oEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington DC 20460
EPA/600/9-91/014
May 1991
literiMttoial WWksfeoi
LARGE-SCALE
REFORESTATION
ROCEEDING
May 9-10,1990
Corvallis, Oregon
Sponsor: Global Change Research Program • EPA Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333
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EPA/600/9-91/014
May 1991
Proceedings of the
International Workshop on
LARGE-SCALE
REFORESTATION
Editors
EPA Environmental Research Laboratory-Corvallis
Jack K. Winjum
NCASI-EPA Coordination
Paul E. Schroeder
ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc.
* * *
Washington Institute, Inc.
Mary J. Kenady
Sponsored by
GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH PROGRAM
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY-CORVALLIS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Printed on Recycled Paper
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Disclaimer
The information in this document has been funded wholly by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the
EPA/USDA Forest Service IAG No. DW12931230/PNW 85-435 that provides for Grant PNW 86-502 to the National
Council for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI) and under contract 68-C8-0006 to ManTech Environmental
Technology International, Inc. (METI). The document has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative
review process, and it has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Acknowledgments
The editors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of all workshop participants - approximately 60 in total.
Included are: the ten authors of the invited papers as listed on page iv; the supporting ERL-C staff members Lew
Ladd, Terralyn Vandetta, and Jill Jones; Dr. D. B. South, Auburn University, for assembling Table XXXTV during the
Workshop; Wayne Patterson, Siuslaw National Forest, for arranging an excellent field trip, and the following scientists
who generously gave of their time to serve as reviewers of the papers in this document:
Mr. J. D. Bailey, METI, Corvallis, OR
Mr. S. P. Cline, METI, Corvallis, OR
Dr. D. S. DeBell, USDA Forest Service, Olympia, WA
Dr. R. K. Dixon, EPA/ERL-C, Corvallis, OR
Dr. T. D. Droessler, METI, Corvallis, OR
Dr. W. H. Emmingham, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR
Mr. C. D. Geron, EPA/AEERL, Research Triangle Park,
N.C.
Dr. D. H. Gjerstad, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
Dr. R. L. Graham, Oak Ridge National Lab., Oak Ridge,
TN
Dr. T. C. Hennessey, Oklahoma State University,
Stillwater, OK
Dr. T. M. Hinkley, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
Dr. J. P. Kimmins, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B.C.
Dr. L. H. Liegel, USDA Forest Service, Corvallis, OR
Dr. R. F. Lowery, Weyerhaeuser Company, Tacoma, WA
Dr. R. W. Rose, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
Dr. R. A. Sedjo, Resources for the Future, Washington,
D.C.
Dr. T. A. Terry, Weyerhaeuser Company, Centralia, WA
A hearty thanks to all - JKW, PES, and MJK
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Authors iv
List of Tables v
List of Figures vii
INTRODUCTION
Jack K. Winjum XI
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
PROGRAMS: A PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
Peyton W. Owston and Thomas C. Turpin 1
FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS FOR
MITIGATING CO2: ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
John D. Walstad 11
REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
Denis P. Lavender 29
REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
Ian R. Hunter 41
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE AMERICAN
SOUTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
TO SLOW GLOBAL WARMING
Joseph H. Hughes 53
AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN - A COMMENTARY
Douglas C. Malcolm 69
THE NEED FOR REFORESTATION
Renato Moraes de Jesus 81
INDUSTRIAL EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE PEOPLE'S
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO - TECHNICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL
AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Francis Cailliez 87
AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA: MITIGATING GLOBAL WARMING
THROUGH SOCIAL FORESTRY
Mark C. Trexler 97
REFORESTATION IN INDIA
A. N. Chaturvedi 109
GROUP DISCUSSION 117
INDEX TO GROUP DISCUSSION 147
ill
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TABLE OF CONTENTS, cont'd.
GENERAL APPENDIX A
List of Tree Species . .
GENERAL APPENDIX B
Table of Equivalents .
GENERAL APPENDIX C
IPCC Structure, Recommendations
Noordwijk Declaration
149
151
153
LIST OF AUTHORS
Francis Cailliez
Director of Centre Technique
Forestier Tropical
Dept. du CIRAD
45 Bis, Ave. de la Belle Gabrielle
94736 Nogent Sur Marne, Cedex France
A. N. Chaturvedi
Senior Fellow, TATA Energy Research Inst.
90 Jorbagh
New Delhi, 110 003, India
Joseph H. Hughes
Station Manager
New Bern Forestry Research Field Station
Weyerhaeuser Company
New Bern, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Ian R. Hunter
Ministry of Forestry
Forest Research Institute
Rotorua, New Zealand
Denis P. Lavender
Forest Science Dept.
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Douglas C. Malcolm
Department of Forestry
and Natural Resources
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.
Renato Moraes de Jesus
Florestas Rio Doce
Caixa Postal 91, 29.900-Linhares-ES
Brasil, S.A.
Peyton W. Owston
Principal Plant Physiologist
Pacific Northwest Research Station
USDA Forest Service
Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
Mark C. Trexler
Program in Climate, Energy and Pollution
World Resources Institute
1709 New York Ave. NW, Suite 700
Washington, D. C., U.S.A.
Thomas C. Turpin
Forest Silviculturist
USDA Forest Service, Siuslaw National Forest
Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
John D. Walstad
Dept. of Forest Management,
College of Forestry, Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.
IV
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LIST OF TABLES
Table i. Outline of Categories and Topics of the Workshop Papers xvi
Table I. An Example of Reforestation Costs: 1989 Costs Per Hectare
Reforested on the Siuslaw National Forest in Western Oregon 7
Table II. Marginal Forest Land in the U.S 14
Table III. Styroblocks Commonly In Use In British Columbia 31
Table IV. Total Backlog Not Satisfactorily Stocked Lands 31
Table V. Total Dry Weight of White Spruce Seedlings 33
Table VI. Shoot:Root Ratios of White Spruce Seedlings 34
Table VII. Survival of Coniferous Seedlings in B.C 34
Table VIII. Stemwood Productivity of Radiata Pine in New Zealand 46
Table IX. Potential Land Available to Expand Exotic Forestry 50
Table X. Area of Timberland, by Ownership, Species Groups and
Pine Plantation Details for the South, 1952-1985,
with Projections 56
Table XI. Softwood Timber Removals, Net Annual Growth, Inventory
of Growing Stock in the South, by Forest Management
Type, Selected Years 1952-1984, with Projections 59
Table XII. Woodland Grant Scheme, 1988 74
Table XIII. Distribution of Forest Area 76
Table XIV. Changes in Uses of Conifer Species Since 1920 76
Table XV. Reforestation with Fiscal Incentives in Brazil, 1967-1986 82
Table XVI. Supply and Demand of Wood in Brazil, 1987-1988 83
Table XVII. Advantages of Clonal Eucalyptus Plantations, Compared with
Other Types of Forests 90
Table XVIII. UAIC Personpower Requirements to Plant 5,000 Ha/Yr
(Excluding Harvest and Export) 91
Table XIX. CARE Goals Over the Next 10 Years 100
Table XX. Final Estimate of Carbon Fixation vs. Sequestration 102
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LIST OF TABLES, confd.
Table XXI. Forest Cover in India, 1989 110
Table XXII. Forest Cover by Ecofloristic Zones and Population Density, in India 110
Table XXIII. Livestock Population in India (Given in Millions) Ill
Table XXIV. Livestock Fodder Requirements (in Million Tons) Ill
Table XXV. Estimated Present Fodder Production in India Ill
Table XXVI. Afforestation in India Shown Under Successive Development Plans 112
Table XXVII. Increase of Wood Prices Over Past Decade in India 113
Table XXVIII. Board Notes #1 117
Table XXVIX. Board Notes #2 121
Table XXX. Board Notes #3 122
Table XXXI. Board Notes #4 123
Table XXXII. Board Notes #5 124
Table XXXIII. Board Notes #6 125
Table XXXIV. Board Notes #7 128
Table XXXV. Board Notes #8 129
Table XXXVI. Board Notes #9 130
Table XXXVII. Board Notes #10 131
Table XXXVIII. Board Notes #11 132
Table XXXIX. Board Notes #12 133
Table XL. Board Notes #13 134
Table XLI. Board Notes #14 137
Table XLII. Board Notes #15 141
Table XLIII. Board Notes #16 142
Table XLIV. Board Notes #17 143
Table XLV. Board Notes #18 144
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Major Steps in the Reforestation Process for Typical
Harvested Sites in Western U.S 3
Figure 2. Forest Regions of British Columbia 29
Figure 3. Diagram of Microsites and Planting Spots 33
Figure 4. Edatopic Grid for the CWHcl Sub-biogeoclimatic Zone Which
Occurs in Coastal British Columbia 35
Figure 5. Indigenous and Exotic Forest in New Zealand, 1000 AD to Present 42
Figure 6. Percentage of Land Use in New Zealand 43
Figure 7. Establishment of Plantations in New Zealand, 1922 to 1986 43
Figure 8. Exotic Stocked Forest Area for New Zealand by Age Class 44
Figure 9. New Forest Plantings, 1984-1991 45
Figure 10. Height and Growth of Radiata Pine and Ponderosa Pine on Cold
Sites in New Zealand 47
Figure 11. Distribution of Radiata Pine Site Index in New Zealand 48
Figure 12. Distribution of Exotic Forest in New Zealand 49
Figure 13. Comparison of Mean Annual Increment and Total Volume Yields That are
Typical for 3 Levels of Forest Management 61
Figure 14. New Planting Since 1950 71
Figure 15. Value of U.K. Consumption Showing Contribution of U.K. Production 75
Figure 16. Timber Production in Britain: Total of F. C. and Private Sector 75
Figure 17. Age Profile of Forests in Britain Updated from Census of Woodlands, 1980 76
Figure 18. Conceptual Functioning of a Carbon-Offset Project 98
Figure 19. Map of CARE Project Areas 99
vn
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INTRODUCTION
Jack K. Winjum
BACKGROUND
The purpose of this workshop was to identify
and explore major operational and ecological
considerations for successfully conducting large-
scale reforestation and afforestation projects
internationally. Interest in this subject by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency stems
from the global warming issue.
Projections for global warming resulting from
"the greenhouse effect" have led to growing
public concern about the consequences of
increasing climatic temperatures. Although
experts continue to debate the credibility of the
model-based projections, it is certain that the
concentration of the earth's atmospheric CO2
has increased by about 30 percent since the
1850 level of 280 ppm. Much of this increase
is attributed to CO2 emissions caused by ever-
increasing human activities. If this trend con-
tinues unchecked, the preindustrial level of
atmospheric CO2 is predicted to increase anoth-
er 30 percent in 50 years and double by about
the year 2100 (Abrahamson 1989). Likewise,
other greenhouse gases such as methane (NIL,)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) are also increasing for
anthropogenic reasons. Thus, within decades,
and likely by 2100, global warming could be
significant, unprecedentedly rapid and, initially,
has the potential to hold many detrimental
effects for humankind (Smith and Tirpak 1989).
Forest ecosystems play a pivotal role in the
global carbon cycle. Not only are tremendous
amounts of carbon stored in forest vegetation
and soil (i.e., the biomass), but global forests
also account for some 90 percent ('90 Gt) of
the carbon flux to and from the atmosphere
from terrestrial systems annually (Waring and
Schlesinger 1985). This suggests that forests
are a primary control point in the cycle and
that through management, they can possibly
contribute to increased carbon conservation and
sequestration to offset a part of the CO2 build-
up in the atmosphere. As a major management
tool, large-scale reforestation would likely make
a significant contribution. Definitive estimates
of that contribution are the subject of longer
term, in-depth studies by EPA and other agen-
cies. Thus, this topic was not an agenda item,
although several of the invited authors gave it
some consideration (e.g., Walstad, Hughes,
Cailliez, and de Jesus).
Workshop speakers included prominent forest
managers and scientists who have had exper-
ience with large-scale reforestation projects in
ten diverse world locations and situations.
These experts, many of whom participated in
the follow-up discussions, provided the inter-
national coverage sought.
In this publication, which is the outcome of
the workshop, two initial papers based upon
U.S. experience outline fundamental considera-
tions for large-scale reforestation success. The
first, by Owston and Turpin, addresses opera-
tional concerns; the second, by Walstad, ecolog-
ical considerations. Subsequent papers expand
on these fundamentals according to eight case
studies representing other situations (Table i,
page xvi}. "Large-scale" for this workshop
means projects where, by human effort, ap-
proximately 100,000 hectares or more of new
forests have been established or are planned
XI
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INTRODUCTION
annually for about a decade in an individual
country or region.
KEY FINDINGS
Operational Considerations
From the USDA Forest Service in Corvallis,
Pete Owston, a senior reforestation scientist,
and Tom Turpin, an experienced silviculturist,
focus on operational considerations for planta-
tion establishment based on U.S. national for-
ests, primarily those in the temperate region
(pages 1-10). Important operational considera-
tions discussed are:
an overall commitment by the sponsoring
organization to making reforestation projects
succeed;
• thorough reforestation planning;
respect for seedlings as living organisms
during handling and planting;
• effective supervision of work by knowledge-
able foresters;
• the value of follow-up steps such as survival
surveys and replantings were necessary.
Ecological Considerations
Jack Walstad, Head of the Department of
Forest Management, Oregon State University,
has had considerable experience in reforestation
research and operations in the eastern and the
Pacific northwestern forest regions of the U.S.
On pages 11-28, he points out fundamental
ecological considerations such as:
matching species and stock type to site
conditions;
• use of well-adapted genetic stock;
anticipation of insect, disease and weed
problems;
• corrective soil treatments, such as fertiliza-
tion or mycorrhizal inoculations;
• intensifying operational and ecological effort
as reforestation progresses from very productive
lands to lands with more marginal growing
conditions.
Case Studies
The basic operational and ecological consider-
ations noted above, while common to most
reforestation projects, must be tempered to
accommodate other considerations unique to
specific locations. The workshop was structured
to address the three broad latitudinal regions of
the world; i.e., boreal, temperate, and tropical.
Further, examples of reforestation using native
versus exotic species were represented as well
as large-scale projects consisting of many solid,
contiguous block plantations for timber produc-
tion, or distributed small patches of trees sup-
porting social forestry land use. Authors pres-
ent eight different combinations and describe
reforestation considerations unique to each one.
Boreal, Native Species, Block Plantings
Denis Lavender, reforestation scientist at the
University of British Columbia, drawing on his
long research career including experience in
northern British Columbia, notes on pages 113-
122 these important considerations for boreal
conditions:
there are only a few weeks of frost-free
conditions favorable to planting;
compressing large-scale work into a few
weeks requires careful planning;
• cold, poorly-drained soils require special site
preparation techniques;
xu
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INTRODUCTION
• bioclimatic zones are useful guides to species
selection.
Temperate, Native Species, Block Plantings
Joe Hughes, a third-generation North Carolin-
ian and forest scientist for Weyerhaeuser Com-
pany, has spent many years researching the
establishment and management of loblolly pine
plantations in the southern U.S. His list (pages
51-65) of priority considerations for successful
reforestation in a region with high potential for
growing timber crops include the following
points:
• organizational commitments must be consist-
ently maintained to take full advantage of a
favorable growing environment and a very
versatile conifer species such as loblolly pine;
• public agencies must develop favorable econ-
omic incentives so land managers can sustain
investments in reforestation;
• reforestation technology must be backed by
a steady program of research.
Temperate, Exotic Species, Block Plantings
Ian Hunter, reforestation scientist for the
New Zealand Forest Service, summarizes on
pages 39-50 almost a century of reforestation
experience in New Zealand which exemplifies
a classic case of the successful use of an exotic
tree species, radiata pine. Reforestation con-
siderations learned by New Zealand foresters
from this perspective are:
• don't let early successes develop into over-
reliance or over-confidence on one exotic
species;
• be aware of the risks of a too-narrow gen-
etic base;
• support the program with sustained and ad-
equate research and development.
Temperate, Native and Exotic Mix,
Block Plantations
Douglas Malcolm, Head of the Department
of Forestry and Natural Resources, University
of Edinburgh, outlines on pages 66-77 the
history of the forest cover of Great Britain and
the efforts to re-establish conifer plantations of
native Scots pine and exotic Sitka spruce many
years after the lands had been cleared for
farming. Important considerations for success
in this afforestation situation are:
• public education is required before people
will accept a change in scenery and land use
they are not used to, even if it is afforestation
of bare lands;
• government lawmakers must develop long-
term economic incentives to maintain large-
scale reforestation programs.
