PROPERTY OF THE
OFFICE OF SUPERFUND
PNL-4093
EPA-600/8-82-025
EPA FIELD GUIDE FOR SCIENTIFIC
SUPPORT ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED
WITH SUPERFUND EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Prepared for
Emergency Response Division
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Prepared by
Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Operated for the U.S. Department of Energy
by Battelle Memorial Institute
Project Officer: L. C. Raniere
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97333
Interagency Agreement No. AD-89-F-2A115
Publication No. EPA-600/8-82-025
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PREFACE
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA) grants the President the authority to respond to releases of hazardous chemical sub-
stances that imminently and substantially threaten public health or welfare, or the environment.
The Act, which establishes a $1.6-billion Superfund to finance response actions, and which charges
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with administering critical portions of the response
program, was designed to build on the existing environmental response authority given to EPA
under Section 311 of the Clean Water Act.
Releases are defined under CERCLA as any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting,
emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing of a substance into the
environment, except 1) those resulting in exposure in a work place (only to employees who may
have a resulting claim against their employer), 2) emissions from certain classes of engine exhausts,
3) those of certain classes of radioactive materials, and 4) normal applications of fertilizer. The
environment is defined as all lands; waters (ground, surface, and ocean); soils and substrata; and
ambient air within or under the jurisdiction of the United States. Public health or welfare concerns
all factors affecting human health and welfare, including the natural environment, fish, shellfish,
wildlife, public and private property, and shorelines and beaches.
Hazardous substances include certain named materials plus such materials that, when released
into the environment, may present substantial danger to the public health, welfare, and the envi-
ronment. Hazardous substances do not include crude oil; petroleum or petroleum products
(except for those named); or natural gas, natural gas liquids, or synthesis gas usable for fuel. Under
CERCLA, releases are other than those permitted under provisions of the Clean Water Act (Federal
Water Pollution Control Act), the Solid Waste Disposal Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Clean
Air Act, the Atomic Energy Act (or regulations promulgated thereunder), or the release of mate-
rials authorized under applicable state laws for the purpose of stimulating or treating wells for the
production or enhanced production of crude oil, natural gas, or water. Furthermore, for the pur-
poses of this document, releases are those requiring response to prevent, limit, or mitigate an
emergency in which risk to public health or welfare or the environment exists.
in
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) operated by Battelle Memorial Institute for the U.S.
Department of Energy prepared this document. The work was performed under interagency
agreement no. AD-89-F-2A115 with the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of
Research and Development, Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon. The
work was performed at the request of the EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
Dr. Lawrence C. Raniere was the EPA Project Officer and Dr. Richard A. Craig was the PNL Project
Manager. PNL staff performing the work were N. E. Bell, J. G. Droppo, C. J. English,
P.). Cutknecht, G. R. Keizur, B. K. Marshall, G. L. McKown, J. M. Meuser, and M. A. Parkhurst. In
preparing this document, technical input and guidance was solicited from and given by Emer-
gency Response Program staff of each of the EPA Regional Offices. These regional personnel were
also given the opportunity to provide a technical review of the document. Technical review and
guidance have been provided by Karen Burgan, Sherry Hawkins, and Mark Mjoness of the Emer-
gency Response Division and Richard Stanford of the Remedial Response Division of the EPA
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.
In addition, technical peer reviews were provided by Dr. Jay Rodstein of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, and
Dr. Thomas Winter, United States Geological Survey, Denver. Dr. Royal Nadeau, Environmental
Impact Section, Region II, EPA also provided an in-depth review.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
During an emergency response to a release of a hazardous substance, the On-Scene Coordi-
nator (OSC) will require scientific information for his decision-making process. This manual pro-
vides guidance in establishing and maintaining scientific support for responses to such releases.
The manual delineates the methods and technical aspects of scientific support required during
implementation of Superfund removal activities, regardless of the government unit (state, local, or
Federal) that may be performing the implementation. Although comprehensive in coverage, the
primary emphasis is on environmental effects on inland areas.
Pre-response activities are emphasized. Consultants, scientific literature, computer data bases,
records, and analytical capabilities must be identified, and appropriate contracts or other agree-
ments must be arranged before an emergency response. The identification of region-specific
information (e.g., land-use maps, identification of the habitat of rare or endangered species, loca-
tions of wells) should be included in the library resources.
The response to a release can be divided into three activities (during each of which scientific
support may be required): 1) characterization, 2) assessment, and 3) mitigation. Characterization
entails the determination of the nature and extent of the release as well as of possible pathways to
sensitive communities. Assessment involves the analysis of the rates of transport to the sensitive
communities, the effect of the release on those communities, and the effect of mitigative actions.
Mitigation entails applying the best cleanup actions and appropriate follow-up activities.
An important element of the characterization phase is the identification of the substances
involved in the release and their physical and chemical characteristics. In addition, information is
needed concerning the extent of the contamination, the fate of the chemicals (partially deter-
mined by their volatility, stability, biodegradability, sorptive properties, bio-accumulation proper-
ties), the physical properties of mixtures of chemicals, and the reactivity of the released materials.
An important element of the assessment phase is the calculation of the transport rate of the
materials released to sensitive populations via surface water, ground water, or air. Thus, a knowl-
edge of meteorology (for atmospheric transport and precipitation) and of hydrology (for surface-
water and ground-water transport) may be required. Data sources for meteorological information
include weather stations, computer models, and consultants experienced in their use.
Surface releases can run off to surface water, or penetrate to ground water. Surface flow is
dictated by geography and by the existence of sufficient material to maintain flow. Information
concerning surface-water transport is provided by appropriate maps that identify local topo-
graphy, water courses, and manmade structures. Government agencies or consultants can provide
interpretation of flow data (as obtained from surface-water stream gages) to predict transport
times.
In the case of a surface release, the transit time to ground water depends on local geography
and hydrology. A knowledge of the existence of conduits to ground water or of impermeable
layers is necessary to understand whether ground-water transport of a surface release would pro-
vide a pathway to man. Subsurface releases may initially be detected in ground water. In these
cases, information on the extent of contamination may be obtained by sampling existing wells or
by drilling and sampling new wells. Data on ground-water flow can be acquired from measures of
ground-water potential gradients and through the use of appropriate models.
The potential hazard presented by a release is determined by the concentrations reaching
sensitive populations. In the case of airborne transport, the entire population may be affected; the
size and distribution of this population is available from land-use maps. For surface-water trans-
port, the critical locations are the drinking-water withdrawal points or reservoirs. These locations
should be identified in advance from water-supply companies or other sources. For ground-water
transport, the population using well water from a contaminated aquifer is at risk. Information on
ground-water use can be obtained from water suppliers, public health departments, and well
drillers, among others.
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Executive Summary
The location of sensitive nonhuman populations in the area (including Federal and state rare
and endangered species) should be determined. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provides
information on Federally listed rare and endangered species. Locations of state-listed species are
maintained by state departments of natural resources. This information, too, should be gathered in
advance. Because the mitigative action chosen by the OSC may have effects on indigenous wildlife
(not just on rare and endangered species), data on these populations should be available. This
information can be gathered in advance from state departments of natural resources or game
departments.
Another element in analyzing the hazard posed by the release is the effect of the extant con-
centrations on exposed populations. Thus, toxicological properties and thresholds for the various
toxicological responses must be known. Sources of pertinent data include handbooks and com-
puter data bases.
Finally, a mitigation process itself will affect the environment. Thus, the OSC must recognize
potential negative consequences associated with alternative mitigation measures. Depending on
the nature of the response and on the measures adopted, these consequences may include:
transfer of the hazardous materials to different ecological units, hazards to on-scene personnel, or
the formation of secondary products endangering sensitive populations.
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CONTENTS
PREFACE iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii
CONTENTS ix
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1
2.0 RESPONSE TO RELEASES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 2.1
3.0 SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT 3.1
4.0 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION 4.1
4.1 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION (ivory pages) 4.5
4.2 HYDROLOGIC AND METEOROLOGIC ASSESSMENT (tan pages) 4.27
Air Contamination 4.28
Surface Contamination 4.34
Underground Contamination 4.36
4.3 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (green pages) 4.61
4.4 TOXICOLOGY, HEALTH, AND SAFETY (blue pages) 4.69
4.5 IMPACT ANALYSIS OF MITIGATION METHODS (yellow pages) 4.79
4.6 SPECIFIC REGIONAL INFORMATION (pink pages) 4.91
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The response to a release or threat of release of hazardous chemical substances includes
actions taken to prevent, minimize, or mitigate damage to public health or welfare or the environ-
ment. The response process includes measurement, assessment, or evaluation activities necessary
to determine the potential damage to public health or welfare or to the environment; measures to
limit access to the contaminated area; removal and disposal of released substances; possible provi-
sion of alternative water supplies; confinement, diversion, containment, segregation, neutraliza-
tion, destruction, treatment or incineration, recycling, or reuse of contaminated materials; repair
or replacement of damaged containers; collection of leachate and runoff; and dredging or exca-
vation. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA), which establishes a Superfund to finance response actions, broadly defines two types of
responses: removal and remedial action. Removal refers to relatively short-term responses,
whereas, remedial action indicates responses of considerable duration that are "consistent with
permanent remedy." The selection and implementation of response activities is the responsibility
of the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC), who bases his scientifically informed decisions on measure-
ment, assessment, and evaluation activities.
Scientific activities take on greater meaning in view of recent trends toward application of
scientific principles in evaluating cleanup alternatives, as opposed to "cookbook" approaches.
This emphasis implies a more active role for scientific input before, during, and after a response
action. As a corollary, it also implies that greater thought be given to the caliber and timeliness of
scientific support activities.
The primary purpose of this manual is to provide guidance in establishing and maintaining
scientific support for responses to releases of hazardous substances. The manual delineates the
methods and technical aspects of scientific support required during implementation of Superfund
activities, regardless of the government unit (state, local, or Federal) that may be performing the
implementation. The manual provides guidance for development of procedures for acquiring
technical support during responses to releases of hazardous substances. As a source book for
background information, the document provides:
• information regarding the nature of scientific support needed during response
• information regarding the coordination of general scientific support information concerning
technical areas where guidance may be required
• specific reference and source materials, formats, checklists, and methodologies.
The manual is divided into three sections. Section 2 describes the response process and activi-
ties performed therein. Section 3 elaborates on the need for scientific support during the response
and defines the types of scientific support required. Section 4, entitled "Technical Information" is
itself divided into two parts: fundamental technical information and specific regional information.
Fundamental technical information refers to basic physical laws, properties, and processes that are
universally applicable. This section includes information on chemical characterization; hydrology
and meteorology; ecology; toxicology, health, and safety; and impact analysis of mitigation
methods. The specific regional information section identifies specific individuals, agencies, and
industries within a particular geographic area and their potential assistance during a response to
an emergency. Also included are formats that may be used to locate and assemble this informa-
tion. The individual sections in the manual are color-coded. (Refer to the Contents page for the
color-code of a particular section.)
1.1
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2.0 RESPONSE TO RELEASES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Emergency responses to releases of hazardous substances are composed of two parts: a fast
and efficient response effort culminating in control or stabilization of a situation threatening pub-
lic health or welfare or the environment, and a methodical response effort that considers the inci-
dent in relation to the larger environmental (chemical, geological, ecological) picture, regarding
both short-term and long-term impacts. The former element is the province of existing emergency
response plans; the latter is more the realm of preplanned, well-coordinated scientific support.
Responses consist of three basic steps:
• Characterization—the acquisition, compilation, and processing of data to describe the scene
so that a valid assessment of alternative actions can be made.
• Assessment—an analysis of the severity of an incident; the evaluation of possible response
actions for effectiveness and environmental impact.
• Mitigation—the implementation of the best response action and followup activities.
Because scientific support will be important in each of these steps, each is considered in
greater detail in the following sections.
CHARACTERIZATION
The decision for any response action is based on data describing the release of hazardous sub-
stances into the environment. The ultimate success of the assessment and mitigation methods
depends on accurate, valid data that characterize the materials released, the environmental media
affected, and the susceptibility of the environment to harmful effects. Unfortunately, the charac-
terization phase may receive inadequate attention in an emergency situation because of the com-
pelling need to proceed as quickly as possible to an assessment and a mitigation activity. This is
why the elements of scientific support, and the coordination of such efforts, are important during
the characterization phase.
An idealized flowchart/decision diagram for the characterization phase is shown in Figure 2.1.
Experienced response personnel may recognize the logical sequence for approaching a response,
even though the entire scheme may require only a matter of hours, or minutes, in an emergency
situation. Some of the reasoning may even occur subconsciously; certainly for experienced people
many of the steps become almost second nature. This is both good and bad: often in emergencies
only the outstanding details can be considered; on the other hand, critical details sometimes can
be ignored, or not sufficiently considered.
To assure that details (particularly those regarding data acquisition, completeness, and valid-
ity) are adequately considered, the following must be developed:
• a search system, an interpretation mechanism, and documentation center for all technical data;
a repository to which the OSC can turn when responses are needed to technical questions or
statements such as:
"Where is the file of data on the chemical properties of these materials?
"What is the effect of this stuff on carbon steel tanks?
"One of our guys just stepped in something; find out the lexicological properties and
the immediate medical advice."
"Do we have the necessary background samples from that stream before we divert this
stuff into it?"
2.1
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Response (o Releases of Hazardous Substances
f
DETERMINE QA AND
ENFORCEMENT
REQUIREMENTS
ASSEMBLE AND ASSIMILATE
AVAILABLE INFORMATION
CONSULT WITH SCIENTIFIC
EXPERTS
1 1
DEVELOP A WORK PLAN FOR
RESPONDING TO THE INCIDENT
— -
DOCUMENT
1
^
DOCUMENT
PERFORM SURVEY. COLLECT
AVAILABLE DATA. CONSULT
WITH LOCAL RESPONSE PERSONNEL
CONDUCT PRELIMINARY
EVALUATION OF DATA
1
t
ACQUIRE NEEDED
DATA
*.___.
DOCUMENT EVIDENTIARY
INFORMATION
MODIFY RESPONSE
PLAN
NO ^X'DATA^^
^S. 7 ^S^
AND DOCUMENT DATA
1
GO TO ASSESSMENT
FIGURE 2.1 Characterization Phase
"How valid is this ground-water data we got from the Corps?"
"What do we know about potential vegetation kill if we allow this stuff to spread?"
• a formal planning effort for the acquisition of data, so technical requirements will be met. The
objectives of a study must be predetermined, and a plan of action developed to meet those
objectives.
• formal documentation and custody functions related to technical information. Not only must
data be valid, but the basis for data validity (from technical and legal viewpoints) must be
known and defensible as well. The response team should be able to provide the lawyers with
an evaluation, based on documented results, of the validity of the data used as legal exhibits.
Acquiring Data
Obviously, in emergency situations the planning effort may need to be expedited. Work plans
will often be developed on the way to the airport, or on-scene as the fire is burning or as the
material is being absorbed by the ground. Such plans may be recorded in haste and changed
many times, but this does not detract from their utility or necessity. The planning should be as
complete as is practical, representing the best efforts possible under the circumstances.
2.2
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Response to Re/eases of Hazardous Substances
A data acquisition plan must consider the following questions:
• Has the situation changed significantly since the last plan was developed?
• What data are needed? What questions need to be answered by a data acquisition effort?
• Is this the best plan to provide needed data in the time allowed?
• What procedures are to be used? Will the data be made available in time to use them?
• Does implementation of the plan interfere with subsequent response-related efforts?
• What are the contingencies if the situation changes?
• What effect will changes in plans have on accomplishments to date? Will these changes invali-
date previous work?
Data acquisition and plan development are iterative processes. Because situations may change
drastically as response activities proceed, a flexible planned approach is essential.
Technical Questions
In addition, the characterization phase generally involves supplying answers to the following
queries:
• What are the substances involved in an incident? What are their physical, chemical, and toxi-
cological properties? How are they to be detected and analyzed?
• What are the quantities involved? What is containing the material that has not been released?
What is the leak rate? How should sampling be carried out?
• How are the substances distributed in the environment? What media (air, water, soil, ground
water) are affected?
• Where are the materials going? What are the transport mechanisms? What information will be
required to determine rates through the various affected media? What transformations and
dilutions occur?
• What information will be needed to determine the toxicological effects on the susceptible
populations in terms of dosage vs time?
• What residual concentrations are allowable?
Relationship of Technical Information Sections to Characterization Activities
The technical information sections (colored pages) provide information on how and where
the physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of the substances can be identified during
characterization activities. Furthermore, the Chemical Characterization Section provides informa-
tion on how to choose the appropriate tests to determine the substances involved in the release.
Other technical information sections provide information on how to determine the relevant
transport processes, the parameters required to perform the assessment, and the identification of
critical human and other populations.
ASSESSMENT
During the time between characterization of the incident and the application of mitigation
measures, a series of analyses and decisions must be undertaken to define the extent of the prob-
lem and the array of possible response actions. These decisions, and the comparisons and evalu-
ations that lead to them, constitute the assessment phase. Compared to characterization, this
phase is less of an exact science; it is here that any rigorous theory of response actions would
break down.
2.3
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Response to Re/eases of Hazardous Substances
Scientific support is required during the assessment phase for concerns such as impact
assessment, the levels of cleanup needed, and the calculation of risk and risk reduction. Few
guidelines are available to help resolve these concerns; thus, controversies, biases, and alternative
approaches will abound. Coordination of technical support activities is necessary, and in turn may
be very demanding. The timing of emergency situations increases the difficulty of the assessment
significantly.
A diagram of the response activities included in the assessment phase is shown in Figure 2.2.
Frequently, several series of parallel efforts culminate at a major decision point. Scientific support
needed during this phase includes:
• coordinating the various parallel technical efforts in time and in technical content
• generating specific supporting evidence to aid the decision-making process
• incorporating the evidence in tradeoff analyses
• determining the impact of a decision before it is made
• providing justification and documentation of decisions
• providing support for ancillary or follow-up efforts not directly associated with the mitigation
process. (For example, long-term monitoring and restoration activities are not directly a part of
the response process, but may be necessary in a particular instance. While such activities may
be the province of agencies outside the response network, the response unit may need to help
develop and monitor the activities.)
Technical Questions
The assessment phase generally involves supplying answers to queries such as:
• How can a "no-action" alternative be justified and monitored? What follow-up studies would
be necessary? What are the potential impacts?
• When will the materials reach a susceptible population? How long before action is required?
What are the exposure concentrations as functions of time?
• What are the short-term ecological impacts? What is the impact by species? Are endangered
species involved? Are particularly sensitive environmental areas involved?
• What are the long-term ecological impacts (loss of habitat, ecological imbalances, effects of
residuals)?
• To what level must cleanup be effected? What are the tradeoffs (risk vs residuals) for different
degrees of cleanup (according to the procedures defined by the National Contingency Plan)?
• What is the risk reduction of alternative actions? Are there economic benefits to be gained
through a more complete cleanup?
• What restoration will be required? Will an area recover naturally, and if so, how long will it
take?
• What documentation (for legal and technical purposes) is necessary for rejected alternatives?
• How can radically different processes be ranked in terms of effectiveness? Is there a cost factor,
and how significant should it be?
• What are the side effects and ultimate products from application of an alternative? Is the cure
worse than the original problem?
As stated earlier, these are difficult questions that are not amenable to simple solutions or calcula-
tions. A coordinated approach backed by as much expertise as possible is recommended.
2.4
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Response (o Re/eases of Hazardous Substances
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
- DETERMINE CHEMICAL HAZARD
DETERMINE ROUTES AND RATES OF TRANSPORT
- CALCULATE TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARD
1
1
IS IMMEDIATE
ACTION REQUIRED'
DETERMINE LEVEL
OF MITIGATION
NECESSARY
1
YES
TRANSFER
RESPONSIBILITY
TO REMEDIAL GROUP
GENERATE FEASIBLE MITIGATION/
CLEANUP OPTIONS
- ALTERNATIVE EFFECTIVENESS
- ALTERNATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
- ALTERNATIVE COSTS
APPROPRIATE ALTERNATIVE LOGISTICS
WITHOUT COMPROMISING LONG-TERM ACTION
COMPARE ENVIRONMENTAL COST
EFFECTIVENESS OF EACH
REASONABLE ALTERNATIVE
RECOMMEND MOST EFFECTIVE
ALTERNATIVES WITH MINIMAL
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
FIGURE 2.2. Assessment Phase
Relationship of the Technical Information Sections to Assessment Activities
The technical information sections provide information on how and where to find assistance
in performing assessment activities. These activities include determining the effects of the no-
action alternative and the effects of possible mitigation methods. Discussed are needs for, and
scientific aspects of, calculating transport rates through various media.
2.5
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Response to Re/eases of Hazardous Substances
MITIGATION
Mitigation plans are frequently developed by engineering and contractor personnel under
the supervision of the OSC. An idealized flowchart/decision diagram for the mitigation phase is
shown in Figure 2.3. Mitigation efforts follow directly from the assessment phase, and do not
involve much scientific support activity. However, technical observation and assistance as an
adjunct to cleanup operations is required. This is obvious in two areas:
• Certification—The response team will be required to certify that mitigation is complete and
sufficient to stabilize a release situation. This requires continuing attention to ecological and
geophysical impacts as a response action proceeds. Each situation differs and application of
proven mitigation methods does not in itself assure entirely predictable results. Observations
of hydrological, chemical, and ecological parameters during the cleanup must continue, and
an overall evaluation must follow cleanup procedures. These data become an important part of
the response documentation, both for scientific and enforcement reasons.
• Monitoring—Scientific information may be needed to design, implement, and supervise a
surveillance and monitoring system that functions long after the response effort ceases. This
system assures that solutions continue to be adequate and indicates whether additional efforts
are required. Such activity also includes attention to restoration of areas damaged by a release.
Relationship of Technical Information Sections to Mitigation Activities
The technical information sections provide information to help the OSC identify potential
consequences of mitigation methods. These sections also can help the OSC acquire the technical
and scientific resources to certify and document mitigation activities.
SELECT MITIGATION
ALTERNATIVE
i
t
DESIGN AND
IMPLEMENT
MITIGATION PLAN
1
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT
SURVEILLANCE AND
MONITORING PLAN
1
*
CERTIFY
COMPLETENESS
OF MITIGATION
1
PERFORM FOLLOWUP
MONITORING
I
PROVIDE DATA AND
DOCUMENTATION TO
ENFORCEMENT
REVIEW DATA
FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Of MITIGATION
FIGURE 2.3. Mitigation Phase
2.6
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3.0 SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT
Scientific support during a response to a hazardous release comes from many sources (Fed-
eral, state, local, and private), all of which must be coordinated to be useful to on-scene person-
nel. Information required by the OSC may be very specific, or it may be general, requiring broad,
technical, and interdisciplinary approaches to a problem. Successful coordination and responsive-
ness requires a well-maintained technical contact network and familiarity with scientific references
and data sources.
An integrated team approach to scientific support, whether organized by one person or
implemented by several staff members who use the system, can result in rapid access to, and effi-
cient use of the information required. Such a system, however, must be developed before an inci-
dent occurs and maintained by use and continued contact. Establishing and maintaining this
network assures the desired support and allows for continuity between related, or similar,
responses.
The role of scientific support in the response process dictates that specific activities be per-
formed before, as well as during an incident. In addition, certain actions may require post-
operative support.
PRE-OPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT
Pre-incident planning increases the availability of timely scientific information and guidance
to the OSC. The development of a scientific support network before or between incidents is the
cornerstone of well-defined, accessible information and support during a response. This network
comprises individuals and agencies, as well as a repository for documents and data bases.
A system of knowledgeable contacts ensures that requests for aid are made to appropriate
individuals or agencies. A first step in this direction is the identification of potential technical
experts/advisors in a variety of disciplines. The responsible staff can generate an initial list, which
can be expanded as contacts are made. Scientists who will provide assistance may be found in
Federal, state, and local government agencies, in universities, and in industry. Nationally recog-
nized experts and scientists within the region should be contacted. Such individuals should be
members of the Regional Response Team (RRT).
Once identified, the individuals should be contacted to clarify their area of expertise and to
discover their degree of willingness to provide assistance. Some may wish to aid in on-scene
response, whereas others may prefer to provide information via telephone. Continued contact will
promote information exchange and feelings of cooperation, especially when an emergency cry for
help comes during nonworking hours.
Contractual agreements should be negotiated during these preresponse contacts when
appropriate. The agreements may be with individual experts, or they may be for general services
that need to be available immediately. A list of these should be compiled and made readily availa-
ble to all response personnel.
A second aspect of planning for scientific support is the compilation of regionally appropriate
references or data. Certain technical information that is universally applicable (such as that found
in the references of each technical information section of this manual) should be augmented by
data specific to the region. Necessary information includes the identification of vulnerable resour-
ces or critical habitats requiring special protection, baseline data for these resources, industries
operating in the region and the chemicals most used by these, commercial transportation routes,
and hazardous substance disposal sites. Environmental regulatory limits of pollutants, health cri-
teria, and enforcement or quality assurance requirements should also be included. This compila-
tion should contain a listing of available field equipment needed to support reconnaissance
studies, as well as reports on all response actions in the region, whether led by EPA or other
agencies.
3.1
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Scientific Support
Advances in research and development should be routinely reviewed for applicability to
response actions. The response team should have at its disposal state-of-the-art knowledge in
technical areas and on the status and results of research projects, especially those initiated by
problems raised at other incidents.
Because many of these preparatory functions overlap, an integrated scientific support pro-
gram is needed. Once contacts have been made and information amassed, a program must be
established for using these resources. The first step is to develop the scientific support portions of
a Regional Contingency Plan. Ways to acquire the required technical information through experts
should be specified for planning, response, and post-response activities. Interfaces among EPA,
the RRT, natural resource trustees, and university and industrial scientific communities should be
established. In addition to a Regional Contingency Plan, a Regional Response Center (RRC) library
should be established and maintained, with the information synthesized and cross-referenced.
One possible visual format for presenting a large amount of information is through over-lay base
maps. Baseline data, drinking-water well locations, types of industry, historical incident locations,
industrial chemical use, and transportation routes are examples of data suitable for cartographic
presentation. Also contained in the centra! library, as well as in each RRT library, should be the
preplanned list of contacts (a directory of expertise) that includes individuals and institutions to be
notified or consulted in the event of an incident.
Possible formats for this formidable task of contact, coordination, and compilation are pro-
vided in the Specific Regional Information Section of this manual. Although establishing and
maintaining such a system is time consuming, once in place it will provide efficient access to the
required expertise as well as continuity from site to site.
