c/EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
National Training
and Operational
Technology Center
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-430/1-79-010
November 1979
Water
Basic Instructional
Technology
Participant Reference
Manual
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BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL
National Training and Operational Technology Center
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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The mention of trade names or commercial products in this
publication is for illustration purposes and does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U. S Environmental Protection Agency.
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Project Funded By
National Training and Operational Technology Center
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Contract No. 68-03-2756
Project Officer: Mrs. Audrey D. Kroner
Awarded To:
Development and Evaluation Associates, Inc.
700 East Water Street
Syracuse, N. Y. 13210
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FOREWORD
The Basic Instructional Technology Workshop is the first of two workshops
developed to provide environmental protection professionals with the
skills needed to plan and deliver training programs. The second workshop
provides a more advanced treatment of subjects introduced here.
Materials and directions for this basic workshop are presented in two
volumes. In addition to this Participant Reference Manual there is a
Staff Guide. The Participant Reference Manual contains materials for stu-
dent use during the workshop, and also is intended for use "on-the-job" in
preparing future instructional activities. The Staff Guide is intended
for use by the instructor in planning and delivering the workshop.
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OTHER U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT SERVICES AND MATERIALS
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES CENTER
The U.S. EPA National Training and Operational Technology Center (NTOTC)
maintains an Instructional Resources Center in Cincinnati, Ohio. A primary
objective is the compilation and dissemination of information about water quality
and pesticide instructional materials available to interested persons. The
"Instructional Resources Center Bulletin" is designed as the communications link
between the Center and persons involved in environmental education and training.
If you wish to receive free copies of the Bulletin, send your name, position title,
organization or institution or agency name, mailing address and phone number to:
IRC Bulletin
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CATALOG
Several audiovisual units and course packages are available for free loan from
U.S. EPA's National Training and Operational Technology Center. The "Water
Quality Control Instructional Materials" catalog describes slide/tape units, 16 mm
films, videocassettes and course packages that can be borrowed. If you wish to
obtain a free copy of the catalog, please send address information to:
Instructional Resources Center
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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Ill
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION SYSTEM
The Instructional Resources Information System (IRIS) is a computer-based
information system. It currently lists information about 3000 printed or audiovisual
water quality and pesticide instructional resources available from various
individuals, state and federal government agencies, educational institutions and
commercial companies throughout the country. For more information about this
system, write to:
U.S. EPA Information Dissemination Project
Ohio State University
1200 Chambers Road
Columbus, Ohio 43212
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT PACKAGES
for
TRAINING ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
The U.S. EPA National Training and Operational Technology Center (NTOTC)
has developed instructional packages for several technical courses of interest to
water, wastewater and land management personnel. Each package consists of a
course manual, a staff guide and visual or audiovisual instructional aids for each
topic. The printed manuals are available through EPA's Instructional Resource
Information System (IRIS) and/or the National Technical Information Service
(NTIS). Instructional aids for teaching the topics are available on free loan from
EPA's NTOTC.
Following is a description of the courses for which instructional packages are
currently available. The format of the manuals facilitates selection and
presentation of those topics of interest to a particular student or group of students.
For more information about obtaining any of these materials, contact:
Instructional Resources Center
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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IV
Self-Monitoring Procedures: Basic Laboratory Skills
For: Treatment plant personnel who are required to monitor effluent discharges
and who have had little or no previous experience in laboratory work.
Topics: Review of basic mathematics including the metric system, formulas
and percentage; basic chemical laboratory operations such as weighing
techniques, use of equipment and preparation or reagents; basic microbiological
laboratory operations. Emphasis is on practice of skills.
Time: Seventeen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 hours. Total instruction time
is about 38 hours.
Effluent Monitoring Procedures:
Basic Parameters for Municipal Wastewaters
For: Municipal treatment plant personnel who are required to sample, measure
and analyze their discharges and who have had little or no previous
experience in laboratory work.
Topics: Open Channel Flow Measurements, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved
Oxygen, pH, Fecal Coliform by MPN and MF methods, Total Residual
Chlorine, Suspended and Settleable Solids, Reporting Data. Emphasis
is on laboratory practice.
Time: Eighteen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 7.5 hours. Total instruction time
is 30 to 45 hours.
For:
Topics:
Time:
Effluent Monitoring Procedures: Metals Analyses
Municipal treatment plant personnel who are responsible for performing
metal analyses and have had little or no experience in laboratory work.
Various metals are used as examples of six methods used to determine
metals: Boron, colorimetry; Calcium, volumetric; Copper, Magnesium,
Manganese, Zinc, direct aspiration atomic absorption; Lead, extraction
followed by atomic absorption; Mercury, flameless atomic absorption;
Potassium and Sodium, flame photometry. Emphasis is on laboratory
practice.
Seven lessons ranging from 2.5 to 5 hours.
20 to 23 hours.
Total instruction time is
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Effluent Monitoring Procedures: Nutrients
For: Municipal treatment plant personnel who are responsible for performing
nutrient analyses and who have had little or no experience in laboratory
work.
Topics: Phosphorus, Kjeldahl Nitrogen, Ammonia, Organic Nitrogen (by difference),
Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen by Cadmium Reduction. Also Chemical
Oxygen Demand and Oil and Grease. Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Nine lessons ranging from 1.0 to 7.0 hours. Total instruction time is
27 to 33.5 hours.
Methods for Determination of Chemical Contaminants
in Drinking Water
For: Chemists and technicians with little or no experience in chemical procedures
required to monitor drinking water.
Topics: Sampling, Statistics, Quality Control, Safety, Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium,
Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Selenium, Silver, Fluoride, Nitrate, Organics
(chlorinated Hydrocarbons, chlorophenoxys, trihalomethanes), Chlorine
and Turbidity. Representative methods can be selected for the laboratory
practice sessions.
Time: Fourteen lessons ranging from 1.0 to 3.8 hours. Total instruction time
is 26 to 49 hours.
Determination of Residual Chlorine and Turbidity
in Drinking Water
For: Chemists and technicians with little or no experience in chemical procedures
required to monitor drinking water.
Topics: Compliance Requirements, Total Residual Chlorine and Turbidity.
Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Five lessons ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 hours. Total instruction time
is 5 hours.
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Inorganic Analyses in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Chemists and technicians with chemical laboratory experience, 1 year
of college level inorganic chemistry and 1 semester of quantitative
analysis (or equivalent).
Topics: Sample Handling, Compliance Methodology, Safety, Analytical Techniques,
Volumetric Analysis, Precision, Accuracy, Quality Assurance Programs,
Acidity and Alkalinity, Total Residual Chlorine, Fluoride, Hardness,
Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus, Total and Suspended
Solids, Specific Conductance, Turbidity. Emphasis is on laboratory
practice.
Time: Nineteen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 5.25 hours. Total instruction
time is 30 hours.
Organic Analysis in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Chemists and technicians with chemical laboratory experience, 1 year
of college level organic chemistry and one semester of quantitative analysis
(or equivalent).
Topics: Sample Handling, Compliance Methodology, Safety, Control of Analytical
Performance, Spectrophotometer and Calibration Graphs, Gas Chromatography,
Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand,
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Total Organic Carbon, Total Kjeldahl and
Organic Nitrogen, Oil and Grease, Phenolics, Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
Surfactants. Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Twenty-one lessons ranging fromO.5 to 5.25 hours. Total instruction
time is 26 to 30 hours.
Bacteriological Methods in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Bacteriologists and technicians with bacteriological laboratory experience
including sample inoculations, transfers, media preparation and handling,
and related skills.
Topics: Compliance Methodology; Chlorine Determinations and Turbidity; Bacterial
Indicators; Equipment, Media and Solutions, Sample Volumes, Sample
Collection and Test Procedures for both the Multiple Dilution Tube (MPN)
and Membrane Filter (MF) methods; Statistics "and Geometric Means.
Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Twenty-one lessons ranging from 0.75 to 4.0 hours. Total instruction
time is 28.75 hours.
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V11
Land Application of Wastes
For: Engineers, scientists, waste management specialists and other professionals
with at least the equivalent of an undergraduate degree in engineering,
agriculture or a related discipline.
Topics: Course integrates pertinent information from sanitary and environmental
engineering, agronomy, soil science, agricultural engineering, economics
and law as applicable to utilizing land for the application of various types
of wastes. Lessons are: Soil as a treatment medium, Site evaluation
procedures, Design approaches, Social factors, Vegetative cover, Alternative
systems, Monitoring, Nitrogen management, Phosphorus management,
Toxic element interactions, Organics, Legal aspects, Crop selection,
Non-crop uses, Costing procedure, Water management and climate effects.
Time: Twenty-one modules ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 hours. Designed for a workshop
setting of about 40 hour duration.
Note: Materials were developed by a grantee.
Erosion and Sediment Control, Audiovisual Training Program
For: Those responsible for erosion and sediment control, management, inspections
or State standard development or support.
Topics: Erosion and sediment control, Soils, Rainfall-runoff relationships, Erosion
and sedimentation, Plant materials, Control of runoff during construction,
Vegetative soil stabilization, Stream erosion control, Temporary soil
stabilization, Sediment from construction, Control planning, Wooded
sites, Roles and responsibilities.
Time: Thirteen modules, self-paced. The package is designed for both self-
study and for group presentation.
Note: Materials were developed by a contractor.
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vm
CURRICULUM GUIDES
Curriculum guides for training water quality control personnel have been
developed by various institutions and are available for use and adaptation by others.
For further information about the following, contact the source cited.
A Two-Year Water Quality Monitoring Curriculum
Source: Ulster County Community College
Attn: Professor Richard Glazer's Office
Stone Ridge, New York
Wastewater Technology: A Two-Year Post-High School Instructional Program
Source: Charles County Community College
Attn: Mr. William Engel's Office
P.O. Box 910
La Plata, Maryland 20646
Wastewater Engineering Technology Program
Source: Clemson University
Attn: Dr. 3oseph Allen's Office
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Note: This is a four year program.
Bachelor of Engineering Technology Curriculum in Water Quality Management
Source: Pennsylvania State University
Attn: Dr. Charles Cole's Office
Capitol Campus, W 261
Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057
Note: This is a two + two or a four year program.
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CONTENTS
IX
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
Basic Instructional Technology Workshop Goal
Description of the Workshop
Use of the Manual
Workshop Plan and Schedule
SUMMARY PLAN OF INSTRUCTION
INDEX TO UNITS
UNITS OF INSTRUCTION
Unit One
Unit Two
Unit Three
Unit Four
Unit Five
Unit Six
Unit Seven
Unit Eight
Unit Nine
Unit Ten
Unit Eleven
Unit Twelve
Unit Thirteen
Unit Fourteen
- Introduction
- Problem Analysis
- Task Analysis
- Objectives Specification
- Evaluation Techniques
- Instructional Methods and Media
- Lesson Planning
- Developing Oral Communication Skills
- Development of First Presentations
- Instructional Media and Related Resources
- Classroom Management
- Development of Second Presentations
- Workshop Summary
- Evaluation and Conclusion
PLANNING FORMS AND WORKSHEETS
REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
1
1
1
1
2
5
7
n
13
15
51
71
87
107
117
119
131
133
135
137
139
147
151
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INTRODUCTION
Basic Instructional Technology Workshop Goal
The overall goal of this Basic Instructional Technology Workshop is to
provide environmental protection professionals with basic training in
the techniques of planning and delivering instruction on environmental
quality and control subjects. Specifically, this workshop is intended to
give those with no previous teaching experience the basic skills of
identifying instructional needs, specifying objectives, planning the
instruction, locating support materials, conducting the instruction
(using various instructional formats including the lecture), and finally,
evaluating the performance of those who complete the instruction. By the
end of this workshop, the concepts and principles composing each of these
topics will have been described and demonstrated and participants will
have practiced their application and received feedback on their performance.
Description of the Workshop
This workshop consists of fourteen units of instruction totalling nearly
forty hours of classroom time. It is designed to be given on a variety
of schedules ranging from one solid week to several weekends or a series
of twelve half-days or evenings.
The emphasis of the Basic Instructional Technology Workshop is on the
development of teaching skills. Specifically, this workshop is intended
to give those with no previous teaching experience the basic skills needed
to conduct simple training programs. Host of the topics within this
workshop are treated on a strictly applied basis with a minimum of theory
and technical explanation. The advanced workshop provides more detailed
treatment of many of these subjects.
Use of the Manual
This manual is designed to function as a learning aid during the workshop
and as a basic reference tool once the workshop is completed. It consists
of three kinds of materials: Unit Overviews, Content Summaries, and
readings or assignments. A Unit Overview is provided for each of the
fourteen units to describe the role of that unit within the workshop and a
brief description of its content and objectives. Content Summaries are
provided where relevant as a formal kind of "class notes" highlighting the
key points to be gained from the workshop's instructional activities in
given unit. Individual readings and assignments are also included where
appropriate. As the workshop proceeds you will also receive a variety of
additional handouts and exercises for eventual inclusion within the appro-
priate units of instruction.
Workshop Plan and Schedule
The table on the following pages, "Summary Plan of Instruction," briefly
describes the content, duration, and instructional methods of this workshop.
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SUMMARY PLAN OF INSTRUCTION
Unit of
Instruction
Time
Method(s)
Content Outline
Unit One
Introduction
2% hours
-Lectures
-Assignment
-Introduction to Workshop
-Participant introductory
presentations
Unit Two 2 hours
Problem Analysis
-Lectures
-Assignment
-Introduction to problem
analysis
-Categories of problems
-Use of Problem Definition
Worksheet
Unit Three 2% hours
Task Analysis
-Lecture
-Demonstration
-Assignments
-Introduction to job
analysis and the use of
Task Summary Sheet
-Practice application
Unit Four
Objectives
Specification
4 hours
(one hour
may be
done over-
night)
-Lectures
-Self-instruction
-Guided
discussion
-Assignments
-Introduction to behavioral
objectives and performance
levels
-Practice in writing
objectives
Unit Five
Evaluation
Techniques
4 hours
-Lectures
-Assignments
-Principles and concepts of
evaluation
-Constructing written tests
-Evaluating job performance
Unit Six 3 hours
Instructional
Methods and Media
-Lectures
-Demonstration
-Gui ded
discussion
-Assignments
-Principles of learning
-Rules for organizing
instruction
-Teaching techniques
-The Instructional Methods
Selection Table, Media
Selection Table, and
Lesson Planning Form
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Unit of
Instruction
Time
Method(s)
Content Outline
Unit Seven 3^ hours
Lesson Planning
-Lectures
-Demonstration
-Assiqnment
•Process of lesson planning
-Using the IPW
Unit Eight
Developing Oral
Communication
Skills
2 hours
-Lecture
-Demonstration
-Participant
presentations
-Characteristics of an
effective oral presentation
Unit Nine
Development of
First Presen-
tations
V-$ hours -Assignment
(1 hour may
be done
overnight)
-Working from prepared IPWs
for Unit Ten, each partic-
ipant develops and practices
a short presentation
Unit Ten
Instructional
Media and
Related
Resources
hours -Participant
presentations
-Self-instruction
-Characteristics of various
media
-Operation of equipment
-Media selection
-IRIS, IRC
Unit Eleven
Classroom
Management
1 hour -Lecture
-Guided
discussion
-Physical and interpersonal
environments and communi-
cation
-Techniques for managing
instruction and maintain-
ing attention
Unit Twelve
Development
of Second
Presentations
3 hours
(2 hours
may be done
overnight)
-Assignment
-Working from their notes
and lesson titles, partic-
ipants prepare objectives,
evaluation items, IPWs,
and presentations for Unit
Thirteen lessons
Unit Thirteen 5 hours
Workshop
Summary
-Participant
presentations
-Workshop is summarized and
reviewed through partici-
pant presentations
-Participants receive feed-
back on quality of the pre-
paration and presentation
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Unit of Time
Instruction 1ine
Method(s)
Content Outline
Unit Fourteen 1% hours -Assignment -Workshop participants
-Guided complete and correct
Evaluation and discussion post-test
Conclusion -Participants evaluate
workshop
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INDEX TO UNITS
UNIT ONE - INTRODUCTION
UNIT TWO - PROBLEM ANALYSIS
UNIT THREE - TASK ANALYSIS
UNIT FOUR - OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
UNIT FIVE - EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
UNIT SIX - INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MEDIA
UNIT SEVEN - LESSON PLANNING
UNIT EIGHT - DEVELOPING ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
UNIT NINE
UNIT TEN
- DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRESENTATIONS
- INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
UNIT ELEVEN - CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
UNIT TWELVE - DEVELOPMENT OF SECOND PRESENTATIONS
UNIT THIRTEEN - WORKSHOP SUMMARY
UNIT FOURTEEN - EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION
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BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION
Estimated time for unit - Two hours thirty minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
The emphasis of the Basic Workshop is on the development of
teaching skills. Specifically, this workshop is intended to give
those with no previous teaching experience the basic, practical
skills of identifying instructional needs; specifying objectives;
planning the instruction; locating support materials; conducting
the instruction (with an emphasis on oral communication and the
instructor's role in effective instruction); and finally, evalu-
ating the performance of those who complete the instruction. As
the introduction to the workshop, this unit provides an overview
of the workshop's content and purpose. Specific attention is
given to defining the need for this kind of training and the
precise ways in which this workshop addresses those needs. Speci-
fic topics covered in this unit include the introduction of the
Instructional Package Worksheet and a process for the systematic
design of training materials.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
Through the activities of this unit you will:
-develop an appreciation for the benefits of systematic instruc-
tional planning
-become familiar with fellow workshop participants
-be able to describe the use of the Instructional Package Worksheet
-understand the general plan of the workshop
The PURPOSE of this unit:
This unit has been designed to provide a smooth beginning to the
overall workshop.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Instructional Package Worksheet
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UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION
CONTENT SUMMARY
This workshop will show how to plan effective training according to the
following model.