Temperate, Native-Exotic Mix, Block Plantings
and Social Forestry
A. N. Chaturvedi, a Senior Fellow at TATA
Energy Research Institute in New Delhi, pres-
ents on pages 106-112 a survey of reforestation
in India which dates back to the mid-1800s.
India has, in general, favorable growing en-
vironments for forest crops. Their foresters
have developed effective technology for es-
tablishing plantations of native teak and bam-
boo as well as exotics represented by several
species of Eucalyptus, other hardwoods and
some conifers. In addition, there is a long-
standing public interest in reforestation. Never-
theless, these positive factors must be consider-
ed in light of social-political considerations such
as:
• requires a strong coalition by public agen-
cies, industrial groups, environmental interests,
farmers, etc., because all have their individual
expectations which must be coordinated since
space and money are limited;
Xlll
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plantation protection where human and
animal (particularly goats) densities are high.
Tropical, Exotic Species, Block Plantations
Francis Cailliez, who directs the French
Centre Technique Forestier Tropicale, informs
us about large-scale afforestation in the Congo
(pages 84-92). Large plantations of Eucalyptus
have been established on savannah lands for
the purpose of growing wood to serve a newly-
developing pulp manufacturing industry. Here,
with favorable growing conditions and a low
population density, the important considerations
are:
• use of local labor in plantation establishment
as much as possible rather than mechanization,
thereby providing jobs, family incomes, and
greater support by the Congolese people;
• employment of women in seedling nursery
production accentuates the above result;
• multiclonal hybrid Eucalyptus is recommend-
ed for plantations to achieve both low-risk
genetic diversity and high productivity;
• plantations on savannahs require intensive
weed control for fire protection.
Tropical, Exotic Species, Social Forestry
Renato de Jesus, a tropical forest research
coordinator and executive in Brazil, stresses
(pages 78-83) that in his country, while refor-
estation trials date back to the 1800s and oper-
ational-scale projects with Eucalyptus and Pinus
exotics began in the 1960s, a broader need is
restoration of deforested lands. Plantations for
carbon sequestration has little meaning; rather,
planting in a social forestry sense is much more
urgent. The objectives are to help make farm-
ing sustainable, control erosion and siltation,
stabilize water tables, and produce wood for
energy. Special considerations, therefore, from
this present-day approach in Brazil include:
INTRODUCTION
• expanding the use of native species to more
fully tap the potential of tropical growing en-
vironments and retain biodiersity;
• increasing silvicultural research to develop
the use of native species;
• implementing forest management practices
which maintain land productivity and forest
health.
Tropical, Native-Exotic Species Mix,
Social Forestry
Mark Trexler is Director of the Carbon
Sequestration Forestry Project for World Re-
sources Institute. He reports (pages 94-104) on
a new and innovative reforestation project in
Guatemala. The Applied Energy Service of the
U.S. has provided start-up funding to promote
enough tree planting in Guatemala over the
next 30 years to sequester carbon equivalent to
the emissions of a new electrical power plant in
Connecticut. The project has revealed that
large-scale reforestation in developing tropical
countries calls for unique considerations; that is:
• working with local people so that the people
who need the most help in improving their
living conditions get it and are involved with
and committed to the reforestation;
• the need for assistance of people with ex-
perience in tree planting;
• where the expertise is not provided by gov-
ernment agencies, then available sources are
often the representatives of non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) which are already active
in the areas targeted for reforestation;
• production of seedlings in nurseries dis-
persed in communities and planting for woodlot
and agroforestry production.
xiv
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INTRODUCTION
CONCLUSIONS
The key findings are backed by many addi-
tional considerations in the texts of the ten
papers. In addition, the proceedings of the
one-day follow-up discussion contributed addi-
tional information (pages 113-142). Altogether,
they form a rich assemblage of reforestation
information which has broadened EPA's know-
ledge base on international reforestation.
As with most gatherings of people with both
experience and fertile minds, serendipitous
results emerge. This workshop followed that
course, and four points are noteworthy:
1. The potential of large-scale reforestation as
a means to aid mitigation of increased atmos-
pheric CO2 depends on how much land in the
world is available. A considerable pool of land
exists that might be "technically suitable" for
reforestation and afforestation, particularly in
the tropics. The size of this pool is estimated
to range from a half-billion to almost 2 billion
hectares. Such amounts, however, would likely
be an upper limit. What is actually available
after social and political limitations are account-
ed for, would be a lesser amount. A clear
determination of the amounts is a priority
research question.
2. Regarding economics, reforestation does
require money investments. Reforestation
foresters are quite mindful of this and conversa-
tions among peers usually gets around to cost
comparisons. David South, Auburn University,
voluntarily recorded the costs he heard men-
tioned throughout the workshop and presented
them for a discussion topic. Quickly giving it
their attention, the workshop participants
offered refinements, and the results are in-
cluded in Table XXXII, page 124, for refer-
ence.
3. Social and political considerations were very
strongly emphasized in all eight of the case
study papers. It was a particularly important
point relative to developing nations. Indeed,
social and political considerations for ac-
complishing large-scale reforestation turned out
to be as major as those of an operational and
ecological nature. It is good that the workshop
clearly established this perspective.
4. The fourth fortuitous outcome is a subset of
number 3, above. Large-scale reforestation or
afforestation projects mean more than just
contiguous block plantings. They can include
many small, dispersed plantings as well. Ex-
amples are woodlot plantations or integral parts
of agroforestry systems. All will sequester car-
bon, but just as important, these plantings serve
people in many immediate and very vital ways.
REFERENCES
Abrahamson, D.E. 1989. Global warming: the issue,
impacts, responses. In: D.E. Abrahamson (ed.), The
Challenge of Global Warming. Island Press. Wash. D.C.
p. 3-34.
Smith, J.B. and D. Tirpak, eds. 1989. The potential
effects of global climate change on the United States.
Report to Congress. EPA-230-05-89-050, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Wash. D.C. 413 pp.
Waring, R.H. and W.H. Schlesinger. 1985. Forest Eco-
systems: Concepts and Management. Academic Press, Inc.,
New York, N.Y. 340 pp.
XV
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Category/Topics
Table L Outline of Categories and Topics of the Workshop Papers.
Area Author
Fundamental considerations
Operational
Native Species Block Plantings
Ecological
Native Species Block Plantings
Case Studies
Boreal
Native Species Block Plantings
Temperate
Native Species Block Plantings
Exotic Species Block Plantings
Mixed Species
Block Plantings
Block Plantings and
Social Forestry
Tropical
Exotic Species
Block Plantings
Social Forestry
Mixed Species
Social Forestry
U.S.
U.S.
Owston and Turpin
Walstad
Northern B.C. Lavender
Southern U.S. Hughes
New Zealand Hunter
Gr.Britain Malcolm
India
Congo
Brazil
Chaturvedi
Cailliez
de Jesus
Guatemala Trexler
XVI
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OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
PROGRAMS: A PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
Peyton W. Owston
Thomas C. Turpin
Abstract
Planting tree seedlings seems simple enough-dig a hole, insert the roots of a seedling, repack the soil, and move on to the
next planting spot. An experienced worker can manually plant 500 or more seedlings per day on rough terrain. Machine
planting on level ground goes even faster. Planting however is only one of many steps in achieving successful reforestation.
The process should begin with careful planning long before a stand is harvested or an area is afforested-or soon after a
disaster results in deforestation. The plan must consider factors such as environmental impacts and long-range land
management objectives as well as the reforestation process itself. Economic considerations, quality control and evaluation
of results must also be included in each of the separate phases of planning and operations.
History has shown that large-scale tree planting efforts can be successful (Walstad, this volume). This paper describes the
broad range of factors and complexity of operations that such reforestation programs involve. We hope to increase the
awareness of this complexity among policy makers and others who might be initiating new programs. We will do this by
focusing in general on the western United States and in particular on the Siuslaw National Forest in the Coast Range of
western Oregon. The relative importance and operational details of the various aspects of programs will, of course, be different
for different ownerships, environments and sociological conditions. We believe, however, that the general aspects apply fairly
broadly over mountainous regions of the temperate zones and also illustrate the complexity of large reforestation programs-
- wherever they occur.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Large reforestation programs are made dif-
ficult partly by the nature of tree seedlings
themselves. Their needs as living organisms
must always be considered. Several factors add
to the problem: (1) many of the processes in
reforestation are not one tree's experience in
nature; (2) the remoteness of most planting
sites and the large scale of operations make it
economically prohibitive to irrigate forest
plantations, which is the one practice that
would best ensure reforestation success where
moisture deficits are common during the grow-
ing season; and (3) many reforestation sites are
on unfavorable soils, have high levels of com-
peting vegetation, and have a large number of
animals that can damage seedlings.
Time available for accomplishing specific tasks
each year is limiting. Many operations must be
timed to coincide with the time of year that
seedlings are most resistant to environmental
stresses, when planting sites are .available, and
when climate is most conducive to seedling
survival. Most programs cannot be increased in
size simply by planting in more months of the
year.
The availability of technically knowledgeable
personnel is another consideration. Prescriptions
for reforestation operations should be site-
specific and developed only after on-the-ground
evaluations by silviculturists with authority to
make decisions. Thus, programs cannot be
increased merely by growing more seedlings and
hiring more tree planters.
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PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
ORGANIZATION, FACILITIES
AND PERSONNEL
Logically, reforestation programs are manag-
ed using the same organizational framework,
facilities, and personnel as other land-based
activities in an organization. This normally
includes a headquarters for overall coordination
and field offices that handle on-the-ground
operations. Personnel must include managers
and technical specialists. Operational facilities
and major equipment specific to reforestation
and people to operate them must also be
available. Facilities include seed processing
plants, seedling nurseries, cold storage buildings
and transportation systems.
A successful reforestation program also re-
quires dependable seed suppliers and a large
labor pool. Commonly, actual conduct of the
work on the planting sites and in the nurseries
is done to rigid specifications by crews con-
tracted to perform specific parts of a program.
Their work should be rigorously inspected by
trained employees of the land management
organization. Other participants in reforesta-
tion programs are upper- and mid-level manag-
ers, contracting and budget specialists, and
general office support personnel. Research
scientists provide technical service as well as
pertinent new knowledge. Professional special-
ists in fields such as wildlife biology, recreation
and fire control participate in various phases so
that work is integrated with other land manage-
ment activities.
As a new approach to making the reforesta-
tion job more efficient, some organizations in
the United States are using stewardship con-
tracting as a tool (Porterie et al, 1986). A
contractor takes responsibility for successful
establishment and early maintenance of a
plantation-not just individual steps of planting
or applying protective treatments. This places
the emphasis on living seedlings rather than on
numbers planted or amount of area treated.
In the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
Service, most of the land-based activity is
centered on 159 national forests, which are
commonly 400,000 to 800,000 hectares or more
(1 to 2+ million acres) in size. The forests are
subdivided into ranger districts, which are often
40,000 to more than 80,000 hectares (100,000
to 200,000 acres). People who conduct or man-
age the actual on-the-ground activities are
based on the ranger districts. In our example,
the Siuslaw National Forest consists of 255,000
hectares (630,000 acres) divided into four
ranger districts. In any given year, approxi-
mately 0.8 percent of the Forest is reforested,
additional sites are prepared for future planting,
and young plantations are weeded and thinned.
Their program focuses on manual planting of
conifer seedlings on prepared sites, a method
that has been the mainstay of reforestation
programs in the western United States for the
past 25 years or so. The Siuslaw has a success-
ful program that last year resulted in planting
of almost 3 million seedlings on more than
2,600 hectares (6,500 acres) on some of the
most productive forest land in the world.
Similar annual totals have occurred for most of
the past 20 years. This is not a large program
by world standards, but it is thorough and effec-
tive.
Each ranger district on the Siuslaw employs
a professional silviculturist who must pass a
comprehensive certification examination. The
silviculturist is responsible for developing site-
specific reforestation prescriptions and has a
staff of three to five people responsible for
completion of the various tasks. The Forest
headquarters has a staff silviculturist who
provides expertise and overall direction for
completion of the reforestation program. This
person works closely with the silviculturists on
the ranger districts as well as with research
organizations and contracting sources.
PLANNING
The need for careful, thorough planning
-------
P. OWSTON, T. TURPIN
Animal Damage Control Treatment
(Oto+1)
Plantation Maintenance
(+1 lo+12 [PCT])
Evaluation for corrections &
luturo stand management
(+1 to +5)
Figure 1. Major Steps in the Reforestation Process for
Typical Harvested Sites in the Western U.S.
cannot be over-emphasized (Cleary et al., 1986;
Williams et al., 1990). Reforestation is a com-
plicated process that involves coordination of
many different steps that, in turn, have their
own complications (Figure 1). Mistakes in any
one of many phases can mean failure for the
whole effort. Furthermore, reforestation has to
be conducted in concert with overall land
management objectives and be coordinated with
other management practices. Land manage-
ment objectives could be production of wood
products, watershed protection, improvement of
wildlife habitat, recreation or combinations of
several objectives. Each of the options might
call for different reforestation strategies.
Planning requires considerable lead time due
to such varied reasons as the need for environ-
mental analyses and the need to collect suffi-
cient quantities of seed. Plans must also be
flexible enough to allow for changes as condi-
tions warrant. When disasters such as the
eruption of Mount St. Helens or the Yellow-
stone fires occur, the planning process must be
compressed in time. No matter what con-
straints there are, however planners must never
forget the ecological requirements of the living
organisms, the tree seedlings with which they
are dealing.
Planning is becoming more complicated as
time goes on: legal and other societal con-
straints are increasing; many more resources
must be considered than in the past; reforesta-
tion is becoming more a science than an art;
and now we have an additional management
objective to consider - mitigation of global
climate change. Economic objectives and
constraints must also be accounted for in the
planning process.
In addition to strategic planning, a tactical
plan must be written for each site. If a stand
is to be harvested, the plan must include a
complete analysis of the harvest method. From
a silvicultural standpoint, this is based largely on
the ecological requirement of the desired
species and on whether the area is to be plant-
ed, seeded, or regenerated from natural seed-
fall. Site characteristics (e.g., elevation, soil
type, steepness and slope aspect, and microclim-
ate) are very important for both the logging
and reforestation practices. Plans must also
deal with seed source selection and seedling
production; site preparation; planting; methods
of protecting seedlings from heat, drought, and
animal damage; plantation maintenance; and
evaluation of results in such terms as stocking
levels and growth. Timing of the various
practices must also be planned so that they are
properly coordinated.
REFORESTATION PRACTICES
Careful planning increases the chances for
success, but conducting large-scale reforestation
programs is nevertheless challenging. The
sections below describe the main steps in the
process.
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PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
Sources and Handling of Seed
Selection, production, collection, and storage
of seed are other stops in the reforestation
process that must be considered long before
planting time. Foresters must use species and
genetic sources that are well adapted to the
sites on which they are to be planted.
Research and testing of new species or seed
sources, done properly, is a long-term proposi-
tion (Zobel et al, 1987).
Managers should always resist using untried
species or seed sources-even when disasters
cause sudden, unplanned, and extensive defor-
estation of land that must be rehabilitated
quickly. Plantations composed of poorly adap-
ted species or seed sources have survived and
grown for a few years, but many of them
deteriorate long before they mature (Walstad,
this volume). They also pose the risk of intro-
ducing more genetically undesirable material by
pollinating native trees and by establishing
natural regeneration from poorly adapted
parents (Ching and Lavender 1978).
These ecological considerations on use of
species and seed sources introduce further
operational complications. Sub-programs must
be developed to collect, test and store sufficient
quantities of proper and viable seed to meet
the needs of production nurseries (Stein et al.,
1974). Since some major tree species such as
Douglas-fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii ((Mirb.)
Franco) produce good seed crops irregularly
(Owston and Stein 1974), it can take a number
of years and sophisticated storage facilities to
accumulate and maintain sufficient seed stocks
for large programs.
Furthermore, seed-source integrity must be
maintained by carefully labeling and tracking
seedlots from the time cones are collected until
the seedlings are planted. A seed and seedling
certification program should be strictly adhered
to, and plantation records that include seed
source identification should be maintained.