OPERATIONAL ACCESS TO SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT
The function of scientific support during an incident is to assimilate preplanned material and
necessary additional scientific information into operational decision making for which the OSC is
responsible. This pertains to environmental aspects of the OSC's decisions regarding identifica-
tion, containment, removal, and disposal of the hazardous material involved. The nature of scien-
tific support required will vary with the type, location, and severity of the incident. It may include:
• sampling and analyzing the materials involved and their quantities, both for response action
and subsequent legal purposes
• trajectory modeling for the prediction of the movement of the material in a given time frame
and for the locations that would be affected
• defining the relevant toxicological aspects
• analyzing other aspects of the behavior and fate of the hazardous substance, including any
alteration in physical and chemical characteristics that may be expected under various environ-
mental conditions
• projecting probable environmental impacts of various cleanup strategies and selecting the least
harmful containment techniques
• predicting public health and ecological effects of acute discharges
• identifying threatened natural resources, critical habitats, and sensitive populations
• establishing priorities for protecting affected populations, including wildlife rehabilitation
requirements
• assuring data validity and proper interpretation, both for operational and enforcement
purposes.
3.2
-------
Scientific Support
The OSC may acquire this support directly or, during large and complex responses, may
request coordination of the scientific support by another individual. When this coordination func-
tion is delegated, the designated scientific support coordinator (SSC) is responsible to the OSC.
The SCC is the liaison between the OSC and the scientific community, relating requests for and
offers of assistance, as well as integrating and interpreting the advice from experts.
POST-OPERATIVE SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT
Some scientific activities may continue after the completion of cleanup activities. Damage
assessment, restoration necessitated by cleanup activities or by intrusion of the hazardous sub-
stance into the environment, public health studies, and long-term monitoring may be undertaken
by a governmental agency, industry, or a private institution. Whether sponsored by EPA or by
other agencies, if possible, these activities should be monitored by the individual who coordinated
the scientific support. This could ensure that all pertinent data would be available for conducting
the studies and that the results would become part of the information base in the RRC library.
At the termination of a response, regardless of which specific scientific support functions are
used during the incident, the individual coordinating the support activities should verify that all
actions (successful or not) are completely documented. This full documentation, or a record of
where it exists, should be available to appropriate participating organizations.
Scientific support activities constitute a dynamic system. The activities that enhance the basic
knowledge and response capability of the response team aid the OSC during a specific incident.
Conversely, the experience at one incident expands the working knowledge of the response pro-
cess, making the lesson of experience available to all the OSCs.
3.3
-------
4.0 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
As discussed in Section 3.0, the OSC will require technical information to make a risk-based
assessment of the release situation and the mitigation alternatives. This includes information
on: 1) characterization of the material involved in the release, 2) the potential for transport of the
material, 3) the size and character of potentially affected human (and other) populations, 4) the
potential hazard to exposed populations posed by the material, and 5) the potential effects of
emergency response procedures.
In the following sections we describe the type of information that may be required and indi-
cate where this information may be obtained. No attempt is made to reproduce all of this informa-
tion because much of it will be region-specific. Rather, a guide for acquiring this knowledge is
provided. Emphasis is placed on pre-emergency acquisition of information and data sources.
Because the decisions of the OSC during an emergency situation may become an issue in a
later enforcement action, all technical information should be documentable (and documented). If
sampling is required, the sample should be representative and significant in a statistical sense.
Observations of the "undisturbed" environment may be important to an enforcement action.
The technical background information sections deal with the following areas:
• Chemical Characterization—applicable to characterization phase
• Hydrology and Meteorology—applicable to characterization and assessment phases
• Ecological Assessment—applicable to characterization and assessment phases
• Toxicology, Health, and Safety—applicable to characterization, assessment, and mitigation
phases
• Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods—applicable to assessment and mitigation phases
• Region-Specific Information—applicable to characterization, assessment, and mitigation
phases.
For ready reference, each subject area is printed on a specific color of paper. Reference
sources for each category are included with each section. A checklist of activities to be performed
before or between, during, and after responses is provided at the beginning of each section.
4.1
-------
4.1 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION ACTIVITY CHECKLIST
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES
1. Obtain a list of the chemicals and hazardous materials most likely to be involved in spills or
emergencies (see p. 4.8).
2. Obtain handbooks and chemical data references and become familiar with their use
(see pp.4.7, 4.16, 4.19-21).
3. Become familiar with the use of computerized data bases such as OHM-TADS and obtain the
necessary equipment to use this source at the response scene (see p 4.8).
4. Establish contacts with local experts and consultants who can be contacted on short notice to
obtain needed data. Maintain file of consultants' phone numbers (see p. 4.8).
5. Become familiar with analytical and sampling techniques that may be needed during
responses (see pp. 4.9-16)
6. Assemble necessary sampling equipment, including a supply of prepared sample containers
and packing and shipping materials (see p. 4.14).
7. Obtain necessary equipment for field analytical methods and become familiar with their use
(see pp. 4.14-15).
8. Obtain a list of local analytical laboratories and become familiar with their shipping require-
ments, turn-around times, and available methods, (see p. 4.14).
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE
1. Document the chemical data needed during these responses, to assist in critiquing response
activities.
ACTIVITIES FOLLOWING RESPONSE
1. Critique response activities and identify where improvements in chemical characterization
can be made. If necessary, revise checklist.
4.3
-------
4.1 CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION DATA FOR EMERGENCY RESPONSE
An understanding of the chemical characteristics and behavior of contaminants is vital if a
response to an emergency is to be effective. Chemical data must be obtained which allow the
response team to take the following steps:
1. Identify the chemical contaminants present.
2. Determine the extent of chemical contamination.
3. Determine the need for chemical analyses.
4. Determine if chemical contaminants will react during response activities and, if so, with what.
5. Predict behavior of contaminants in the environment during and after response.
• Will they volatilize?
• Will they degrade?
• Will they sorb to soil?
• Will they bioaccumulate?
Identify the
Chemical Contami-
nants Present
Determine the
Extent of Chemical
Contamination
Determine the
Need for
Chemical Analyses
Determine If Chemical
Contaminants Will
React During Response
Activities and, If So,
With What
Identifying the chemicals involved in an emergency is a vital first
step in selecting appropriate response actions. Identification may take
place in several increasingly refined steps, depending on urgency. For
example, appearance and odor may be used to make an on-scene iden-
tification of an unknown material (e.g., benzene or a derivative). Such
information would be adequate to initiate emergency response actions.
Later, exact determination of the material's identity could be obtained
from laboratory analyses. Methods of identifying chemicals are dis-
cussed on pages 4.7-8.
The extent of contamination (the quantity of materials and geo-
graphic area involved) must be known for the magnitude of the prob-
lem to be adequately assessed. As with chemical identification, the
determination may take place in several steps. For example, an order of
magnitude estimate may be all that initially is required to assure that an
adequate number of response personnel are called out. Later, more
refined determinations may be necessary to design specific response
actions. Means of determining the extent of contamination are dis-
cussed on pages 4.8-9.
Chemical analyses may be necessary to determine the identity of
chemicals or the extent of chemical contamination. In some cases, such
as the occurrence of a seep of unknown material from an area where a
variety of wastes had been buried, chemical analyses may be the only
means of identifying the contaminants present. Analytical methods are
often limited by time, costs, and the availability of equipment. Under
emergency conditions the use of many analytical methods, though
desirable, may not be possible because of these constraints. Analytical
methods and factors affecting their use, are discussed on pages 4.9-16.
Knowledge of chemical reactions is especially important in select-
ing appropriate response actions. Inadvertent chemical reactions caused
by response actions can have disastrous results. For example, water has
been applied to leaking tanks of silicon tetrachloride to control hydro-
gen chloride emissions, resulting in a violent reaction and even greater
4.S
-------
Chemical Characterization
Predict Behavior of
Contaminants in the
Environment During
and After Response
production of hydrogen chloride. Knowledge of reactions is also
extremely important in selecting containers and materials for use in
response. For example, stainless steel is nonreactive with concentrated
sulfuric acid, but will corrode when contacted with dilute sulfuric acid
(such as the residuals from cleanup of a sulfuric acid spill). Means of
determining reactivity are discussed on pages 4.16-17.
Once released to the environment, contaminants can undergo a
variety of physical and chemical transformations. Knowledge of these
transformations is valuable in determining response actions and judging
the environmental persistence of contaminants. Important transforma-
tions and environmental pathways are identified below.
Volatilization—Volatilization is an important means by which some
chemicals disperse through the environment. Volatilization rates can
influence the selection of response techniques and are valuable for
judging the environmental persistence of contaminants. For example,
trichloroethane is a common industrial solvent having high volatility. A
land spill of this material might well be expected to volatilize before
cleanup could be accomplished. Knowledge of volatilization rates
would also allow response personnel to determine that trichloroethane
flushed into a sewer probably would be volatilized during the treatment
process and not discharged with the effluent. Methods of determining
volatilization rates and the chemical data required for such determina-
tions are discussed on page 4.17.
Degradation—Common degradation modes for environmental con-
taminants are hydrolysis, photolysis, chemical oxidation, and biodegra-
dation. Degradation rates are extremely useful for determining the
environmental persistence of contaminants. This knowledge is valuable
for determining response actions. For example, acrolein is a common
industrial chemical that can be explosive and can emit hazardous vapors
when heated. Emergency use of water spray to control this hazard may
be undesirable, however, because of the possibility of runoff and the
extreme toxicity of acrolein to aquatic life. Knowledge of acrolein's rela-
tively rapid degradation rate in water could prove helpful to the
response team in determining a course of action. Means of obtaining
degradation rates and the chemical data required for such determina-
tions are discussed on page 4.18.
Sorption—Sorption of chemicals to soils and sediments can retard
the movement of contaminants, affecting response decisions. For exam-
ple, formic acid moves rapidly through the soil; thus, ground-water
contamination would be very probable following spill:, in areas of
shallow ground water. The pesticide, parathion, however, is strongly
sorbed to soil and would not be expected to move to ground water. Dif-
ferent degrees of soil sorption might result in different response actions
following spills of these two materials. Methods of determining sorptive
properties and the chemical data required for such determinations are
discussed on page 4.18.
Bioaccumulation—Bioaccumulation is an important factor in assess-
ing the seriousness of environmental contamination because it is a good
indicator of possible long-term exposure of populations to contami-
nants. Contaminants that bioaccumulate can concentrate in the food
chain, causing concern long after emergency response and cleanup
4.6
-------
Chemical Characterization
Predict Behavior of
Contaminants in the
Environment During
and After Response
(contd)
efforts are over. The possibility of bioaccumulation may influence the
choice of response actions. For example, exceptional steps might be
taken to prevent a highly bioaccumulative material such as pentachloro-
phenol from entering the food chain following a release. Such steps
might not be taken with a substance such as phthalic anhydride, which
exhibits no tendency to bioaccumulate. Methods of determining bio-
accumulation potential and the chemical data required for such deter-
minations are discussed on page 4.18.
Identify the Chemical
Contaminants Present
METHODS FOR OBTAINING REQUIRED CHEMICAL DATA
Identification of chemical contaminants present at an emergency
can be made by the following means:
• records
• observable characteristics
• analyses.
Records—Records can provide the most rapid, positive identifica-
tion of the materials involved at an emergency and, if available, should
be the preferred means of identification. A variety of useful records
(e.g., shipping papers and transportation labels) are now required when
transporting hazardous materials. Records of specific materials are not
required on domestic waterborne shipments. Although general cate-
gories and quantities are available, these general records are of limited
use in planning an emergency response. A complete description of
available records and how to use them in identifying spilled material is
provided by Huibregtse et al. (1977). Also, the Association of American
Railroads is developing a computerized tracking system for rapidly iden-
tifying railcars containing hazardous materials. This system is described
by Guinan (1980). The Association of American Railroads also supports
an emergency response communication system known as HAMER. This
system is capable of linking emergency response personnel with the
shipper, the supplier, the manufacturer, and scientific experts through
voice and hard copy communications. The use of records to identify
chemicals present at uncontrolled waste sites is much more difficult.
Waste manifests, which describe each shipment of waste received at a
facility, are a possible source. In many cases, however, these have only
recently been required.
Observable Characteristics—Observable characteristics such as
odor, color, density, and reaction may be useful in rapidly identifying an
unknown material. Though this approach may be limited to identifying
a general class of chemicals rather than specific compounds, it has the
advantage of being speedy. An excellent method of rapidly identifying
spilled materials based on easily observable characteristics is presented
in the Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual for Oil and
Hazardous Materials Spills (EPA 1972). Over 300 hazardous materials are
identified by odor, color, reaction, etc.
The U.S. Coast Guard Chemical Hazard Response Information
System (CHRIS) Manuals CG-446-1 and CG-446-2 (USCG 1974a and
1974b) describe observable characteristics of approximately 900 hazard-
ous chemicals. The OHM-TADS data system maintained by EPA can be
4.7
-------
Chemical Characterization
Identify the Chemical
Contaminants Present
(contd)
used to identify chemical substances based on observable characteris-
fics. Physical properties of the unknown material (physical state, odor,
color, turbidity, miscibility, reactions) are input to the computer system,
which then performs a search to obtain possible identities. The
OHM-TADS system contains data on approximately 850 chemicals and
hazardous substances.
Contacts within the chemical industry should prove helpful in iden-
tifying chemicals or wastes based on physical descriptions. The Chem-
ical Manufacturers Association (CMA) Chemical Transportation
Emergency Center (CHEMTREC) telephone hotline (800-424-9300 or
483-7616 in Washington, D.C.) is a means of contacting such people.
This center maintains a directory of industry experts who can be con-
tacted for information related to emergency response. CHEMTREC can
rapidly provide information on approximately 18,000 chemicals and
trade-name products.
Analyses—Analytical methods may be necessary to identify un-
known chemical contaminants. In emergency conditions where rapid
response is required, the available techniques may be limited to the
qualitative field methods described on pages 4.14-15, Qualitative and
quantitative laboratory methods described on pages 4.9-13 may be used
if adequate time is available.
Preparing for Emergencies—To prepare for rapid identification of
spilled materials, scientific support staff should first obtain a list of
hazardous materials most likely to be involved in local emergencies. For
example, DOT records can be reviewed to identify which hazardous
materials are transported locally in large volumes. A review of local
chemical industries should also help identify materials that may be
released to the environment. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permits and Spill Prevention, Control and Counter-
measures (SPCC) plans would be good sources of this information. Staff
should become familiar with the materials identified and learn where
specific data useful for identification may be obtained in a hurry. Ana-
lytical methods suitable for each chemical also should be identified. The
references described in this section should be obtained, especially the
EPA Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual (EPA 1972) and
CHRIS Manuals CC-446-1 and CC-446-2 (USCG 1974a and 1974b). Provi-
sions should be made to use the OHM-TADS system during emergen-
cies. A computer terminal with acoustical coupler could be obtained so
that the OHM-TADS computer could be used at an emergency. Alter-
nately, information from the OHM-TADS files can be obtained on
microfiche and a portable reader can be obtained for field use. Also,
experts should be contacted who can be available at any time of day or
night who might be able to identify substances based on descriptions of
smell, appearance, shape, and size of container. Potential contacts could
be found with local universities, the chemical industry, and technical
assistance teams (TAT) and regional response teams (RRT). Directories of
possible contacts are also available through trade organizations and pro-
fessional societies. One such directory is the Hazardous Waste Services
Directory, published by J. J. Keller and Associates, Inc (1980). Phone
numbers of contacts should be kept on file for emergency use. Staff
should also become familiar with the analytical methods described on
pages 4.9-14 that can be used for chemical identification.
4.8
-------
Chemical Characterization
Determine the Extent
of Contamination
Determine the Need
for Chemical Analyses
Methods of determining the quantities of chemicals involved in an
emergency and the areal extent of contamination are similar to those
used to identify chemicals. Extent of contamination can be determined
by the following means:
• records
• observable characteristics
• analyses.
Records—The transportation records described on page 4.7 contain
information on the quantities of hazardous materials transported, and
can be used to estimate the quantities of chemicals involved in
emergencies.
Observable Characteristics—The same characteristics used to iden-
tify unknown materials may be used to determine the extent of contami-
nation. Also, sizes of common shipping and storage containers can be
obtained from manufacturers and used to visually estimate quantities of
materials involved. Aerial photography and remote sensing may be used
to determine areal extent of contamination on a larger scale. This
approach allows for quick assessment of contamination of large areas of
land and for detection of contamination that might not be visible to the
observer on the ground. The U.S. EPA Environmental Monitoring Sys-
tems Laboratory (EMSL), Las Vegas, Nevada, and its field station, the
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC), Warrenton,
Virginia, can provide additional information related to the use of aerial
photography and remote sensing in contaminant assessment. Many
remote sensing techniques are available. The applicability of each, how-
ever, depends on the specific situation; EMSL and EPIC can advise
which technique would be appropriate. Also, EMSL and EPIC can pro-
vide aerial photographs of an emergency scene within 24 hours.
Analyses—Analytical techniques may provide information on the
extent of contamination in a manner similar to their use in identifying
contaminants. Most of the analytical methods described on pages 4.9-16
can be used for this purpose. Qualitative chemical methods would be
used for determining the areal extent of contamination, whereas quan-
titative methods would be needed to determine the actual amount of
contamination present. A disadvantage of analytical techniques is that
they may require extensive sample collection.
Preparing for Emergencies—The suggestions given on page 4.8 for
preparing for emergency identification of chemicals also apply to
determining the extent of contamination. In addition, scientific support
staff should become familiar with the capabilities and availability of
aerial photography and remote sensing as they apply to assessing
contamination.
The analytical chemistry support obtained during an emergency
response will depend on the objectives of the analyses (i.e., identifica-
tion, detection, or quantification); the time and money available to per-
form analyses; and the analytical equipment available. Various analytical
methods are discussed below.
4.9
-------
Chemical Characterization
Determine the Need
for Chemical Analyses
(contd)
Instrumental Analyses—Instrumental methods commonly used for
analysis of hazardous chemicals are gas chromatography (GC), high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry (GC/MS), atomic absorption spectophotometry (AA), and
inductively coupled argon plasma spectrometry (ICAP). Characteristics
of these methods are summarized on Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
Gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography
are techniques for quantitative measurement of specific organic mate-
rials. These methods are not suited to qualitative identification of
unknown materials in a sample; rather, they are best used for measure-
ment of materials known to be present. They can be relatively expensive
and time consuming, but are able to analyze in the ppb (parts per
billion) range. Although these methods require sophisticated equip-
ment and highly trained operators, advances in mobile laboratories
have made bringing this equipment to the field possible. Also, portable
GCs suitable for field use are now being produced.
TABLE 4.1 Summary of
EPA-Approved Analytical
Methods for Organics
Analytes
Purgeable Halocarbons
Purgeable Aromatics
Acrolein/Acrylonitrile
Phenols
Benzidines
Phthalate Esters
Nitrosamines
Organochlorine
Pesticides and PCB's
Nitroaromatics and
Isophorone
Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
Haloethers
Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons
2,3,7,8-TCDD
Purgeables
Base/Neutrals, Acids,
and Pesticides
EPA
Method
Number
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
HPLC
610
611
612
613
624
625
Average
Method Cost,
Type $/Sample
GC 130(a)
GC 150(a)
GC 110(a)
GC 200(a)
GC 2.20(a)
GC 110(a)
GC 150(a)
GC 1IO(a)
GC 210(a)
or GC 310(a)
GC 120(a)
GC 160(a)
GC/MS 170(a)
GC/MS 500 to 800(b)
GC/MS 500 to 800(b)
Analysis
Time,
hr
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
6 to 12
~24
~24
-24
(a) Average cost reported in 44 Federal Register, 69462,
Monday, 3 December 1979.
(b) Average costs obtained from private analytical laboratory,
January 1982.
Note: From guidelines proposed for the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permits, for state certifications, and for compliance monitoring under the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C.
1251 et seq.).
4.10
-------
Chemical Characterization
TABLE 4.2 Approved
Analytical Procedures
for Hazardous Materials
Compound
Acetonitrile
Acrolein
Acrylamide
Acrylonitrile
Benzene
Benz(a)anthracene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzotrichloride
Benzyl chloride
Benz(b)fluoanthene
Bis(2-chloro-
ethyoxymethane)
Bis(2-chloroethyl)-
ether
Bis(2-chloro-
isopropyl)ether
Carbon disulfide
Carbon tetra-
chloride
Chlordane
Chlorinated
dibenzodioxins
Chlorinated
biphenyls
Chloroacetalde-
hyde
Chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Chloromethane
2-Chlorophenol
Chrysene
Creosote
Cresol(s)
Cresylicacid(s)
Dichlorobenzene(s)
Dichloroethane(s)
Dichloromethane
Dichlorophenoxy-
acetic acid
Dichloropropanol
2,4-Dimethylphenol
Dinitrobenzene
4,6-Dinitro-o
cresol
Measurement Techniques
(See Note Below)
Sample Handling
Class/Fraction
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Volatile or
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/A
Extractable/A
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/A
Extractable/BN
Extractable/A
Extractable/BN
Extractable/A
Non-CC
Methods CC/MS
- 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
8.10 8.25
(HPLC)
8.10 8.25
(HPLC)
— 8.25
— 8.24
8.25
8.10 8.25
(HPLC)
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
8.10 8.25
(HPLC)
— 8.25(b)
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
- 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
Conventional
GC
8.03
8.03
8.01
8.03
8.02
8.10
8.10
8.12
8.01
8.12
8.10
8.01
8.01
8.01
8.01
8.01
8.08
8.08
8.08
8.01
8.01
8.02
8.01
8.01
8.04
8.10
8.10
8.04
8.04
8.01
8.02
8.12
8.01
8.01
8.40
8.12
8.04
8.09
8.04
Detector(a>
NSD
NSD
FID
NSD
PID
FID
FID
ECD
HSD
ECD
FID
HSD
HSD
HSD
HSD
HSD
HSD
ECD
HSD
HSD
HSD
PID
HSD
HSD
FIC.ECD
FID
ECD
FID.ECD
FID,ECD
HSD
PID
ECD
HSD
HSD
HSD
ECD
FID,ECD
FID.ECD
FID,ECD
4.11
-------
Chemical Characterization
'ABLE 4.2 (contd)
Compound
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
Endrin
Ethyl ether
Formaldehyde
Formic acid
Heptachlor
Hexachloro-
benzene
Hexachloro-
butadiene
Hexachloroethane
Hexachlorocyclo-
pentadiene
Lindane
Maleic anhydride
Methanol
Methomyl
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl
ketone
Naphthalene
Naphthoquinone
Nitrobenzene
4-Nitrophenol
Paraldehyde (trimer
of acetaldehyde)
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Phorate
Phosphorodithioic
acid esters
Phthalic anhydride
2-Picoline
Pyridine
Tetrachloro-
benzene(s)
Tetrachloro-
ethane(s)
Tetrachloroethene
Tetrachlorophenol
Toluene
Toluenediamine
Toluene diiso-
cyanate(s)
Toxaphene
Measurement Techniques
Sample Handling
Class/Fraction
Extractable/BN
Extractable/P
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/P
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/P
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/A
Volatile
Extractable/A
Extractable/A
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Extractable/BN
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/A
Volatile
Extractable/BN
Extractable/
nonaqueous
Extractable/P
Non-GC
Methods GC/MS
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
8.32 —
(HPLC)
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
— —
— —
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.25
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.24
— 8.25
— 8.25
Conventional
GC
8.09
8.08
8.01
8.02
8.01
8.06
8.06
8.12
8.12
8.12
8.12
8.08
8.06
8.01
—
8.01
8.02
8.01
8.02
8.10
8.06
8.09
8.09
8.04
8.01
8.04
8.04
8.22
8.06
8.09
8.22
8.06
8.09
8.06
8.09
8.06
8.09
8.12
8.01
8.01
8.04
8.02
8.06
8.08
Detector!3)
FID.ECD
HSD
FID
FID
FID
FID
HSD
ECD
ECD
ECD
ECD
HSD
ECD,FID
FID
—
FID
FID
FID
FID
FID
ECD.FID
FID
ECD.FID
ECD.FID
FID
ECD
ECD,FID
FPD
ECD,FID
ECD,FID
FPD
ECD,FID
ECD.FID
ECD.FID
ECD.FID
ECD.FID
ECD.FID
ECD
HSD
HSD
ECD
PID
FID
HSD
4.12
-------
Chemical Characterization
TABLE 4.2 (contd)
Compound
Trichloroethane
Trichloroethene(s)
Trichloro-
fluoromethane
Trichlorophenol(s)
2,4,5-TP (Silvex)
Trichloropropane
Vinyl chloride
Vinylidene chloride
Xylene
Sample Handling
Class/Fraction
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Extractable/A
Extractable/A
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Volatile
Measurement Techniques
Non-GC Conventional
Methods CC/MS GC DetectorW
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.25 8.04 HSD
8.25 8.40 HSD
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.24 8.01 HSD
8.24 8.02 PID
(a)ECD = Electron capture detector; FID = Flame ionization detector;
FPD = Flame photometric detector; HSD = Halide specific detector;
HPLC = High pressure liquid chromotography; NSD = Nitrogen-
specific detector; PID = photoionization detector.
(b)Analyze for phenanthrene and carbazole; if these are present in a
ratio between 1,4:1 and 5:1, creosote should be considered present.
Note: Numbers refer to analytic procedures specified by EPA for determining whether solid waste
contains a given toxic constituent for purposes of compliance with the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (42 U.S.C. 6905, 6912(a), 6927-30, 6974).
Determine the Need
for Chemical Analyses
(contd)
Gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography
are techniques for quantitative measurement of specific organic mate-
rials. These methods are not suited to qualitative identification of
unknown materials in a sample; rather, they are best used for measure-
ment of materials known to be present. They can be relatively expensive
and time consuming, but are able to analyze in the ppb (parts per
billion) range. Although these methods require sophisticated equip-
ment and highly trained operators, advances in mobile laboratories
make field analysis possible. Also, portable GCs suitable for field use are
now being produced.
Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry has been primarily used
for qualitative analysis. Advances in equipment, however, have resulted
in the use of GC/MS for quantitative measurement of pollutant levels in
environmental samples. A major feature of GC/MS is the ability to
simultaneously analyze, at a ppb or sub-ppb level, for a large number of
organics, making it particularly suitable for use when specific contami-
nants are unknown. This technique is expensive and may require several
days to complete. GC/MS may prove to be more cost effective than GC
because a number of contaminants can be quantified at once. Mobile
laboratories are also available with GC/MS capabilities.
