vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research
and Development
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA (600/9-79-027)
August 1979
Energy, Minerals, Industry
This document has not been
submitted to NTIS, therefore it
should be retained.
Energy from the West
Summary Report
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The Energy/Environment
R&D
Decision Series
Some of the most basic problems facing our
society today involve the use of our energy
resources and the effects of this usage on our
environment. These problems affect everyone,
and everyone has an interest in their resolution.
But the technical aspects of these problems make
it difficult for a major portion of the interested
public to understand and participate in the
decision-making process. This volume contributes
to the bridging of this information gap.
The Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series
was inaugurated late in 1976. The series presents,
in an easily understood and informative manner,
selected key issues and findings of the Federal
Interagency Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program, which was initiated in
fiscal year 1975. Planned and coordinated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the
Interagency Program sponsors more than 1,000
research projects ranging from the analysis of
health and environmental effects of energy
systems to the development of pollution control
technologies.
If you have any comments, please write to
Editor, RD-681, US EPA, Washington, D.C.
'20460. This document is available through the
National Technical Information Service, Spring-
field, Virginia 22161. Mention of trade names and
commercial products herein does not constitute
EPA endorsement or recommendation for use.
Design and Graphics:
Virginia Newman
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Energy From the West
Summary Report
By
Science and Public Policy Program
University of Oklahoma
Irvin L. White
Michael D. Devine
Steven C. Ballard
Michael A. Chartock
Allyn R. Brosz
Timothy A. Hall
R. Leon Leonard
Edward J. Malecki
Gary D. Miller
Edward B. Rappaport
Frank J. Calzonetti
MarkS. Eckert
Robert W. Rycroft
fhergy
from
the
Prepared for:
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Project Officer:
Steven E. Plotkin
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
Contract Number 68-01-1916
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5 Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Blvd., 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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Foreword
The development of energy resources inevitably impacts Man and his Environment.
The nature, magnitude and distribution of these impacts must be thoroughly understood
if balanced judgments concerning future energy development in the United States are to
be made. The Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry (OEMI), in its role as coordinator
of the Federal Energy/Environment Research and Development Program, is responsible
for producing information on health and ecological effects and on how to mitigate
adverse effects. This information is critical to developing the Nation's environmental
and energy policy. Within the OEMI, the Integrated Assessment Program combines the
results of Energy/Environment Program research projects and analyses of the
socioeconomic and political/institutional aspects of energy development in policy-
oriented studies. These studies are undertaken to identify the tradeoffs among alter-
native energy technologies, development patterns, and impact mitigation measures.
This report summarizes the results of a three-year Technology Assessment of
Western Energy Resource Development, a study which examined the development of
coal, geothermal, natural gas, oil, oil shale, and uranium resources in an eight-state area
in the western United States (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming). Three previously published project reports provide
detailed background information on the six energy resources, development
technologies, and laws and regulations (Energy From The West: Energy Resource
Development Systems) and report the results of site-specific and regional impact
analysis (Energy From The West: Impact Analysis Report) and the analysis of nine ma-
jor policy problems and issues (Energy From the West: Policy Analysis Report).
These project reports are being distributed at a time when western energy resources
and synfuels technologies figure prominently in national energy policy. The three major
Energy From The West reports identified above were designed to provide both in-
terested citizens and professionals interested in energy resource development a set of
planning handbooks for identifying and evaluating energy resource developments rang-
ing from a single facility to the large-scale regional production of a variety of resources
and fuel types. Our hope is that this summary report will whet your appetite and that you
will want to examine and use the other three reports.
Your comments and suggestions concerning all four reports will be welcomed.
L
o
Steven R. Reznek
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Energy, Minerals and Industry
-------
Preface
This summary report has been prepared as a part of "A Technology Assessment of
Western Energy Resource Development" conducted by an interdisciplinary research
team from the Science and Public Policy Program of the University of Oklahoma for the
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry (OEMI), Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This study was conducted under the In-
tegrated Assessment Program established by OEMI in 1975. Recommended by an in-
teragency task force, the purpose of the Program is to identify economically, en-
vironmentally, and socially acceptable energy development alternatives. The overall
purposes of this particular study are to identify and analyze a broad range of conse-
quences of energy resource development in the western U.S. and to evaluate and com-
pare alternative courses of action for dealing with the problems and issues either raised
or likely to be raised by development of these resources.
Radian Corporation, Austin, Texas, and Martha Gilliland of Energy Policy Studies,
Inc., El Paso, Texas, have been major contributors to this study, especially in terms of
the environmental impact analyses. Other major contributors include Water Purification
Associates, Cambridge, Massachusetts, who conducted studies of water requirements
for energy facilities; and the Center for Advanced Computation, the University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, who conducted a study of the costs of alternative energy
transportation modes. Don E. Kash, former Director of the Science and Public Policy
Program and now serving as Chief of the Conservation Division of the U.S. Geological
Survey, assisted the team in a number of ways.
-------
Natural Gas
Coal
Uranium
Capita!
Availability
Growth Management,, .^
and Housing ,,*-""****
Transportation
Water
Availability
Energy
Facility
Siting
-------
Significantly increased domestic energy
production will almost certainly include the
large-scale development of energy resources
located in the western U.S. Recognizing that
the development of these resources will pro-
duce a broad range of economic, environmen-
tal, social, and other impacts, this technology
assessment was initiated by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Its purpose is to iden-
tify the problems and issues that need to be ad-
dressed if western energy development is to
proceed in a manner in which beneficial op-
portunities are maximized and negative conse-
quences minimized.
The primary objective is to produce results
that will help EPA to revise and/or initiate and
implement appropriate environmental control
policies and programs. Study results are also
intended to be useful to other federal agencies
and officials, the Congress, state and local
governments, energy developers, labor, en-
vironmentalists, Indians, and a broad range of
other parties whose interests and values are
likely to be affected by the development of
western energy resources.
-------
Eight-State Study Area and
Six Site-Specific Scenarios
found in Colorado, Utah, North Dakota, and
Montana. Areas of geothermal resources are
still being discovered, but have been primarily
identified in the western half of the region.
Energy development and the resulting im-
pacts were studied for two region-wide
scenarios and for local scenarios at six sites.
Each of the six site-specific scenarios combin-
ed representative local conditions (such as
topography, meteorology, population, and com-
munity services and facilities) with a variety of
energy development technologies.