The Siuslaw National Forest collects all of its
Douglas-fir and western hemlock (Tsuga heter-
ophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) seed from grafted seed
orchards developed over a number of years.
Seeds of other species are gathered from
parent trees in the forest that have been care-
fully selected for favorable growth and form
characteristics. These are clearly marked and
mapped for long-term use.
Seedling Production
The inability to irrigate plantations, vegetative
competition, temperature extremes and damage
from animals make it imperative to plant heal-
thy, vigorous nursery stock. Forest nursery
practice is a complex, intensive "farming" busi-
ness. A balance must be struck between pro-
duction of large, vigorous stock and condition-
ing that stock to withstand the rigors of plant-
ing on harsh sites with little follow-up care.
Insects, diseases, and weather extremes are
constant threats. Considerable research, en-
gineering development and operational ad-
vancements have been invested in nursery
practices in the past 20 years. Seedlings now
being produced are much better able to with-
stand environmental pressures than those grown
in the past, and improvements are continuing
(Duryea and Landis 1984).
Most of the tree seedlings used in the wes-
tern United States are grown as bareroot stock
for one to three years in outdoor nursery beds.
The seedlings are dug from the ground during
the dormant season, and protected from drying
and overheating until planted. Some seedlings,
particularly in north-temperate and boreal
regions, are produced in small containers in
greenhouses or similar structures that modify
the environment to allow production of plant-
able seedlings in one growing season (Tinus
and McDonald, 1979). These seedlings are
usually pulled from their containers and planted
with a plug of potting mixture around their
roots. In the tropics, large containers are often
used; the seedlings grow rapidly and need the
protection of a container and root ball because
they don't have a true dormant period that
-------
P. OWSTON, T. TURPIN
would allow handling them as bareroot stock.
The Siuslaw National Forest uses mostly two-
year-old seedlings grown in outdoor beds. To
promote good communication between the
nursery managers and land managers, silvicult-
urists visit the nurseries several times a year.
The Forest pioneered the practice of having a
representative present at the nurseries during
the times their seedlings are being lifted from
the ground to ensure that moisture stress in the
stock is at an acceptably low level and that
proper grading, packing and storage procedures
are followed. Improper treatment in any of the
steps could result in high seedling mortality.
Production of high-quality nursery stock in large
quantities will be one of the major challenges
of greatly enlarged reforestation programs.
Capacities of current tree nurseries cannot
come close to meeting the needs of the greatly
enlarged programs that would be necessary to
help mitigate climate change (Walstad, this
volume). Owners and manager of private
nurseries now growing ornamental stock would
have to learn how to produce seedlings condi-
tioned to survive and grow on remote forest
sites with much less follow-up attention than
most ornamentals receive. Developing new
nurseries for large programs requires careful
site selection, considerable financial investment,
and several years to construct (Morby, 1984).
If reforestation programs do expand dramatical-
ly, we would anticipate an influx into the
nursery industry of untrained entrepreneurs
hoping to make money quickly with little invest-
ment. This happened in the Pacific Northwest
during the nineteen-seventies when seedling
needs expanded and container seedlings came
into use. Temptations to use poor stock from
these types of nurseries would have to be
resisted.
Site Preparation
Preparation of planting sites is often neces-
sary. The purposes are to reduce unwanted
vegetation that would compete with the planted
trees, reduce debris from harvesting that physi-
cally hinders planting, and create microsites
favorable for seedling survival. On steep
terrain, common in the Douglas-fir regions, use
of controlled burning and/or herbicides has
been the general practice, but recent concerns
about possible adverse environmental or human
health impacts of burning and herbicide use has
resulted in both legally mandated and voluntary
efforts to reduce or eliminate their use. This
has caused a shift to preparing sites by mechan-
ical or manual methods, which have their own
sets of operational needs and coordination
requirements. On the Siuslaw National Forest,
current emphasis is to use the logging operation
as the major site preparation activity. Planting
is now done without burning on 45 percent of
the area. Ten years ago, only ten percent of
the area was planted without burning.
Careful integration of practices is necessary.
For example, the method of site preparation
will affect the population level of animals that
could potentially damage planted seedlings. If
a site is burned, seedling-damaging rodents
would be reduced in number but large browsing
animals may find the open area attractive
because of the easy access. If a site is left
unburned, large animals might be hindered in
reaching the seedlings but rodent populations
may be high enough to jeopardize the success
of the planting. Thus, the size of seedlings
planted and protection treatments applied
should be coordinated with the type of site
preparation conducted.
Any large-scale reforestation effort is bound
to require substantial site preparation efforts.
Much of this would probably have to be ac-
complished by mechanical or manual means,
because relatively inexpensive use of chemicals
and burning are becoming less socially and
environmentally acceptable.
Handling and Planting
Organizations operating large-scale reforesta-
tion programs pay close attention to the biolog-
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PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
ical needs of the seedlings. They are lifted
from seedbeds when they are most resistant to
stress, and they are planted when soil is moist
enough to allow establishment of root systems.
Complexity is increased by the need for coord-
inated timing of the steps. For example, seed-
lings should be ready for planting soon after
the site is prepared. Delay of planting allows
development of potentially competing vegeta-
tion or damaging rodent populations. If seed-
lings are ready for planting before the site is
available, seedling quality may deteriorate if
lifting is delayed or if seedlings are stored too
long.
Handling between lifting and planting has
become highly sophisticated in many places.
Nurseries have used refrigerated storage for
some years, and it is now common to freeze
seedlings for long-term storage. It is also
common to have refrigerated storage at field
offices such as ranger stations. Seedlings may
even be transported to planting sites under
refrigeration and kept there prior to planting.
If refrigeration is not available, the seedlings
are usually kept in insulated trucks or under
reflective "space" blankets until given to plant-
ers. The planters carry the seedlings in water-
proof bags that keep the root systems moist
until planting. Each of these steps introduces
further equipment and coordination needs.
On relatively flat ground, machine-assisted
planting gives rapid and fairly uniform results.
Nevertheless, machine planting cannot be used
in much of the western United States. The
steep, rough terrain makes it necessary for
individuals to carry seedlings in shoulder bags
and plant them with hand tools such as shovels,
spades or special planting hoes. Crews are
trained to select good planting spots and to
plant them properly. It is common for on-site
inspectors to dig up sample seedlings to make
sure planting quality is maintained. On the
Siuslaw National Forest, virtually all planting is
done by contractors according to strict specifica-
tions.
Almost all organizations now have standards
of acceptable soil moisture and weather condi-
tions. Temperature, humidity and wind speed
readings are taken periodically during planting.
When conditions become too drying, planting is
suspended for the day. This results in addition-
al operational complexity because schedules for
seedling deliveries, crew locations and duration
of contracts can be seriously disrupted.
Planting rows of the same species at close
spacing is certainly the most efficient operation-
al technique. Social opposition to this sort of
plantation forestry is growing in many parts of
the world, however; single-species plantations
also tend to be more susceptible to pests
(Walstad, this volume). Conducting large-scale
reforestation so that it gives a natural appear-
ance or to reduce the potential for pest prob-
lems (mixed species and/or non-uniform spac-
ing) is technically feasible. It adds to the
operational complexity, however because it
requires more careful planning and more on-
the-ground supervision if it is to be successful.
Protective Treatments and
Plantation Maintenance
High-quality nursery stock, planted well and
at the right time, can significantly reduce the
need for expensive treatments to retard com-
peting vegetation and discourage animal dam-
age; i.e., vigorous seedlings are less apt to be
overtopped by competitors and can grow be-
yond the size where they are most susceptible
to animal damage sooner than mediocre stock.
Once planted, however, seedlings receive only
infrequent attention. Thus, precautions are
often taken at planting to better ensure survival
and good early growth.
Treatments may include shading stems near
the groundline with cardboard or plastic mater-
ial on hot, dry, southerly exposure; mulching or
scalping away competing vegetation to conserve
soil moisture; and protecting from animal
damage by enclosing the seedlings in plastic-
mesh tubes.
-------
P. OWSTON, T. TURPIN
Follow-up treatment is often necessary to
keep competing vegetation from seriously
retarding seedling growth or even taking over
the site. Treatment is done by mechanical,
manual, or chemical means depending upon
such factors as site conditions, legal or environ-
mental constraints, and the management
objectives. The treatments may be applied in
a broadcast manner over a site or around
individual seedlings. Several applications may
be necessary before a plantation becomes fully
established. These require reliable crews and
close inspection, because the potential of
damaging the seedlings in the process is high.
Surveys of survival and growth are also part
of the reforestation process. Examinations are
used to determine how well management objec-
tives are being met and what subsequent treat-
ments may be necessary to ensure plantation
establishment. They also provide valuable
feedback for planning future projects. These
surveys must involve statistically sound sampling
schemes, because sheer numbers make complete
surveys prohibitive (Stein 1984).
On the Siuslaw National Forest, the goal is
to have 95 percent seedling survival one grow-
ing season after planting and to require replant-
ing on no more than five percent of the area
planted. In the past five years, the replant rate
has ranged from 1.4 percent to 9.4 percent; the
five percent goal was reached in three of those
years. Other areas have different problems
(e.g., drought rather than overtopping by non-
crop vegetation) that require different practices.
However, the experience on the Siuslaw show
that well-planned and well-conducted programs
can be highly successful-the principles should
apply widely.
Timber Stand Improvement
Following establishment, new stands may be
precommercially thinned to keep them growing
vigorously and to select for the fastest-growing
well-distributed trees. Thus, this is often con-
sidered as the last step in the reforestation
process. Approximately 70 percent of the
young plantations on the Siuslaw National
Forest are precommercially thinned-usually
between the ages of 10 to 12 years. A second
thinning may follow at about age 35 and will
commonly produce a marketable tree as well as
help keep the stand growing vigorously. On
sites where timber production is the main
objective, final harvest on the Siuslaw occurs
between 60 to 80 years of age, and the refor-
estation process begins anew.
REFORESTATION COSTS
Reforestation can require substantial econ-
Table I. AN EXAMPLE OF REFORESTATION COSTS: 1989
COSTS PER HECTARE REFORESTED ON THE SIUSLAW
NATIONAL FOREST IN WESTERN OREGON7.
Refers tn.
Component
Surveys (pre-
& post-plant)
Site prep.2
Hand-slash
Brdcsl.burn
Nsy.Stock
(400 sdlgs./ac.)
Planting
(incl admin. costs)
Animal damage control
Release
TOTAL
Cos)/
HA
$ 22
370
618
148
425
408
309
S23003
Area
Treated
100%
20%
55%
100%
100%
80%
60%
Average
Cost/HA
$ 22
74
340
148
425
326
185
S1520
These costs are an example and are for a specific location,
organization and yr. They should not be construed as typical of
all organizations or all situations—even within western Oregon.
Costs of burning are sometimes charged wholly or partially
against reducing the hazard of wildfire. The full costs are
included here because of the frequent necessity of site prep, to
obtain successful reforestation.
This total cost represents the maximum cost for acres on which
all treatments are applied and charged against reforestation.
-------
PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
omic investment. For example, the Siuslaw
National Forest program cost an average of
$1,520 per hectare ($615 per ac.) in 1989
(Table I). For sites on which all possible
treatments were applied, the cost was $2,300
per hectare ($930 per acre). The cost of
nursery stock and planting combined-the items
usually considered to be the major reforestation
costs by those not familiar with the complexity
of the process-constituted only 38 percent of
the average and only about 25 percent of the
maximum per hectare (acre) costs. The point
again is that there is more to reforestation than
planting trees.
The Siuslaw comprises some of the most
productive forest land in the world, but refores-
tation costs are high, regardless. Even in areas
where costs are substantially lower, economics
must be carefully considered before launching
into large-scale programs.
Reforestation economics, of course, involve
much more than summing initial costs. Willis
and Affleck (1990) and Tunner (1982) describe
methods of evaluating alternatives from econ-
omic perspectives.
SCIENTIFIC ADVANCEMENTS
Reforestation technology is becoming less art
and more science through time. Research by
federal, university and private-industry scientists
has, for example, resulted in greater knowledge
of how tree seedlings react to environmental
stresses and in development of new nursery
systems (Tinus and Owston 1984). Scientists
arc currently striving to learn how to produce
seedlings specifically tailored by size and condi-
tion to the types of sites on which they are to
be planted. Additional attention is being paid
to producing uniform nursery stock (Tinus
1989) and to improving the quality control in
forest tree nurseries (Owston et al, 1990).
Instruments and procedures for testing physio-
logical quality of seedlings have been devised
and are becoming widely used; root growth
potential (Ritchie, 1985) and cold hardiness
(Glerum, 1985) are two of the most common
tests.
These efforts have good potential for im-
proving the performance of planted seedlings,
but they also introduce further complexity to
reforestation programs. The new technology
requires additional expertise, equipment, more
careful monitoring and closer coordination of
activities. Outcomes of tests may also result in
having to change operational plans on short
notice; e.g., a lot of seedlings determined to be
poorly conditioned may have to be held longer
in a nursery or given additional protective
treatment after planting.
Some level of testing or research should be
another important part of any on-going refor-
estation program. This can range from simple
trials installed out of curiosity to full-fledged
research programs for long-term support on
large programs.
SUMMARY
Successful large-scale reforestation programs
are attainable, but they are neither simple nor
inexpensive to conduct. Reforestation requires
commitment to planning and action by a large
number of people with an array of different
skills. If deforested areas are not reforested
promptly, the growth of competing vegetation
and build-up of animal populations significantly
increase the difficulty and expense of the
process. Breakdown at any one point can often
doom plantations to failure at a higher cost of
dollars and time.
Success must be measured in terms of es-
tablished plantations-not the total area or
numbers of trees planted. This requires an
established infrastructure, both strategic and
tactical planning, attention to timing and careful
implementation of the various steps, and follow-
up care and evaluation. The steps between
planning and evaluation may include harvesting,
seed collection, seedling production, site prepar-
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P. OWSTON, T TURPIN
ation, seedling handling, planting and post-
planting protection treatments to reduce vegeta-
tive competition, animal damage, and tempera-
ture extremes.
Another of the keys to success is having
professionally-trained decision makers involved
with on-the-ground observations and prescrip-
tions on each planting site. As more trees are
planted on more land, the commitment to site-
specific treatment must continue. Attention
should also be paid to emerging technologies
and research information that can make the
task more efficient and successful.
REFERENCES
Ching, K.K. and D.P. Lavender. 1978. "Seeds" in: Cleary,
B.D., R.D. Greaves, and R.K. Hermann (eds.). Regenerat-
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University Extension Service: 48-62.
Cleary, B.D., B.R. Kelpsas, and D.R. DeYoe. 1986. Five
Steps to Successful Regeneration Planning. Forest Research
Laboratory Special Publication 1 (revision). Corvallis,
Oregon: Oregon State University. 32 p.
Duryea, M.L. and T.D. Landis (eds.). 1984. Forest Nurs-
ery Manual: Production ofBareroot Seedlings. The Hague:
Marinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk. 385 p.
Glerum, C. 1985. Frost Hardiness of Coniferous Seed-
lings: Principles and Applications," in Duryea, M.L. (ed.),
Evaluating Seedling Quality: Principles, Procedures, and
Predictive Abilities of Major Tests. Corvallis, Oregon: Fo-
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Morby, F.E. 1984. "Nursery-site Selection, Layout, and
Development, in Duryea, M.L. and T.D. Landis (eds.). Fo-
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The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk. 9-15.
Owston, P.W., R.G. Miller, WJ. Rietveld, and S.E. Mc-
Donald. 1990. "A Quality Control System for Improving
Conifer Nursery Stock. Tree Planters' Notes 41(l):3-7.
Owston, P.W. and W.I. Stein. 1974. "Pseudotsuga Carr.
Douglas-fir," in Schopmeyer, C.S. (tech. coord.). Seeds of
Woody Plants in the United States. Agriculture
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Porterie, G.L., N.B. Gartley, and A.J. Horton. 1986.
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Ritchie, G.A. 1985. "Root Growth Potential: Principles,
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Stein, W.I. 1984. "Regeneration Surveys: An Overview,"
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Stein, W.I., P.E. Slabaugh, and A.P. Plummer. 1974.
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Tinus, R.W. 1989. "Processes and Systems Analysis for
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Tinus, R.W. and P.W. Owston. 1984. "Physiology
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Seedling Physiology and Forestation Success. Dordrecht:
Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk. 143-155.
