental Health Services within the
Ministry of Health has been given authority, under the
Environmental Health Act of 1987,to create regulations on
environmental quality and to set up monitoring requirements and
compliance measures for industry. The department has also
compiled a limited toxic waste inventory that it is working to
make more comprehensive. Other responsibilities under the
department include environmental impact assessments, consumer
product evaluations, sanitation inspection, building code
permits, solid waste management and control. A chart of the
functions of the department is included in the study done by EPA
consultants Norton and Tonetti.
There are other governmental organizations with some control
over the environment. The Fisheries Department and Agricultural
Department, for example, has some authority with regard to
pesticides use and for controlling the use of bleach by
fishermen to draw crawfish from reefs which causes reef
destruction. As well, this department monitors reefs and other
aspects of the marine environment for destruction from toxins.
The Ministry of Transport has some responsibility for regulation
and control with regard to the oil industry. There has been an
inter—governmental committee set up to deal with oil spills. Thf
Water and Sewage Authority controls sewage and water supplies.
The Bahamas National Trust, affiliated with the Agriculture
Ministry, is concerned with the parklands, protected areas and
preservation. The Physical Planning Department and Public Works
Ministry also are involved in the process. There are full maps
and aerial photographic coverage produced years ago which have
been updated for the primary inhabited islands.
Periodic monitoring of coastal and marine pollution is being
planned to be consistent with the program for control under the
CAP and UNEP. There are plans to start working with and under
the CEHI monitoring program in both the Environmental Health
29
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Department and tha Water and Sawaga Authority. At prasant there
haa baan aona pariodic coaatal water monitoring by the Department
of Environmental Health Services and monitoring of potable water,
private Mater supplies, groundwater around landfill and sewage
treatment plants. There is also monitoring and regulation of
discharges from off shore outfall of cooling water and other
treated discharges.
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Professional* Contacted During This Study
Mr. Glen Archer
Director
Department of Environmental Health Services
Ministry of Health
POB N-3730
Post Office Bldg
East Hill Street
Nassau, New Providence
Bahamas
Phones 809-323-6885
Mr. Ronald W. Thompson
Director
Department of Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Local Govt
Corner of Mackey and Bay Streets
P.O. Box N-3028
Nassau, New Providence
Bahamas
Phones 809-323-1777
27
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BARBADOS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Barbados, an independent state within the British Commonwealth,
is located in the Eastern Caribbean, to the southeast of St.
Lucia and to the east of St. Vincent in the Windward Islands
chain.' The island of Barbados is 430 sq km in area. The
population was estimated at 253,000 in mid-1985 and thus at that
tine the population density was approximately 588 persons per sq
km. The principal town is the capital, Bridgetown. The official
language is English. The currency is the Barbados dollar which
has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi The Europa Yearbook, and Archer 1984)
The principal crops produced on island are sugar, various roots
and tubers, and vegetables. Included among crops are maize,
groundnuts, tomatoes, carrots, onions, mangoes, grapefruit,
avocado, and papaya. Sugar cane was the number one export earner
in the country in 1986 with molasses and syrup number two and rum
number three. Semi—processed and other food products represent
the fourth greatest export earner in that year.
Herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides are used on crops in
Barbados and among these Archer <1984) noted that the
insecticides Malathion, Chlordane, Diazanon, and Furadan and the
herbicides Asulox 40, 2,4-D, Actril DS, Bravo, and Paraquat were
in use. The herbicides are reported to be less toxic and
persistent than the insecticides. The use of both may be having
negative impacts on marine and coastal areas. It was noted in
the Archer report that near eutrophication and excessive
nitrification were occurring from fertilizer residues in some
coastal areas.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook and Archer 1984)
The main types of industrial processes which may be impacting the
coast and sea in Barbados have been identified as those from
sugar cane and molasses, distilleries, brewery, soft drinks,
flour mills, animal and poultry feed, margarine and lard, dairy
28
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product*, maat process and canning, abattoir, power plants,
Pharmaceuticals, petroleum refining, pesticides, foam rubber,
chemistry cleaners and degreasers, batteries, and electroplating.
(Archer 1984)
Archer*s study found that wastes from pesticides production,
chemical cleaners and degreaser, and metal finishing were
suspected of leaching chemical residues and heavy metals into the
coastal sea areas. Severe damage to coral reefs was noted on
the southwestern coast from distillery wastes. Leaching of
nutrients from high nitrogenous and phosphate containing wastes
of brewery, dairy product, sugar cane, meat and other food
processing production may be causing damages to the marine areas
(Archer 1964). There is also a rum distillery which produces
wastes which may be affecting the marine environment. An island
official contacted was unaware if any-pretreatment of wastes is
undertaken by industry.
Industrial related solid wastes are also having an impact on the
marine environment. Plastic inners and drums from the pesticides
industry are being incinerated and buried at the landfill and may
be sources of leachate problems. Bones, entrails and hair are
disposed of at sea and to landfill and are causing some marine
pollution. Cloth, Thread and Bags from textile dyeing are both
landfilled and burnt on site but are not thought to be posing
significant harm. cloth and solid petroleum sludge being
incinerated on site and some buried in clay with the main
environmental impacts being short—term air pollution. (Archer
1984)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984 and 1988
and Int ervi ews)
There is a sewage system in the main population/urban center of
Bridgetown with a sewage treatment facility which has reduced
sewage effluent impacts in Carlisle Bay. Plans are in the
working for a plant on the south coast and there are efforts to
put a system on the west coast to alleviate problems to the
marine environment from sewage wastes in Barbados. Extensive
reef and other marine damages from sewage wastes had been a
problem before the Bridgetown sewage system was in place. Septic
tanks and privy pits are also in use for excreta disposal on the
island.
29
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Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Archer 1984)
Solid Waste is disposed of in a modified sanitary landfill which
accepts industry refuse at Woodbury, St. Phillip, a facility with
sanitary landfill after pulverization at Workmans, St. George and
a sanitary landfill at Cottage, St. Lucy.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
: (Sourcesi BID Conference Report ft Interviews)
The Environmental Unit within the Ministry of Employment, Labour
Relations and Community Development is the body which coordinates
work on the environment, assists in the creation of and
implementation of environmental policy and planning. The
technical and legal capacity of this division for implementing
policies is not well developed and is perhaps better handled at
this time by the Town Planning Department within the Ministry of
Housing and Lands and by the Environmental Engineering Division
within the Ministry of Health. The Town Planning Department
handles all physical development and development applications.
The Environmental Engineering Division has responsibility for
environmental health issues and carries out monitoring of water
quality under a program with CEHI. At present there do not appear
to be any regulations on industrial discharges.
The Coastal Conservation Project Unit within the Ministry of
Employment, Labour Relations and Community Division is
responsible for coastal conservation, planning, and beach
monitoring. The National Conservation Commission within the same
ministry is responsible with beach clean ups and defense and with
national parks.
The Sanitation Service Authority is responsible for Solid Waste
Disposal. The South ft West Coast Sewage Project has
responsibility for sewage disposal and treatment{this project is
currently being administered by Arthur Archer, the author of the
Archer studies on sewage and on LBS cited throughout this report.
The Barbados Water Authority also monitors for sewage residues
in water. The Ministry of Transport and Works has some authority
for environmental programs and policies also.
Under the Ministry of Agriculture, the Water Resource Unit and
Fisheries Unit have environmentally related responsibilities.
The Central Emergency Relief Organization on the island has
recently designed a project for the development of a data base of
hazardous materials in use in Barbados.
Resource data maps for Barbados were compiled by the ECNAMP in
30
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1982, and include nap* of land urn* capability, present land use,
marine resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds,
important marine habitat*, endangered and locally important
specie*, population densities and pollution.
31
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Professionals Contacted During Thi» Study
Dr. Leonard A. Nurse
Project Manager
Coastal Conservation Project Unit
Ministry of Employment, Labour Relation* and Community Division
Marine House, Hastings
St. Michael
Barbados
Phonei 809-429-6933
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Arthur Archer
South £ West Coast Sewage Project
Barbados
Phonei 809-427-5910
Mr. Mark Briffith
Environmental Officer
Environmental Unit
Ministry of Employment, Labour Relations and Community Division
Marine House, Hastings
St. Michael, Barbados
Phonei 809-427-5420, exti 239
Mr. Lionel Nur
Town Planning Department
Ministry of Housing and Lands
Marine House, Hastings
Christ Church, Barbados
Phonei 809-426-1284
Environmental Engineering Division
Ministry of Health
Jemmott's Lane
St. Michael, Barbados
Phonei 809-426-5080
Ministry of Transport and Works
P.O. Box 25
Bridgetown, Barbados
Phonei 809-429-2191
Water Resource Unit
Fisheries Unit
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheri
P.O. Box 505
Graeme Hall
Christ Church, Barbados
Phonei 809-428-4150
32
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BELIZE
Ba«ic Political, Econonic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
Belize, an independent state within the British Commonwealth, is
located in Central America to the south of Mexico and to the
north of Buatemala. The area of Belize is £2,965 sq km. The
population Mas estimated at 166,800 in mid-1985, thus the
population density at that time was 7.2 persons per sq km. The
principal cities are Belize city, Corozal, Belmopan, Dangriga and
Belmopan (the capital). The official language is English. The
currency is the Belizean dollar which has a fixed parity with the
US dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Europa Yearbook
and Archer 1984)
The principal crops produced in Belize are sugar cane, bananas,
oranges, grapefruit, rice, maize, red kidney beans, tobacco and
marijuana. The number one export earner in the economy was
sugar, citrus products were third, bananas were fifth and
molasses was sixth in 1985. The marijuana crop in Belize has
been estimated to reap an income equivalent to one—third of the
country's GOP.
Herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides are used on crops and
residues reaching the marine environment from these chemical have
been suspected of causing damage to coastal fisheries. Archer
1984 identified that Toxaphene and 2,4—D are used on rice and
sugar cane and Furadan is used on bananas.
The fisheries produce lobster, crayfish, anchovies and other fish
and contribute to the economy's export earnings with fish
products being the fourth largest export earner in 1985.
The forestry industry also produces timber which represented the
seventh largest share of export earnings in the economy in 1985.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook and Interviews)
The main types of industry in Belize which may be affecting thi
33
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involve the production of sugar, molasses,
cigarettes, beer, batteries, fertilizers, garments, rum, citrus
concentrate, ethanol, and zinc. Garment production was the
second largest export earner in the economy in 1985.
In a discussion with environmental officials in Belize it was
noted that wastes from grinding operations of sugar factories and
thermal and chemical wastes from these facilities appeared to be
causing depletion of marine life. A zinc factory in Belize City
which produced lead residues was until recently causing fish
kills but now is dumping wastes in accordance with specified
plans agreed to by the government and the plant. The government
has also been working with the ethanol production plant to assure
that there will be no harmful discharges made to the environment
from the operation of the plant. Citrus producers in the
southern part of the country have also been cited in dumping
effluent into rivers and this is currently being monitored. The
Environmental Health Department is working with industries
during initial planning stages to assure environmental concerns
are discussed. At this time, there is no specific legislation
which can be used to enforce restrictions on discharges.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984 and Interviews)
A sewage system with oxidation ponds was under construction at
the time of Archer's 1984 report and Belize city now has a sewage
system with treatment. There is still widespread use of septic
tanks and privy pits and there is thought to be some
contamination of water supplies in some areas from these wastes.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source! Archer 1984)
Solid Waste is disposed of by open dumping at Belize City, open
burning at Colozeli, and at illegal dumps country—wide according
to the Archer study. Widespread littering Mas also noted.
Leachate problems for mangroves and fisheries Mere suspected.
(Archer 1984)
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcei Interviews)
There are plans to set up one authority to coordinate and carry
responsibility for environmental protection but at present a
number of organizations share environmental protection
34
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responsibilities. The Environmental Health Department within the
Ministry of Health exercise* limited control over industrial
pollution. It works with industry to correct problems for the
environment and to assure that new operations Mill consider the
impacts of waste disposal practices. This department also
carries out some monitoring of industry. The Ministry of Health
additionally has responsibility for over sight of solid waste and
sewage waste disposal. Municipal Authorities actually carry
responsibility for solid waste collection and disposal. The
Water and Sewage Authority under the Ministry of Natural
Resources is responsible for sewage disposal. The Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries and the Ministry of Natural
Resources have land and resource conservation responsibility
There is monitoring of both coastal and other water quality by
the Ministry of Health's Environmental Health Department under a
program directed by CEHI. Additionally water quality monitoring
is carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and
Fisheries, the Ministry of Natural Resources, and the Water and
Sewage Authority to meet their special concerns and
responsibility
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. David Gibson
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Natural Resources
Belnopan
Belize
PhoneI 501-8-22333
Mr. Vincent Gillett
Fisheries Administrator
Fisheries Unit
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Princess Margaret Drive
Belize City
Belize
Phone: 501-2-44552
Mr. Hilbert Linares
Senior Public Health Inspector
Ministry of Health
Belize City
Belize
Phone: 501-2-45408
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Benroy McCord
Chief Engineer
Water and Sewage Authority
Belize City
Belize
Phone: 501-2-77463
36
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BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
The British Virgin Islands (BVI) is a British Dependent
Territory. There are over 40 islands which make up the BVI but
only 15 of these are inhabited. The BVI are located to the east
of the US Virgin Islands and to the west of Anguilla. The
cumulative area of the BVI is 153 sq km. The population was
estimated at 11,858 in mid-1985 and at that time the population
density was 78 persons per sq km. The capital, Road Town, is
located on the island of Tortola. The official language is
English and the US dollar is used as currency.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Interviews and Europa Yearbook)
Livestock production is the main agricultural activity and
exports of livestock products and animals represent a good
portion of exports traditionally.
Approximately 160 acres of flat land are used for crop production
basically vegetable, lettuce, cabbage, squash, carrots, cassava,
and sweet potatoes. There are 10 or 15 commercial farmers using
12-24-12, Sulfate of Ammonia, Diazanon, Cupervite, Paraquat on
crops. Generally though farming is by senior citizen farmers who
spray crops with tobacco solutions and use organics and very
little in the way of fertilizers.
The Fisheries are an important resource and serve for both
domestic and tourist consumption but currently these areas have
been over fished by neighbors to the BVI from the USVI and from
Texas longlining tuna boats according to island source
The agriculture department has taken some steps to curb soil
erosion problems on the islands. Much of the problem is due to
construction. An awareness program is to be implemented this
year with seminars on reforestation, and with forest/tree
planting by school children.
37
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Interviews and Europa Yearbook)
There is manufacture of rum, sand mining from beaches, sand and
gravel quarries, oil and gas storage, and ship and boat
construction. The quarries produce a lot of dust and sediment
into the environment and construction activities are causing soil
erosion problems in some areas and may be affecting the marine
environment along with sand mining operations. There are
problems related to the tourism industry when cruise ship bilge
pumping and ocean dumping of trash from ships and boats caui
problems for the marine environment.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Archer 1988)
Archer*s 1988 study noted that there is a public sewage system in
Roadtown, Tortola serving Baughers Bay to Slaney Point with an
outfall at Slaney Point 600 ft offshore and plans to extend the
system to the rest of Roadtown. Septic tanks were noted to be
used at Cane Garden Bay and Long Look Tortola, and on Virgin
Gorda with privy pits being used in rural areas and at Purcell
Estate near Roadtown.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interviews)
Solid Waste is disposed at landfills in Tortola, Virgin Gorda and
Anegada with some deliberate and accidental burning. Leachate
problems are expected but not documented or monitored.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interviews)
Environmental concerns appear to be jointly handled by a number
of institutions in the British Virgin Islands including the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Labor, the National Parks
Trust, the Dept of Agriculture, the Fisheries Department, the
Ministry of Health and Welfare1 s Environmental Health Department,
the Public Works Department, the Water and Sewage Authority, the
Country and Town Planning Department and the Development
Authority. Each organizations responsibilities vary.
The National Parks Trust is implementing a reef protection
mooring system and has efforts to protect forest lands and marine
38
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areas through a system of parks etc. Programs to control for soil
erosion are being jointly worked on by the Agriculture
Department, the Natural Resources Ministry and the Country and
Town Planning Department and Development Authority.
There is water quality monitoring under a program with CEHI at
the Water and Sewage Authority in the BVI.
A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in the BVI has been compiled by B. Lausche
for OECS-NRMP.
Resource Data Maps were compiled by the Eastern Caribbean Natural
Area Management program in 1982. These include maps of land use
capability, present land use, marine resource use, pollution,
natural attractions, key watersheds, important marine habitats,
endangered and locally important species and population density.
39
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Professional* Contacted During This Study
Mr. Janmi Kumar
Department of Agriculture
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phones 809-495-2003
Dr. Robert L. Norton
Director, National Park* Trumt
c/o Ministry of Natural Resources and Labour
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phone: 809-494-2069
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Lawrence Blok
Fisheries Officer
Fisheries Department
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phone: 809-494-3429
Mr. Courtney de Castro
Chief Engineer
Public Works Department
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phones 809-494-2734
Mr. Edward de Castro
Physical Planning Officer
Town ft Country Planning Dept
P.O. Box 142
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phones 809-494-3444/3433
Mr. Aubrey George
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phone: 809-494-3701
Mr. Gary Penn
Chief Engineer
Water and Sewage Authority
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phone: 809-494-3701
Ms. Ethlyn Smith
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Natural Resources and Labour
Government House
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
Phone: 809-494-3701
40
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CAYMAN ISLANDS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
The Cayman Islands are a British Dependent Territory located to
the south of Cuba and to the northwest of Jamaica. The islands
include Grand Cayman, Cayman Brae and Little Cayman. The
principal town is the capital George Town located on Grand
Cayman. The combined area of the Cayman Islands is 259 sq km.
The Population of the Cayman Islands was estimated in 1967 to be
22,000. The population density in 1967 was thus 65 persons per
sq km. The official language of the Cayman Islands is English
and the currency is the Cayman Islands dollar which has a fixed
parity with the US dollar.
The economic base of the islands are primarily tourism and off-
shore banking. There is some sport fishing, and local fishing
for domestic and tourist consumption. The agriculture, also, is
primarily for domestic and tourist consumption. There does not
appear to be much in the way of industry and manufacturing in th«
Caymans.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interviews and
Europa Yearbook)
Agricultural production is in bananas, mangoes, papayas, yams,
cassava, and tomato. There is wide scale use of nematicides and
common herbicides, such as paraquat (starting to be replaced by
Round-up), Diazanon, Furdane, Malthaion, Baigon. There is a
large range of insecticides and herbicides used and no real
mechanism for monitoring. There is some concern regarding
residues in foods but currently no monitoring of this. It is thi
opinion of island officials that there may be problems from thesi
chemicals for the marine environment, if not yet then
potentially, but no studies have been completed to document such
problems.
There is a small beef industry which may be having environmental
effects through abattoir wastes if dumping occurs near waterways.
There is sport fishing and fishing for local consumption.