Scope and Approach
Resources
The study' includes eight Northern Great
Plains and Rocky Mountain States and six
energy resources. Coal is found in all eight
states with the largest concentrations occur-
ring in the Northern Great Plains. The highest
grade oil shale deposits occur in the Green
River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyom-
ing. New Mexico and Wyoming contain the
largest deposits of uranium, although some
uranium may be found in each of the eight
states. Crude oil and natural gas reserves are
largest in New Mexico and Wyoming, although
significant amounts of these resources are also
Coal '
OH
Urantem
OneQ= 172 million bbls of oil. or 60 million tons
of coal, or 1 trillion cubic feet of natural
gas.
-------
Solutional -. t
Uranium Mining
1 Oil/Gas Wells
Natural Gas or Oil
ixtractton
Conversion
Energy Resource Development Alternatives
These alternative technologies were as-
sessed:
Surface and underground mining
Exporting of raw coal
Coal-fired steam electric power generation
Liquefaction and gasification of coal
Surface and modified in situ retorting of oil shale
Mining and milling of uranium ore
Conventional and enhanced crude oil production
Geothermal electricity production
Energy transportation by rail, pipeline, and high
voltage transmission lines
-------
For a description of these extraction, conver-
sion, and transportation technologies, as well
as the laws and regulations affecting the
development of each resource, see our report
on Energy Resource Development Systems
(complete citations are at the end of this
report).
Two regional levels of development were
assumed for the eight-state study area based
on low and nominal national energy demand
levels.
Site-specific and regional impacts resulting
from the development of these energy
resources from the present to the year 2000
have been analyzed. Eight categories of im-
pacts have been identified:
Air
' Water
Socioeconomic
Ecological
Health
Transportation
Noise
Aesthetics
Energy Production Levels in the Eight States
-------
Study Approach
Findings are reported in the Impact Analysis
Report."
Following the impact analysis, we identified
problems and issues that need to be addressed
if western energy development is to proceed so
that benefits are realized while negative conse-
quences are minimized. Eight categories of
problems and issues were analyzed:
Wa ter ava ila bilify
Air quality
Water qualify
Growth management and housing
Land use
Capital a vaila bility
Transportation
Energy facility siting
For each category, policy alternatives were
identified, evaluated, and compared according
to several criteria. The results of this work are
reported in detail in our Policy Analysis
Report" and are summarized below.
Complete references for this and other publications from the study can be found on the final page.
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Annual Precipitation
Precipitation (inches)
D
The Context
of Western
Energy Development
Several factors will be important influences
on western energy resource development.
Among the most important of these are the
following: international factors such as the
world price of oil; public attitudes about the
energy crisis and the public's willingness to
modify behavior and lifestyles; institutional ar-
rangements for policymaking, particularly in-
tergovernmental and public/private sector rela-
tionships; and the inadequacy of existing
knowledge regarding the performance of new
energy technologies and the impact of energy
resource development.
While each of these factors will be important
to energy policymaking, perhaps the most
critical is the fact that energy problems are
directly linked with economic and environmen-
tal problems and that policies intended to solve
problems in one area will affect problems in the
other two. Because of this interdependence,
energy, economic, and environmental conflicts
have arisen which have increased the uncer-
tainties about how much, where, and in what
manner domestic energy resources will be
developed. As a result of these interrelation-
ships and uncertainties, policymakers often
find that attempts to deal with a problem at one
point in the system produce problems
somewhere else. Thus, policies and programs
are often contradictory and are often chal-
lenged by other participants in energy
policymaking.
-------
Within this overall national context, western
energy resource development is affected by
regional factors. Among these considerations,
none is more important than the general nature
and character of the region, including the
following elements:
Although rich in natural resources, the
region is water-short. Precipitation levels
range from less than 10 inches in the desert
Southwest to 10-20 inches in the Northern
Great Plains region.
With the exception of several large
metropolitan areas (Albuquerque, Denver,
Phoenix, Salt Lake City, and Tucson), it is
sparsely populated.
Approximately 45 percent of the total land in
the eight-state study area is owned by the
federal government and Indian tribes. The
federal government owns about half of the
coal, geothermal, and uranium and about 80
percent of the oil shale resources in the area.
Indian tribes own an estimated 40 percent of
the nation's uranium and 30 percent of all
strippable western coal.
Agriculture, mining, tourism, and govern-
ment service are the major sectors of
economic activity. Manufacturing employs
more than 10 percent of the labor force in on-
ly three states: Arizona, Colorado, and Utah.
Rugged individualism is still highly valued
and government intervention is generally
strongly opposed.
Attitudes toward energy resource develop-
ment range widely from being strongly sup-
portive to strongly opposed. Much of the op-
position by environmental groups comes
from residents outside the region who wish
to see the natural beauty protected.
These characteristics will continue to be im-
portant influences on national and state
policies toward energy development, par-
ticularly in the area of intergovernmental rela-
tionships. The western states have strongly
stated their intentions to have a major voice in
the development of their region, and several
areas of state-federal conflict have arisen.
Questions about the extent of state authority in
the allocation of water resources, implementa-
tion of federal air quality regulations, and con-
trol over reclamation on federal lands are
among the most important areas of conflict.
, Rancher Fearful of Development
'A rancher outside Colstrip, Montana articulate-
ly expressed his fear of new energy facilities. "To _
me, I |ust don't think you can put a material value
on what we have rig ht here . I thi nk it 's our respon-
sibility to do with it what we can and turn it over to '
our children In good shape. .. Then you get con-
version plants, and you think, okay, what's this go-
Ing to do with titrwaitrt rMei»(rtwii»t.iwlif -tenowif
to come out of the Yellowstone? Chat's a 200 or
1,000 percent increase -of the population of my
hometown f ojfi to «te? . , ,. ' To ttf « IKK hw»rf ; « ,r, -
To the sociological undercurrent?. . . To my com-
munity?.. . "
Johnson, ttaynsf, "The uwt
Washington Post, August 3, 1975, p. C-5. Quotes
from Willie MacRae. !