Phase One: ANALYSIS
1. Define the problem (Unit Two)
2. Analyze the tasks (Unit Three)
Phase Two: DESIGN
3. Specify instructional objectives (Unit Four)
4. Determine evaluation activities (Unit Five)
Phase Three: DEVELOPMENT
5. Select instructional methods and media (Unit Six)
6. Develop instructional strategies (Unit Seven)
Phase Four: DELIVERY and REVISION
7. Deliver instruction (practice provided in Units Ten and
Thirteen)
8. Evaluate and revise (considered in Unit Fourteen)
The techniques and procedures presented in Units Two through Seven all
yield information which becomes the input for filling out the form on
the following page.
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INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Activities
Resources
Instructional Approach
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11
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT TWO
PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Estimated time for unit - Two hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit introduces problem analysis as the first step in the
systematic design of training materials. The Problem Definition
Worksheet is explained as a guide to the process of problem anal-
ysis. A simulation exercise is conducted to enable participants
to complete a problem analysis in a familiar work setting.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
As a result of this unit's instruction, you will be able to apply
a systematic procedure for defining the nature of personnel per-
formance problems in typical work settings. You will also learn
to judge when such problems are likely to be effectively solved
through training programs.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
To be effective, training must be designed to address specific,
well-defined problems. This unit presents a systematic procedure
for defining such problems.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
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12
UNIT TWO: PROBLEM ANALYSIS
CONTENT SUMMARY
Problem
A discrepancy or deficiency between the way things are and the
way things ought to be.
Categories of Problems
Skill or Knowledge Problems - when people do not know what to do
or how to do it.
Motivation or Incentive Problems - when people know what to do
but do not want to do it.
Environmental Problems - when people know how to do something
and want to do it, but something about the work situation or
organization will not let them perform effectively.
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BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT THREE
TASK ANALYSIS
Estimated time for unit - Two hours fifteen minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit presents a systematic process for analyzing a job in
terms of its component tasks and identifying those tasks which
are to be the focus of a training effort. Use of the Job Task
Summary Sheet and Task Detailing Sheet is explained and demon-
strated.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
The instructional activities of this unit will enable you to list
and detail the tasks composing a specific job. You will also
learn to further define the tasks in terms of the steps required
to complete them and the various types of behavior they represent.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
The development of specific instructional objectives and overall
planning of the training activity requires the prior specification
of the particular job, task, and task-steps which are to be the
focus of instruction.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
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14
UNIT THREE: TASK ANALYSIS
CONTENT SUMMARY
Definitions
A job is the occupational title or position held by an employee.
A job description is a statement (or statements) which outlines
the duties and responsibilities of the job.
Tasks are the skills or operations which belong to a specific
duty or area of responsibility. Each task consists of specific
steps.
Task analysis is the act of dividing a duty into all of its compo-
nents. It results in a list of everything an employee must do
to advance the work to completion.
Types and Levels of Behavior
COGNITIVE Actions which involve knowing, understanding or
applying information; remembering or using facts
or ideas.
Knowledge - ability to state a fact, symbol, definition,
procedure, etc.
Comprehension - understanding the meaning of a piece of
information; ability to explain or classify.
Application - using knowledge and comprehension to complete
some activity; uses formula or rule, follows
procedure.
Problem-solving - determining what must be done to perform
some task - creates a procedure; combines rules
or formulas into new rule.
AFFECTIVE
Expressions of feeling or interest; the adoption of an
attitude or belief; the motivation to do something.
PSYCHOMOTOR
Physical action, speed or agility; the performance of a
particular body movement.
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15
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT FOUR
OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
Estimated time for unit - Four hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit explains the nature and procedure for constructing
specific instructional objectives. Using information from the
Task Detailing Sheet, participants are able to practice writing
instructional objectives for specific tasks in a familiar work
setting. The role of the Lesson Planning Form is also introduced.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
-List and explain the four components of an instructional objective
-Classify objectives according to level of behavior required
-Write instructional objectives according to the four-part format
-Write cognitive instructional objectives on more than one perfor-
mance level
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Instructional objectives are the cornerstone of training activities.
When properly defined, they will help the instructor organize the
training, and will enable both the instructor and the trainee to
identify the successful outcomes of the training effort.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Assignment 4.1, Writing Instructional Objectives
2. Assignment 4.2, Types and Levels of Objectives
3. Lesson Planning Form
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17
UNIT FOUR: OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
LESSON .2 of 3: WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
ASSIGNMENT 4.1 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Estimated time: Sixty minutes
This is a self-instructional assignment. Please read the
material and complete the exercises as directed.
WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Among the most useful educational planning devices are instructional
objectives. They provide a blueprint for measuring the goals or desired
outcomes of a learning experience. Instructional objectives are very
useful to both the instructor and the learner for selecting or designing
instruction, for directing the students' efforts to accomplish the
intended objectives, and for evaluating the success of the instruction.
The purpose of this module is to help you write clear instructional
objectives. Read the brief description of the parts of an instructional
objective given in the box below. After reviewing this description you
should be able to label segments of objectives as either "audience,"
behavior," "conditions" or "acceptable performance" without making any
errors.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE COMPONENTS
Instructional objectives are measureable observable goals for
learning. They specify the intended outcomes of instruction
in terms of the learner's behavior.
Effective instructional objectives contain the following four
components:
1. Audience - who the students are or student character-
istics or prerequisite competencies stu-
dents should have
2. Behavior - what students should be able to do as a
result of the learning experience
3. Conditions - constraints, requirements, limitations,
or resources with which the behavior
must be performed
4. Acceptable Performance - required level or quality
of performance of the
behavior
Now try the exercise on the next page.
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19
Component Exercise
This exercise is designed to test your understanding of the four components
of instructional objectives (Audience, Behavior, Conditions, Acceptable Per-
formance). Various pieces of objectives are given below. Identify each piece
in terms of the component it represents by writing the components name in the
space provided.
Example: with the aid of the instruction manual
1. with accuracy to four decimal places
2. a chemical engineer with two years of experience
3. with room temperature between 12°C and 20°C
4. measure and place into the beaker ten moles of HC1
5. wastewater treatment plant lab technicians with no
formal training in chemistry
6. with no more than three errors
7. using a calculator and F tables
8. weigh and record the weight of the sample solution
Check your work against the answers on the next page.
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20
Answers to component exercise
1. acceptable performance
2. audience
3. conditions
4. behavior
5. audience
6. acceptable performance
7. conditions
8. behavior
If all of your answers were correct, go on to the next page. If you missed
any items, go over the material on the first page of this assignment and check
to see that you understand why the answers given above are correct. Then continue.
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21
The next four sections of this assignment describe in detail
the four components of instructional objectives. Each sec-
tion provides opportunities for practice in applying the
various concepts which will also enable you to assess your
progress.
Audience
Effective instructional objectives must be designed with a particular
audience in mind. Not everyone needs to learn the same things. Thus,
when the decision is made to plan a piece of instruction to teach a
particular behavior, specific attention must be given to defining the
exact nature and present capabilities of the intended students or
trainees.
Failure to identify the precise audience for instruction can lead to a
number of problems. The instruction might be too easy for the trainees/
students who eventually use it because they have already mastered the
intended objectives. On the other hand, the material might be too
difficult if it assumes that the trainees already possess certain compe-
tencies which in fact they do not. The more precisely you can specify
the intended audience for the instructor the better.
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23
Audience Exercise
The audience component in each of the following objectives is not clearly
defined. Underline the faulty audience component and rewrite a more appro-
priate audience component for the objective.
Example:
By the end of the training they_ will be able to collect water samples
Improved audience statement: ^t^ui^ ^-zL^MsU-zi^fa^ fcu gj^^c^f
(2-±>eSLa^fr-L/ -^''/O, ' .
1. By the end of the fourth week of instruction, they should be able to
balance 10 chemical equations with only two errors.
Improved audience statement:
2. Using a hand calculator and T tables, he will be able to perform a test of
Pearson's correlation on two samples with 100% accuracy.
Improved audience statement:
3. By the conclusion of this assignment, workshop participants will be able
to construct clear, effective instructional objectives.
Improved audience statement:
4. Through the slide-tape unit on Engineering Aspects of Water Fluoridation,
you will learn to identify and properly apply necessary equipment and
chemical procedures.
Improved audience statement:
Check your work against the suggested answers on the next page.
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24
Audience Exercise - Suggested Answers
Listed below are possible clarifications of the audience components in the
sample pieces of objectives given above. Check your efforts to clarify the
audience statements against these examples. Do your audience statements seem
to be as clear or specific as these? If not, why?
1. ...trainees with basic mathematical skills but no background in chemistry...
2. ...a student who has completed all of the exercises in the Basic Statistics
Handbook...
3. ...workshop participants with no previous instructional experience...
4. ...operators and supervisors of water treatment plants who need to learn
how to add fluorides to a water supply...
If any of your audience statements seem vague or general by comparison,
clarify them before going on to the next page.
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25
II
Behavior
The description of the intended behavior is the most critical component of
an instructional objective. It should clearly define the intent of the
instruction in terms of a specific capability to be possessed by those who
complete the instruction. It describes what someone will be able to do.
When learning is expressed in terms of observable behaviors, the instruc-
tor accepts the trainee's performance of that behavior as evidence that the
objective has been achieved. Clear behavior statements effectively answer
such questions as "How will I be able to judge when the trainees understand
the material?" or, "What evidence will I accept as proof that they have
learned what I taught?"
Defining the intent of the instruction in terms of explicit behaviors
(capabilities, competencies, or performances) is also helpful to the
trainee. Clearly stated objectives enable students to identify what is
expected of them and when they have accomplished it.
Failure to describe the objective using observable behaviors can result in
confusion over the true purpose of the instruction and evaluation of its
achievement. For example, what does it mean "to know" how to operate a
piece of equipment? Does "to know" mean to describe how it operates, or to
actually operate it, or perhaps even to fix it when it breaks? Simply des-
cribing an objective in such vague terms as "to know" or "to understand"
does not clearly communicate the intent of the instruction. A clear and
specific statement in the objective of what someone will be able to do
leaves little doubt about the capabilities which the learner should possess.
Certain verbs are more useful for clearly defining observable behaviors than
others. For example, while "to understand" is vague, "to construct" leaves
little doubt about the intended performance. Further examples are listed
below.
Vague Terms Which Refer to
Unobservable Behaviors:
to know
to really know
to fully appreciate
to grasp the meaning of
to conceptualize fully
to believe in
to gain an understanding of
to concentrate on
to be mindful of
to understand
Terms Which Refer to Clearly
Observable Behaviors:
to write
to recite
to draw
to dictate
to diagram
to list
to name
to perform (a test)
to trouble-shoot
to start up
to analyze
to adjust
to divert
to operate
to repair
to construct
to separate into groups
to compare and decide
to identify (circle and underline)
to measure and record
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27
Exercise on Behavior Component
Selected fragments of objectives are listed below. Each fragment contains
a more or less observable description of the intended behavior. For each
of the items, complete the following activities:
1. Underline the word or words which describe the intended behavior or
outcome of the instruction.
2. Decide whether the underlined word or phrase describes a specific and
observable, or vague and unobservable performance. Record your decision
by checking the appropriate blank on the right.
3. For each statement you identify as vague and unobservable, create a more
specific statement, and write it in the space directly below the original
item.
Example: Specific Vague
The trainee will know the fire exits for each work area.
1. Fully understand the inspection procedure.
2. Use the model to demonstrate the process of
lubrication.
3. Name the chemistry tests required of this plant for
compliance reports.
4. Develop a working use of submerged flow rate diagrams,
5. List four operating conditions which affect the
primary sedimentation process.
6. Identify (label) the sections of a Parshall Flume.
7. Perceive the differences between the calibration
procedures for two applicators.
8. Measure and record the concentration of fluoride in
a sample of drinking water.
9. Diagram the parts of one applicator acceptable for
pest control for outdoor nursery crops.
Check your answers on the next page.
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28
Answers to Exercise of Behavior Component
Specific
1. Fully understand the inspection procedure.
Describe in writing.
2. Use the model to demonstrate the process of
lubrication. x
3. Name the chemistry tests required of this plant for
compliance reports. x_
4. Develop a working use of submerged flow rate diagrams.
Identify components using submerged flow rate diagrams.
5. List four operating conditions which affect the
primary sedimentation process. x_
6- Identify (label) the sections of a Parshall Flume. x
7. Perceive the differences between the calibration.
procedures for two applicators.
List.
8. Measure and record the concentration of fluoride in
a sample of drinking water.
9. Diagram the parts of one applicator acceptable for
pest control for outdoor nursery crops.
Were you able to correctly identify the behavioral terms in each of the
examples? Did you have any difficulty in deciding whether they were specific
or vague? For those that were vaguely stated, were you able to suggest a more
specific statement? If you had any difficulties, review the preceding
material and try to resolve the differences between your responses and the
ones suggested above before continuing.
Please go on to the next page.
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29
III
Conditions
A third important component of instructional objectives is the description
of the conditions under which the desired behavior is to be performed. That
is, it is one thing to be able to describe the operation of a water treat-
ment facility from memory, and quite another thing to describe its operation
using a model of the facility. The difference between these two performances
is in the conditions for the performance (from memory with no aids, as op-
posed to using a model). The precise nature of the intended conditions can
have a major impact on the interpretation of the intended behavior. For
example, it is rather unclear what is expected of a student from the state-
ment:
Construct the Periodic Table of the Elements. The task is more clearly
clearly expressed as:
Given a list of chemical symbols and their atomic structure, construct
the Periodic Table of the Elements. But a rather different performance is
suggested with a change in the stated conditions:
Without the use of book, notes, or other outside aids, construct the
Periodic Table of the Elements.
As shown by these examples, a clear description of the conditions of the
behavior's performance answers such questions as: "With what materials or
assistance will the behavior be performed?" or, "Under what circumstances
will the performance be evaluated?" Note that describing the conditions of
performance is quite different from describing conditions of learning. That
is, neither of the example objectives included a statement like, "Given a
unit of instruction on the Periodic Table..." Such a statement would have
described the conditions under which the behavior was learned rather than
the circumstances surrounding its ultimate performance and would not have
clarified the precise nature of the behavior itself. Confusing the condi-
tions for learning with the conditions for performance is a common mistake
that should be avoided in constructing good instructional objectives.
Try the exercise on condition statements on the next page.
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31
First Exercise on Condition Statements
Review the following list of possible condition statements. Circle those
statements which might be used in an instructional objective to identify
the conditions for the intended behavior's performance.
1. name the hazards involved
2. after studying Chapter Three
3. with the use of a calculator
4. without the use of the Instruction Manual
5. raise the heated solution to eye level
6. in less than 30 minutes
7. graduate students in chemical engineering
8. using the computational formula and table of commom logarithms
Go on to the next page.
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32
Answer to First Exercise on Condition Statements
You should have identified the following phrases as condition statements:
3. with the use of a calculator
4. without the use of the Instructor Manual
6. in less than 30 minutes
8. using the computational formula and table of common logarithms
If you missed any of these or chose others, reread the previous material to
determine why your response was incorrect. Ask your instructor for addition-
al help if necessary. Then, continue with the exercise on the next page.
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33
Second Exercise on Condition Statements
Write a clear description of the conditions under which the behavior is to
be performed for each of the following incomplete instructional objectives.
Example: First year biology students will label with 100% accuracy the
four chambers of the heart, the aorta and the pulmonary artery.
Conditions:
1. Wastewater Lift Station Maintenance Mechanic II 's will diagnose mal-
functions in pumping station equipment. Their diagnoses must be correct
as determined by their supervisors.
Conditions: __
2. Sewage Treatment Technology students will describe what happens during
each of the major stages of biological treatment.
Conditions:
3. Students enrolled in the course "Water Supply Studies" will state the
maximum acceptable nitrate content allowed in drinking water according
to the Safe Water Drinking Act.
Conditions:
4. Weed Control Farm Advisors will be able to calculate the standard
deviation of field sample particulate densities.
Conditions:
Check your work against the suggested responses on the next page.
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34
Suggested Responses to Second Exercise on Condition Statements:
1. Given a faulty piece of equipment, its service manual, and the lift
station tool set.
2. In no more than five minutes given a list of the stages of biological
treatment.
3. Without the use of books, charts, notes, or other aids.
4. Given the density measures of the samples collected.
Your answers may be different from the ones suggested here. To be con-
sidered correct, your answers must:
1. Specify the conditions under which the performance is to be evaluated;
and
2. not describe the conditions under which the behavior was learned.
Note: It is not necessary to list trivial conditions such as "Given a
pencil, blank paper, a desk, chair, etc."
If any of your condition statements seem vague or general by comparison,
clarify them before going on to the next page.
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35
IV
Acceptable Performance
The acceptable performance of an effective instructional objective is the
degree to which the intended audience performs the desired behavior. It is
the standard of performance for considering an objective as successfully
completed.
The degree of acceptable performance will differ according to the type and
importance of the objective of which it is part. Students learning the
names of the fifty states may not be required to list every state from
memory. However, a surgeon is expected to perform every step of an opera-
tion without error.
Acceptable Performance Exercise
Write a clear description of the degree of acceptable performance required
for each of the incomplete objectives below:
1. Given appropriate record sheets Operator I's, while on the job, will
read and record all meter levels associated with a specific piece of
equipment.
Acceptable Performance
2. Given a faulty water meter, the maintenance staff member will diagnose
the problem and repair the meter.
Acceptable Performance
3. Given a blank discharge monitoring report form, the operations log book,
and the laboratory record book, the plant superintendent will be able to
make the necessary calculations and record the required data on the form.
Acceptable Performance
4. Given a copy of the plant layout, Operator Trainees will identify (by
circling) the location of pressure gauges to be checked during rounds.