Atomic absorption spectrophotometry and inductively coupled
argon plasma spectrometry are used for quantitative determination of
the concentration of heavy metals in the ppm or ppb range. AA is used
for determination of concentrations of individual metals, whereas ICAP
can perform several dozen metal analyses at once. Although both
4.13
-------
Chemical Characterization
Determine the Need methods require sophisticated equipment and trained operators, AA is
for Chemical Analyses tne simpler and cheaper of the two. ICAP, however, may be more cost
(contd) effective if several elements are being analyzed. Currently, AA is availa-
ble in mobile field laboratories.
Instrumental analyses should be used when an exact quantification
of contaminants is needed or when no other means exist for identifying
unknown contaminants. Obviously, instrumental analyses can be used
only when adequate time, funds, and a laboratory are available.
Costs and time requirements for instrumental analyses can vary sig-
nificantly. A substantial economy of scale is associated with instrumental
analyses because of the time and cost of the initial set-up and calibra-
tion of instruments. Costs may be lower for common analyses such as
PCB because a large number of laboratories are set up for routine PCB
analysis. In an emergency situation, nonroutine analyses may be
required and higher costs should be expected. Average costs are
reported in Table 4.1; the actual costs will vary, depending on
circumstances.
Field Analytical Methods—A variety of analytical methods have
been developed for use in the field for detection and identification of
hazardous materials. The Field Detection and Damage Assessment
Manual for Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills (EPA 1972) describes
qualitative procedures and tests that may be used in the field to identify
chemicals. The OHM-TADS system also identifies field detection
methods and their sensitivities. The Hach Company of Loveland,
Colorado, has developed a portable Hazardous Materials Detection
Laboratory that can be carried into the field to test for more than 300
hazardous materials. Analytical Instrument Development, Inc., of Avon-
dale, Pennsylvania, has a portable gas chromatograph available, suitable
for field identification of approximately 400 chemicals. Portable equip-
ment for detecting hazardous materials in the air is available from SKC,
Inc., Fullerton, California. Portable vapor detectors and organic vapor
analyzers can be used to rapidly determine the extent of contamination
by organic materials, locate "hot spots," and design a sampling program
for detailed analyses. The use of portable GCs and infrared (IR) spectre-
photometers for identifying and quantifying organic vapors is described
by Vanell (1982). Portable explosimeters can rapidly assess the safety of
an emergency response scene. Portable gas detector tubes are available
that can easily and quickly determine the concentrations of a variety of
gases. These tubes are described by Verschueren (1977).
Another analytical method that may prove useful lor field determi-
nation of contamination is the Microtox system recently developed by
Beckman Instruments of Fullerton, California. This system provides a
quick means of detecting the presence of toxic materials, and could be .
used as a qualitative indicator of contamination. Most of the traditional
wet chemical methods described in Standard Methods for the Analysis
of Water and Wastewater (APHA 1980) and in Manual of Methods for
the Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (EPA 1976) are suitable for
use in the field. Determinations to the ppm level are usually possible
and analyses typically cost only a few dollars each. Unfortunately, these
methods are usually not available for analysis of toxic and hazardous
constituents. A recent advance in these procedures, especially for field
4.14
-------
Chemical Characterization
Determine the Need
for Chemical Analyses
(contd)
application, is the use of ion-specific electrodes. Also, a variety of spec-
trophotometric methods are available for quantitative determination of
a number of inorganic pollutants. The above-mentioned Hach Com-
pany analyses cost only a few dollars each to perform, and can be per-
formed by persons with limited training. Determinations to the ppm
and sub-ppm levels are usually possible.
Which field analytical method is chosen depends on the emergency
situation. If the hazardous material is in an easily accessible location gas
chromatography and infrared spectrophotometers may be appropriate.
This equipment requires a skilled operator. An unskilled operator,
who has not had proper preparatory training, could obtain faulty
results. The operator of any equipment must be familiar with
that equipment. If the proper commitment to gaining this famil-
iarity cannot be made, contracting the field analytic work should be
considered. If skilled operators are not available or the material is not in
an accessible location, the Hach company's portable detection labora-
tory could be approriate.
In general, field methods should be used at emergencies because
of their lower costs, rapid turn-around time, and availability of equip-
ment. However, if quantitative determinations of low levels of contami-
nants are needed, these methods will probably not suffice.
Preparing for Emergencies—For chemical analyses to be useful in
emergency response, scientific support staff must be familiar with the
capabilities and limitations of each method; thus, they can offer advice
on selection of methods during a response. Information should be kept
on file describing the analytical methods available, the materials that
each can analyze for, as well as their detection limits. Appropriate ana-
lytical methods and detection limits for a number of chemicals, espe-
cially gases, are identified by Verschueren (1977).
Laboratories should be identified where instrumental analyses can
be performed. The Hazardous Waste Services Directory (1980) lists
hazardous materials laboratories on a state-by-state, city-by-city basis
and includes descriptions of the analyses they can perform. Also, EPA
regional staff or state environmental regulatory agencies may have
available lists of laboratories that are equipped and certified for hazard-
ous materials analysis. A laboratory with a mobile unit that could bring
instrumental capabilities to the field is preferable. The EPA Oil and
Hazardous Materials Spills Branch in Edison, New Jersey, has developed
such a mobile unit (Environmental Emergency Response Unit Mobile
Laboratory), which may be available for use. The laboratory(s) selected
should be requested to provide estimates of analytical costs and turn-
around times for various emergency scenarios that may be
encountered.
If the laboratory has mobile facilities, estimates of mobilization
times and costs should be obtained. The laboratory(s) should agree to
provide around-the-clock work if necessary. Copies of the laboratories'
Quality Assurance (QA) procedures should be obtained, and reviewed
and approved by EPA QA staff. The laboratories' analytical procedures
must be those approved by EPA (44 Federal Register, 69464-69575,
Monday, 3 December 1979). Requirements of the laboratory(s) concern-
ing how samples must be packed, shipped, and preserved must be
4.15
-------
Chemical Characterization
obtained. A large supply of approved sample containers (see above
Federal Register reference), shipping containers, and packing material
should be assembled and kept ready for immediate use. As it is possible
that some samples may be considered hazardous substances, DOT regu-
lations should be reviewed to identify those that may affect shipment of
samples. Provisions must be made to assure a proper chain of custody.
Necessary field analytical equipment should be assembled and kept
ready for use. Scientific support staff should be familiar with the opera-
tion of field analytical equipment and sampling procedures. Procedures
for sampling wastes and water are given in Test Methods for Evaluating
Solid Wastes, Physical/Chemical Methods (EPA 1980) and in ASTM (1982,
Method D-3370). Verschueren (1977) identifies and provides references
for methods of sampling many airborne contaminants. Even though
scientific support personnel probably will not be involved directly with
field sampling and analysis, their knowledge of procedures will help to
identify and correct improper techniques. For example, in the confu-
sion of an emergency response, a contractor may be collecting samples
for organic analysis in polyethylene jars instead of in amber glass jars.
Being able to spot this error could assure the quality of data that may
later be used in legal proceedings.
Determine the Major data sources for determining the reactivity of chemicals are
Reactivity of data bases and published handbooks. The OHM-TADS data base main-
Chemicals tained by EPA provides rapid access to information on reactivity of over
850 chemicals. This includes identification of binary reactants, corro-
siveness, recommended containers, flammability, explosiveness, and
additional chemical hazards. The CHRIS Manual CC-446-2 (USCG
1974b) contains extensive reactivity data on approximately 900 chemi-
cals. Data include information on reactivity with water, reactivity with
common materials (including containers), stability during transport,
neutralizing agents, polymerization reactions and inhibitors, require-
ments for inert atmospheres, flammability,and flash points. The Manual
of Hazardous Chemical Reactions, NFPA 491M, published by the
National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Massachusetts, contains
descriptions of over 3500 hazardous chemical reactions, identified by
reactant. References for each reaction are also provided. A hazardous
waste compatibility manual prepared by Hatayama et al. (1980) includes
a reference chart, grouping common hazardous materials into 41 classi-
fications. All possible binary reactions identified as heat generation,
toxic gas generation, fire, innocuous and nonflammable gas generation,
flammable gas generation, explosion, violent polymerization, solubiliza-
tion of toxic substances, and unknown but potentially hazardous reac-
tions between any of the 41 groups are identified. Sax (1979) identifies
chemical incompatibility of over 1000 different materials.
If information concerning reactivity of a particular substance cannot
be found through the above sources, the best alternative is the use of a
consultant. Contacts within the chemical industry, universities, or
research laboratories would probably be able to predict reactivities of
substances lacking data, based on the properties of similar substances
having data.
Preparing for Emergencies—Scientific support personnel should
have the necessary data sources on hand to be able to provide rapid
determination of potential chemical reactivity problems at the scene of
4.16
-------
Chemical Characterization
Determine the
Reactivity of
Chemicals
(contd)
Predict the Behavior
of Contaminants in
the Environment
an emergency. Staff should obtain the reference handbooks described
above and keep them ready for use. Provisions should also be made for
use of the OHM-TADS system and contacts should be made with expert
consultants who can be contacted on short notice to obtain needed
data.
Once released to the environment, chemicals can undergo a
number of physical and chemical transformations, the most important
of which are volatilization, degradation, sorption to soil or sediments,
and bioaccumulation. Knowing the chemical/physical properties of
contaminants is useful in predicting these transformations and the
behavior of contaminants both during and after the emergency. Specific
chemical pathways and the chemical/physical properties that affect
these are summarized in Table 4.3 and are discussed below. Sources of
chemical/physical data are discussed on pages 4.19-22.
Volatilization—Volatilization is a mode by which organic chemicals
may disperse through the environment. Chemical volatilization rates
TABLE 4.3. Chemical/
Physical Properties
Useful in Describing
Environmental Behavior
of Chemicals
Environmental Pathway
Volatilization
Biological Degradation
Hydrolysis
Photolysis
Chemical Oxidation
Sorption
Bioaccumulation
Chemical/Physical Property
Vapor Pressure
Molecular Diffusivity
Solubility
Henry's Law Constant
Boiling Point
Molecular Weight
Biodegradation Rate Constant
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
Hydrolysis Rate Constant
Reaction with Water
Photolysis Rate Constant
Reaction with Water
Reaction with Air
Reaction with Air
Reaction with Water
Distribution Coefficient, Kd
Organic Carbon Distribution
Coefficient, Koc
Octanol/Water Partition
Coefficient, Kow
Bioconcentration Factor
Octanol/Water Partition
Coefficient, Kow
4.17
-------
Chemical Characterization
Predict the Behavior
of Contaminants in
the Environment
(contd)
depend largely on the vapor pressure of the chemical. Direct evapora-
tion rates of chemicals from surface spills, floating slicks, or landfills may
be calculated using vapor pressure and molecular diffusivity in air
(Thibodeaux 1981; Shen 1981). Volatilization rates of dissolved chemicals
may be calculated similarly using solubility data and Henry's Law con-
stants. Smith et al. (1977) and Neeley (1980) discuss methods for predict-
ing the volatilization rates of dissolved chemicals from natural water
bodies using solubility and vapor pressure data and molecular weight. If
insufficient time or data are available to calculate evaporation rates,
vapor pressure is a good general indicator of volatility (or vapor pres-
sure and solubility in the case of dissolved chemicals). Siewert (1972)
presents a correlation between boiling points and evaporation rates for
estimating evaporation rates of pooled liquids.
Degradation—Common chemical degradation mechanisms are
hydrolysis, photolysis, biodegradation, and chemical oxidation. The
easiest method of predicting degradation rates is to use measured rate
constants. If these are unavailable, the degradation rates can be calcu-
lated based on chemical/physical data (Lassiter, Baughman and Burns
1978), although in emergency situations this is rarely practical. Qualita-
tive or semiquantitative indicators of degradation rates may be more
useful. For example, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a good indi-
cator of the relative biodegradability of organic chemicals in water.
More useful still is the ratio of BOD to chemical oxygen demand (COD).
The BOD/COD ratio can range from 0 to 1. The higher the value of
BOD/COD, the more biodegradable the material. General descriptions
of water and air chemistry will give an indication of whether a chemical
should be expected to hydrolyze or photodegrade, and how rapidly this
should occur.
Sorption—The amount of chemical that will sorb to soil or sedi-
ments is most easily calculated using sorption coefficients. In many
cases, however, these are unavailable. Octanol/water partition coeffi-
cients also provide a means of estimating the tendency of a chemical to
bind to the soil and thus to resist leaching. The sorption coefficients of
organic chemicals to soil can be estimated from the chemicals' octanol/
water partition coefficient (Kow) using relationships developed by
Karichhoff et al. and Briggs, presented by Neeley (1980). The lower the
value of octanol/water partition coefficient, the greater the tendency to
leach. Values of Kow for organic chemicals typically range from about
0.5 to 106. In general, materials having a Kow greater than 100 should
not move rapidly through the soil. Sorption of inorganic chemicals to
soil can be qualitatively estimated from the speciation of the chemical
(e.g., doubly charged cations are strongly sorbed to clay soils, singly
charged cations are less strongly sorbed, and anions are generally not
sorbed well). Data on soil properties affecting sorption (percent organic
carbon, ion exchange capacity) can be obtained from local USDA Soil
Conservation Service offices.
Bioaccumulation—Biological uptake and accumulation are impor-
tant considerations in evaluating the fate of environmental contami-
nants. Unfortunately, relatively few specific data may be available
describing the bioconcentration of chemicals. Methods are available,
however, to estimate bioconcentration factors from octanol/water parti-
tion coefficients (Veith, Defoe and Bergstedt 1979; Branson, Neeley and
Blau 1975).
4.18
-------
Chemical Characterization
Identify Chemical/
Physical Property
Data Sources
A variety of sources of chemical/physical property data are avail-
able. Handbooks, data bases, and consultants are the best sources for
use in emergencies. Other possible sources are scientific literature and
analyses. A summary of specific handbooks and data bases, and the
chemical/physical data they contain, is given in Table 4.4.
Handbooks—Handbooks are an excellent source of chemical/
physical data on individual chemicals, and can be used in the field. A
TABLE 4.4 Summary
of Chemical/Physical
Data Available
from Handbook and
Data Bases
Chemical Synonyms
Molecular Weight
Solubility in Water
Vapor Pressure
Boiling Point
Melting Point
Liquid Specific Gravity
Vapor Specific Gravity
Saturated Vapor
Concentration
Henry's Law
Coefficients)3)
Observable
Characteristics
Odor Threshold
Sampling and Analysis
Methods
Chemical Reactivity
Reactions in Water
Reactions in Air
Biodegradation Rate
Constant
BOD
Hydrolysis Rate Constant
Photolysis Rate Constant
Bioconcentration Factor
Handbook or Data Base
Chris
Manual
CG446-1,2
(USCG
1974aand
1974b)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
EPA Field
Detec-
tion
Manual Verschueren
(1972) (1977)
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
Sax
(1979)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Dawson,
English
and
Petty
(1980)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Merck
Index OHM-
(1968) TADS
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
250
Kd
KOC *
Number of Chemicals 900 329 >1,000 13,000 250 10,000 850
(a) A collection of Henry's Law coefficients is not readily available, but is being prepared for
another manual in this series. Table 4.4 will be revised when the above-mentioned manual is
completed
4.19
-------
Chemical Characterization
Identify Chemical/ limitation is that data are often reported for only one set of conditions
Physical Property (e.g., for 25°C and 1 atmosphere). Some properties can change
Data Sources (contd) markedly with temperature, and reported values may not represent
conditions at a response scene.
CHRIS, the Coast Guard Hazardous Chemical Data Manuals CG 446-1
and CC 446-2, are excellent sources of data on approximately 900
hazardous materials. The data contained in these and other CHRIS
manuals are designed for use with the Coast Guard's Hazard Assessment
Computer System (HACS), a computerized simulation system that
models the physical behavior of chemical spills and provides informa-
tion describing the extent of the hazard associated with these spills
(Parnarouskis, Flessner and Potts 1980).
The EPA Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual for Oil
and Hazardous Materials Spills (EPA 1972) is useful for supplying data
needed for identifying any of 329 hazardous materials in the field.
The Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals
(Verschueren 1977) is an excellent source of data describing the behav-
ior of over 1000 organic chemicals in the environment. This is perhaps
the most complete collection of environmental chemical data that can
be easily taken into the field.
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (Sax 1979) is a collec-
tion of physical, chemical, and lexicological data on almost 13,000
common industrial and laboratory materials. The data deal primarily
with the hazards posed by the materials and include acute and chronic
toxic hazard ratings, toxicity figures, a description of toxicology, treat-
ment of poisoning, and storage, handling, and shipping guidelines.
Physical Chemical Properties of Hazardous Waste Constituents
(Dawson, English and Petty 1980) is a collection of data on 250 chemicals
commonly found in hazardous waste streams. This collection is an excel-
lent reference for predicting the behavior of chemicals following spills.
For each chemical, quantitative estimates are included of the relative
human health hazard posed by its release to the environment.
The Merck Index (1968) contains general chemical data on almost
10,000 chemical substances. This work contains descriptions of the prepa-
ration and chemistry of the various substances, with citations to the origi-
nal publications in the field.
The Properties of Cases and Liquids (Reid, Prausnitz and Sherwood
1977), explains how to make estimates of various chemical and thermo-
dynamic properties of gas and liquid mixtures. Familiarity with the prin-
ciples explained in this reference is needed to use it efficiently in an
emergency.
Data Bases—Several data bases contain information or chemical/
physical properties useful for emergency response. Several of these are
discussed below.
OHM-TADS - The Oil and Hazardous Materials-Technical Assis-
tance Data System contains chemical, physical, and biological data on
over 850 hazardous chemicals and industrial materials. OHM-TADS con-
tains data describing physical/chemical properties, toxicity, environ-
mental fate and persistence, and emergency response methods. These
4.20
-------
Chemical Characterization
Identify Chemical/
Physical Property
Data Sources (contd)
data are maintained on computer by EPA and are accessible by remote
terminal or by microfiche.
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient Data Base, a data base contain-
ing octanol/water partition coefficients for several thousand chemicals,
is maintained.by Dr. Corlan Harsch at Pomona College, Pomona, Cali-
fornia. This is perhaps the most complete source of Kow values cur-
rently available. The material in this data base can be purchased in hard
copy form or on microfiche.
The Chemical Substances Information Network (CSIN) is a compu-
terized data collection system currently being developed by EPA.
Sources for this system will initially include the National Library of Medi-
cine, the Chemical Information System, EPA's Chemicals in Commerce
Information System, Bibliographical Retrieval Services, System Devel-
opment Corporation, and Lockheed's Dialogue System.
Consultants—Consultants should be useful for rapidly obtaining
chemical/physical data that are not available elsewhere. If the identity
of a chemical is known, experts in the industry producing that chemical
should be useful in providing needed data. Consultants should also be
extremely valuable in estimating the properties of chemical mixtures.
The chemical industry, chemistry and chemical engineering depart-
ments of universities, and technical assistance teams (TAT) and regional
response teams (RRT) would all be good references.
Scientific Literature—The scientific literature should be reviewed to
obtain chemical data only if such data are not available elsewhere.
Several computerized search systems can aid in the rapid retrieval of
chemical data from technical literature. The most efficient means of
searching these systems for data on a particular chemical is to identify
citations indexed to substance-specific search terms such as Chemical
Abstracts Service (CAS) nomenclature or CAS registry numbers. Compu-
terized literature files that might prove valuable include:
• National Technical Information Service—NTIS
• Institute for Scientific Information—SCISEARCH
• Data Courier, Inc.—Pollution Abstracts
• Engineering Index, Inc.—COMPENDEX
• Chemical Abstracts Service—CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS
• National Library of Medicine—TOXLINE
• Smithsonian Science Information Exchange—SSIE
• Environment Information Center, Inc.—ENVIROLINE
• Xerox University Microfilms, Inc.—Comprehensive Dissertation
Index
• Defense Technical Information Center—DTIC
• Interactive Sciences Corporation—Chemical Information System.
Analyses—Chemical/physical properties of chemicals and chemical
mixtures can be analytically determined, although a certain time period
is necessary to obtain results. Testing laboratories capable of performing
standard analyses are available in most larger cities and can be located
4.21
-------
Chemical Characterization
Identify Chemical/ 'n tne yellow pages under Laboratories-Testing. Detailed procedures for
Physical Property tne various tests are available from the American Society for Testing
Data Sources (contd) Materials in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Preparing for Emergencies—Several steps should be taken to assure
that chemical/physical data on contaminants can be obtained quickly
during an emergency response. The handbooks described above should
be obtained and staff made familiar with their use and the information
contained in them. These references should be kept ready to take into
the field if necessary. Scientific support staff should make arrangements
for access to the OHM-TADS system as described on pages 4.7-8. Because
of the utility of octanol/water partition coefficients in describing the
fate of contaminants, it may be desirable to obtain these data. Also, con-
tacts should be made with consultants who can provide data on chemi-
cal/physical properties. Phone numbers of contacts should be kept
ready for immediate use. Arrangements should be made for rapid
access to literature search data bases and for rapid retrieval of technical
literature. For example, a contact could be made at a university library
who could obtain needed data and telex it to scientific support staff.
Testing laboratories should be located that could determine chemical/
physical properties of materials, if needed. Information from the labs
should be obtained, as described on pages 4.15-16 and kept on file.
Identification of
Chemicals and Wastes
CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION REFERENCES
EPA. 1972. Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual for Oil and
Hazardous Materials Spills. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Cuinan, D. K. 1980. "The Railroad Industry Hazard Information
Response System." In Proceedings of the 1980 National Conference on
Control of Hazardous Material Spills, Louisville, Kentucky.
Huibregtse, K. R., et al. 1977. Manual for the Control of Hazardous
Material Spills. EPA-600/2-77-227, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Sampling and
Analysis
APHA. 1980. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
EPA. 1976. Manual of Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Water and
Wastes. EPA-625/6-76/003a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA. 1980. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical
Methods. EPA/SW-846, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Keller, J. J., and Associates, Inc. 1980. Hazardous Waste Services
Directory. J. J. Keller and Associates, Inc., Neenah, Wisconsin.
U.S. Code. Title 33, Sec. 1251.
U.S. Code. Title 42, Sec. 6905, 6912(a), 6927-30, 6974.
Vanell, L. D. 1982. "Identifying and Measuring Hazardous Spills on
Site." Pollution Engineering, 14:43-45
4.22
-------
Chemical Characterization
Estimation of
Chemical Properties
and Behavior
ASTM. 1982. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 31, Water. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Phildelphia, Pennsylvania.
Branson, D. R., W. B. Neeley and G. E. Blau. 1975. "Prediction of Bio-
concentration Potential of Organic Chemicals in Fish from Partition
Coefficients." In Proceedings of Symposium on Structure-Activity
Correlations in Studies of Toxicity and Bioconcentration with Aquatic
Organisms, eds. G. D. Veith and D. E. Konasewich, Burlington, Ontario.
Hatayama, H. K., et al. 1980. A Method for Determining the Compati-
bility of Hazardous Wastes. EPA-600/2-80-076, U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Lassiter, R. R., G. L. Baughman and L. A. Burns. 1978. "Fate of Toxic
Organic Substances in the Aquatic Environment." In State-of-the-Art in
Ecological Modeling. Vol. 7, Proceedings of Conference on Ecological
Modeling, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Neeley, W. B. 1980. Chemicals in the Environment. Marcel Dekker,
Inc., New York.
Parnarouskis, M. C, M. F. Flessner and R. G. Potts. 1980. "A Systems
Approach to Chemical Spill Response Information Needs." In Hazard-
ous Chemicals - Spills and Waterborne Transportation, ed. S. S.
Weidenbaum, American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Reid, R. C.,). M. Prausnitz and T. K. Sherwood. 1977. The Properties of
Cases and Liquids. 3rd ed. McGraw Hill, New York.
Shen, T. T. 1981. "Estimating Hazardous Air Emissions from Disposal
Sites." Pollution Engineering 13(8):31-34.
Siewert, R. D. 1972. A Method for Defining Down-Wind Evacuation
Areas for Transportation Accidents Involving Toxic Propellant Spills,
NASA TMX-68188. Presented at 1972 Joint Army, Navy, NASA, Air Force
Propulsion Meeting, Nov. 26-29,1972, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Smith, ]. H., et al. 1977. Environmental Pathways of Selected Chemicals
in Freshwater Systems Volume I Background and Experimental Proce-
dures, EPA-600/7-77-113, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens,
Georgia.
Thibodeaux, L. J. 1981. "Estimating the Air Emissions of Chemicals from
Hazardous Waste Landfills." Journal of Hazardous Materials 4:235-244.
Veith, G. D., D. L. DeFoe and B. V. Bergstedt. 1979. "Measuring and
Estimating the Bioconcentration Factor of Chemicals in fish." Journal of
Fisheries Research Based at Canada 36:1040-1048.
Chemical/Physical
Property Data
Sources
Dawson, G. W., C. J. English and S. E. Petty. 1980. Physical Chemical
Properties of Hazardous Waste Constituents. U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Athens, Georgia.
The Merck Index. 1976. Merck and Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey.
National Fire Protection Association. 1975. Manual of Hazardous Chem-
ical Reactions NFPA-491M. National Fire Protection Association, Boston,
Massachusetts.
Sax, N. I. 1979. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 3rd ed.,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
4.23
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Chemical Characterization
USCG. 1974a. A Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards, CG-446-1,
U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.
USCG. 1974b. Hazardous Chemical Data. CG-446-2, U.S. Coast Guard,
Washington, D.C.
Verschueren, K. 1977. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic
Chemicals. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
4.24
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4.2 HYDROLOCIC AND METEOROLOCIC ASSESSMENT CHECKLISTS
AIR CONTAMINATION
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES (see p. 4.33)
1. Make necessary arrangements for fast acquisition of meteorological data from local sources.
2. Provide for quick turnaround plume modeling capabilities:
• in field estimates
• through computer models.
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE (see p. 4.33)
1. Observe initial plume characteristics over release duration:
• direction and speed of movement
• puff or continuous release
• amount or rate of material release
• temperature
• vertical velocity
• height above ground.
2. Identify the nature of the contaminant:
• liquid, gaseous, and/or particulate airborne material
• chemical makeup
• density
• toxicity.
3. Identify ambient weather conditions:
wind speed and direction
upper winds direction (cloud movement)
variability of wind speed and direction
trends in current weather conditions
visible plume or nearby plumes
- plume rise
- rate of growth
- travel direction
• weather forecast
• sky information
- fraction sky cover
- type of clouds
- solar radiation
- net radiation during nighttime
• local topography
• buildings.