10
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Water Availability
Energy development in the western states,
particularly electric power generation using
wet-cooling technologies, will add to current
water availability problems and intensify ex-
isting political conflicts regarding water
resource management. The most important
water availability issues appear to be the follow-
ing:
Water Shortages in the Colorado River
Basin: When energy requirements for water
are added to nonenergy requirements for the
year 2000, the total exceeds minimum
availability estimates by as much as one
million acre-feet per year. Even using the
most optimistic combination of these
estimates of water requirements and
availability, energy resource development
will consume a large percentage of unap-
propriated surface water.
"". --~, Yellowstone Moratorium * * - ',
The State of Montana placed a four-year (March
demands. Requests for
have included 8.8 million acre-feet by coal related
industrial users, 8.6 million acre-feet by the State
Health Department, and 8.2 million acre-feet by
the State Fish and Game Commission. ', ';' '
Montana Department of Natural Resources and
Conservation, Water Resources Division. FlnatEn-
vironmental Impact Statement for Water Reserva-
tion Applications to the Yellowstone River Basin.
Helena, Mont.: Department of Natural Resources
and Conservation, 1975.
Increased Conflicts in the Upper Missouri
River Basin: Water rights in the Yellowstone
River have never been judicially settled to
determine how much water is actually
available. Increased demands from Indian,
energy, agricultural, and environmental in-
terests have created considerable uncertain-
ty over how remaining supplies will be used.
Damage to Environmental Resources:
As stream flows are increasingly depleted to
meet the needs of industrial, agricultural,
and municipal uses, damage could result, in-
cluding loss of recreational uses, habitat
damage from reduced flows and wetlands
removal, and damage to scenic and aesthetic
values.
11
-------
Projections of Water Requirements and Availability
in Colorado River - Year 2000
20'
15-
0)
Q.
2
O
c
O
10-
Availability(Minimum Estimate),
*
Nominal Demand
Low Demand
Future Nonenergy Uses
Current Upper Basin Use
Lower Basin Entitlement
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Conflicts with Indian Values: Indian values
and culture could be threatened depending
on how issues such as Indians' reserved
water rights are resolved. This could reduce
overall energy development by impeding
development of the extensive energy
resources located on Indian land and would
furthercomplicate the legal and political prob-
lems.
Restriction or Elimination of Irrigated
Agriculture: If existing water resources are
diverted for use in energy resource develop-
ment, it will often be at the cost of
agricultural lands. Since this could change
the basic economic structure and threaten
many western values, political conflicts
would almost certainly increase between the
federal and state governments, among
regions, and among states in the West.
12
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Policy Alternatives
If policymakers try to meet the expanded
needs of water users, two general categories of
policy alternatives can be considered: (1) in-
crease water supply (augmentation); or (2) in-
crease the use of existing supplies (conserva-
tion). Several specific alternatives exist in each
of these general categories. Policymakers
could take a very different approach by explicit-
ly reducing or eliminating water-intensive uses
in some areas, including energy development
and irrigated agriculture. One of the most
critical issues raised by these choices is where
the political authority will rest. Our findings in-
clude the following:
Water Augmentation: Several augmentation
options can provide needed water supplies,
particularly during the short term. Measured
in terms of millions of acre-feet which can be
added per year, the most effective choices
appear to be interbasin transfers, ground-
water mining, and weather modification.
However, several disadvantages of these
choices emerge:
,'
.
JF/' --X
13
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Wet Cooling Towers for Coal-Fired Power Plant
Interbasin and intrabasm transfers, groundwater
mining, and groundwater storage will each cost in
excess of $30per acre-foot of water.
Vegetation management and phreatophyte
removal present the greatest environmental risks of
these alternatives, in the sense of damaging
wetlands, wilderness areas, or scenic areas.
Most of these alternatives are inflexible, either
because they are capital-intensive (eg, water
transfer, impoundments, groundwater storage) and
therefore require long-term resource commitments,
or because they can cause relatively irreversible or
long-term impacts to streams and forest lands
States Rights Stressed
President Carter's proposal for comprehensive
water policy reform has met stiff resistance in the
western states. The National Governors* Associa-
tion Subcommittee on Water Management has
supported a comprehensive national water policy
which addresses state water problems. However,
the subcommittee concludes that such a policy
must recognize ". . .the state's primary role in
water management. . ." and that the policy must
be flexible in response to the states.
U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Environ-
ment and Public Works. Water Research and
Development. Hearings Before the Subcom-
mittee on Water Resources, 95th Cong., 2d sess.,
April 7,1978, pp. 297-311.
14
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Coal Power
Plant (Th)
Synthane
Gasification
Lurgi
Gasification
Synthoil
Liquefaction
TOSCO II
Oil Shale
Retort
In Situ
Oil Shale
Slurry
Pipeline
Wet
Intermediate Wet
Minimum Wet
Site-Specific
Variation
10
20
30
40
i
50
I
60
Gallons/million Btu in Product
Water Requirements for Energy Conversion Facilities
Water Conservation: Although potential
water-savings from irrigation and from
municipal conservation are uncertain, sav-
ings from energy conservation can be signifi-
cant. The most basic option in this regard is
to avoid siting water-intensive conversion
technologies in water-short areas.
If wet cooling is used, electric power generation will
require more water than gasification, liquefaction,
and oil shale development.
Among coal synthetic fuel technologies. Lurgi
gasification requires from 25 to 45 percent more
water than Synthoil liquefaction to produce an
equivalent amount of energy
15
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Water requirements for energy conversion
facilities may also be reduced by using a
combination of wet and dry cooling.
Intermediate wet cooling can reduce the total plant
requirements by as much as 32 pecent for Lurgi
gasification and 77 percent for electric power
generation. This could save about 96,000 to
106,000 gallons per million British thermal units
(Btu's) depending on where the plant would be
located By using minimum wet cooling, as much
as 42 percent of the water requirements of the
Lurgi process could be saved.
For synthetic fuel facilities, intermediate wet cool
ing is economical if water costs more than 25 cents
per 1,000gallons ($81 per acre-foot) and minimum
wet cooling is economical if water costs more than
$ 1.50 per 1,000 gallons ($490 per acre-foot).
For power plants intermediate wet cooling does
not become economical until water costs $3 65 to
$5 87per 1,000 gallons ($1,190 to 1,910per acre-
foot)
The economic cost of using water-saving cooling
techniques is much lower for synthetic fuel facilities
than for power plants For Lurgi, minimum wet
cooling costs about 1.5 cents per million Btu's of
gas, representing about 0.5 percent cost increase.