Acceptable Performance
5. Given a description of a major equipment malfunction, a shift foreman
will list the emergency procedures to be followed.
Acceptable Performance
Now check your answers on the next page.
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36
Suggested Answers to Acceptable Performance Exercise:
1. All readings will be recorded at the proper place on the form and will
be correct + 2%.
2. The repaired meter will be in 100% working order.
3. The form will be completed within sixty minutes and will contain no
errors.
4. Without error.
5. All procedures will be included and they will be listed in sequential
order.
Your answers may be different from the ones suggested here. To be considered
correct, your answers must specify the degree or standard of performance
which is to be an acceptable evidence that the instructional objective is
successfully completed.
If any of your performance statements seem vague or general in comparison
to the suggested answers, clarify them.
Then go on to the next page.
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37
SUMMARY
Instructional objectives represent the instructor's goals or desired out-
comes for the learning experience. Effective instructional objectives can
be very useful to the instructor for the selection and designing of instruc-
tion, learning materials and tests, for evaluating the success of instruction,
and for directing the student's efforts. Students find instructional objec-
tives useful to direct their learning and to know exactly what performance is
required. It is very important, if the instructor's desired outcomes are to
be realized, (1) that the objectives are appropriate for the particular
audience, (2) the performance which demonstrates the desired outcome be
specified in terms of observable behavior, (3) intended performance condi-
tions be clearly communicated, and (4) the degree of acceptable performance
be specified.
All components of the instructional objective need not always be written
when the instructor is certain there is no misunderstanding. These compo-
nents should be viewed only as guides or aids for the instructor in his/her
management of the learning process. Clear, effective instructional objec-
tives offer students not only enhanced learning but also positive experiences
since unclear directions and misunderstandings are minimized.
FINAL EXERCISE: PRACTICE IN WRITING OBJECTIVES
On a separate piece of paper, write two instructional objectives that properly
illustrate the four components of clear objectives. Write one objective for a
class on how to complete personal income tax forms and one objective for a basic
typing course. Your completed objectives will be reviewed by another workshop
participant for their clarity and format.
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39
UNIT FOUR: OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
LESSON 3 of 3: LEVELS OF OBJECTIVES
ASSIGNMENT 4.2 TYPES AND LEVELS OF OBJECTIVES
Estimated time: Forty-five minutes
This is a self-instructional assignment.
and complete the exercises as directed.
Please read the material
TYPES AMD LEVELS OF OBJECTIVES
In Unit Three's introduction to the Task Detailing Sheet, the concepts of
type of behavior and level of cognitive behavior were introduced. It was
explained that the performance of various steps of a task may require very
different types of behavior (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor), or
represent a particular level of cognitive behavior (knowledge, comprehension,
application, or problem solving). The particular type and level of behavior
called for in a step's performance must be considered in designing effective
training on that step. Good instructional objectives are written so as to
clearly indicate the type and level of behavior being taught.
This assignment reviews the key concepts and provides practice in construct-
ing objectives for different types and levels of cognitive behaviors. (An
emphasis is placed on cognitive objectives since they are the most common
and important learning outcomes for training programs designed to address
skill or knowledge problems.)
Types of Behavior and Instructional Objectives
Cognitive behaviors involve knowing, understanding, or applying information
or procedures. This workshop is almost totally concerned with providing
training in the cognitive behaviors required to plan and conduct instruction.
Excerpts from some of the workshop's objectives addressing cognitive behav-
iors are listed below.
"...participants will be able to list the phases of a systematic approach to
instruction and explain each briefly..."
"...participants will be able to plan and construct simple written tests..."
"...participants will be able to identify appropriate uses of audiotapes..."
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40
Affective behaviors involve feelings and attitudes towards something. They
include expressions of interest, the adoption of an attitude or belief, or
the motivation to do something. Affective behaviors can have an important
influence on how a particular job or task is performed. Excerpts from
several of this workshop's objectives which address affective behaviors
follow.
"...participants will express increased interest in learning procedures for
planning effective instruction..."
"...participants will feel more at ease speaking in front of a group..."
Psychomotor behaviors involve physical action, the performances of a partic-
ular body movement. Psychomotor behaviors become the focus of training
activities when a particular task requires physical agility, speed, precision,
or coordination. (Hhile cognitive or affective behaviors may also be invol-
ved, the primary behavior of interest is a physical action.)
While psychomotor behaviors are generally not the focus of this workshop,
the unit on public speaking skills does contain a few objectives addressing
very specific kinds of psychomotor behaviors.
"...speakers should maintain eye contact with audience..."
"...speakers will vary their volume level and tone of voice..."
"...speakers should not exhibit any distracting mannerisms..."
Many activities involve all three types of behavior to some degree. Even a
simple task like "check the filter" requires that the employee knows what is
to be done (cognitive), chooses to do it (affective), and physically removes
and inspects the filter (psychomotor). However, in most training situations
it is readily apparent that one type of behavior is the major concern. In
this example, the primary emphasis would be on the cognitive behavior of
knowing to check the filter (probably as one step in a larger maintenance
task).
For most of the training programs you will be concerned with, the instruc-
tional objectives will typically address cognitive behaviors. Sometimes
they may involve affective behaviors. Only rarely will a psychomotor behav-
ior be the target of instruction. (Most required psychomotor behaviors, like
the use of a screwdriver, are simply assumed to be a basic entering competency
for anyone holding a job.)
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41
Exercise on Identifying Instructional Objectives by Type of Behavior
Read the following objectives and, for each, decide whether the concern is
with cognitive, affective, or psychomotor learning. Indicate your decision
by labeling each objective by type of behavior in the blank on the right.
1) As a result of this public awareness campaign, visitors to state parks
will come to value an unpolluted environment as shown by an increased
effort to keep the park free of debris indicated by an observable
decrease in litter and increase in the amount of trash in receptables.
Type of behavior?
2) Through this program, trainees will learn to write instructional objec-
tives which clearly specify the intended audience and behavior and the
conditions and nature of the acceptable performance. The ability to
construct such objectives for training in work-related tasks will be
evaluated through peer review of various exercises using the rating form
provided.
Type of behavior?_
3) As a result of the redesigned materials, plant mechanic trainees will
maintain a higher level of interest in the training program as demon"
strated by decreased absenteeism and increased participation in optional
activities.
Type of behavior?
4) The Basic Level Workshop will enable environmental facility operators
with no previous instructional experience to apply a systematic model for
planning and delivering instruction. Achievement of this objective will
be evaluated in workshop exercises which require participants to design
and deliver an actual lesson. The quality of that performance will be
evaluated using specially designed rating scales.
Type of behavior?
Check your answers on the next page.
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42
Answers to Exercise on Identifying Instructional Objectives by Type of
Behavior
1) Affective behavior
2) Cognitive behavior
3) Affective behavior
4) Cognitive behavior
If you failed to properly identify any of the four objectives, reread the
preceding material and reconsider your answer(s). Talk to your instructor
if you have any particular questions.
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43
Levels of Cognitive Objectives
As originally explained in Unit Three, there are four levels of cognitive
behavior as follows:
I) Knowledge - the ability to state a fact, describe a symbol or repeat
a definition.
II) Comprehension - the ability to explain or classify procedures or
information.
Ill) Application - the ability to apply an existing knowledge or compre-
hension of something to conduct some procedure or
derive information.
IV) Problem-Solving - the ability to invent new information or procedures
based on past experience.
The four levels are listed in order from the simplest to the most complex
forms of cognitive behaviors. Each advanced level assumes the possession of
preceding levels of behavior. Thus, problem-solving activities require that
the relevant facts or procedures are known (Level I), understood (Level II),
and can be properly applied (Level III) to the new situation.
When "cognitive behavior" is the focus of instruction, it is important that
the objective specifies the precise level of behavior desired. The design
of the training activities will vary greatly depending on the level of cog-
nitive performance required. For example, it is one thing to teach someone
to name the parts of a piece of equipment (Level I), and quite another to
prepare him/her to "trouble-shoot" problems in the operation of that equip-
ment (Level IV).
One way to insure that an instructional objective specifies the desired level
of cognitive performance is to carefully consider the verb used to describe
the behavior. Different verbs naturally refer to different levels of cogni-
tive performance. The list on the next page provides some example verbs for
describing each level. Read the list carefully and notice how the level of
behavior suggested by the verbs changes from column to column.
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44
USEFUL VERBS FOR EXPRESSING
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORS IN WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Knowledge
draw
duplicate
find
gather data
identify
label
list
match
repeat
recognize
state
Comprehension
classify
categorize
cite evidence
for
compare
contrast
define
describe
differentiate
discriminate
distinguish
between
explain
give examples
Application
analyze
calculate
compute
conduct a
test
construct
estimate
install
interpret
manipulate
apparatus
measure
organize data
plot a graph
Problem-Solving
create
develop
devise a method
discuss critically
evaluate
formulate hypotheses
generalize from data
infer
integrate
invent a new solution
manipulate ideas
plan
predict
of
illustrate
prepare
produce
prove
reformulate
relate
specify limi-
tations and
assumptions
propose reasons and
defend them
reorganize
solve a problem
synthesize
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45
Exercise on Identifying Levels of Cognitive Behaviors
Read the following objectives and, for each, decide whether the specified
cognitive behavior is at the knowledge, comprehension, application, or
problem-solving level. Indicate your decision by labeling each objective
by level of cognitive behavior in the blank on the right. (You may want to
refer to the verb list on the preceding page if you have any difficulty
deciding on the level.)
1) The activities of this lesson will enable participants to identify
various important variables in the physical and interpersonal environ-
ment of the classroom. . .
Level of cognitive behavior?
2) By the conclusion of this lesson, participants will be able to define
all of the principles for designing good instructional graphics when
given the names of those principles in a brief exercise.
Level of cognitive behavior?
3) Working with the task analysis and objectives developed as parts of
previous units, participants will learn to plan an evaluation and
offer explanations for their decisions.
Level of cognitive behavior?
4) By the conclusion of this lesson, participants will be able to define
the concepts of "job," "task," and "task analysis" from memory. . .
Level of cognitive behavior?
Check your answers against those on the next page.
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46
Answers to Exercise on Identifying Levels of Cognitive Behaviors
1) Knowledge
2) Comprehension
3) Problem-Solving
4) Comprehension
If your answers do not agree with these, reread the previous section and
check to see that you understand the concepts involved. You may wish to
discuss this material with your instructor.
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47
Exercise on Writing Instructional Objective for Different Levels of
Cognitive Behavior
Using specific tasks from your own job, write two complete instructional
objectives for each level of cognitive behavior. (It may be useful to
refer to the list of verbs again.)
You will hand this exercise in to your instructor for his/her review.
Your instructional objectives will be evaluated on the extent to which
they contain clear descriptions of the audience, behavior, conditions,
and degree. Use additional paper if necessary.
Tasks for which objectives are to be written.
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-
Solving
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Knowledge Level Objectives:
1)
2)
Comprehension Level Objectives:
3)
4)
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48
Application Level Objectives:
5)
6)
Problem-Solving Level Objectives:
7)
8)
Optional Exercise
If there is time remaining, you may wish to try writing affective and
psychomotor objectives on some subject or area familiar to you. These
objectives should contain the same four components of any good instruc-
tional objective. Hand your objectives in to the instructor for his/her
review.
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49
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title_ Task_
Step_
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
1) Instructional Objective:
Audience .
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable _
Performance'
2) Entering Competencies:
3) Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD (S)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
6) Sequence Of Instructional Activities. Outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
2.
3.
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51
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT FIVE
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
Estimated time for unit - Four hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit provides a basic introduction to the techniques of
evaluation. Included are sections on the nature of evaluation
activities and the use and design of written tests, check lists
and rating scales. Opportunities for practice application of
evaluation skills is also provided.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the conclusion of this unit you will be able to:
-define and describe the uses for evaluation.
-describe the nature and appropriate uses of various forms of
written tests.
-construct and correct multiple-choice items and short answer
test items.
-describe the nature and application of various techniques for
job performance evaluation.
-construct, revise, and apply check lists and rating scales.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Evaluation is a necessary component of any instructional activity.
It can be used to motivate students, reinforce the desired out-
comes, and provide the instructor with feedback on the progress
of the workshop. Evaluation skills are also essential for the
assessment of on-the-job performance and the identification of
employee training needs.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Example Check List
3. Example Rating Scale
4. Assignment 5.1 Constructing Multiple-Choice Items
5. Assignment 5.2 Constructing Short-Answer Items
6. Assignment 5.3 Constructing Check Lists and Rating Scales
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52
UNIT FIVE: EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
CONTENT SUMMARY
Evaluation Defined
Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process for gathering informa-
tion for decision-making.
Evaluation involves both the description of something and the judgment
of its worth in a certain context. More specifically, judgment involves
comparison of the thing being evaluated against similar things, or
standards of quality.
Training-Related Uses of Evaluation
-To determine existing capabilities of employees
-To provide feedback to trainees
-To provide practice of a new skill
-To certify employee competencies
Evaluation Activities Differ Depending On:
-Who needs to know something?
-Hhat is it they want to know?
-Why do they want to know it?
-When do they want to know it?
-How certain do they have to be about the results?
Written Tests
Written tests are most useful for measuring cognitive behaviors,
Considerations in Test Design
Step One: Define the intended role and function of test.
-Who?
-What?
-Why?
-When?
-How certain?
Step Two: Define the type of behavior to be evaluated.
-Cognitive
-Affective
-Psychomotor
Step Three: Planning the content of the test.
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53
Types of Test Items
1. Short answer and multiple-choice are generally the most efficient
and objective test-item formats.
2. Essay items are difficult to guide objectively.
3. True-false items have some limited use but are not that good a test
of student performance.
4. Matching items are a specialized form of multiple-choice items.
Rules for Writing Objective Test Items
Test items should:
1) Be clear
2) Be uncluttered
3) Be functional
4) Be at the proper level of difficulty
5) Call on the desired behavior
6) Thoroughly sample that behavior
7) Provide a positive test of that behavior
8) Have clearly correct answers
9) Not "give away" the answer
10) Not "give away" answers to other items
Check Lists and Rating Scales
Rating scales and check lists are useful means of evaluating observable
behaviors and, specifically, the on-the-job performance of employees. A
check list consists of a list of skills or tasks which the student is
expected to demonstrate in the satisfactory performance of a job. A
rating scale also is based on a list of skills or tasks to be demonstrated
by the student or employee, but additional information is added so that
the evaluator can judge the relative quality of the observed performance.
General Rules for Constructing Check Lists and Rating Scales
-Define the behavior to be observed.
-Determine standard for judgment of "good" performance.
-If you are concerned with the presence or absence of a behavior,
use a check list.
-If you are concerned with rating or grading the quality of a
behavior, use a rating scale.
Design check list and rating scale item to be simple and explicit.
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EXAMPLE CHECK LIST: FOCUSING THE MICROSCOPE
Directions: Check each item only if performed properly. Check final square when
each step has been performed properly and in correct sequence.
1. Snap low power objective into place
2. Adjust mirror
3. Assume starting point for focus
4. Place slide on stage
5. Adjust course adjustment screw to focus
6. Change to high power
7. Identify image on slide
8. Correct sequence
tn
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EXAMPLE RATING SCALE: WORKMANSHIP
Directions: Place an X on the line at the point which
best describes this person on each dimension.
You may check anywhere along the line.
1) Quality of Work
Sloppy
Average
Excellent
2) Care of Tools
Careless and
Disrespectful
Average
Excellent
en
en
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57
UNIT FIVE: EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
LESSON 2 of 3: CONSTRUCTING WRITTEN TESTS
ASSIGNMENT 5.1 CONSTRUCTING MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS
Estimated time: Twenty-five minutes
This assignment is designed to provide you with a review of
the basic techniques for constructing the most useful of
the selection-type test items for criterion-referenced tests.
The introductory reading reviews the characteristics of
multiple-choice items and the principles for their construction.
An accompanying exercise provides practice in constructing this
type of item.
OBJECTIVE:
EVALUATION:
DIRECTIONS:
By the conclusion of this assignment, you will
able to construct multiple-choice items.
be
Your performance on the exercise may be reviewed
in class at the end of this assignment.
1. Complete the reading entitled "Introduction
to Multiple-Choice Items". This should take
approximately 10 minutes.
2. Complete one or the other of the two versions
of "Exercise in Constructing Multiple-Choice
Items". One version of the exercise has been
designed for those familiar with wastewater
treatment facility operators. The other version
of the assignment has been designed for drinking
water specialists. Either version of the
exercise should require about 15 minutes to
complete.
3. Be prepared to participate in a brief dis-
cussion or review of your responses to the
exercise.
Introduction to Multiple-Choice Items
While there are many kinds of test items (true/false, short-answer,
matching, completion), the multiple-choice item is considered the most
versatile type of item. It can be used to test a wide variety of behaviors
and provides an objective, easily-scored testing format.
The multiple-choice item consists of two major parts: (1) the stem
(also called lead, premise, problem, question); and (2) the alternatives
(answers, distractors, foils or decoys).
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58
The basic usefulness of the multiple-choice test is that it can
answer questions relating to:
1. Definition
Example item: What means the same as ?
2. Purpose
Example item: What is the reason for ?
3. Cause
Example item: Under which conditions is this true?
4. Effect
Example item: If this is done, what will happen?
5. Association
Example item: What occurs in connection with ?
6. Identification of error
Example item: What principle is violated?
7. Difference
Example item: What is the difference between ?
8. Arrangement
Example item: Which is the first step in ?
9. Common principle
Example item: Which one of the following is not related
to ?
10. Controversial subjects
Example item: The x pump is better because ?
The multiple-choice test item has various advantages and limita-
tions when compared with other teacher-made tests.