Catches include red snapper, ocean turbitt, nassau grouper,
wahoo, conch, lobster, and other shell fish. The biggest threat
to the fisheries is thought to be via anchor damage; a permanent
41
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mooring program has been initiated to limit these damages. There
is very basic monitoring of water quality in the marine
environment by the Natural Resources Lab as well as monitoring of
colonization of corals, baseline data on health of reefs,
fisheries work on grouper endangerment, and studies on queen
conch populations in the lagoons.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interviews)
There ,does not appear to be much in the way of manufacturing,
industry or mining in the Cayman Islands. According to an
island official, the greatest problems in this arena may be from
gasoline imported and anchored off-shore, and pumped via
submarine lines to large storage tanks on shore. The tanks are
old and there are concerns about leaching into both groundwater
and the marine environment. Additionally, chlordane is used
widely in construction as a means of controlling pests; it is
often injected into soils, possibly causing leaching into the
marine environment.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interviews)
There is a public sewage system serving the seven mile beach area
on the island Grand Cayman with release of effluents to lined
waste stabilization ponds located next to a landfill. A sewerage
system for the city of George Town is being planned. Private
Package Plants serve office buildings and hotels. All other
areas are served by septic tanks which inject waste deep into
saline tables that have been identified and contoured. It is
recognized that secondary treatment of effluents should be
accomplished but at present this does not appear to be
economically feasible. There are laws regarding effluent levels
following internationally accepted standards, but as in most
areas these laws are loosely applied since many septic tanks do
not meet these standards.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interviews)
Solid wastes are disposed of at a sanitary landfill site located
in a wetland area a half-mile from the coast on the southeast
side of George Town. Leachate is monitored at the site on a
continual basis, and it has been noted that small traces of
leachate have migrated toward the north sound. It is believed
42
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that this is being assisted by canals that had been created at
one time to eliminate mosquito problems. During tidal changes
there is salt water intrusion, and water under the site is 30,'
partes per million saline. Elevated COD levels have been
recorded in the immediate area of the north sound. Because of
these problems there is a plan to close off the current landfill
site and remedy the problems. A new site adjacent to the old
site is being planned with liners, treatment processes and
further leachate monitoring. Waste is weighed biannually, once
off—season and once on—season. There are plans to buy a scale
and do weighing on a more permanent basis. All premises are
currently charged fees, but solid waste disposal is approximately
one—third subsidized by the government. Government trucks
currently are collecting about 80 tons of waste a day and there
is approximately another 5 tons a day in private collection and
dumping. There is sorting of wastes at landfill, with batteries
disposed of in a particular area. Controlled burning of some
wastes and waste oils is used for dust control around the
landfill roadways. Wastes of concern include lead batteries,
waste oils, photo chemicals, and medical wastes. Incineration
with waste—energy recovery is also being investigated, along with
recycling. There is a routine beach cleaning program, in which
trucks collect litter thrown onto beaches, disposed of in
containers at beaches, and floating in from the sea (particularly
along north shore beaches).
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcei Interviews)
The Development and Natural Resources Department is the likely
body for coordinative environmental work, and the Natural
Resource Lab does monitoring and protection of marine areas. The
Water and Sewage Authority, currently under the Ministry of
Communications and Works, but soon to be an autonomous body, is
responsible for collection and disposal of sewage wastes. The
Ministry of Health*s Environmental Health Department is .
responsible for collection and disposal of solid wastes. The
Department of Agriculture is also involved and concerned with use
of chemicals on crops.
There are plans to work with the CEHI monitoring program to
monitor the George Town marine areas on a continual basis and
other areas as need arises.
There is some computer storage of data in the Environmental
Health Department. Use of computers for data storage in the
other departments may also be in place, but this is unconfirmed.
There has been a soil and land use survey of the Cayman Islands
by the University of the West Indies Regional Research Center in
43
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Trinidad. There are also hydrology studies that the Water
Authority maintains.
-------
Professionals Contacted During This Study
Dr. Fred Benjanin
Chief Agricultural and Veterinary Officer
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box 459
Georgetown
Grand Cayman
Cayman Islands
Phone: 809-949-4932
Ms. Dina Ebanks
Natura.l Resources Laboratory
Box 48S
Grand Cayman
Cayman Is1ands
Phone: 889-949-2557/7999
Fax: 809-949-7544
Mr. Wally Whittaker
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Department of Environmental Health
Health and Social Services
Government Administration Building ,
Srand Cayman
Cayman Islands
Phonei 809-949-7095
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Richard Bestick
Director
Water and Sewage Authority
Grand Cayman
Cayman Islands
Phone: 809-949-6352
Mr. K. S. Gomez
Principal Secretary
Development and Natural Resources
Government Administration Building
Grand Cayman
Cayman Islands
Phone: 809-949-8018
Fax: 809-949-7544
45
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COLUMBIA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
Columbia is an independent nation located in South America to the
east of Panama and to the west of Venezuela. Columbia
encompasses an area of 1,138,914 sq km and in 1985 had a
population estimated at 27,867,326, giving a population density
of 24 persons per sq km. The capital city is Bogota. The
official language is Spanish. The currency is the peso.
Columbia has a very well developed economy. There are very
active agricultural, livestock, fishery and forestry industries
along with developed mining and manufacturing. There is also a
tourism sector. Total visitors in 1986 were 732,200.
The number of persons employed in manufacturing in 1980 was
1,136,735, or approximately 13.4 percent of the work force.
Manufacturing contributes heavily to exports and represented 22
percent of GDP in 1984. Agriculture in 1984 added 25.1 percent
to GDP. Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing employed an
estimated 2,412,413 persons in 1980. The mining industry
employed 49,740 persons, or 0.6 percent of the labor force in
1980 and its contribution to GDP in 1984 was 3.4 percent. The
number of persons employed in trade, restaurants, and hotels
totalled 1,261,630 in 1980.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Coffee is the leading cash and export crop representing 53.4
percent of all legal exports in 1985 and 51.0 percent in 1986.
Columbia ranks first in the world in the production of mild
coffee and second to Brazil overall. The major production areas
are in Antioquia—Caldas and Tolima—Valle. Bananas represented 4
percent of export earnings in 1986 and are cultivated in Uraba.
Sugar production is centered in the Valle de Cauca. Cotton is
also grown. Cut flowers are produced for export and are grown in
Sabana or plain areas of Bogota. Maize, potatoes, beans,
cassava, plantains, citrus, and other fruit, are grown for local
consumption. Rice is grown on a large scale for local
consumption in Tolima and in the eastern plains area. Hemp
(marijuana) and coca (source of cocaine) are also widely
cultivated. Other crops such as wheat, barley, sorghum,
soybeans, cocoa, and tobacco are also cultivated.
46
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Pesticides are used on a large number of these crops and are
likely causing problems in many areas.
The fisheries, while productive, are thought to be relatively
under—exploited in the country.
Beef and veal, pork, cow milk, cheese, butter, eggs, and cattle
hides are produced and there remains some concern over pollution
from their wastes during processing at abattoirs and dairy farms.
Damages to the marine environment due to forestry-induced soil
erosion and siItat ion, must also be taken into account.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
There is a well developed industrial sector in Columbia, with
involvement in the production and processing of petroleum
products, cement, carbonates, caustic soda, steel ingots,
foodstuffs, chemicals, transport equipment, and textiles.
There are many mineral reserves being exploited in Columbia.
There is production of petroleum in Arauca and Vichada, mining of
coal in the Coajira peninsula of El Cerrejon (largest reserves in
Latin America), emerald mining, gold mining in the Guainan
region, nickel mining in Cerromatoso, and iron ore mining.
There is much use of hydroelectric power, with production at
seven stations including Guavio and San Carlos.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
Methods of disposal were not discovered as difficulty was
encountered in contact with the country*s professionals.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interview)
Methods of disposal were not discovered as difficulty was
encountered in contact with the country*s professionals.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interview and BID Law Report)
Institute Nacional de los Recursos Renovables y del Ambient*
47
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(INDERENA) is within the Ministerio de Agricultura and is
responsible for the protection and conservation of the
environment and natural resources in Columbia. It oversees and
coordinates efforts among all other bodies that have some
environmentally related mandates. It regulates the use of all of
the natural resources in the country and coordinates and controls
the execution of all environmental activities. It is responsible
for formulating regulations which limit discharges into the
environment and recommending specific control measures for
dischargi
Departamento Nacional de Planeacion (DNP) also has some role in
planning and environmental protection policy.
Oireccion de Saneaminnto Ambiental in the Ministerio de Salud
works on health effects and environmental contamination issues
and also has some authority for regulating various environmental
discharges from industry, sewage and solid waste, and other
sourci
Institute de Fomento, Ministerio de Salud Publica and Municipal
— Empresas de Obras Sanitarias are responsible for sanitation and
basic infrastructure related to sewage and solid wastes.
The Instituto Colombian© Agropecuario (ICA) is responsible for
regulation of industrial and commercial uses of agro-chemicals.
The Ministerio de Minas y Energia has some regulation and
approval authority regarding mining and energy resources in
Columbia.
A compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Columbia
has been prepared by P. Morcillo for the BID and is available in
Spanish.
-------
Professional* Contacted During This Study
Sr. Mario Abellanada
Instituto Nacional de los Recursos
Renovables y del Ambient* (INDERENA)
Ministerio de Agriculture
Apartado Aereo 13458
Diagonal 34 no 5—18
Bogota
Columbia
Phones 57-1-287-5768
Faxi 57-1-285-9987
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sra. Maria Mercedes Cueliar de Martinez
De part ment Ch i ef
Departamento Nacional de Planeacion (DNP)
Division de Politics Ambiental
Calle 26 No 13-19
Bogota
Columbia
Phonei 57-1-282-4055
Ministerio de Obras Publicas
Centre Administrativo Nacional (CAN)
Of. 409,
Avda Eldorado
Bogota
Columbia
Phonei 57-1-222-3782
Ministerio de Salud Publica
Direccion de Saneamiento Ambiental
Calle 16, No. 7-39, Of. 701
Bogota
Columbia
Phonei 57-1-282-0002
49
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COSTA RICA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Costa Rica is located in Central America to the northwest of
Panama and to the south of Nicaragua. It occupies an area of
50,699 sq km. The population was estimated at 2,714,000 in 1986
and the population density is approximately 54 persons per sq km.
The capital of Costa Rica is San Jose. The official language is
Spanish. The currency is the Costa Rican colon.
There is a well developed agricultural sector as well as
industrial, mining, and manufacturing sectors. Agriculture is
considered the main sector of the economy since it employs
approximately 28 percent of the work force and accounts for
approximately 20 percent of GDP. The agriculture, hunting,
forestry and fishing industries collectively employed
approximately 238,207 persons in 1985. The manufacturing sector
typically contributes over 20 percent to GDP. Employment in
mining, quarrying, and manufacturing totalled 142,197 in 1985.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook and
Written Correspondence and USAID Country Report)
Coffee is the main export commodity, and represented 37 percent
of export earnings in 1986. Coffee is grown in the central
plateau and covers about 90,000 ha; there are 33,000 plantations,
most of less than 10 ha but very technically advanced. Bananas,
formerly the main export crop, are grown on plantations on the
Caribbean plain and the southern Pacific coast, which have in
the past been the largest employers in country. Sugar cane has
increased in production because of a plan to produce fuel from
bagasse. Cocoa, African oil palm, exotic fruits, and sugar cane
are being planted in areas where bananas once were and some
former banana plantations are being converted to these more
profitable crops. Maize, beans, and rice are grown for domestic
consumption, primarily on small farms in the Nicoya peninsula.
Extensive damage to coral reefs and their sea life has been noted
from the sediment and possibly pesticide use from banana fields
along the Rio Estrella. (USAID) In communications with MIRENEM
it was confirmed that the massive use of agricultural chemicals
on banana crops is causing environmental damage. These chemicals
end up in rivers that lead to the Caribbean sea and lab results
50
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have confirmed damages to marine ecosystems, particularly to reef
corals in the Parque Nacional Cahuita.
There are vast forest reserves in the country that are not being
fully exploited because of growing concerns with deforestation.
Deforestation problems in the country are likely contributing to
soil erosion and sedimentation problems in marine areas. MIRENEM
confirmed that there are large sedimentation problems from soil
erosion in all of the rivers that lead to the sea during the
rainy season from May to December.
There is a growing fishery industry in shrimp, sardines, and
tuna. .
Production of beef and veal, pork, cattle hides, and poultry and
dairy products, warrants concern about abattoir, dairy, and
tanning wastes that may be released directly into waterways,
adversely affecting marine resources.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook and
Written Correspondence)
Industrial processing is evident of cement, salt, fish, palm
oil, raw sugar, cocoa powder, cocoa butter, cigarettes,
nitrogenous fertilizers, distillate and residual fuel oils,
bitumen, plastics, chemicals, aluminum, textiles, and
petrochemicals. Environmental effects on the marine environment
are being felt in Costa Rica, but it is not clear to what extent
they afflict the marine environment off the Caribbean side of the
country. Presently, the General Health Law is the principal
legal document which calls for regulation of environmental
contamination. The municipal and industrial codes also make
reference to regulation of industrial discharges.
There is mining of gold at the Santa Clara mine, 65km from San
Jose, as well as silver. Bauxite is mined at San Isidro el
General and in the south. Petroleum reserves at Talamanca, near
the Panamanian border may, when mined, also be of environmental
concern. It is unclear whether environmental effects from these
varied mining operations are currently felt in the Caribbean
marine areas. MIRENEM, by way of the Direction on Geology and
Mines exercises supervision over mining and industrial processing
with relation to environmental effects.
The Environmental Sanitation Division of the Ministry of Health
has an inventory of some—but not all—of the principal toxic
effluents being discharged to the sea.
There is hydroelectric power generation at Guanacaste, and
51
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geothermal generation at Miravalle.
From written communication with a MIRENEM official, it appears
that the main industrial threat to Costa Rica's marine
environment on the Caribbean side is from the occasional leaks of
petroleum during offloading at Puerto Limon. The Costa Rican
Petroleum Refinery (RECOPE) is working on its own to minimize
these hazards.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Written Correspondence)
Due to the lack of an adequate treatment system at the port of
Limon, untreated sewage is discharged directly into the sea. The
Municipality of Limon, the Department of Health, and the Costa
Rican Institute for Aqueducts and Sewers are working to correct
this problem.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Written Correspondence)
In the past solid wastes—including hospital wastes—had been
released directly to the Caribbean Sea, but now Limon has a
special sanitary landfill site for their disposal. In Limon
there are not any industries of importance that are disposing of
solid wastes into the
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Written Correspondence)
The Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy, and Mines (MIRENEM)
has responsibility for many aspects of the environment including
national parks, forests, wildlife, mining, and energy production,
and is the organization working with UNEP on the Caribbean Action
Plan's implementation in Costa Rica. It elaborates strategies for
coordination of all institutions which work to assure
environmental quality.
Other entities that have some responsibility for aspects of the
environment in Costa Rica are the Health Ministry, Ministry of
Public Works and Transportation, the Ministry of National
Planning and Political Economy, the Ministry of Agriculture, the
Costa Rican Institute for Electrification, the Costa Rican
Institute for Aqueducts and Sewers, the Institute for National
Geography, the Costa Rican Institute for Tourism, Costa Rican
Municipal Authorities, and the National Council for Scientific
52
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Investigations and Technologies. The lines of responsibility
follow the same structure as in most other countries in the
region.
The Center for Investigations of the Sea and Liminology of the
University of Costa Rica (CIMAR) and the School of Biological
Sciences of the National University (ECB/FCEN-UNA) are carrying
out investigations regarding marine contamination on both coasts.
The Costa Rican Institute for Aqueducts and Sewers' Analysis Labs
are carrying out investigations of water quality throughout the
country.
MIRENEM has a data base regarding energy, and uses IBRISI through
an OAS program. ARCINFO GIS systems are used by the National
University's School of Vulcanology and Seismology. The Institute
for National Geography (ING) has maps of the country and is
within the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation.
A compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Costa
Rica has been prepared for the BIO and is available in Spanish.
53
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Ing. Frederieo Parties V.
Asesor del Ministro
Ministerio de Recursos Naturales,
Energia Y Minas (MIRENEM)
Apartado 10104
San Jose
Costa Rica
Phones 506-334533/334025
Fax: 506-570697
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Manuel M. Murillo Castro
Director
Centre de Investigacion en Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia
Universidad de Costa Rica (CIMftR)
Ciudad Universitaria 'Rodrigo Facio*
Sn Pedro de Montes de Oca
Costa Rica
Phones 506-243710
Sr. Eduardo Zamora Madriz
Coord i nat or
Escuela Ciencias Biologicas
Facultad Ciencias Exactas y Naturales
Universidad Nacional
Casilla postal 86
Heredia
Costa Rica
Division Sarteaniento Anbiental
Ministerio de Salud
Call. 16, ftvda 6*8
Apdo 10. 123
San Jose
Costa Rica
Phone: 506-332149
Ministerio de Agricultura y Sanaderia
Sabana Surf Antiguo Colegio La Salle
Apdo 10.094
San Jose
Costa Rica
Phone: 506-235267
54
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CUBA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Cuba is a socialist state and is part of the world socialist
community. It is located to the south of Florida and the
Bahamas, to the north of Jamaica and the Cayman islands, and to
the west of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It occupies an
area of 114,525 sq km and in 1986 had a population estimated at
1O,221,OOO. The population density is 89 persons per sq km. The
capital is Havana. The official language is Spanish, and the
currency is the Cuban peso.
The agriculture sector is prominent in the economy, as Cuba is
the largest exporter of sugar in the world, and cultivates many
other crops for both domestic consumption and export.
Agriculture employed 572,300 persons in 1986. Forestry employed
an estimated 29,400 persons in 1986. Fishing also contributes
significantly to the economy both in exports and domestic use.
There is also production of livestock and related products.
The number of foreign visitors to Cuba was estimated at 194,5OO
in 1986 and earnings from tourism were *110 million in 1986.
There is currently a great expansion in the number of hotels,
and improvements to cruise ship facilities at ports in Santiago,
Havana, Varadero and Cienfuegos. A large tourist resort has been
planned at Caya Largo to the southeast of Havana. Convertible
currency earnings from tourism are projected to be about 4200 m
per year in the 1990s, with more than 250,000 foreign visitors
per year by 1991.
There is also a very well developed mining, manufacturing, and
industrial sector in Cuba.
Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook and Interview)
Cuba ranks as the world*s largest exporter of raw sugar. Cuban
sugar is exported to the USSR and other CMEA countries as well
as to over 40 non—CMEA countries, and is a major earner of
convertible currency (77 percent in 1986). Sugar contributes
approximately 9 percent to GDP. Cuba has over ISO sugar mills,
15 refineries, and 1400 cutting and cleaning stations. Tobacco
farming is undertaken on small farms and in the past has been thi
second largest agricultural earner of foreign exchange. Citrus
55
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fruits are now being encouraged in order to earn more convertible
currency. Coffee is also produced for export. Rice, maize,
cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, plantains, bananas, tomatoes,
and mangoes are grown primarily for domestic use.
Approximately 3.4 m ha of land is cultivated in Cuba, of which
4/5 are state owned and 1/5 is comprised of private holdings and
cooperative farms. In 1984 there were over 1500 cooperative
farms.
Extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides on all of the above
crops is likely causing some damage to marine resources.
There are soil erosion problems, particularly in the mountainous
regions, which may be causing some damage to the marine
env i ronment.
Fish and fish processing contribute extensively to exports and
convertible currency earnings. Much fishing appears to be deep
sea fishing done outside of Cuba's territorial waters, but since
many nations are forming exclusive fishing zones, Cuba is
starting to develop local fish farms.
Fish processing industries may be contributing to environmental
marine degradation.
There has been an extensive reforestation program in Cuba
underway since 1970, and timber output has risen.
There appear to be extensive livestock herds and production of
beef and veal, pork, and poultry, so there may be extensive waste
from abattoirs affecting the marine environment.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Interview)
Industries in Cuba include: sugar processing, construction
materials with cement production at Cinefuegos, fish processing,
non—electrical machinery, textiles production with a woven
fabrics mill at Santiago de Cuba, consumer durables, chemicals,
fertilizers (1986 production was 1.1 million tons), sulphuric
acid at Patrice Lumumba (1986 production 396,200 tons), steel and
metal processing at El Cotorro and Havana, rum distillation,
paper mill processing using bagasse, tires manufacture, mosaics,
cigarettes, cigars, leather footwear, nickel refining at Punta
Sorda, Las Camariocas, Moa, and Nicaro, petroleum refining at
Cienfuegos, Havana, and Santiago de Cuba, chromium production at
Moa, and petroleum storage at. Matanzas Bay,
Extensive damage to Havana Bay has been documented and is world
56
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known. Efforts to remedy the problems started two years ago with
international help. While there is already some progress
evident, full clean up Mill take some time.
Other damages to the marine environment are being investigated
and may be severe, but industries are now being required to
follow strict guidelines regarding treatment and releases of
wastes.
Mining operations include nickel in the Oriente province at
Nicaro and at Moa, crude petroleum with offshore drilling off
northern coast of Cuba, natural gas, copper, cobalt, refractory
chromium, salt, silica and sand and crushed stone. Nickel is the
second most important export earner after sugar, and Cuba
possesses the fourth largest nickel reserves in the world.