However, for power plants, intermediate wet cool-
ing would increase costs about 8percent
Wet
Intermediate Wet
Minimum Wet
Coal
Power
Plants
0-13.65
$3,65-15.8?
Synthetic
Fuels
Dollars/thousand Gallons
Breakeven Water Costs of Cooling Alternatives
16
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Along with water availability, air quality
issues have a major influence on western
energy development. Conflicts between the
goals of increasing energy development and
protecting the West's generally pristine air will
directly affect which resources are developed,
the technologies used, and costs of the energy
products. In addition to conflicts among goals
and values, decisions about energy develop-
ment are made more difficult by the complex,
ambiguous, and constantly changing set of
federal and state air quality regulations. These
appear to be the most important air quality
issues:
Separation Distance Between 3,000 MWe
Power Plants and Class I Areas
(80% SC-2 Removal)
17
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PSD Reclassif ication Conflict
The Northern Cheyenne tribal chairman, Allen
Rowland, has stated that "we are not requesting
this redesignation because we are against prog-
ress. For us progress means developing our en-
vironmental resources in renewable and compati-
ble manners such as timber and agricultural prod-
ucts. They are the cores of our value systems as
people."
When the State of Wyoming objected to the
redesignation citing possible restrictions on
development in some parts of the state, Eric Met-
calf, a Cheyenne spokesman, replied, "They're
saying: 'We want to make decisions in our area,
but you can't make those decisions for yours.' "
"The Cheyenne Drive for Clean Air Rights."
Business Week, April 4,1977, p. 29.
Effects of Prevention of Significant De-
terioration (PSD) Regulations: Restricted
resource development and continued con-
flicts over where development occurs are
likely because of the large number of man-
dated and potential Class I PSD areas in the
eight-state study area and because of the
complexity and uncertainty of the PSD
regulations. Calculation of estimated "buffer
zones" required for large power plants to
meet Class I sulfur dioxide (S02) increments
in the six site-specific scenarios shows
distances ranging from 14 to 75 miles.
Emissions Offset Policies: EPA's emissions
offset policy allows development in areas
already violating National Ambient Air Quality
Standards while PSD policies may constrain
economic development in the West. Many
westerners view these policies as
discriminating against their region.
Ambient Air Impacts in Growth Commu-
nities: Concentrations of pollution due to
population increases associated with new
energy facilities usually exceed those from
the energy facilities themselves even though
urban emissions are usually only about 10
percent of those produced by the energy
facility. This occurs because population
emissions, primarily from automobiles, are
released close to the ground. Yet, state and
local officials have very little control over
emissions from mobile sources.
Background Pollution Levels: Background
levels of total suspended particulates,
hydrocarbons, and oxidants (ozone), ap-
parently from natural sources, have been
measured near or above federal ambient
standards in some areas of the West. Energy
development could be restricted unless
regulations take these naturally occurring
conditions into account.
Effects on Visibility: Visibility considerations
have an uncertain, but potentially very
significant, effect on western energy
development. Visibility standards for Class I
PSD areas are required under the 1977 Clean
Air Act (CAA) Amendments; however, these
have not yet been promulgated and scientific
understanding of the relationship between
emissions and visibility is incomplete.
18
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Complexity of Air Quality
Regulations
"The fatal weakness of our national
energy/environmental policy is its failure to come
to grips with the complexities of the required pro-
cedures through which decisions must come
. .. .The PSD and nonattainment provisions
taken in combination create major procedural
obstacles. .. .1 think we focus too much on the
substance of whether the technology would make
it possible to solve these problems and not
enough on the process and procedure."
Quarles, John. Comments at Sixth Government
Affairs Seminar, Air Pollution Control Association,
March 22-23,1978.
Future air quality policies will need to recon-
cile the conflicts between energy and en-
vironmental values in the West. In this regard,
three categories of policy alternatives have
been identified: modify standards and regula-
tions; alter technological and siting choices;
and improve the procedural mechanisms for
siting. Although a variety of specific policy
alternatives are identified, four have been
evaluated in this study.
Air Quality Alternatives
Category of Alternative
Specific Alternative
Modification of standards and regulations
; of feett
control
Alteration of technological and siting
'' '
n jaf smaller, dispersed
'
.
fof toss f»*rflWfe>9
Improved procedural mechanisms for siting
Establishment of task forces for identi-
fying future sites
19
-------
S02 Removal Necessary to Meet all Standards Except BACT
Site and Binding Regulation
for Power Plants
Percent SO2 Removal
Colorado (1 DOOM We)
State Category II Ambient
Utah (3000 MWe)
Federal 24 hr. Class II PSD
North Dakota (3000 MWe)
Federal 24 hr. Class II PSD
Wyoming (3000 MWe)
State NSPS
Montana (3000 MWe)
Federal Class II PSD
State NSPS
New Mexico (3000 MWe)
Federal 24 hr. Class II PSD
94.0
85.0
82.0
S*SBfi!S^mmSiii!fKBMr
80.0
78.0
Best Available Control Technology (BACT):
As required by the 1977 CAA Amendments,
this policy alternative would regulate emis-
sions for SO2 by requiring a set percentage
sulfur removal rate (for our analysis 90 per-
cent was chosen), regardless of the original
sulfur content of the coal. This contrasts with
the previous New Source Performance Stan-
dards (NSPS) which set S02 emission limits
at 1.2 pounds of SO2 per million Btu's input.
SO2 emissions from power plants are estimated to
be about one-half as much by 1995 under this stan-
dard compared to a continuation of the previous
NSPS.
However, even without BACT large power plants
in the West will require strict SOz controls to meet
other applicable standards; estimates range from
78 to 96 percent
Removing the advantages of utilizing low sulfur
coal would cause Northern Great Plains coal pro-
duction to grow much less rapidly. However,
estimates are that 1990 production would still be
175 percent higher than 1975 levels.
The same emission levels could be achieved at
lower costs by providing incentives for low sulfur
control.
Monitoring costs will be higher in order to measure
both sulfur removal percentages and emission
rates.
20
-------
Coal-Fired Power Plant in Four Corners Area of New Mexico
Smaller Power Plants
"It has been conventional system planning
wisdom for a long time that construction of plants
of ever-increasing capacity is desirable (1) to
achieve scale economies, and (2) to reduce the
environmental impact associated with siting a
number of smaller generating plants. We believe
these arguments must now be reexamined in light
of current conditions and future prospects."