Advantages: 1. It can be constructed to measure mental abili-
ties from simple recognition to some aspects of
critical thinking (dependent upon skill of test
construction).
2. It presents less possibility of guessing the
correct answer than other selection-type items.
3. It has less vagueness and ambiguity than short-
answer or supply-type items.
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59
4. It is practically free from response sets;
therefore, students do not have the oppor-
tunity to favor a particular alternative when
they don't know the answers.
5. It is useful as a diagnostic technique.
Limitations: 1. It is only a substitute for more direct means
of measurement; only an indicator of the ability
of the student to perform in an actual situation.
2. It is not designed to measure all types of
behavior. (Multiple choice items are sometimes
inappropriate for measuring problem-solving
behaviors.)
3. It is difficult to construct. The test-maker
must be skilled in writing items that will
measure the student's ability to interpret, dis-
criminate, select and evaluate rather than the
ability to memorize.
The following principles of test construction, if followed by the
test-maker, will ensure fair, good test items:
1. Write test items which will measure specific, significant
learning outcomes.
2. Use either a direct question or an incomplete statement as
the item stem, whichever seems more appropriate to the
presentation of the item.
3. Write items in clear and simple language, with vocabulary
kept as simple as possible and at the level appropriate for
the students.
4. Base each item on a single, central problem.
5. State the central problem of the item clearly and completely
in the stem.
6. In general, include in the stem any words that must otherwise
be repeated in each response.
7. Avoid negative statements.
8. Avoid excessive use of non-relevant material.
9. Place the choices at the end of the incomplete statement.
10. Make the responses grammatically consistent with the stem and
parallel with one another.
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60
11. Make all responses plausible and attractive to pupils who lack
the information and ability tested by the item.
12. Make the responses independent and mutually exclusive.
13. Use the "none-of-these" option with caution.
14. Write distractors (incorrect alternatives) which do not
contain clues revealing the correct answer.
15. Decide before writing if the correct or best answer is required,
then be sure that there is only one correct answer if that is
what is required or that all the answers have some elements of
correctness with one best answer (based upon evidence).
16. Compose clear and definite directions for "taking" the test.
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61
Exercise in Constructing Multiple Choice Items
(For Wastewater Treatment Facility Operators)
Directions: Complete the following activities which are designed
to provide you with practice in constructing multiple choice
items. You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Write appropriate stems for each of the following sets of alternatives.
A. (stem:)
1. The oxygen required to sustain aerobic biological oxidation
in sewage or waste.
2. The amount of dissolved oxygen required to support life in
a stream.
3. The required oxygen level to oxidize toxic metals.
4. The concentration of oxygen required to ensure aerobic
biological oxidation of sewage or waste.
B. (stem:)
1. pH of 1
2. pH of 5
3. pH of 7
4. pH of 9
5. pH of 14
II. Write three or more alternatives for each of the following stems.
A. Parshall Flume is used to
1.
2.
3.
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62
B. When computing gas production for the anaerobic digestion system,
what is the rate of volatile solids destroyed per cubic foot of
gas?
1.
2.
3.
C. What causes the change in pH values in the anaerobic digestion
system?
1.
2.
3.
III. Write two multiple choice test items on a subject familiar to you.
A.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
3.
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63
Exercise in Constructing Multiple Choice Items
(For Drinking Water Specialists)
Directions: Complete the following activities which are designed
to provide you with practice in constructing multiple choice
items. You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Write appropriate stems for each of the following sets of alternatives,
A. (stem:)
1. Distilling over the interferences and leaving the F~ behind.
2. Distilling over the F" and leaving the interferences behind.
3. Forming a color with the interferences.
B. (stem:)
1. Became effective in December of 1977.
2. Became effective in December of 1975.
3. Became effective in June of 1977.
II. Write three or more alternatives for each of the following stems.
A. Nitrate can be determined by
1.
2.
3.
B. Samples containing metals are preserved by adding
1.
2.
3.
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64
C. The reason for the MCL on turbidity is because
1.
2.
3.
III. Write two multiple choice test items on a subject familiar to you.
A.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
3.
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65
UNIT FIVE: EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
LESSON 2 of 3: CONSTRUCTING WRITTEN TESTS
ASSIGNMENT 5.2 CONSTRUCTING SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
Estimated time: Twenty minutes
This assignment is designed to provide you with a review of the
basic techniques for constructing the most useful of the supply-
type test items for criterion-referenced tests. The intro-
ductory reading reviews the characteristics of short answer
items and principles for their construction. An accompanying
exercise provides practice in constructing these items.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion'of this assignment, you will be
able to construct short answer items.
EVALUATION: Your performance on the exercise may be reviewed
in class at the end of this assignment.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Complete the reading entitled "Introduction
to Short Answer Items". This should take no more
than 5 minutes to complete.
2. Complete the "Exercise in Constructing Multi-
ple Choice Items". This should require about 15
minutes to complete.
3. Be prepared to participate in a brief dis-
cussion or review of your responses to the
exercise.
Introduction to Short Answer Items
The short answer test item asks the student to recall information
in his own words. It is important to remember, however, that the judgment
of acceptable answers should not be influenced by the student's writing
skill. Items should be designed so that the acceptable answer can be as
brief as possible; a word, phrase, symbol, number, etc. In some cases,
the student may have to write a sentence or two as a response.
Compared to multiple choice items, short answer items are easy for
the instructor to write, but rather more difficult to "correct". They are
suitable for testing a wide range of learning outcomes. Some examples of
short answer items are listed below.
1. What is the pH of pure water?
1.
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66
2. If acid is present, litmus paper turns 2.
3. In the equation 5x + 5 = 15, what is
the value of x? 3.
4. State two tests for the presence of
acid. 4.
Suggestions for writing and correcting short-answer items:
1. Avoid the loose, ambiguous item that does not tie down the
answer to one or two specific words or phrases.
2. Do not require more than one or two completions to be made in
any one item.
3. For "filling the blank" type items, place the blank near the
end of the statement.
4. Avoid cues to the correct answer.
5. In computation problems, specify the degree of accuracy
expected.
6. Make the directions and each question explicit.
7. Allow sufficient space for student answers in a column to the
right of the questions.
8. Write a scoring key in advance and include all possible accept-
able answers for each item.
9. Use a variety of short answer formats. Avoid extensive use of
"fill in the blanks" as these often do not test for higher-
order learning outcomes.
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67
Exercise in Constructing Short-Answer Iterns
Pi rections: Complete the following activities which are designed
to provide you with practice in constructing short-answer items.
You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Convert the following items from multiple choice to short-answer for-
mats. Write your new item in the space provided.
A. If the temperature is allowed to go beyond 180° C
1. the fluoride is not distilled.
2. the iron carries over.
3. sulfate is carried over.
A. (Short-answer version)
B. Which of the following steps must be performed in order to
express the value of "total" barium?
1. filtration
2. weighing
3. solubilization or digestion
B. (Short-answer version)
II. Write five short-answer items in the space below. No more than four
of these items should be simple "fill-in-the-blank" items. After
each item, list all possible correct answers (for use in correcting
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68
responses to the items). Base the items on a subject familiar to you
or use material from a subject in this workshop (such as the material
on writing objectives).
1.
Possible correct answers:
2.
Possible correct answers:
3.
Possible correct answers:
4.
Possible correct answers:
5.
Possible correct answers:
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69
UNIT FIVE: EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
LESSON 3 of 3: CHECK LISTS AND RATING SCALES
ASSIGNMENT: 5.3: CONSTRUCTING CHECK LISTS AND RATING SCALES
Estimated time: Ten minutes
This assignment is designed to provide some practical experi-
ence in constructing check lists and rating scales. You have
ten minutes to complete the following exercises after which
you will exchange your work with another participant for
review.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment you will be
able to construct check lists and rating scales.
EVALUATION: Your performance on the exercise will be reviewed
by another participant.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Complete the following two activities using
your notes from the lecture on rating scales and
check lists. You have approximately ten minutes
to complete these activities.
2. Exchange your work with that of another par-
ticipant in the workshop. Review his/her items
for clarity and completeness. Discuss problem
areas with the participant.
3. Check with the instructor regarding any
problems or questions that arise.
1. Develop two items for a check list that could be used to evaluate
good driving habits.
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70
2. Develop two items for a rating scale that could be used to evaluate
good driving habits.
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71
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT SIX
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MEDIA
Estimated time for unit - Three hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit introduces two activities necessary to design instruc-
tion: selection of instructional methods and media. The Lesson
Planning Form, the Instructional Methods Selection Table, and the
Media Selection Table are used to select sequences of instruc-
tional methods and media that are appropriate for the type and
level of behavior specified in the objective. The unit concludes
with an application exercise.
The OBJECTIVE of this unit:
In this unit you will learn to select instructional methods using
the Lesson Planning Form and Instructional Methods Selection Table.
You will then learn how to select appropriate media using the
Media Selection Table.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Effective instruction requires more than just specifying objectives
and listing content topics. A useful instructional presentation
includes instructional methods and media that have been selected
to be consistent with the level of behavior specified by objectives,
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Instructional Methods Selection Table
3. Media Selection Table
4. Assignment 6.1 Selecting Instructional Methods and Media
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72
UNIT SIX: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MEDIA
CONTENT SUMMARY
Development Decisions
Designing and developing instruction involves a series of decisions
which are reflected on the Instructional Package Worksheet.
-identifying and analyzing a problem
-analyzing jobs and tasks
-specifying instructional objectives
-selecting evaluation strategies
-selecting instructional methods
-determining appropriate media
-identifying available media
-specifying final instructional approach
Four Types of Methods
I. The Lecture (Method #1)
A. Definition - uninterrupted speech by which one presents
information to others
B. Characteristics of a Good Lecture
1. The lecturer has good public speaking skills
2. The presentation is
a. brief - usually no more than 15-20 minutes of uninter-
rupted speech; a lecture should not strain normal
attention span
b. organized
i) the introduction
(a) establishes rapport between lecturer and
learners
(b) defines the purpose of the lecture, gains
learners' attention, and motivates them to
remain attentive
(c) outlines the major points of the lecture
(d) defines the objectives of the lecture
i i) the body
(a) uses a simple-to-complex structure for
presenting the content
(b) aims toward specific objectives
(c) provides opportunities for questioning
(d) allows for practice of knowledge
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73
iii) the conclusion
(a) reviews and summarizes main points
(b) opens opportunity for student responses
(c) provides directions to the next activity
c. accompanied by media (when appropriate)
i) highlighting - visual accompaniments such as
outlines, graphics, pictures - reinforce content
during the lecture
ii) student handouts - "take-homes" such as outlines,
procedural guidelines, etc. - serve as a personal
employee manual for on-the-job use
C. Advantages
1. Presents large amounts of information from many or from
hard-to-get sources in short amount of time
2. Gives instructor control over the kind of information and
organization presented
3. Provides the most efficient way to introduce and to
summarize a learning experience
D. Disadvantages
1. Over-stresses acquisition of facts
2. Can make learners into passive, dependent receivers of
information
3. Is instructor-paced
4. Is often too long
5. Is often over-used or misused
6. Is not for teaching "how to" (procedures)
7. Depends for success on instructor's public-speaking
abi1i ty
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74
II. Demonstration (Method #2)
A. Definition - showing, as opposed to telling, how to do
something by manipulating appropriate materials and
equipment
B. Characteristics of a Good Demonstration
1. The instructor prepares site and materials
a. on-location or simulated site is chosen and prepared for
maximum effectiveness and visibility to all learners
b. materials and equipment obtained and tested by working
through demonstration
c. setup allows everyone to see demonstration
d. media/handouts prepared to complement demonstration -
i.e., steps outlined, decision points and criteria
defined, "success" described in terms of predefined
criteria
2. The instructor prepares for the students
a. necessary orientation information developed
b. mini-lectures for introducing and summarizing the
procedure prepared
c. frequent opportunities provided to ask questions
d. frequent checks to ensure student understanding
e. opportunities to practice the procedure
C. Advantages
1. Gives on-the-job experience
2. Allows learners to develop and practice skills under
supervision
D. Disadvantages
1. Not useful alone; must be prepared for and summarized through
lecture or reading
2. Large groups of learners require much time for practice in
order to be effective
3. Useful only for fixed-step procedures, not for creative
problem solving
4. Requires equipment, materials, often site visits
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75
III. Guided Discussion (Method #3)
A. Definition - a sharing of ideas and opinions in order to
arrive at a mutually acceptable decision or solution to a
problem
B. Characteristics of a Good Discussion
1. Not a bull session - topics and objectives must be carefully
prepared and purpose explicitly defined so that group will
know when discussion should end
2. Groups should be small enough to allow everyone to partici-
pate and large enough to avoid polarization or domination
by a few
3. Discussion leader
a. initiates discussion by stating topics, objectives,
guidelines (rules for participating, parameters of
discussion)
b. coordinates discussion by summarizing ideas and
establishing relationships among ideas
c. orients discussion by pulling discussion back to topic;
avoids playing expert and giving lectures
d. encourages participation by warmth, non-critical analysis
of contributions, questioning silent members in non-
threatening way
e. harmonizes the group by dealing with personal confron-
tations and disagreements and arbitrating as necessary
f. gate-keeps by preventing anyone from dominating the
group
4. Participants
a. participate - purpose is to share ideas in order to
develop solution to problem
b. remain non-critical and objective - avoid personal
attacks and emotional analyses like "that's stupid"
c. stick to the topic
d. avoid private discussions and share ideas with whole
group
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76
e. direct comments and questions to group rather than to
leader
f. accept leader as arbitrator of group
5. Physical environment is arranged to facilitate discussion
by ensuring eye contact among all participants
C. Advantages
1. Allows all members of group opportunity to share ideas
2. Provides for mutual solving of a problem and practice in
ways of solving problems
D. Disadvantages
1. Can be dominated by an individual or faction
2. Can degenerate into an exchange of abuse
3. Can bog down in extended, uncomfortable silence or
irrelevancies
4. Can be a front for leader-provided lectures
5. Can be misused (not suitable for communicating factual
information or teaching procedures)
IV. Adaptive Instruction (Method #4)
A. Definition - to adapt instruction to individual needs, goals,
learning materials and/or instructional methods and techniques are
especially chosen to suit a particular student or group of
students
Types of Adaptive Instruction - individualized learning packages,
assignments, tutorials
B. Characteristics of Good Adaptive Instruction
1. Characteristics of effective individualized learning
packages
a. provides all the information and materials learner needs
to know on his/her own
b. provides for practice and feedback
c. is structured properly (orienting overview, body with
logical learning steps, summarizing review)
d. meets individual needs of learners
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77
2. Characteristics of effective assignments
a. application oriented - allows students to apply know-
ledge and skills in new or unfamiliar contexts
b. allows for choice - provides options so that the students
can choose among alternative assignments, contexts, or
subjects
c. builds skills in specific steps from simplest to most
complex
d. provides feedback reinforcement
3. Characteristics of effective tutorials
a. is a one-to-one session between tutor and learner (tutor
need not be the instructor)
b. has problem-solving orientation using stages of diagnosis
and remedy
c. builds skills in specific steps
d. tutor guides learner to discover answers - does not
lecture at learner
e. session is problem-specific and ends when solution is
discovered
C. Advantages
1. Responsive to individual needs
2. Allows for learner pacing and repetition as desired
3. Individualized learning packages can be given out when it
is difficult to organize a class or too few students or no
instructor available
4. Tutorials can be used to help several learners with diffi-
cult problems in a short space of time
D. Disadvantages
1. Instructor-made individualized learning packages are
expensive to prepare
2. Not suitable for complex or complicated subject matter
3. Not useful for teaching procedures that require equipment
or complicated materials
4. Does not allow for exchange of ideas and opinions -
basically a lonely method of learning
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INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS SELECTION TABLE
^Instructional
Method
Types of
Behavior
LECTURE
DEMONSTRATION
GUIDED DISCUSSION
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION'
COGNITIVE,
Knowledge
COGNITIVE,
Comprehension
COGNITIVE,
Application
COGNITIVE,
Problem-
Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
Appropriate for
teaching facts
Appropriate
Appropriate for
initial presentation
of rules
Generally
not useful
Useful only in
support of a
demonstration
Usually not effective
for motivating trainees
or changing attitudes
about something
Generally
not useful
Useful as a supportive
method to reinforce
concept-using
Most appropriate method
for teaching rule-using
Useful for
problem-solving
Instruction
Live or simulated
demonstrations are
the most effective
method for teaching
motor skills
Modelling and
simulations are
useful for
forming attitudes
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Useful and appro-
priate for developing
problem-solving
skills
Generally
not useful
Group activities
such as role-playing
are often useful
for attitude
formation
Useful and appropriate
for conveying factual
Information
Appropriate
Appropriate for
Initial presentation
of rules
Exercises are useful
for teaching
problem-solving
Useful only
in support of a
demonstration
Generally
not useful
00
4.T- j,'..,-
: Tiitnria"K
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MEDIA SELECTION TABLE
Types of Behavior
COGNITIVE
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
OBJECTS
Categories of Media
STILL PICTURES MOVING PICTURES
AUDIO MEDIA
WRITTEN MATERIALS
Especially useful
with demonstra-
tions.
Can be used to teach
-recognition and
discrimination
-rules, principles
or sequential
steps .
Useful for teaching
and trainee prac-
tice of perfor-
mance in manipu-
lating tools and
equipment.
Especially appro-
priate for on-the-
job training.
People can be used
to demonstrate
physical actions.
Limited application.
May be useful if the
object is the
focus of the
desired attitude
formation.
Very useful for all
levels of cogni-
tive instruction.
Can highlight stress
concepts by dis-
playing words,
lists of steps,
pictures and pic-
torial segments.
Can provide visual
cues.
Little application.
Can portray static
positions of
moving persons or
objects.
Limited application.
Slides in combina-
tion with audio
materials may
influence attitude
formation.