There is a thermal power plant at Matanzas and a nuclear plant
under construction at Cienfuegos.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
In the past there was no treatment of sewage before discharge
into Havana Bay, but now there is treatment of these wastes.
Approximately seventy percent of all areas in Cuba have some sort
of sewage disposal that includes treatment before discharge.
Sewage discharges, like those of industry, are regulated and
monitored. The Ministry of Public Health along with provincial
authorities are responsible for sewage disposal.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
All solid wastes are disposed of in sanitary landfill facilities
that are administered by the provincial government and regulated
by Ministry of Public Health.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Interview)
The National Commission for the Environment and Natural Resources
(COMARNA) is the body which coordinates the environmental
programs and the work of all agencies involved with the
environment in some aspect.
There are many other institutions with some environmental
57
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mandates. The Institute of Hydr©economics within the Ministry of
Construction has some authority and responsibility for waters in
drainage canals and for treatment of water and investigations
regarding water contamination. The Ministry of Basic Industry
also has some authority regarding minerals. The Tourism
Institute is involved with the environmental effects of Tourism.
The Physical Planning Authorities also have responsibilities
related to environment. The Ministry of Public Health oversees
sewage and solid waste disposal as well as some industrial
matters. The Provincial governments carry out sewage and solid
waste disposal and also have some authority to control
industrial discharges. The Agriculture Ministry and the Fishing
Ministry also have environmental mandates. Maps are handled by
the National Cartography Institute. Computers are used to a
limited extent in ministries for storage of environmental data.
There is a number of marine research centers and government
organizations that are either studying marine areas, or
monitoring water quality.
58
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Sr. Hernando Blanca
Director
Comision de Medio Ambiente
y Recursos Naturales (COMARNA)
Acaderaia de Ciencias de Cuba (ACC)
Ave 17, No 5006 e/ 50752
PI ay a
Havana
Cuba
Phone: 53-223594
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Manuel Alepuz
Provecto Regional Bahias Y Zonas Costeras
Ap. 17029
Havana
Cuba
Phone: 53-616941
Sr. Pedro Luis Dorticos del Rio
Presidente
Institute de Hidroeconomia
del Ministerio de la Construedon
Monserrate No. 258
Apartado Postal 6533
Havana 1
Cuba
Phone: 53-069269
Sr. Marcos Portal Leon
Minister
Ministry of Basic Industries
Avda Salvador Allende
No. 666
Havana
Cuba
Phones 53-707111
Sr. Julio Tejas Perez
Minister
Ministry of Public Health
Calle 23, No 201
Vedado
Havana
Cuba
Phone: 53-322561
59
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Pres. Rafael Sed Perez
Institute Nacional de Turismo (INTUR)
Avda de Malecon y G
Vedado
Apdo 42394
Havana 4
Cuba
Phone: 53-320571
Sr. Adolfo Diaz Suarez
Minister
Ministry of Agriculture
Avda Lndependencia
entre Conill y Sta Ana
Havana
Cuba
Phone: 53-708091
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DOMINICA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Dominica, an independent state within the British Commonwealth,
is located in the Eastern Caribbean in the Windward islands, to
the south of Guadeloupe and to the north of Martinique. Its area
is 750.6 sq km. In 1964 the estimated population was 83, £66, and
thus the population density was 111 people per sq km. The
principal towns are Roseau, the capital, and Portsmouth. The
official language is English, though French patois is widely
spoken. The currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar which has a
fixed parity with the US dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook, Archer 1988,
and Cardi 1985)
The principal crops produced on the island are bananas, dasheen,
tannias, grapefruit, and limes. There is export trade in bananas
(the number one export earner in 1984), vegetable oils (the
third highest export earner in 1984), grapefruit (the fifth
highest export earner in 1984), as well as coconuts and other
fruits and vegetables.
Pesticides are widely used on crops in Dominica, and their
residues may be posing dangers to marine ecosystems. A 1985
study by CARDI found 10 varieties of fungicides, 11 varieties of
herbicides, and 11 varieties of insecticides in use on the
island.
Archer (1988) noted that residues from Grammoxene and Dieldrin
from use on island crops resulted in large fish kills and in the
destruction of aquatic flora and fauna in rivers that eventually
lead to the sea.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Archer 1984)
In Archer's 1984 study on LBS the main types of industrial
processes observed to be impacting the coast were rum
distillation, and the production of soft drinks, citrus juices,
jans and jellies, soaps and detergents, cooking oils, pepper
61
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sauces, and animal feed.
Archer's study noted that most of the industrial waste's toxic
content did not appear to be very high, but that the relatively
high COD, BOD, and solids could have effects on local marine
areas when such wastes are discharged into rivers. It was
recommended that regulations be enforced regarding pre-treatwent
of wastes from the detergent and soap factory. Slaughter house
wastes pollute the inshore areas of Basterre Bay, warranting some
sort of regulation as well.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Archer 1984 & 1988)
There is a sewage system in the main urban center of Rosseau, but
there are no treatment facilities for the sewage. Sewage is
discharged through outfall pipes to the sea, though frequently
sewage ends up deposited back on the beaches because of hurricane
damage to the pipes. Archer also notes that these same beaches
are used for sea bathing, and waters off the beaches are used for
nearshore fishing. (Archer 1988)
The sewage system was estimated to serve 13.5 percent of the
island's population, while 16 percent of the population is served
by septic tanks. The sludge from these tanks is also polluting
Rosseau and its adjacent beaches. Privy pits serve approximately
25 percent of the population. Excreta have also been directly
disposed of into rivers, thus polluting the marine coastal areas.
(Archer 1984)
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Archer 1984)
Solid waste is disposed of in open dumps with periodic burning.
Refuse is also dumped on the coast and beaches. Dumps are
located on a river bank at Coptha1, and at Canefield, Goodwill,
Loubiere, and Portsmouth on the coast. (Archer 1984)
Overall Environmental Management
and water Quality Monitoring
(Sources3 Interview W/CEHI
and Cambers 1988)
The Ministry of Agriculture, Trade and Tourism has been
identified by UNEP as its contact regarding coordinative
environmental control and the CAP. This Ministry appears to be
responsible for coastal zone monitoring as well as for
62
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agricultural concerns.
The Ministry of Health's Environmental Health Department is
currently undertaking coastal water quality monitoring under a
program through CEHI. This department is likely the best contact
regarding questions on whether there are any types of industrial
pollution control.
The Central Water Services Commission is currently responsible
for sewage waste disposal, and under a program with CEHI is
undertaking water quality monitoring.
The Ministry of Health's Environmental Health Department or the
Ministry of Communications and Works may have responsibility for
solid waste disposal.
The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development's Planning
Office also has some environmental mandates.
fl description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in Dominica has been compiled by B. Lausche
for OECS-NRMP.
Resource data maps for Dominica were compiled by ECNAMP in 1982,
and include maps of land use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities, and pollution.
63
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Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. I. Baptist*
Senior Physical Planner
Planning Office
Ministry of Finance and Economic
Development
Government Headquarters
Kennedy Ave
Roseau
Dominica
Phonet 809-448-2401
Mr. John Fabien
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Environmental Health Department
Ministry of Health
Government Head q uart ers
Kennedy five
Roseau
Dominica
Phonei 809-448-2401
Mr. Oliver Brell
Agriculture Officer
Division of Agriculture
Government Headquarters
Kennedy Ave
Roseau
Dominica
Phonei 809-488-2731
Hon. Charles Maynard
Minister
Ministry of Agriculture, Trade and Tourism
Government Headq uart ers
Kennedy Ave
Roseau
Dominica
Phones 809-448-2401 x 282
Faxi 809-448-5200
Mr. Shelfaut Pacquette
Manager
Central Water Services Commission
c/o Government Headquarters
Kennedy Ave
Roseau*
Dominica
Phone: 809-448-2401
64
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DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
The Dominican Republic, an independent nation, is located on an
island in the Greater Antilles to the southeast of Cuba, to the
northeast of Jamaica and to the west of Puerto Rico. The
Dominican Republic occupies the eastern half of the island,
sharing it with the nation of Haiti which occupies the western
half of the land—mass. The Dominican Republic occupies an area
of 48,422 sq km and in 1986 was estimated to have a population of
approximately 6,416,000. The population density was thus 132.5
persons per sq km. The capital of the Dominican Republic is
Santo Domingo, which is home to over a fifth of the population.
The official language is Spanish. The currency is the Dominican
Republic peso.
Agriculture employed approximately 41 percent of the work force
in 1983, contributed over half of the export earnings, and
comprised approximately 17 percent of GDP. The manufacturing
sector comprised 17 percent of GDP in 1985. The mining sector
accounted for approximately 4 percent of GDP.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook,
USAID Country Report, and
BID Conference Paper)
Sugar is the major crop and export earner. There is a large
sugar mill at La Romana and there are about 15 additional mills
in the country. Additionally, coffee, cocoa, beans, tobacco, and
pineapple are important export earning crops in the Dominican
Republic. Rice, maize, beans, tomatoes, cassava, bananas,
plantains, mangoes, and other fruit are grown primarily for
domestic consumption. There is livestock production and
fisheries exploitation. Use of pesticides and fertilizers is
widespread and has been found to be contaminating surface and
ground waters according to USAID and BID conference reports.
Processing of livestock for meat products has resulted in dumping
of blood into waters and sewers near meat packing plants
according to the USAID report and mention was made that at least
one major packer is planning to recover blood for use as animal
feed.
65
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Deforestation was noted in the BID conference paper as a
significant environmental problem in the Dominican Republic and
may be thought to be contributing to siltation problems in the
marine environment.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi BID Conference Paper
and USAID Country Report)
Industrial processing of mining products, of food and beverage
products such as sugar, coffee, cocoa, fruits, meats, vegetables,
beer, sodas, and distilled liquors, and of animal feed, textiles,
paper, cement, Pharmaceuticals, detergents, batteries, chemicals,
petroleum products, and other manufactures have been shown to be
having some negative impacts on the waters of the Dominican
Republic. The USAID report noted that there have been some
attempts by industries to control releases.
The mining industry is involved in the extraction and processing
of nickel, gold, silver, and bauxite. Sodium cyanide used in
processing gold and silver, is not being discharged to the
environment, and other effluents released in this processing are
discharged to tailings ponds where underlying groundwater seepage
is monitored. (USAID)
Some foreign industrial producers operating in the nation conform
to their home country standards with regard to discharges. Yet,
many industries are releasing effluents untreated that are
serving to adversely affect the environment. (USAID)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources USAID Country Report)
There have been increasing concerns in the Dominican Republic
with providing sewage treatment systems before outfall ing sewage
to the sea. A number of cities in the nation are located on the
water and there is increasing concern regarding discharge of
sewage directly to waters, affecting human health, tourism, and
fisheries. It was noted that there were 11 sewage treatment
facilities on the island, but that sanitary sewers served only
15—25 percent of the urban population, and that both rural and
urban surface and ground waters appeared to be affected by fecal
coliform contamination. (USAID)
-------
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei USAID Country Report)
Solid waste, in the urban areas of Santo Domingo, has been
disposed of at two sites, one a sanitary landfill, and the other
an open dump. Some collection problems in certain areas of the
city have been noted. The majority of the waste appeared to be
biodegradable. Leachate was not being monitored at the landfill
and there appeared to be minimal compaction and covering at the
open dump. (USAID)
There is some recycling of paper, glass and metal by national
industries. There have been discussions of composting.
Hazardous wastes from the hospital are usually incinerated.
(USAID)
Overall Environmental Management
and water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcesi USAID Country Report
and BID Conference Paper)
The Comision Nacional del Medio Ambiente is the institution
responsible for developing policy and planning with regard to the
environment and has been instrumental in the establishment of the
Council for Natural Resources Management, an inter—institutional
coordinating body. It also works closely with the Oficina
Nacional de Planificacion (ONAPLAN). The Dentro de la Seerataria
de Estado de Agricultural (SEA's) Sub—Secretaria de Recursos
Naturales (SURENA), works on environmental education and
extension, has responsibility for managing natural resource use
and to that end has instituted an inventory of the natural
resources of the Dominican Republic. It also works on inter-
institutional cooperation.
Water resource management responsibilities are also held by the
Institute Nacional de Recursos Hidraulicos (INDRIHI), the
Institute Nacional de Aguas Potables y Alcantarillados (INAPA),
the Corporacion de Acueducto y Alcantarillado de Santo Domingo
(CAASD), the Secretaria de Estado de Salud Publica y Asistencia
Social (SESPAS), the Departamento de Tierras y Aguas (DTA) in the
SEA and the Departamento de Recursos Pesqueros (DRP) in the SEA.
It would appear that the INAPA is responsible for overall
management of potable water and sewers and the CAASD has that
responsibility for the city of Santo Domingo. The SESPAS, like
other health authorities appears to have oversight
responsibilities with regard to water quality as it affects
health.
67
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According to both the USAID report and the BID conference paper,
there is little to no regulation and control by the government
with regard to activities of mines and industry, operations for
disposal and collection of wastes are inefficient, and there is
little control of excessive pesticide use.
There is some monitoring of water at the sewage treatment
facilities by INAPA which has a central water purity laboratory
with capacity for testing of chemical, physical, and
bacteriological properties of water. There also appears to be
some monitoring carried out at plants by multinational
corporations.
-------
Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Manuel Amezquita
Secretaria dm Agricultura
Centro de lo* Heroe* de con*tanza
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Phonei 809-533-7171
Sra. Libbym Fernandez
DepartaMento de Cooperacion Tecnica
Oficina Nacional de Planificacion
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Sr. Antonio Thomen
Comision Nacional del Medio Ambient i
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
-------
FRENCH GUIANA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
French Guiana is a French dependency, and is located in South
America between Guyana and Venezuela. It occupies an area of
90,000 sq km. Its population in January 1986 was estimated at
84,177. The population density is thus less than one person per
sq km. The capital of French Guiana is Cayenne, which is home to
approximately one half of the population. The official language
of French Guiana is French, and the currency is the French franc.
Shrimp, fish, and other seafood products represent almost two-
thirds of the economy*s export revenue. Exports of timber
accounted for about 12 percent of total value of exports in 1985,
and were the second largest source of foreign exchange in the
economy in that year. While the tourism sector is growing, it
continues to contribute only a small amount to foreign exchange
earnings. Manufacturing is limited primarily to the processing of
fish and agricultural products, and includes the distillation of
rum. Mining operations of gold are undertaken, and kaolin and
bauxite have been discovered and may be mined in the future.
It is not unusual for French Guiana, like the other French
Overseas Departments of Martinique and Guadeloupe, to run large
trade deficits. The French government provides aid transfers to
all of these departments to reduce the deficits.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
The main crops produced are rice and citrus fruits for export,
and maize, cassava, bananas, and assorted fruits for domestic
consumption. There is some cultivation of sugar for rum
production. Potential for extension of agriculture in the
country is great since only 0.2 percent of the land area is
cultivated.
Fertilizers and pesticides are used on crops in French Guiana,
and as in other areas in the region, they may be posing problems
to the marine environment.
Cattle farms are located on the coastal plains, and there are
some exports of meat. Some abattoirs dump wastes directly into
the water.
70
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
-------
Contacts for Environmental Coordination
M. Michot
Irmtitut Franca i* de Recherche pour
1* Exploitation de la Mer (IFREHER)
Laboratoire dm la Buyane
Villa Plenet, Rout* de Bourda
Cay«vm*
French Guiana
Phone « 594-317730/3Qe&14
N. BaorgM Othily
Conceil Regional de la Ouyane
24 rue 1'Alouette
9730O Cayenne
French 6uiana
Phone i 594-30555
72
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GRENADA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Grenada, an independent state Mithin the British Commonwealth, is
located in the Eastern Caribbean, at the southernmost point in
the Windward Island chain, to the north of Trinidad and Tobago,
and to the south of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The island
of Grenada itself is 311 sq km in area, but taking into account
its sister islands of Carriacou, Petite Martinique, and Isle de
Ronde and a number of small inlets, the state officially
encompasses 344 sq km. The population Mas estimated at 89,088 in
the 1981 census. Population density is approximately 286 persons
per sq km.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984 and CORDI 1985)
The principal crops produced on the islands are cocoa, nutmeg,
bananas, mace, ginger, cinnamon, avocadoes, mangoes, coconuts,
sugar, and various roots, tubers, and vegetables. Crops grown
for export include cocoa, nutmeg, mace and other spices, and
bananas and other fresh fruit.
Pesticides are used on crops in Grenada, particularly on bananas
and nutmeg, and their residues may be posing dangers to marine
ecosystems. Benlate has been identified as one of the
herbicides/fungicides used on the island. A 1985 study by CARDI
found 10 varieties of fungicides, 13 varieties of herbicides
including paraquat, and 14 varieties of insecticides in use on
the island. Fertilizer residues are partially to blame for the
eutrophication of bays around Aux Epines. (Archer 1984)
Agriculturally related production and processing generate solid
wastes and are noted below. Bagasse from sugar cane is burnt and
used as fertilizer having a negligible environmental impact.
Banana rejects and leaves are dumped in rivers and on land
causing marine and river pollution. (Archer 1984)
73
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Archer 1984
and Interview)
Archer's 1984 study on LBS identifies the main types of
industrial processes which may be impacting the coast and sea in
Grenada as those from sugar cane, molasses and syrup, distillery,
brewery, edible oil, coconut meal, soap, dairy products, fruit
cannery, abattoir, fish processing, soft drinks, and flour mill
processing.
Archer's study also remarked that discolored waste, high BOD
from distillery and brewery waste, and caustic effluents from
soap, oil, and soft drink manufacture, were being discharged into
streams and rivers and were reaching the sea in diluted states.
•Industrial waste from sugar factory and rum distilleries flow
into rivers where approximately 75 percent reach the sea after
some aeration (natural) and dilution. Caustic waste from the
brewery is first neutralized and discharged into the sea, and so
are those of the slaughter house with its nutrients and
chlorides" (Archer 1984 appendix £(B)). Volumes of wastes and
levels of BODS, COD, SS, TDS, oil, nitrogen, zinc oxide,
chlorides, and alkalinity were provided. It was noted, though,
that the volumes of the wastes are relatively low and at this
time may be causing little discernible destruction in the marine
environment when compared with soil erosion and
pesticide/fertilizer damage.
Industrially generated solid wastes are also having an impact on
the marine environment. Fish scales and entrails from fish
processing are dumped at sea and refuse dumps, causing coastal
and marine pollution. Skin, bones, and entrails from abattoirs
dumped at sea also cause marine degradation. (Archer 1964)
The Ministry of Health's Environmental Health Department was
contacted regarding industrial wastes. The soap factory, which
was causing major marine damage through release of wastes through
the river, is currently closed, and it is uncertain when or if
it will re open. Discussions have been underway regarding how to
reduce damages from this and other industrial sources through
counteractive treatment measures and possible extension of
sewerage systems with treatment facilities to areas where there
is major industrial pollution! funding for such efforts is the
major constraint.
74
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Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Archer 1984 and 1988
and Interview)
There is a sewage system in the main urban center of St. Georges,
but as the Archer study noted the system is overloaded and there
are no treatment facilities; this system reportedly serves
approximately 9.5 percent of Grenada's population. Septic tanks
serve another 46 percent of the population and privy pits serve
approximately 43.5 percent. Extended aeration package plants are
used at hotels (Archer 1984, Table 3b>.
According to the Archer study, adverse effects to coastal areas
are observable in the Carenage and Grand Anse Beach areas
(locales particularly important for tourism) and to the north and
south of St. George's harbor. The harbor is reportedly
discolored by raw sewage, and observations have been made of
three high BOD, COD, and SS loadings and of O2 deficiency. Bays
around Lance Aux Epines have been eutrophied by sewage. The
damages appear to be significantly related to urban wastes and
less significantly to rural sanitary facilities. (Archer 1984
Table 3b) Archer also furnishes estimates of waste loads from
domestic effluents (Archer 1984, Appendix Ij&k).
In my contact with the Central Water and Sewage Authority
regarding the current status of the sewage systems on the island,
it was learned that a new sewer outfall in St. Georges has been
completed and is alleviating some of the problems in the area.