New York Public Service Commission, Opinion
No. 78-3, March 6,1978.
Smaller, Dispersed Facilities: Under this
alternative, industry would, for example,
build three 500 megawatt-electric (MWe)
plants at dispersed sites instead of one 1,500
MWe plant.
While overall emissions would not necessarily be
affected, pollutants would be dispersed over a
wider area. Dispersion effects would be similar to
using "tall stacks."
Other negative impacts, such as water consump-
tion and boomtown effects, would also be dispers-
ed; another advantage would be that tax and other
economic benefits for local governments would be
more uniformly distributed.
Land requirements may be two to three times
larger; other costs are also likely to be higher
depending on many site-specific factors.
Although each plant should face less difficult siting
requirements, this may be offset by the increased
number of plants that would be sited.
21
-------
Air Emissions on an Equivalent Energy Basis
Modified
In Situ
Oil Shale
Lurgi
Gasification
TOSCO II
Oil Shale
Retort
Geothermal
Synthoil
Liquefaction
Enchanced
Crude Oil
(Steam Injection)
Coal Power
Plant (Th)
Participates
SO2
NOx
H2S
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
Pounds/million Btu
Commercialization Programs for New
Technologies: Technologies such as coal
gasification, in situ oil shale production, and
geothermal power production would allow in-
creased energy production with less impact
on air quality than is created by power plants.
Most of the new technologies examined produce
considerably fewer air emissions per unit of energy
produced than power plants
Economic costs and risks for such a program would
be large: commercial scale synthetic fuel plants can
cost at least $0.5-1.0 billion.
Implementation would be difficult, since risks are
high and close cooperation would be required
among federal agencies, western states, and in-
dustry
Siting Task Force: The goal of a task force
representing various parties-at-interest (e.g.,
state and federal agencies, environmental
groups, farmers and ranchers, etc.) would be
to agree on future energy facility sites (for
example, in areas less environmentally sen-
sitive) in order to reduce siting delays at the
time the facilities are needed.
This approach has been tried in Utah, apparently
successfully.
Economic costs for the task force would generally
be small, unless extensive environmental studies
are undertaken.
Implementation should be straightforward; it could
be convened at the request of the governor; no
new institutions or laws would be required.
22
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Clean Water Compromise
-. Views Differ '
Environmentalists have charged that the 1977 '
Clean Water Aef will slow the pace of water pollu-
tion clean-up. A spokesman for the Clean Water
Action project said the changes were a step
backward. Especially troublesome to some en-
vironmentalists were delays in requiring industry
to Install pollution control equipment and permit
jects specifically authorized by Congress, In-
dustry spokesmen, concerned over the cost of
"
Water quality is closely related to water
availability and will become an increasing con-
cern as energy resources are developed in the
eight-state study area. Energy resource
development will require large quantities of
unappropriated water, which in conjunction
with increased demands from other water
users, can degrade water quality by concen-
trating pollution. Water quality can be affected
more directly as a consequence of solid and
liquid wastes produced by energy facilities and
wastewaters from municipalities, whose
populations are likely to increase dramatically
due to construction and operation of energy
facilities. The most important water quality
issues associated with energy development ap-
pear to be the following:
Pollution From Holding Ponds: Effluents
discharged to on-site evaporative holding
ponds can pollute surface water and ground-
water because of berm failure and/pr
seepage, and are a long-term waste disposal
problem. Current federal and state regula-
tions appear inadequate to deal with these
potential problems.
Effects of Mining and In Situ Resource
Recovery: Mining and in situ oil shale or
uranium recovery can disrupt and con-
taminate aquifers which can, depending on
hydrological connections, then affect sur-
face flow or other groundwater users.
Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Inade-
quate treatment is already a problem in many
areas, resulting in pollution of surface water
and groundwater, community health prob-
lems, and restricted municipal growth. Few
communities impacted by resource develop-
ment will be able to afford the costs of
upgrading capacities to meet new demands
or installing secondary and tertiary treatment
required by the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act and Clean Water Act.
23
-------
If
Waste Holding Ponds at Coal-Fired Power Plant
Control of Salinity: Agricultural, environmen-
tal, industrial, and municipal damage is
already caused by salinity. Salinity control
problems, which will be increased by energy
development, will continue to strain in-
tergovernmental relations, particularly
among states of the Colorado River Basin.
Economic Costs: Prices for energy products
will almost certainly increase because of the
need for improved effluent control and
holding pond design and maintenance. Costs
of agricultural products may also increase
because of the need to improve irrigation ef-
ficiencies to reduce runoff, particularly if
reduction of irrigation runoff is used to offset
salinity concentration due to energy develop-
ment in a river basin.
Salinity Rights
The Environmental Defense Fund (EOF) has
sued EPA to require stricter control of salinity in
the Colorado River Basin. EOF has estimated the
salinity cost for agricultural, municipal, and in-
dustrial users to be over $50 million annually. EOF
supports the creation of salinity rights, similar to
current water rights, in order to regulate the quali-
ty of water returned to surface waters,
See Gill, Douglas. "Man, Nature Share Blame
for Colorado River's Salinity." Denver Post, April
24,1977; and "EOF to Sue for Water Salinity Con-
trol." 0emwPosf,Aprlt15,1i77.
24
-------
Water Quality Alternatives
Specific Alternative
Improved control of effluents from energy
"' *
Unproved eoatrol of nonpotnl poBwiew
Trealm en t of su rf ace water
* Desalination
* Saline ftow diversion and containment
Two general categories of policy responses
are considered in order to deal with these
problems and issues: improve the effec-
tiveness of controls on pollution sources;
and/or treat the pollution in surface water.
Pollution From Energy Facilities: One
strategy for dealing with water quality is to
avoid those technologies which produce the
most effluents.
TOSCO II and modified in situ oil shale processes
generate more effluents than any coal conversion
technology studied
Valued on a thermal basis, electric power genera-
tion produces fewer effluents than the three syn-
thetic fuel processes studied.
Improved design, maintenance, and monitor-
ing of holding ponds will also be necessary
to control the inadvertent release of effluents
produced by energy production facilities.
Given current knowledge and experience, it
is uncertain how effective this response
would be.
// is certain that these ponds contain large quan-
tities of effluents: over a 25-year period, about 1.5
million (Lurgi) to 3.5 million (Synthoil) tons of ef-
fluents (dry basis) per plant can accumulate in
holding ponds.