4. Compute past, current, and future:
• ground-level air concentration patterns
• surface deposition patterns.
5. Evaluate continuing potential for hazardous downwind plume interactions.
4.25
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SURFACE CONTAMINATION
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN SPILLS (see pp. 4.34-35)
1. Gather existing data:
topographical maps
photos
climatological data availability
streamflow records
soil types
land use.
ACTIVITIES FOLLOWING RESPONSE (see pp. 4.35-36)
1. Identify spilled material (Does it become soluble in water, attached to sediment, or sus-
pended in water?)
2. Identify pathways:
note the drainage pattern—topographic maps and aerial photos
interaction with ground water
sewer and water systems
soil properties affecting infiltration
drainage slope, channel shapes, friction of land
depression storage that must be filled, dams.
3. Obtain climatological data (see p. 4.34):
• antecedent soil moisture and rainfall expected, flooding.
4. Sample downgradient or downstream surface waters, sewage outlets, storm sewer outlets (see
p. 4.35).
UNDERGROUND CONTAMINATION
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES
1. Collect existing information:
• geologic data (see Table 4.5)
• hydrologic data (see Table 4.6).
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE
1. Collect on-scene data:
• sample existing wells, soil (see pp. 4.42-43)
• measure depth to ground water (see pp. 4.42-43)
4.26
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
4.2 HYDROLOCIC AND METEOROLOGIC ASSESSMENT
An understanding of transport and mixing mechanisms is necessary to a valid assessment of
the pathways of released materials. In the event of releases from existing waste disposal sites or
from a container of hazardous waste in storage or transit, estimates must be made of:
• where the material goes
• how fast it moves
• locations of impact
• environmental concentrations.
The probable pathways of the contaminant must be identified and the conditions affecting its
movement must be evaluated. The pathway can be identified as one or more of the following: air,
soil, surface water, or ground water. Atmospheric contaminant transport and dispersion are
affected by both the release characteristics and the ambient weather conditions. Surface contami-
nation is controlled by soil sorption and infiltration properties, deep percolation properties, pre-
cipitation, and surface-water flow patterns. A release that occurs underground, or through the soil
from the surface, is affected by soil infiltration and attenuation properties, geologic formations,
aquifer properties, and ground-water flow and direction. The hydrologic cycle, shown in
Figure 4.1, shows possible pathways.
-- "_-_-—-PERCOLATION.'—_-
Z-T-TV rm:r:r :r.:. FRESH GROUND WATERL^T^.Z_~.- ~ _r. ~-.^r -_-'_— 3—3^ _
FIGURE 4.1. Schematic Diagram of the Earth's Water Cycle—the Hydrologic Cycle (from
Johnson Division 1975)
4.27
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Hydrologic and Mefeoro/og/c /Assessment
AIR CONTAMINATION Airborne contaminants can result from fires, explosions, or the
release of a hazardous gas. In such events the following background
information is needed:
• How will weather affect contaminant travel?
• How quickly can the wind transport the contaminant?
• How will the concentration change?
• What will happen if it rains?
• What is the expected weather in the near future?
• How do weather, buildings, and topography affect dispersion?
Concepts to be
Understood Before
an Incident
In addition to familiar atmospheric terms (wind speed, wind direc-
tion, temperature), several special terms are important:
Stability—a measure of the ambient mixing rate of the atmosphere.
Very stable conditions have slow dilution rates typical of nighttime con-
ditions; unstable conditions have fast dilution rates typical of daytime
conditions. Intermediate mixing conditions are called neutral stability. A
number of approximately equivalent methods summarize stability
classes as indexes or letter classifications. These are used to classify sta-
bility for atmospheric dispersion modeling.
Plume rise—the height of rise of a plume of released material.
Source term—the amount (or rate) of material released to the
atmosphere.
Release height—the height over local grade that the release occurs.
Exit velocity—the initial upward velocity of the release.
The information required for analysis will be determined by the
nature of the hazardous material released. In the case of particulates,
accumulated deposition is often the most important exposure mecha-
nism. Gaseous plumes tend to present short-period exposure problems.
Very small particles will behave like vapors; large particles in a plume
will fall below the vapor plume, resulting in higher ground-level
concentrations and deposition rates closer to the release location. Fig-
ures 4.2 and 4.3 illustrate the concentration and deposition patterns for
releases with and without plume rise.
As an airborne contaminant is released, it immediaiely begins mix-
ing with the surrounding atmosphere. Progressive dilution occurs as the
contaminant moves downwind. Average contaminant concentration
may be visualized, as shown in Figures 4.2 and 4.3, as having a peak
along the centerline or axis of the plume and decreasing with distance
traveled. This representation is a time average of actual plumes, which
individually will vary. Also, the rate of downwind plume growth will
vary with ambient conditions.
The plume centerline or line of maximum concentration is not
always at ground level. The elevation of the plume centerline is deter-
mined by various factors:
• release characteristics
• ambient atmospheric conditions.
4.28
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
MAXIMUM AIR CONCENTRATIONS
AND MAXIMUM DEPOSITION OF
ALL MATERIALS OCCUR
IMMEDIATELY DOWNWIND OF
RELEASE
FIGURE 4.2. Illustration of Air Concentration and Deposition Distributions for a Release Without
Plume Rise
INVERSION LAYER —.
MAXIMUM DEPOSITION
OF LARGE PARTICLES
MAXIMUM AIR CONCENTRATION
AND DEPOSITION OF SMALL
PARTICLES AND GASES
FIGURE 4.3. Illustration of Air Concentration and Deposition Distributions for a Release With
Plume Rise
4.29
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Hydrologic and Meteoro/og/c /Assessment
Concepts to be
Understood Before
an Incident
(contd)
Release characteristics consist mainly of any upward or ejection speed
and the relative densities of the material and the ambient atmosphere.
Principal atmospheric factors are wind speed and stability. An
atmospheric inversion layer may limit the vertical dispersion (see
Figures 4.2 and 4.3)
The highest ground-level concentrations result from releases at
ground level with no plume rise. However, releases with plume rise can
result in high ground-level concentrations if: 1) the plume dispersion
reaches ground level or 2) the plume centerline intersects topography
or buildings. These occurrences can be caused or intensified by atmos-
pheric inversions.
Low-density plumes rise as a result of buoyancy alone; high density
plumes fall. Under low wind speed conditions, low-density vapor
plumes tend to rise, leaving the ground free of contamination in the
neighborhood of the plume source. High-density vapor plumes, and the
larger size particulate content of all plumes will fall to the ground in the
vicinity of the release. The path of high-density plumes will tend to
follow local topography in a manner quite similar to surface liquid
releases, particularly for the low-wind-speed, stable atmospheric
conditions.
Increasing wind speeds and decreasing stability tend to reduce
plume rise. At high wind speeds, most releases will act like passive
ground-level releases. The more unstable the atmosphere, the sooner
the released material will lose its initial buoyancy difference through
mixing with air. Although the enhanced dispersion will reduce the
plume centerline concentrations, the reduced plume rise can result in
much higher ground-level concentrations.
Although dispersion and buoyancy usually control the movement
of a release in the atmosphere, other physical and chemical processes
may be important. Precipitation may wash out material to ground level
or only lower the atmospheric plume. The effect depends on the cap-
ture or solubility properties of the released material. Chemical and
phase changes may affect the concentration, and other plume proper-
ties, of materials.
A description of atmospheric motion must include a detailed speci-
fication of wind velocity, both temporal and spatial. Velocity may be
conveniently divided into its time-averaged direction and speed, and
into its fluctuating components, termed turbulence. The division is
somewhat arbitrary. Most dispersion models require an average of 10 to
60 minutes duration to match the averaging time of dispersion coeffi-
cients. The exceptions are instantaneous puff models, which use
release-time values.
The vertical and horizontal concentration distribution of a plume
depends on the vertical structure of the atmosphere. Interaction of
stable layers (inversions) with the plume can control the geometric
shape and dispersion of the plume.
Topography, building, and other obstructions affect local air
motions, perhaps altering the plume path, elevation, and diffusion. The
influence of an obstruction extends upward a distance about the height
4.30
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Hydrologic and Meteoro/ogic /Assessment
Concepts to be
Understood Before
an Incident (contd)
Required Data
of the obstruction. Turbulence, as well as wind speed and direction, is
affected. For abrupt obstructions, the generation of turbulence is the
striking feature.
The effect of topography is uncertain. For example, a plume on the
windward side of a hill may follow the air stream up the side, as shown
in Figure 4.4, with the usual dispersion about its now-distorted axis. The
plume might also travel partly, or totally around the hill, depending on
atmospheric stability, structure, and hill geometry. Division of the
plume into several parts is possible. Assuming the plume goes over the
hill, the processes on the leeward side can be quite different. If a turbu-
lent wake region exists, a plume may be brought quickly to the ground,
as shown, and be diffused over a wide area. In an extreme case, the
plume may move back up the hill.
The general effect of complex terrain is to increase the amount and
speed of dispersion. The exception is for dense plumes caught in a
drainage flow contained by topography. Also, in complex terrain,
greater variations in ground-level concentrations are probable (through
plume and ground intersections and plume fragmentation). These pos-
sible plume effects will have to be taken into consideration.
To define the atmospheric path and dispersion of the release, certain
characteristics of the release and atmospheric conditions must be
determined. The following describes the specific data required, why the
data are required, and how to obtain them.
The best estimates of release conditions are needed to define
plume rise and initial dilution. The first step is to define the way in
which the contaminant is injected into the atmosphere.
FIGURE 4.4. Pattern of Air Motion Over a Hill, Showing Effect on Vapor Plumes (after Stern 1968)
4.31
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Required Data The translation of the onsite data to estimates of ground-level con-
(contd) centrations will be required in order to assess potentially hazardous
areas. Is the release a puff or a continuous release? Important parame-
ters are rate, temperature, density, vertical velocity, and size of the con-
taminant release. For example, a cold, dense, vapor release will tend to
travel along the ground, but a plume from a fire may ris.e to consider-
able height. The second step is to define the ambient meteorological
conditions and factors at the release point. Important parameters are
wind speed, atmospheric stability, and local dispersion influences.
Hazard assessment will also require knowledge of wind speed, wind
direction, and stability for the time of release, and for the anticipated
duration of the plume. The definition of stability will depend on the
model selected for computations.
To obtain the necessary atmospheric data, data concerning past
and current conditions, as well as predictions of future conditions, are
needed. Although the winds at the time of an accident may be away
from a local population center, a shift in winds may send the plume in
any direction. In areas with complex topographic influences on local air
circulations, the spatial variations in wind-flow patterns must be known
in order to assess potential trajectories of atmospheric contaminants.
This refers to areas adjacent to oceans and lakes (land-sea breeze
effects) and mountainous/hilly areas.
Plume-dispersion models can be of use in the field as well as for
between-incident study. Programs are available from the companies
that manufacture hand-held programmable calculators, or from indi-
viduals who have developed their own models. Calculator companies
solicit programs from users; therefore, a wide variety of models may
exist that are not available through the companies.
Simple Gaussian models proposed by Pasquill, Turner, or Gifford
(see references) provide a means of making quick concentration esti-
mates as a function of downwind distances. Because these are applica-
ble only to ideal conditions without complex local influences, they
should be used only as guides for the order of magnitude of potential
concentrations.
Except at well-exposed sites, the onsite observations of meteoro-
logical data will be applicable only for near-site estimates of transport
and dispersion. Extrapolation of local wind direction/speed observa-
tions for downwind trajectories should be performed with great
caution. Observations from a poorly exposed wake of a hill or building
may not accurately assess the airflow over the area that defines the
downwind direction of transport.
When obtaining characterization of atmospheric transport and dilu-
tion, knowledge of the range of possible conditions is more useful than
a single "most likely" condition. For example, factoring in a range of
possible arrivals of weather systems is a superior approach to assuming a
single arrival estimate.
Predictions of atmospheric conditions should be made specifically
for the release area, by someone who is familiar with both synoptic and
regional weather influences for the area where the release occurred.
4.32
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Required Data
(contd)
On-Scene Activities
Sources of Existing
Data
A mini-computer-based system will be appropriate for emergency
preparedness computation of potential atmospheric pathways. Such a
system should use region-specific models and inputs.
Data should be noted in terms of the following divisions:
Release substance—What is the:
• chemical form?
• physical form?
• total amount in accident?
• amount potentially released?
Release Characteristics—What is the:
• release rate?
• height above ground?
• temperature?
• vertical velocity?
• horizontal velocity?
Plume Dispersion for Visible Plumes—What is the:
• plume rise?
• plume rate of growth?
• direction of travel?
Local Dispersion Influences—Are there:
• building wake effects (distance to buildings; height of close
buildings)?
• upwind surface roughness effects (urban or rural)?
• topographic influences?
Ambient Meteorological Conditions—What is the:
• surface-wind direction and speed at release?
• surface-wind direction and speed at an adjacent well-exposed site?
• direction of elevated winds (cloud movement)?
Listed below are typical sources for meteorological data. Twenty-
four-hour phone lists, interagency agreements for data, and other logis-
tics should be prepared as part of emergency planning for fast
acquisition of data. The National Climatic Center run by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Asheville, North Carolina,
can provide information on the types of weather data available in a par-
ticular area.
First Order Weather Stations—usually found at airports
Nuclear Power Plants—control room
University Stations
Forestry Stations
Department of Agriculture Stations
TV/Radio Monitors
Government Monitoring Installations
Government Nuclear Installations
Local Authorities for Air Pollution Control
The specific agencies available for contact depend on the local region.
4.33
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Hydro/ogic and Meteoro/ogic Assessmem
SURFACE
CONTAMINATION
Obtain Existing
Data
Many emergency situations involving hazardous materials begin
with a surface spill. A surface spill can occur during the transportation
or storage of hazardous materials, on or near the surface. A spill of any
sort can rapidly become an emergency situation because of the prox-
imity of human activity and because of the relatively brief travel times
associated with surface flow. These brief travel times require very fast
response to any emergency situation to minimize the severity of poten-
tial damages. In an emergency situation the response team must:
1. obtain existing data
Z obtain on-scene data
3. evaluate contaminant transport.
Site-specific data are required for the evaluation of factors that
influence the pathway of a surface spill. Existing data include topo-
graphic maps, aerial photography, climatological data, streamflow
records, soil survey maps, and land-use classification maps.
The smallest scale, smallest contour interval (highest resolution)
topographic maps available should be used. These are usually
USGS 7-1/2' Topographic Maps. These maps are useful in defining
drainage patterns and the presence of human populations. Maps can be
purchased at sporting goods or map stores, or ordered from the USGS.
To order maps of areas west of the Mississippi River (as well as Alaska,
Hawaii, Lousiana, Guam, and Samoa), write to the Branch of Distribu-
tion, U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25286k Federal Center, Denver, Colo-
rado 80225. Maps of areas east of the Mississippi River (as well as
Minnesota, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) should be ordered from
the Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 S. Eads St.,
Arlington, Virginia 22202.
Aerial photography is useful for the same reason!, as topographic
maps. Small-scale stereo pairs can be used to define drainage between
countour intervals. If existing photography is too old or indistinct to be
useful, photographs at a lower altitude may be necessary. To obtain
aerial photographs see Appendix A, Part 3 of the NEIC Manual for
Croundwater/Subsurface Investigation at Hazardous Waste Sites (EPA
1981; hereafter referred to as NEIC).
Climatological, streamflow, and soil data are needed to define
rainfall-runoff processes. Useful data include hourly precipitation, daily
temperature, daily solar radiation, daily evaporation, daily wind velocity,
daily relative humidity, snow depths, and range of snow cover. Climato-
logical data are published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration and are available through the National Climatic Center
in Asheville, North Carolina. Permanent streamflow recording stations
in the area should be identified. The location of streamflow gaging
stations can be obtained through the USGS data base called Catalogue
of Information on Water Data—Index to Water Data Acquisition or from
the Assistance Center at each USGS Water Resources District Office
(USGS 1981). Aerial photography, soil type, and land-use classification
data are available through the county or district office of the Soil
Conservation Service and local or regional planning boards. See
Appendix A, Part 5 of NEIC for lists of State Conservation Offices and
soil surveys published by county. Other sources of hydrologic data are
state geological surveys [see Appendix A, Part 6 of Nf.lC for names and
numbers].
4.34
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Hydrologic and Meteorologk Assessment
Obtain On-Scene
Data
Evaluate Contaminant
Transport
Travel times have often been calculated by the USGS, Water Resources
Division District Offices; the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers; National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Survey; and
the state Waterway Commissions as a part of previous studies. These
agencies are excellent sources for this type of data.
Physical and chemical characteristics of the spilled material affect
contaminant transport (as discussed below—see also Chemical Charac-
terization Section.) Data that must be gathered at the spill scene often
include site-specific sampling of water and sediments, surveying stream
cross-sections, measuring discharge, aerial photography, and site
photography.
Both suspended and bed-load sediment must be sampled near the
spill scene. Water-quality sampling should be concurrent with the sedi-
ment sampling. The water should be tested for chemicals contained in,
or related to, the hazardous material. If no permanent streamflow gages
are near the site, discharge will have to be measured. Photographs of
the site are useful in determining friction factors and for refreshing
memories after a site visit.
The physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous material
will determine its ultimate pathway and fate; thus, identifying the mate-
rial characteristics as accurately as possible is very important. Vital char-
acteristics include the physical state (solid, liquid, or gaseous); if
particulate, the particle size; if liquid, the viscosity, density, and solubil-
ity; tendencies to form solution or colloidal suspensions; sorbtive ten-
dencies; and any pertinent chemical tendencies. Another vital
assessment is whether the spill constitutes a continuous source or a
pulse source of the material.
A hazardous material on the surface can seep into the ground, be
picked up into the atmosphere and possibly be redeposited, or can
remain on the surface. This section deals with pathways along the sur-
face and includes overland flow and channel flow and a combination of
the two. The mode of transport along these pathways depends on the
characteristics of the hazardous material.
If the surface spill is gaseous it will disperse through the atmos-
phere, although heavy gases may behave as liquids. If the material is
liquid it will immediately begin to flow downhill. Generally, there is not
enough hazardous material to maintain the flow. In this case, the mate-
rial may be deposited along the pathways, to be picked up by subse-
quent rainfalls and associated runoff. If the material is a solid it generally
will remain in place until disturbed by rainfall or wind. Small particles of
solid material can be transported by wind. Rainfall can transport solid or
liquid materials by way of overland flow.
Some factors that influence overland flow are precipitation; drain-
age patterns; slope; viscosity, density, and solubility of the material; soil
types; land use; and antecedent moisture conditions. Before overland
flow may begin, depression storage (the volume of fluid required to fill
small depressions and pockets on the ground surface) must be filled.
The amount of fluid that will infiltrate into the ground depends on
ground cover, antecedent moisture, land use, and the surface-soil type.
The dissolved contaminant material will infiltrate with the water and the
suspended and sorbed material may be left behind.
4.35
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Evaluate Contaminant
Transport (contd)
UNDERGROUND
CONTAMINATION
Overland flow can be either sheet flow or rill flow. Rills and gullies
gather the flow into small channels and finally into large channels,
according to the prevalent drainage pattern in the area. This drainage
pattern can be determined with 7-1/2' USGS Topographic Maps.
Factors that affect channel flow include channel geometry, channel
slope, and friction. Channel flow is discussed in detail in a number of
open channel hydraulics texts. In overland flow and channel flow there
are three forms of material transport: a hazardous material may sorb
onto the sediment carried by the flow; it may be carried as a suspended
solid or as a colloidal suspension; or it may be carried as a solute. Solute
transport is the fastest, approximately that of the water. If the material is
carried sorbed onto sediment, sediment transport processes will domi-
nate the transport of the material. If the material is carried as a suspen-
sion or as a solute, the properties of diffusion, dispersion, and
convection will dominate its transport.
In many instances, these pathways can be either blocked or short
circuited. For example, a dam, blocking the sorbed-s.ediment pathway
by decreasing the velocities in the reservoir, will cause the sediment to
settle out. A sewer can short-circuit a pathway by intercepting the flow
containing the material and conveying it to another location. If the
sewer in question is a storm sewer, the new location will probably be a
larger channel or stream. If it is a sanitary sewer, the material may be
conveyed to a central treatment location. In either case, all sewer over-
flow locations should be checked for the material.
The constant interaction of surface water and ground water must be
considered. Rivers are normally gaining or losing water to and from
aquifers. If a spill occurs in a losing reach of a river the hazardous mate-
rial may contaminate the aquifer. (See the following section on under-
ground contamination.)
Because analyses of the varied processes involved in determining
the pathway and fate of hazardous material can be very complicated,
computer simulation may be required. No single computer model is
capable of simulating all the processes involved. The very nature of
modeling makes any model an abstraction of the real world. Care must
be taken to insure that the models being used make the proper abstrac-
tions for the specific sites. This is best done by an experienced modeler
using a familiar code.
The general approach may be to first define the flow of water and
then to define the pathway of the hazardous material within the water.
The definition of the flow of water can be accomplished through simu-
lation of the rainfall-runoff processes and of the hydiodynamics of the
channel. Many models of varying degrees of sophistication are available
to do this. The pathway of the hazardous material can be defined
through simulation of sedimentary processes and mixing processes.
Mixing can be thought of as the sum of diffusion, dispersion, and con-
vection. Fewer models are available in these fields and the codes are
much more complicated; however, the codes are available and repre-
sent the best, if not the only, way to simulate these processes.
Underground contamination can result from surface spills of
hazardous materials, seepage from deep- or shallow-well waste injec-
4.36
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
UNDERGROUND
CONTAMINATION
(contd)
tion, leaks from buried containers or leaks from underground pipelines.
Surface spills that are not highly volatile or subject to overland runoff
may move through unsaturated geologic material and into the ground
water. (Transport by subsurface storm or sanitary sewer systems is dis-
cussed in the surface contamination section.) The upper soil layers will
sorb some contaminants and the remainder may be transported deeper
by infiltration or percolation mechanisms to the ground water.
Evaluation of underground contamination requires the collection of
certain hydrogeologic information. One of the first steps is to locate the
spill scene on a usable scale map or aerial photograph [see Appendix A
of NE/C for obtaining these]. The map or photograph must be large
enough in scale to determine the possible pathways to ground water or
surface water that the spill might take. Runoff patterns and recharge
zones should be defined.
The aerial view obtained by a map or photograph, as well as other
data collected, should be used to create a three-dimensional image of
the scene. Topographic maps can be used to draw cross-sections of the
area. These data can be correlated with geologic maps to present a strati-
graphic representation of the geology beneath the site. Water-level data
collected from nearby wells and streams can be used to create water-
table maps and piezometric surfaces.
The cross-sections and maps are used to determine the possible
contaminant pathways to potable ground water or to other points of
human interactions (see Figures 4.5 and 4.6). Unless the water table is at
the surface, the contaminant path to ground water will be through the
vadose (unsaturated) zone. This unsaturated material may attenuate or
retard contaminant transport, depending on the nature of the spill and
(PRECIPITATION
+ IRRIGATION!
NATURAL LAND
r===^=V'.^r:^^ ••••..'. WATERTABLE
r^r^rr^rz^r^jr^:.??'-^^^^VADOSE ZONE , -' . -.J/:-- •_. • • ••ff'---.--^
'> ~^T—~ ^UNDERFLOW)
GROUND-WATER FLOW
FIGURE 4.5. Simplified Landfill Water Balance (EPA 1977)
4.37
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
AREA
OF SPILL
FIGURE 4.6. Vertical Cross-Section of a Hazardous Waste Site (EPA 1981)
the geologic properties of the medium. The possibility of fracture flow,
which would effectively negate any retardation in the vadose zone,
must be considered.
Obtain Existing The initial circumstances in an emergency response are sometimes
Data chaotic, making efficient collection of existing data difficult. Therefore,
as much information as possible should be collected before spills occur.
Response teams must know what they are looking for and where to find
it, and must be coordinated with other emergency response groups.
Relevant regional and local geologic information pertaining to consoli-
dated and unconsolidated materials as well as other factors that affect
water movement, are most important.
Geologic information that is of particular importance in site evalua-
tion is stratigraphic section data. This information will identify the
potential aquifers in the area, their relative permeabilities, and the
material makeup of the area. Stratigraphic information must be
examined with additional data to create a more complete picture. For
example, structural information concerning fault zones, folding, struc-
tural traps, and fracture patterns is needed to help predict liquid
movement. Table 4.5 is a list of types and sources of geologic
information.
Site geology is often expressed in the surface topography as land-
forms that reflect geologic structure. The topography controls the direc-
tion of surface runoff; the subsurface structure can be the dominant
control factor in ground-water movement. Figure 4.5 shows a simplified
spill site cross-section with discharge to the surface.
Appendix A, Parts 2 and 6 of NEIC give guidance for contracting
the USGS and state geological surveys. These agencies can give
information on what studies have been done by public, private, and
academic groups for specific areas. Local colleges and universities have
libraries and faculty with information concerning studies that have been
performed in the area. Local extension agents, the Soil Conservation
Service, and other farm-related organizations can also be helpful.
4.38
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Hydro/og/c and Meteoro/ogic Assessment
Obtain Existing
Data (contd)
Hydrologic information must be collected at the same time as geo-
logic information to evaluate contaminant movement. Pertinent hydro-
logic information relates to sources of water (i.e., precipitation and
ground-water flow) and down-gradient movement on the land surface
or in the subsurface through permeable media. No single factor prevails
at all sites; therefore, several characteristics of local hydrology must be
assessed. During an investigation, all topics presented in Table 4.6
should be addressed. Again, the investigator's professional judgment
will determine the extent of data gathering on a particular subject.
State and Federal agencies are the best sources of information. Local
water quality agencies, irrigation districts, and academic institutions
should also be consulted.
TABLE 4.5. Types
and Sources of
Geologiclnformation
(EPA 1981)
Topic
Definition and Sources
Stratigraphy Stratigraphic data are formational designations, age, thickness, areal extent,
composition, sequence, and correlations. Aquifers and confining formations
are identified so that units most likely to transport pollutants can be deline-
ated. Lateral changes in formations (facies change) are noted if present.
Information can be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS library,
Golden, Colorado), state surveys [see Appendix A, Parts 2 and 6 of NE1C],
and major state university libraries.