Additionally, it was mentioned that a USAID-funded project was
underway to put in a new sewerage system with possible primary
treatment south of St. Georges and extending to the Pt. Salines
area. The Central Water and Sewage Authority has responsibility
for sewage, and monitors water quality on the island under a
program with CEHI.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Archer 1984 and
Interview)
Solid Waste is disposed of in open dumps with open burning and is
also dumped on river banks. In a discussion with the Ministry of
Health's Environmental Health Department, which is responsible
for solid waste disposal on the island, I found that there are
two main dump sites on the island and both are relatively near
the water. A lack of equipment, which when used must be rented,
prevents what would normally be considered a successful landfill
operation. It was noted that although leachate is not currently
monitored, it may be in the future through the water quality
monitoring program established through CEHI at the Central Water
75
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and Sewage Authority. Hospital waste* are handled by
incineration and there currently is not a program for selective
disposal of other types of hazardous wastes where they exist.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Interviews)
Various institutions share environmental responsibilities for the
environment. The Ministry of Health and Housing has been
identified by UNEP as a coordinating point for the CAP. The
Ministry of Agriculture would appear to be the best contact for
further information regarding crop production and fertilizer and
pesticide use. The Central Water and Sewage Authority would be
the best contact for questions on sewage disposal. The Ministry
of Health's Environmental Health Department is responsible for
solid waste disposal. There is no specifically designated office
to deal with industrial pollution, though the Environmental
Health Department would appear to have some mandate for this.
The Physical Planning Unit also has some environmentally related
authority.
There is monitoring of water quality by the Central Water and
Sewage Authority under a program directed by the Caribbean
Environmental Health Institute. At present there does not appear
to be a single agency on the island designated with
responsibility for environmental protection.
A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in Grenada has been compiled by B. Lausche
for OECS-NRMP.
Resource Data Maps of Grenada were compiled by ECNAMP in 1962 and
include maps of land use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities, and pollution.
76
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Dennis Campbell
Central Water and Sewage Authority
St. Georges
Grenada
Phone: 809-440-3390
Mr. Curtis Edwards
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Environmental Health Department
Ministry of Health and Housing
St. Georges
Grenada
Phone: 809-440-2846
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Charles H. Francis
Land Use Officer
Ministry of Agriculture
St. Georges
Grenada
Phone: 809-440-3347
Mr. Carlton Frederick
Chief Planning ft Development Officer
Physical Planning Unit
Land Development Control Authority
St. Georges
Grenada
Phone: 809-440-2471
Ms. Ruth Rahin
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Health and Housing
St. Georges
Grenada
Phone: 809-440-2846
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GUADELOUPE
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Guadeloupe, a French Overseas Department, is located in the
Eastern Caribbean to the south of Montserrat and Antigua—Barbuda,
and to the north of Dominica. Guadeloupe occupies an area of
1780 sq km and of which its dependencies of La Desirade, Les
Santes, Marie-Galante, St. Barts, and St. Martin comprise 269 sq
km. In 1985 the population was estimated at 333,378 and thus the
population density can be estimated at 187 persons per sq km.
The principal towns are Basse—Terre (the capital) and Pointe—a—
Pitre. The currency is the French franc and the official
language is French.
Agriculture,and tourism, and light industry (comprised primarily
of the processing of food and beverages) are the mainstays of the
economy. French aid and subsidies contribute significantly to
the standard of living in Guadeloupe, which is sighted as being
one of the highest in the eastern Caribbean.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
The main agricultural commodities produced in Guadeloupe are
bananas and plantains, sugar, eggplant, coconuts, pineapples.
winter vegetables, plants, flowers and coffee are also
cultivated.
Agricultural exports including food and live animals accounted
for approximately 75 percent of export earnings in 1985, of which
50 percent is derived from bananas and plantains. Exports of
wheat meal, flour, and raw sugar comprised the remaining bulk of
agricultural exports in that year.
There is use of pesticides and fertilizers, which together with
soil erosion, may be affecting the marine environment.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Industrial activity on Guadeloupe is centered on the processing
of agricultural products such as sugar and rum. There are four
78
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sugar refineries and at least one rum distillery on the island.
Additionally there is production of textiles, furniture, metals,
plastics, and printed products. There is an industrial zone and
free port at Jarry.
In other countries and islands in the region where the above
industrial activities are being carried out, there have been
effects to the Marine environment. Having been unable to contact
Guadeloupe, one might conjecture that, as in Martinique, another
french overseas department, there is some pre—treatment of
industrial wastes and some regulation regarding discharges akin
to the laws in France. This has not been confirmed.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
Having been unable to contact officials in Guadeloupe, no
information on this issue is available.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
Having been unable to contact officials in Guadeloupe, no
information on this issue is available.
Overall Environmental Management
And Water Quality Monitoring
Having been unable to contact officials in Guadeloupe, the
following comments are brief and subject to revision. UNEP's
main contact in Guadeloupe regarding environmental management
issues and the CAP is the Conseil General de Guadeloupe. This
council appears to be the equivalent of a federal body and has
some concern over the environment. It would appear that, as in
Martinique, this council shares responsibilities for the
environment with the local/city government offices (possibly
lfInstitut Pasteur). In the past the Delegue Regional a
1*Architecture at a 1'Environnement da Guadeloupe has also bean
involved in meetings of the UNEP CAP, as has the Universite
Antilles—Guyane Francaise in Guadeloupe. It is likely that somi
environmental and water quality monitoring is undertaken by one
of these organizations. It is believed that industries may be
subject to pre-treatment standards and recommended practices
under laws akin to those of France.
Resource data maps for Guadeloupe were compiled by the Eastern
Caribbean Natural Area Management Program in 1982, and include
maps of land use capability, present land use, marine resource
use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important marine
79
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habitats, endangered and locally important species, population
densities and pollution.
ae
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Contacts for Environmental Coordination
M. Jacques de Agostini
Delegue Regional a 1*Architecture
et a l*Environneiaent de Guadeloupe
BP 1002 a Point-a-Pitre
97178 Cedex
Rue de la Ville d'Orly
Lauricisoque
97178 Point-a-Pitre
Guadeloupe
Phone: 590-917254
M. Dominique Larifla
President
Conseil General de Guadeloupe
Bd. du Gouverneur General Felix Eboue
97109 Basse-Terre
Guadeloupe
Phone: 590-811560
Fax: 590-816879
M. Jacques Etienne Portecop
Professeur
Universite Anti1les—Guyane Francaise
BP 532 UER Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
Po i nt —a—P i t re
Guadeloupe 37167 Cedex
Phone: 590-950015
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GUATEMALA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
Guatemala, an independent nation, is located in Central America
to the south of Belize and to the north of Honduras. It occupies
an area of 108,889 sq km. Its population in mid-1986 was
estimated at 8,195,000. Its population density is therefore
approximately 75 persons per sq km. Its capital, Guatemala City,
is the largest population center in the nation. The official
language of Guatemala is Spanish. The currency is the quetzal.
Agriculture employs more than half of the working population of
Guatemala and represents approximately one quarter of the
nation's GDP. There is also an active fishing and livestock
industry and large forestry resources. Agriculture, forestry,
fishing, and hunting accounted for approximately 1,422,580 jobs
in 1985. Reputedly the largest and one of most developed
manufacturing sectors in Central America, the industrial sector
including construction employs about 18 percent of the work force
and makes up about 20 percent of GDP. In 1985 an estimated
332,996 persons were employed in manufacturing and 100,388 in
construction. Mining and quarrying employed approximately 2,449
persons in 1985.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook
and BID Conference Paper)
The principal exports are coffee, bananas, cardamon, sugar, and
cotton represented respectively 44 percent, 7 percent, 5 percent,
5 percent, and 3 percent of exports by value in 1986. Maize,
rice, dry beans, and wheat are grown as domestic staple crops.
Major plantation areas are in the Motagua River Valley along the
Caribbean coast. There is use of agricultural chemicals on
crops in Guatemala and because plantations are located close to
the coast they are likely responsible for contamination
problems.
Beef and veal, pork, poultry, cheese, butter, hen eggs, and
cattle hides are produced. Fresh meats were the eighth highest
export earner in 1986. Abattoirs and dairies may be affecting
the marine environment, if any of their wastes are being disposed
of into waters.
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Two-thirds of the land area of Guatemala is covered with forest,
containing large amounts of cedars and mahogany. According to.a
recent paper presented at a conference on the environment and
NGO's held by the BID, deforestation has become a serious
problem. This paper also mentioned, though, that reforestation of
the Nor—Oriente is being undertaken along with promotion of soil
conservation and agro—forestry.
Fisheries are important to the Guatemalan economy; shellfish
exports were the seventh highest export earner in 1986. It is
thus economically important that fisheries remain free from
cont am i nat ion.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and
Written Correspondence)
Industry in Guatemala is primarily involved with the processing
and/or production of food and beverages, tobacco and cigarettes,
building materials, textiles, steel, petrochemicals, crafts, and
sugar.
There is a mining and minerals sector in Guatemala. While
petroleum production was the sixth largest export earner in 1986,
with main reserves located in the north near Mexico, there is
conflicting evidence to indicate that petroleum is imported to
serve consumption needs. Copper is mined in Alta Verapaz. Lead,
zinc, nickel, antimony, tungsten, and iron ore are or have been
mined in the country, and reserves of sulfur and marble exist.
According to CONAMA, currently, there is little treatment of
industrial wastes before discharge, and where it exists it is on
the industry's own initiative. New legislation passed in 1989
does specify sanctions for industrial waste discharges. There
do appear to be some problems to waters from such wastes.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Written Correspondence)
There appear to be some problems from sewage disposal to the sea,
especially from wastes discharged to the Motagua River.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Written Correspondence)
Solid wastes are disposed of into pits and have been known to
83
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affect the marine areas, especially where populations are located
along the seas and wastes are disposed of into sites near coasts.
Overal1 Environmental Management
and Mater Quality Monitoring
(Sourcesi Written Correspondence, BID Conference Paper,
Buckley—Ess and Europa Yearbook)
El Comision Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA) is the
organization in Guatemala created to handle coordination and
promotion of work on the environment| it is under the
Presidencia de la Republica. The ministries and authorities
which CONAMA seeks to coordinate for environmental tasks include,
but are not limited to, the Public Health Ministry, the Ministry
of Agriculture, the Ministry of Energy and Mines, the Ministry of
Urban and Rural Development, the Ministry of Education and the
Tourism Institute. There is also work by municipal authorities
regarding the treatment of solid wastes, the treatment of sewage
effluents, and systems for pollution control. Numerous non-
governmental organizations also work for the environment and
include marine research centers.
Recently there have been increases in environmental budgets. The
Congress of the Republic has introduced new national
environmental legislation which is presently in various stages of
revision.
In addition the Presidencia de la Republica has stipulated
limits for the discharge of wastes into waters by the industrial
and agricultural sectors, and has taken some initiatives to
control the use of chlorofluorocarbons.
Private sector support for environmental protection appears to be
increasing, but as yet there has been very little real initiative
by industrial and agro—industrial sectors to deal with
contamination control.
There are projects undertaken or planned with international
assistance for remote sensing for natural resources, promotion of
activities in soil conservation and agro—forestry, environmental
sanitation in areas of the capital, evaluation of sewage
effluents on water quality, and preservation of Lake Amatitlan.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Sr. Jorge A. Cabrera Hidalgo
Coordinator
Comision Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA)
Presidencia de la Republica
6A Avenida 1-32, Zona 1
Cd. de Guatemala
Guatemala
Phone: 582-2-533617
Facsimiliei 502-2-535109
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Jose Luis Castillo de Leon
Chief
Departamento de Asuntos Multilaterales
Direccion de Cooperacion Technica
Secretaria General del Consejo
Nacional de Planificacion Economica (SE6EPLAN)
Ing. Luis Ernesto Barrera Garavito
Director
Direccion General de Bosques (DI6EBOS)
Phone: 502-2-735209/735207
Lie. Ismael Ponciano
Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON)
Universidad de San Carlos
Avenida de la Reforma 0—63, Zona 10
Guatemala, Guatemala
Phonet 502-2-310904
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GUYANA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Guyana is located on the northern coast of South America to the
east of Venezuela and to the Nest of Suriname. Its area is
214,969 sq km and its population Mas estimated at 790,000 in mid-
1985. At that time the population density was 3.7 persons per
sq km. The capital is Georgetown. The official language is
English and the currency is the Guyana dollar.
Economic activity in Guyana centers around sugar, rice, and
bauxite.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook and BID Conference Paper)
The principal crops in Guyana are rice, sugar, coconut, oranges,
bananas and plantains, maize and roots and tubers. Of these,
there are significant exports in sugar and rice.
The livestock industry is active, and there is an abattoir.
There is also a significant forestry industry and there are
exports of timber. The fishing industry is undergoing expansion.
Widespread pesticide use may be affecting the marine environment,
but effects on marine ecosystems have not been measured. Soil
erosion from wood removals and agriculture have been reducing
river flows and having impacts on river ecosystems. (BID
Conference Paper)
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Europa Yearbook and BID Conference Paper)
Bauxite is mined and processed in Guyana and typically this
industry makes the largest contribution to export earnings.
Caustic soda wastes from bauxite processing feed into settlement
ponds and may be affecting the surface and ground waters nearby.
(BID Conference Paper)
There is also some limited mining of gold and diamonds. Mercury
from gold mining is a threat to the marine environment. (BID
Conference Paper)
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Most industry in Guyana appears to be nationalized. There is
production and processing of sugar, bauxite, beer, cigarettes,
and pesticides. (Europa) Visual surveys indicate that industrial
wastes are often released directly to rivers, drainage canals,
and the sea, posing threats to both human health and the marine
environment. (BID Conference Paper)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Interview)
No information was provided on sewage wastes, except for noting
that these wastes are handled in Georgetown by the Georgetown
Water and Sewage Commission.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources BID Conference Paper)
Solid waste in Georgetown, the capital, is collected
infrequently, causing garbage to either pile up or be thrown into
drainage canals. In other parts of Guyana dumping into canals
and drains, and burning or burying wastes in backyard pits are
common disposal methods. There are landfills in some areas but
they are not maintained properly.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interview)
The Agency for Health, Sciences, Education, Environment and Food
Policy is responsible for overall coordination on environmental
issues, as well as environmental education and public awareness.
While, at present, there are no clearly defined mechanisms for
handling pesticides, this agency may handle this issue in the
future. As well, there is currently no regulation of industrial
waste releases, but this may also be handled by the agency in the
future. Currently, a draft "Environmental Protection Act" is
being reviewed for possible legislative action.
The Local Councils are responsible for handling solid waste
collection throughout the country.
Sewage disposal, at least in Georgetown, is handled by the
Georgetown Water and Sewage Commission which is a branch of the
City Council.
There is some monitoring of water quality by the Government
87
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Analysts Department and the Institute of Applied Science and
Technology. There nay be some monitoring in the future by thi
Agency for Health, Sciences, Education, Environment and Food
Policy possibly in conjunction with the CEHI program.
-------
Professionals Contacted During This Study
Dr. Walter Chin
Head
Agency for Health Sciences, Education,
Environment and Food Policy
Liliendaal
Greater Georgetown
Guyana
Phone: 592-2-57523
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HAITI
Basis Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook and BID Latin Am Report)
Haiti, an independent nation, is located on an island in the
Greater Antilles to the southeast of Cuba, to the northeast of
Jamaica, and to the west of Puerto Rico. Haiti occupies the
western half of an island, the eastern half of which is the
Dominican Republic which occupies the eastern half of the land-
mass. Haiti occupies an area of 27,750 sq km and in 1987 had a
population estimated at 6,033,000 (BID Latin Am Report). Thus
the density in 1987 was approximately 217 persons per sq km. The
capital of Haiti is Port—au—Prince. The official language is
French. The currency is the gourde, which has a fixed parity
with the US dollar.
The per capita GDP in Haiti in 1987 was estimated at 9300, with
total GDP estimated at si. 8 billion US. Value added by
agriculture in 1987 was S606 million US, by manufacturing was
S275 million US, by construction was 4112 million US, and by
other sectors was 4850 million US. Total exports of goods and
services in 1987 were S437 million US and imports were *6S3
Million US. (BID Latin Am Report)
Labor force by sector is 65.4 percent in agriculture, 6.5 percent
in manufacturing, 1.2 percent in construction, 1 percent in
mining, and 25.9 percent in others. (BID Latin Am Report)
The largest export earners in 1985/86, excluding re—exports, were
from greatest to leasti manufactured articles, coffee, light
industrial products, cocoa, essential oils, molasses, sisal, rope
and cord. (Europa)
Import expenditures in 1985/86 were from greatest to leasts
machinery and transport, basic manufactures, food and live
animals, mineral fuels, lubricants, etc., chemicals,
animal and vegetable oils and fats, crude, inedible materials
(except fuels), beverages and tobacco. (Europa)
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook,
USAID 1985, and BID Conference Paper)
The main cash crops are coffee and sugar. Major export crops are
coffee, cocoa, essential oils for the pharmaceutical and
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cosmetic industries, and mangoes, and molasses. The main food
crops are sugar, rice, maize, avocados, bananas, vegetables,
sorghum, and citrus fruits. The fishing industry is thought to
be quite underdeveloped and could serve as a high source of
protein. Haiti is said to produce only 20 percent of its
domestic food requirements.
Crops are frequently grown on small hillside plots, and a USAID
1985 report noted that annual production cycles, along with the
lack of soil conservation practices, leads to severe erosion,
with land degradation furthered in mountain areas by population
pressure.
The upper watershed above Port-au-Prince is in the process of
being reforested, thus hopefully reducing the amount of sediment
from run—off that is ending up in the city's sewers, and
eventually, the sea. (USftID)
0 paper recently presented at the BID conference on the
environment noted that population pressure and deforestation are
aggravating soil erosion leading to a choking of waterways such
as the Reservoir de Peligre and the Saut Mathurine. The
hydroelectric capacity of the dams associated with these bodies
of water and thus dam utilities were thus reduced. Urbanization
on previously productive agricultural land, such as the Cul de
Sac plain, has led to water pollution. Hills are deforested for
charcoal. (BID Conference Paper)
Agricultural chemicals are used on crops, and in addition to the
extensive soil erosion problems are likely causing damages to the
marine environment.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and USAID 1985)
Production for the domestic market is by outdated factories
producing cooking oil, shoes, detergents, cement, cigarettes,
flour, beverages, and household utensils. Foreign-owned assembly
plants, primarily US firms, produce electronic components,
clothing, toys, and baseballs. There is also much production of
local handicrafts for export. Manufactures are the number one
export earners in the economy.
There is potential for copper and gold mining, and there has been
some prospecting for petroleum. ft bauxite mine is no longer in
operat ion.
Industrial pollution into the waters near Port-au-Prince has been
observed, and may well be a problem elsewhere in the country.
Some industries do pre-treat wastes before disposal. (USfilD)
91
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Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: USAID 1985)
UNICEF reported in 1984 that 40 percent of the population, mostly
urban dwellers , were using latrines or septic tanks.Operation
and maintenance of these disposal methods are often deficient,
leading to an increase in the contamination of surface and
groundwater from human waste and other solid and liquid wastes.
(USAID 1985)
Only 35 percent of the population appeared to have adequate
sewage waste disposal, according to the USAID report, but it was
noted that there are plans to construct latrine facilities for
the unserved population by the year 1990.
The Division of Public Hygiene in the Ministry of Public Health
and Population is in charge of waste disposal, construction of
latrines, and disposal of wastes from septic tanks and latrines.
At the time of the USAID report, Haiti had no authority which
reviewed the design or construction of septic tanks and other
facilities.
The Division of Public Hygiene empties septic tanks, and, at the
time of the USAID report, was dumping these into a field site
near a landfill at Truitier (10km from the city). The report
noted that a large portion of sewage is dumped at sea, and in
storm sewers after collection by honey dippers at night. As
well, it was suspected that industry, commerce and government
have illegal connection to pipe effluents into the drainage
system.