Tunner, A. 1982. "A Procedure for Comparing Altern-
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9
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PACIFIC NORTHWEST PERSPECTIVE
C.M. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R.A. Willis, and C.M. Johnson, G. Montgomery, A. Vyse, R.A. Willis, and
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10
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE
REFORESTATION PROJECTS FOR MITIGATING
ATMOSPHERIC CO2 -
ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
John D. Walstad
Abstract
Prospects for establishing and tending new forest plantations on a large scale to help mitigate CO2 buildup are discussed
with respect to suitable land area available, technical know-how, operational experience, ecological factors, vulnerability to
pests, and socio-economic considerations. The analysis indicates that most of the enormous land area required will necessarily
come from marginal and nonforest sites, including some agricultural land. Because such lands are not naturally conducive
to growing trees, extraordinary measures will be required to establish, protect and sustain artificial plantations. Nevertheless,
the technologies and information exist to install and manage plantations on a large scale provided sufficient funds, expertise
and willpower are available. Considerable planning and analysis should be done before initiating such ventures in order to
minimize the inherent risks and to maximize the potential for success.
INTRODUCTION
This paper deals with ecological considera-
tions in establishing large-scale reforestation
projects to help mitigate the buildup of CO2 in
the atmosphere. Because of the broad con-
notation of the term "ecological considerations,"
it is necessary to describe what will and will not
be covered. First, three questions which will
not be answered to any great extent.
1) Can sufficient carbon be sequestered in
artificially established plantations to have any
appreciable effect on the CO2 concentration of
the atmosphere? As a partial answer to this
question, Sedjo (1989 a, 6) calculated that a
minimum of 1.15 billion additional acres (0.47
billion hectares) of plantation would be needed
to stabilize atmospheric CO2 concentrations at
current levels. This is an area equivalent to
approximately 1.5 times the total forested area
of the United States, or about 75 percent of
the nonforested land area. And it represents a
scale five times greater than the current 230
million acres (93 million hectares) already under
plantation culture throughout the world.
2) Are the labor, capital, planting stock,
equipment and energy requirements necessary
to establish plantations at a scale substantially
greater than what is already being done
available? Again, Sedjo (1989 a, b) estimated
that at least $372 billion would be needed to
establish plantations on the scale needed to
mitigate CO2 buildup. This is almost 10 per-
cent of the annual GNP for the U.S. Addition-
al funds would be required for plantation main-
tenance and protection.
Furthermore, the planting of large acreages
will require substantial numbers of seedlings.
This in turn will require the construction of
new nurseries because current nurseries (at
least in Oregon and Washington) are already
producing at 70 percent or more of capacity
(USDA Forest Service, 1990).
3) What long-term socio-economic and en-
vironmental changes (both positive and nega-
tive) might be associated with vast changes in
the landscape from its natural or existing state
to one occupied by plantation forests? Many
of these changes are too difficult to forecast
given our limited understanding of the complex
array of interactions among cultural, economic
and ecological forces, particularly at regional
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
and global scales.
In short, there are some very sobering prob-
lems of scale associated with any substantive
efforts to mitigate atmospheric CO2 buildup
through plantation forestry. But the formidable
magnitude of such a task should not deter us
from a rational examination of its prospects. A
lot is potentially at stake, and extraordinary
measures may be needed to mitigate impending
changes in global climate and local environ-
mental conditions. Thus, this paper will address
the following topics:
1) Opportunities for establishing plantation
forests on sites where they currently do not
exist.
2) Pest problems, environmental constraints,
and periodic disturbances such as fire, frost and
drought that can affect the success of planta-
tions.
3) Potential problems associated with estab-
lishing so-called "monocultures" on a large scale
for extended periods of time over several
rotations.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR
PLANTATION FORESTRY
The opportunities for establishing artificial
plantations fall into three distinct categories:
1) Productive forest land not currently cover-
ed by trees;
2) Marginal forest land that is understocked
or nonstocked;
3) Nonforest land that could support trees if
managed accordingly.
Productive Forest Land
The opportunities for additional large-scale
reforestation projects on productive forest land
are somewhat limited because reforestation is
already being done to a considerable extent. In
the U.S., for example, almost 3.5 million acres
(1.4 million ha.) are regenerated each year,
requiring over 2.3 billion seedlings (USDA
Forest Service, 1989). Thus, sizeable reforesta-
tion efforts are already underway in the U.S.
and other developed countries. It is likely that
such efforts will continue where the inherent
productivity of the site justifies economic invest-
ment in intensive silviculture (cf. Farnum, et al.,
1983).
Some less-developed countries also have
aggressive reforestation programs. Chile, for
example, has been establishing radiata pine
(Pinus radiata)1 plantations at a rate of almost
200,000 (81,000 ha.) acres per year for the last
10 years, endowing it with the largest radiata
pine holdings (2.8 million acres, or 1.1 million
ha.) in the world (Jelvez, et al, 1990).
Reforestation of productive forest land not
only makes good economic and ecological
sense, it is often required by law. For example,
several of the states and provinces in the U.S.
and Canada now have forest practices acts
stipulating that forest lands be promptly
restocked to prescribed levels after harvesting.
In addition, national legislation in both coun-
tries requires that federal agencies ensure the
reforestation of lands they are responsible for
managing. The only exceptions are wilderness
and national parks, where natural events are
allowed to run their course with minimal inter-
ference by managers.
Thus, the incremental opportunities for
reforestation of productive forest lands are
confined to special situations:
1) Areas damaged by fire, pests, storms and
pollution;
2) Areas occupied by brush and low-value or
noncommercial species;
3) Deforested areas resulting from short-term
agricultural and domestic uses (principally in
the tropics and developing countries).
Restoration of Damaged Areas. Most areas
in North America damaged by fire, pests,
storms and other agents are promptly reforest-
ed. Programs of planting and direct seeding
usually follow such catastrophes. For example,
several thousand acres of burned-over land
12
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J. WALSTAD
have already been planted since the fall, 1987,
wildfires in southwestern Oregon. Efforts are
underway to rehabilitate South Carolina's
coastal forests following the destruction caused
by Hurricane Hugo on September 22, 1989.
Even 42 percent (63,000 acres, or 25.5 ha.) of
the devastated blast zone surrounding Mount
St. Helens has been planted (Winjum et al,
1986). Much of the remainder has been set
aside as a national monument.
Conversion of Brushfields and Low-Value
Stands. Rehabilitation of brushfields and thick-
ets previously occupied by commercial tree
species is also underway. The FIR (Forestry
Intensified Research) Program in southwest
Oregon has shown the biological feasibility of
restoring 128,000 acres (52,000 ha.) to the
timber base in southwestern Oregon (Walstad
and Tesch, 1989), much of it dominated by
sclerophyll shrubs and hardwoods. A program
in British Columbia known as the Forest Re-
source Development Agreement (FRDA) is
directed at reclaiming over 1.8 million acres
(.73 million ha.) of nonstocked good- and
medium-site land in that province (Canada-
British Columbia Forest Resources Develop-
ment Agreement, 1986). Similar efforts are
underway in other regions of the continental
U.S. and Canada.
Timber type conversion from hardwoods to
conifers is also underway on selected sites in
the South, the Lake States and the coastal zone
of the Pacific Northwest. Whether such con-
version will lead to any net gains in CO2 bal-
ance is questionable, however. Many of these
sites might be better managed for hardwood
production, perhaps in perpetuity.
Type conversion is also underway in the
tropics, principally in areas undergoing develop-
ment. Perhaps the most noteworthy example is
the Jari project in the northeastern-most region
of Amazonia (Hornick, et al, 1984). Originally
part of a grandiose scheme by shipping magnate
Daniel K. Ludwig to export high-grade pulp to
international markets, over 270,000 acres (109,-
000 ha.) of gmelina, eucalyptus and Caribbean
pine have been established since 1968.
Another ambitious effort is underway near
Aracruz, on the eastern coast of Brazil (Bran-
dao, 1984). Inititated in 1967, the Aracruz
project (Aracruz Florestal) is already producing
enough high-grade eucalyptus fiber to run a
large pulp mill.
Targeting for high-yield rotations of 5-9 years,
the aforementioned operations hold great
promise for raising the standard of living of
native Brazilians while minimizing the area of
natural forest converted to other uses.
Reclamation of Deforested Areas. Oppor-
tunities to restore degraded forest areas are
principally located in the developing countries.
Centuries of forest exploitation in Asia, the
Middle East and parts of southern Europe have
left a legacy of depauperate stands and waste-
land (e.g., Harou et al., 1985).
More recently, clearing of the tropical forest
for agricultural and development purposes in
Africa and South America has threatened the
ecological stability of these regions. Estimates
of the rate of tropical deforestation range from
17.5 to 50 million acres (7.1 to 20.2 million ha.)
per year (Sedjo and Clawson, 1983), with the
current total of degraded forest land estimated
at about 500 million acres (202 million hec-
tares) (Grainger, 1988). Clearly, substantial
opportunities exist to rehabilitate degraded
areas through both natural regeneration and
plantation forestry. Fortunately, there have
been some remarkable successes such as in the
state of Minas Gerais in eastern Brazil, where
250,000 acres (202 million ha.) per year of
degraded scrub brushland are being planted to
eucalyptus and pine (B. J. Zobel, 1990, pers.
comm.).
Marginal Forest Lands
The greatest opportunity to expand plantation
forestry in the U.S. is on the marginal forest
13
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
Table tt MARGINAL FOREST LAND IN THE U.S.7
Regio* NatL Other Indus- Private Total
For. Public by
(thouaad acres)*
East 635 2,536 237 6,283 9,691
West 33120 112,110 476 47,741 193,446
Total 33755 114,646 713 54,024 203,137
1 Data from Waddell et al. (1989), descr. as "other forest
land."
•acres x 0.405 = ha.
lands adjacent to productive forests. From a
silvicultural perspective, marginal lands are
those where tree growth tends to be relatively
poor (Wessels, 1984). High-elevation sites and
those along the fringe of forested regions are
two examples. The most recent estimates for
the U.S. indicate that over 200 million acres
(81 million ha.) are in this category (Waddell et
al., 1989). Most of the marginal land is located
in the western U.S., and about 75 percent of it
is in the public domain (Table II).
In Canada, the opportunity to expand forest
acreage is more problematic because most
unproductive land adjacent to forests consists of
muskeg, rock barrens, marshes, etc., that is
unsuitable for producing merchantable trees
(Bonner, 1985). Nevertheless, there are sig-
nificant opportunities to enhance the produc-
tivity of "not satisfactorily restocked" (NSR)
forest land. Indeed, the acreage in this catego-
ry amounts to over 50 million acres (81 million
ha.), or about 10 percent of the commercial
forest land base of Canada (Honer and Bick-
erstaff, 1985). As a consequence, federal,
provincial and industrial constituents in Canada
have greatly accelerated the level of silvicultural
attention being given to NSR lands in recent
years (c/., Reed, 1986; Kuhnke, 1989).
Poor-Quality Sites. Certain tree species are
adapted to existence on poor-quality sites,
frequently characterized by thin, rocky soils and
harsh climatic conditions. Nevertheless, a variety
of silvicultural techniques can be used to in-
crease the carrying capacity of these lands. For
example, the use of vigorous, well-adapted
planting stock, coupled with adequate weed
control for the first few years, will permit
conifers to thrive on hot, droughty foothills of
southwestern Oregon previously dominated by
brush (Helgerson et al, 1990).
High-Elevation Sites. The regeneration of
high-elevation sites poses a more difficult
challenge because of the short growing season
and extremely cold conditions. Where harvest-
ing is appropriate, more complicated systems of
management than simple clearing and planting
may be required to successfully regenerate
these areas in many instances (e.g., Atzet et al.,
1984). Carefully planned partial cuts designed
to foster and protect periodic natural regenera-
tion may be the most feasible approach to take
in managing these sites. Subalpine forests
ranging from the Cascades in Oregon and
Washington to the Alps in Europe often are
amenable to this form of regeneration.
Nonforest Land
Afforestation of nonforest land constitutes
the final category of opportunities for planta-
tion forestry. Indeed, if Sedjo's (1989 a, b)
estimates are correct, a great deal of nonforest
area will be needed if new plantations are to
have a significant effect on CO2 balance. It
will include prairie and savannah, agricultural
cropland and arid wasteland.
Fortunately, the literature abounds with
examples of successful attempts to establish
forests in such areas previously occupied by
grass, shrubs, agricultural crops and other
nonforest vegetation. Plantings have even been
established in urban and suburban settings to
provide recreational opportunities and to im-
14
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J WALSTAD
prove aesthetic conditions (e.g., Cohen, 1985).
Efforts to establish forest plantations in
nonforest areas are often risky ventures because
they represent unnatural situations. Maladapta-
tion of planting stock and premature exhaustion
of site resources, such as soil moisture, are
problems frequently encountered in such af-
forestation efforts. Nevertheless, there are
enough successful experiences both here and
abroad to make this a feasible option in at least
some areas. Recent advances in clonal propa-
gation may facilitate the selection and deploy-
ment of stock adapted to such sites (Libby and
Rauter, 1984).
Prairie and Savannah. A classic example of
afforestation in the U.S. is the Nebraska Na-
tional Forest, established in the sand hills of
central and western Nebraska in 1902 (Hunt,
1965 a, b). About 30,000 acres (12,000 ha.) of
plantation now exist in an area previously
consisting of prairie grassland.
Another example of successful afforestation
involves a project by AMCEL (Amapa Florestal
e Celulose S.A.) in northern Brazil (McDonald
and Fernandes, 1984). Here, close to 200,000
acres (81,000 ha.) of Caribbean pine have been
established on grass savannahs in an effort
designed to produce chips for export to Japan,
Europe and the U.S. Considered the world's
largest tropical pine plantation, it is scheduled
for harvest after just 12 years from planting.
Almost one million acres (0.4 million ha.) of
pine have also been established in the Orinoco
region of Venezuela (B. J. Zobel, pers. comm.).
In northern Europe, sand drift was a major
problem in the 17th and 18th centuries because
of overgrazing by livestock. This led to the
establishment of large plantations as a means of
stabilizing the soils in Denmark, Holland,
northern Germany and Great Britain (N. Koch,
1990, pers. comm.).
Cropland. More recently, attempts have been
made to establish short-rotation intensive
culture (SRIC) hardwood plantations on non-
forest land (particularly marginal-to-good agri-
cultural land) in the western, midwestern and
southern U.S. as a means of providing biomass
for conversion to pulp, gasoline and gaseous
fuels (Ranney, et al., 1987). Coppice planta-
tions of species such as tulip poplar, silver
maple, sweetgum, American sycamore, black
locust, alder, willow, eucalyptus and poplar have
been established throughout the U.S. since
1978. Similar efforts are underway in Europe
and elsewhere (N. Koch, 1990, pers. comm.).
Arid Wasteland. Even exceedingly arid
regions such as the Middle East and northern
Africa are amenable to afforestation if proper
cultural steps are taken such as irrigation,
fertilization, weed control, pest control and
selection of appropriate species and stock type
(e.g., Cohen, 1985; Harou et al., 1985). Israel,
for example, has increased its forested area
from 100,000 acres (40,000 ha.) in the early
1950s to almost 300,000 acres (121,000 ha.)
today (Cohen, 1985); and this has been achiev-
ed in a region receiving less than 10 inches
(25.4 cm.) of rain per year in many places.
These forests now provide a steady stream of
products such as particleboard, fuel (including
charcoal and hogfuel), lumber, stakes and
fenceposts, as well as greenspace for recreation
and aesthetics.
To summarize this section on opportunities
for plantation forestry, viable options exist to
expand ongoing efforts in three general areas:
1) Restoration of recently damaged or defor-
ested areas;
2) Conversion of marginal land adjacent to
productive forest land;
3) Afforestation of nonforest land presently
covered by other vegetation. (Note: this
category includes reforestation of lands that
have been deforested for many decades or even
centuries.)
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
FACTORS AFFECTING
PLANTATION FORESTRY
This section will address some of the factors
that should be considered in evaluating the
feasibility of successfully establishing and man-
aging plantations on a large scale with respect
to the three categories of opportunity:
1. recently deforested areas;
2. marginal forest lands;
3. nonforest lands.