Useful for showing
content not other-
wise easily
brought into the
training situa-
tion.
Usually too costly
for presenting
still visuals
and/or narrative
audio.
Very useful.
Can be used to:
-model skills
requiring motion
-slow motion for
close examination
-provide visual
feedback of stu-
dent performance
-demonstrate pro-
cesses which take
place over an
extended time
period.
Excellent for influ-
encing attitudes.
Special effects and
other visual tech-
niques are espec-
ially useful for
presenting affective
material.
May have their
greatest use when
in conjunction
with printed
matter or pro-
jected visuals.
Useful if sounds
of machines,
alarms, etc. must
be learned.
Inexpensive.
Recorded audio
materials gener-
ally useful in
training only when
demonstrating
speech or hearing-
related skills.
Excellent media for
all levels of
cognitive instruc-
tion.
Relatively inex-
pensive, printed
materials allow
for self-pacing.
Can be used effec-
tively with sti11
pictures and
audio materials.
Limited application
Possibly useful for
establishing moods
or attitudes with
background music,
special sounds, or
unique narration.
May be used with
slides to influence
attitude formation.
i
Limited application,
since motion is
difficult to re-
present.
One important use
is procedure
guides or check-
lists for ski 1 Is
performance.
Very little applica-
tion for training
materials.
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81
UNIT SIX: INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
LESSON 4 of 4: EXERCISE IN SELECTING METHODS AND MEDIA
ASSIGNMENT 6.1: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MEDIA
Estimated time: Sixty minutes
This assignment is designed to give you practice in selecting
instructional methods and media and planning a lesson. You will
use the Instructional Methods Selection Table, the Media Selec-
tion Table and the Lesson Planning Form to design a lesson on a step
of the suspended solids test. A Problem Scenario and completed
Task Detailing Sheet are included as resources. Your task is to
select, from the Task Detailing Sheet, one step that needs to be
taught (see column D on the Task Detailing Sheet), and to complete
a Lesson Planning Form for a lesson on that step. You will spe-
cify the instructional objective, entering competencies, and
evaluation activity, and use the tables provided to choose the
most appropriate method and media for use in instruction. You
will have approximately 45 minutes in which to work. The remaining
15 minutes will be spent in a discussion of any problems or con-
cerns involved in using the Selection Tables and completing the
Lesson Planning Form.
Objective: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be
able to plan a lesson, using the Instructional Methods
Selection Table, the Media Selection Table and Lesson
Planning Form.
Evaluation: Participant review and discussion of completed Lesson
Plans will serve as the evaluation activity for this
assignment.
Directions: 1. Complete the Exercise described on the following
pages. Use the Task Detailing Sheet and Lesson Planning
Form provided. This task should take approximately 45
minutes.
2. Discuss the completed Forms with fellow participants.
This task should take approximately 15 minutes.
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82
ASSIGNMENT 6.1
EXERCISE DESCRIPTION
You have been asked to analyze a problem about inconsistent suspended
solids data collected for several weeks. The nature of the problem is
explained in the Problem Scenario, which is attached. After analyzing
the problem and finding it to be amenable to a training solution, you have
completed the Task Detailing Sheet, which is also included here. Your
task now is to plan a lesson on one of the steps of the suspended
solids test. Use the Lesson Planning Form, the Instructional Methods
Selection Table and the Media Selection Table to plan instruction on one
step of the task listed on the Task Detailing Sheet. Record your decisions
on the Lesson Planning Form. Be prepared to explain and justify all deci-
sions during a discussion which completes the assignment.
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83
Problem Scenario
You are a trainer in a regional office of a "Water Management Bureau".
Your supervisor has called you into a meeting to give you the following
information:
Spot inspections of the data for effluents in a
number of wastewater treatment plants revealed that
the suspended solids data was not consistent with
other effluent data during the past six months.
Preliminary investigation showed that:
-suspended solids data was consistent with
other effluent data for the same seasonal
periods at earlier dates
-the recent plant operating conditions were
comparable to those in the earlier, same
seasonal periods when the effluent data was
consistent
Your supervisor has given the project to you. You are directed to
investigate further to determine what the problem is and if training
is required to solve it.
You visit the plants in question and learn that new personnel (hired
within the last six months) conduct the suspended solids tests. A few
of the newly-hired work for experienced supervisors but only meet with
the supervisor for very limited periods of time because of twenty-four
hour operations and shift rotations. At the other plants, no one except
the new employee is experienced in conducting the suspended solids test.
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84
TASK DETAILING SHEET
A. Write Job Title
B. Write Task
Complete steos C - F in the space below.
C, List the specific steps required to perform the task.
D. Check each step which needs to be taught.
E. Indicate whether the checked steps primarily involve cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor behavior.
F. For a cognitive behavior, indicate the appropriate level of performance:
Knowledge - ability to recall information or procedures
Comprehension - ability to explain information or procedures
Application - ability to use information or procedures to do
something
Problem Solving - ability to develop new information or procedures
Steps Required to Perform Task
D
Needs
to be
Taught
Type of Behavior:
Cognitive, Affec-
tive, Psychomotor
Level of
Cognitive
Behavior:
Know. , Comp. ,
Appl., P. S.
(2)
(4).
(5).
(6).
(7)
(9)
,j*mflHt-0jf/ibaJ4Ui-z.
-**O
02)
^-
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85
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title j^nt^c /^L6UCL^ Task
Step.
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
1) Instructional Objective:
Audience
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable _
Performance"
2) Entering Competencies:
3) Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD(s)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
6) Sequence of Instructional Activities, outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
l._
2.
3.
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86
LESSON PLANNING FORM
6) Sequence of Instructional Activities. (Continued)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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87
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT SEVEN
LESSON PLANNING
Estimated time for unit - Three hours thirty minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit completes basic instruction in the process of designing
and planning a lesson. Through a procedure for filling out the
Instructional Package Worksheet, you will learn how to translate
decisions made earlier into a plan for conducting a lesson. In
addition, you will learn to apply a set of rules for planning
effective instruction. An exercise in planning a lesson, using
the Task Detailing Sheet, Lesson Planning Form, and Instruc-
tional Package Worksheet, will be followed by a brief discussion
of additional considerations in planning to deliver instruction.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
In this unit you will learn to:
-list the activities involved in planning a lesson
-define and give an example of each of the nine rules for
effective instruction
-plan a lesson that incorporates the nine rules, using the
Instructional Package Worksheet format
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Planning how to conduct a lesson is the final step in the design
process. The task of planning thus pulls together such earlier
activities as specifying objectives, identifying evaluation strat-
egies, and selecting methods; the outcome of these activities is
the Instructional Package Worksheet. By completing the Instruc-
tional Package Worksheet in accordance with specific rules for
effective instruction, the instructor prepares a detailed plan
for the conduct of the lesson.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Assignment 7.1: Princioles of Instruction
3. Assignment 7.2: Exercise in Plannino a Lesson
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88
UNIT SEVEN: LESSON PLANNING
CONTENT SUMMARY
Lesson Planning
-Converting instructional design decisions into a plan for teach-
ing
-The role of the Instructional Package Worksheet (IPW)
-Instructional methods and the instructional approach; using the
Task Detailing Sheet and Lesson Planning Forms to complete an
Instructional Package Worksheet
Nine Rules for Good Instruction
-Begin with an explanation of why the new skill or knowledge is
important
-Include a precise description of what the learner will be able
to do after s/he has learned
-Ensure that the learner is ready to begin learning
-Move from the whole to the part and from the general statement
to the specific detail
-Provide a variety of learning experiences
-Include samples
-Include opportunities for learners to practice what they are
learning
-Provide ongoing feedback so learners know how well they are
learning
-Consider the type and level of behavior specified in the
instructional objective
Completing the Instructional Package Worksheet
-State the objective
-Give a justification for the objective
-Specify an evaluation strategy
-Identify support materials for teaching
-Specify the instructional approach
Exercise in Planning a Lesson
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89
LESSON SEVEN: PLANNING A LESSON
LESSON 2 of 5: PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION
ASSIGNMENT 7.1: PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION
Estimated time: Seventy-five minutes
This assignment introduces you to nine principles for planning
effective instruction. Each principle is explained and illus-
trated. An exercise accompanies each principle so you can try
out your understanding of the principle as you learn it. An-
swers to the exercises are provided for you to check your own
answers. For each principle, the explanation, the example,
and the exercise appear together. Answers to all exercises for
all nine principles are at the end of the lesson.
Some exercises have no single correct answer but rather a range
of answers are correct. In the answer key, you will find a
suggested or representative answer. Your answer should be simi-
lar to the one suggested. If you miss more than one question in
an exercise, review the principle, the explanation, and the
example. When you understand your mistake, go on to the next
principle. Ask your instructor if you don't understand an an-
swer or if you have a question about the principle.
As you read, you will notice that some of the rules appear to
present redundant information. This repetition is not acciden-
tal; it occurs for two reasons. First, one of the most useful
devices for facilitating learning is repetition; repeating
important information serves to strengthen learning. Second,
the purpose of this lesson is to pull together ideas from the
first six units into a single set of rules which you should
follow as you plan a lesson. Therefore, the repetition serves
to emphasize the importance of these rules as the basic guide-
lines for presenting a lesson effectively.
OBJECTIVE: After completing this assignment, you will be able
to define and give an example of the application of
each of the nine rules for effective instruction.
EVALUATION: At the end of one hour, you will have completed a
post-test on the content. The questions on the
post-test will be very similar to those you have
already encountered in the exercises. When you
have completed the post-test, you will exchange
papers with a fellow participant and discuss your
answers.
DIRECTIONS: 1.
2.
Complete the readings, exercises and post-test
on the following pages. This task should take
approximately 60 minutes.
Discuss the post-test. This task should take
approximately 15 minutes.
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90
RULE #1: GOOD INSTRUCTION BEGINS WITH AN
EXPLANATION OF WHY THE NEW SKILL
OR KNOWLEDGE IS IMPORTANT
Explanation: When learners are made aware of the relevance or importance
of the new knowledge or skill, there will be greater motivation for
learning.
Application: Giving learners reasons for learning may involve telling
them that the new skill is required for a higher-level position, or that
the new knowledge will help them to perform present job tasks more
efficiently. The reason motivates trainees to learn.
Example: The average eight-year-old boy may have no interest in learning
:amp
•ithi
arithmetic. However, if the child discovers that, in order to obtain a
paper route, he must be able to make change quickly and correctly, his
interest in learning arithmetic will increase. Obtaining a paper route
serves as motivation for learning arithmetic.
EXERCISE #1: Place an £ next to each statement that is a good example
of an instructor's explanation for a lesson.
_1. Learning to balance these figures is the first step in learning
the bookkeeping system. Clerks on the next three job levels
above this one must know this bookkeeping system.
_2. Your job may never require you to run this test, but the procedure
is quite interesting.
_3. This material is required of all students in this course.
_4. A knowledge of FORTRAN computer language is essential in programming
this computer. You will probably use FORTRAN many times each day
in your job.
_5. Since many of your co-workers on this project do not speak English,
the company is offering this course in conversational French to
help you communicate with your co-workers.
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91
RULE #2: GOOD INSTRUCTION INCLUDES A PRECISE
DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THE LEARNER WILL
BE ABLE TO DO AFTER S/HE HAS LEARNED.
Explanation: Trainees need to know what the goal or object of instruction
is, so they can separate what they must know from what is nice to know.
Specifying the skill or knowledge that will result from learning is one
way of informing trainees of the goal.
Application: Instructional objectives give trainees both a goal to work
toward and a standard against which they can judge their ability. Specifying
instructional objectives also aids the instructor in directing the instruction
toward the specific goals.
Example: Participants in the Basic Instructional Technology Workshop have
been told that one objective of the workshop is that they be able to use
the nine rules for effective instruction to plan a lesson. The partici-
pants know that they must apply the nine rules; merely stating the rules
or giving explanations for them is not sufficient. The instructional
objective specifies a precise goal for learning.
EXERCISE #2: Put an £ next to each statement which provides a clear
goal for learners.
_1. After completing this lesson, you will know about nine rules for
planning instruction.
_2. By the end of this unit, you will be able to test water samples
for the presence of mercury, using standard equipment.
_3. When you finish this unit, you will understand why instructional
objectives must be specified.
_4. When they have completed the basic workshop, participants will be
able to plan a lesson.
_5. The purpose of this lesson is to teach you about evaluation.
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92
RULE #3: GOOD INSTRUCTION ENSURES THAT THE
LEARNER IS READY TO BEGIN LEARNING.
Explanation: Learners must possess certain basic skills and knowledge
before they can successfully learn more complex things. The basic
abilities are thus prerequisites for the complex abilities. The instruc-
tor must make certain that learners have these prerequisite abilities
and are therefore ready to begin learning more complex skills and know-
ledge.
Application: You can determine whether trainees are ready to begin
learning by evaluating the degree to which they possess prerequisite
abilities. The evaluation can be highly formal, such as a written test,
or highly informal, such as a brief discussion. Trainees who lack pre-
requisite skills or knowledge may need to be provided with instruction
on the abilities they lack before they can begin to learn new or more
complex abilities.
Example: Before your instructor can help you learn how to select
instructional methods, s/he must be certain that you know how to specify
instructional objectives and classify instructional resources. There-
fore, the prerequisite abilities for learning to select methods are
writing objectives and classifying resources. To determine whether the
participants are ready to begin learning the procedure for method
selection, the instructor may give a quiz on the prerequisite abilities.
Those who do
prerequisite
not pass
skills.
the quiz will be asked to study material on the
EXERCISE #3: For each of the following tasks, identify two prerequisite
abilities which learners must have before they can learn
the task.
_1. Select an evaluation strategy for a lesson.
_2. Determine the type of behavior specified in an objective.
_3. Perform a task analysis.
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93
RULE #4: GOOD INSTRUCTION MOVES FROM THE WHOLE
TO THE PART AND FROM THE GENERAL STATE-
MENT TO THE SPECIFIC DETAIL
Explanation: Learning requires understanding. A learner cannot under-
stand when only a part of an idea or a single detail is presented.
Learners must have access to the whole concept or procedure or rule
before they can understand the parts.
Application: Begin each lesson by stating the whole concept, rule, or
procedure to be learned. Then present specific details, steps, and
illustrations. Do not give examples until after the whole idea has been
taught.
Example: In Unit One of the Basic Workshop, you were shown a general
five-part model of the procedure for designing instruction. That model
represents the whole process you will learn during the workshop. Each
of the next six units represents a part of that whole process; for
example, the first part you studied was problem definition. Within each
unit, individual lessons present specific details of the process. For
example, one detail involves using the Problems Definition Worksheet.
Thus, the entire workshop has been designed in terms of a general-to-
specific sequence.
EXERCISE #4: You have been asked to teach a lesson on selecting instruc-
tional methods. Listed below are some topics you wish to
include in the lesson. For each pair of topics, put an x
beside the topic you would teach first.
1. Definition of "instructional method"
2. Characteristics of a lecture
_3. A procedure for classifying instructional resources
_4- Still visual displays
5. Use of the Instructional Methods Selection Table
_6. Use of the Lesson Planning Form
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94
RULE #5: GOOD INSTRUCTION PROVIDES A VARIETY
OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES.
Explanation: Some people learn by listening to lectures; some prefer to
discuss ideas and ask questions; still others need to see visual repre-
sentations such as diagrams and pictures. People learn differently.
Application: A good instructor considers these differences and provides
instruction in a variety of ways. A lecture can be supplemented with
visuals such as charts and graphs. A reading can be followed by a dis-
cussion. The repetition that occurs when several methods are combined
is important. Repetition leads to better and more lasting retention.
Example: To teach participants how to write instructional objectives, an
instructor decides to use a lecture. However, since a variety of instruc-
tional methods provides important repetition, the instructor also plans
to use overhead transparencies and handouts which diagram the process of
writing objectives. The instructor also plans to hold a discussion on
the difficulties in writing objectives. Finally, the instructor will
assign a reading to reinforce the other presentations. By using a
variety of methods, the instructor makes certain that the needs of all
learners are met.
EXERCISE #5: List 2-3 ways in which an instructor might provide variety
during a lesson on each of the following three topics.
1. Using an analytical balance
2. Performing a task analysis
3. Setting up equipment for a chemical test
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95
RULE #6: GOOD INSTRUCTION INCLUDES EXAMPLES.
Explanation: Examples are concrete and specific illustrations of
general ideas. They connect abstract words to the real world. Examples
show learners how rules and procedures work.
Application: Examples include demonstrations of procedures, applications
of formulas and rules, and illustrations of concepts. Examples reveal
how procedural steps should be carried out and how formulas and rules
should be used. To be most useful, examples should move from easy to
difficult. Whenever possible, more than one example should be used to
teach a single procedure or rule or concept.
Example: The design of this assignment involved the application of the
rule for including examples. After each rule for good instruction is
presented, an example is given so that the participants can see how to
implement the rule. The example makes concrete and specific the general
statement of the rule.
EXERCISE #6: Identify four instances of the uses of examples in teaching
the concepts of this workshop.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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96
RULE #7: GOOD INSTRUCTION INCLUDES OPPORTUNITIES
FOR LEARNERS TO PRACTICE WHAT THEY ARE
LEARNING
Explanation: Practice opportunities allow learners to try out new
abilities and to discover what they don't understand. Practice aids
both in increasing retention and in transferring the new skill or know-
ledge from the classroom to the real world.
Application: Practice opportunities should be included for each separ-
ate concept or rule or procedure being taught. Frequent opportunities
should be provided for practice during instruction. Several short ses-
sions of increasing levels of difficulty are far more effective than a
single lengthy session at the end of a lesson. Learners can gain practice
by discussion of ideas, using formulas and rules to solve problems, and
carrying out procedures.