These effluents contain heavy metals, trace
elements, and other toxic pollutants, and ap-
propriate designs and pond liners can considerably
impro ve pond safety.
25
-------
Salinity Control: Desalination and reduction
of runoff from irrigated agriculture are the
most likely salinity control options.
Desalination could remove up to 600,000 tons of
salt per year per plant on the Colorado River.
Although desalination plants are very capital- and
energy-intensive, they appear to be one of the most
efficient options with respect to cost (less than $70
per ton of salt removed) and reliability.
Lining distribution canals and producing water effi-
cient crops also cost less than $70 per ton of salt.
However, improved irrigation efficiency costs
about four times this much.
Implementation Costs: Several water quality
control alternatives will be difficult to enact
and implement because of the large capital
investments required. This is particularly so
for municipal waste treatment, desalination,
stream flow diversion, and irrigation efficien-
cy improvements. Each of these alternatives
can contribute to increased public expen-
ditures, require long-term commitments, and
may not be broadly applicable across the
western states or to the specific water quality
problems associated with individual energy
facilities.
Solid and Liquid Effluents from Technologies
Uranium
Mill
Coal Power
Plant (Th)
Synthoil
Liquefaction
Lurgi
Gasification
Synthane
Gasification
In Situ
Oil Shale
TOSCO II
Oil Shale
Retort
Site-Specific
Variation
40
80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
Pounds/million Btu in Product
26
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Growth Management
and Housing
Revenue and Public Expenditure Imbal-
ances: Counties and school districts can an-
ticipate rapid and large tax revenue in-
creases because energy facilities typically
are located within their boundaries. Towns
will often suffer the most serious growth im-
pacts but will receive little additional revenue
in the short term.
Inadequate Public/Private Sector Coopera-
tion: Current practice, reinforced by re-
quirements of the National Environmental
Policy Act, is to deal with impacts of each
company separately, rather than with overall
population impacts affecting energy com-
pany employees, long-time residents, and
service workers alike. Planning and growth
management difficulties are increased by in-
adequate information about timing,
magnitude, and location of energy develop-
ment activity.
Problems and Issues
Energy resource development in the West
can produce serious growth management and
housing problems for small, isolated com-
munities which often experience rapid and
large population increases and boom-and-bust
cycles. The most serious population changes
will result from labor-intensive facilities such as
coal gasification and electric power plants.
Population increases from these developments
will require rapid increases in expenditures for
new public facilities and social services, hous-
ing, and higher quality mobile home parks.
These appear to be the most serious growth
management and housing problems:
Projected Revenue Imbalances in
Campbell County, Wyoming - Year 2000
OJ
0)
01
J5
o
O
"o
-------
Mobile Home Park Near Energy Development
Public Sector Assistance: Few federal pro-
grams are directed towards the problems of
energy-impacted, rapid-growth situations,
and those that are typically give funds to
energy-rich county governments rather than
to towns. Although several western states
have established housing finance agencies,
they have had little impact on housing
markets.
Development Risks: The risks of housing
construction in energy development areas
are apparently too great for lenders,
developers, and energy firms. Relatively
small western housing markets cannot com-
pete with major urban lenders and are often
unable to finance construction and mort-
gages. Thus, most newcomers live in mobile
homes, which are often crowded, unmain-
tained, and contribute relatively little to local
tax rolls.
Wright, Wyoming
"During the Sweetwater County, Wyoming,
boom's early stages, the housing stock of the
county was nearly doubted with 6,000 new units.
Fifty-five hundred of these were mobile
homes.. . .The housing market demand drove
prices and rents up, yet investors and developers
were skeptical of putting money Info boomtown
housing. Even if Hey had been wiling, mortgage
money was not available for the typical miner
wishing to buy a home."
Gilmore, John s. Transcript ol Hearings Before
the Subcommittee on Regional and Community
Development of the Senate Committee on En-
vironment and Public Works, 95th Congress,
August 2,1977, pp. 26W7.
28
-------
To deal with these issues, four categories of
alternatives have been considered: tax struc-
ture changes, impact assistance, reductions in
the number of workers living on-site, and in-
creased housing construction.
Tax Structure Changes: Several alternatives
exist for changing the tax structure in order
to provide revenue during the construction
phase when large population increases first
occur.
Several of these alternatives, particularly redistribu-
tion of state severance taxes and prepayment of
property and sales taxes, appear to be effective
means for dealing with growth management prob-
lems.
Tax structure changes appear equitable, since the
direct beneficiaries of energy development would
also share the costs, and they can be easily ad-
justed to specific situations and combined with
other alternatives.
Tax structure changes will also create political prob-
lems, because state and county governments view
the loss of control over revenue sources as a reduc-
tion in their authority and in their flexibility to ad-
dress energy impacts.
' ?- f; Growth Management and Housing Alternatives
' t* ' " v -t" ! * " - - '
Category of Alternative
Specific Alternative
Impact assistance for rapid growth areas
Reductions in workers living on-site
Increased housing construction
* Municipal annexation of county land
Prepayment of property and sales tax
» State collection and distraction of property taxes
T«x credits for private sector assistance
* Water ami sewer facility programs
* Federal land and mineral payments
project schedule adjustments
» Long distance commuting
* Selective siting
29
-------
Population Increases from Energy Facilities
Peak Construction
Peak Operation
Uranium
Milling
d.OOOmtpy)
I
Natural Gas
Production
(250MMcfd)
Coal Power
Plant (Th)
(3,000 MWe)
Oil Shale
Retort
(50,000 bbl/day)
Coal
Gasification
(250MMcfd)
Coal
Liquefaction
(100,000 bbl/day)
Crude Oil
Production
(50,000 bbl/day)
20
15
10
0
Thousands of People
10
15
Energy Impact Assistance: Federal impact
assistance will probably be required to sup-
ply the necessary financial assistance to
municipalities, particularly for water and
sewer facilities.
Impact assistance programs appear to be easier to
administer in the critical near-term than state and
local-level tax changes, but they would be costly
and would not necessarily change the fundamental
imbalance between town and county governments.
State and local officials are also likely to perceive
this choice as decreasing their control over revenue
sources.
Selective Siting:
Consideration of siting choices to match
technologies and locations could avoid many
growth management and housing problems, if the
most labor-intensive facilities are prohibited in areas
least capable of handling population increases.