At the time of the USAID report in 1985 there was no sewage
system in Port—au—Prince; whether this is the current situation
has not been confirmed.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources USAID 1985)
The Service Metropolitain de Collecta des Residus Sol ides
(SMCRS) is responsible for solid waste disposal in Port-au-
Prince. In the provincial towns the Division of Public
Hygiene's authorities or the Mairie or both have responsibility
for solid waste disposal. SMCRS collects refuse and disposes of
it at a sanitary landfill at Truitier.
-------
Overall Environmental Management
and Mater Quality Monitoring
(Sourcei BID Conference Paper)
There are two kinds of environmental protection institutions in
Haiti. First, there are regular ministries which oversee
environmental protection within their respective sectors (for
examples le Ministere de 1*Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelies
et du Developpement Rural, Le Ministere de la Sante Publique et
de la Population, Le Ministere des Travaux Publics Transports et
Communications, Le Ministere des Mines et des Ressources
Energetiques, and Le Ministere de 1*Interieur et de la Defense
Nationale, L'Institut National de la Culture et des Arts,
L'Office National du Tourisme. Second, there is a body which
seeks to coordinate work on the environment. In 1977 the
Conseil National de 1'Environnement et de lutte contre 1*Erosion
(CONAELE) was established; this was replaced by the Commission
Nationale a 1*Amenagement du Territoire (CONAT). Both
organizations were intended to have strong advisory roles, but
they were weak, poorly organized, and inadequately funded. There
was also competition for such a role from the Ministere du
Plan's Direction de 1»Amenagement du Territoire et Protection de
1'Environnement.
A new institution is needed to perform advisory functions, ensure
more sustained action and better organization, and provide
greater expertise. It should be limited to doing studies and
making operational suggestions and legislative recommendations.
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Contacts for Environmental Coordination
M. Frederic Agenor
Ministre
Ministere de 1'agriculture, des ressources naturelies et
du developpement rural
Damien, Port-au-Prince
Haiti
Phones 509-1-23559/25672/25282
M. Claude Dahlberg
Chef de la Protection de I'Environnement
Ministere de I1agriculture, des ressources naturelies et
du developpement rural
Damien, Port—au—Prince
Haiti
Phone 509-1-23457
Direction de la prograraraation economique
et sociale et de I1 amenagement du territoire
Commissariat a la promotion nationale et a
1*administration publique
Rue pavee No. 105
Etage Continental Travel Service
Port—au—Pr i nee, Ha i t i
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HONDURAS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demograph i c Informat ion
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Honduras is located in Central America between Guatemala and
Nicaragua. Its area is 112,088 sq km and its population was
estimated at 3,826,200 in mid 1985. The population density at
•id—1385 Mas 34 persons per sq km. The principal towns are
Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, La Cieb, Choluteca, El Progreso,
Puerto Cortes, Tela, Siguatepeque, Santa Rosa de Copan, Oanli,
Juticalpa, and Qlanchito. It is an independent nation and its
principal language is Spanish. The currency is the lempira which
has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
The economy has active agricultural, fishery, forestry,
livestock, industrial, tourism, and mining sectors. The number of
tourist visits in 1986 was 170,599.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
The main agricultural products are coffee, bananas, tobacco, and
cotton, which were the first, second, eighth, and ninth highest
export earners in 1986. Sugar is also exported in modest
quantities. Maize, beans, rice, plantains, and sorghum are
grown on small private farms for domestic consumption.
Shellfish, particularly lobster and shrimp were the third highest
export earners in 1986. There are also catches of other fish for
both export and domestic consumption.
Timber was the fifth largest export earner in 1986. Forests are
said to cover more than 40 percent of the land area Principal
wraill operations are in Olancho Province at Bonito.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook
and Interview)
There are industries in Honduras producing the following
products! soap, foodstuffs, beverages, textiles, furniture,
cigarettes, refined sugar, paper and pulp, Pharmaceuticals,
chemicals, refined petroleum, cement, alcoholic beverages,
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matches, and paints. All of the above are located in the San
Pedro Sula area, with the exception of butter and some sugar
refining at Comayaguela and petroleum mining at Puerto Cortes.
Several minerals are exploited, including the following: lead,
zinc, silver, gold, copper, and iron. There are also some
deposits of marble and coal.
A representative of Unidad del Medio Ambiente, noted that many
industries discharge directly into nearby rivers with no pre-
treatment.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Interview and USAID Profile)
Information on sewage disposal is incomplete and contact is
recommended with the-sewage authorities or health department.
Sewage wastes are reportedly frequently discharged directly to
the rivers and
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Interview and USAID Profile)
Information on solid waste disposal is incomplete but there are
reportedly both landfills and direct disposal of into rivers. The
health department may be contacted for more information regarding
solid waste disposal in Honduras.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Interview and USAID report)
The Unidad del Medio Ambiente, within the Consejo Superior de
Planificacion Economica (SECPLAN), has responsibility for
environmental coordination and promotion of research and work on
the environment.
There are a number of bodies in the country with responsibility
over various aspects of the environment. The Direccion General
de Salud Publica's Division de Saneamiento Ambiental (DSA) has
regulatory authority over domestic water quality and supply,
solid waste disposal and disposal of toxic and hazardous wastes,
and approval authority over planning and zoning of development.
The Servicio Autonomo Nacional de Acueductos y Aleantarillados
(SANAA) is responsible for sewage disposal. The municipalities
are responsible for their own solid waste disposal. The
Ministerio de Recursos Naturales - Division de planificacion
96
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Sectorial, Uso Racional y Desarrollo de los Recursos Naturales
has responsibility over conservation and development of natural
resources. The National Agrarian Institute (INfl) also has some
say over land-use capabilities and development of natural
resources.
The University*s Limnology Department is currently taking
samples from all five of the rivers that meet to form the
Tegucigalpa River and analyzing these for pH, oxygen, nitrates,
ammonia, physical characteristics, and coliforms.
The Ministry of Health analyzes Maters for heavy metals, toxins,
pesticides, and other chemicals, many of which have been found in
Maters around the country.
There are laMS regarding discharges into the environment, but
these do not specify limits nor standards nor delegate
enforcement responsibilities. Thus, there is little id any
enforcement of the laws. There is currently legislation before
the Congress to strengthen the laws on the environment and to
require full enforcement. Hopefully this Mill also result in
adequate funding levels.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Sra. Maria Angelica Echederria
Unidad del Medio Ambiente
Consejo Superior de Planificacion Economica
Sucursal Banco Atlantida, Apdo. Postal 1327
Comayaguela, D. C.
Tegucigalpa
Honduras
Phones 504-220379/222538
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Lie. Miguel E. Nolasco L.
Director
Ministerio de Recursos Naturales
Division de Planification Sectoral, Uso Racional
y Desarrollo de los Recursos Naturales
Edeficio Camara de Comerio
Boulevard Centoramerica
Tegucigalpa, DC
Honduras
Phone: 504-327704
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JAMAICA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Jamaica is an independent nation located to the south of Cuba, to
the south east of the Cayman Islands and to the west of Haiti.
Jamaica encompasses an area of 10,961 sq km and in 1986 had an
estimated population of 2,288,000. The population density at
that time was 209 persons per sq km. The capital city of Jamaica
is Kingston. The official language is English. The currency is
the Jamaican dollar.
The contribution of agriculture to GDP in 1985 was 8.8 percent
and in 1986 this sector employed approximately 25.3 percent of
the working population. Tourism employed approximately 11,437
persons directly in 1983 and is a great source of foreign
exchange to the Jamaican economy. The mining sector, in 1985,
comprised 4.9 percent to GDP and employed approximately 4,000
persons. Manufacturing employed 115,300 persons in 1986 and
contributed 16.1 percent to GDP in 1983.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Interview)
Agricultural production includes sugar, bananas, coffee and
citrus fruits for export. Additionally, sweet potatoes, cassava,
other roots and tubers, coconuts, vegetables and melons are
produced. There is livestock production, wood removal and
fishery exploitation.
The Ministry of Production, Development and Planning noted that
there is a fair amount of pesticide use in Jamaica. Use has been
escalating over the past ten years and is partially regulated by
this Ministry, but primarily regulated by the Health Ministry
under the authority of a pesticides control act.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Interview)
The mining industry is involved primarily in the production of
aluminum and the mining of bauxite. The manufacturing and other
industrial sector involved in the production and/or processing of
various agricultural and livestock products, rum and gin, beer,
99
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•oft drinks, cigars and cigarettes, woven cotton fabrics,
footwear, various petroleum products, bitumen, liquefied
petroleum gas, rubber tires, quicklime and cement.
The Ministry of Production, Development and Planning, noted that
regulation of industrial wastes exists under the law. These laws
are now in the process of review with hopes to include formal
permit systems with quantities and qualities of effluents
specified. There is an inventory of industries but it is not
very detailed or comprehensive and is being updated. Presently,
industries are given lists of parameters they are expected to
follow. In the past EPA regulations for discharges have been
used as guides in forming appropriate limits with modifications
to meet Jamaica's needs and environment.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
The Ministry of Production, Planning and Development revealed
that in the main urban area of Kingston there is one main sewage
system serving approximately 20 percent of the population. The
rest are served by septic tanks or septic pits. In the Kingston
Area there are three main sewage treatment plants. None of
these has an deep ocean outfall and none of the plants work well.
One of these is a primary treatment plant, whose treatment is
always inadequate and the other two are secondary treatment
plants. There are pollution problems because outfall from some
of these plants is directly to the harbor. There are plans to
divert wastes to a new major plant with either ocean outfall or
collection in oxidation ponds, with possible use of effluents for
irrigation. Additionally, there are twenty or so smaller plants
including some package plants which serve some suburban and
industrial sites with varied effectiveness.
It was noted that there is some mangrove destruction which can be
attributed to a combination of sewage disposal problems, coastal
development, and cutting of mangroves for wood, for charcoal, and
other purposes.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
The Ministry of Production, Development and Planning noted that
there are currently no "real" sanitary landfills but that this is
a goal for the near future. Approximately 90 percent of disposal
sites were noted as open dumps with some controlled and some un-
controlled burning. Leachate problems are thought to be
significant since approximately 70 percent of these dumps are
100
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located close to coasts and in areas where ground water is high.
Hospital wastes are incinerated on site. Industrial wastes are
sometimes incinerated on site and other times end up mixed with
municipal wastes. Solutions to the industrial waste problem are
being discussed.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interview)
The Ministry of Development, Planning, and Production handles
overall coordination of environmental matters and holds some
regulatory authority with respect all forms of land based sources
of pollution including pesticides, industrial wastes, sewage
wastes, and solid wastes.
The Ministry of Health's Environmental Control Division
regulates pesticides under authority of a pesticides control act
and also exercises some regulatory authority over sewage waste
and solid waste.
The Natural Resources Conservation Department within the Ministry
of Agriculture also does much work with regard to research and
education on various environmental and natural resource issues.
The National Water Commission actually manages the sewage system
and treatment facilities and falls under the Ministry of Public
Utiliti!
Collection of solid waste is by five bodies operating under the
Ministry of Local Government. Each parish has a Local Council and
these have roles with regard to local environmental planning but
are guided centrally.
Water quality monitoring is performed by the Ministry of Health
and by the Ministry of Production, Development and Planning.
A compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Jamaica
has been prepared by P. Morcillo for the BID and is available in
Spanish.
101
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Professionals Contacted for Environmental Information
Dr. Ted Aldridge
Adv i sor/Direct or
Environmental Protection and Conservation
Ministry of Production, Development and Planning
11-15 Oxford Road
Kingston 5, Jamaica
Phonei 809-929-9334/5
Facsimiliei 809-929-9617
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Marcel Anderson
Principal Director
Natural Resources and Conservation Division (NRCD)
Ministry of Agriculture
53 1/2 Molynes Road
Kingston 10, Jamaica
Phonei 809-923-5155/5166
Dr. Owen Silver
Director
Environmental Control Division
Ministry of Health
61 Half Way Tree Road
Kingston 10, Jamaica
Phonei 809-929-6463
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MARTINIQUE
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Martinique, a French Overseas Department, is located in the
Eastern Caribbean to the south of Dominica and to the north of
St. Lucia. .It occupies an area of 1,100 sq km. The population
Mas estimated at 328,281 in December 1985. The population density
at that time Mas 298 persons per sq km. Its capital is Fort-de-
France. French is the official language and the currency is the
French franc.
There is some agricultural production in Martinique, but a large
proportion of islands meat and almost all vegetables are
imported, contributing to large trade deficits. There are
currently attempts to expand the fishing sector and to diversity
agriculture. Agriculture contributes only about 6.5 percent to
GDP and an estimated 9,844 persons in 1982 Mere employed in
agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing. Industry
contributes about 10 percent to GDP and in 1982 manufacturing
employed approximately 4,001, mining and quarrying 1,853, and
construction 7,832. Refined petroleum products Mere the number
two export earner behind bananas, with beverages (especially rum)
third and chemicals and related products fourth.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook
and Interview)
The main crops on the island are sugar cane (most of which is
used in production of rum for export), bananas (the number one
export crop and overall export earner in the economy),
pineapples, eggplants, avocados and other tropical fruits for
export markets, and roots and tubers.
Fertilizers and pesticides are used on many of the crops,
especially on sugar and bananas, and they have been found to be
contaminating Maters and may present problems for the marine
environment. Waste products from processing have also been held
responsible for riverine and marine pollution.
103
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook and
Interview)
Industry on the island is comprised of a rum refinery, an oil
refinery, a paper plant, a bottling/beverage factory, A garment
production facility, chemicals and related products, and a cement
plant.
Among these, the sugar refineries and oil refineries are known to
discharge wastes into the water, but both pre-treat discharges in
accordance with emissions laws.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
Sewage is treated in detoxification facilities before discharge,
but there is a More ambitious project in the works for an
integrated waste management system with composting of sewage
wastes for use in energy and agriculture.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
Information obtained on solid waste disposal is incomplete but it
is believed these wastes are handled in some sort of landfill
facilities.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interview)
Four main organizations share responsibility for environmental
issues. The Conseil Regional de la Martinique, which is the UNEP
contact for environmental coordination regarding CAP, is
responsible for solid waste disposal. The Responsable du Service
de 1»Environnement in the Prefecture in Martinique is the main
local coordinating body. The Direction de 1*Agriculture et de la
Foret has some responsibility for agriculture and sewage. The
Direction de 1'Industrie et de la Recherche has some
responsibility for industrial wastes.
There are laws specifying measures that industries must take to
pre—treat discharges and reduce emissions. Laws also apply to
issions of sewage.
104
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The government monitor** water quality on an irregular basis and
occasionally for pesticides and industrial wastes.
Resource data maps were compiled for Martinique by ECNAMP in
1982 and include maps of land use capability, present land use,
Marine resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds,
inportant Marine habitats, endangered and locally important
species, population densities and pollution.
105
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
. Jouve
Responsable du Service de 1'Environnement
Prefecture
Martinique
Phones 596-631861
Faxs 596-714089
Other Contact* for Environmental Information
M. Michel Brossard
Institut Francais de Recherche
Scientifique et Technique Applique*
au Developpenent
BP 97256
Martinique
Phones 596-630609/717118
M. Fraon
Institut Francais de Recherche
pour L*exploitation de la mer
Station du Robert (IFREMER)
Le Robert 97321
Martinique
Phone s 596-751154/751155
M. SiMon Salpetrier
President
Commission de 1'Amenagement du Territoire
et du Cadre de Vie
Conseil Regional de la Martinique
Allee des Amandiers
97214 Lorrain, Martinique
Phones 596-596300
106
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MEXICO
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Mexico is an independent nation located to the south of the US
and to the north of Belize. The area of Mexico is 1,958,201 sq
km. The population in 1967 was estimated at 81,163,256 and the
density 41.4 persons per square km. The capital is Mexico City
and is home to a over 10 percent of the population.
Agriculture contributed 9.7 percent to GDP in 1986 and employed
37.6 percent of the working population in 1980. The mining
sector which includes petroleum contributed 3.6 percent to GDP
and employed 0.9 percent of the working population.
Manufacturing contributed 24.1 percent to GDP and provided 19.0
percent of the jobs.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry
Livestock and LBS Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Agricultural production includes cultivation of sugar, corn,
wheat, sorghum, and a very large variety of other fruits and
vegetables. Some major agricultural exports include coffee,
tomatoes, and cotton. Since much farming is commercial,
extensive use of pesticides may be a reasonable assumption.
The salt—water fisheries produce shrimp and prawns, sardines,
anchovies, yellow fin tuna and American cupped oysters among
other varieties. Frozen shrimp and prawns are heavily exported.
The forestry industry produces a large variety of timber. The
livestock industry is also active.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
The industrial sector is involved in production of a large
variety of products some are mentioned below: wheat flour, raw
sugar, prepared animal feeds, beer, cigarettes, cotton yarns and
woven fabrics, sulfuric acid, caustic soda, petroleum products,
rubber tires, cement, smelter copper, steel ingots, steel
castings, low-rdensity polyethylene, poly vinyl chloride,
passenger cars, appliances, and television receivers.
107
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There is Mining of antimony, arsenic, barite, bismuth, cadmium,
copper, crude petroleum, fluorite, gas, gold, graphite, iron,
lead, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorite, selenium, silver,
sulphur, tin, tungsten, and zinc.
Difficulties Mere encountered in contacting the relevant
individuals that could provide information on Mexico. The
existence and extent of damages from industry to the marine
environment off Mexico remains unclear.
Sewage Wastes
and LBS Pollution
(Source: BID Law Report)
It appears that some responsibility for sewage waste disposal may
fall under the Secretaria de Desarollo Urbano y Ecologia, the
Secretaria de Salud and the Banco Nacional de Obras. Again,
difficulties were encountered in contacting the relevant
individuals that could provide information on Mexico and thus the
existence and extent of damages from sewage wastes to the marine
environment off Mexico remains unclear.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Pollution
(Source: BID Law Report)
Responsibility for solid waste is likely held by the Secretaria
de Desarollo Urbano y Ecologia, the Secretaria de Salud, the
Banco Nacional de Obras, and individual city councils and local
governments. Difficulties were encountered in contacting the
relevant individuals that could provide information on Mexico and
the existence and extent of damages from solid wastes to the
marine environment off Mexico remains unclear.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: BID Law Report)
It appears that the organization which has responsibility for the
environment and coordination of environmental efforts is the
Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia. There are also a
large number of other governmental organizations which it is
assumed have responsibility for some aspects of the environment.
These include the Comision Nacional de Ecolgia, the Secretaria de
Salud, the Secretaria de Agriculture y Recursos Hidraulicos, the
Comision Nacional Forestal, the Banco Nacional de Obras, and the
Secretaria de Energia, Minas e Industrie Paraestatal.
108
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ft compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Mexico
has been prepared by P. Morcillo for the BID and is available in
Spanish.
Difficulties were encountered in contacting the relevant
individuals that could provide information on Mexico. For
further information contact is suggested with the persons and
agencies listed in the next section and also with those named in
the directory by Julie Buckley-Ess and UNEP directories
mentioned in the introduction. There are many varied
governmental and non-governmental organizations working for the
environment in Mexico and the list is too extensive to be covered
here.
109
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Contacts far Environmental Coordination
Sr. Rene Altamirano Perez
Director General
General Directorate for the Protection
and Control of Environmental Pollution
SEDUE
Ave Conmtituyentec 947
Edif. BPB
Mexico, DF
Phonei 525-5332977
lie
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MONTSERRAT
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Montserrat, a British colony, is located in the Eastern Caribbean
to the southwest of St. Kitts and Nevis, to the southeast of
Antigua—Barbuda, and to the northeast of Guadeloupe in the
leeward island chain. The island occupies an area of 102 sq km.
The population was estimated at 12,000 in mid-1986. The
population density is approximately 118 persons per sq km. The
capital of Montserrat is Plymouth. The official language is
English and the currency is the East Caribbean dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook
and CARDI 1985)
The principal crops produced on the island are cotton, limes,
potatoes, tomatoes mangoes, and hot peppers. There is some
export to the other islands. Production of sea island cotton for
use in producing textiles is being promoted.