The discussion is divided into three parts:
a. plantation establishment,
b. plantation maintenance,
c. multi-rotation considerations.
There are positive and negative aspects as-
sociated with all three phases.
Plantation Establishment
With respect to plantation establishment, a
positive aspect is that we know a lot about it,
particularly in temperate forest regions. We
understand the critical factors affecting seedling
survival and growth. We have the technical
knowledge to manipulate these factors to assure
successful establishment of seedlings. And we
have lots of experience in doing it on an opera-
tional scale.
For example, we know that it is necessary to
carefully match species, provenance and stock
type to the site to be reforested (e.g., Zobel, et
al, 1987). We also know that the seedlings
must be cultured and handled properly during
the nursery and outplanting phases (e.g., De-
Yoe, 1986; Ritchie, 1989). Suitable mycorrhizal
fungi must be present on the seedlings or on
the site to establish the critical symbiotic rela-
tionship linking the seedlings' roots to the soil
microenvironment (e.g., Iyer et al., 1980; Perry
et al., 1987). We know that site preparation
and vegetation management are needed to
facilitate seedling establishment and rapid
growth (e.g., Walstad and Kuch, 1987). And
we know that protection from excessive heat
loads, herbivores and diseases are sometimes
needed to maintain adequate survival and
growth of seedlings (e.g., Helgerson et al,
1991).
As mentioned earlier, this knowledge is
sufficient to support a reforestation enterprise
that encompasses almost 3.5 million acres each
year in the U.S. alone. Operational programs
ranging from the Civilian Conservation Corp
plantations and shelterbelts2 of the 1930s to the
Soil Bank reclamation efforts^ of the 1950s to
Weyerhaeuser Company's High Yield Forestry
ventures4 of the 1960s and beyond, all attest to
the success of plantation forestry. Many of the
short-rotation tropical plantations are in their
third generation. In the southern U.S. we are
presently harvesting the "Third Forest," and
planting the fourth. And in Europe, several
generations of forests have been harvested and
replanted. In short, we know how to plant
trees and manage plantations.
The problem is that most of our knowledge
and experience are limited to productive forest
sites. Except for a few special cases like the
Nebraska National Forest and AMCEL opera-
tions described earlier, most of our interest and
activity have been directed at commercial
timberland.5 Consequently, we often lack infor-
mation about what it will take to establish
seedlings on marginal or nonforest land. In-
deed, we may even lack species or provenances
capable of surviving the rigors of outplanting in
many atypical environments.
Selection of well-adapted genetic stock will
be particularly important. We probably have
more latitude in moving species or provenances
of species across broad geographies if the
topography is gentle than if it is mountainous
(Silen, 1989). For example, Weyerhaeuser
Company has had considerable success in
culturing plantations of loblolly pine from
North Carolina sources in Arkansas and Ok-
lahoma (Lambeth et al., 1984). Indeed, the
provenance trials they have conducted in the
mid-South region over the past five to twenty-
five years indicate that the North Carolina
16
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J. WALSTAD
sources of loblolly pine routinely outperform
local stock, even under conditions of record-
breaking cold weather (e.g., December, 1983)
and drought (e.g., summer, 1980).
In highly mountainous regions, however, the
flexibility to move stock is more limited (Silen,
1989). Because each 400-foot (122 m.) rise in
elevation is equivalent to about one degree of
latitude movement northward, severe problems
can be encountered in trying to move stock
from one elevational zone to another. Accord-
ing to Silen, the principal limitation appears to
be the length of the growing season (or freeze-
free period), and he cautions against moving
stock where there is more than a 10-day dif-
ferential (400 feet in elevation or 1° in latitude)
from where it originated.
If care is taken to match species or proven-
ance to environmental conditions, then con-
siderable latitude exists to establish trees in
exotic environments. Hermann (1987) describes
the remarkable success of North American
Douglas-fir, grand fir, noble fir, Sitka spruce
and lodgepole pine in Europe. For example,
plantations of Douglas-fir exist in 24 European
countries and have become a significant com-
ponent of the forest landscape during the past
century. Numerous additional examples are
given in the text by Zobel et al. (1987).
Sometimes the performance of a species
outside its natural range is better than within.
Such is the case for Monterey (radiata) pine,
which has done extremely well in places as far
away as Australia, New Zealand and Chile.
Within portions of its native range in coastal
California, it is a relatively short, branchy tree,
but in more southerly latitudes it grows tall and
straight. Consequently, it has become a major
forest crop in those countries.
The success of exotics is more the exception
than the rule, however (Zobel et al., 1987).
Silen (1989) cites numerous instances where
local species and provenances have outper-
formed introduced stock. He also points out
the importance of long-term testing of exotics
before large-scale adoption. At the Wind River
Arboretum in southwestern Washington, for
example, it took 40 years before a Colorado
variety of Douglas-fir succumbed to the en-
vironment. Species from more southerly origins
often grew vigorously for 20-40 years before
being killed by the "Deep Freeze" of 1955.
Thus extreme caution should be exercised as
we endeavor to move species or provenances
beyond their natural range. Fortunately, forest-
ers and geneticists are cognizant of such risks
and have developed appropriate measures to
deal with them (cf., Zobel, et al., 1987; Ledig,
1988). The seed zone maps for sugar pine
developed by Campbell and Sugano (1987) are
one example. The clinal design for Douglas-fir
seed orchards advocated by Silen (1989) is
another. It should be borne in mind, however,
that we are venturing into the unknown as we
stretch the sites on which trees will be planted
beyond their natural range. Furthermore, the
uncertainty of adverse climatic changes in the
future further compounds the risk associated
with plantation culture, particularly using exotic
species.
Insects and disease can also interfere with
plantation establishment, particularly in exotic
or off-site situations. For example, Hodges and
May (1972) describe a devastating root disease
that colonized southern pines planted in Brazil,
and Scriven et al. (1986) describe an infestation
of longhorn borers introduced from Australia
into eucalyptus plantings in southern California.
Slow-growing, off-site ponderosa pine planta-
tions in the western Sierra Nevada of northern
California are considered more vulnerable to
damage by the gouty pitch midge (Ferrell et al,
1987).
Vegetation management in the form of site
preparation and release from competition is a
prerequisite to successful seedling establishment
on almost all forest sites. Extraordinary levels
of such weed control may be required to es-
tablish plantations on marginal and nonforest
lands. We know this is true for the establish-
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
ment of shelterbelts and short-rotation hard-
wood energy plantations on agricultural sites
(Ranney et al., 1987; Baer, 1989). It is also
essential on areas dominated by shrubs and
grasses (Walstad and Kuch, 1987).
Care in handling and planting of seedlings
will be necessary (cf. DeYoe, 1986). And
artificial inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi may
be required (cf. Molina and Trappe, 1982;
Perry et al, 1987). This may be particularly
important on marginal and nonforest sites,
assuming mycorrhizal strains adapted to such
sites can be found. Finally, the time required
to secure successful establishment and full
occupancy of the sites will depend on the
inherent fertility of the site; marginal and low
productivity sites will take longer to regenerate
than productive forest sites.
All of these factors will make plantation
establishment on marginal and nonforest sites
expensive, perhaps prohibitively so. And if one
factors in the fossil fuel energy required to do
the job using conventional technology, the net
impact on CO2 balance may well be negative.
The task will not be much easier on the
productive forest sites that have been damaged,
mismanaged or otherwise degraded. The base
of knowledge and biological resiliency associat-
ed with these areas makes reforestation a more
probable success, however. Reclamation of the
impoverished cotton farms in the southern U.S.
by the natural and artificial reestablishment of
loblolly and shortleaf pines is a classic example.
Plantation Maintenance
The encouraging aspect about plantation
maintenance, like that for plantation establish-
ment, is that we know how to do it. We
understand the principles of thinning, fertiliza-
tion, genetic selection and protection. We
know how stands grow, and we can accurately
forecast their development in many situations
using sophisticated growth and yield models.
We also have had considerable experience
managing stands for extended periods of time,
approaching two-and-a-half centuries in the
temperate forest regions of Europe (Zobel et
al., 1987). Indeed, the record of success is such
that managed stands are the rule rather than
the exception nowadays for many of the world's
forests. In short, we know how to manage
stands — at least for timber production.
The problem is that we lack site-specific
information for managing stands on marginal
and nonforest sites. The principal stumbling
block is the uncertainty associated with trying
to grow a stand for long periods of time -
often several decades or more — on sites where
the species may not be sufficiently adapted.
Once-in-30-year droughts or cold snaps have a
habit of recurring every 30 years or so, and
they can devastate a stand that previously had
been doing quite well. The sudden topkill of
mature eucalyptus trees growing on the hillsides
of Berkeley, California, after a severe frost in
December, 1972, is but one example of this
kind of risk. Other examples are cited by
Zobel et al. (1987) and Silen (1989).
We encountered a more subtle phenomenon
during the course of the FIR Program in
southwestern Oregon. A mixed plantation of
Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine established on
a droughty site performed quite well for the
first seven years after planting. In the eighth
year, however, the Douglas-fir began to die,
whereas the pines continued to thrive. Upon
examination, it was revealed that the roots of
the pines had penetrated the saprolyte - a
fractured layer of bedrock with considerable
water-holding capacity (Newton et al., 1988).
For some reason, the Douglas-fir roots failed to
penetrate this layer and became vulnerable to
drought stress by early summer as soil moisture
in the upper profile was exhausted.
Other than selecting species or ecotypes
naturally adapted to the rigors of adverse sites,
not much can be done to overcome these
environmental obstacles. Irrigation and frost
protection generally are not feasible. Site
preparation and fertilization are expensive.
18
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J. WALSTAD
And conventional breeding programs that
primarily select for rapid growth rate at the ex-
pense of hardiness may exacerbate the problem
(Silen, 1989).
Weed control will help for a time, but even-
tually the trees reach a size where they are
competing with themselves more than with
other vegetation. For example, control of
manzanita extended the life of Douglas-fir in
the situation described above in southwestern
Oregon (Newton et al., 1988). The Douglas-fir
themselves, however, began to exhaust acces-
sible soil moisture supplies by the eighth year.
Pests are also likely to be a serious problem
in plantations established on marginal and
nonforest sites (cf. Wessel, 1984; Zobel et al,
1987). This is because the trees are often
growing under stress, which increases their
vulnerability to bark beetles, wood borers, root
diseases and other pests (cf. Waring, 1985). In
addition, the lack of vegetative diversity in such
plantations often creates favorable conditions
for a variety of herbivores ranging from pocket
gophers to tipmoths and defoliators. If the
planting stock is of foreign origin, there is the
constant threat of introduced pests becoming a
serious problem. This happened to radiata pine
plantations in Brazil, East-Central Africa, New
Zealand, and Zimbabwe when Dothistroma
needle blight was inadvertently introduced
(Zobel et al., 1987).
Alternatively, relatively benign native organ-
isms can suddenly become serious problems for
exotic or off-site plantations. The destruction
of eucalyptus plantations in the tropics by leaf-
cutting ants is one example of this phenomenon
(cf., Hornick et al., 1984; McDonald and Fer-
nandez, 1984).
The issue of vulnerability of plantations
(especially monocultures or clones of single
species with limited genetic variability) to pest
problems is a complicated one. There are
numerous examples of relatively pest-free
situations or situations where the pests have
been easily controlled. Conversely, there are
many instances where pests have virtually
precluded plantation forestry or restricted its
utility. Appendix A lists some of the kinds of
pests likely to increase in importance under
plantation forestry.
Conventional wisdom suggests that mixtures
of diverse forest species are less vulnerable
than pure stands (Johnson, 1976; Smith, 1990).
This is because dramatic declines of multi-
species forests rarely occur, whereas the sudden
demise of a single species is quite common.
Thus, the outbreak of virulent chestnut blight,
introduced into the eastern U.S. in the early
20th century, virtually eradicated the chestnut
tree for all intents and purposes, but hardly
affected the overall long-term structure of
eastern forests because of the presence of
resistant species that filled the void. On the
other hand, vast expanses of relatively pure
pine stands in the southern and western U.S.
have been killed by periodic epizootics of bark
beetles, dramatically changing the landscape.
Nevertheless, there are cases where diverse,
multi-species forests are vulnerable to pest
outbreaks as well. One recent example involves
the "omnivorous" gypsy moth, which has defoli-
ated vast expanses of mixed deciduous forests
in the eastern U.S.
There are also instances where relatively pure
natural stands and exotic plantations have
proven to be relatively pest-free. Natural
monocultures of Sitka spruce growing in the
fogbelt of the Pacific Northwest are one
example. The sustained performance of exotic
Douglas-fir plantations in Europe is yet another
(Hermann, 1987). In most cases, however, it is
just a matter of time before plantations, like
any forest, become vulnerable to pests.
Finally, wildfire is a perpetual risk in planta-
tions, even those established on productive
forest sites. The risk is likely to be more acute,
however, on marginal sites where drought is
more frequent (e.g., McDonald and Fernandez,
1984; Cohen, 1985; Harou et al., 1985). The
problem is often exacerbated by the presence
19
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
of highly flammable chaparral and grass species.
The Nebraska National Forest, for example,
suffered a devastating wildfire in May, 1965,
that started in adjacent prairie during a light-
ning storm (Hunt, 19656). One-third of the
forest (11,000 acres) (4,450 ha.) was destroyed
before the fire was extinguished.
Despite the aforementioned problems, the
investments being made in plantation culture
throughout the world suggest that the risks are
manageable. The keys to success are maintain-
ing a broad genetic base of the species to be
planted, matching the adaptability of the stock
to the site, maintaining soil fertility, controlling
weeds and pests, periodically thinning the stand
so the trees do not become stressed, and har-
vesting the stand before crop tree vigor begins
to decline. Constant vigilance is required
throughout the process to protect plantations
from untimely losses.
Multiple-Rotation Considerations
Beginning once again on a positive note, we
have had some notable successes with multiple
rotations. As mentioned earlier, we are manag-
ing the third "rotation" of southern pines now
and establishing the fourth (USDA Forest Ser-
vice, 1988). Much of the historically cut-over
and degraded countryside of central Europe was
rehabilitated through "plantation forestry" in the
19th and 20th centuries, leading to a doubling
and tripling of harvest levels (Plochmann,
1990). Long-term experience with rubber and
oil palm plantations in the tropics and with
Norway spruce in central Europe indicates that
several generations of these species can be
grown on the same site without loss of produc-
tivity, provided proper care is taken of the soil
(Johnson, 1976; N.E. Koch, 1990, pers. comm.).
Short-rotation (5-9 years) plantations in the
tropics are entering their third and fourth cycles
(Zobel et al, 1987).
In short, plantation management designed for
multiple rotations is at least a partial solution
to a wood-hungry world with an ever-burgeon-
ing population (Johnson, 1976; Ledig, 1988).
Fortunately, there is little evidence to support
claims that the production of multiple rotations
of trees on forest sites cannot be sustained
(Gessel, 1989). And if done in conjunction
with agro-forestry schemes, prospects are bright
for enhancing both agricultural and forest
production.
The major concern with multi-rotation
schemes is that marginal and nonforest sites
may not be suitable for sustained production.
First, relatively long periods of time will be
required for the stands to reach commercial
size due to the often poor quality of the sites.
And the time could get longer if the "green-
house effect" materializes as expected, making
these sites even harsher.
Second, we do not have a very good under-
standing of the soil, nutrient and hydrologic
relationships of these marginal and nonforest
sites. In fact, we are just now beginning to
address such questions about the long-term site
productivity of our productive forest sites (e.g.,
Perry and Maghembe, 1989; Perry et al, 1989).
It may be that the marginal and nonforest sites
will become impoverished after a relatively
short period. Alternatively, the water table may
be depleted, a phenomenon that occurred in
fruit orchards in the Plains States in the 1930s.
Pest problems will likewise be serious factors
during multiple rotations, particularly if the
climate becomes harsher. Soil-inhabiting patho-
gens and parasites can be expected to become
particularly troublesome on poor-quality sites
(e.g., littleleaf disease, annosus root disease,
nematodes), but endemic populations of insect
pests like tipmoths, defoliators, aphids and
reproduction weevils could also become serious
problems (see Appendix A). For example, the
build-up of pales weevils in freshly cut stumps
of the previous pine forest posed a significant
threat to newly planted seedlings in the south-
ern U.S. until control methods were developed
(Walstad, 1976).