Coal gasification and liquefaction facilities have the
largest peak population increases during construc-
tion.
Industry Investment in Housing:
The cost of housing construction programs for in-
dustry can 'range from $5,000 per unit for site
development alone, to more than $30,000 per unit
for house construction (1975 dollars). Many
energy industries appear unwilling to assume the
risk of buying homes, since development plans
could be delayed or cancelled.
Improving the quality of mobile home parks, for ex-
ample, by providing amenities typical of residential
areas would be a flexible way to deal with the par-
ticular housing problems of each community.
30
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known about the long-term success of
reclamation in the West, but success will be
related to climate, soil composition,
topography, and existing biological com-
munities. Reclamation appears to be most
difficult in the arid Southwest.
Ecological Damage: Land use to meet the
needs of energy-related population growth
generally produces more serious ecological
impacts than land used directly by energy
facilities. Public lands (national parks,
forests, recreation and wilderness areas),
particularly those in a natural state, are likely
to experience the greatest changes as a
result of population growth.
Conflicts Over Land Use: Energy develop-
ment will compete with other economically
productive land uses, such as grazing and
row crops, and with preservation, conserva-
tion, and leisure time uses. Conflicts are like-
ly to increase among a variety of constituents
and among government agencies as to how
increased demands on land use should be
accommodated.
Land Use
Problems and Issues
Energy development will disturb lands used
for mines, access roads, support and conver-
sion facilities, waste disposal, housing and
recreation. Although these land uses will affect
only a very small percentage of land in the
region, they will intensify conflicts among
energy developers, farmers, ranchers, en-
vironmentalists, recreationists, and others. The
most important land-use issues appear to be
the following:
Land Disturbance: Most of the energy
resources in the West will be extracted by
surface mining, which disrupts large areas
and produces more visible land degradation
than underground mining. Relatively little is
New Recreation Demands
Grand Teton National Park Is located 100 miles
north of enerfy boomtown Roek Springs, Wyom-
ing. Residents combined with out-of-state tourists
resulted in three million visitors to the park In 1976.
"Wyoming Is feeling the effects of energy
development," says State Senator John Turner,
"It's doubled the population in some com-
munities, brought In a rough crowd, caused an in-
crease in mental health problems, divorce,
alcoholism, and crime." Due to these increases 70
percent of the respondents in a public survey of
residents ol Jackson Hole (in the park) favored
strong land-use controls and very limited growth.
-Leydet, Francois, "Jackson Mole: Goodbye to
the Old Days," Matiaaaf
-------
Piceance Creek Oil Shale Area in Western Colorado
Policy Alternatives
Two broad categories and four specific alter-
natives for dealing with land-use issues were
identified. Of these, the two policy responses
of reclamation and redevelopment have been
evaluated. Reclamation refers to returning min-
ed lands to the state that existed prior to
development; with redevelopment, lands may
be returned to some other productive use such
as residential subdivisions, new towns, in-
dustrial parks, wildlife refuges, public parks, or
waste disposal sites. The focus of our evalua-
tion was on redevelopment to public parks.
Redevelopment to create recreation areas has a
higher potential for success, especially in arid and
semiarid areas. Generally, redevelopment can
return lands to a productive use three to four years
earlier than reclamation.
Costs for reclamation and redevelopment are
about the same, ranging from $1,000 to $7,000 per
acre (1977 dollars)
Redevelopment is generally more adaptable to site-
specific conditions and gives local authorities more
discretion in interpreting local needs.
The established need for expanded recreational
opportunities for energy-related population in-
creases challenges the appropriateness of a policy
emphasizing only reclamation
Current land rehabilitation requirements are inade-
quate for lands disturbed by oil shale and uranium
development.
Land U se Alternatives
Specific Alternative
Designation of permissible uses
* Controlled access to and activities
on public and private lands
* Reclamation ^return to prede-
vetoptnefrt wse)
Redevelopment to recreation areas
{e.0., parks) ; ' - - "
32
-------
Problems
Our technology assessment considered
three other categories of issues important to
western energy resource development:
Capital a variability
Energy facility siting
Transportation
Among the more important problems and
issues in these categories are the following:
Economic Risks: Considerable technical and
regulatory uncertainty surrounds the com-
mercial scale performance of technologies
for producing energy from geothermal, oil
shale, and coal gasification and liquefaction.
Risks are great since synthetic fuel
technologies can require investments of over
$1 billion per facility, which is equivalent to
almost the entire fixed investment of many
large energy firms.
Competition: Major oil and gas companies
are acquiring large holdings of coal, oil
shale, and uranium reserves in the West
about 40 percent of the nation's privately
held coal reserves. Such acquisitions could
close off competition among energy
resources. Competition is also influenced by
federal leasing policy, since almost 80 per-
cent of western energy reserves are federal-
ly owned or lie under or adjacent to federal
lands.
Regulatory Complexity: Federal and state
environmental policies restrict where
development can occur, help to define how
facilities will be configured, and require
lengthy and uncertain review processes.
These processes have become more com-
plicated as diverse interest groups have
gained better access to public decisions on
energy development. Because siting deci-
sions have seldom successfully balanced the
interests at stake, many groups resort to a
variety of tactics to delay or cancel projects.
Siting Uncertainties: The conflicts that often
occur over siting create such uncertainty that
it has become virtually impossible to an-
ticipate when, where, and at what level
development will occur. These uncertainties
contribute to the inability of local and state
governments to manage development im-
pacts and growth.
33
-------
Inadequate Transportation Capacity: In-
creased energy development in the West will
require major expansion of transportation
capacity. Based upon our low demand
scenario, capital requirements by the year
2000 for coal slurries, unit trains, and electric
transmission will exceed $26 billion (1975
dollars). Land requirements for these three
transportation modes are projected to ex-
ceed 450 thousand acres.
Impacts of Train Traffic and Electric Power
Transmission: Heavy coal train traffic will
create noise problems, bottlenecks at cross-
ings, and health and safety problems. High
voltage transmission lines create aesthetic
impacts, the potential for electric shock,
communication interference, and possible
biological effects on people and livestock.