Pesticides are used on some crops and may be cause for some
concern with regard to the marine environment. A 1985 study by
CARDI found 9 varieties of fungicides, 22 varieties of
herbicides, and 24 varieties of insecticides in use on the
island.
There is export of cattle and other production of livestock.
Fishery reserves are reportedly under—exploited. Forest areas
are being developed to protect watersheds from erosion.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Interview and Archer 1984)
In Archer's 1984 study on LBS the main types of industrial
processes identified as impacting Montserrat's coast and sea
were leather, soft drink, and textile production.
It was remarked in Archer 1984 that impacts appeared minimal to
marine environments because of low volumes of waste discharge,
but it was cautioned that textile wastes (dyes, sulfides and
chromates) may be reaching the marine environment via direct run-
Ill
-------
off or infiltration.
An island official noted that there is also some processing of
agricultural products, some furniture making, and some
manufacturing of electronic components. The island's abattoir is
not located near the sea and thus poses no problems at this time.
It does not appear that there is any treatment of industrial
wastes before discharge and there are no regulations on such
discharges.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Interview, and Archer 1984 and 1988)
There is no sewage system in Montserrat. The main methods of
sewage disposal on the island are by septic tank and by privy
pit. Archer remarked that there appeared to be minimal impacts
via infiltration to coastal waters.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Interview and Archer 1984)
Solid Waste is disposed of at Bingoes where there is an open dump
with some occasional waste compaction by tractor and burning.
It is unknown if there is any monitoring of leachate, but this
landfill is not located particularly near water according to
island sources.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcei Interview)
The main coordination between the various ministries and
authorities comes from the Development Control Authority under
the Ministry of Agriculture! there is representation to the
Authority from the Ministries of Agriculture, Health, and Public
Works. Unfortunately, at this time there is not representation
from the Economic Development Unit.
The Ministry of Agriculture has authority concerning agriculture
and forestry issues. The Ministry of Health's Environmental
Health Unit handles aspects of sewage disposal and solid waste.
The Ministry of Public Works handles some aspects of
infrastructure related to the environment.
There are some regulations regarding solid waste disposal and
these are mostly with regards to the agro-processing industry
wastes.
112
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A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in Montserrat has been compiled by B.
Lausche for OECS-NRMP.
Resource data maps of Montserrat were compiled in 1982 by ECNftMP
and include maps of land use capability, present land use, marim
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities and pollution.
There is Monitoring of water quality by the Environmental Health
Department under a program directed by CEHI. There is also some
Monitoring of water quality by the Montserrat Water Control
Authority.
113
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Professional* Contacted During This Study
Mr. Tony Maloney
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Agriculture-, Trad*
Lands and Housing
The Groves
Plymouth
Montserrat
Phones 809-491-3648
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Abraham Duberry
Montserrat Water Control Authority
Plymouth
Montserrat
Phones 809-491-2527
Mr. Joseph L. Lynch
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Ministry of Education, Health,
and Community Services
Plymouth
Montserrat
Phones 809-491-3321
Mr.Franklin Margetson
Manager
Land Development Authority
Plymouth
Montserrat
Phones 809-491-2687
Mr. K. Sparks
Director of Public Works
Ministry of Communications and Public Works
Plymouth
Montserrat
Phones 809-491-2521
114
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THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
The Netherlands Antilles is comprised of the islands of Curacao,
Bonaire, St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba. The collective
area of the islands is 800 sq km, of which Curacao*s area is 444
sq km, Bonaire*s 288 sq km, St. Maarten*s Dutch portion 34 sq km,
St. Eustatius* 21 sq km, and Saba's 13 sq km. The population in
1981 was estimated at 171,620 with Curacao's 147,288, Bonaire's
8,753, St. Maarten's Dutch portion 13,156, St. Eustatius* 1,358
and Saba's 965. The islands of Curacao and Bonaire lie off the
coast of Venezuela while St. Eustatius, Saba, and St. Maarten lie
in the Eastern Caribbean between the islands of Anguilla, St.
KittsHMevis, and Antigua-Barbuda. The official languages in the
islands of Curacao and Bonaire are Dutch and Papiamento though
English and Spanish are also widely spoken. The official language
in the islands of St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba is English
but the above other languages are also spoken. The currency is
the Netherlands Antilles gulden (guilder), which has a fixed
parity with the US dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
Poor soil quality and scarce water supplies lead to little in the
way of agriculture. Aloe, sorghum, divi-divi, peanuts, beans,
fresh vegetables, and tropical fruit are cultivated.
There is some use of agricultural chemicals on crops but the
extent of this and any related marine pollution problems are not
known.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook
and Interview)
Curacao has oil refining and transhipment terminals. On the
islands collectively there is some production of soft drinks,
beer, cigarettes, paint, flour, car batteries, edible oils,
toilet paper and soap, though the distribution by island is not
known. There is mining of phosphate in Curacao and mining of
salt in Bonaire and St. Maarten.
115
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Industries locating in the Netherlands Antilles must submit
detailed information regarding pollution impacts, and these are
reviewed by authorities on the island where the industry plans to
locate, by the Department of Health and Environmental Hygiene in
Curacao, and occasionally are sent on to Dutch authorities for
further interpretation and comment.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution'
(Source: Archer 1988)
In Curacao there is a sewage system with a treatment facility to
reduce adverse impacts to public health and to the marine
environment. In St. Maarten there have been studies for a sewage
system, but currently disposal is mainly by septic tanks and
package treatment plants. Neither of these appear to be working
well and damages to the environment have been cited. In St.
Eustacius and Saba septic tanks are used. No detailed
information was discovered regarding Bonaire. (Archer 1988)
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Interview)
Solid waste disposal is under the authority of each island1s
government and is handled independently in each with oversight by
the Department of Health and Environmental Hygiene in Curacao.
Overall Environmental Management
and water Quality Monitoring
(Sources Interview)
The Department of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene is a
department of the federal government department which oversees
and coordinates environmental work, especially as related to
environmental health impacts. Local governments on each of the
islands have Departments of Health which execute measures on the
environment and health, but other island authorities are also
involved in protection issues. Every island has its own specific
measures and programs and these are approved of by the federal
authorities. The greatest problem in this area is lack of funds
to implement resolutions and plans.
Resource data maps of the Netherlands Antilles were compiled by
the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program in 1982,
and include maps of land use capability, present land use, marine
resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important
marine habitats, endangered and locally important species,
population densities and pollution.
116
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Dr. John Leeon
Acting Director
Department of Health and Environmental Hygiene
Ministry of Public Health
Heelsura Str Z/N
Millemst ad, Curacao
Phone: 599-9-614555
117
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NICARAGUA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sourcess Europa Yearbook)
Nicaragua is an independent nation located to the south of
Honduras and to the north of Costa Rica. Nicaragua encompasses
an area of 120,254 square km. The population was estimated at
3,272,000 in 1985, and at that time the population density was
27.2 persons per square km. The capital is Managua. The
official language is Spanish and the currency is the cordoba.
Agricultural, forestry, and fishing accounts for about 20-23
percent of GDP. Approximately 45 percent of the working
population is employed in this sector. Manufacturing contributes
about 28 percent to GDP and employs over 10 percent of the
working population. The mining sector is active but contributes
typically less than 1 percent to GDP.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Europe Yearbook, and
BID Conference Paper)
The principal crops are sugar cane, maize, sorghum, cotton, rice,
bananas, plantains, beans, oranges, pineapples, coffee, tomatoes,
and cassava. There is export of coffee, cotton, sugar and
bananas.
Nicaragua has an active livestock industry and beef is exported.
The forestry industry produces timber both for internal use and
for export. The fishing industry is involved in the catching and
processing of crab, crayfish, and tuna. Shellfish are exported.
In the atlantic region pesticide contamination is very minor to
moderate; deforestation is moderate to serious; soil erosion is
minor to moderate; and sedimentation is very minor to serious.
(BID Conference Paper)
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook, and
BID Conference Paper)
The manufacturing industry is involved in the processing and
production of a number of petroleum products along with
118
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cigarettes, wheat flour, sugar, distilled alcoholic beverages,
beer, soft drinks, footwear, woven cotton fabrics,
polyvinylchloride (PVC), soap, bitumen, and cement.
The mining industry is involved in the production of silver,
gold, salt, gypsum and anhydrite. There is also potential mining
of lead, tungsten, iron ore, zinc, petroleum, and natural gas.
Industrial chemical contamination to waters has been noted as
Minor to serious in the Atlantic region. Oil pollution is cited
as minor to moderate. (BID Conference Paper)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Pollution
(Source: BID Conference Paper)
Sewage pollution of waters is cited as serious to very serious in
the Atlantic region by the BID paper. Methods of disposal were
not discovered as difficulty was encountered in contacting the
country* s professionals.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Pollution
(Source: BID Conference Paper)
Solid waste pollution is said to be moderate. (BID Conference
Paper) Methods of disposal were not discovered as difficulty was
encountered in contacting the country's professionals.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: BID Conference Paper)
Currently the Direccion General de Recursos Naturales y de
Ambiente (DIRENA) in the Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario y
Reforma Agraria is responsible for regulation and management of
natural resources, and for environmental education.
The Institute Nicaraguanese de Estudios Territoriales (INETER)
under the Secretaria de Planificacion y Presupuesto de la
Presidencia de la Republica is responsible for the registration
and inventory of natural resources, aerial photography and
cartography. It works directly along with DIRENA to locate sit
of development.
Municipal and regional governments are responsible for carrying
out plans for development in accordance with INETER site
suitability plans.
119
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The Comision Nacional de Plaguicidas is working on pesticide
issues. The Comision Nacional de Agricultura Organica (CNAG)
also promotes alternative technology in agriculture and
environmental protection.
While there is some environmental legislation, as in most
nations, a need has been noted for further clarification and
upgrading of these laws.
It appears there are some programs being implemented to control
soil erosion. There is also a priority on establishing a data
inventory on soils, land use and hydrology.
120
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Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Jairo Rodriguez Blandino
Director General
Javier Lopez Medina, Sub-Director General
Direccion General de Recursos Naturales
y Ambiente (DIRENft)
Km. 12 1/2 Garretera Norte
Apdo. Postal 5123
Managua, Nicaragua
Phone: 505-2-31916/31115/31594-98/31906
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Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Panama is in Central America and lies to the southeast of Costa
Rica and to the west of Columbia. It occupies an area of 77,082
sq km and its population was estimated at 2,274,448 in 1987. The
population density in 1987 was thus approximately 29 persons per
sq km. The capital of Panama is Panama City. The official
language of Panama is Spanish. The currency is the balboa and
has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
In 1986 the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector contributed
approximately 10 percent to GDP and employed 184,500 persons or
about 28.7 percent of the population. The manufacturing industry
in Panama employed 70,600 persons in 1987. The mining and
quarrying industry employed approximately 1,000 persons in 1987.
There is a tourism industry in Panama. There were 318,489
estimated visitors to Panama in 1986. Trade, restaurants and
hotels employed an estimated 109,000 persons in 1987.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Written Correspondence)
Bananas were the highest export earner in economy in 1986. Coffee
was the third highest export earner in economy in that year. Raw
sugar was the fourth highest export earner in economy in 1986.
There is also cultivation of maize, rice, and tobacco, as well as
fruits and vegetables. About 18.5 percent of Panama's land is
cultivated with bananas and sugar. A five year agricultural plan
was announced in 1985 to diversify crops and markets with new
plantings in palm, cocoa, coconuts, winter vegetables and
tropical fruits.
Pesticide use is prominent in Panamanian agriculture and some
degradation of the waters and marine environment from these
chemicals is likely given the large amounts of commercial banana
and sugar production. The Com!sion Nacional del Medio Ambiente
(CONAMA) noted that pollution to the Bay of Panama from
agricultural sources has been documented.
There is a fisheries industry in Panama. Production of shrimp
was the second highest export earning activity in economy in
1986. Exports of fish and lobster are also significant. There
is a fishing terminal and port at Vacamonte.
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There is production of livestock and domestic consumption of
locally produced meat products. There may, as in other countries
be damages to the marine environment if wastes from abattoirs are
released to waters.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Written Correspondence)
The majority of industrial activity'is centered on the land
running between Colon and Panama City along the Panama Canal
Zone. The Colon Free Zone, as it is called, covers 49 ha and is
home to more than 500 companies. In Panama there are industries
involved in the production and processing of salt, alcoholic
beverages, sugar, condensed milk, tomato derivatives, fish meal,
fish oil, and cigarettes. There is also petroleum refining at
Bahia de las Minas; re—exports of petroleum products were the
fifth highest export earner in the country in 1986.
Panama has reserves of copper ore at Cerro Colorado in the west
of the country and at Petaquilla to the northeast of Cerro
Colorado along with reserves of molybdenum, silver, and gold.
There are also coal deposits in the Rio Indio region. There are
plans to mine all of these reserves.
According to CONAMA, there is no regulation of industry to limit
waste discharges and treatment of industrial wastes is
pract i ca11y non—ex i st ent.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: BID Law Report and Written Correspondence)
Sewage disposal falls under the responsibility of the Institute
Nacional de Acueductos y Alcantarilidos Nacionalles. Sewage is
discharged directly to the sea at the Bay of Panama according to
CONAMA.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: BID Law Report and Written Correspondence)
Solid waste disposal is the responsibility of the Ministerio de
Obras Public. Solid Wastes are disposed in landfills. Toxic and
hazardous wastes are also disposed of at these sites.
123
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Overall Environmental Management
and Mater'Quality Monitoring
(Sources: BID Law Report, Buckley—Ess,
and Written Correspondence)
The Comision Nacional del Medio Ambiente in the Ministerio de
Planificacion Y Politica Economica is the organization which
coordinates work on the environment and dictates environmental
policy.
There are a number of other institutions within Panama with
varying responsibility for aspects of the environment. The
Institute de Recursos Naturales Removables (INRENARE) is
responsible for protection and development of renewable natural
resources. The Ministerio de Desarollo Agropecuario has
authority over agricultural development. The Ministerio de Salud
Depto de Salud Ambiental has responsibility over all aspects of
environmental health. The Institute Nacional de Acueductos y
Rleantarillados Nacionales is responsible for sewage disposal.
The Ministerio de Obras Public also has authority over solid and
industrial wastes. The Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia,
Universidad de Panama (CCML) is responsible for marine
environmental studii
Monitoring of water quality is accomplished by CONAMA in
coordination with the CCML. Fieldwork on pollution of the Panama,
Chiriqui, and Colon Bays is in progress.
A compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Panama
has been prepared by P. Morcillo for BID and is available in
Spanish.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Or. Rafael Vasquez
Director Ejecutivo
Conision Nacional del Medio Arabiente (COMARNA)
Edificio 1069 - Curundu
Casilla Postal 10130, Zona 4
Panama
Phones 507-326055/326125
Faxt 507-696622
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Sr. Luis Olnedo Castillo
Director
Institute de Recursos Naturales Renovables (INRENARE)
APDO 2016 Paraiso, Ancon
Para i so, Panama
Phone: 507-324049/324896/324870
Other Contactsi Ing. Carlos Ramirez
Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia
Universidad de Panama
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ST. KITTS AND NEVIS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sourcei Europa Yearbook)
St. Kitts and Nevis, an independent state within the British
Commonwealth, is located in the Eastern Caribbean, to the
southwest of Anguilla and to the northwest, of Antigua-Barbuda.
The total area in sq km is 261.6 with St. Kitts being 168.4 and
Nevis 93.2. The population was estimated at 46,000 in mid-1983.
The population density was thus about 176 persons per sq km. The
capital, Basseterre is the principal town on St. Kitts and the
main town on Nevis is Charlestown. The official language is
English and the currency is the East Caribbean dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcess Europa Yearbook, Archer 1984
and CARDI 1985)
The principal crops produced on the islands are sugar, coconuts,
sweet potatoes, yams, bananas, peanuts, coffee, rice, and sea
cotton. Sugar and its derivatives were the number one export
earner for the country in 1982 and employed approximately one
third of the working population.
Herbicides, insecticides and fungicides are used on the crops in
St. Kitts and Nevis including Servin, Perkethion, Furadan, 2,4-D,
Roundup, and Paraquat. (Archer 1984) Soil erosion processes
transport residues of these chemicals to the coastal marine
environments. A 1985 study by CARDI found 3 varieties of
fungicides, 31 varieties of herbicides and 23 varieties of
insecticides in use on the island of St. Kitts, and 6 varieties
of fungicides, 6 varieties of herbicides, and 12 varieties of
insecticides in use on the island of Nevis.
Agriculturally related production and processing generates solid
wastes as noted below. Sugar cane and molasses production
generates bagasse; although the bagasse is reused as fuel, its
ash is dumped at sea and leads to reef destruction. (Archer 1984)
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook
and Archer 1984)
The main types of industrial processes which may be impacting the
coast and sea in St. Kitts and Nevis are those from sugar cane
and molasses, soft drinks, dairy products, margarine,
distillery, abattoir, brewery and electricity. (Archer 1984) It
also appears that electronic equipment assembly, and garment
manufacture may now be causing further problems.
Archer's study also remarked that approximately 90 percent of the
waste water released from industry flows to the sea and
Basseterre Bay was remarked to appear heavily polluted with waste
from sugar production, having adverse effects on benthic life,
particularly the coral reefs. Pollution from caustic solutions
from the soft drink factories and from high BODS wastes from the
brewery operations were cited as causes of heavy pollution to
Lime Kiln Bay on St. Kitts. It was also noted, however, that
pollution of the sea by industrial waste in Nevis was minimal.
Industrially related solid wastes are having an impact on the
marine environment. Bones, hair and entrails dumped at sea from
the slaughter house pollute the inshore areas of Basseterre Bay.
(Archer 1984)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984 and 1988)
Sewage disposal is primarily via septic tanks and soakaways in
urban areas with package sewage treatment plants at the hospital
and at a hotel in Frigate Bay. In rural areas the privy pit
method is used. Septic tanks serve approximately 40 percent of
the population, package plants approximately 2 percent and privy
pits close to 60 percent.
Serious pollution effects from package plant and septic tank
waste effluents were noted by Archer in the areas of Lime Kiln
Bay and Basseterre Bay.
The Water and Sewage Authority for the state has responsibility
for sewage and monitors water quality on the island under a
program with CEHI.
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Solid blast* Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Archer 1984)
Solid Waste is disposed of in a modified landfill at Conaree in
the east and at Saddlers in the north, with open dumping at
Guinea Bay. (Archer 1984)
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sourcess Archer 1984 and Interview w/C£HI)
The UNEP has identified the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands,
Housing and Development as its focal point for environmental
coordination with regards to the CAP.
The Ministry of Health's Environmental Health Department appears
to have responsibility for all aspects of environmental health
and has oversight of sewage and solid waste disposal. The Water
and Sewage Authority has responsibility for sewage waste
disposal. The Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Housing has
responsibility over agricultural development and land use
planning. There is also a Planning Unit that has say in
development of land as well as a Land Development and Control
Board.
Water quality is monitored by the Water and Sewage Authority and
by the Ministry of Health under a program directed by the
Caribbean Environmental Health Institute.
A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in St. Kitts and Nevis has been compiled by
B. Lausche for OECS-NRMP.
Resource data maps of St. Kitts and Nevis have been compiled by
ECNAMP and include maps of land use capability, present land use,
marine resource use, natural attractions, key watersheds,
important marine habitats, endangered and locally important
species, population densities, and pollution.
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Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Aubrey Hart
Director
Planning Unit
Church Street
P.O. Box IBB
Basseterre
St. Kitt» and Nevis
Phones 889-465-2715
Mr. Eugene Petty
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Agriculture, Lands
Housing and Development
Government Headquarters
P.O. Box 186
Basseterre
St. Kitts and Nevis
Phone: 809-465-2521
Mr. Patrick Williams
Project Officer
Land Development and
Conservation Board
Warner Building
Church Street
Basseterre
St. Kitts and Nevis
Phone: 809-465-2277/4702
Environmental Health Department
Ministry of Education, Health,
and Community Affairs
P.O. Box 333
Cayon St.