For exotic plantations, the threat of intro-
20
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J. WALSTAD
duced pests like rusts, blights, defoliators, and
bark beetles will be a perpetual concern. Thus,
the uncertainty of sustaining productivity
through multiple rotations on marginal, non-
forest and other sites is likely to be substantial.
It will be difficult enough on conventional
forest land.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS
One of the advantages of plantation forestry
is that is provides a means of rapidly restoring
some of the biological productivity of degraded
areas. Soils are rejuvenated, hydrologic proper-
ties are restored, wildlife habitat is improved
and overall ecosystem stability is enhanced.
Plantation forestry also provides an assort-
ment of economic benefits. Wood and fiber
products are the most obvious outputs. But
such forests also provide a variety of recreation-
al opportunities and other products and ameni-
ties. People travel long distances to camp and
picnic in the pine and cedar groves of the Neb-
raska National Forest. Hunters and wildlife
enthusiasts benefit from the improved habitat
for game and nongame species. In many
developing countries, such forests are the
source of firewood, charcoal, building products
and fodder for livestock. They also help reduce
soil erosion and avalanche potential.
Thus, developed and developing countries
alike are putting considerable emphasis on
managed plantations as a means of raising their
standard of living. The ability to efficiently
produce wood and fiber products, while at the
same time accommodating other forest and
environmental values, has become an important
feature of many national agendas.
The major economic dilemma with respect to
plantation forests is that they are expensive to
manage. As mentioned earlier, the energy and
financial costs are likely to be considerable, yet
many of the plantations may fail without inten-
sive management. Plantations established on
marginal and nonforest sites are particularly
vulnerable.
Compounding the problem is the fact that
relatively long rotations may be required to
produce trees of merchantable size on marginal
and nonforest sites. This is especially true for
producing durable solid wood products ~ the
basic idea behind the reforestation venture as
a means of mitigating atmospheric CO2 buil-
dup.6 Yet the probability of being able to carry
such plantations to maturity is low, given the
impending increase in environmental stress
caused by global warming and concomitant risks
associated with pest outbreaks and wildfire.
Even the current environment of conventional
forest sites has proven too harsh for some
stands and plantations carried beyond their
prime. For example, Plochmann (1990) points
out that about one-third of the total harvest
from central European plantations comes from
the unplanned salvage of trees damaged by
storms, snow and insects. He advocates either
shorter rotations or more diverse species mix-
tures if stable forests and harvests are to be
achieved.
But even picking genetic stock adapted to
specific sites or mixing the species used may
not be sufficient, because the sites could be-
come harsher over time if the "greenhouse
effect" materializes. For example, Kimmins and
Lavender (1987) discuss the implications of a
warmer climate on the chilling requirements for
species such as Douglas-fir. Without a cold
period of sufficient intensity and duration in the
winter, normal bud break does not occur the
following spring. Reproductive processes such
as flowering and seed maturation are also
vulnerable to climatic changes.
Thus, if plantations are to be grown on such
sites or under such conditions, they may need
to be harvested prematurely. It may be difficult
to manufacture solid wood products because of
the small size and high proportion of juvenile
wood that will constitute such harvests. And
even if durable products can be manufactured,
21
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
the large volumes involved could seriously
disrupt world markets. Sedjo (1989ft), for
example, estimates the steady-state volume from
carbon sequestering plantations to be about 2.5
million cunits7, more than triple the volume of
current industrial harvests. Such a flood of
wood could lead to depressed prices and other
adverse economic impacts.
Finally, some members of society may object
to large-scale plantation forestry from an econ-
omic, esthetic or ecological perspective. Farm-
ers and ranchers may not want their land
preempted. For others, the uniform row-and-
column configuration of conventional planta-
tions may be less preferred than the more
diverse mosaic of natural forests (e.g., Olwig,
1984). Such sentiments have led to the recent
enactment of laws in the Federal Republic of
Germany and elsewhere that actually discourage
the establishment of "monotonous" monocul-
tures (Plochmann, 1990). Instead, a more
diverse, older aged, multipurpose forest mosaic
is advocated that more closely approximates
natural forests endemic to the region.
Perhaps the most notable case in this regard
is the public outcry in the United Kingdom
(primarily Scotland) against the establishment of
Sitka spruce plantations on heathland. Even
though the area was covered by trees in ancient
times, some of the rural citizens have grown
accustomed to the barren, windswept landscapes
characteristic of heathland and do not want it
changed ~ at least not to dark, rectangular,
impenetrable forests that disrupt the landscape.
Thus, public sentiment can be a strong deter-
rent to plantation forestry in some circumstan-
ces. Carefully designed mosaics may be needed
to blend plantations into the landscape.
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
What conclusions can we draw concerning
prospects for artificial reforestation efforts?
First, large-scale reforestation projects are
feasible. We have the technical knowledge to
do it, and the world abounds with successful
examples.
Second, the establishment and maintenance of
plantations (including uniform monocultures)
need not be an ecological problem. There are
many instances where monocultures occur
naturally and modern-day genetic selection,
outplanting schemes and silviculture can be
used to avoid the pitfalls of inbreeding, narrow
genetic bases and maladaption.
Third, we can sustain timber productivity over
several rotations through proper attention to
soil stewardship, pest management, wildfire
control, species diversity and other ecological
considerations.
The dilemma is that each of the aforemen-
tioned capabilities becomes progressively more
difficult and expensive as we move from pro-
ductive forest sites to marginal forest and
nonforest sites. Inherent productivity declines,
environmental stresses become greater, pest
problems increase and costs rise dramatically.
Yet, because most of the productive forest sites
are already under some form of management -
- at least in the developed countries - most of
the incremental area amenable to large-scale
reforestation projects is going to be on marginal
and nonforest lands, including some agricultural
sites. Although there may be socio-economic
and environmental benefits associated with such
ventures, there may also be serious adverse
consequences.
Therefore, a great deal of thought and plan-
ning, especially land-use planning, should go
into the selection of such sites before any large-
scale reforestation programs are attempted.
And the plantations will need to be carefully
tended and protected. Otherwise, they are
likely to fail, exacerbating the CO2 balance
rather than ameliorating it.
22
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J. WALSTAD
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Author is indebted to the following individuals for
several ideas, concepts and examples contained in this
paper: Dr. Ole T. Helgerson, Oregon State University;
Dr. Norman E. Johnson, Weyerhaeuser Company; Dr.
Niels E. Koch of the National Forest and Nature Agency
of Denmark; Dr. David A. Perry, Oregon State University;
Dr. Roy Silen, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest
Service (ret.); Dave Stricklan, Nebraska National Forest,
USDA Forest Service; and Dr. Bruce J. Zobel, Emeritus
Professor, North Carolina State University.
NOTES
Scientific names of tree species may be found in the General Appendix to this publication.
2Between 1935 and 1943, more than 200 million trees and shrubs were planted in 18,600 miles of windbreaks from
North Dakota to Texas as part of the Prairie States Reforestation Project (Baer 1989).
•'The original U.S. Conservation Reserve Program, authorized in Title IV of the Agricultural Act of 1956 and popularly
known as the Soil Bank Program, led to the planting of about 1.9 million acres of highly credible cropland
in the South from 1956-1960. A comparable program was authorized in the Food Security Act of 1985 and
was aimed at planting trees on some 5 million acres of marginal farmland between 1986 and 1990 (Cubbage
and Gunter 1987).
^Since its High Yield Forestry program was initiated in 1966, Weyerhaeuser Company has treated over 2.8 million acres
in the U.S. (Weyerhaeuser Company 1990).
^Commercial rimberland is customarily defined as land capable of growing more than 20 cubic feet of wood per acre
per year (Waddell et al. 1989).
Although forest plantations established for pulp and fuel production may bolster domestic supplies of raw material,
they are unlikely to mitigate the CO2 situation. This is because the biomass is oxidized to CO2 and other
combustion products as it is burned or otherwise decomposed. In addition, the relatively intensive cultural
practices employed such as mechanical cultivation, herbicide application, irrigation, thinning and fertilization
require considerable fossil fuel inputs - further exacerbating CO2 buildup in the atmosphere.
7A cunit is 100 cubic feet of solid wood.
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FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
APPENDIX A
SOME PESTS LIKELY TO INCREASE IN IMPORTANCE IN PLANTATIONS
CATEGORY
Insects
Seedling weevils
Tip moths and shoot borers
EXAMPLES
Seedling debarking weevil (Hylobius pales)
on pines in the southern U.S.
Pitch-eating weevil (Pachylobius picivorus)
in the southern U. S. and Caribbean.
Nantucket pine tip moth (Rhyacionia frustrana) on
pines in the southern U.S.
Ponderosa pine shoot borer (Eucosma sonomana) in
the western U. S.
Shoot borer (Hypsipyla grandella) on Swietenia and
Cedrela in Brazil and Colombia.
Sucking insects
Red pine scale (Matsucoccus resinosd) in
the northeastern U.S.
Pine scale (Matsucoccus josephf) on
Jerusalem pine in Israel.
Balsam woolly aphid (Adelges piceae) on
true firs in the eatern and western U.S.
Bark beetles
Southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis)
in the southern U.S.
Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)
in the western U.S.
Wood borers
Defoliators
Engraver beetles dps spp.) on conifers in
the central, southern and western U.S.
Poplar-and-willow borer (Cryptorhynchus lapathi)
in the north-central U.S.
Longhorn borer (Phoracantha semipunctata) on
eucaplytus in Australia.
Pine sawflies (Diprion and Neodiprion spp.) in
the Lake States.
Cottonwood leaf beetle (Chrysomela scripta) in the
north-central and southern U.S.
26
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J. WALSTAD
(APPENDIX A, confd.)
Indigenous pests of exotics
Introduced pests of exotics
Diseases
Seedling Diseases
Foliage Diseases
Stem rusts and cankers
Root rots
Insect-transmitted diseases
Leaf-cutting ants (Atta and Acromyrmex spp.) on
eucalyptus, gmelina and Caribbean pine in Brazil.
Termites (Termes and Coptotermes spp.) on
eucalyptus and gmelina in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Wood wasps (Sirex spp.) on radiata pine in Australia.
Black pine aphid (Cinara cronartii), pine needle aphid
(Eulachnus rikyi), and pine woolly aphid (Pineus pini) on
loblolly pine in southern Africa.
European pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana) on
radiata pine in Chile.
Root disease and damping-off fungi (Fusarium, Phythopthora
and Pythium spp.) on conifer seedlings.
Brownspot needle blight (Scirrhia acicola) of longleaf
pine in the southern U.S.
Needle cast (Khabdocline pseudotsugae) of Douglas-fir
in the western U.S.
Poplar leaf rust (Melampsora spp.) in the north-central U.S.
Poplar mosaic virus on clonally propagated poplar.
Fusiform rust (Cronartium fusiforme) of slash pine
in the southern U.S.
Eucalyptus canker (Cryphonectria cubensis) in Brazil.
Scleroderis canker (Gremmeniella abietina) of pines in the
north-central U.S. and southern Canada.
Gall rust (Endocronartium harkensii) of lodgepole pine in
western U.S.
Annosus root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) of loblolly pine in
the southern U.S.
Armillaria root rot (Armillaria spp.) of conifers in
the western U.S.
Littleleaf disease (Phytophthora cinnamomi) of shortleaf
pine in the southern U.S.
Black stain (Verticicladietta wageneri) transmitted by beetles
to Douglas-fir in western Oregon.
Mycoplasma disease transmitted by the bug (Cryptopeltis tennis to
Paulownia plantations in Korea.
27
-------
FEASIBILITY OF LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION PROJECTS
(APPENDIX A confd.)
Nematodes Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus') of hard pines
in China and Japan.
Indigenous diseases of exotics Root disease (Cylindrocladium clavatum) of
pines and Araucaria in Brazil.
Introduced diseases of exotics Needle blight (Dothistroma pint) of radiata
pine in New Zealand.
28
-------
REFORESTATION IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA
Denis P. Lavender
Abstract
This paper traces the history of reforestation in forest lands of British Columbia, the western-most province of Canada.
From a slow start at reforestation in the 1930s, there has been an increasing effort at growing and planting seedlings in the
cutover areas of the varied ecological zones which make up the province. Growth sites, planting techniques, survival
characteristics of species are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
British Columbia is a vast and varied prov-
ince. In size it is larger than any other North
American jurisdiction except Alaska and Queb-
ec. Its latitudinal range extends from 48°12' to
60° north latitude, and its elevation from sea
level to 4,665 meters (15,300 ft.). The great
diversity of its climates is reflected by no less
than 14 major biogeoclimatic zones, ranging
from the warm, dry ponderosa pine zone in the
southern interior to the cold, wet mountain
hemlock zone at higher elevations in the coas-
tal mountains, which ecologists have defined to
guide forest management practices, including
reforestation (Pojar, 1983).
Reforestation began in coastal British Col-
umbia in 1930 with the establishment of the
first provincial nursery at Green Timbers
(Knight, 1990). From this date until the mid-
1960s, however, the growth of reforestation in
British Columbia was very slow, confined almost
entirely to the coastal portion of the province
and to Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
[Mirb.] Franco) bare-root seedlings (although
there was a brief period of direct seeding
during the decade of the 1950s)(Knight, 1990).
The total area reforested before 1965 was
164,000 hectares, or 394,000 acres. The past 25
years, however, have seen dramatic changes in
reforestation in B.C., with increasing
Forest Regions
9NiluA For«sl region
heed of Met
Figure 2. Forest Regions of British Columbia.
emphasis upon planting in the interior, on
planting container-grown seedlings, and on
planting the major timber species of interior
British Columbia ~ white spruce (Picea glauca
[Moench] Voss.) and lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta Dougl.).
29
-------
REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
OVERVIEW OF REFORESTATION
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
The past 15 years have seen a great expan-
sion in the reforestation effort in British Col-
umbia and a correspondingly great change in its
management and methodology. In 1975, British
Columbia produced a total of 80 million seed-
lings, all in provincial nurseries, 63 million of
which were bare-root seedlings (Lavender,
1990). In 1989, a total of 231 million seedlings,
about 25 million of which were bare-root stock,
were produced. And in 1980, the province
allowed private nurseries to produce stock for
reforestation and sold all but two of the provin-
cial nurseries in 1988. In 1989, therefore, over
90 percent of forest tree seedlings grown in
British Columbia were produced in private
nurseries. Finally, the provincial government
transferred responsibility for reforestation of all
harvested lands, save those administered under
the Small Business Enterprise Act, to com-
panies which harvested the timber. This last
action has dramatically changed the nature of
reforestation in British Columbia from a prog-
ram whose details were controlled by the
Ministry of Forests in Victoria to one wherein
the seedling parameters, planting and site
preparation are administered by individual
forest harvest companies through negotiations
with siliviculture contractors.
The current goals of the forest regeneration
programs in British Columbia are twofold:
a) the provincial government, with funding
through a joint program with the federal gov-
ernment (the Forest Resource Development
Agreement, or FRDA) expects to regenerate all
previous harvested areas on medium and good
sites which have been shown to be non-stocked
by the year 2000; and
b) the timber harvest companies are now
required to reforest all current harvest areas
within five years of completion of logging.
Inasmuch as approximately 250,000 hectares
are harvested each year, a production of about
300 million seedlings per year will be necessary
to reforest the current cut-overs to Ministry of
Forests standards.
THE HISTORY OF REFORESTATION
IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
As noted above, large-scale reforestation in
this province really dates from about the mid-
1970s. At this time, the province moved ag-
gressively to convert the emphasis in seeding
production from bare-root stock to seedlings
grown in a container system (Styroblock) devel-
oped by joint research of the Federal Forestry
Service, Forestry Canada, and the provincial
Ministry of Forests. The rationale for the
change in the reforestation protocol was the
change in emphasis in reforestation from coas-
tal British Columbia where bare-root Douglas-
fir seedlings comprised the bulk of the planting
program to reforestation in the interior of the
province with white spruce and lodgepole pine.
Unlike coastal British Columbia, where much of
the low-elevation forest land is snow-free for all
but brief periods, the great majority of interior
forest lands are blanketed by snow from mid-
fall until late spring. Accordingly, the tradition-
al planting season in this part of the province
is relatively brief and container-grown seedlings
were perceived as a more flexible solution to
the logistics of reforestation than were bare-
root seedlings, whose annual growth cycle was
much less under the control of the nurseryman.