Structural Structural features include folds, faults, joints/fractures, and interconnected
Feature voids (i.e., caves and lava tubes). Deformed, inclined, or broken rock
formations can control topography, surface drainage, and ground-water
recharge and flow. Joints and fractures are commonly major avenues of water
flow and usually occur in parallel sets. Solution features such as enlarged
joints, sinkholes, and caves are common in limestone rocks and promote rapid
ground-water movement. Pertinent data on structural features would include
type, compass orientation, dip direction and angle, and stratigraphy.
Information can be obtained from the sources listed for "Stratigraphy."
Mineral Resources Mineral resources refer to commercial deposits of minerals, quarry rock, sand/
and Soil Types gravel, oil and gas. Such deposits near the study area are identified and
located. These may represent pollutant sources to be considered when plan-
ning a sampling survey. Mines and quarries can often be used for direct exam-
ination of otherwise unexposed subsurface materials. USGS topographic maps
show most mines/quarries and oil fields. Aerial photographs and ground-level
pictures from USGS studies can help identify and locate these features [see
Appendix A, Parts 2 and 3 of NEIC]. County soil surveys published by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture are useful because they are printed as overlays on
aerial photographs. They are available through state conservation offices [see
Appendix A, Part 5 of NEIC]. Soils information is useful in estimating infiltra-
tion of surface spills. Other published and unpublished literature is available
from sources listed for "Stratigraphy."
4.39
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Hydrologic and Mefeoro/ogic Assessment
TABLE 4.5. (contd)
Topic Definition and Sources
Seismic Activity In active seismic zones, disposal site covers and liners may prematurely fail
because of earth movement along faults. For this reason, fault locations and
the seismic history of the study area are determined. A telephone call to the
state geological survey is recommended as the first step when seeking this type
of information [see Appendix A, Part 6 of NEIC for addresses and phone
numbers].
Formation Information about the origin of a deposit or formation (i.e., volcanic meta-
Origins morphic, stream-laid) gives clues about structure, grain-size distribution (later-
ally and vertically), weathering, and permeabilities. Information can be
obtained from sources listed for "Stratigraphy."
Weathering Profile Bedrock and unconsolidated deposits such as glacial till and windblown loess
develop characteristic weathering profiles. Zones in those profiles may be
more permeable than others. The zones should be identified and character-
ized by composition and thickness. Weathering profiles for shallow depths
(less than 10 ft) are usually presented in county soil survey maps and are dis-
cussed under "Mineral Resources."
Grain-Size Grain-size analysis, conducted on samples from unconsolidated formations,
Distributions yields the proportion of material for a specified size range. Range distributions
can be used to estimate permeabilities, design monitoring wells and enable
the hydrologist to better interpret stratigraphy. Such analyses are most often
performed during preconstruction engineering/soils studies and may be
obtained from local consulting firms in addition to other above-mentioned
4.40
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
TABLE 4.6. Types
and Sources of
Hydrologic Infor-
mation (EPA 1981)
Topic
Definition and Sources
Surface Drainage Surface drainage information includes tributary relationships, stream widths,
depths, channel elevations, and flow data. The nearest permanent gaging sta-
tion and period of record are also determined. A USGS 7-1/2' Topographic
Map will show some of the necessary information. Gaging stations and flow
data can be identified and obtained through USGS data bases. (See
Appendix A, Part 2 of NEIC.)
Ground- and Streams near hazardous-waste releases can either receive ground-water
Surface-Water inflow or lose water by channel exfiltration. Hydrologic literature is
Relationships reviewed to determine if local streams are "gaining" or "losing." Losing
streams are common in areas of limestone bedrock and those with arid
climates and coarse-grained substrates.
Potential ground-water recharge areas are also identified. Flat areas or
depressions noted on topographic maps are suspect, while steep slopes
normally promote runoff. Stereo-pair aerial photographs can be useful
in these determinations (see Appendix A, Part 3 of NEIC). Irrigated fields
detected in aerial photographs suggest recharge areas; swampy, wet
areas suggest areas of ground-water discharge.
Underlying Information is collected to delineate aquifer type (unconfined, confined, or
Aquifers perched), composition, boundaries, hydraulic properties (e.g., permeability,
porosity, transmissivity), and interconnection with other aquifers (direction of
leakage). These data are generally available through USGS publications.
Depth to Ground Used here, depth to ground water refers to the vertical distance from the
Water ground surface to the standing water level in a well completed just below the
water table. In a confined aquifer, the depth to water represents a point on a
"piezometric" surface. The depths will limit the types of equipment that can
be used for purging and sampling. Probable ground-water flow directions
(both horizontal and vertical) are determined by comparing depths to water in
a series of wells and piezometers that are all referenced to a standard datum.
Data may be obtained from USGS and other data bases (see Appendix A,
Parts 1 and 2 of N£/C).
Water/ Possible ways that water could contact contaminants are studied to understand
Contaminant how pollutants are carried into the environment and to later design remedial
Contact measures. Possibilities include:
• precipitation falling directly on spill materials
• precipitation infiltrating through cover materials or soil
• flood water (determine flood frequencies and elevations, compare to
spill elevation)
• ground water (compare elevations of contaminants and ground water).
Pertinent information may be obtained from various records listed in
Appendix A, Part 1 of NEIC.
4.41
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
TABLE 4.6. (contd)
Topic
Definition and Sources
Water Quality Knowledge of natural or background water quality is required when moni-
toring for ground-water contaminations. The quality of surface waters is
usually available from EPA, USCS, and state records (see Appendix A, Part 1
of NEIC). Ground-water data will probably be quite limited for any given
area, but may be identified through USGS Water Resource:; Division offi-
ces, state geological surveys (see Appendix A, Parts 2 and 5 of NEIC), or
state and county resource boards and health departments.
Obtain On-Scene No matter what regional data are available, certain information
Data must be collected or verified at the scene of a spill. Existing data give
regional information on soil types and ground-water hydrology in vary-
ing degrees of detail. On-scene data verify the extent of contamination,
and the probable speed and direction of the contaminant movement
through the subsurface.
Important data to be collected at the spill scene are listed below
and discussed in the following text:
• extent of contamination and transport speed in the soil layer
• depth to the water table and the direction of flow
• extent of contamination in the ground water
• transport speed in the zone of saturation.
The extent of contamination underground at a surface spill can
often be seen in soil samples. A hand- or gasoline-powered auger may
be used to bore a hole to take soil samples or to place sampling devices.
Soil samples have the advantage of giving in-situ water quality mea-
surements. They also can give an idea of the sorbtive capacity of the
material in which the spill occurred. Lateral movement of the contami-
nant can be evaluated through careful area! placement of sampling
points around the spill scene. Existing access points to the subsurface,
such as pits and excavations should be examined for contamination and
local soil properties. The potential for impermeable layers or layers of
higher permeability should be carefully evaluated. Care must be taken
during sampling operations to avoid cross contamination of aquifers or
opening avenues of rapid transport.
Depth to ground water and samples of the ground water are
required to evaluate the extent, if any, of contamination in the satu-
rated zone, or the distance that the spill front must move to reach the
saturated zone. The ground-surface elevation of the spill must be
determined as accurately as possible. An aneroid barometer/altimeter is
a quick way to establish elevations of the spill scene as well as of nearby
4.42
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Obtain On-Scene
Data (contd)
Evaluate Data
observation points with respect to the nearest monument. Existing wells
should be located, measured for both water- and land-surface eleva-
tions, and sampled, if possible. (Private well owners should be provided
with a copy of the sample results, whether the well is contaminated or
not.) Samples should also be taken from seeps, springs, and gaining
streams (those receiving ground water) in the vicinity of the spill.
Ground-water elevations combined with information from the vadose
sampling will indicate the distance from the spill to the ground water.
Water levels from three or more wells will indicate ground-water flow
direction because flow is always from high to low head. The piezome-
ters must be completed at different depths within the ground water to
determine the depth of penetration of the contaminant. When further
investigation is necessary, standard drilling technology can be used for
boring monitoring wells. (See references following this section—
Ground-Water Monitoring, and USGS reports entitled Techniques of
Water Resource Investigations.)
A primary concern during emergency response is knowing how,
when, and where the contaminant will affect human population. When
ground water is the potential transport medium for the contaminant,
the velocity (speed and direction) of that flow must be known. Informa-
tion associated with existing wells is most valuable and can be obtained
through the well owners, well drillers, or the USGS. Specific capacity
(the volumetric yield with time per foot of drawdown) can be used to
calculate a rough permeability value. Porosity, which is also required to
calculate velocity, can be estimated from information on the materials
penetrated during drilling. Typical unconsolidated geologic media
(usually found near the surface) are listed below in order of increasing
retardation (sorptive capacity) or generally decreasing contaminant
transport speed (EPA 1978):
1. gravel, medium to coarse sand
2. fine to very fine sand
3. sand with <15% clay; silt
4. sand with >15% but <50% clay
5. clay with <50% sand
6. clay
[For corresponding Unified Soil Classification System symbols, see EPA
(1978), p. 18.] When liquid encounters less permeable layers, it will
often follow alternate paths of less resistance and form new flow pat-
terns (e.g., vertical movement or surface discharge). The geochemistry
of the porous medium and the presence of organics also affect retarda-
tion of contaminant transport.
Consolidated rock materials (below the surface layer) are listed
below in order of increasing retardation:
1. cavernous or fractured limestone, evaporites, factured basalt and
other extrusive rocks
2. fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks (except lava), sandstone
(poorly cemented)
3. sandstone (moderately cemented), fractured shale and limestone
4. sandstone (well-cemented) volcanic elastics (pyroclastics), scoria
4.43
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Evaluate Data (contd)
5. siltstone
6. unfractured shale, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Appendix A of NE/C lists published soil surveys in the U.S. See EPA
(1978—p. 17) for a list of common driller terms used in estimating spe-
cific yield for these consolidated and unconsolidated earth materials.
(The numbers—1 through 6-given above, correspond to I through VI on
p. 17 of this reference).
Lower permeability means greater attenuation. The typical perme-
ability for the unconsolidated and consolidated materials listed above
may range from 3000 ft/day (1 cm/sec) to 3.0 x 10~6 ft/day (10"9 cm/sec).
Primary permeability is a property of the pores of the material. Frac-
tures, joints, and faults constitute the secondary permeability of a mate-
rial and may be major pathways. Although much less fracturing is found
with increasing depth, this will not be of significance in most spill situa-
tions. Layered materials are evaluated according to the most permeable
zone, allowing for possible pathways and leakage through the less per-
meable layers. In homogeneous earth materials (i.e., without stratifica-
tion or marked variations in pore-size distribution), the infiltration front
is pear-shaped, with the larger portion at the bottom (Figure 4.7). The
vertical component is due to gravity, whereas the horizontal compo-
nent is due to capillarity. Capillarity is also a vertical phenomenon
because the liquid sprawls as a function of gravity vs capillarity. The
migration will take place by successive impregnation of large areas. In a
permeable stratum, this penetration is mainly vertical; in a less permea-
ble stratum, the liquid follows less resistant paths and the horizontal
penetration increases. The heterogeneity of the subsoil influences the
shape of the contaminated area, and can even cause splitting of the
plume.
A zone that is capable of storing, transmitting, and yielding water in
significant quantities, is called an aauifer. The transport capability of an
HIGHLY PERMEABLE
HOMOGENEOUS SOIL •
LAND SURFACE
•• LESS PERMEABLE .'••;
".'.\ HOMOGENEOUS SOIL v .
STRATIFIED SOIL WITH
VARYING PERMEABILITY .
FIGURE 4.7. Generalized Shapes of Spreading Bodies (after Fussell 1981)
4.44
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Hydrologic and Meleoro/ogic Assessment
Evaluate Data
(coritd)
aquifer depends on its permeability, hydraulic gradient, and thickness.
Unconsolidated and semiconsolidated material composed of sand or
gravel will transport liquids much faster than sand with some clay or a
clay with some sand (if the effective porosity and hydraulic gradients are
the same). Consolidated material that has been fractured will usually
transport liquids faster than unconsolidated sediments. Also, longitudi-
nal dispersion tends to be greater and the front of the contaminant
exhibits a pattern known as fingering. The pattern is common for
layered systems with markedly different permeabilities in unconsoli-
dated materials.
Aquifers are classified as confined or unconfined, depending on
the absence or presence of a water table (phreatic surface) at atmos-
pheric pressure. Confined aquifers (also called artesian or pressure
aquifers) are under pressure and are bounded above and below by
impervious material. Unconfined aquifers have the water table as an
upper boundary of saturation and are most susceptible to contamina-
tion from surface spills via the vadose zone.
Leachate plume tends to remain as an intact body within the
ground-water body with only slight dispersion and diffusion along the
edges. Hydrodynamic dispersion, dielectric properties, and viscosity
may cause certain leachate constituents to move faster than the average
ground-water velocity, although plume direction in most instances will
follow general ground-water flow. In general, ground water flows from
higher topographic areas toward surface water (which is a discharge
area); however, site geology such as impermeable layers and heavily
pumped wells can drastically alter flow direction (Figures 4.8 and 4.9).
FIGURE 4.8. Two-Aquifer System With Opposite Flow Directions (EPA 1981)
4.45
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
W
CLEAR CREEKS
MAP VIEW
VERTICAL CROSS-SECTION
FIGURE 4.9. Ground-Water Flow Affected by a Pumped Well (EPA 1981)
446
-------
Hydrologic and Meteoro/ogic /Assessment
Evaluate Data
(contd)
Geophysical Methods
of Surveying
Under certain conditions contaminants may move up-gradient by diffu-
sion or by buoyant flow. These conditions include significant density
differences (contaminant lighter than water), high ground-water gradient
(at unsaturated/saturated interface), and low ground-water velocity.
The depth of a plume normally increases with distance from the
spill. Hydraulic and lithologic conditions, as well as leachate density,
control the actual depth to which the contamination will travel. Retar-
dation has varying effects on the movement of different leachate con-
stituents due to interactions of the medium with certain chemicals.
Geophysical surveying, sometimes referred to as nondestructive
testing (NOT), is useful in determining subsurface hydrogeologic fea-
tures such as water-bearing strata and discontinuities in lithology (Lord,
Tyagi and Koerner 1980). It does not require extensive soil borings. The
NOT methods can also be used to detect and monitor subsurface liquid
spills. The methods are listed and described in Table 4.7, with additional
references listed in the following reference section. Table 4.7 indicates
which of the following problem areas may be or have been addressed
by each method. (The numbers below are used in the table.)
1. Downstream ground-water pollution and soil contamination exists
that must be mapped in vertical and horizontal planes.
2. Spill tracing near the surface must be done to map the extent of
the infiltration of a surface spill.
3. Buried containers must be located.
4. The configuration and composition of buried containers must be
assessed before handling and removal to proper disposal.
5. Leaks in gravity flow and pressurized pipelines must be located.
TABLE 4.7. Problem
Areas Rated Against
Possible NOT Methods of
Solution (1 = highest
potential, 5 = lowest
potential, blank = not
applicable)
NOT Method
Description
References
in Addition
to a, b, c,d
Problem Area:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(see above)
Pulsed Microwave
CW Microwave
Eddy Current
Commercially available system, sur-
veys to 10 ft quickly over large
areas.
Soon to be available, same as above
except that microwave is continu-
ous instead of pulsed.
Works on the principle of metal
detectors; many types available
commercially.
e,f,g,h,i
2 2 1
2 2 1
2 2
4.47
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Hydrologic and Meteoro/ogic Assessment
TABLE 4.7. (contd)
NOT Method
Magnometer
Seismic Reflection
Seismic Refraction
Electrical Resistivity
Penetrating Radiation
Acoustic Emission
Liquid Penetrant
Infrared Radiation
Ultrasonics
Sonar
Description
Measures changes in earth's mag-
netic field, which is altered by iron,
steel, etc. CA*
Impulse on surface or below will
cause return waves characteristic of
subsurface. CA*.
Time is measured from impulse to
transducer to indicate depth to
change in lithology. CA*.
Current applied to ground and
electric potential is measured at sur-
face. CA*.
X-rays, x-rays or neutrons passed
through material to detect changes.
CA*.
Noises monitored on materials
under stress and related to stability.
CA*.
A liquid is applied to a material,
excess removed, powder applied to
mark cracks. CA*.
Radiation patterns reveal heat flow
anomolies and structural flaws.
CA*.
Elastic energy pulse is reflected by
cracks and discontinuities in a
material. CA*.
References
in Addition
to a, b, c,d
n,o,p,x,y
Problem Area:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(see p. 4.47)
3 4
445
445
335
3 2
n,o,p
P.s
o,p
Pulse of acoustic (sound) energy to
probe bottom of water bodies. CA*. t
VLF Electromagnetic and Measurement of secondary elec- u,x
Resistivity tromagnetic fields indicates varia-
tions in subsurface.
Induced Polarization
Uses a strong primary current to
locate materials with certain ionic
exchange properties such as satu-
rated clays.
44443
5 5
2 2
5 5
345
* CA = commercially available.
4.48
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Hydrology and Meteorology
Numerical Modeling
Two- and three-dimensional mathematical models of saturated flow
can be employed to evaluate alternatives for cleaning up large spills over
diverse areas. A preliminary prediction of contaminant plume movement
will aid in determining the most useful sampling sites.
An increasing number of codes are being developed on a larger
scale for potable aquifers across the United States; thus, many areas
have been modeled. Models that have been developed or calibrated for
a particular aquifer should be used when available. Between-response
activities may include model runs (using typical contaminant chemicals
and spill situations for existing aquifers) to give an indication of travel
times and contaminant concentrations in the environment. Local con-
sulting firms, laboratories, and universities with site-specific experience
in these activities should be employed if the cost can be justified.
Modeling groups in these organizations will have codes adaptable to
most ground-water situations. An experienced person may also be able
to find a usable code through one of the following centers:
Argonne Code Center
9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60439
Ann: Mr. Louis Ranzini (312) 972-7250
International Groundwater Modeling Center
Holcom Research Institute, Butler University
Indianapolis, Indiana 46208
Attn: Paul K. M. vander Heijde,
Principal Investigator (317) 283-9667
Air Contamination
HYDROLOCIC AND METEROLOGIC ASSESSMENT
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Busse, A. D., and J. R. Zimmerman. 1973. Users Guide for the Climato-
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tion Agency, Washington, D.C.
# background text
4.49
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
* data source book
Burt, E. W. 1977. Va//ey Model Users Guide. EPA-450/2-77-018, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North
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•Butson, K. D., and W. L. Hatch. 1979. Selective Guide to Climatic Data
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EPA. 1977. Users Manual for Single-Source (CRSTER) Model.
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Tennessee.
Bird, R. B., W. E. Stewart and E. N. Lightfoot. 1960. Transport
Phenomena. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
EPA. 1981 NEIC Manual for Groundwater/Subsurface Investigations
at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA-330/9-81-002, National Enforcement
Investigations Center, Denver, Colorado.
Fischer, H. B., et al. 1979. Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters.
Academic Press, New York.
National Engineering Handbook. 1972. Section 4, Hydrology, Soil Con-
servation Service, Washington, D.C.
NEIC—see EPA 1981.
data source book
4.51
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
USGS. 1981. Catalogue of Information on Water Data—Index to Water
Data Acquisition. Office of Water Data Coordination and the National
Water Data Exchange, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C
Ven Te Chow, Ven. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. McCraw Hill,
New York.
Viessman, W-, Jr. et al. 1977. Introduction to Hydrology. Harper and
Row, New York.
Wen Shen, Hsieh, ed. 1971. River Mechanics I. Colorado State Univer-
sity, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
Wen Shen, Hsieh, ed. 1971. River Mechanics//. Colorado State Univer-
sity, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
Wen Shen, Hsieh, ed. 1973. Environmental Impact on Rivers (River
Mechanics III). Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
Underground
Contamination—
Ground-Water
Monitoring
Barton, C. M. 1974. "Borehole Sampling of Saturated Uncemented
Sands and Gravels." Groundwater 12:3(170-181).
@Black, C. A. 1969. Methods of Soil Analysis. Agronomy, No. 9,
American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
Bureau of Reclamation. 1967. Water Measurement Manual. 2nd ed.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Bureau of Reclamation. 1977. Ground Water Manual. U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
#Campbell, M. D., and J. H. Lehr. 7973. Water Well Technology.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Clarke, J. H., et al. 1980. A Model for Assessment of Environmental
Impact of Hazardous Materials Spills and Leaching. Recra Environ-
mental and Health Sciences, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee.
*Clarke, P. F., H. E. Hodgson and G. W. North. 1979. A Guide to
Obtaining Information from the U.S.G.S. 2nd ed. U.S. Geological
Survey, Circular 777, Arlington, Virginia.
Coperhaven, E.D., and B. K. Wilkinson. 1979. Movement of Hazardous
Substances in Soif: A Bibliography, Volume 1. Selected Metals.
EPA-600/9-79-024 a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
Coperhaven, E. D., and B. K. Wilkinson. 1979. Movement of Hazardous
Substances in Soil: A Bibliography, Volume 2. Pesticides. EPA-600/9-79-
0246, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati1, Ohio.
Corps of Engineers. 1972. Soil Sampling. Department of the Army,
EM 1110-2-1907, Washington, D.C.
f background text
* data source book
@ has information on monitoring in the zone of aeration or in the unsaturated zone
4.52
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
@Davis, S. N., and R. J. M. DeWiest., Hydrogeology. Wiley and Sons,
New York
Departments of the Army and Air Force. 1975. Well Drilling Opera-
tions. National Water Well Association, Worthington, Ohio.
De Vera, E. R., et al. 1980. Samplers and Sampling Procedures for
Hazardous Waste Streams. EPA-600/2-80-018, U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA. 1975. Manual of Water Well Construction Practices. EPA-570/9-75-
001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
@EPA. 1977. Procedures Manual for Ground Water Monitoring at Solid
Waste Disposal Facilities. EPA/530/SW-611, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
#*EPA. 1978. A Manual for Evaluating Contamination Potential of
Surface Impoundments. EPA 570/9-78-003, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Washington, D.C.
EPA. 1979. Available Information Materials on Solid Waste Manage-
ment, Total Listing, 1966-1978. EPA/530/SW-58.29, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
EPA. 1980. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Research Symposium on
Disposal of Hazardous Waste at Chicago, III., March 17-20, 1980.
EPA-600/9-80-010, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
#*EPA. 1981. NEIC Manual for Croundwater/Subsurface Investigations
at Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA-330/9-81-002, National Enforcement
Investigations Center, Denver, Colorado.
@Everett, L. G., et al. 1976. Monitoring Croundwater Quality: Methods
and Costs. EPA-600/4-76-023, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las
Vegas, Nevada.
Everett, L. G., and E. W. Hoylman. 1980. Croundwater Quality Monitor-
ing of Western Coal Strip Mining. Preliminary Designs for /Active Mine
Sources of Pollution. EPA-600/7-80-110, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Fenn, D., et al. 1977. Procedures Manual for Groundwater Monitoring
at Solid Waste Disposal Facilities. EPA-530/SW-611, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
•Freeze, R. A., and J. A. Cherry. 1979. Croundwater. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Fuller, W. H. 1978. Investigation of Landfill Leachate Pollutant Attenua-
tion by Soils. EPA-600/2-78-158, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
@#General Electric Company. 1980. Croundwater Monitoring. Busi-
ness Growth Services, Schenectady, New York.
# background text
* data source book
@ has information on monitoring in the zone of aeration or in the unsaturated zone
4.53
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Geraghty and Miller, Inc., 1978. Surface Impoundments and Their
Effects on Croundwater Quality in the United States - A Preliminary
Survey. EPA-570/9-78-004, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Gibb, J. P., and R. A. Griffin. 1979. Groundwater Samp/ing and Sample
Preservation Techniques (1st Annual Report). U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
•Gilluly, J., A. C. Waters and A. O. Woodford. 1968. Principles of Geol-
ogy. 3rd ed.. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California.
*Giefer, G. J., and D. K. Todd. 1972. Water Publications of State Agen-
cies, First Supplement, 1971-1974, Water Information Center, Inc.,
Huntington, New York.
Grant, F. S., and G. F. West. 1965. Interpretation Theory in Applied
Geophysics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Griffin, R. A., and N. F. Shimp. 1978. /Attenuation of Pollutants in
Municipal Landfill Leachate by Clay Minerals. EPA-600/2-78-157, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hammer, M. J. 1975. Water and Waste-Water Technology. Wiley and
Sons, New York.
Warding, S. T. 1942. iafces Hydrology. O. C. Meinzer, ed. Dover Publi-
cations, New York.
Johnson, A. I. 1964. An Outline of Equipment Useful for Hydrologic
Studies. U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report, Denver, Colorado.
#)ohnson Division. 1975. Ground Water and Wells. Johnson Division,
UOP, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Lohman, S. W. 1972. Ground-Wafer Hydraulics. Government Printing
Office, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 708, Washington, D.C.
Maclver, B. N., and G. P. Hale. 1970. Laboratory Soils Testing. Depart-
ment of the Army, EM 1110-2-1906, Washington, D.C.
@Meinzer, O. E. 1942. Croundwafer Hydrology. Dover Publications,
»lnc.. New York.
Mooij, H., and F. A. Rovers. 1976. Recommended Groundwater and
Soil Sampling Procedures. Environmental Conservation Directorate,
Report EPS-4-EC-76-7, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
NE/C-See EPA (1981).
Thompson, M. M. 1979. Maps of America: Cartographic Products of
the U.S. Geological Survey and Others. U.S. Government Printing
Office 0240 001 03145-1, Washington, D.C.
# background text
@ has information on monitoring in the zone of aeration or in the unsaturated zone
* data source book
4.54
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Underground
Contamination—
NOT Methods (letters
refer to column 3 of
Table 4.7)
Hydrologic and Meteoro/og/c Assessment
Thornbury, W. D. 1969. Principles of Ceomorphology. 2nd ed., Wiley
and Sons, New York.
Todd, D. K. 1966. Ground Water Hydrology. Wiley and Sons, New
York.
Todd, D. K., ed. 1970. The Water Encyclopedia. Water Information
Center, Port Washington, New York.
Water and Power Resources Service. 1980. Earth Manual. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Walton, W. C. 1970. Croundwater Resource Evaluation. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.
Welch, P. S. 1952. Limnology, 2nd ed, McGraw Hill, New York.
@Wilson, L. G. 1980. "Monitoring of the Vadose Zone: A Review of
Technical Elements and Methods." EPA-600/7-80-134, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.
[x] Benson, R. C., and R. A. Glaccum. 1979. "Remote Assessment of
Pollutants in Soil and Groundwater." In Proceedings of the 1979 Con-
ference on Hazardous Material Risk Assessment, Disposal and Manag-
ment. Information Transfer, Inc., Miami Beach.