Unit Train Near Colstrip, Montana
34
-------
Several alternatives for dealing with these
capital availability, facility siting, and transpor-
tation issues have been considered. Major fin-
dings from the evaluation of these alternatives
are as follows:
Financial Subsidies: Developers would be
provided at least some increased stability by
financial subsidies and they may be a
necessity if certain of the newer technolo-
gies are to contribute to increased domestic
energy production.
Capital, Siting, and Transportation Alternatives
Category of Alternative
Specific Alternative
Provision of financial subsidies to
developers
Tax preference
* Price guarantees
Promotion of new sources of
investment
» Consumer risk asspmpiiOTL
Improved fe»sfn$iSf stem
Improvement of the siting process
» Technology-site evaluations
* Increasedimpactassistance " "'
* improved wieeftairtswtm for cteen
Involvement
Enhancement of coat transport
capacity
« Increased regulatory flexibility
for railroads
* Promotion of coal slurries
Mitigation of transportation impacts
» Improved safety and notse reduction
of unit trains
*. Regulation of voltage and Improved
planning for transmission Woe routes
35
-------
Price guarantees would primarily benefit larger
companies since they would not reduce capital re-
quirements.
Tax preferences, especially investment tax credits,
would reduce capital exposure risks by allowing the
developer to recapture part of the capital invest-
ment almost immediately.
These alternatives could require large public ex-
penditures, but both price guarantees and tax
preferences are well-established approaches to
economic policy
Improvement of the Siting Process: The suc-
cess of technology-site evaluations, as well
as most other siting alternatives, depends on
fundamental changes in the system.
Technology-site evaluations could improve the in-
formation base and reduce development risks by
eliminating the most problematic sites.
An important need is for equitable access to deci-
sionmaking by parties-at-interest in combination
with limits on how long and in what manner siting
decisions can continue to be contested after review
processes are over.
"Reasonable" determination of where to locate
energy development facilities eventually depends
on the willingness of parties-at-interest to recognize
the legitimacy of other values. Otherwise, the result
will be a continuation of the uncertainties, in-
equities, and at times, paralysis of the existing
system
Mitigation of Unit Train Impacts: Improving
safety signals at crossings or constructing
grade separations or by-pass lines around
towns can reduce coal train impacts.
Concerns of Increased Coal
Train Traffic
Mayor Hammond of Lusk, Wyoming, summed
up the worries of his constituency: "We get one
freight a day through here now and that ties up
traffic coming in and out of town. What do we do if
there's a fire, or if someone has a heart attack on
the other side of the track when these unit trains
start running? We just don't know what's going to
happen."
Richards, Bill. "Paying the Price for Western
Energy." Washington Post, December 13,1976.
Little can be done to reduce noise impacts except
to build new tracks away from as many people as
possible.
Grade separations and track rerouting are costly,
the former ranging between $750,000 and $1.5
million (depending on conditions), and the latter ex-
pected to cost $500,000 per mile for new double
tracks.
Enhanced Coal Transport Capacity: The
most attractive approach to increasing coal
transport capacity would appear to include
both coal slurry and rail transport.
Slurry pipelines are sometimes cheaper than rail
transport, especially in high volume, long distance
applications
Slurries are relatively inflexible in terms of shipping
capacity; they must be operated at a more or less
constant yolume of flow and at a very high capacity
between a fixed supply point and fixed demand
points
Thus, under no circumstances would slurry
pipelines totally substitute for rail transport.
With a combined slurry pipeline-railroad system,
there will be less of a threaf to coal supply disrup-
tion due to accidents, strikes, or weather
36
-------
The Science and Public Policy Program of
the University of Oklahoma is currently exten-
ding the analysis of water availability and water
quality problems related to western energy
development. This work, scheduled to be com-
pleted by December 1979, builds on our
previous analysis of likely water impacts, pro-
blems, and issues. A range of water policy
alternatives is being analyzed, including:
Water management strategies
* Water pricing strategies
Conjunctive use ofgroundwater
Quantification of Indian rights
Conservation in energy conversion facilities
Conservation in agriculture
Salinity control options
Use of saline water in energy facilities
Policies governing waste disposal
* Control of groundwater contamination from min-
ing
These alternatives and others will be evaluated
and compared to improve our understanding of
the water issues associated with western
energy resource development.
37
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Energy From the West
Publications
White, Irvin L., etal. Energy From the West.
Washington, D.C.: U.S., Environmental Pro-
tection Agency.
Policy Analysis Report, 1979 (EPA-600/7-79-
083)
Impact Analysis Report, 1979
Vol. I: Introduction and Summary (EPA-
600/7-79-082a)
Vol. II: Site-Specific and Regional Impact
Analysis (EPA-600/7-79-082b)
Energy Resource Development Systems
Report, 1979
Vol. I: Introduction and General Social
Controls (EPA-600/7-79-060a)
Vol. II: Coal (EPA-600/7-79-060b)
Vol. Ill: Oil Shale (EPA-600/7-79-060c)
Vol. IV: Uranium (EPA-600/7-79-060d)
Vol.V: Oil and Natural Gas (EPA-600/7-79-
060e)
Vol. VI: Geothermal (EPA-600/7-79-060f)
Work Plan for Completing a Technology
Assessment of Western Energy Resource
Dei/e/opmenf,1978(EPA-600/7-78-012)
A Progress Report of a Technology Assess-
ment of Western Energy Resource Devel-
opment, 1977
Executive Summary (EPA-600/9-77-032)
Vol. I: Summary (EPA-600/7-77-072a)
Vol. II: Detailed Analyses and Supporting
Materials (EPA-600/7-77-072b)
Vol. Ill: Preliminary Policy Analysis (EPA-
600/7-77-072C)
Vol. IV: Appendices (EPA-600/7-77-072d)
First Year Work Plan for a Technology
Assessment of Western Energy Resource
Development, 1976 (EPA-600/ 5-76-001)
Gold, Harris, and D. J. Goldstein. Wet/Dry Coo/-
ing and Cooling Tower Slowdown Disposal in
Synthetic Fuel and Steam-Electric Power
Plants. Washington, D.C.: U.S., En-
vironmental Protection Agency, 1979 (EPA-
600/7-79-085)
Gold, Harris, et al. Water Requirements for
Steam-Electric Power Generation and Syn-
thetic Fuel Plants in the Western United
States. Washington, D.C.: U.S., En-
vironmental Protection Agency, 1977 (EPA-
600/7-77-037)
38
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1980 0 - 308-971
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