Although the B.C. Forest Practices Act of
1979 specifies that all harvested lands will be
satisfactorily regenerated (Pearce et al, 1986),
in actual practice the Ministry of Forests lacked
the manpower to enforce this provision. Ac-
cordingly, only about 40 percent of the nearly
two million hectares harvested between 1975
and 1986 were planted. The remaining 60
percent were assumed to regenerate naturally.
In some areas where species such as western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla [Rafn.] Sarg.) and
lodgepole pine regularly produce abundant seed
30
-------
crops, natural regeneration was estimated to be
only 45 percent and that of planting, if no
plantation maintenance was performed, 60
percent (Kuhnke, 1989). Accordingly, lands
classified as non-satisfactorily restocked increas-
ed (fewer than 700 acceptable seedlings per
hectare) at a rate of about 60,000 hectares per
year (Pearce et al, 1986).
Table m Styroblocks Commonly In Use in British Columbia.
Slyroblock
211 A (2A)
211 (2)
31 3A (4A)
31 3B (4)
41 SB (SB)
415 (8)
No ol
cavities/
block
240
192
198
160
112
80
Gross cavity
volume
(ml)
39
39
62
65
106
133
Cavity
diam
(cm)
2.5
2.5
2.8
3.0
3.6
4.1
Cavity
depth
(cm)
11 4
11.4
133
12.7
14.9
152
No. of
cavities/
mz
1130
1055
936
764
527
441
After van Eerden & Gates, 1990.
D. LAVENDER
throughout the reforestation scenario, particu-
larly in the introduction and refinement of "hot
planting" of white spruce seedlings throughout
the summer period and in the increasing use of
larger, styroblock 415 seedlings with a con-
comitant lesser reliance on smaller stock (Table
III).
SUCCESS AND FAILURE
As noted in the introduction, British Colum-
bia is an extremely varied province with climatic
extremes ranging from the cold, saturated soils
of the boreal forests to near-desert conditions
in the southern interior, particularly areas
immediately east of the coastal mountains and
in the Okanogan trench. The pattern of suc-
cess or failure in reforestation may, perhaps, be
best seen by reference to the data in Table IV.
Although reforestation in British Columbia
during the past 15 years has benefited greatly
from markedly increased concern by the public
and land managing agencies about the future of
the province's forests, it has lacked quality
control throughout the reforestation scenario.
(This is particularly true for seedling quality
where meaningful evaluations of seedling vigor
are lacking; however, this is true throughout
forested areas of the world.) Further, reforest-
ation efforts have had to suffer the exigencies
resulting from a system driven throughout by
competitive bidding, from the lack of sufficient
funds and manpower in the Ministry of Forests
to thoroughly monitor the results of reforesta-
tion effort and to modify plantation establish-
ment practices on the basis of previous success
or failure, and finally from an emphasis upon
numbers of seedlings planted as a measure of
reforestation rather than upon numbers of
hectares successfully regenerated to the "free-
to-grow" stage. In spite of the foregoing,
however, the past 15 years have seen substan-
tial improvements in the technology involved
Table IV. Total Backlog Not
Satisfactorily Stocked Lands*
Region
Good
Site class
Medium Poor
Low
Total
(area in hectares)
Cariboo
Kamloops
Nelson
Prince George
Prince Rupert
Vancouver
Provincial totals
12.297
13.128
10,856
65,925
10,355
1,038
113.599
18,450 9.062
61.113 20,837
49,931 25,104
205,822 162,532
96,041 44,237
8.109 4,836
439,546 266,608
131
8
706
16,789
7,842
353
25,829
39,940
95.086
86,597
451,068
158,475
14,416
845,582
Percsnt of
Provincial
Forest
Land
13%
10%
8%
38%
20%
11%
100%
GoodS
Medium
Backlog
N3R
6%
13%
11%
49%
19%
2%
100%
Total good & medium 553,145 Hectares
• Backlog - areas denuded prior to 1982 (Includes non-commercial brush areas). Summary for crown
land only. (Crown lands comprise over 90% of British Columbia.
After Silviculture Branch, Ministry of Forests Report, 1988.
31
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REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
The data in Table IV clearly indicate that
reforestation has been most successful in the
coastal region of British Columbia. This is
partly true because foresters in this area have
much greater experience in reforestation since
regeneration projects have been conducted in
coastal B. C. for over 50 years, and partly
because the cool, moist climate of this region
generally favors seedling survival and growth.
Probably the major obstacle to successful plan-
tation establishment is invasion by competing
vegetation such as red alder (Alnus rubra
Bong.), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis Pursh.),
thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus Nutt.) and salal
(Gaultheria shallon Pursh.). These are aggres-
sive plants with much greater initial growth
potential than coniferous seedlings. Vigorous
stock, however, planted immediately after
harvest and site preparation treatments, can be
expected to have a 90 percent or better sur-
vival. One interesting situation, which is the
subject of intensive current research, is the
apparent effect of salal upon the growth of
coniferous seedlings in the northern part of
Vancouver Island. Early growth of conifers is
often good, but as salal invades the plantations,
seedlings frequently exhibit extreme loss of
vigor - a condition which can be relieved, but
only temporarily, by applications of nitrogenous
fertilizer.7
Coniferous seedling survival on southerly
exposures in southern Vancouver Island, on the
lower mainland and in the western portion of
the Kamloops region is impacted by heat and
drought stress. Trials with shade cards or
debris left after logging to shade the seedling
microsites have demonstrated significantly
higher seedling survival than that of control
stock (Lavender, 1990). A combination of low
rainfall, high summer temperatures and vigorous
competing vegetation have resulted in a history
of low survival for plantations established in the
western (transition-interior) part of the Kam-
loops region. The role of stock quality in seed-
ling survival in this area has not been studied in
detail, although reports of root dieback of
Douglas-fir stock have been related to mor-
tality. Much of the planting stock employed in
reforestation of this area has been grown in the
lower mainland of British Columbia, which has
a much less stressful summer climate. It is
possible that production of seedlings in the
interior for reforestation of this area would
result in higher survival. Trials of mechanical
site preparation devices and herbicides in recent
years have produced erratic results. The for-
mer are limited by difficult terrain and the
latter by the fact that only glyphosate, 2,4-D,
and hexazinone are available for use in B.C.
The Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir (ESSF)
and the interior Douglas-fir (IDF) zones in the
southern interior support species such as Doug-
las-fir, western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.)
and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni
[Parry] Engelm.), which are amenable to un-
even-aged management and natural regenera-
tion, so some form of selection management
has been practiced in these zones in the Kam-
loops and Nelson district. A recent evaluation
of regeneration success, particularly in the
ESSF zone in the Kamloops region, indicates
poor seedling survival at higher elevations
(above 1700 m.) and on poorly drained areas.
On sites at lower elevations, competing vege-
tation is probably the chief reason for poor
plantation success. As noted earlier, registra-
tion limits the use of herbicides in B. C. The
relatively steep terrain in most of the southern
interior restricts the use of mechanical site
preparation equipment so that the majority of
site preparation is accomplished by burning, a
technique which can result in warmer soils and
some degree of vegetation control.
As the data in Table IV suggest, reforestation
of the northern interior of British Columbia
(primarily the Prince George Region) has
presented the most severe problems in the
province. The major obstacles to seedling
survival in this area include:
a) generally cold soils, often insulated by
32
-------
heavy layers of organic material;
b) poorly drained, fine-textured soils;
c) aggressive, rapidly growing competing
vegetation, including aspen (Populus tremuloides
Michx.), bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis canaden-
sis [Michx.] Beauv.) and red raspberry Rubus
idaeus L.);
d) growing season frosts and cold-related
desiccation events during the winter, particularly
in the area east of the Rocky Mountains; and
e) the preferred species is white spruce,
which naturally is a climax species, regenerates
under an overstory of conifers or aspen, and
which is not well adapted to the conditions
which obtain in large clearcuts.
Finally, a large proportion of the seedlings
planted in this region until very recently had
been stored for periods as great as six months
prior to planting. Such storage has been shown
to adversely affect seedling physiology and root
growth at low temperatures (Harper et al. 1989).
A significant body of research concerning
factors affecting the survival and growth of
coniferous seedlings in the Prince George area,
particularly in the past five years, is reviewed in
Scrivener and MacKinnon (1989). The results
demonstrate that larger seedlings (Styroblock
415) generally have better survival and growth
than those raised in smaller cavities. Positive
responses have also been recorded for site
preparation techniques which are designed to
modify the microclimate in planting spots.
Figure 3 illustrates the changes in microsite
which may be achieved with machines which
D. LAVENDER
create patches (Leno, Bracke), mounds (Sinkki-
la, Bracke, Ministry of Forests) or disc trench-
ers (TTS Delta, Donaren 180D) and plows
(Marttini, bedding, breaking), which essentially
create continuous raised mounds.
The effects of such treatment vary, of course,
with the climatic zone and with the depth of
the litter layer and level of the water table. In
the fine-textured soils, which characterize the
mesic-to-hygric sites east of the Rocky Mount-
ains between Dawson Creek and Fort Nelson,
the positive effects of a raised microsite are
probably related primarily to increased aeration
and secondarily, perhaps, to increased soil
temperatures.
On drier sites near Vanderhoof where the
soils are coarser and the litter layer is only two-
to-four centimeters, detailed temperature
studies in the rooting zone of raised microsites
do not demonstrate significant increases in soil
temperature as a result of treatment. Better
seedling growth on these sites, then, may be a
function of better quality planting which the
site preparation permits or increased available
nutrients resulting from more rapid
decomposition of the organic materials when
they are mixed into the mineral soil.
Although the data in Table V show that
increased seedling growth is the initial response
to raised micro-sites, it appears that the benefit
gained through this type of site preparation is
Table V. TOTAL DRY WEIGHT OF WHITE SPRUCE
SEEDLINGS
Untreated
Bracke Patch Ministry Mounder
Site
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1987)
MacKeruie
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1988)
MacKenzle
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1989)
MacKenzie
Untreated
(gm)
404
6.09
348
6.76
803
4.47
14.38
22.90
7.30
Treatment
Patch
(gm)
3.97
5.14
4.82
672
8.00
6.31
954
12.89
10.60
Mound
(gm)
S.82
8.56
4.47
10.48
14.83
6.96
1517
24.11
12.00
Figmre 3. Diagram of Microsites and Planting Spots
33
-------
REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
relatively short-lived. These results probably
reflect the rapid invasion of site-prepared areas
by the competing vegetation cited above and
the discouraging lack of vigorous root growth
demonstrated by the data in Table VI.
Present mounding machines are capable of
creating several types of mounds; i.e., mounds
wherein the organic material is thoroughly
mixed with mineral soil, mounds with a cap of
mineral soil over either a single or double layer
of organic material, or mounds of mineral soil
Table VI
LINGS
SHOOT:ROOT RATIOS OF WHITE SPRUCE SEED-
Mound
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1987}
MacKenzie
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1968)
MacKenzie
Iron Creek
Stewart Lake (1989)
MacKenzie
493
495
2.26
550
480
360
750
750
550
681
615
242
530
510
290
850
It 80
660
413
370
258
540
540
470
910
7.10
900
placed directly on mineral soil. Current re-
search has shown that the optimal mounding
treatment is definitely site-specific; i.e., mixed
mounds are most favorable for nutrient-poor,
slightly xeric soils. Further trials with mechani-
cal site preparation treatments, particularly in
fine-textured soils, production of seedlings with
better root growth potential and development
of scenarios to better control encroaching
vegetation will be necessary for vigorous planta-
tion establishment in the sub-boreal and boreal
forests of British Columbia. Certainly, the
experiences of foresters in Alberta with long-
term trials of plantation establishment and
growth (Drew, 1988) amply demonstrate that
these sites are extremely difficult to regenerate
successfully.
Until the mid-1980s, virtually all the reforesta-
tion in the Prince George area utilized stock
which had been cold-stored over winter and
planted from mid-spring until early summer.
Frequently, such seedlings suffered from a lack
of synchrony of their annual rhythms with the
environment. More recently, "hot-lifted" (seed-
lings planted without a storage period) white
spruce seedlings are planted during the period
from June through August. Such plantings may
be damaged by growing season frosts but are,
generally, demonstrating good survival and
growth.
Table Vtt SURVIVAL OF CONIFEROUS SEEDLINGS IN
BRITISH COLUMBIA
urutil llutjioii uiiU Stuck type*
Species
Cariboo Kamloops
P BR P BR
Nelson
P BR
P George P Rupert
P BR P BR
van Province
P BR P BR
Percent Survival
Lodgepole pine
Interior spruce"
Interior Douglas-lir
Coastal Douglas-fir
Western hemlock
Western redcedar
1 P = plug seedling. BR
spruce or their hybrid
66
81
72
77
59
58
72
66
66
83
44
63
57
54
62
74
69
60
35
68
70
55
42
10
82
81
63
73
65
65
85 75
78 59
77 --
67 --
92
75
68
76
78
81
67
70
62
82 73
75 60
66 58
68 •-
64 45
•• bare root seedling; " interior spruce = while or Engelmann
After Johnson, C M 1987
Table VII summarizes survival data collected
1986 throughout the province. A weighting of
the various species' survival by numbers of
seedlings planted gives an average survival of 70
percent for both coastal and interior planta-
tions. This survival, however, does not indicate
the percent of plantations which are considered
to be satisfactorily stocked, because the number
of seedlings planted is substantially greater than
the number required to fully stock an area, as
an allowance for post-planting seedling mor-
tality is made when the number of seedlings to
be planted in a given plantation is determined.
This allowance is predicated upon estimates of
seedling survival. In interior British Columbia
it is commonly believed that 1200-1400 seed-
lings should be planted to assure 700 stems per
hectare when the plantation is judged to be
free of any significant further mortality.
34
-------
D. LAVENDER
The data in Table VII reflect primarily first-
year survival. Many of the surveys did not
utilize staked seedlings, however, and therefore
the error inherent in these data is greater than
would be the case if only previously staked
seedlings had been tallied. Current seedling
survival surveys in the province are based on
staked seedlings, a system which provides a
positive estimate of subsequent seedling survival
and growth.
FACTORS UNIQUE TO
BRITISH COLUMBIA
The province has been mapped to define a
range of biogeoclimatic zones, based on temper-
ature and effective moisture parameters, which
represent the major climates in British Colum-
bia. These zones are defined by climax vegeta-
tion which occurs on mesic or zonal sites of
each zone. These zones are further divided on
the basis of ecological factors affecting plant
distribution into subzones (Kimmins, 1987).
For example, Douglas-fir is the climax overstory
species found on the zonal sites in the Interior
Douglas-fir zone, but is found only in the hygric
sub-zone of the adjacent Ponderosa Pine-Bunch
Grass zone which is characteristic of lower
elevations with a warmer, drier climate. The
concept of biogeoclimatic zones and subzones
is that vegetation communities reflect the
inherent productivity of the site and may be
used to estimate the tree species which will
produce the maximum yields of desired com-
modities. Even sub-zones, however, are too
broad a classification to be used as guides for
forest management decisions, so each sub-zone
may be further described in terms of an edatop-
ic grid.
An examination of Figure 4 will reveal that
it divides the sub-zone into a number of sites
which differ in fertility and moisture status and
which are defined by different plant communi-
ties. For example, the community defined by
Lichen spp., Chimaphylla umbellata, etc., is
CWHci
SOUTHERN DRIER SUBMARITIME
CWH VARIANT
TROPHOTOPE (soil nutiienl regime)
I
£
I
0
5
1
2
° 3
c
O
Q.
4
r
I 5
6
I '
©
n (
u c
1} f
M 4
©
U ft,,
14 Vo
©
H\
PI
©
'Zi* S,7'"
(
rJr-
Jfl./j Uf&l'lllt
tnuvm ifflrnem
axtttflltii Hifu
/VCw
1 4 H, Itanium ifit.it>
I I 7M""J ua'ttt'lii
14 tllMK **/l*|.*»(
® PICw
1 T Sfifitfnuii lr»
3.