Example: The design of this reading illustrates the rule that good
instruction includes opportunities for practice. As each rule is pre-
sented and explained, you are given an opportunity to try out your new
knowledge. An exercise allows you to practice using the rule to deter-
mine how well you understand the rule. Several short sessions are pro-
vided, one for each rule.
EXERCISE #7: As a wastewater treatment plant chemist, one of your
duties involves teaching technicians to perform routine
chemical tests. Each of the two paragraphs below describes
an approach to teaching a test procedure. Put an x. beside
the paragraph that describes the more effective use of
practice.
1. The instructor lists the steps in the procedure and then demon-
strates the procedure. Next, the instructor asks one trainee to
list, in order, the steps involved. Then, the instructor demon-
strates the procedure again, commenting on important concerns or
cautions associated with each step. Finally, the instructor asks
each trainee to carry out the procedure on a wastewater sample.
The instructor lists the steps in the procedure. As he demon-
strates each step, he asks a trainee to state what is involved
in the step. Next, the instructor asks one trainee to demonstrate
the procedure under the direction and guidance of the other
trainees. Then trainees work in pairs to criticize each other
as they carry out the procedure. Finally, each trainee is given
three wastewater samples and asked to perform the test and report
results for each sample.
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97
RULE #8: GOOD INSTRUCTION PROVIDES ONGOING
FEEDBACK SO LEARNERS KNOW HOW WELL
THEY ARE LEARNING.
Explanation: Feedback is knowledge of results. Feedback can be as
simple as "Right/Wrong" response from the instructor. Or it can involve
detailed explanations of why answers are wrong and directions for cor-
recting the answers. Feedback serves two important purposes. First, it
tells the learner how well s/he is doing so that the learner knows how to
correct errors and increase learning. Second, feedback motivates the
learner to try again.
Application: Feedback should be both explanatory and motivating. You
should provide both correct answers and encouragement. Praise is an
important part of feedback; it can take the form of a compliment as well
as a high score on an exercise or test. Feedback should also be provided
frequently. Each exercise or activity should include a feedback component.
Most important, feedback should be constructive; it must never attack a
learner personally and it must be specific in identifying errors and
suggesting solutions.
Example: Robert's mother is teaching him to bake bread. She describes
the process, gives Robert a receipe, and demonstrates the process. Then
she lets Robert try. When Robert adds the yeast to cold water, she tells
him that the yeast will not develop and shows him how warm the water
should be. When Robert kneads the dough, she compliments him on his firm
touch but tells him to include more time for kneading. And when the
bread is out of the oven and ready to eat, she proudly serves it to the
family. She has demonstrated the process of providing ongoing feedback
so that Robert can correct his mistakes and feel confident about his
successes.
EXERCISE #8: Place an x. next to each example of effective feedback.
1. Your test score was 70 out of a possible 80. Good work!
2. You incorrectly stated one part of the objective; find your
error and correct it.
_3. That's a stupid comment!
_4. You seem to be having trouble understanding the concept of
evaluation. Reread Unit Five and mark the parts you don't
understand; then come talk with me.
_5. You are holding that beaker wrong; that's why you are having
trouble seeina the sediment.
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98
RULE #9: GOOD INSTRUCTION CONSIDERS THE TYPE
AND LEVEL OF BEHAVIOR SPECIFIED IN
THE INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE.
Explanation: Instruction must be directed toward the type and level of
behavior specified by the objective. Type and level of behavior in the
objective determine the kinds of learning experiences trainees must have
in order to perform as the objective specifies.
Application: Psychomotor objectives require instruction in physical
(motor) skills; verbal descriptions of physical movements are not suffi-
cient. The learner must be able to practice the type of performance that
s/he will have to demonstrate during the evaluation.
Affective objectives necessitate experiences which provide models for the
desired behavior. Learners must see others demonstrate desired attitudes
and must have opportunities to practice the behaviors on which they will
be evaluated.
Different levels of cognitive objectives require different kinds of
learning experiences. To perform at the Comprehension level, the learner
must have access to verbal information and practice in stating that infor-
mation. To perform at the Comprehension level, the learner must have
instruction and practice in explaining, defining, and classifying. Appli-
cation-level performance is developed through experiences involving using
rules and formulas and carrying out procedures. Problem-solving abilities
are developed through exposure to problem situations which allow learners
to practice generating and testing solutions. The kind of instruction
learners receive determines the kind of performance they will be capable
of giving.
Example: To teach participants how to write instructional objectives, the
instructor provides several types of learning experiences. He defines the
concept "objective", shows examples of properly written objectives,
describes the procedure for specifying the four components, and provides
participants with practice in writing the objectives. Since the level of
performance specified in the objective is at the Application level, the
instructor knows that participants must have training and practice in apply-
ing the formula and writing sample objectives.
EXERCISE #9: For each of the following objectives, name the most important
kind of learning experience that trainees would need in order
to be able to perform the type and level of behavior specified
in the objective.
1. Uses an analytic balance to weigh a substance.
2. Explains the importance of specifying an acceptable performance level
in an instructional objective.
3. Types a report from a written copy.
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99
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE #1: Place an 21 next to each statement that is a good example of
an instructor's explanation for a lesson.
x_l. Learning to balance these figures is the first step in learning
the bookkeeping system. Clerks on the next three job levels above
this one must know this bookkeeping system.
2. Your job may never require you to run this test, but the procedure
is quite interesting.
3. This material is required of all students in this course.
x 4. A knowledge of FORTRAN computer language is essential in program-
ming this computer. You will probably use FORTRAN many times each
day in your job.
x 5. Since many of your co-workers on this project do not speak English,
the company is offering this course in conversational French to
help you communicate with your co-workers.
EXERCISE #2: Put an >c next to each statement which provides a clear goal
for learners.
1. After completing this lesson, you will know about nine rules for
planning instruction.
x 2. By the end of this unit, you will be able to test water samples
for the presence of mercury, using standard equipment.
x 3. When you finish this unit, you will understand why instructional
objectives must be specified.
x 4. When they have completed the basic workshop, participants will be
able to plan a lesson.
5. The purpose of this lesson is to teach you about evaluation.
EXERCISE #3: Suggested responses
1. Select an evaluation strategy for a lesson.
explain the concept of evaluation
identify kinds of evaluation strategies
2. Determine the type of behavior specified in an objective.
define types of behavior
explain the concept of "objective"
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100
3. Perform a task analysis.
distinguish between a task and a job
identify steps in a task
EXERCISE #4: You have been asked to teach a lesson on selecting instruc-
tional methods. Listed below are some topics you wish to
include in the lesson. For each pair of topics, put an x^
beside the topic you would teach first.
x 1. Definition of "instructional method"
2. Characteristics of a lecture
x 3. A procedure for classifying instructional resources
_4- Still visual displays
x 5. Use of the Instructional Methods Selection Table
6. Use of the Lesson Planning Form
EXERCISE #5: List 2-3 ways in which an instructor might provide variety
during a lesson on each of following three topics.
1. Using an analytical balance
lecture or film
demonstration
2. Performing a task analysis
lecture demonstration
individualized learning package
3. Setting up equipment for a chemical test
film reading demonstration
EXERCISE #6: Identify four instances of the uses of examples in teaching
the concepts of this workshop.
1. all demonstrations are examples
2. each rule in this assignment has an example
3. the simulation exercise is an example
4. the exercises in this assignment contain examples
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101
EXERCISE #7: As a wastewater treatment plant chemist, one of your duties
involves teaching technicians to perform routine chemical
tests. Each of the two paragraphs below describes an
approach to teaching a test procedure. Put an _x beside the
paragraph that describes the more effective use of practice.
1. The instructor lists the steps in the procedure and then demon-
strates the procedure. Next, the instructor asks one trainee to
list, in order, the steps involved. Then, the instructor demon-
strates the procedure again, commenting on important concerns or
cautions associated with each step. Finally, the instructor asks
each trainee to carry out the procedure on a wastewater sample.
x 2. The instructor lists the steps in the procedure. As he demon-
strates each step, he asks a trainee to state what is involved
in the step. Next, the instructor asks one trainee to demonstrate
the procedure under the direction and guidance of the other train-
ees. Then trainees work in pairs to criticize each other as they
carry out the procedure. Finally each trainee is given three
wastewater samples and asked to perform the test and report
results for each sample.
EXERCISE #8: Place an _x next to each example of effective feedback.
x 1. Your test score was 70 out of a possible 80. Good work!
_2. You incorrectly stated one part of the objective; find your error
and correct it.
3. That's a stupid comment!
x 4. You seem to be having trouble understanding the concept of evalu-
ation. Reread Unit Five and mark the parts you don't understand;
then come talk with me.
5. You are holding that beaker wrong; that's why you are having
trouble seeing the sediment.
EXERCISE #9: For each of the following objectives, name the most important
kind of learning experience that trainees would need in order
to be able to perform the type and level of behavior speci-
fied in the objective.
1. Uses an analytic balance to weigh a substance.
practice in following the procedure
2. Explains the importance of specifying an acceptable performance level
in an instructional objective.
oral or written practice in explaining
3. Types a report from a written copy.
practice in using typewriter
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102
Post-test
You have been asked to teach a lesson on writing behavioral objectives.
The purpose of the lesson is to help students learn how to identify the
type and level of behavior for each objective. All the following questions
involve applications of the nine rules to the design of this lesson.
1. State two instructional objectives for the lesson.
2. Put an x. beside the statement which best explains why learners should
master the objective.
a. the training supervisor always wants to see lesson objectives
_b. objectives tell students what they will be able to do when they
have learned
c. objective-writing is a fascinating skill to study
3. List at least three prerequisites for this lesson.
4. a. List at least four instructional methods that can be used to
teach the lesson.
b. Briefly describe how you would provide examples, practice
opportunities, and feedback.
5. Briefly explain how you would prove that the lesson was appropriate
for the domain and the level of performance specified in the objective.
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103
UNIT SEVEN: LESSON PLANNING
LESSON 4 of 5: EXERCISE IN PLANNING A LESSON
ASSIGNMENT 7.2: EXERCISE IN PLANNING A LESSON
Estimated time: Sixty minutes
This assignment is designed to give you practice in specifying
instructional activities and identifying instructional resources
for a single lesson. Using the Task Detailing Sheet and Lesson
Planning Form completed in Unit Six, Lesson 4, you will complete
an Instructional Package Worksheet (IPW) for your lesson on a sus-
pended solids test step. You will have approximately 45 minutes
for this task. The remaining 15 minutes will be spent in a dis-
cussion of any problems or concerns involved in specifying
instructional activities and resources for a lesson.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be
able to plan a lesson and specify instructional
activities and resources, using the Instructional
Package Worksheet.
EVALUATION: Participant review and discussion of completed
Instructional Package Worksheets will serve as the
evaluation activity for this assignment.
DIRECTIONS: 1.
Complete the exercise described below. Use the
Task Detailing Sheets and Lesson Planning Forms
from Unit Six, Lesson Four. This task should
take approximately 45 minutes.
Discuss completed Instructional Package Work-
sheet with fellow participants. This task
should take approximately 15 minutes.
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104
ASSIGNMENT 7.2
EXERCISE DESCRIPTION
You have already completed initial plans for teaching a lesson on a suspended
solids step. You are now ready to develop the lesson activities.
Using the Instructional Package Worksheet which is included here, you
will write a justification statement, specify instructional resources,
and specify the Instructional Approach for a 60-minute lesson on the
step you have chosen. The Instructional Approach should contain detailed
instructions on kinds of instructional and learning activities. Your
Instructional Package Worksheet should be complete enough that any other
instructor with experience and responsibilities similar to yours will be
able to teach the lesson using the Instructional Package Worksheet. You
should also indicate specific kinds of resources that should be used in
the conduct of the lesson, such as figures, handouts, content outlines,
and the like. Be prepared to explain and justify your decisions during
the discussion which completes the assignment.
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105
INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Acti vi ti es
Resources
Instructional Approach
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107
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT EIGHT
DEVELOPING ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Estimated time for unit - Two hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit identifies the characteristics of effective oral pre-
sentations and provides practice in public speaking. Using the Present-
ation Check List, participants assess each others' presentations.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
In this unit, you will learn to:
-list characteristics of an effective oral presentation
-apply principles of effective speaking in a brief oral presen-
tation
-evaluate the public speaking ability of fellow participants
The PURPOSE of this unit:
An instructor is a public speaker, whether the speech is a
lecture given to fifty people in a lecture hall or a few
sentences of direction or encouragement given to one trainee
during a problem-solving session. Since so much of what people
learn is communicated orally, an instructor must be conscious
of the way in which s/he delivers oral communications.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary for Presentations
I. The Lecture
II. The Demonstration
III. Guided Discussion
IV. Adaptive Instruction
2. Presentation Rating Scale
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UNIT EIGHT: DEVELOPING ORAL COMMUNICATIONS SKILLS
CONTENT SUMMARY
Oral presentations must be spoken, not read.
1. Maintain eye contact with audience.
2. Use humor to establish and maintain rapport with audience.
3. Use a variety of voice tones and volumes.
4. Create an atmosphere of informality by appearing relaxed.
5. Use language that is appropriate for the audience.
6. Check frequently to determine degree of audience interest and
understanding.
7. Allow space for occasional questions and comments from
audience.
8. Show enthusiasm for the topic.
The speaker's body must not distract attention from the content of the
presentation.
1. Be poised; do not pace around, shuffle feet or papers, or
wave hands.
2. Have all equipment and materials ready and organized before
beginning.
3. Always face your audience, even when using media.
4. Keep your hands still when not demonstrating a procedure or
pointing to an item in the media.
The presentation must be organized and logical.
1. Orient the audience to provide motivation for listening.
2. Inform the audience of the structure of the presentation.
3. Emphasize major points - with media as appropriate.
4. Summarize major points at the end.
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I. The Lecture (Method #1)
A. Definition - uninterrupted speech by which one presents
information to others
B. Characteristics of a Good Lecture
1. The lecturer has good public speaking skills
2. The presentation is
a. brief - usually no more than 15-20 minutes of uninter-
rupted speech; a lecture should not strain normal
attention span
b. organized
i) the introduction
(a) establishes rapport between lecturer and
learners
(b) defines the purpose of the lecture, gains
learners' attention, and motivates them to
remain attentive
(c) outlines the major points of the lecture
(d) defines the objectives of the lecture
ii) the body
(a) uses a simple-to-complex structure for
presenting the content
(b) aims toward specific objectives
(c) provides opportunities for questioning
(d) allows for practice of knowledge
iii) the conclusion
(a) reviews and summarizes main points
(b) opens opportunity for student responses
(c) provides directions to the next activity
c. accompanied by media (when appropriate)
i) highlighting - visual accompaniments such as
outlines, graphics, pictures - reinforce content
during the lecture
ii) student handouts - "take-homes" such as outlines,
procedural guidelines, etc. - serve as a personal
employee manual for on-the-job use
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C. Advantages
1. Presents large amounts of information from many or from
hard-to-get sources in short amount of time
2. Gives instructor control over the kind of information and
organization presented
3. Provides the most efficient way to introduce and to
summarize a learning experience
D. Disadvantages
1. Over-stresses acquisition of facts
2. Can make learners into passive, dependent receivers of
information
3. Is instructor-paced
4. Is often too long
5. Is often over-used or misused
6. Is not for teaching "how to" (procedures)
7. Depends for success on instructor's public-speaking
ability
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Ill
II. Demonstration (Method #2)
A. Definition - showing, as opposed to telling, how to do
something by manipulating appropriate materials and
equipment
B. Characteristics of a Good Demonstration
1. The instructor prepares site and materials
a. on-location or simulated site is chosen and prepared for
maximum effectiveness and visibility to all learners
b. materials and equipment obtained and tested by working
through demonstration
c. setup allows everyone to see demonstration
d. media/handouts prepared to complement demonstration -
i.e., steps outlined, decision points and criteria
defined, "success" described in terms of predefined
criteria
2. The instructor prepares for the students
a. necessary orientation information developed
b. mini-lectures for introducing and summarizing the
procedure prepared
c. frequent opportunities provided to ask questions
d. frequent checks to ensure student understanding
e. opportunities to practice the procedure
C. Advantages
1. Gives on-the-job experience
2. Allows learners to develop and practice skills under
supervision
D. Disadvantages
1. Not useful alone; must be prepared for and summarized through
lecture or reading
2. Large groups of learners require much time for practice in
order to be effective
3. Useful only for fixed-step procedures, not for creative
problem solving
4. Requires equipment, materials, often site visits
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112
III. Guided Discussion (Method #3)
A. Definition - a sharing of ideas and opinions in order to
arrive at a mutually acceptable decision or solution to a
problem
B. Characteristics of a Good Discussion
1. Not a bull session - topics and objectives must be carefully
prepared and purpose explicitly defined so that group will
know when discussion should end
2. Groups should be small enough to allow everyone to partici-
pate and large enough to avoid polarization or domination
by a few
3. Discussion leader
a. initiates discussion by stating topics, objectives,
guidelines (rules for participating, parameters of
discussion)
b. coordinates discussion by summarizing ideas and
establishing relationships among ideas
c. orients discussion by pulling discussion back to topic;
avoids playing expert and giving lectures
d. encourages participation by warmth, non-critical analysis
of contributions, questioning silent members in non-
threatening way
e. harmonizes the group by dealing with personal confron-
tations and disagreements and arbitrating as necessary
f. gate-keeps by preventing anyone from dominating the
group
4. Participants
a. participate - purpose is to share ideas in order to
develop solution to problem
b. remain non-critical and objective - avoid personal
attacks and emotional analyses like "that's stupid"
c. stick to the topic
d. avoid private discussions and share ideas with whole
group
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113
e. direct comments and questions to group rather than to
leader
f. accept leader as arbitrator of group
5. Physical environment is arranged to facilitate discussion
by ensuring eye contact among all participants
C. Advantages
1. Allows all members of group opportunity to share ideas
2. Provides for mutual solving of a problem and practice in
ways of solving problems
D. Disadvantages
1. Can be dominated by an individual or faction
2. Can degenerate into an exchange of abuse
3. Can bog down in extended, uncomfortable silence or
irrelevancies
4. Can be a front for leader-provided lectures
5. Can be misused (not suitable for communicating factual
information or teaching procedures)
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114
IV. Adaptive Instruction (Method #4)
A. Definition - to adapt instruction to individual needs, goals,
learning materials and/or instructional methods and techniques are
especially chosen to suit a particular student or group of
students
Types of Adaptive Instruction - individualized learning packages,
assignments, tutorials
B. Characteristics of Good Adaptive Instruction
1. Characteristics of effective individualized learning
packages
a. provides all the information and materials learner needs
to know on his/her own
b. provides for practice and feedback
c. is structured properly (orienting overview, body with
logical learning steps, summarizing review)
d. meets individual needs of learners
2. Characteristics of effective assignments
a. application oriented - allows students to apply know-
ledge and skills in new or unfamiliar contexts
b. allows for choice - provides options so that the students
can choose among alternative assignments, contexts, or
subjects
c. builds skills in specific steps from simplest to most
complex
d. provides feedback reinforcement
3. Characteristics of effective tutorials
a. is a one-to-one session between tutor and learner (tutor
need not be the instructor)
b. has problem-solving orientation using stages of diagnosis
and remedy
c. builds skills in specific steps
d. tutor guides learner to discover answers - does not
lecture at learner
e. session is problem-specific and ends when solution is
discovered
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115
C. Advantages
1. Responsive to individual needs
2. Allows for learner pacing and repetition as desired
3. Individualized learning packages can be given out when it
is difficult to organize a class or too few students or no
instructor available
4. Tutorials can be used to help several learners with diffi-
cult problems in a short space of time
D. Disadvantages
1. Instructor-made individualized learning packages are
expensive to prepare
2. Not suitable for complex or complicated subject matter
3. Not useful for teaching procedures that require equipment
or complicated materials
4. Does not allow for exchange of ideas and opinions -
basically a lonely method of learning
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Presentation Rating Scale
Name of Presenter Topic
Directions: The following are some important characteristics of good instruc-
tional presentations. Check the column on the right that best represents
your impression of this presenter's performance on each characteristic.