[eJCook, J. C. 1972. "Seeing Through Rock with Radar." In Proc. North
Amer. Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conf., pp. 89-101. Society of-
Mining Engineers of AIME, New York.
[fJCook, J. C. 1974. "Ground Probing Radar." In Proc. Subsurf. Explor.
for Underground Excav. and Heavy Const., ASCE, pp. 172-174.
[a] Dobrin, M. B. 1976. Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
[c] Grant, F. S., and G. F. West. 1965. Interpretation Theory In
Applied Geophysics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
[b] Griffith, D. H., and R. F. King. 1965. Applied Geophysics, Pergamon
Press, Oxford.
fujHRB-Singer, Inc. 1971. Detection of Abandoned Underground Coal
Mines by Geophysical Methods. Project 14010, Report EHN, U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
[n] Iddings, F. A., et al. 1979. "Determination of Cement Content in
Soil-Cement Mixtures and Concrete by Neutron Activation Analysis."
In Interm. Adv. Nondest. Test. 6:199-237.
[q] Koerner, R. M., A. E. Lord, Jr. and W. M. McCabe. 1978. "Acoustic
Emission Monitoring of Soil Stability." ASCE your. Geotech. Engn.
104:571-582.
[r] Koerner, R. M., W. M. McCabe and A. E. Lord, Jr. 1978. "Advances
in Acoustic Emission Monitoring." Intl. Jour, of Water Power and Dam
Const. 30:38-41.
@ has information on monitoring in the zone of aeration or in the unsaturated zone
4.55
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Hydro/ogic and Meleoro/og/'c Assessment
[s] Leftwich, R. F., and C. B. Ordway. 1970. "Optical Thermal Testing -
A State of the Art Review." Inter. ). Nondest. Test. 2:129-170.
Lord, A. E., Jr, S. Tyagi and R. M. Koerner. 1980. "Non-Destructive
Testing (NOT) Methods Applied to Environmental Problems Involving
Hazardous Materials Spills." In Control of Hazardous Material Spills:
Proceedings of the 1980 National Conference on Control of Hazardous
Material Spills, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.
[}] Lundien, J. R. 1971. "Terrain Analysis by Electromagnetic Means."
Tec/i. Rpt. 3-693, U.S. Army Waterways fxpt. Sta.
[k] Lundien, J. R. 1972. "Determining Presence, Thickness and Electri-
cal Properties of Stratified Media Using Swept-Frequency Radar," Tech.
Rpt. M-72-4, U.S. Army Waterways fxpt. Sta.
[o] McConnagle, W. J. 1961. Nondestructive Testing. Cordon and
Breach Publ., New York.
[gJMoffatt, D. L., and R. J. Puskar. 1976. "A Subsurface Electromagnetic
Pulse Radar." Geophysics. 41:506-518.
[i] Morey, R. M. 1974. "Continuous Subsurface Profiling by Impulse
Radar." Proc. Subsurf. Explor. for Underground Excav. and Heavy
Const., ASCE, pp. 213-232.
[I] Okrasinski, T. A., A. E. Lord, Jr. and R. M. Koerner. 1978. "Labora-
tory Determination of Subsurface Water Levels Using Microwave Inter-
ference." ASCE Jour. Ceotech. Engen. 104:119-124.
[m] Okrasinski, T. A., R. M. Koerner and A. E. Lord, Jr. 1979. "Dielectric
Constant Determination of Soils at L-Band Microwave Frequencies."
Geotech. Test. lour. 1:134-140.
fhj Rosetta,). V. 1977. "Detection of Subsurface Cavities by Ground
Proving Radar." In Proc. Symp. Detect. Subsurf. Cavities, U.S. Water-
ways Exp. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss.
[y] Sandness, C. A., et al. 1979. "The Application of Geophysical Survey
Techniques to Mapping of Wastes in Abandoned Landfills." In Proceed-
ings of the 1979 Conference on Hazardous Material Risk Assessment,
Disposal and Management, Information Transfer Inc., Miami Beach,
Florida.
[d] Sharma, P. V. 1976. Geopriys/ca/ Methods in Geology, Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
/pJSharpe, R. S. 1970. Research Techniques in Nondestructive Test-
ing." Academic Press, New York.
ft] Van Reenan, E. D. 1964. "Subsurface Exploration by Sonar Seismic
Systems." In Soil Exploration, ASTM Special Tech. Publ., No. 351,
pp. 60-73.
Underground The following annotated bibligraphy contains some of the more
Contamination— important references on water tracing. When publications are readily
Water Tracing available, the source of supply is listed.
4.56
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Hydrologic and Meteorologic Assessment
Cobb, E. D. 1968. "Constant-Rate-Injection Equipment for Dye-
Dilution Discharge Measurements." In Selected Techniques in Water
Resources Investigations, 1966-1967, U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply
Paper 1892, pp. 15-22, $1.00 from Supt. of Documents, Government
Printing Office.
Collings, M. R. 1968. "Selection of Dye-injection and Measuring Sites
for Time-of-Travel Studies." In Selected Techniques in Water Resources
Investigations, 1966-1967, U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 1892,
pp. 23-29, $1.00 from Supt. of Documents, Government Printing Office.
Dunn, B. 1968. "Nomographs for Determining Amount of Rhodamine
B Dye for Time-of-Travel Studies." In Selected Techniques in Water
Resources /nvestigat/ons, 1966-1967, U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply
Paper 1892, pp. 9-14.
Haas, J. L, Jr. 1959. "Evaluation of Ground Water Tracing Methods
Used in Speleology." Nat. Spe/eo. Soc. Bull., Vol.21 Pt. 2, p. 67-76.
Scanlan, J. W. 1968. Evaluation and Application of Dye Tracing in a
Karst Terrain. M.S. Thesis in Civil Engineering, University of Missouri,
Rolla, Missouri.
Steppuhn, H., and J. R. Meiman. 1972. "Automatic Detection of
Waterborne Fluorescent Tracers." Int. Association of Sci. Hyd. Bull. 16,
No. 4, p. 83-89.
Water Tracers Cookbook. Missouri Speleology, Vol. 16, No. 3, Journal
of the Missouri Speleology Survey.
4.57
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4.3 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES
1. Prepare a list of scientific advisors available to the OSC—name, telephone number, organization,
expertise (see p. 4.63).
2. Obtain maps of the region that locate population centers (see p. 4.61).
3. Arrange to obtain the following information when available or as the need arises (seep. 4.61-63):
• regional land-use maps
• water-well and surface-pumping maps
• water-use characteristics
• lists of schools, hospitals, and other institutions that must be notified in the event of imminent
health hazards or an evacuation.
4. Gather maps locating environmentally sensitive areas (see p. 4.63).
5. Assemble a list of endangered species— mark habitats on maps (see p. 4.63).
6. Compile a list of names and addresses of damage assessment services, (see p. 4.63).
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE
1. Photograph and describe the incident (see p. 4.63).
2. Sample affected biota (see p. 4.63-64).
3. Compile a chronological log of observed effects and location of occurrence, (see p. 4.64).
4.59
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4.3 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
An evaluation of human, animal, and plant populations surrounding the scene of a release of
a hazardous substance can provide valuable information concerning the sensitivity of the environs
to pollution. In an emergency situation, concern for human populations will be paramount; the
disruption of other species will usually be of secondary importance. For instance, if a tank car rup-
ture spills benzene into a tributary leading to a potable water supply reservoir, mitigation efforts
will be geared toward preserving potable water supplies; fish and wildlife kills will not be as
immediate a concern. Characterization of the ecology of an area should, therefore, emphasize fac-
tors that contribute to human health and welfare. These factors may be thought of as "receptors"
that are connected by potential "pathways" (for instance, surface-water transport) to the emer-
gency incident. By investigating potential receptors as well as toxicological data and data relating
to the extent of potential exposure, the severity of the effects of a release can be estimated.
Much of this information can be collected before or between incidents. If the data are col-
lected and maintained in a comprehensive manner and are available, the ecological assessment of
an incident can be conducted quickly. Once an emergency occurs, provisions should be made to
obtain samples designed to document the incident and to determine the need for followup moni-
toring programs.
DATA REQUIREMENTS
Identify the Density and
Distribution of Human
Populations
Information required to characterize an area in terms of the poten-
tial for long-term environmental disruption in the event of a release of
hazardous substances includes:
• density and distribution of human populations
• locations of hospitals or other institutions that may require special
attention
• land-use characteristics
• water-use characteristics
• distribution of water wells
• distribution of surface-water supplies
• endangered species or critical environments.
Most, if not all, of the information described in this section can be
gathered ahead of time to be readily available to the response team in
the event of an emergency. Consult state and local contingency plans
for this type of data. Additionally, the response team should be familiar
with local experts and scientific advisors who could be called upon in an
emergency.
Often the size and location of the population at risk have a direct
bearing on the choice of a mitigation measure. Rough, large-scale data
on population distributions can be gathered from current topographic
maps or aerial photographs. More site-specific information may be
gathered from zoning maps, local planning agencies, or local housing
officials or census officers.
Once an incident has occurred, certain site-specific information will
be necessary to determine the risk of exposure to offsite residents.
Characterizing the offsite buildings nearest the location of the emer-
gency, in terms of distance and direction, is especially important if a fire
or explosion hazard exists. These buildings may need to be evacuated.
4.61
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Ecological /Assessment
Locate Institutions That
May Require Special
Attention
Identify Land-Use
Characteristics
Identify Water-Use
Characteristics
Identify Distribution of
Water Wells
Identify Distribution of
Surface-Water Supplies
Hospitals, schools, jails, and other facilities that may present prob-
lems in the event of an evacuation should be located before an emer-
gency occurs. Such facilities can be indicated on reference maps and
should be immediately available to the OSC. They can be located
through telephone listings, maps or photographs, and through local
planning agencies and chambers of commerce.
The choice of a mitigation measure may depend on the current and
projected uses of the land surrounding the scene of an incident. For this
reason, up-to-date land-use maps of the area should be available.
These maps can be drawn to show urban, residential, and agricultural
areas, and other points of interest to the response team. Such maps may
be used to assess possible impacts of alternative mitigation measures
(e.g., to determine downstream or downwind activities that may be
affected). The choice of a treatment method may depend on the land
use adjacent to the scene (e.g., prime farmland versus open range). The
land use of an area can be determined from maps or photographs
obtained from zoning departments (often located in county assessor's
offices) or from state agriculture or commerce departments. Land-use
plans may need to be modified to minimize contact with residual
substances.
Once the population characteristics of an area are determined, the
means by which residents of that area obtain their waver should be
investigated. If, for instance, a town is supplied solely by ground water,
the implications of an emergency involving leaching into aquifers are
more serious than if that same town were supplied by a reservoir.
Water-use maps, analogous to land-use maps, can be compiled for an
area; both public and private water supplies should be included. This
information can be obtained from sources such as public health
departments, water supply companies, well drillers, and residents of the
area. In addition, analyses that have been performed on these water
supplies should be identified, and copies of all data should be
requested.
If an area is serviced by a public water supplier, the type of treat-
ment system used should be identified. If possible, the locations of
water mains should be determined, as these could provide entry points
for polluted ground water. Information should also be gathered on
local sewer and storm-drain systems to determine possible infiltration or
illegal discharge points.
When an emergency occurs, the distance to the nearest offsite well
should be known in the event of possible ground-water contamination.
If the locations of water wells within the area of interest are catalogued
beforehand, determinations of plume movement could be made
quickly. Any results of prior analyses on these wells should also be col-
lected. This information may be available from state or county mining or
water-resources agencies, water supply companies, or public health
departments.
The response team should be familiar with the patterns of the
drainage basins within its jurisdiction and with the locations of water
withdrawal and pump stations along water courses. This information can
be obtained from USGS topographic maps or reports, aerial photo-
graphs, or water supply companies.
4.62
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Ecological Assessment
Determine Endangered
Species or Critical
Environments
SAMPLING AND
ON-SCENE DATA
GATHERING
Areas where releases of hazardous substances are capable of doing
the most harm to natural populations should be characterized. These
locations may include national or state parks, habitats of threatened or
endangered species, national wildlife refuges, national or state forests,
fish and wildlife management areas, wetlands used as breeding grounds,
coastal areas where spawning or breeding takes place, commercial fish-
ing or shellfish harvesting areas, or areas overlaying sole-source aquif-
ers. This information can be gathered in advance of any emergency
action. Many sources of information are available for a given locality:
state and local environmental agencies should have comprehensive list-
ings of such areas, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and state
departments of fish and game should be able to supply baseline infor-
mation on wildlife distributions. Regional, state, and local contingency
plans for oil and hazardous substance spills may also contain valuable
data.
On arrival at the incident, the response team must initiate several
actions to insure that the OSC has the information needed to make
decisions and to insure that a complete record of the incident is avail-
able in the event of litigation. Although the OSC and the onsite
response team may not be involved in the damage assessment process,
they may contribute to the collection of evidence for future legal
proceedings.
Conduct an Initial Survey On arrival at the scene, a determination must be made as to
whether any samples or observations need to be taken immediately to
prevent the loss of evidence. For an ecological assessment, this may
include sampling dead fish (which may otherwise be lost through water
movement) or sampling biota directly in the path of the pollutant
stream (to determine before-and-after effects). The behavior of resident
populations should be observed (e.g., fish gasping at the surface of a
stream) as well as the appearance of plants and animals in the area (e.g.,
the extent of initial damage to vegetation). Photographs can supplement
notes and sampling logs. Because every incident is different in charac-
ter, observations and sampling procedures will vary. First observations,
however, should focus on immediately apparent abnormalities. Some-
one with a thorough knowledge of the local area (a game warden, state
biologist, or resident) may be more likely to note recent changes. Pro-
fessional analytical and damage assessment services may assist in the
sampling and analysis portions of the response action. A list of such ser-
vices can be compiled beforehand and made available to the OSC.
If a continuing data-gathering effort is required, an appropriate
sampling strategy will be needed. The chosen strategy should include
sampling of affected and unaffected (control) points. Enough points
should be sampled so the sampling variance can be estimated. Possible
strategies to be chosen include paired control, randomly stratified, or
randomly or regularly spaced sample points. References for these
strategies and others are listed in the reference section
Conduct Sampling
Activities
Response teams should assume that all sampling results could be
used in future legal proceedings. Manuals currently exist that describe
the materials and methods to be used to obtain reliable data. (These
4.63
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Ecological Assessment
Conduct Sampling
Activities (contd)
Assess Alternative
Mitigation Measures
manuals are listed in the following reference section.) In general, when
selecting a sampling method, the following points should be considered
(EPA 1972):
• Is the method technically defensible, generally jiccepted and quoted
in standard texts (such as those in the following reference section)?
• Is the method suitable for collecting statistically sound samples?
• Is the method suitable for gathering test and control samples?
• Will the team be able to collect adequate samples with the
manpower and time available?
• Is the method able to give quick preliminary results?
• Is the method adequate for economically important species?
• Is the method the best for documenting the incident?
• Is the method one that the team is accustomed to, and prefers to
use?
High standards of performance, care, and documentation are as
important as a standardized method in ensuring the1 quality of the data
gathered. Consistently uniform procedures are especially important if
statistical evaluations of the data are to be undertaken. .
Following a characterization of the incident and after the ecological
implications of the problem have been described, responses to the
emergency can be considered in terms of possible effects (both benefi-
cial and negative) on the ecology of the area. In an emergency situation,
a detailed tradeoff analysis may not be possible, ancl decisions may be
made on the basis of previously gathered, immediately accessible data.
Alternative mitigation measures can be compared in terms of
reduction of risk to human and other populations. Some of the ques-
tions to be asked are:
• What ecological impacts (based on current knowledge) can be
projected if no action is taken? (This may imply mitigation of the
problem by natural dispersion and/or dilution.)
• If a certain mitigation measure is chosen, what level of cleanup will
be necessary to insure a beneficial effect on the environment (i.e., to
reduce the severity or duration of exposure sufficiently to lessen
impacts compared to what would happen if no action were taken)?
Are these benefits worth the time and money to be spent?
• If the hazardous material is to be transported offsite, what are the
ecological implications of disposal at another area?
• Will any restoration efforts be required? For instance, should dead
fish be removed from an area to prevent other species that may feed
on the fish from being affected? How long will it take for an affected
area to recover?
The above questions illustrate the difficulty of the process; many
decisions have to be made by the OSC on the basis of qualitative data,
frequently under circumstances that do not allow for the gathering of
sufficient information. For this reason, and because the process of
choosing an alternative may be questioned later, the data on which the
decision is based should be documented.
4.64
-------
Ecological Assessment
Monitor Populations
During the Mitigation
Process
Sampling
Observation and monitoring of natural and human populations
should continue during the mitigation operation. Such monitoring data
will help the response team determine whether cleanup efforts should
be continued or whether mitigation is complete. Data gathered during
this period should be used to document the effects of the mitigation
effort and form the basis for a longer-term monitoring effort, if such an
activity is required.
Ecological assessment activities during this phase should be geared
toward answering the following questions:
• Did implementation of cleanup activities have any immediate effect
on the ecology of the area? (For instance, were people able to move
back into their homes immediately after a tank car leak was
repaired?)
• Are any segments of natural populations not responding imme-
diately, and if so, can estimates be made of when those populations
may return to normal? (For instance, when may a stream bed be
expected to be recolonized?)
• Were any agricultural or fishery resources damaged, and if so, when
may these be expected to recover? (For instance, if an oyster bed is
killed, when may it be reseeded?)
Obviously, information may not be available to answer these ques-
tions during a cleanup operation. If that is the case, the data and con-
clusions that have been collected up to that point should be used as
input to the design and implementation of a monitoring program. Such
a program would measure the progress of the ecological systems of
concern against expected rates of recovery and against the future uses
expected for the area. If such studies show that the system is not recov-
ering as expected, additional cleanup and restoration efforts may be
considered.
Any information gathered during the emergency cleanup activity
should be made available to those who are to perform after-the-fact
monitoring surveys and long-term observations of the area. Communi-
cations between the scientific support staff and these groups should be
maintained to provide a complete record of the incident.
ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT REFERENCES
Atomic Industrial Forum. 1975. Environmental Impact Monitoring at
Nuclear Power Plants, A Source Book for Monitoring Methods,
Volume 2, AIS/NESP-004, Washington, D.C.
Box, G., W. G. Hunter and J. S. Hunter. 1978. Statistics for Experimen-
ters. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Cochran, W. H. 1977. Sampling Techniques. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
EPA. 1972. Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual for Oil and
Hazardous Material Spills. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C. (A Good Overview of Methods and Procedures for a
Variety of Situations.)
4.65
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Ecological Assessment
EPA. 1973. Methods for the Collection and Analysis of Biological Sam-
p/es.U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C.
Mackenthun, K. W. 1970. /nvest/gat/ng Fish Morta/i't/es.Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C.
Mackenzie, D. H., et al. 1977. Design and Analysis of Aquatic Monitor-
ing Programs at Nuclear Power Plants. PNL-2423, Pacific Northwest
Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
Weber, C. I. 1973. Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Mea-
suring the Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents. EPA-670/4-73-001,
Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. (A detailed treatment
of sampling and analysis.)
Damage Analysis EPA. 1979. N£/C Policies and Procedures Manual. National Enforcement
Investigations Center, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver,
Colorado.
4.66
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4.4 TOXICOLOGY, HEALTH, AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES
1. Obtain or arrange access to standard toxicological references or computer systems.
2. Locate lists of priority pollutants and other hazardous substances as defined in the laws.
3. Obtain a copy of the National Fire Protection Handbook or similar reference on flammable and
volatile substances.
4. Compile a list of scientific advisers and local or regional officials who may provide assistance
during an emergency response.
5. Have population and critical habitat maps available for determining potential exposures.
6. Develop a generic emergency evacuation plan.
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE
1. Observe situation for immediate explosive, flammability, or reactive dangers (see pp. 4.69-70).
2. Review the tentative substance analysis and determine whether it is defined as hazardous
(see pp. 4.70-71).
3. Determine from the references whether (see pp. 4.69-70):
• a flammability hazard exists
• the substance reacts violently with water
• the substance may react violently if it comes in contact with other nearby chemicals.
4. Determine if the substance is a probable toxicological hazard by reviewing (see pp. 4.70-71):
• any evidence of a fish kill or other obvious effects to wildlife
• the mammalian criteria limits for acute toxicity
• the aquatic 96-hr LC50 for the substance, noting whether it is greater or less than 500 mg/l
• whether it contains carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic substances
• whether it is particularly persistent or bioaccumulative
• whether the quantities are large enough and a mechanism exists that would reasonably
pose a toxic hazard.
5. Determine the human health hazard by evaluating (see pp. 4.72-73):
• the proximity to populated areas
• inhalation potential based on the volatility of the substance and the local meteorology
• location of drinking-water sources and potential contamination from leaching or runoff.
4.67
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4.4 TOXICOLOGY, HEALTH, AND SAFETY
The primary purpose for emergency response to a real or potentially hazardous incident is to
protect public health. The public is assumed to be those populations adjacent to the scene, whose
drinking water supply may be subject to contamination as a result of the incident, or those
populations within an area that may be exposed to airborne or waterborne contaminants.
Immediate health or safety hazards (aside from highly infectious agents) may be of two
types: 1) chemicals that cause a hazardous physical response (e.g., those that are particularly
flammable, explosive, corrosive, or highly reactive), and 2) highly toxic chemicals (which also may
be flammable or explosive). Because both types of hazards are more severe near the scene, the
investigative and cleanup personnel are in the greatest danger of suffering negative health effects.
A number of plans and manuals already exist that discuss worker safety; thus, these concerns are
only briefly described here. (Some of these manuals are listed in the following reference section.)
This discussion focuses on health hazards to the nearby public, with some attention to plant and
animal toxicity.
When approaching a scene where the hazardous substances have not been identified, full
safety measures are in effect and the emergency response team must assume that the release
constituents are flammable, explosive, reactive, and extremely toxic until and unless they are
proven otherwise. When the substance is known, precautions can be tailored to the characteristics
of the chemical. If there is any suspicion that a radiation source may be involved in the incident, a
radiation survey should be conducted. The use of indicator tubes and volatility meters to monitor
for volatile organics or poisonous gases is definitely recommended.
The toxicological study objective is to determine whether the situation presents a current or
future health or safety hazard, so that decisions on mitigation methods and public protection mea-
sures can be initiated. This assessment requires answers to the following questions to determine
the hazard status of the substances:
• What are the substances?
• Are they flammable, explosive, or highly reactive (alone or in mixture)?
• Are they considered toxic chemicals?
• At what concentration are the materials hazardous?
• Are they present in hazardous concentrations or conditions?
• Is there a current or imminent health or safety hazard to the surrounding populace or to criti-
cal habitats?
• What are the probable effects without mitigating measures?
EVALUATION
Identify the Substances An unidentified substance must be assumed to be both a chemical
and a toxicological hazard (unless there is hard evidence to the con-
trary). Full safety precautions will be required of all personnel at the
scene at least until the substance is identified (as described in the Chem-
ical Characterization Section).
Determine if the If the contents are already burning, have exploded, or are obviously
Substances are undergoing a chemical reaction, go to the next question in the evalua-
Flammable, Explosive, tion. If not, such reactions should be considered, particularly because
or Highly Reactive . they tend to spread materials that would otherwise be contained. First,
the flammability and explosive nature of the chemical must be checked.
4.69
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Determine if the
Substances are
Flammable, Explosive,
or Highly Reactive
(contd)
Determine if the
Substance is a Toxic
Chemical
Quick sources of this information include CHEMTREC, Sax (1979), CHRIS,
(U.S. Coast Guard 1974), DOT's Emergency Guide, NFPA, and Plunkett's
Handbook (see following references). Information regarding the mate-
rial's parameters (see Chemical Characteristics Section) such as flamma-
bility limits (Sax 1979; CHRIS—U.S. Coast Guard 1974), volatility,
ignitability, flashpoint (CRC), and possible ignition sources that could
start a fire, will help tailor the evaluation of the situation. Next, whether
(and how well) the release is contained must be determined. If flamma-
ble chemicals are totally contained, for example, the immediate risk of
fire is greatly reduced.
If flammable volatiles are not contained, and are of sufficient con-
centration and temperature to spontaneously ignite or are carried by air
currents to an ignition source, vapor could begin burning over
inhabited areas, timber, or critical wildlife habitats. Heavy vapors that
are not contained could find their way to sewer lines or to chemicals
with which they could react. Flammable or explosive chemicals washed
down storm sewers could cause later fires or explosions.
Explosive and highly reactive chemicals pose concerns similar to
those posed by flammable chemicals, in that they create a physical
hazard and further disseminate the hazardous substance. Reagents that
are reactive with water obviously should not be washed down. Con-
tainers should be scrutinized carefully to detect any leaks. Chemicals
that are incompatible with the identified hazardous substance should be
removed if stored or found near by. A compatibility chart can be found
in the back cover pocket of Hatayama et al. (1980). Other sources of
information on the potential hazards are given in the following refer-
ence section.
Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to produce injury when it
reaches a susceptible site in or on the body. Toxic responses are
generally from exposure by inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact.
Although every chemical is probably toxic to some extent, the concern
is with chemicals that are moderately to severely toxic or are
carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic. To determine whether the
chemical has been legally defined as hazardous, the EPA/Coast Guard
lists of priority pollutants and hazardous materials should be consulted
[see TSCA, RCRA, CERCLA, Clean Air Act, FWPCA (Clean Water Act)
following in reference section]. CERCLA defines pollutants and contami-
nants as materials having specific health, reproductive, or genetic effects
on man or other organisms. To determine the relative toxicity of the
chemical, sources such as the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Sub-
stances, Sax (1979), CHEMTREC, CHRIS, and OHM-TADS provide perti-
nent information. The manufacturer's industrial hygienist may provide
published toxicity data on the substance. (CHEMTREC may be able to
provide the name of the manufacturer.) Some of the terminology used
in toxicology follows:
Acute exposure usually refers to a single exposure lasting from seconds
to about 96 hours. It can be used to describe exposure by inhalation,
ingestion, or absorption through the skin.
Subacute exposure is of intermediate duration, between acute and
chronic, and generally indicates exposures up to 90 days.
Chronic exposure describes exposures of long duration or sometimes
describes frequent exposure.
4.70
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Determine if the
Substance is a Toxic
Chemical (contd)
Determine At What
Concentration the
Chemical Is Hazardous
Determine if the
Chemical is in a Hazard-
ous Concentration or
Condition
There are many descriptors of toxicity. Some of them are listed
below:
LCso - median lethal concentration (causing death of half the experi-
mental population)—usually in mg/l units.