Basseterre
St. Kitts and Nevis
Phone: 809-465-2521
Water and Sewage Authority
c/o Government Headquarters
Church Street
Basseterre
St. Kitts and Nevis
Phone: 809-465-2521
(Phone # in for govt hdqtrs)
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ST. LUCIA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
St. Lucia, an independent state within the British Commonwealth,
is located in the Eastern Caribbean in the Windward Islands
Chain, to the south of Martinique and to the north of St.
Vincent. The island is 616 sq km in area. The population was
estimated at 139,500 at mid-1986. The population density at this
time was thus £26 persons per sq km. The principal towns are
Castries (the capital), Vieux Fort, Soufriere, and Bros Islet.
The official language is English but a large proportion of the
population speaks only a French-based patois. The currency is
the East Caribbean dollar.
Agriculture employs approximately one—third of the working
population and contributed 15.7 percent to 6DP in 1986.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook,
Archer 1984 and CARDI 1985)
The principal crops produced on island are bananas, coconuts,
cocoa, roots and tubers, and mangoes. In 1986 exports of food
and live animals were the highest export earner, and animal and
vegetable oils and fats were the third highest export earner.
There is a fisheries processing complex at Castries.
Fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides are used on the crops,
and may be having some effect on the marine environment. A 1985
study by CARDI found 11 varieties of fungicides, 16 varieties of
herbicides, and 19 varieties of insecticides in use on the
island. Archer noted that there appeared to be a significant
amount of toxic waste resulting from use of these chemicals.
Agriculturally related production and processing generate solid
wastes and are noted below. Banana rejects and leaves are dumped
in rivers and the sea causing marine and river pollution.
(Archer 1984)
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook
and Archer 1984)
The main types of industrial processes that possibly impact the
coast and sea in St. Lucia are distillery, brewery, and
production of soft drinks, dairy products, edible oil, margarine,
soap, coconut meal, and beef and swine products. (Archer 1984)
There is also manufacture of plastics, garments, industrial
gases,, assembly of electronic components and transshipment of
petroleum at Cul De Sac Bay. Archer noted that there appears to
be little adverse impact from the six to nine garment and
bedding industries.
Industrially related solid wastes impact the marine environment.
Copra waste, and paper from edible oil and animal feed industries
are dumped in rivers. The impact of yeast waste from the brewery
appears minimal, apart from the odor. (Archer 1984)
Sewage Disposal
(Sources: Archer 1984 and 1988
and Interview)
There is a sewage system in the city of Castries, but no
treatment facility. Archer noted on his visit that raw sewage
was being discharged about 30 feet from shore into the Castries
Harbor and causing extensive damages to marine life. The
Ministry of Health noted that the sewerage system is in the
process of being upgraded. Hotels and some industrial and
commercial properties have package sewage treatment plants.
There is also use of septic tanks and privy pits. Pollution of
beaches and coastal waters are also polluted from septic tank
and package plant effluents. Rivers are also widely used for
excreta disposal. (Archer 1984 4 1988)
The Ministry of Health mentioned that a box manufacturing plant
on the island uses dyes, paints, and a variety of chemicals
including titanium dioxide. The plant uses a chemical process
for treatment and appears to have no detectable impacts on the
marine environment. The Health Ministry works to assist industry
in completing risk assessments and controlling potential
hazards.
Adverse effects on the ecology of coastal marine areas may be
resulting from discharge of wastes from the edible oil factory
into Soufriere Bay, from the distillery into Cul de Sac Bay, and
via sewers from dairy processing and other industries in the
Castries Harbor area. It was noted that Castries Harbor is
particularly polluted and may be biologically dead.
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Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Archer 1984 and Interview)
Solid waste is disposed of in open dumps at Castries, Soufriere,
Micoud, and Vieux Fort and by landfill with periodic burning at
Anse LaRaye.
The Ministry of Health in St. Lucia noted that the majority of
domestic waste is biodegradable. Plastic bags from bananas are
problematic. There is an incineration system with temperatures
above 800 degrees Celsius for hospital wastes. The Pesticide
Board is working to designate a site for toxic chemical disposal
and is in the process of doing EIA and social impact site
assessments. At petroleum depots there is some residue at the
ends of the barrels, which is now being controlled by a
solidification process and burial.
Archer (1984) noted that solid waste pollution in rivers and the
seas was extensive and requires utmost attention. However, island
officials assured that this problem has since been solved.
Overall Environmental Management
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Interview)
The Ministry of Health* s Environmental Health Department has
formulated a proposal for a program unit to carry out liaison
with other agencies working on environmental issues. Though
there are no standards at this time, the Environmental Health
Department is working to start development of standards for the
region. Through CIDA they are also using a computer to register
all actual and potential pollutants on Material Safety Data
Sheets, and plan to do exposure modeling on the rate of risk
assessment.
The Ministry of Health also has responsibility for oversight of
septic tanks, and is called in by the Water and Sewage Authority
on an issue—related basis. The Ministry also has responsibility
for solid waste disposal outside of the city of Castries.
The Castries City Council has responsibility for Castries' solid
waste disposal and privy pit collection.
The water and Sewage Authority is responsible for all other
sewage disposal and the Ministry of Health monitors effluent
quality and operation of treatment facilities.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries, and Cooperatives
has responsibility over land-use, agriculture and fisheri<
There is an Environmental Commission within this ministry.
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There is a Pesticides Control Board which works on pesticides
issues such as disposal.
There is also a Planning Unit within the Ministry of Planning,
Personnel, Establishment and Training with some environmental
responsibility.
A description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in St. Lucia has been compiled by B. Lausche
for OECS-NRMP.
The OAS has offices in St. Lucia and is continuing to work on
hard copy and computerized mappings of the island.
Resource data maps for St. Lucia were compiled by the Eastern
Caribbean Natural Area Management Program in 1982, and include
maps of land use capability, present land use, marine resource
use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important marine
habitats, endangered and locally important species, population
densities and pollution.
Water quality is monitored by the Ministry of Health's
Environmental Health Department under a program directed by
CEHI. CEHI's St. Lucia labs are used.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Lecmond Mag1oi r*
Project Officer
Environmental Health Department
Ministry of Health, Housing,
Labour, Info and Broadcasting
P.O. Box 926
Chussee Road
Castries
St. Lucia
Phone: 889-452-1732
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. J. Calixte
General Manager
Water and Sewerage Authority
Mr. Adrian Dolcey
Environmental Engineer
Central Planning Unit
Ministry of Planning, Personnel,
Establishment and Training
P.O. Box 709
Castries
St. Lucia
Phone: 689-452-2611 and 452-5116
Mr. Kenneth Green
OAS Project Chief
Organization of American States (OAS)
P.O. Box 731
Castries
St. Lucia
Phone:809-452-4338
Fax: 889-452-8886
Mr. Percival McDonald
Permanent Secretary
Environmental Commission
Ministry of Agriculture, Lands,
Fisheries and Cooperatives
Manoel Street
Castries
St. Lucia
Phone: 809-452-2526 and 452-2611
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ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
St. Vincent and the Grenadines, an independent state within the
British Commonwealth, is located in the Eastern Caribbean in thi
Windward chain between the islands of St. Lucia and Grenada.
The area of the state is 389.3 sq km of which the island of St.
Vincent*s area is 344 sq km and that of the Grenadines is the
rest. The population was estimated at 111,419 in 1986, making
the population density at that time £86 persons per sq km. The
principal town is Kingstown, which is the capital and home to
approximately 18,830 persons in 1986. The official language is
English. The currency is the East Caribbean dollar.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Europa Yearbook
Archer 1984 and CARDI 1985)
The principal crops produced on the islands are bananas, nutmeg
mace, plantains, sweet potatoes, arrowroot, ginger, eddoes,
dasheen, tannias, coconuts and other exotic fruits. Food and
live animals were the highest export earners in the economy in
1986, particularly bananas, flour, and tubers. Squash, cucumbers
and other vegetables are grown with some export under a
government project. It also appears there may be some sugar
production. There is a fish marketing complex in Kingstown.
Herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides are being used on crops
in St. Vincent. Mocap, Furadan, and Geamoxone were identified by
Archer (1984) as being used on banana crops. A 1985 study by
CARDI found 9 varieties of fungicides, 17 varieties of
herbicides, and 11 varieties of insecticides in use on the
island. Archer noted that there was extensive erosion of soils
laden with these residues that might be ultimately affecting the
marine coastal environment.
Agricultural production and processing generates solid wastes and
these are noted below. Bagasse from sugar cane is reused as fuel
and fertilizer but with some run—off of residues into the sea.
Banana rejects and leaves are dumped in rivers and in the sea
causing pollution. Pieces of arrowroot plant are discharged into
rivers in the course of processing. (Archer 1984)
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Industry, Mining, Manufacturing,
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook
Archer 1984, and Interview)
The main types of industrial processes which may be impacting the
coast and sea in St. Vincent are associated with sugar cane and
molasses, coconut oil, coconut meal, soft drinks, flour, animal
feed, dairy products, fruit pieces and arrowroot starch. (Archer
1984)
A rum distillery, various garment production facilities, and a
sporting goods production facility have come into operation. In
addition, a factory for zinc galvanized sheeting has been
observed releasing toxins but the Ministry of Health and
Environment is working with the industry to find a solution to
these problems.
Archer noted that large volumes of waste from arrowroot starch,
edible oil and cane sugar industry sources were being discharged
into rivers and ending up in the sea. It was further noted that
COD, BOD, and solids being released may be impacting coral and
other marine life and at the time of his study there appeared to
be no toxic wastes reaching the sea other than those from
insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides residues from
agriculture.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Archer 1984 and 1988
and Interview)
There are two sewerage systems in St. Vincent: one in Kingstown
and the other in Arnos Vale. Currently neither has a working
treatment facility and both systems are over-extended. Septic
tanks serve approximately 30 percent of the population and are
located mainly in Kingstown. Overall, the most common method of
disposal is the privy pit. The number of pail privies is rapidly
declining, but at the same time more than 1000 homes have no
facilities for excreta disposal. (Archer 1988)
Kingstown harbor is polluted by sewage due to short outfall pipes
that are made of PVC and become broken under stress. The Arnos
Vale area beaches become polluted by sewage when the system there
malfunctions. Rivers throughout the island are often used for
dumping of sewage sludge and excreta and these eventually end up
at sea. (Archer 1984)
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Solid Waste Dimposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Archer 1984 and
Interview)
Solid waste is disposed of in open dumps with periodic compacting
and covering at Arnos Vale and with open periodic burning and
covering at Chili. At the time of Archer*s report he noted
there were numerous refuse heaps in local government districts
and many of these were on river banks. Archer also reported
illicit dumping on river banks and the coastal areas.
The Ministry of Health and Environment noted that there are still
•any problems with solid waste disposal, especially in rural
areas, but that new legislation drafted by the Ministry is now in
Council for discussion and approval. This legislation should
strengthen capabilities to deal with solid waste problems. fl
task force is also being set up to address these issues.
Overa11 Environment a1 Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Interview)
The Ministry of Health and Environment has recently set up an
Environmental Task Force comprised of representatives from
various ministries and non—governmental agencies. The Task force
works on averting and preventing problems as well as controlling
for them.
The Ministry of Health and Environment is the coordinating body
for environmental issues and has oversight of all aspects of the
environment. It is working to revise the Public Health Act and
has recently introduced legislation on solid waste control.
Currently, there is no legislation in place to prevent or manage
industrial discharges, but the Ministry works with industry to
try to assure pre—treatment and proper disposal of wastes. The
Ministry is also responsible for solid waste disposal, and
through its Water and Sewage Authority is responsible for sewage
disposal.
Other ministries with work affecting the environment include
Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Labor, which has
responsibility for forestry, lands, and fisheries, and the
Ministry of Finance and Planning, which is involved in assuring
that all construction of buildings and public works meets
environmental safety standards.
Water quality is monitored by the Ministry of Health and
Environment for groundwaters, rivers and occasionally coastal
waters.
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fl description of national legislation related to natural
resources management in St. Vincent has been compiled by B.
Lausche for OECS-NRMP.
Resource data maps for St. Vincent were compiled by the Eastern
Caribbean Natural Area Management Program in 1962, and include
maps of land use capability, present land use, marine resource
use, natural attractions, key watersheds, important marine
habitats, endangered and locally important species, population
densities and pollution.
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Professional* Contacted During This Study
Hon. Burton B. Williams
Minister
Ministry of Health and the Environment
Kingstown
St. Vincent
Phonei 809-457-189£
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. BentIvy A. Brown
Physical Planner
Central Planning Division
Ministry of Finance and Planning
P. O. Box 608
Kingstown
St. Vincent
Phones 809-457-1746
Hon. Allan Cruckshank
Minister
Ministry of Agriculture
Kingstown
St. Vincent
Phonei 809-456-1703
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SURINAME
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source! Europa Yearbook)
Suriname is an independent nation located on the northern coast
of South America between Guyana and French Guiana. It occupies
an area of 163,265 sq km. The population of Suriname was
estimated to be 393,748 in December 1985. The population density
at this time was approximately £ persons per sq km. Its main
population centers are Paramaribo (the capital), Nickerie,
Coronie, Saramacca, Suriname, Commewijne, Marowinje, and
Brokopondo, and Para. The currency is the Suriname gulden
(guilder), which has a fixed parity with the US dollar.
Agriculture, fishing and forestry typically employ 13.9 percent
of the working population and contributes 10 percent of GDP. In
1965 the economically active population employed in agriculture,
hunting, forestry, fishing and food processing in Suriname
totalled 17,080, in mining and quarrying was 4,600, and in
manufacturing was 10,960.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook
and BID Conference Paper)
Rice is cultivated in Suriname for export and is the crop of
greatest commercial value; it is grown in the coastal plains of
the Nickerie District. Sugar cane is cultivated for domestic
consumption and for molasses. It is grown on two plantations,
each equipped with its own refinery. Bananas, plantains, and
bacoven comprise the second most important group of export crops
and are grown in the Paramaribo region. Palm oil,the third most
important export crop, is grown at Patamacca, and other
locations. Coconuts cultivated for export are grown on medium-
sized plantations in the Coronie district on the polders of the
coastal plain. Copra is extracted in a government established
factory by the Coconut Planters* Co—operative. Coffee and cocoa,
formerly important crops, are now much less so and are grown on
less than 2,000 ha on small holdings. Citrus fruits are
cultivated for juice, which is exported, and for fruit itself
which consumed locally. Roots and tubers, maize, plantains,
beans and various vegetables are grown for local consumption in
the polders and in the interior.
Livestock production includes cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and
140
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chickens.
There is a small but significant modern fishing industry at
Paramaribo, exporting both freshwater and marine fish and
shellfish (especially shrimp).
Forest covers more than 90 percent of the country, and there is
export of timber and Balata gum.
Use of agrochemicals is cited as damaging the fish and bird
populations and posing health threats to humans. Toxic
chlorinated hydrocarbons are still in use in Suriname. The
Pesticides Working Group has been formed within the Ministry of
Agriculture to prepare legislation on use of pesticides.
Monitoring of water quality for pesticides residue is being done
jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture's Central Laboratory and
the Ministry of Public Work's Hydraulic Research Division. (BID
Conference Paper)
Problems have been cited with estuarine and coastal damage to
shrimp fisheries from sand extraction, soil erosion, and
pesticide pollution. (BID Conference Paper)
Some problems from tree felling and deforestation have resulted
in water erosion, but may soon result in reforestation efforts.
(BID Conference Paper)
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcest Europa Yearbook
and BID Conference Paper)
Clothing and shoes, toiletries, foodstuffs, domestic utensils,
construction materials(cement), and furniture are produced in the
industrial zone near Paramaribo. Ceramics, soap and glass
production have been established with Brazilian aid as import-
substitution industry. Soft drinks, beer, alcohol, cigarettes
are also manufactured in Suriname. Bauxite, sugar, rum, and
shrimp are processed.
Bauxite is mined, and along with its derivative alumina and
aluminum is Suriname's major export commodity. Deposits are
mined at Moengo close to the Cottica river and at Paranam and
Onverwacht, close to the Suriname river. At Paranam-Smalkaden on
the Suriname river, approximately 100 km from its mouth, there is
a facility to extract alumina from bauxite ore, and for the
production of primary aluminum. The bauxite processing/aluminum
industry whose main operations are just south of the capital has
reportedly dumped chloride rich wastes into the river, released
of toxic hydrogen fluoride gas into the atmosphere, and dumped
caustic soda waste which can damage groundwater supplies via
141
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percolation and eventually act on the marine environment. (BID
Conference Paper)
Offshore deposits of petroleum have been explored and mined in
the past and it is indefinite whether these are still being
exploited.
Gold and diamonds are extracted in small quantities. Iron ore,
nickel, platinum, tin, copper, and manganese reserves exist,
though the status of their exploitation is unknown.
Salts .from mined bauxite ore have been implicated in the
pollution of ground and surface waters. Additionally, road and
bridge construction leads to illegal tree felling, agricultural
exploitation, and waste disposal, while reforestation is hampered
by soil compaction from use of heavy equipment. (BID Conference
Paper)
Mercury pollution from gold-mining is suspected.(BID Conference
Paper)
There is water pollution from brewery wastes and other industrial
wastes into the Saramacca Canal and from a slaughter house at
Beekhuizen. Paint and car sprayer industries are also suspect in
pollution by toxins. There have also been some problems with
leaking barrels of arsenic in Wolmansalta and endrine poisoning
in Marienburg. (BID Conference Paper)
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
Information regarding sewage disposal in Suriname has not been
obtained.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources BID Conference Paper)
A working group has been formed to address the problem of
hazardous and solid wastes in Paramaribo. (BID Conference Paper)
Currently, household and industrial wastes are being disposed of
at the same dumping sites, where there is likely damage to water
from leaching.
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Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Sources: BID Conference Paper
and UNEP Marine Centers Guide)
Within the National Planning Office is the Section on the
Environment, which Mill be coordinating environmental management
in Suriname and Mill be Morking to create an environmental
information data base for the country. (BID Conference Paper)
The Environmental Control Division Mithin the Ministry of Public
Health, is newly created and Mill be working on Mater quality
control, waste management, and the legislation to address these
issues. (BID Conference Paper)
The Ministry of Public Works, Telecommunications and Construction
has a Hydraulic Research Division, which is responsible for
monitoring water quality and creating Mater quality standards in
accordance with water law. It also monitors oxygen consuming
substances, and has developed a monitoring program for the
estuarine ecosystem for determining pollution of the Suriname
river near Paramaribo. Finally, it cooperates Mith the Central
Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture on hygienic aspects of
surface Mater, on pesticides, and estuarine ecosystem monitoring
and Mith the Service for Geology and Mining in the Ministry of
Natural Resources for heavy metals monitoring. (UNEP)
Within the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries
and Forestry the Central Laboratory works on hygienic aspects of
surface Mater and on pesticides contamination issues. The
Fisheries Department Mithin this ministry is responsible for
coastal fisheries monitoring, shrimp tagging, quality control
monitoring of fishery products, and estuarine research in
cooperation Mith the Hydraulic Research Division. (UNEP)
The Suriname Forest Service manages the protected areas in
Suriname and carries out the "Action Plan for Conservation in
Suriname*. There is also some.work on these issues by the
Foundation for Nature Preservation in Suriname (STINASU) and the
Nature Protection Commission. (BID Conference Paper)
The Foundation for a Clean Suriname,a non—governmental
organization in Suriname works on public awareness and various
studies on the environment. It is currently assembling an
inventory of the locations of all environmental problems in the
country. (BID Conference Report)
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Stanley A. J. Malone
Head, Suriname Forest Service
Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy
Cornelius JongbaMstraat 10
P.O. Box 436
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phone: 597-75845/71316
Facsimilie: 597-72911
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Mr. Shanti D. Adhin
National Planning Office
Ministry of Finance and Planning
Onafhankelijkheidplein 3
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phone: 597-75850
Mr. Hubertus Campfens
Uaterlookundige Qfdeling
(Hydraulic Research Division)
Ministerie van Openbare Uerken,
Telecommunicatie t Bouwnijverheid (WLA)
Duysburg
P.O. Box 2110
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phones 597-60322
Mr. Haydey Urmila Devi Hralal
President
Stichting voor een Schoon Surinane
(Foundation for a Clean Suriname)
Del Pradostraat 6
Paramaribo
Surinane
Phone: 597-98493/98356
Ir. F. Klaus
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheri
Cornel is Jongbawstraat no 50
P.O. Box 438
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phones 597-74177
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Mr. Henk Ali Mahumed
Minister
Ministry of Public Health
Environmental Control Division
Gravenstraat 64 bov
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phone: 597-10441
Mr. K. Mohadin
Director
Foundation for Nature Preservation
Phone: 597-75845/76597
Mrs. Ing. A. V. Sauers
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisherii
Cornel is Jongbawstraat no 50
P.O. Box 438
Paramaribo
Suriname
Phone: 597-74177
Dr. M. Uerkhoven
Curator
Nat i ona1 Herbar i urn
University of Suriname
Phones 597-65558
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TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Source: The Europa Yearbook)
Trinidad and Tobago, an independent state, is located to the
south of Grenada and to the North of Venezuela. The island of
Trinidad has an area of 4828 sq km and Tobago is 300 sq miles in
area. The population was estimated at 1,199,200 in mid-1986 and
density per sq km at 233.8. The capital is Port of Spain. The
language is English. The currency is the Trinidad and Tobago
dollar.