Do not complete the form until the presentation is over. It should only
take a few minutes to complete this form. Remember that the purpose of
this rating scale is to provide corrective feedback to the presenter.
Excellent Very Adequate Poor Does not
Good Apply
A. Delivery Techniques
1. Obtained the attention of
the audience at the start
2. Attempted to match the
presentation to the
audience's background
and preparation
3. Projected warmth, friend-
liness, confidence, and
interest in the subject
4. Talked with sufficient
volume to reach all
listeners.
5. Varied stress, intonation
and pacing as appropriate
6. Used humor when appro-
priate
B. Composure
7. Maintained relaxed posture
during the presentation
8. Refrained from pacing or
shuffling feet
9. Used no distracting
mannerisms
C. Organization
10. Began with a clear intro-
duction, including purpose
and overview
11. Provided clear and useful
organization for material
12. Emphasized and/or repeated
important points
13. Incorporated examples and
illustrations
14. Allowed for audience feed-
back through questions and •
comments
Use the back of this form for any additional comments or suggestions you
might wish to make.
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117
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT NINE
DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRESENTATIONS
Estimated time for unit - One and one-half hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit provides practice in making original oral presentations.
Given IPWs from Unit Ten, participants will plan and deliver brief
oral presentations on topics relating to media and related resources.
Feedback will be provided on participants' oral speaking abilities.
The OBJECTIVE of this unit:
In this unit you will learn to:
-design, practice and deliver a five- to ten-minute oral presentation
on a topic relating to media.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
One of the workshop's goals is to provide participants with oppor-
tunities to practice making instructional presentations. In this unit
- participants are able to apply some of their new instructional skills
by preparing a short presentation on a selected lesson from Unit Ten
materials. These presentations will then be used to teach the content
of Unit Ten. Participants will also receive corrective feedback on
their presentations.
Note: No content summary is provided for this application exercise.
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119
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT TEN
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
Estimated time for unit - Five hours thirty minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit introduces topics in media selection and utilization
and resource centers and systems available to EPA professionals.
Through individual presentations, participants will provide
instruction in selecting and preparing media, operating equipment
and utilizing resources in EPA. This unit provides the content
for the oral presentations that are the substance of Unit Nine.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
In this unit you will learn to:
-produce simple and effective instructional graphics and over-
head transparencies.
-operate overhead projectors, slide projectors, and at least one
form of motion picture projector.
-identify and obtain instructional media using IRIS, IRC, and/or
local sources.
-plan and evaluate the appropriate use of instructional media by
applying principles of media selection.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Media have become an integral part of modern instruction. Through
EPA's Instructional Resources Information System (IRIS) and
Instructional Resources Center (IRC) a variety of mediated materials
are available relevant to environmental quality control subjects.
This unit is designed to provide the basic information and skills
needed to select and employ media in support of effective instruc-
tion. Among the topics to be covered are the preparation of
instructional graphics and overhead transparencies, the operation
of simple audio-visual equipment, the location and identification
of media resources, and the principles of appropriate media use.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Reading: Selecting Media for Instruction
3. IRIS Sample Abstracts
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120
UNIT TEN: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
CONTENT SUMMARY
Purposes of Unit
1) Using media to complement verbal instruction
2) Practice in public speaking
Principles of Instructional Graphics
1) Visual tools of graphics
-line
-shape
-space
-texture
-color
2) Principles of design
-simplicity -balance
-unity -appeal
-emphasis -functional ism
Equipment Operation
1) Overhead projectors
2) Slide projectors
3) Motion picture projectors
Instructional Uses of Media - guidelines, advantages and disadvantages
1) Overhead transparencies
2) Slides and filmstrips
3) Audiotapes
4) Motion pictures
5) Instructional television
Media Selection
1) Criteria for selecting media
-cost
-ease of use
-flexibility
-durability
2) Criteria applied to types of media
3) Selecting an instructional medium
Resource Dissemination Systems
1) IRIS
2) IRC
3) Community resources
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121
UNIT TEN: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
LESSON 12 of 15: MEDIA SELECTION
Reading
SELECTING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
The goal of teaching is to increase the abilities of students. The
selection of media for this purpose should be based on the efficiency,
effectiveness, and economy of the medium in accomplishing the desired
objective. These three terms: efficiency, effectiveness, and economy
refer to the ability of the medium to accomplish the desired task in the
least amount of time, with the maximum level of competency and at the
lowest cost. To be able to make the best decision as to which medium may
be most appropriate, it is necessary to know something about the charac-
teristics of the various media, their advantages and limitations and their
relative cost to prepare.
Selection often times ends up being based on the materials presently
available to the teacher or on the basis of the medium we are most com-
fortable with. The information in this reading will consider the charac-
teristics of the various media and the factors which should be considered
in selection. It is hoped that this information will provide you with a
basis for selecting the medium which has the greatest potential for
assisting your students in achieving desired objectives.
Before considering various media individually, it should be pointed
out that no single medium will likely be suitable for accomplishing your
objectives. A combination of media or multi-media approach recognizes
that different media serve best various instructional purposes and also
that students vary in the type of learning activity which is most appro-
priate for them to learn most efficiently and effectively. A multi-media
approach to instruction provides alternative resources and alternative
ways of learning.
Photographic Print Series
A photographic print series consists of sequences of pictures of
drawings and/or photographs of various items, processes, situations, etc.
These photographs may be made in black and white or in color. Color
prints are considerably more expensive than black and white prints.
Photographic prints series are usually accompanied by explanatory captions,
printed text, or audio-tape material to provide for direction in using
and interpreting the visual ideas presented. This type of material lends
itself to individual use as part of a programmed learning activity.
Slide Series
Photographic slides are perhaps the most common locally produced pro-
jected material used in instruction. These slides are ready for use after
they are returned from a film processing laboratory. Satisfactory slides
can be produced with inexpensive "instamatic" type cameras. However, for
copy work requiring extreme close-ups and for photographing materials under
extreme light conditions, an adjustable 35mm camera is desirable. A 35mm
camera with close-up adapter and a copy stand can be purchased for approx-
imately $300 to $400.
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122
Many 35mm cameras have built-in exposure meters making them rela-
tively easy to operate whether used for copying or photographing live
subjects.
Slides are small and can be easily stored. The sequences of slides
can be easily changed and new slides added, providing flexibility in
changing and up-dating of slide series. Unless slides are stored in trays
or magazines, they can become out of sequence or be placed in the projector
backwards or upside down.
Projection equipment for 35mm slides allows the instructor maximum
flexibility in using this medium. Using the remote control features, the
instructor can change the slides while making his presentation and even
turn the projector on and off by remote control. Tape recordings can be
made on either reel-to-reel or cassette tape to accompany a slide series.
Synchronization equipment is available which will permit semi-remote con-
trol projectors to be automatically advanced by an inaudible signal placed
on the tape.
This medium can be used with either large or small groups. Small,
compact rear-screen viewing equipment now available makes this medium
ideal for small group or individual use with or without a taped narration.
Film Strips
Thirty-five millimeter filmstrips are similar to slides but, as the
name indicates, are on a strip of film as opposed to individually mounted
slides. The primary advantage of filmstrips is their compactness and ease
of handling. Since the pictures are always in order, there is no possi-
bility of wrong positioning. However, because of the fixed sequence film-
strips do not have the flexibility of slides in terms of rearrangement and
replacement. Damage to filmstrips resulting from improper handling is
difficult to repair.
Local production of filmstrips is difficult for the beginner. Com-
mercially produced filmstrips are usually prepared from enlarged photo-
graphs, drawings, and titles, which are photographed with a 35mm single
frame camera. Commercial film laboratories will convert your 35mm slides
to a filmstrip. There are some precautions which need to be taken in doing
this, as part of the slide area will be lost due to differences in the
ratio between a filmstrip frame and the picture area of a slide. Use of
filmstrips is desirable when a fixed order of pictures needs to be main-
tained. The reproduction costs of a filmstrip are significantly less than
for slides.
Filmstrips are generally accompanied by a narration in the form of
captions on individual frames or an audio narration on a disk or tape
recording. Most filmstrips produced today have an audio narration with
inaudible signal provided on the tape or disk to automatically advance
the filmstrip from frame to frame when used on automatic advance equipment.
In addition to use with regular filmstrip projectors, filmstrips can also
be used with compact filmstrip viewers, some of which also utilize cassette
tapes, making them very useful for independent study.
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123
Tape Recording
The development of the compact cassette recorder has made the use of
tape recordings a popular instructional activity because of the ease and
convenience of using this type material. Although audio materials can be
prepared for group listening, they are commonly now used for individual
listening. When recorded materials are used by themselves, they are often
combined with printed or projected material for self instruction. Using
the tape recording as a means of instruction is most advantageous when
the material is designed for individual listening. The convenience to the
student and the ability to move through the material at a pace which is
most suitable for him makes this a valuable instructional media.
Local production and duplication of tape recordings is relatively
easy. High speed cassette copiers can be purchased for less than $1000.
When making recordings for instructional use, there are several things
which should be kept in mind. It is desirable to write out what you are
going to say (to prepare a script) so that the material is well organized
and has a high degree of continuity. Materials which are recorded extem-
poraneously usually have large numbers of pauses which are typical of
"live" lectures. In order to keep the listener actively involved during
the listening activity, it is desirable to have a study guide which
requires the listener to record answers to questions or note important
points made in the recording. The study guide may also include visual
materials which will assist the listener in interpreting the oral pre-
sentation. Whenever possible, it is desirable to keep listening activities
to under 30 minutes.
Overhead transparencies
One of the most popular media used in instruction is the transparency
for use on the overhead projector. Simple processes for making trans-
parencies, the dramatic effect of the medium (using techniques such as
progressive disclosure and the use of overlays) and light-weight portable
projectors have made this probably the most widely used of all projected
media.
The overhead projector is used in the front of the room, allowing the
instructor to face students. Because the projector can be used in room
light at a moderate level, other activities requiring demonstrations, use
of models, objects, specimens, and photographs can be carried out at the
same time as the transparency is being used. The transparency allows the
instructor to be an active participant in the presentation. The instructor
can point to the features on the transparency, write on it, or use the
spread techniques of overlays and progressive disclosure to add impact and
clarity to the presentation.
There is a wide range of techniques for making transparencies. Some
require little skill or training while others require special equipment
and expertise in photography and graphics. In addition to locally produced
transparencies there are many commercially prepared transparencies avail-
able, particularly in the area of science.
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124
Motion Pictures
Where motion is essential to the concept being taught, the motion
picture should be considered. The motion picture also can have a dramatic
impact through the use of documentary film or through film portrayals by
actors and actresses. Through the use of various filming techniques such
as time-lapse photography, slow motion, close-ups, photomicrography and
animation, it is possible to bring to an instructional situation very
meaningful learning experiences.
Although there are literally thousands of films available on a wide
variety of topics, you may not find one which will meet your specific
needs. Production of 16mm films generally requires costly equipment, and
skilled personnel and much money for material and services. Super 8mm
camera equipment available today makes it possible for a person with little
knowledge of cameras to make good quality 8mm films. Simple 8mm projectors
are available, many using film cartridges, making this a valuable type of
material for individual or small group use. Some 8mm cameras available
today will allow you to add sound to your films while they are being made.
Alternately, the sound may be added later.
Television
Television programs are often made up of a combination of media.
Within the same program, there may be slides, film, photographs, charts,
graphs, etc. In televison, these media are not ends in themselves, but
rather contributors to the design of an effective television presentation.
Television bears some similarity to motion pictures in that both
involve motion and sound. Although studio level production is complex and
costly, with simple television systems utilizing a single camera, it is
possible to produce effective instructional materials. With television
the sound and picture are recorded simultaneously in synchronizaton which
is difficult to do with motion pictures. The ability to view immediately
what was recorded is an important advantage of television. If necessary,
the program can be erased and re-recorded. Portable cameras and video
tape recorders make it possible to produce television programs at almost
any location. The cost and size of color television cameras has been
reduced significantly making possible a wider range of uses for television.
The video cassette has made the operation of video tape recorders as simple
as the operation of the audio cassette recorder.
In the past, television has been considered a medium of instruction
which was most appropriate for reaching large groups. With the ease of
locally producing television programs with simple television systems and
the development of the video cassette, greater consideration is being given
to individual study carrel facilities.
On the following pages is a table summarizing the characteristics of
the various media which have been considered. This table can serve as a
reference in considering the advantages and limitations of each medium.
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Table No. 1
Summary of Characteristics of Educational Media Materials
MATERIAL
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Photographic
print series
1. Use is self-paced 1.
2. No equipment is required 2,
3. Sequence and selection are flexible
Not adaptable for large groups
Require photographic skills, equipment,
and darkroom for preparation
Easily damaged through excessive or
careless handling
Slide series
1. May be adapted for large group
or individual use
2. Result in colorful, realistic
reproductions of original subjects
3. Easily revised and up-dated
4. Easily handled, stored, and rear-
ranged for various uses
5. Can be combined with taped narra-
tion for greater effectiveness
6. Equipment is light-weight and
portable
1. Require some skill in photography
2. Require special equipment for close-up
photography and copying
3. Can get out of sequence and be projected
incorrectly if slides are handled
individually
Filmstrips
1. Are useful for groups or individuals 1.
2. Compact, easily handled, and always 2.
in proper sequence
3. Can be supplemented with captions or
recordings
4. Inexpensive
5. Equipment is light-weight and portable
Cannot easily be prepared locally
Permanent sequence cannot be rearranged
or revised
ro
CJ1
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MATERIAL
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Recordings
1. Easy to prepare
2. Can provide applications in most
subject areas
3. Equipment is compact, portable,
easy to operate
4. Flexible and adaptable as either
individual elements of instruction
or in correlation with programmed
materials
5. Duplication easy and economical
1. Have a tendency for overuse, as lecture
or oral textbook reading
2. Fixed rate of information flow
3. Limited attention span of learners
requires brief presentations (no more
than 30 minutes)
4. Need some printed accompaniment such as
users' guide
Overhead
transparencies
1. Can present information in sys-
tematic, developmental sequences
2. Use simple-to-operate projector
with presentation rate controlled
by instructor
3. Can be prepared by variety of
simple, inexpensive methods
4. Particularly useful with large
groups
5. Can be combined with other media in
a presentation
2.
3.
Require special equipment, facilities,
and skills for more advanced preparation
methods
Difficult to store
Easily damaged or destroyed
Motion pictures
1. Particularly useful in describing
motion, showing relationships, or
providing dramatic impact
2. Are useful with groups of all sizes
and with individuals
3. 8mm film reduces cost for materials
and services
4. Sound is easily added to magnetic
film
1. Fairly expensive to prepare or purchase
2. Production equipment requires special
training to use
3. Equipment rapidly becomes obsolete
ro
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MATERIAL
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Motion pictures
(con't)
5. Insure a consistency in presentation
of material
Television
1. Permits use of motion 1.
2. Permits use of many media during 2.
program
3. Permits normally unavailable 3,
resources to be presented
4. Playback capability of video
recording permits analysis of
on-the-spot action
5. Adaptable for use with groups or
individuals
Equipment is expensive and cumbersome
Special training needed to operate
equipment
Production costs are high
ro
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129
UNIT TEN: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
LESSON 13 of 15: INTRODUCTION TO IRIS
IRIS Sample Abstract
Entry in IRIS Only
EW003821
PUBLICATION DATE: [78]
TITLE: WPCF Wastewater Treatment Plant Operator Training Program,
Intermediate Course: Student Workbook, Vol. A, Parts 1 and 2.