LDH - median lethal dose causing death to half the population—
usually as mg chemical/kg animal.
ECso - median effective concentration necessary to produce a speci-
fied effect on half the experimental population.
TLm - median lethal threshold—approximately equal to LD5o or
LCso.
TLV - threshold limit value—a somewhat arbitrarily set value above
which adverse effects may result following continued or repeated
exposure—usually as mg/m3 or ppm for airborne concentrations.
TLV-TWA - TLV—time weighted average for normal 8-hour work
day or 40-hour work week for repeated exposure without adverse
effects.
TLV-STEL - TLV—short term exposure limit—maximum concentra-
tion continuously up to 15 minutes without causing intolerable irritation
or permanent injury, or reducing worker awareness.
TLV-C - TLV ceiling—not to be exceeded, even momentarily.
MATC - maximum acceptable toxicant concentration—highest
concentration not known to cause toxic effects.
IDLH - Immediately dangerous to life or health; any atmosphere
that poses an immediate hazard to life or produces immediate
irreversible debilitating effects on Health (ANS11980).
In some cases exposure may cause no immediately detectable symptoms
but may result in delayed responses such as from agents known to be
carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic. Reduction of contamination
potential to near zero is especially important with these chemicals, as no
threshold has been established below which no adverse effects result.
Some reference sources give experimental toxicity values in rats or
other test animals, and in some cases they give estimates of the dose/
concentrations for humans. Other sources will give relative values [such
as the code in Sax (1979)—see following reference section—0= no
toxicity, 1 = slight toxicity, 2 = moderate, 3 = severe, and U = unknown or
suspect data]. Much of the inhalation data, such as the TLVs, have been
generated for occupational exposure. The data can be used as guides in
approximating the inhalation hazard at locations where the air
concentration can be analyzed or estimated. However, the TLVs do not
necessarily reflect life-threatening concentrations and should be used
cautiously when distinguishing between safe and unsafe levels of chem-
ical exposure. Sensitive individuals may be injured at concentrations
lower than would be suspected according to the available data.
The state of the containers or other barriers in the area should be
examined. (Are the sides of the tank car or barrels bulging as if they may
explode? Has a breached lagoon barrier left a clear path to the river? Do
organic volatiles register on a meter or on detector tubes?) The chemical
4.71
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Determine if the
Chemical is in a Hazard-
ous Concentration or
Condition (contd)
properties of the substance will help to determine which route of
exposure to humans is most probable. For example, a chemical with a
high volatility is more likely to be an inhalation hazard than is a chemical
with low volatility. A liquid with low volatility is mote likely to filter
through a soil profile or to follow a storm sewer. A solid or sludge is
much less likely to be an emergency problem. Compare the estimated
chemical concentration (see Chemical Characterization Section) with
the toxic concentrations to determine whether the levels are toxic.
Identify Impending If a chemical presents a potential airborne contamination problem,
Health or Safety Hazards the following information will be necessary to estimate the hazard
to the Surrounding
Populace
(much of which has been discussed in earlier sections):
• distance to the population or habitat at risk
• wind direction
• wind speed and variability
• quantity of toxicant lost through explosion or vaporization
• probability of rain
• conditions in which the substance would "fall out"
• duration of exposure
• concentration levels known to cause effects from inhalation, inges-
tion, or skin contact
• levels known to be fatal to man
• dilution and dispersion patterns.
Comparisons of the estimated air concentrations (reaching a popu-
lation of concern) with TLVs will help guide decisions as to whether the
concentrations are acceptable and whether the initial "slug" of contam-
inant has already passed over.
Drinking water contamination is the next major concern. One route
for water supply contamination is the leaching or leaking of toxicant
into ground water that is tapped for drinking water. While waiting for
analytical results confirming contamination or the absence of contami-
nation, information that needs to be gathered includes:
• location of any drinking water aquifers in area
• location of any private or abandoned wells nearby
• recharge rates of aquifer
• quantity of toxicant lost to soil
• soil characteristics and chemical characteristics of contaminant (to
determine potential for soil attenuation—as Kd or other measure of
sorption potential) or chemical mobility (using KQW—octanol-
water—coefficient ratios for which values <100 lend to be mobile
and >100tend to be bound in soil). See Chemical Characterization
Section for further information.
Contamination of drinking water in surface-water impoundments
can result from 1) migration of the chemical in runoff from the site to
4.72
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Identify Impending
Health or Safety
Hazards to the
Surrounding
Populace (contd)
Special Problems
Safety Manuals
the water supply, 2) movement of contaminated ground water feeding
surface water, 3) precipitation of previously suspended contaminant
into or around a water body (e.g., acid rain), and (rarely) 4) in the car-
casses of contaminated animals in contact with the water.
To estimate the potential migration to the stream or another water
body, the investigator will need this information:
• precipitation since the incident
• nearness of the water body to the incident site
• recharge rate of surface water by ground water
• mobility of the contaminant (i.e., is it heavier than water? suspended
in water?)
• concentration of contaminant after dilution
• surface runoff rate.
Ingestion of the toxicant may be accidentally "accomplished" by
three main pathways—ingestion of contaminated drinking water,
ingestion of tainted fish or wildlife, or ingestion of tainted produce that
was in the path of the plume. Depending on the concentration of the
contaminant and on the mode of ingestion, a toxic response could
result.
Exposure can also occur through direct contact with the released
material or through contact with contaminated surface waters. Depend-
ing on the contaminant and its concentration, a local or systemic toxic
response could occur.
Unless the incident concerns a release of a single chemical and is
isolated from other potentially hazardous materials, a variety of chem-
icals and their accumulative toxicities will probably be involved. The
effects to organisms exposed to a combined source of hazardous mate-
rial may be additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. Unless the mixture
reacts to form known compounds, predicting toxic effects involves
more guesswork than usual. Also, only one chemical may be initially
involved in an emergency incident, but the chemical may degrade to
one or more compounds of differing chemical and toxicity properties.
Although personnel safety is of extreme importance, an adequate
discussion of this aspect can be found in several of the references and
will not be repeated here.
TOXICOLOGY, HEALTH, AND SAFETY REFERENCES
Baskin, D. A. 1975. Handling Guide for Potentially Hazardous Materials.
The Richard B. Cross Company, Oxford, Indiana.
Department of Transportation. 1974. Emergency Services Guide for
Selected Hazardous Materials. Office of the Secretary of Transportation
Washington, D.C.
EPA. 1979. Safety Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Investigations (Draft),
USEPA Office of Occupational Health and Safety, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
4.73
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Hammer, W. M. and K. R. Nicholson. 1974. Survey of Personnel Protec-
tive Clothing and Respiratory Apparata for Use by Coait Guard Person-
nel in Response to Discharges of Hazardous Chemicals. CG-D-89-75,
NTIS ADA 010 110, National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
Virginia.
McKinnon, C. P. et al. 1976. Fire Protect/on Handbook, 14th Edition.
National Fire Protection Agency, Boston, Massachusetts.
NFPA. 1975. Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials. 6th ed..
National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Massachusetts.
"Railroad Tank Cars - Flammable Liquid." 1977. Emergency Handling of
Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation - Bureau of Explosives,
pp. 5-18, Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Rome, D. D. 1980. "Personnel Protective Equipment for Spill Response
Personnel." In Hazardous Chemicals Spills and Waterborne Transporta-
tion, AlChE Symposium Series. 194 Vol. 76, pp. 42-50, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, New York.
Toxic Substance Lists Clean Air Act, U.S. Code, P.L. 91-604 as amended
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act of 1980, U. S. Code, P.L. 96-510
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, U. S. Code, P.L. 92-500
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, U. S. Code, P.L.
94-580
Toxic Substances Control Act, U. S. Code, P.L. 94-469
Lewis, R. J., Sr., and R. L. Tatken, ed. 1980. Registry of Toxic Effects of
Chemical Substances. Vol 1 and 2, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Cincinnati, Ohio, updated quarterly on microfiche and
as on-line data base.
Chemical and
Toxicological
Properties
ACGIH. 1971. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Sub-
stances in Workroom Air. American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio.
ACGIH. 1976. TLVs Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances in
Workroom Air Adopted by ACGIH for 1981. American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio.
ANSI. 1980. Regulation 288.2, American National Standards Institute,
New York.
Callahan, M. A., et al. Wafer-Re/ated Environmental Fate of 129 Priority
Pollutants. Vol. II. EPA-440/4-79-029b. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D. C.
Clayton, D., and E. Florence. 1978. Patty's Industrial Hygiene and
Toxicology. 3rd ed., Vol. 1. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials Report: Published bi-
monthly by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York; back issues in print or
microfiche toll free (800) 354-9815 or (606) 525-6600. Includes environ-
mental impact information due to spill or release.
4.74
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Chemical and
Toxicological
Properties (contd)
EPA. 1972. Field Detection and Damage Assessment Manual for Oil and
Hazardous Material Spills. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C.
Hatayama, H. K., et al. 1980. A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes. EPA-600/2-80-076. Prepared by the
California Department of Health Services for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Huibregtse, K. R., et al. 1977. Manual for the Control of Hazardous
Material Spills. EPA-600/2-77-227, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Johnson, Morris C. 1974. Methodology for Chemical Hazard Prediction.
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board, Washington, D.C.
Johnson, W. W., and M. T. Finley. 1980. Handbook of Acute Toxicity of
Chemicals to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 137,
Washington, D.C.
Lewis, R. J., Sr. and R. L. Tatken, ed. 1980. Registry of Toxic Effects of
Chemical Substances. Vol 1 and 2, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Cincinnati, Ohio. Updated quarterly on microfiche
and as on-line data base.
NFPA. 1979. Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Cases, and
Volatile Solids. #325M, National Fire Protection Association, Boston,
Massachusetts.
NIOSH. 1978. Pocfcet Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Washington, D.C.
NTSB. 1979. Special Investigative Report -Onscene Coordination Among
Agencies at Hazardous Materials Transportation Accidents, (NTSB-H2M-
79-2), National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C.
Plunkett, E. R. 1966. Handbook of Industrial Toxicology. Chemical
Publishing Company, Inc. New York.
Sax, N. Irving. 1978. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. 5th
ed.. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Silka, L. R. and T. L. Swearingen. 1978. A Manual for Evaluating
Contamination Potential of Surface Impoundments. EPA 570/9-78-003.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Sittig, M., ed. 1980. Priority Toxic Pollutants: Health Impacts and
Allowable Limits. Noyes Data Corp. Park Ridge, New Jersey.
Sittig, M. Hazardous and Toxic Effects of Industrial Chemicals. Noyes
Data Corp., Park Ridge, New Jersey.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1974. A Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards
(CHRIS). CG-446-1, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1974. Hazardous Chemical Data. CC-446-2,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1974. Hazardous Assessment Handbook. CG-446-3,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1975. Response Methods Handbook. CG-446-4,
Washington, D.C.
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Toxicology, Health, and Safety
Verscheuren, Karel. 1977. Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic
Chemicals. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Computer Bases CHEMLINE - Bibliographical
MEDLINE - Bibliographical
OHM-TADS
RTECS
TOXLINE - Bibliographical
CHEMTREC - Chemical Transportation Emergency Center - CMA Phone
(800) 424-9300
INFORMATION SOURCES FOR TOXICOLOGY, HEALTH, AND SAFETY
Potential Hazards
Explosive/
Flammable Reactive Toxicity
Distance to
Evacuate
Safety
Guides
DOT - Emergency Guide
TLV guide - ACGIH
Documentation of TLV
Sax
Registry of Toxic Effects (RTEC)
Plunkett-Handbook
CHRIS Manual
CHEMTREC
OHM-TADS-Computer and
hard copy
Merck Index
MEDLINE
CHEMLINE
TOXLINE
Water Quality Criteria
MCA Safety Manual
Hazardous Chemicals Data
EPA Field Detection
Priority Toxic Pollutants
MEGS
Hatayama et al.
Hazardous and Toxic Effects
(Sitting)
NFPA - 2 handbooks
OSHA - Flammable
X
X
X
X
X
TWA/STEL
X
X X
X
X(general)
X X
X X
X X
X (some)
X
X
X
X
X
computer data bases requiring a terminal to scan the literature •
no actual toxicity values are given
X X
X X (general)
X
goals for emissions limits - ambieni levels
X
X
X
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4.5 IMPACT ANALYSIS OF MITIGATION METHODS CHECKLIST
ACTIVITIES BEFORE OR BETWEEN RESPONSES
1. Determine what hazardous materials are most likely to be involved in an emergency.
2. Identify mitigation methods that are effective on those materials.
3. Obtain information on those methods.
4. Identify possible environmental impacts from those methods.
5. Investigate changes in mitigation methods and procedures to reduce environmental impacts.
ACTIVITIES DURING RESPONSE
1. Obtain environmental information needed to characterize the unplanned release.
2. Identify environmental impacts of each suggested mitigation method.
3. Provide information on mitigation methods and other scientific support as needed.
4. Monitor environmental impacts during cleanup and compare actual impacts to predicted
impacts.
ACTIVITIES FOLLOWING RESPONSE
1. Monitor the site for long-term impacts.
2. Document environmental impacts from mitigation methods.
3. Analyze the response and suggest improvements in methods.
4. Obtain additional information useful for future responses.
4.77
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4.5 IMPACT ANALYSIS OF MITIGATION METHODS
An impact analysis should assist the selection of a mitigation method that will result in the
most favorable environmental impacts. This section discusses the possible consequences of the
mitigation methods, which are performed by the OSC. To assist the OSC, scientific support should
be available to: determine environmental impacts of releases, identify mitigation methods, and
characterize environmental impacts during and after mitigation. Some examples of possible envi-
ronmental impacts are given below.
Example. Ammonia gas is leaking from a tank car and may affect people downwind. It can be
removed from the air by water sprays, but that water may then be toxic to fish.
Example. Hazardous chemical X is reacting with air or water inside a leaking drum. Sealing the
drum will stop the leak but the reaction may continue. If enough pressure builds up, the drum
may explode.
Example. Hazardous chemical Y is leaking from a corroded drum and may contaminate surface
water. If the liquid is contained by a dike, the soil may become contaminated and subsequent
contamination of ground water may result.
Example. Hazardous chemical Z is leaking from a tank car into a small pond. If the chemical is
removed from the water by carbon adsorption, the contaminated carbon must be regenerated or
disposed of.
In addition, personnel responding to a release of hazardous materials are endangered by the
very nature of the material released and by their presence at the site, Also, the response can intro-
duce hazards associated with equipment-related accidents. The mitigation methods discussed in
this section are divided into four categories: containment, chemical alteration, physical separa-
tion, and disposal/recycling (see Table 4.8).
CONTAINMENT Containment, or stopping the flow, is usually the first mitigation
step at an emergency response. Methods and impacts depend on
whether the hazardous substance is a solid, liquid, or gas, and whether
it is located on land, in water, or in the air.
Stop Further Flow In some cases, flow may be stopped by closing a valve or by chang-
ing the position of the tank or drum. Holes in drums or tanks may be
patched or caulked with a variety of materials, including putty, con-
crete, foam, wood, fabric, tape, solder, and oakum. A foam plugging
device that expands to fit the hole has been developed for the U.S. EPA
(Cook and Melvold, National Conference on Hazardous Material
Spills—EPA 1980). Smaller containers may be enclosed in larger ones.
Flow may be collected in drums or bags. Material released before the
seal is effective, however, must be controlled by another mitigation
method.
Possible negative consequences of mitigation methods may
include:
• the release of hazardous substances to the envirpnment as a result of
sealing agent failure (due to an improper seal or a reaction of the
sealing agent with hazardous chemicals or containers)
• releases caused by failure of the container (due to continued corro-
sion or additional damage)
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
TABLE 4.8. Mitigation
Methods Containment
Stopping the flow
Vapor Control
Cooling Source
Reduction of Surface
Area (foams, film,
sorbents)
Water Spray
Dilution and
Dispersion
Liquid Control— Land
Dikes and Trenches
Sorbents and Gels
Liners
Liquid Control-
Surface Water
Booms, Weirs, and
Skimmers
Water Sprays
Sorbents
Dikes, Sealed Booms,
and Dredges
Dispersants
Diversion to
Treatment
Chemical
Alteration
Uncontrolled
Combustion
Incineration
Biological
Degradation
Natural
Land-Farming
Small-Scale
Reactors
Existing Treat-
ment Plants
Chemical
Reactions
Neutralization
Precipitation
Coagulation
Oxidation/
Reduction
Stabilization
Physical
Separation
Carbon
Adsorption
Resin
Adsorption
Ion Exchange
Reverse
Osmosis
Gravity
Separation
Dissolved Air
Flotation
Filtration
Disposal
Secure Landfill
Recycling
Liquid Control-
Ground Water
Liners
Movement Control
(slurry trenches,
grout, sheet piling,
bottom seals)
Plume Management
Solids Control—Land
Covers
Sprays
Containers
Solids Control—Water
Booms, Weirs, and
Skimmers
Dikes, Sealed Booms,
and Dredges
4.80
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Stop Further Flow
(contd)
Contain Vapors and
Gases
Contain Liquids on
Land
• an explosion/implosion caused by pressure buildup
• a reaction of hazardous chemicals exposed to water, air, soil, or
other chemicals and the formation of new hazardous materials
• danger to personnel at distances close enough to seal the container.
The best control method for vapors and gases is reduction of the
vapor generation or release rate. Sealing the container (discussed
above) is probably easiest. Evaporation from liquids may be reduced by
cooling the liquid source or container with water, ice, dry ice, or liquid
nitrogen. Evaporation also decreases when the surface area of the liquid
is reduced. This can be accomplished by increasing the depth of the
liquid or by covering the surface with sorbents or commercially avail-
able films or foams. Sorbents include straw or hay, fly ash, dirt, wool,
and synthetics.
Control of vapors and gases in the atmosphere is usually not
attempted because natural dispersion dilutes vapors and gases rapidly.
Toxic vapors in enclosed spaces may be diluted by nitrogen or carbon
dioxide purges. Fans and blowers can increase dispersion over small
areas. Some compounds such as ammonia may be removed from the air
by water sprays.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• contaminated runoff from water sprays
• large volumes of contaminated sorbents (which require proper
disposal)
• the production of hazardous substances from reactions of chemicals
and films, foams, sorbents, or from reactions of chemicals with
nitrogen, dry ice, or water
• releases of hazardous chemicals as a result of container damage from
freezing or water sprays
• explosions or fires sparked by mitigation actions in the presence of
flammable vapors and gases
• danger to personnel from water sprays or exposure to toxic gases.
The flow of liquid on land is usually controlled by trenches or by
dikes. Dikes may be composed of dirt, sandbags, foamed polyurethane,
or concrete. Gels and sorbents, including straw or hay, fly ash, wool,
and synthetics are sometimes used to absorb liquids. Liners, such as clay,
fly ash, low-permeability soils, soil-cements and lime-stabilized soils,
concrete, asphalt, stabilized waste, and synthetics (PVC, hypalon,
polyethlene) are used to protect the land surface and ground water.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• changes in drainage and erosion patterns
• contamination of soil in dikes or trenches
• contamination of sorbents, gels, liners, and dike materials (which
require proper disposal)
• production of hazardous materials by reaction of the hazardous
liquid and soil, water, air, dike materials, liners, sorbents, and gels, or
by reaction of spilled liquids from different containers
4.81
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Contain Liquids on
Land (contd)
Contain Liquids in
Surface Water
Contain Liquids in
Ground Water
• movement of hazardous materials by seepage through dikes or
trenches
• danger to personnel from equipment accidents or exposure to the
toxic materials.
The mitigation methods chosen for releases of hazardous liquids
into surface water depend on the density and solubility of the liquid.
Liquids that float (such as oil) can be contained by booms and weirs and
collected by skimmers. In some cases, water sprays can be used to con-
trol the spread. Sorbents can be used on some floating spills. Liquids
that sink in water (such as PCB-bearing oil or chlorinated
solvents) can be controlled by dikes and excavations under water, but
must be collected by dredges or by draining the water body. If the
hazardous liquid is about the same density as water, or if it is soluble,
the liquid and the contaminated water must be sealed off or diverted
and treated (either physically or chemically). Dispersants can be used on
some chemicals to increase the rate of spread, reducing concentrations.
Containment of liquids in water can be difficult because of wind, waves,
currents, turbulence, and tides.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• toxicity associated with use of dispersants (depending on type, con-
centration, and rate of addition)
• disturbance of aquatic life by divers and boats
• increases in turbidity from sedimentation resulting from diking and
dredging
• destruction of habitats caused by dams or diversions
• production of hazardous substances through reactions of the toxic
liquid with sorbents and dispersants
• spread of contamination over a larger area by use of dispersants
• danger to personnel from equipment accidents or exposure to the
toxic materials.
Control of contaminated ground water is extremely difficult and
frequently not possible. Therefore, the best control method is preven-
tion of percolation of hazardous substances into the ground water. This
is usually accomplished through the use of liners (discussed above).
Contaminated ground water may be isolated by using bentonite
slurry trenches, grout curtains, sheet pilings, and bottom sealing. These
methods can be used either to seal off the bottom or side of the con-
taminated ground from ground-water movement or to seal off water
supply sources from polluted ground water. In some cases, plume man-
agement techniques are used. Either contaminated water is pumped out
and treated or disposed of, or clean water is injected into the aquifer to
dilute the contaminant.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• production of hazardous substances by reaction of the contaminant
with liners and grouts
• damage to underground containers and subsequent release of
hazardous materials while excavating or drilling
4.82
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Contain Liquids in
Ground Water (contd)
Contain Solids on Land
• Increased movement through drill holes and reactions between
chemicals in different damaged containers
• consumptive use of clean water (particularly of concern in arid areas
where supplies are limited)
• production of large quantities of wastes from treatment
• danger to personnel from drilling or excavation accidents or expo-
sure to the toxic materials.
Solids on land are controlled by covering the material; spraying the
material with water, oil, or chemicals to reduce dust; lining the ground
to prevent infiltration; building dikes to prevent contact with surface
water; or placing in containers.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• contaminated runoff from water sprays
• soil contamination from oil or chemical sprays
• contamination of liners or covers
• soil contamination in dikes
• fugitive dust from increased moving of material
• production of hazardous substances through reaction with liners,
covers, sprays
• danger to personnel handling the solids.
Solids in water can be controlled with much of the same equipment
used for cleaning up liquids. Weirs, booms, and skimmers can be used
for floating solids. Water sprays may be effective in containing floating
solids. Sinking solids can sometimes be controlled by dikes or sealed
booms, but must be removed by dredging. Suspended solids must be
removed by physical separation methods, such as filtration.
Possible consequences of the above mitigation methods include:
• destruction of habitat by damming or diverting water
• destruction of benthos by dredging
• increasing turbidity by diking or dredging
• disturbance of aquatic life due to divers and boats
• danger to personnel from equipment accidents or exposure to the
toxic materials.
CHEMICAL ALTERATION Hazardous substances can be chemically altered to less hazardous
materials by combustion, biological degradation, or chemical reaction.
Contain Solids in Water
Alter Hazardous
Substances Through
Combustion
Hazardous organic compounds can be destroyed by combustion.
Open burning and controlled incineration are the common methods.
Possible consequences include:
• production of toxic intermediate and by-product gases because of
incomplete combustion
• production of ash
4.83
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Alter Hazardous
Substances Through
Combustion (contd)
Alter Hazardous
Substances
Through Biological
Degradation
Alter Hazardous
Substances Through
Chemical Reactions
• air pollution from combustion and incineration products (particu-
larly ash)
• contaminated water from scrubbers on incinerators
• explosions from uncontrolled or incompletely controlled burning or
from variations in waste properties
• releases during transport of toxic compounds to incinerators
offsite
• danger to personnel from explosions or exposure to toxic materials.
Biological systems can be used to destroy a variety of organic com-
pounds and mixtures. Although biological reactions are usually slower
than chemical reactions, bacteria that are naturally present in the envir-
onment can adapt to degrade many chemicals. The addition of nutrients
or specialized bacteria may speed up degradation significantly. Land-
farming (spreading wastes on the soil to degrade) has been used com-
mercially for oils and sewage wastes. Land-farming operating principles
could be applied to a release site, or the toxic material could be shipped
to an operating land-farm. Small-scale biological reactors can be used to
treat waste from a particular incident. Some organics (if not toxic to the
bacteria) could be degraded in existing municipal or industrial biolog-
ical treatment plants.
Possible consequences include:
• persistence of toxic compounds during the long treatment and
acclimation times
• production of toxic intermediates, by-products, and products,
particularly by unwanted biological reactions
• residual toxic compounds (particularly heavy metals) in soil after
biological treatment
• production of volatile or gaseous compounds
• production of sludge, possibly contaminated with toxic materials
• production of residual acclimatized bacteria in soil
• upset of biological treatment systems as a result of toxicity or over-
loading from excess oxygen demand
• releases during transport to offsite biological treatment systems
• danger to personnel from exposure to the toxic materials.
Reactions between hazardous substances and other chemicals can
be very efficient and fast. The choice of chemical agents is limited by
the chemical nature of the hazardous material.
Acids may be neutralized by alkali [limestone (CaCO3), lime (CaO),
hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO)) or sodium bicar-
bonate (NaHCO3)]. Limestone and sodium bicarbonate act as buffers
and will not cause excessive basicity. Bases may be neutralized by acids
[acetic (CH3CH2OOH), sulfuric (H2SO4), or hydrochloric (HCI)]. Acetic
acid also acts as a buffer to prevent excess acidity.
4.84
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Alter Hazardous
Substances Through
Chemical Reactions
(contd)
Possible consequences of neutralization include:
• excess acidity or basicity as a result of insufficient mixing
• in-situ excess heat generation
• production of gases (especially using limestone reagent)
• precipitation of sludge
• high aqueous concentrations of the additives resulting in increased
toxicity
• danger to personnel, particularly from handling acids and bases and
from exposure to the toxic materials..
Heavy metals may be precipitated from water by alkali addition {to
form metal hydroxides) or sulfide addition (to form metal sulfides). Pre-
cipitation may occur in conjunction with acid neutralization. Metal sul-
fides are usually less soluble than metal hydroxides, but the application
of sulfides is harder to control. Sodium sulfide or hydrosulfide is usually
used; iron sulfide has also been suggested.