The economy of Trindad is heavily industrialized and based
primarily on the exploration, production, and refining of
petroleum. The contribution of the petroleum industry to GDP in
1980 was 42. 1 percent, though it employed only 10 percent of the
working population. There is also a developed manufacturing
industry which contributed approximately 7 percent to GDP in
1983, but employed about 12.5 percent of the working population.
The agricultural sector in 1983 contributed only 2.4 percent to
GDP and employed about 10 percent of the working population.
There is also a tourism sector in the country.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources! Europa Yearbook, Archer 1984)
The principal crop is sugar cane, but there is also production of
cocoa, coffee, copra, citrus fruit, and rice. There is some
forestry and fishing as well as livestock production. Some
agriculturally-related production is for export. Pesticides are
used on crops and are causing pollution of the sea via rivers
especially on the west coast leading to the Gulf of Paria
according to Archer.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook, Archer 1984,
and BID Conference Paper)
The primary industry is involved in the exploration, production,
and refining of petroleum. There are also natural gas reserve
and production. Trinidad is the world*s largest supplier of
natural asphalt. Industrial and manufacturing production
involves the following products: raw sugar, rum and gin, beer,
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cigarettes, nitrogenous fertilizers, petroleum products,liquid
ammonia, methanol, furfural, plastics, cosmetics, toiletry
products, footwear, detergents,polishes and cleaning chemicals,
iron and steel, cement, refrigerators, radio receivers,
television receivers, and automobile assembly.
In Archer's report it Mas noted that there seemed to be numerous
and extensive problems to the marine environment from industrial
sources via release of chemicals into the Carom River and Swamps
and to the Gulf of Paria. In a paper presented at a BID
conference it was noted that many of the pollution abatement
systems-that are in place to control problems are not working
properly due to lack of laws, monitoring, and the unhealthy state
of the economy.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Archer 1984 and 1988)
Connected sewers serve approximately 18 percent of the
population, septic tanks serve close to 33 percent, and about 50
percent of the population uses cess pits and pit privies. There
is some primary and secondary treatment prior to discharge of
effluents, but the treatments do not appear adequate, and these
wastes do flow via rivers to the Gulf of Paria, causing
additional hazards to the marine environment. (Archer 1984)
Sometimes the pollution from sewage effluents and industry is so
bad that beached are closed to bathing. There have been serious
fish kills and migration of species to cleaner waters. (Archer
1988)
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcei Interview)
Solid waste disposal is primarily to landfills, though whether
these are lined or leachate monitored was not discussed.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Management
(Source: Interview)
The Ministry of the Environment and National Service is working
to establish a National Environmental Authority and a US EPA
official recently served as a consultant helping with the
formation of this new agency. At the time of this report a
number of agency*s have authority with regard to environmental
concerns in addition to the above mentioned ministry. The Water
and Sewage Authority works with sewage waste, and local
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government authorities work with back—up support from a solid
waste management company on solid waste collection and disposal.
The Ministry of Energy works with environmental issues of the
petroleum industry. The Institute of Marine Affairs does
monitoring of water quality and performs other significant
environmental functions. Extensive reorganization and updating
and designing of new laws, regulations, monitoring and control
systems appear to be underway and the Ministry of the Environment
and/or new National Environmental Authority should be contacted
directly for further information.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Winston R. Rudder
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of the Environment and National Service
Trinidad and Tobago
Phone: 809-622-5444
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Institute of Marine Affairs
P.O. Box 3160, Carenage Post Office
Trinidad and Tobago, WI
Phone: 809-634-4292/4
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TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic
and Demographic Information
(Source: Europa Yearbook)
The Turks and Caicos Islands, which are British Dependent
Territories, are a group of over thirty islands, approximately
eight of which are inhabited located to the southeast of the
Bahamas to the northeast of Cuba and to the north of Haiti and
the Dominican republic. The inhabited islands includes Grand
Turk, Providenciales, South Caicos, North Caicos, Middle Caicos,
Salt Cay, Parrot Cay, and Pine Cay. The islands occupy a total
area of 430 sq km. In 1980 the population was censused at 7,413.
The population density was approximately 17 persons per sq km.
Cockburn Town, the capital, is located on Grand Turk Island.
The official language is English. The currency used is the US
dollar.
Tourism and Off—shore banking and finance are the mainstays of
the economy. There is limited agriculture and raising of
livestock. Products of the fishing industry are the largest
exports.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry
Livestock and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook, Interview,
and Written Correspondence)
There is little in the way of agriculture because of low levels
of rainfall. What is produced is for domestic and tourist
consumption and is basically comprised of beans and maize. There
is some small scale hydroponics and the rest is basically slash
and burn variety with little chemical use.
The fisheries industry is a major source of export earnings in
the economy with main catches comprised of crawfish, lobster,
swordfish, wahoo, turp, grouper, snapper, and hog fish.
There is some production of livestock and it is likely there is
an abattoir.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook, Interview
and Written Correspondence)
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There is no industry, mining, or manufacturing to speak of in the
Turks and Caicos and reportedly no industries producing toxic or
hazardous wastes, with the exception of the hospital. Hospital
wastes are currently landfilled, but other, more environmentally
conscious methods are being considered. Disposal of wastes from
conventional businesses such as dry cleaning facilities may be of
some concern.
Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Written Correspondence and Interview)
Sewage disposal is primarily via septic tanks with soakaways and
private package plants with treatment at hotels. Environmental
Impact Assessments are required for new projects but there is
little manpower available for follow up. There is some limited
disposal by privy pit. The Club Med Resort Village provides
treatment of its sewage via an oxidation lagoon. No sewage is
disposed of directly into the sea.
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesi Written Correspondence and Interview)
Disposal of solid wastes is to landfills located on the various
islands. There is some open pit burning of wastes which are then
topsoiled. The landfills are located from 1 mile to 7 miles from
the sea and most are located above saline water tables.
There is some disposal of junked vehicles to the seas as
breakwaters but there is insistence on removal of transmissions,
batteries, etc before marine disposal. Litter is a major
problem. There has been some illegal dumping along roadways and
in areas once used for quarrying. The Ministry of Natural
Resources noted that on some islands there is disposal of wastes
into swamps and ponds. This is thought to be presenting
problems for marine habitats. Leachate from landfills is thought
to be affecting groundwater reserves in some areas, ft number of
clean up campaigns, jointly sponsored by island agencies have
been conducted. Containers for waste disposal have been placed
along main road areas and beaches with some measured success.
Littering fines have been increased to deter littering.
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source s Wri 11 en Correspondence)
The Department of Planning within the Ministry of Natural
Resources coordinates all departments that have some
151
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responsibility for the environment. This coordination is
usually with regard to the planning and implementation stages of
new development proposals.
The Department of Environment and Heritage within the Ministry of
Natural Resources has a responsibility for environmental
protection overall.
The Environmental Health Department within the Ministry of Social
Services has responsibility over any sewage, solid, or industrial
waste. Though there is little conventional industrial waste,
this department is reported to have regulations for controlling
such pollution and is responsible for assuring compliance with
these regulations.
There is monitoring of water quality in marina and beach areas
by the Environmental Health Department in conjunction with CEHI.
This department also monitors some ground water supplies.
There are land maps and soil maps that can be obtained from the
Department of Land Survey. Land use maps are kept by the
Department of Planning. Water resource maps are held by the
Water Department.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Mr. Royal S. Robinson
Former Director
Department of Environment and National Heritage
Ministry of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 66
Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos
Phone: 809-946-2673
Facsimilie: 809-946-2777
Mr. Oswald R. Williams
Director of Planning
Department of Planning
Ministry of Natural Resources
Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos
Phone: 809-946-2220/1
Facsimilie: 809-946-2448
Other Contacts For Environmental Coordination
Mr. Eric Lightbourne
Acting Director of the Environment
Department of Environment and National Heritage
P.O. Box 66
Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos
Phone: 809-946-2855
Mr. Joseph Williams
Chief Environmental Health Officer
Environmental Health Department
Ministry of Social Services
Grand Turk, Turks and Caicos
Phone: 809-946-2152
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VENEZUELA
Basic Political, Economic, Geographic,
and Demographic Information
(Sources Europa Yearbook)
Venezuela is an independent nation located in South America to
the east of Columbia and to the west of Venezuela. Venezuela
encompasses an area of 912,050 sq km and in 19S7 had an estimated
population of 18,272,157. The population density at that time
was 20 persons per sq km. The capital city of Venezuela is
Caracas, which is home to a bit over one sixth of the population
of the country. The official language is Spanish. The currency
is the Bolivar.
The petroleum industry, including production and refining, is an
important sector in the Venezuelan economy. The petroleum
industry provided approximately 23 percent of SDP in 1985 and 90
percent of export earnings. This industry provides about 40
percent of government revenue. Venezuela is the third largest
petroleum producer within.OPEC and the ninth largest in the
world. The mining industry, under which the petroleum industry
is included, employed approximately 61,464 in 1987, but it should
be noted that the mining of metallic minerals contributed
typically only about 1 percent to GDP. The manufacturing industry
(non-oil sector) accounted for approximately 18.5 percent of GDP
in 1985. The number of persons employed in manufacturing in 1987
was estimated at 1,052,366. Manufacturing contributes heavily to
export earnings in the Venezuelan economy. The agriculture,
forestry and fishing sector comprised 7 percent of GDP in 1986
and employed approximately 844,775 persons in 1987. The tourism
sector brought approximately 653,000 visitors to Venezuela in
1986.
Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry,
Livestock, and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sources: Europa Yearbook and Written Correspondence)
Approximately 20 percent of Venezuela's land area is utilized for
agriculture and three quarters of this area is for pasture
rather than crops. There is production primarily to meet
domestic food requirements and includes cultivation of maize,
rice, sorghum, potatoes, sesame seed, seed cotton, cotton (lint),
green coffee, cocoa beans, tobacco, cassava, oranges, tomatoes,
coconuts, copra, avocadoes, bananas, plantains, and sugar cane.
There is a forestry industry and large scale production of
livestock. There is also fishing for domestic consumption.
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The Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales
Renovables (MARNR) noted that there is large scale use of
pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture and this is causing
grave contamination problems for Caribbean waters off the shores
of Venezuela.
Industry, Mining, Manufacturing
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Sourcesc Europa Yearbook and Written Correspondence)
Venezuela is a founding member of OPEC, the ninth largest oil
producer within the world, and the largest refiner of oil within
OPEC. There are twelve operating refineries located in
Venezuela. Along with its petroleum reserves, Venezuela has
natural gas.
There is mining of gold, silver, diamonds, iron, coal, and
bauxite in Venezuela. There are also reserves of zinc, copper,
lead, nickel, uranium and phosphorus in the country. Aluminum
has been cited as the second most important export commodity in
the country with iron ore being the third.
The manufacturing industry is involved in the processing of the
various, above mentioned, mineral products. There is also
production of various petrochemicals such as plastics, sulfuric
acid, fertilizers, and ammonia. Additionally, the manufacturing
sector is involved in the production and processing of sugar, and
various other food products, beverages, textiles, paper, and
automobiles (assembly).
MARNR revealed that there are currently "four resolutions which
contemplate contamination parameters and maximum possible limits
on industrial effluent discharges." It was stated that the
accomplishment of these technical—legal instruments forecast the
ability of MARNR to legally bind industries to take corrective
actions. These laws will create a legal basis for closing down
operations of industries when hazards become apparent, if no
immediate action has been taken by the industry to remedy the
problem. It was also noted that there currently is some
treatment of liquid industrial wastes consisting of conventional
treatment systems when it is necessary for meeting established
norms regarding waste discharge quality.
There is no classification of the wastes discharged directly to
the sea or of those directly discharged to rivers but there has
been an inventory done of all industries discharging toxic and
hazardous wastes in general. There exists a decree and
resolution involving MARNR and the Ministerio de Sanidad y
Asistencia Social, that provides for the regulation of all
activities involving the generation and disposal of hazardous and
toxic wastes.
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Sewage Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Written Correspondence)
MARNR revealed that "there exist problems of contamination of
beaches as a consequence of discharges of sewage waters, into
marine coastal areas. There exists preliminary treatment of the
discharge in some sites. Depending on the geographical location
of the cities sewage wastes are discharged to rivers that flow to
the sea, or if the location is near the coast, the discharges are
made directly to the sea."
Solid Waste Disposal
and LBS Marine Pollution
(Source: Written Correspondence)
It was noted by MQRNR that "the solid wastes,(which might be
affecting the marine environment) in general are disposed in open
air drains or sewers, but there exist two sanitary landfills, one
for the metropolitan area of Caracas and the other for the city
of Maracaibo. " It was also mentioned that "there is work being
done in coordination with the Municipal Councils, for the
selection of sites that meet the conditions required for
installing sanitary landfills in diverse locations... located far
from the sea. "
Overall Environmental Management
and Water Quality Monitoring
(Source: Written Correspondence)
The responsibility for planning and the realization of activities
for the promotion of the quality of the environment and the
renewable natural resources is the responsibility, by law, of the
Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables
(MARNR) "The elaboration and execution of the programs of
conservation, defense, enhancement, and regulation of the wild
fauna and flora, aside from the national parks." and the
"...coordination of the activities of the public administration,
with regard to ...the environment and the natural resources and
in particular as related to the ordinances of the territory" are
also the responsibility of MARNR according to communication with
the Ministry. Responsibilities for agriculturally related
resources rest with the Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria. The
disposal of sewage wastes is the responsibility of the Institute
Nacional de Obras Sanitarias. The management and final disposal
of solid wastes is the responsibility of the Concejos Municipales
(Municipal Councils). The control of the disposal of industrial
wastes is the responsibility of MARNR.
No information in the correspondence from MARNR gave an
156
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indication of the extent and nature of water quality monitoring
within the country.
ft compilation of environmental laws and institutions in Venezuela
has been prepared by P. Moreillo for the BID and is available in
Spanish.
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Professionals Contacted During This Study
Sra. Lorena Suzzarini da Quintaro
Directora General Sectorial
Ministerio del Ambiente y de Los Recursos Naturales Renovables
(MARNR)
Oficina de Educacion Ambiental, Relaciones Internacionales
Torre Norte, Centro Simon Bolivar
Caracas, Venezuela
Phone: 582-483-4638
Facsimiliei 582-483-2445
Other Contacts for Environmental Coordination
Edf. Jose Vargas
Institute Nacional de Obras Sanitarias
Piso 11
Avda. Este 2-Suv 25
Los Caobos, Venezuela
Telex a 21893, 24175
Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria
Oficina de Relaciones Internacional
Torre Este, Piso 11
Avda Lacuna, Parque Central
Caracas, Venezuela
Phonei 582-509-0111
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CHAPTER III
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
As the preceding survey indicates, the nations and territories of
the Caribbean basin are subject to a wide range of types and
severity of LBS pollution. Generalizations are difficult to make
as to which types of pollution are the most common or dire, for
these are highly dependent upon the nature of each country's or
territory's resource base, topography, population density,
political economy, level of economic development, etc. The
degree of dedication to environmental protection, similarly, is
a function of many variables.
Some themes, however, appear over and over again, and will be
briefly conveyed here.
The lack of two resources, above all, hinders a country's ability
to manage threats to the its marine environments information and
funds. Officials lack information about what constitutes a
hazard, the extent (in geography and degree) of a known hazard,
the likely consequences of a hazard, and/or the feasible
alternatives to a hazardous practice. Information about viable
alternatives to particularly convenient but noxious agricultural
chemicals, for instance, may simply not be conveyed to farmers or
agricultural ministries. Government agencies may not know where
to obtain information on low—cost techniques for sealing
landfills, treating waste, or even where to purchase necessary
laboratory equipment.
There is a need and want for education on pollution control,
environmental impact assessment, land use planning, regulations
development, etc. There are organizations that can either
furnish this education themselves or can point to it, but it does
not appear that their programs of information dissemination are
adequate. There have been some attempts in the region to
introduce more environmental impact assessment, as evidenced by
the 1985 "Caribbean Seminar on Environmental Impact Assessment"
in Barbados.
The lack of information is often the result of the lack of funds,
which prevents the appropriate agencies from being adequately
staffed, from making necessary field visits, and from purchasing
monitoring equipment and facilities. Lack of funds, of course,
also prohibits regular enforcement of regulations—where they
exist—and costly solutions to pollution problems (such as sewage
treatment facilities). Frequently, even investments in
pollution-reducing programs or projects which appear to be
sensible in strict economic terms, require an immediate sacrifice
in return for a nebulous benefit at some indefinite time in the
future.
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This is particularly the case in the agricultural and industrial
sectors, where the costs associated with pollution are, at
present, fairly slight or difficult to see and appreciate. Given
the importance of foreign exchange earned by these two sectors,
together with the mobility of individual industries, countries
can ill—afford to suddenly legislate and enforce a battery of
regulations and penalties upon them. Many agencies have adopted
an explicitly cooperative approach to the control of industrial
pollution, whereby they work with industries to find mutually
acceptable solutions. More dramatic changes can be expected
in other sectors, where the health or welfare impact is more
immediate and obvious, for instance better sewage or solid waste
disposal systems.
Externalities, that is to say the impact upon a country from
another country's pollution, do not appear to trouble those
officials interviewed. This suggests that such externalities are
not currently very significant, or may in some cases be positive
(insofar as a country which damages its coral reefs may lose a
share of its tourist industry to another country).
Despite the apparent lack of concern about externalities, the
role of regional coordination is potentially great. This role
mostly consists in information sharing, the importance of which
was hinted at above. First of all, developing an inventory
system is prohibitively time consuming and expensive for many
small countries to attempt on their own; the countries in
question could therefore use the same inventory system—for
instance a computerized 6IS. Second, countries could collaborate
in a scheme to provide better information about available
agricultural chemicals or other inputs from non—regional
countries. Third, countries can share their successes and
failures concerning innovative industrial, sewage, and solid
waste treatment and disposal efforts. Such cooperation would
accelerate the development of more appropriate, indigenous
technologies, as initial successful efforts could be refined
over time to create better and better solutions. Finally,
countries are likely to adopt more ambitious regulations if they
know that other countries in the region are doing so more or less
simultaneously; the key here is that the economic cost of
applying regulations will be less if other countries (i.e. those
that export the same products or that could host the same
assembly plants) apply them as well.
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Fernandez, Marco R., Evaristo Martinez, Ada Flores, and Julio
Gonzalez Aguirre. "Situacion del Medio Ambiente en
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Hidalgo, Jorge A. Cabrera and Jose Luis Castillo de Leon.
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Holowesko, Lynn P., Francis A. Garraway, and Yvonne Shaw.
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Nunez, Felix S. "Situacion del Medio Ambiente en Panama". Paper
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Nurse, Leonard A., Ralph V. Carvalho, David A. Simmons, and Euna
A. Moore. "Environmental Situation in Barbados". Paper
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Resources" Inter—American Development Bank, Washington,
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