INSTITUTION NAME: Water Pollution Control Federation
AVAILABLE FROM: Water Pollution Control Federation,
2626 Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, D. C. 20037
DESCRIPTOR: *Activated Sludge; Audiovisual Aids; Certification;
Clarification (Wastewater); Environmental Technicians;
instructional Materials; Job Skills; Operations
(Wastewater); Pollution; *Post Secondary Education;
*Wastewater Collection; *Wastewater Treatment;
Water Pollution Control
DESCRIPTIVE NOTE: 244 pages. Course Materials: 35 mm slides (340),
9 tape cassettes, administrator handbook, carrying case, and student
workbook (parts 1 and 2) -order no. E0291, $400.00; student workbook
only - order no. E0292, $4.50; other volumes: EW003822 and EW003823
This document is one in a series of self-instructional workbooks
for training wastewater treatment plant operators in the basic
functions of facility operation. The workbook contains a pre- and
post-test questionnaire for each unit as well as self-tests as interim
guides. The units discussed in the volume are a general introduction,
the community wastewater system, pre-treatment, clarification, and
activated sludge. (CS)
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130
UNIT TEN: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND RELATED RESOURCES
LESSON 13 of 15: INTRODUCTION TO IRIS
IRIS Sample Abstract
Entry in IRIS and ERIC
EW003836 EDI 57796
PUBLICATION DATE: [71]
TITLE: A Guide to the Common Diatoms at Water Pollution Surveillance
System Stations.
PERSONAL AUTHOR: Weber, Cornelius I.
1 INSTITUTION CODE: BBB06755
: INSTITUTION NAME: Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio
AVAILABLE FROM: EDRS Price MF-$0.83 HC-$6.01 PLUS POSTAGE
DESCRIPTOR: Biology; Environment; instructional Materials;
*Microbiology; *Plant Identification; Post
Secondary Education; Science Education;
*Taxonomy; *Water Pollution Control; Water
Resources; *Diatoms
DESCRIPTIVE NOTE: 107 pages; Graphs may not reproduce well
ISSUE: RIE DEC 78
This guide was developed by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) as a taxonomic reference for the identification
of diatoms. The taxonomic information included consists of a generic
key to the common genera of diatoms, a section illustrating 164 diatom
species representing 43 common genera found at the Water Pollution
Surveillance System (WPSS) stations, and an alphabetical list of the
genera included in this publication. Related information includes
collection and slide preparation procedures, a description of the
structure of the diatom cell wall, and a glossary of terms used in
diatom taxonomy. Also included is a map of the WPSS station locations
in the United States and charts indicating the four most abundant
diatom species at these WPSS stations. No information is given on
the ecology of diatoms. (MR)
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131
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT ELEVEN
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Estimated time for unit - One hour
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit introduces variables in the physical and interpersonal
environment that the instructor should consider in planning a class.
Techniques for managing the class and maintaining attention are
also described.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
In this unit you will learn to:
-identify various important variables in the physical and inter-
personal environment of the classroom and predict their impact on
instructional effectiveness.
-Describe and give examples of basic techniques for classroom manage-
ment and maintaining attention.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
No matter how well-planned and prepared the instruction is, failure
to consider and control certain variables in the classroom environ-
ment can severely lessen the effectiveness of that instruction.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
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132
UNIT ELEVEN: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
CONTENT SUMMARY
There are two major kinds of environmental influences on the effectiveness
of instructional communication:
1. physical environment - the setting for the instruction
2. psychological environment - the learner's attitudes and dispo-
sitions towards the instruction or the setting
Considerations when planning instruction include:
-selection of methods and media
-rewards
-class schedule
-degree of formality
Techniques for managing class and maintaining attention include:
-beginning with overview
-noting progress
-directing attention
-maintaining participation
-maintaining appropriate pace and variety
-moving around classroom
-counseling problem students
-treating all students equally
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133
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT TWELVE
DEVELOPMENT OF SECOND PRESENTATIONS
Estimated time for unit - Three hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
Unit Twelve gives participants an opportunity to apply many of the
skills they have learned throughout the workshop. Each participant
defines the objectives, develops evaluation items, and designs the
instruction for a fifteen minute lesson. These lessons will be
presented and evaluated as part of Unit Thirteen activities.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of the unit you will have used the Instructional Package
Worksheet to prepare a presentation on one lesson on a selected area
of this workshop. You will work from your own notes and information
supplied by the instructor to prepare this lesson. During Unit
Thirteen you will be evaluated on your actual instructional presen-
tation.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Quite simply, this unit is intended to provide you with further prac-
tice in applying the various concepts and skills you learned from
preceding units.
The RESOURCES for this unit;
1. Blank IPW
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134
INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Acti vi ties
Resources
Instructional Approach
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135
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT THIRTEEN
WORKSHOP SUMMARY
Estimated time for unit - Five hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit is intended as a review and summary of the basic instruc-
tional technology subjects covered in this workshop. Presentations
will be given on the following topics:
The Systematic Approach to Training
Problem Analysis
Task Analysis
Defining Objectives
Evaluation Techniques
Instructional Methods Selection
Rules for Effective Instruction
Media Selection
IRIS
Principles of Public Speaking
Classroom Management
The OBJECTIVE of this unit:
Aside from being a general review, specific objectives for each lesson
will be developed by workshop participants.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
It will enable you to reinforce your understanding of instructional
technology subjects while providing an opportunity to practice your
presentation skills.
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137
BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT FOURTEEN
EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION
Estimated time for unit - One hour thirty minutes
As the conclusion to the workshop, this unit provides participants
with an opportunity to receive feedback on their understanding of
the major subject areas. Participants are also asked to provide
the instructor with feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of
the workshop itself.
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139
PLANNING FORMS AND WORKSHEETS
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140
PROBLEM DEFINITION WORKSHEET
(1) Something has caused you to suspect a personnel performance problem.
What is it? Describe the problem briefly in the space below.
(2) Identify the specific employees by job or position title (not name)
that are involved in or affected by the problem described above.
(3) What are the characteristics of this problem?
following items as seem relevant.
Check as many of the
_new people have
been hired
jexperienced people
have new tasks or
responsibilities
jiew equipment,
facilities or tech-
nology is being
used
_new information
exists
_output of work is
low
people cannot per-
form a task
effectively
people do not know
how to perform a
task
B
undesirable atti-
tudes toward work
are present
people do not seem
to want to work
there are no rewards
for doing well
jemployees provide
poor service
people feel that
getting job done is
not worth the effort
employees rarely re-
ceive feedback on
their performance
employees are
punished for poor
performance
_everything takes too
"long
_there is not enough
"time to do the work
jequipment frequently
does not work
or breaks down often
_supplies sometimes
run out
_new management or
management policy
exists
employees rarely talk
to their superiors
weak or inefficient
management is
apparent
people frequently
seem to have nothing
to do
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141
(4) In which of the columns (Step 3) are most of the items you checked
located?
A? B? C?
If A, you appear to have a problem where employees lack skill or
knowledge.
If B, the immediate indications are that there is a motivation or
incentive problem.
If C, it is likely that you are faced with an environmental problem.
(Something in the work setting is preventing people from performing
effectively.)
(5) At this point, it is helpful to summarize the information gained in
the previous steps. You should now be able to describe your problem
in terms of WHO is affected (Step 2), WHAT is involved (Step 3), and
WHY (Step 4"). (You may also want to gather some further information
about the specific nature of the problem at this point in order to
develop more specific answers to the WHO, WHAT, and WHY questions.)
Write a clear summary of the problem in the following format:
WHO
WHAT
WHY
(If a variety of different jobs are affected by or involved in this
problem, it may be useful to construct separate problem statements
for each.)
(6) Is a training program a relevant solution to the specific problem
defined above? Consider the following points as appropriate to the
identified cause of the problem (Step 4).
-If you identified your problem as involving an employee lack of
skill or knowledge, you may want to consider a training program.
-If you decided that you have a motivation or incentive problem,
you may want to discuss the situation with others to insure that
this problem lends itself to a training solution. (Many times
a change in organizational policy or management procedures is a
more effective solution.)
-If the problem seems to involve something in the work environ-
ment, it is rather unlikely that a training program is a relevant
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142
solution. (Investigate the situation further and consider
direct changes in the work setting.)
Does a training program represent a relevant solution to your problem?
Yes No
What other kinds of actions might be taken to address the problem in
combination with or instead of a training program?
Additional strategies:
(7) If you are still certain that some form of training program is called
for, proceed to analyze the training need for such a program using
the Job Task Summary Sheet. Separate Job Task Summary Sheets must be
completed for each job to be the subject of training.
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143
JOB TASK SUMMARY SHEET
A. Job Title
1. Describe the job in terms of its major duties (2-4).
A)
B)
C)
D)
2. Which duties are most relevant to the problem identified in the Problem
Definition Worksheet? Circle the relevant items on the list above.
B. For each duty chosen as relevant to the identified problem, prepare a list
of the specific tasks which make up the activities of that duty. (Use
additional pages if necessary to describe other duties/tasks.)
DUTY
TASKS 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
DUTY
TASKS 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
C. Should all of the tasks under each duty be considered as subjects for
training programs? Circle all the tasks which require training attention,
given your definition of the problem. (In deciding whether a specific
task should be the subject of a training program, consider its relative
importance, frequency of performance, and overall difficulty.)
D. Complete a Task Detailing Sheet for each task to be considered as the
focus of a training activity.
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TASK DETAILING SHEET
144
A. Write Job Title
B. Write Task
Complete steps C - F in the space below.
C. List the specific steps required to perform the task.
D. Check each step which needs to be taught.
E. Indicate whether the checked steps primarily involve cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor behavior.
F. For a cognitive behavior, indicate the appropriate level of performance:
Knowledge - ability to recall information or procedures
Comprehension - ability to explain information or procedures
Application - ability to use information or procedures to do
something
Problem Solving - ability to develop new information or procedures
C
Steps Required to Perform Task
0)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
01)
02)
D
Needs
to be
Taught
E
Type of Behavior:
Cognitive, Affec-
tive, Psychomotor
F
Level of
Cognitive
Behavior:
Know. , Comp. ,
Appl. , P. S.
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145
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title Task_
Step_
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
1) Instructional Objective:
Audience
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable
Performance"
2) Entering Competencies:
3) Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD(S)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
6) Sequence Of Instructional Activities. Outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
1.
2.
3.
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INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS SELECTION TABLE
^Instructional
Method
Types of
Behavior
LECTURE
DEMONSTRATION
GUIDED DISCUSSION
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION*
COGNITIVE,
Knowledge
COGNITIVE,
Comprehension
COGNITIVE,
Application
COGNITIVE,
Problem-
Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
Appropriate for
teaching facts
Appropriate
Appropriate for
initial presentation
of rules
Generally
not useful
Useful only in
support of a
demonstration
Usually not effective
for motivating trainees
or changing attitudes
about something
Generally
not useful
Useful as a supportive
method to reinforce
concept-using
Most appropriate method
for teaching rule-using
Useful for
problem-solving
Instruction
Live or simulated
demonstrations are
the most effective
method for teaching
motor skills
Modelling and
simulations are
useful for
forming attitudes
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Useful and appro-
priate for developing
problem-solving
skills
Generally
not useful
Group activities
such as role-playing
are often useful
for attitude
formation
Useful and appropriate
for conveying factual
information
Appropriate
Appropriate for
initial presentation
of rules
Exercises are useful
for teaching
problem-solving
Useful only
in support of a
demonstration
Generally
not useful
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MEDIA SELECTION TABLE
Types of Behavior
COGNITIVE
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
OBJECTS
Especially useful
with demonstra-
tions.
Can be used to teach
-recognition and
discrimination
-rules, principles
or sequential
steps.
Useful for teaching
and trainee prac-
tice of perfor-
mance in manipu-
lating tools and
equipment.
Especially appro-
priate for on-the-
job training.
People can be used
to demonstrate
physical actions.
Limited application.
May be useful if the
object is the
focus of the
desired attitude
formation.
Categories of Media
STILL PICTURES MOVING PICTURES
AUDIO MEDIA
WRITTEN MATERIALS
Very useful for all
levels of cogni-
tive instruction.
Can highlight stress
concepts by dis-
playing words,
lists of steps,
pictures and pic-
torial segments.
Can provide visual
cues.
Little application.
Can portray static
positions of
moving persons or
objects.
Limited application
Slides in combina-
tion with audio
materials may
influence attitude
formation.
Useful for showing
content not other-
wise easily
brought into the
training situa-
tion.
Usually too costly
for presenting
still visuals
and/or narrative
audio.
Very useful.
Can be used to:
-model skills
requiring motion
-slow motion for
close examination
-provide visual
feedback of stu-
dent performance
-demonstrate pro-
cesses which take
place over an
extended time
period.
Excellent for influ-
encing attitudes.
Special effects and
other visual tech-
niques are espec-
ially useful for
presenting affective
material.
May have their
greatest use when
in conjunction
with printed
matter or pro-
jected visuals.
Useful if sounds
of machines,
alarms, etc. must
be learned.
Inexpensive.
Recorded audio
materials gener-
ally useful in
training only when
demonstrating
speech or hearing-
related skills.
Limited application.
Possibly useful for
establishing moods
or attitudes with
background music,
special sounds, or
unique narration.
May be used with
slides to influence
attitude formation.
Excellent media for
all levels of
cognitive instruc-
tion.
Relatively inex-
pensive, printed
materials allow
for self-pacing.
Can be used effec-
tively with sti11
pictures and
audio materials.
Limited application,
since motion is
difficult to re-
present.
One important use
is procedure
guides or check-
lists for skills
performance.
Very little applica
tion for training
materials.
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148
INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Activities
Resources
Instructional Approach
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149
REFERENCES
Butler, E. C. Instructional systems development for vocational and
technical training.Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Educational Techno!ogy,
1972.
Gagne, R. M. and Briggs, L. J. Principles of Instructional design.
New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1974.
Gerlach, V. S. and Ely, D. P. Teaching and media: a systematic approach.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Gronlund, N. E. Preparing criterion-referenced tests for classroom
instruction. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
Gronlund, N. E. Stating behavioral objectives for classroom instruction.
New York: Macmillan, 1970.
Harless, J. H. An ounce of analysis (is worth a pound of objectives).
McLean, VA: Harless Performance Guild, Inc., 1975.
Kemp, J. E. Planning and producing audio-visual materials. New York:
Crowell, 1975.
Mager, R. F. Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: Fearon
Publishers, 1962.
Mager, R. F. and Beach, K. M., Jr. Developing vocational instruction.
Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, 1967.
Mager, R. F. and Pipe, P. Analyzing performance problems (or 'you really
oughta wanna'). Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, 1970.
Popham, W. J. Criterion-referenced measurement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Popham, W. J. and Baker, E. L. Systematic instruction. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
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151
GLOSSARY
Adaptive Instruction - to adapt instruction to individual needs, goals,
learning materials and/or instructional methods and techniques
especially chosen to suit a particular student or group of students
Affective Learning - a type of learning which emphasizes development of
interests, attitudes, and values
Check List - a list of skills or tasks which the trainee is expected to demon-
strate in the satisfactory performance of a job, behavior, etc.
Cognitive Learning - a type of learning which emphasizes intellectual pro-
cesses. The four levels of cognitive learning are Knowledge,
Understanding, Application, and Problem-Solving
Demonstration - showing, as opposed to telling, how to do something by mani-
pulating appropriate materials and equipment
Entering Competencies - skills and knowledge that trainees must possess before
they are ready to learn the behavior specified in the objective
Evaluation - the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and preparing
information for the purposes of decision-making. The functions
of evaluation in training programs are to determine existing capa-
bilities of employees, to provide feedback to trainees during
instructional activities, to provide opportunities for trainees to
practice using a new skill and to determine (or certify) the prepara-
tion of a trainee to do a particular job
Guided Discussion - a sharing of ideas and opinions in order to arrive at a
mutually acceptable decision or solution to a problem
Instructional Approach - the sequence of activities which an instructor uses
to teach a lesson
Instructional Design - the systematic process of specifying the goals and
means of instruction. Included are the stages of objectives speci-
fication, evaluation design, method selection, and lesson planning
Instructional Method - how content is taught
Instructional Objective - a statement that describes an intended outcome of
instruction. It describes a proposed change in a learner and gives
a description of a specific behavior or performance
IPW (Instructional Package Worksheet) - describes in detail and in order what
must be done in order to teach a single objective
IRIS (Instructional Resources Information System) - is an automated informa-
tion system managed by EPA Information Dissemination Project which
acquires, reviews, indexes and announces both print and non-print
instructional materials
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153
Job - the occupational title or position held by an employee
Job Description - a statement(s) outlining areas of responsibility (duties)
of a given position
Lecture - uninterrupted speech by which one presents information to others
Lesson - instruction which (usually) encompasses a single instructional
objective. A set of lessons on related objectives comprise a
unit
Lesson Planning Form - a standardized format on which a lesson is planned
Media - means or methods of presenting information aurally and/or visually
Problem - a discrepancy or deficiency between the way things are and the
way things ought to be
Psychomotor Learning - a type of learning which emphasizes physical movements
requiring agility, speed, precision, or co-ordination
Rating Scale - a list of skills or tasks, but with each so carefully defined
as to permit the evaluator to judge the relative quality of the
performance
Resources - anything an instructor or trainee uses during instruction as a
resource
Tasks - is one of the skills or operations which belong to a specific area
of responsibility. Each task usually consists of specific and
distinct steps for its completion
Task Analysis - the act of dividing a duty into all of its components. It
results in a list of everything an employee must do to advance the
work to completion
Unit - instruction on a set of related objectives, each of which is taught
in a single lesson
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