Possible consequences of precipitation include:
• production of a sludge that increases turbidity and covers benthos
• disturbance of benthos and increased turbidity in the water column
during sludge removal
• higher aqueous concentrations of calcium or sodium
• changes in pH, particularly during too-rapid alkali addition
• excess heat generation from too-rapid alkali addition
• formation of hydrogen sulfide during sulfide addition, or carbon
dioxide during limestone addition
• dissolution of sludge and release of heavy metals if the pH changes
(particularly under acidic conditions)
• danger to personnel, particularly from handling alkalis or sulfides.
Many chemicals, particularly organic compounds, can be oxidized
in water by the addition of air, oxygen, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, or
chlorine. A combination of ozonation and ultraviolet radiation has also
been proposed for organic compounds. Oxidation at high temperatures
and pressures (wet-air oxidation) is effective on many wastewaters.
Other toxic substances may be controlled by reduction with ferrous sul-
fate or sulfur dioxide.
Possible consequences of oxidation/reduction include:
• production of toxic intermediates, products, or byproducts
• changes in dissolved oxygen and oxidation potential of the
waterbody
• releases during transport of toxic materials to wet-air oxidation
equipment offsite
• production of volatile compounds or gases by oxidation of organic
compounds
4.85
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Alter Hazardous
Substances Through
Chemical Reactions
(contd)
SEPARATION
• disturbance to aquatic life by gases during in-situ aeration or
ozonation
• formation of foam or froth during in-situ aeration
• danger to personnel.
Liquids, sludges, and solids can be stabilized by inclusion in a solid
matrix. A wide variety of processes and vendors are available. Most
processes are based on cement/silicate chemistry, or on lime and
pozzolanic materials (e.g., fly ash, cement kiln dust). Other processes
use thermoplastic or organic polymers (polyester, vinylester-styrene,
and urea-formaldehyde). Encapsulation in asphalt or plastics can also be
effective.
Possible consequences of stabilization include:
• increased volume of waste requiring disposal
• incompatibility of hazardous material and stabilization chemicals,
resulting in gas generation, side reactions, swelling and expansion,
matrix dissolution, and failure to stabilize the toxic material
• decomposition or degradation and release of hazardous materials
over time
• decomposition in the presence of acids
• danger to personnel from increased handling of the toxic materials.
Coagulation of solids in water may be effected by adding alum
(aluminum sulfate), iron (ferrous sulfate or ferric chloride), calcium (cal-
cium carbonate, oxide, or hydroxide) or polyelectrolytes.
Possible consequences of coagulation include:
• production of sludge, floes, or froth requiring disposal
• excess alkalinity, excess heat generation, or gas production from
calcium addition
• danger to personnel.
Many other reactions are possible. In general, possible conse-
quences include:
• production of toxic or flammable products, by-products, or
intermediates
• production of volatiles and gases in-situ
• production of solids or sludges in-situ
• changes in pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and ion concentrations
during reactions in water
• danger to personnel during handling of chemical agents.
Separation methods are used to physically separate hazardous sub-
stances from the environment (usually water). The separated hazardous
waste must be further treated or disposed of. These processes usually
involve treatment equipment either onsite or offsite. Chemicals may be
added to increase separation efficiency.
4.86
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
SEPARATION (contd)
DISPOSAL OFFSITE
Activated carbon (powdered or granulated) adsorption can be used
to remove most organic compounds and some inorganic chemicals.
Synthetic resins can be used instead of activated carbon. Inorganics,
including heavy metals, are removed by ion exchange resins and by
reverse osmosis, which is also used on some organics. Volatile com-
pounds and gases may be stripped from water by air or steam.
Suspended solids may settle in thickeners or sedimentation basins
where liquid flow rates are very low. Coagulants and flocculants are
sometimes added to increase the settling rate. Dissolved-air flotation
will force many solids to the surface. Filtration and centrifugation are
used to separate liquids from solids or sludges. Fine solid particles can
sometimes be separated by ultrafiltration. Skimmers are used to remove
floating solids and dredges are used with sinking solids.
Possible consequences include:
• production of concentrated wastes requiring further treatment and
disposal
• production of contaminated carbon, resins, and membranes
• contamination of equipment by hazardous materials
• production of contaminated gases during stripping
• reactions between hazardous materials and resins
• destruction of habitat and disturbance of aquatic life by pumping
water through equipment
• changes in dissolved oxygen due to processing
• releases during transport to equipment offsite
• danger to personnel from working with concentrated wastes.
Hazardous substances are moved offsite for three reasons—for
ultimate disposal in a secure landfill, for physical or chemical treatment,
or for recycling to an industrial user or manufacturer. Landfill disposal is
generally reserved for small amounts of hazardous material or for mate-
rials that cannot be easily treated. Recycling is preferable to landfill dis-
posal but, in many cases, the hazardous material has been contaminated
with soil, water, or other chemicals and cannot be used. Hazardous
chemicals may also be moved to a temporary disposal site during an
emergency response to reduce movement or exposure. For example, a
chemical might be moved from an aquifer recharge zone to a secure
landfill to prevent ground-water contamination, or from a heavily popu-
lated area to a rural area to reduce the possibility of human exposure.
Possible consequences of disposal or recycling include:
• changes in drainage and erosion patterns at the site after removal of
contaminated soil
• destruction of ground cover during removal of contaminated soil
• changes in local water level because of removal of large amounts of
contaminated water
• releases of hazardous substances during transport
• reaction between hazardous chemicals and containers or transport
equipment
4.87
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
DISPOSAL OFFSITE
(contd)
• corrosion and contamination of transport equipment
• process control problems during recycling—including process
instability, impure products, and increased waste volume because of
impurities (air, water, soil, other chemicals) in the recycle chemicals
• danger to personnel as a result of increased handling of the toxic
materials
IMPACT ANALYSIS OF MITIGATION METHODS REFERENCES
The best references on mitigation methods and their environmental
impacts for a particular incident or chemical release will be files and
reports on similar releases. These files are typically kept by OSCs, Field
Investigation Teams (FIT), Technical Assistance Teams (TAT), Regional
Response Teams, and the Environmental Response Team. Other Fed-
eral, state, and local agencies may have files on emergency releases they
have responded to. Chemical manufacturers, users, or transporters may
also have useful information.
General references include conference proceedings, which usually
discuss specific hazardous materials or incidents; scientific articles,
which discuss specific materials or processes; and books and hand-
books, which discuss treatment processes or cleanup techniques.
Government publications cover almost all aspects of hazardous material
management. Relevant references should be collected and read before
an emergency develops. Examples of general references are given below.
Conference Proceedings National Conference on Control of Hazardous Material Spills, U.S. EPA,
1972,1974,1976,1978,1980.
Land Disposal: Hazardous Waste, Proc. 7th Annual Research Sympo-
sium, EPA-600/9-81-002b, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March
1981 (and annually).
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, October 1980.
Oil and Hazardous Material Spills, Information Inc., Silver Spring, Mary-
land, December 1979.
Industrial Waste Conference Proceedings, Purdue University (annual).
Scientific Literature
and Magazines
Government
Publications
American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Environmental Engineer-
ing Division
Chemical Engineering
Chemical Engineering Progress
Environmental Science and Technology
Journal of Hazardous Materials
Pollution Engineering
Hanson, W. G., and H. L. Rishell. 1981. Cost Comparisons of Treatment
and Disposal Alternatives for Hazardous Materials, Vol. 1 and 2. EPA-
600/2-80-188 and EPA-600/2-80-208, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
4.88
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Impact Analysis of Mitigation Methods
Government
Publications
(contd)
Books and Handbooks
Huibregtse, K. R., et al. 1977. Manual for the Control of Hazardous
Material Spills. Volume 1: Spill Assessment and Water Treatment Tech-
niques. EPA-600/2-77-227, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio.
Malone, P. C., and L. W. Jones. 1979. Survey of Solidification/Stabiliza-
tion Techniques for Hazardous Industrial Wastes. EPA-600/7-79-056,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Malone, P. G., L. W. Jones and R. J. Larson. 1980. Guide to the Disposal
of Chemically Stabilized and Solidified Waste. EPA/530/SW-872, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Shuckrow, A.)., A. P. Pajak and J. W. Osheka. 1981. Concentrat/on
Technologies for Hazardous Aqueous Waste Treatment. EPA-600/2-81-
019, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Tolman, S. L, et al. 1978. Guidance Manual for Minimizing Pollution
from Waste Disposal Sites. EPA-600/2-78-142, U. S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Berkowitz, J. B., et al. 1978. Unit Operations for Treatment of Hazardous
Industrial Wastes. Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, New Jersey. (Also
available from NTIS as US EPA SW-148c).
Cheremisinoff, P. N., and F. Ellerbusch, ed. 1978. Carbon Adsorption
Handbook. Ann Arbor Science, Woburn, Massachusetts.
CONCAWE (the oil companies international study group for conserva-
tion of clean air and water-Europe). 1981. A Field Guide to Coastal Oil
Spill Control and Cleanup Techniques. (9/81). The Hague, The
Netherlands.
CONCAWE. 1979. Protection of Groundwater from Oil Pollution. (3/79).
The Hague, The Netherlands.
CONCAWE. 1981. Revised Inland Oil Spill Cleanup Manual, (7/81). The
Hague, The Netherlands.
Culp, R. L., G. M. Wesner and G. L. Gulp. 1978. Handbook of Advanced
Wastewater Treatment. 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Melcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1979. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Dis-
posal, Reuse. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Metry, A. A. 1980. Handbook of Hazardous Waste Management. Tech-
nomic Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut.
Perry, R. H., and C. H. Chilton, eds. 1973. Chemical Engineers Hand-
book. 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pojasek, R. B., ed. 1979,1979,1980. Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal,
Vol. 1, 2, and 4. Ann Arbor Science, Woburn, Massachusetts.
Weber, W. J. 1972. Physicochemical Processes for Water Quality Con-
trol. Wiley-lnterscience, New York.
Zajic, J. E., and W. A. Himmelman. 1978. Highly Hazardous Material
Spills and Emergency Planning. Marcel Dekker, New York.
4.89
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4.6 SPECIFIC REGIONAL INFORMATION
Information useful during an emergency response is of two types:
Fundamental Technical Knowledge—This includes basic physical laws, properties, and
processes that are universally applicable. The technical areas and considerations described in
the previous sections fit into this category. Also included in this category are the references
and contact points for obtaining information listed in the individual reference sections.
1 Specific Regional Information—This category concerns specific people, areas, agencies, and
industries within a particular region, and what assistance they can provide during an emer-
gency. Included in this section are possible formats and procedures that may be used to locate
and assemble this information. This section may be incorporated as part of the regional contin-
gency plan.
Develop a Region-
Specific Checklist
Establish a Scientific
Support Network
Identify a Network of
Scientific Advisors
Because the problems, resources and appropriate responses vary
from region to region, a checklist should be developed showing oper-
ating procedures and outlining the response whenever scientific sup-
port is needed. This checklist could be structured as in Table 4.9
(located at the end of this section).
Because information needs during emergency situations may
require the accurate and rapid acquisition of highly technical informa-
tion, the scientific support will depend on the technical knowledge of
individuals and organizations in the region. This will require establishing
a network of scientific support.
Setting-up and maintaining a responsive network of scientific sup-
port requires the following:
• Someone within the Regional Office must have both the respon-
sibility and the inclination to make the system work. This requires an
active interest on the part of the Regional Administration.
• The establishment of close working relationships with individual
technical contacts, on a person-to-person basis, is necessary.
• Steps to maintain interest in the program must be taken.
Maintaining sufficient interest and willingness on the part of unpaid
individuals who are asked for help may be difficult. Some of the ways
this can be accomplished are:
• Always reference the individual from whom assistance is obtained,
by name and position. This applies both to written reports and to
news releases.
• Acknowledge in writing any assistance obtained (include a copy to
the individual's supervisor).
• Generate and distribute a periodic summary report of activities,
describing incidents or other items of interest and referencing any
assistance obtained.
• Offer and provide a "sounding board" for the opinions and ideas of
the contacts. Encourage those that appear worthy.
Because the scientific-support network will in part be composed of
key scientific advisors, these advisors should be identified and their
4.91
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Specific Regional Information
Identify a Network of
Scientific Advisors
(contd)
Identify Resource
Information Contacts
cooperation enlisted. The identification of these should be coordinated
with the RRT and mutual agreements should be reached on the sharing
of advisors. The advisors may be located within or outside the region,
but should be available for contact during a regional response. Such a
list should be cross-referenced according to technical expertise, loca-
tion, and the type of assistance that may be obtained. A possible format
for organizing this information is shown in Figure 4.10 (located at the
end of this section).
One method of identifying interested experts is to contact the edi-
tors of scientific journals, through which interested individuals could be
solicited. This procedure has been used with success. Follow-up con-
sisted of surveying the responders by using the format shown in
Figure 4.11 (located at the end of this section). Once identified by name,
location, and area of expertise, these scientists may be added to the list
of key advisors.
Some resource information contacts that should be investigated
and included on this list are:
A. Federal
1) National Response Center
USCC Headquarters
Washington, DC
(800) 424-8802 (24 hr)
2) Regional Response Center
U.S. EPA Region
3) Environmental Response Team
U.S. EPA
Woodbridge Ave
Bldg. 10
Edison, N] 08837
(202) 321-6660 (24 hr)
4) USCG Marine Safety
Offices and Regional Strike Teams
U. S. Coast Guard District Offices
5) TECH ESCORT
U.S. Army Technical Escort Center
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010
(301) 671-3601/2653 (duty hours)
(301) 671-2773/4259 (nonduty hours)
6) National Transportation Safety Board
7) U. S. Department of Agriculture
. Regional Forest Services
8) Department of Commerce
NOAA Regional Office
9) National Weather Service
Silver Spring, MD 20910
4.92
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Specific Regional Information
Identify Resource
Information Contacts
(contd)
10) Radiological Assistance Team
U. S. Department of Energy
(301) 353-4093, 5486 (business hours)
(202) 252-6947 (business hours)
(301) 229-6026 (after hours)
(301) 552-9774 (after hours)
(703) 521-5707 (after hours)
11) Department of Defense
Army Corps of Engineers District Office
12) Department of the Interior
Regional Office
Bureau of Land Management
Bureau of Reclamation
Fish and Wildlife Service
Geological Survey District Offices
National Park Service
13) Department of Health and Human Services
Regional Office
14) Department of justice by State
15) Department of Transportation Regional Office
16) Federal Emergency Management Agency
Regional Disaster Response and Recovery Division
17) Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regional Office
B. Technical Assistance and Industrial Response Teams
1) CHEMTREC
(800) 424-9300 (24 hr)
2) National Poison Center
(800) 228-9515 (24 hr)
3) National Chlorine Institute
CHLOREP (Chlorine Emergency Response Team)
(800) 424-9300 (24 hr)
4) Pesticide Safety Team Network
(800) 424-9300 (24 hr)
5) Explosives Emergency Center
(Railroad Emergency Response Team)
(202) 293-4048 (24 hr)
C. State Agencies
1) Poison Control Centers
2) Department of Health
a) Water Quality
b) Air Quality
c) Solid Waste Management
d) Drinking Water
4.93
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Specific Regional Information
3) Department of Natural Resources/Environmental Quality
4) Department of Transportation
5) Department of Fish and Wildlife
6) Department of Public Safety
7) Disaster/Emergency Services
8) Highway Patrol
9) Civil Defense
D. Local Agencies
E. Universities
Identify Laboratories, Before a response is required, governmental agencies, private
Consultants, Services laboratories consultants, and suppliers that could provide services dur-
ing such a response should be identified, contacted, and educated to
the need for their services. Laboratories should be certified and should
demonstrate adequate quality control. Services of this type include:
1. Chemical analysis
• laboratory, address, telephone number, contact
• capabilities (organic qualitative/inorganic quantitative)
• sample turn-around time
• mobile labs
2. Bioassay/Toxicological Analysis
• laboratory, address, telephone number, contact
• capabilities
• sample turn-around time
• mobile labs
3. Geophysical Testing and Surveys
• company, address, telephone number, contact
• capabilities
• response time
4. Impact and Risk Assessment
• agency or company, address, telephone number, contact
• Federal
• state
• private
5. Material and Equipment Suppliers
• National Spill Cleanup Equipment Inventory System:
A national inventory of pollution response and support equipment
(SKIM) has been developed to help OSCs and RRTs gain rapid access
to resources during oil spill emergencies. A computer-based
inventory system, SKIM is capable of supplying a list of cleanup
equipment within a 300-mile radius from the response need.
Response agencies may obtain this listing by calling:
U. S. Coast Guard
National Response Center
Washington, D. C.
(800) 424-8802
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Identify Laboratories,
Consultants, Services
(contd)
Latitude and longitude of the location must be supplied. This
information is also available from the U. S. Coast Guard District
Offices.
• Region-Wide Contractors: Determine the equipment
and personnel available as well as the mobilization time.
• Local Contractors: Many contractors have equipment (e.g.,
bulldozers, tractors, backhoes, electric generators, pumps) that
may be useful in containment and removal operations. State
offices of the Associated General Contractors maintain a
membership list and generally are aware of where the
equipment can be located.
During a response the most frequently used sorbents, hay and straw,
are available from farmers, ranchers, stables, and livestock feed
stores. Booms, skimmers, commercial sorbents, and contract services
may be available from various sources within the region, which
should be identified. Utility companies, lumber companies, pipe
suppliers, irrigation or oil field supply companies, building supply
companies, and hardware stores are possible sources of equipment
and materials. State contingency plans often identify contractors and
suppliers.
6. Waste Disposal Sites
The best method of disposal is to recycle or reuse the substances
involved. If the recovered materials are relatively uncontaminated
the manufacturer, shipper, carrier, or user may be able to use the
substances involved in the incident. If the spilled material is contami-
nated beyond the point of recovery, permanent disposal will be
necessary. Appropriate disposal sites available within or near the
region should be identified during preresponse planning. The name,
address, phone number, contact person, and area from which the
material is accepted should be documented. These sites should also
be categorized according to the type of waste accepted (e.g.,
hazardous). Often the following information must be supplied:
• material to be disposed of
• quantity of material
• type of containers the material is stored in
• circumstances requiring the use of the disposal site
• name, address, and phone number of the individual requesting
disposal.
7. Licensed Waste Haulers
If the hazardous material must be removed from the site, a
waste hauler will be needed. If the material must be moved across
state lines, a company licensed by the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission (ICC) to transport hazardous waste will be needed. Also,
some states regulate intrastate movements. Before an emergency
incident, the following information on waste haulers should be
assembled:
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Identify Laboratories, • Addresses, telephone numbers, contacts, availability of contact
Consultants, Services ^ License classification, types of material, experience
(contd)
• Disposal responsibility
• Capability, volumes hauled, special equipment.
J. J. Keller and Associates (1980)(a) have assembled a directory of
hazardous waste services, including transporters. This directory is to
be updated periodically. Other sources of this information are the
notifications of hazardous waste activities prepared by EPA's Office
of Solid Waste (e.g., EPA 1980(b)).
Determine the Availability Each region should have certain reference materials available, to be
and Location of
Reference Information
used in conjunction with scientific support activities. Some of the refer-
ences should be immediately on hand for anyone involved in the coor-
dination of technical support; at least a catalogue of sources should be
prepared. As a guide, the catalogue should contain (for each reference)
the following information:
1. Location
• individuals—name and telephone number
• libraries (in-house and public)
2. Availability
• long-term loan
• short-term loan
• use only at the source
3. Portability
• transportable
• too bulky or sensitive for use in the field.
Certain source information such as base overlay maps should be
maintained by the cognizant individual in charge of regional scientific
support. Examples of these are discussed in earlier sections.
Identify Environmentally As part of the preresponse planning, environmentally sensitive
Sensitive Areas areas, critical habitats, and endangered species should be identified.
The following format may be used for compiling this information:
State
A. Sensitive Area
1. References
2. Overlay Maps
B. Critical Habitat
1. References
2. Overlay Maps
C. Endangered Species
1. References
2. Overlay Maps
(a) J. J. Keller and Associates, Inc. 1980. Hazardous Waste Services Director. Neenah, Wisconsin.
(b) EPA. 1980. Notification to EPA of Hazardous Waste Activities (SW 897.10), Prepared by the
Office of Solid Waste, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Seattle, Washington.
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Develop a Regional
Materials Inventory
Establish a Format for
Scientific Support
Reports
Knowledge concerning the materials produced, stored, trans-
ported, and disposed of in the region will facilitate the planning of
possible response actions. Use of base overlay maps or of the format
outlined in Figure 4.12 can aid in identifying the types of materials that
could be involved in an incident as well as the quantity and the proba-
ble location. Once these are identified, collecting pertinent toxicologi-
cal, physical, treatment and disposal information about the materials
and pertinent geological, hydrological and disposal information unique
to the region is possible.
The requirements and format of scientific support reports must be
established on a regional basis. In general, such reports should contain
the following elements:
1. Summary
2. Discussion of the problem
a) introduction and background
b) statement of the problem and discussion of items of interest
(what makes it interesting, unique, or the same as others)
3. Method of Approach
a) reasoning behind selection of approach
b) documentation of the support that was provided (incorporate
response plan)
c) compendium of data statistics and logs that were collected.
4. Discussion—Narrative of what happened
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
These reports should describe the technical aspects of a response,
rather than justify and document the total response effort. A sample
outline of a scientific support report prepared by the emergency
response team is shown in Figure 4.13.
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TABLE 4.9 Checklist for
Scientific Response
Activities During an
Emergency
1. What is the substance that was discharged?
• Do you know the characteristics of the material?
- chemical and physical properties
- toxicological effects—short and long term
- ability to transport in air, surface, and subsurface media.
• Who is the manufacturer?
• What is the potential quantity discharged?
• Do you know individuals who are familiar with the material? Are
they available for advice?
• Where else can you find information on the substance?
• How is the material normally produced, transported, and used;
what impurities are expected and what is the effect of these?
• What was the quantity discharged?
• What analyses are appropriate, and how fast can they be
obtained?
2. What was the location, date, and time of the release?
• Was it a spill or leak, etc? Will it recur? Has it happened before?
• Are population centers affected? What transport modes could
affect these populations?
• Are environmentally sensitive areas affected? What species are
susceptible? At what concentrations?
• Do you know the terrain and geology of the location?
• Do you have meteorological and geohydrological data on the
area? Are meteorological conditions predictable?
• Where do you find this information?
3. What data are needed to document the case?
• Have background samples been taken? Are they representative?
Do prerelease data of the environmental quality exist? Are they
readily available? Are they reliable?
• What sampling and analyses are needed to document a) con-
ditions before response efforts and b) the effect of cleanup
actions?
• Do other agencies have the data that are needed? Are they
responsible for collecting them? If so, have they been made
aware of the requirements for data validity and documentation?
4. Is scientific support required onsite?
• Have you coordinated your time and schedule?
• What should you take along? What information should be
packed? Do you have contacts to check library information while
you are in the field? Do you have notebooks, cameras, any
needed sampling and test instruments?
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TABLE 4.9 (contd) 5. Have you prepared a response plan?
• Does the situation demand a specific plan, or will a generic plan
work? When, how, and by whom will such a plan be prepared?
What approvals are needed?
6. Have you taken steps to prepare a report on the incident?
• Are you familiar with form and function of the report?
• Who can help in preparing reports?
• When and to whom are they due?
7. What surface waters are affected by the release?
• Are drinking water or other critical water supplies affected?
• Where will the material go, and how fast? Will it transform,
dispense, or concentrate?
• What water quality criteria apply? Can you predict the reach of
the area not in compliance?
• What data are needed to assess the impact?
8. What ground-water supplies may be affected?
• Do you know how aquifers could be affected?
• Are drinking water supplies endangered?
• Do you know the water quality criteria for the material?
• Can the time-concentration profiles be predicted? How does this
compare with dose criteria for affected areas?
9. What actions are planned to mitigate the effects of the release?
• Have potential impacts of the response actions been considered?
Have known or suspected harmful effects been weighed against
benefits?
• Have alternatives been fully considered? Who can perform the
needed risk analyses?
• What are the special safety requirements?
10. What monitoring of the response is planned?
• Is the cleanup/mitigation scheme working? Is anyone moni-
toring the effects?
• Are there any plans for post-response monitoring? What are the
assurances that key technical aspects of the release are included
in such plans?
• Is the mitigation process being documented? Are samples being
taken during and after the efforts?
• Is attention being paid to methods to assure completeness of the
response?
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FIGURE 4.10. Key Technical Area - e.g.. Biology, Chemistry, Hydrogeology
Scientific Advisors _ ,
On-Scene
Name Telephone Organization Response(a) Expertise Comments
(a) That is, is the advisor willing to respond on-scene? yes or no
FIGURE 4.11. Scientific SCIENTIFIC INTEREST/CAPABILITY SURVEY
Interest/Capability Name and Address:
Survey
Business Phone:
Home Phone:
2) Sponsoring Agencies:
3) Alternate Person to be Contacted/Address:
Business Phone:
Home Phone: _
4) Is it likely that you will respond to the scene of a "critical" release as a
result of your present interests and funding?
Yes ( ) No ( )
5) What are the major subjects of interest to you in connection with a
release?
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FIGURE 4.11. (contd)
6) Describe the geographic limitations, if any, of your area of interest
7) If a release occurs within the subject and geographic limitations you
have described, do you wish to be notified so that you can consider
responding?
Yes ( )• No ( )
8) Do you wish to be notified at home if the occurrence is during nonbus-
iness hours?
Yes ( ) No ( )
9) Please describe any unique capabilities that you could provide which
would be pertinent to assessing or predicting damage associated with
releases of hazardous substances.
•Note: Do not answer yes if you simply wish to gather statistics regard-
ing releases, since these are regularly available through EPA Regional
Environmental Emergency Response Team Weekly Incident Activity
Reports and Semi-Annual Summary Reports.
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FIGURE 4.1Z Materials
Inventory Example
Material: Barfium Oozate
1. Producer: Oscar Mfg. Co., Portsmith, Florida
2. Quant Wet Produced: 700 metric ton per week
3. Routes of Transportation: Rail-L&N, FL to Miami
4. Use Locations: Miami, Florida
5. Disposal Locations: Lake Okefenokee
6. Industrial Contacts
a. Production: Mark Bark (OOP) 000-0000
b. Use: N/A
c. Disposal: Clop Disposal (200) 000-0000
FIGURE 4.13. Scientific
Support Coordinator's
Report
I. SUMMARY
II. BACKGROUND
III. METHODS
A. FIELD APPROACH
B. LABORATORY APPROACH
IV. RESULTS
A. FIELD STUDIES
B. LABORATORY STUDIES
V. ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION
VI. POST SPILL SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT ACTIVITIES
VII. FIGURES AND PHOTOGRAPHS
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