—
@
•
©
MV
©€0X;
!;sr.r
©
J J /-J.f/'j WAr
J 4 4ff f/ntiif>*m fifttttnt
] 1 Oflefinn ltiittt/1
"©1-AcBgCw-"©
®l Cwl (PM)
Figure 4. Edatopic Grid for the CWHci Sub-biogeoclimatic Zone
Which Occurs in Coastal British Columbia. (After Pojar et al,
1987.)
definitely drier and less fertile than the sub-
zonal site, probably because it occurs on a
ridgetop characterized by shallow, rocky soils.
In contrast, the site defined by the dominance
of Tiarella unifoliata, Smiladna racemosa, etc.,
probably occurs at the base of a slope where
seepage water enhances the availability of both
soil and nutrients and water. The significance
of this detail for reforestation in British Colum-
bia is that lodgepole pine is the recommended
species for planting at the first site, and that
either Douglas-fir, grand fir (Abies grandis
Lind.) or western redcedar (Thuja plicata
D.Don) is appropriate for the second site.
Further, the figure contains a number of an-
35
-------
REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
notations which modify the general recommen-
dations for suitable species; i.e., suggests that
"in brush hazard sites, establishment of a mixed
species stand is desirable. Pacific silver fir
(Abies amabilis [Dougl.] Forbes) is an alterna-
tive to grand fir in the upper limits of the
subzone."
While the use of guides such as shown in
Figure 4 certainly assures that the species with
the highest survival potential and possibly the
highest productivity potential for the products
desired will be planted in any given site, the
usefulness of this technology is limited by the
lack of authentic growth and yield data for
most areas of British Columbia. Species recom-
mendations, then, are based, at least in part, on
the site quality classification by species for the
vegetation communities.
Before any stand in British Columbia may be
harvested, the amended Forest Practices Act of
1987 mandates that a preharvest silvicultural
prescription must be prepared and signed by a
registered professional forester. This prescrip-
tion must detail all significant ecological charac-
teristics of the area to be harvested, specify the
harvest system to be employed and estimate the
effects of the harvest on the productivity of the
area for timber, water, fish and game, scenic
amenities, etc., and prescribe a scenario for
forest regeneration after harvest (Hadley, et al.,
1990). This plan must include reference to the
biogeoclimatic sub-zone, the preferred species
and seedling types for planting on the sites
which will be represented in the harvest area,
the requirements for site preparation prior to
planting and the probable effects of such
activity upon long-term site productivity, and
the requirements to protect the plantation from
either damage by animals or adverse effects of
competing vegetation. The prescription must
also include a discussion of the role of the
proposed harvest in the long-term forest man-
agement goals for the tree farm or timber
supply area. These procedures have been
mandated to assure that harvests will proceed
only in areas where such practice will not have
a long-term negative effect on productivity, that
the logistics of the regeneration process will be
recognized and provided for in advance of the
designated regeneration schedule, and that
necessary plantation maintenance will be sched-
uled and funded.
The use of biogeoclimatic zones and prehar-
vest silvicultural prescriptions provides the basis
for an enlightened forest regeneration system in
British Columbia. Maximum benefits from
these tools requires enhanced funding, however,
and a significantly greater cadre of professional-
ly trained, competent foresters than is currently
employed.
The first step in the preparation of the
propagules necessary for reforestation, unless
clonal propagation is universal in the reforesta-
tion scenario, is the collection, processing and
storage of high-quality seeds of appropriate
species. The province of British Columbia has
developed one of the leading forest-tree seed
facilities in the world at Surrey. Here, cone
collections from throughout the province are
processed according to the most advanced
methodology and stored under ideal tempera-
ture and moisture regimes most appropriate to
assure continued high vigor for seeds of each
species. Nurseries throughout the province
must request the seeds necessary for planned
seedling production well in advance of the
projected time of sowing to enable the Surrey
Centre to provide the stratification treatment
necessary to assure the prompt, vigorous ger-
mination required to produce a uniform, heal-
thy crop of seedlings. The detailed record
keeping maintained by this central seed storage
facility assures cone collection schedules which
will provide the seeds of the species and sour-
ces necessary to satisfy the specifications of
preharvest silvicultural prescriptions.
Reforestation costs vary widely across British
Columbia. Seedling cost is dependent on seed-
ling size primarily with stock raised in 313
styroblocks, the seedlings most commonly used,
36
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D. LAVENDER
costing about 17 cents per plant. Planting costs
are highest in coastal British Columbia, general-
ly from 30-50 cents per seedling. In the inter-
ior, similar costs range from 20-40 cents per
plant, but may be lower if the area is well site-
prepared. Costs for site preparation vary with
terrain, condition of the post-harvest area, and
-in the case of mechanical site preparation -
whether or not the area had previously been
burned.
Costs for burning in coastal British Columbia
(by far the most common site preparation
technique used) are about $220 per hectare,
with costs of mechanical site preparation at
about $530 per hectare. The relatively high
costs of mechanical site preparation are oc-
casioned by steep terrain and frequently heavy
slash loading. In the northern interior, costs
for burning and mechanical site preparation are
$128 and $180 per hectare, respectively. The
same costs in the southern interior are very
similar: $190 and $175 per hectare. The
preceding averages for mechanical site prepara-
tion are, however, the midpoints for a wide
range of costs. Drag scarifiers, commonly used
to prepare harvested areas for natural regenera-
tion of lodgepole pine, cost as little as $70 per
hectare, whereas mounding machines, plows and
blades may cost as much as $300-$400 per
hectare (Breadon, 1988).
SUMMARY
The reforestation program of British Colum-
bia has evolved, primarily over the past 20
years, from an effort concentrated in coastal
British Columbia, which employed provincial
crews planting a few million bareroot Douglas-
fir seedlings without regard to the ecology of
the plantation areas, to a much more sophisti-
cated, decentralized program wherein a range
of species are grown largely in private nurseries
and planted by silvicultural contractors accord-
ing to the precept that small individual insults
can accumulate to dramatically reduce the vigor
of planting stock. Logistics of planting programs
are now planned months or years in advance
instead of the almost ad hoc efforts of early
reforestation efforts. This is particularly ap-
parent in the promulgation of guidelines which
specify the weather conditions under which
planting may occur and the parameters for
proper field storage and handling of seedlings.
Given the foregoing advances, however, we
have nonetheless major problems which must
be solved before British Columbia will have a
truly efficient productive reforestation program.
These problems include:
a) production of seedlings which are capable
of vigorous growth immediately after planting,
particularly in the cold, hygric soils characteris-
tic of much of the Prince George region and of
the higher elevations of the southern interior
(current seedling specifications focus almost
entirely on physical parameters, i.e., shoot
length, diameter, etc., and generally fail to
recognize seedling physiology);
b) development of vegetation management
systems which are sufficient to permit planted
seedlings to reach a "free-to-grow" status in the
minimum possible time (the severe impact of
mechanical site preparation machinery on fine-
textured soils which occur widely in the prov-
ince and societal opposition to the use of
herbicides are two major obstacles to achieving
this goal);
c) the implementation of a funding level
necessary to assure employment of the well-
trained foresters required to conduct carefully
planned, detailed reforestation projects, and the
establishment of a personnel policy which
encourages competent foresters to develop
long-term expertise for the forest areas wherein
the work;
d) increased emphasis upon quality, as op-
posed to quantity, in every aspect of the refor-
estation scenario.
37
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REFORESTATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
REFERENCES
Breadon, R. E., 1988. "Survey of Forest-Renewal Prog-
rams in British Columbia," parts I-ffl; Technical Reports
80, 83, 88. Forest Engineering Research Institute of
Canada, Vancouver, B.C.
Drew, T. J., 1988. "Managing White Spruce in Alberta's
Mixed-wood Forest: the Dilemma." Pp. 35-40, in
Samoil, J. K., ed., Management and Utilization of Northern
Mixedwoods. Information Report NOR-X-296, Northern
Forestry Centre, Forestry Canada, Edmonton, Alta., 163
pp.
Hadley, M. J., Diggle, P. K., Handley, D. L, and Wyeth,
M. H., 1990. "Pre-harvest Assessment and Prescription."
Pp. 89-97 in: Lavender, D. P., Parish, R., Johnson, C.
M., Montgomery, G., Vyse, A., Willis, R., and Winston, D.
(eds.), Regenerating British Columbia's Forests. University
of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, B. C., 372 pp.
Harper, G., Camm, E. L., Chanway, C., and Guy, R.,
1989. "White Spruce: The Effect of Long-term Cold
Storage is Partly Dependent on Outplanting Soil Temper-
atures." Pp. 115-118 in Landis, T. D. (Tech. Coord.),
Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery Association,
August 11-14, 1989, Bismarck, ND. USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station
General Tech. Rpt. RM-184, Fort Collins, CO, 149 pp.
Johnson, C. M., 1987. Memorandum, Silviculture Branch,
Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B. C., 4 pp. + append.
mimeo.
Kimmins, J. P., 1987. Forest Ecology. MacMillan Pub-
lishing Co., N.Y., 531 pp.
Knight, T., 1990. "Reforestation in British Columbia."
Pp. 1-8 in Lavender, D. P., Pa;rish, R., Johnson, C. M.,
Montgomery, G., Vyse, A., Willis, R., and Winston, D.,
(eds.), Regenerating British Columbia's Forests. U. B. C.
Press, Vancouver, B. C., 372 pp.
Lavender, D. P., in press. 1990. "Plantation of Forestry
in Western Canada," pp. 30-44, in Proceedings of the
1990 RIFRO International Congress, Montreal, 5-11 Aug.,
1990.
Lavender, D. P., 1990. "Physiological Principles of
Regeneration," pp. 30-44, in Lavender, D. P., Parish, R.,
Johnson, C. M., Montgomery, G., Vyse, A., Willis, R., and
Winston, D. (eds.), Regenerating British Columbia's Forests.
U. B. C. Press, Vancouver, B. C., 372 pp.
Pearce, P. H., Lang, A. J., and Todd, K. L., 1986.
"Reforestation Needs in British Columbia: Clarifying the
Confusion." Information Report 85-13, The Forest Econom-
ics and Policy Project, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B. C., 27 pp.
Pojar, J., 1983. "Forest Ecology," pp. 221-318 in Watts,
S. B. (ed.), Forestry Handbook for British Columbia, 4th
ed., The Forestry Undergrad. Soc., Vancouver, B. C., 611
pp.
Pojar, J., Klinka, K., and Meiclinger, D. V., 1987.
"Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification in British Colum-
bia," Forest Ecology and Management 22:119-154.
Scrivener, B. A., and MacKinnon, J. A., 1989. "Learning
From the Past. Looking to the Future." FRDA Report
030, Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B. C., 140 pp.
Silviculture Branch, B. C. Ministry of Forests, 1988. 1988
Summary of Backlog Not Satisfactorily Restocked Forest
Land. Province of B. C., Victoria, B. C., 35 pp.
van Eerden, E., and Gates, J. W., 1990. "Seedling
Production and Processing: Container," pp. 226-234 in
Lavender, D. P., Parish, R., Johnson, C. M., Montgomery,
G., Vyse, A., Willis, R., and Winston, D. (eds.), Regenerat-
ing British Columbia's Forests. U. B. C. Press, Vancouver,
B. C., 372 pp.
NOTE
;Weetman, G. F., Personal Communication 4/90.
39
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REFORESTATION IN NEW
ZEALAND
I. R. Hunter
Abstract
Between 1000 and 1970 A.D., forest clearance by both Polynesian and European immigrants reduced the forest cover of
New Zealand from 75 percent to 23 percent. Little of the timber was used. Following a far-sighted review in 1913, it was
realized that the rate of exploitation was not sustainable. A policy of reforestation with exotic species was proposed, with the
objective of achieving national self-sufficiency in wood. The Depression provided manpower and 300,000 hectares,
predominantly ofradiata pine, were planted by 1935. By 1960, this new forest matured. The local wood-using industry had
no experience of utilizing the exotic softwood but came to prefer the new resource. In 1960 it was decided to expand the exotic
forest with the objective of providing an exportable surplus. A total forest estate of 1.2 million hectares was established by
1990. Following substantial restructuring of the industry, however, expansion has ceased.
New Zealand's reforestation effort is characterized by a sound selection of exotic species and provenance within species.
The species chosen, radiata pine, grows exceptionally well in the generally moist, warm climate. There were only a few
instances of poor species selection. Generally, site selection was good and a large centralized resource was created as a result.
A high degree of research input ensured knowledge of the conditions necessary to achieve success. A well-educated forest staff
made the implementation of high-management standards possible. Good planning, sound species and site selection, and a
highly educated workforce are necessary characteristics of any successful reforestation scheme.
INTRODUCTION
Like many countries, New Zealand went
through a period of severe deforestation in
which the area covered by natural forest drop-
ped from 75 percent to 23 percent. Just before
the First World War, it was realized that at the
current rate of exploitation, there would be
insufficient timber within 30 years to maintain
economic development. An ambitious program
of reforestation began, using exotic softwood
species. There were very few mistakes and
much solid achievement in this program, such
that today New Zealand has an exportable
surplus of timber. The purpose of this paper is
to describe the states of deforestation, outline
the stages of reforestation with exotic species,
discuss the successes and failures in that pro-
gram, and attempt to draw general lessons for
reforestation schemes elsewhere; while noting
any features that are unique to New Zealand.
THE STAGES OF DEFORESTATION
In the year 1000 A.D., most of New Zealand
was covered in some form of woody vegetation
(Figure 5). Probably 75 percent had a con-
tinuous forest cover (Nichols 1980). Forest was
entirely absent on 15 percent of the land sur-
face comprising areas above the tree line in the
Southern Alps; areas in the central North
Island recently affected by volcanic activity and
wetlands were devoid of woody vegetation.
The remaining sub-alpine areas and the drier
parts of the country were covered in a woody
scrubland.
At around that time Polynesian peoples, the
Maoris, arrived from the Pacific. These people
settled in New Zealand. The Maoris cleared
forest by fire partly to assist cultivation of
crops, to create a glacisital around their settle-
ment and to assist travelling. These fires
tended to be more destructive in the drier,
41
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REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
Indigenous Forest 1000 AD
Indigenous Forest 1990
Exotic Forest 1990
Figure 5. Indigenous and Exotic Forest in New Zealand, 1000 AD to Present
42
-------
more lightly wooded parts of the country. By
1840, when European settlement occurred, a
third of the forest had already been cleared,
and only 53 percent of the land surface was
forested.
Between 1840 and the present day, a further
40 percent of the land has been cleared, paricu-
larly of the more productive forest in the
wetter parts of the country. Part of the clear-
ance took place to generate timber resources to
build a modern industrial estate and part to
create opportunities for farm development.
Thode (1983) pointed out that in northern New
Zealand, more of the kauri forest was burnt
than was ever put to use. The total land area
now covered by natural stands is 23 percent of
the land-surface. Eighty percent of the native
forest is in state ownership. Of that 80 per-
cent, 60 percent is in state forest land; 30
percent is in national parks and 10 percent is
unoccupied Crown land (Nichols 1980). The
current distribution of land-use overall is shown
in Figure 6.
I. R. HUNTER
THE STAGES OF REFORESTATION
In 1896, a government-sponsored timber con-
ference found that the wasteful destruction of
the indigenous forests precluded a continuation
of exports and required a plantation resource to
be developed. An Afforestation Branch was set
up inside the Department of Lands and Survey.
Its objective was to establish 15,000 hectares of
plantation in 25 years. By 1913, public concern
for the future, both of the natural forest and
for the national timber supply was such that the
government set up a Royal Commission on
Forestry (Royal Commission 1913). It found
that the remaining natural forest resource was
limited, the methods of its use wasteful, and
that generally the native species were unsuited
for afforestation. Future needs of timber would
have to come from imports or large-scale plant-
ings of exotic tree species. A State Forest Ser-
vice was established in 1919 (Roche 1984).
In a study done in the early years of the
Forest Service it was predicted that the indigen-
ous forests would be severely depleted by 1965
and the rapid establishment by the state of
Exotic Forest
4 4
Indigenous Forest
239
Pasture and arable
53 1
Establishment of plantations
in New Zealand 1922 to 1986
Source: Anon 1988
Other non forest
IB 1
Figure & Percentage of Land Use in New Zealand.
(Source: Anon. 1988)
300
250
200
ISO
100
SO
Hectares (Thousands)
22-26 27-31 32-36 37-41 42-46 47-51 5Z-56 57-81 62-88 87-71 72-78 77-81 82-06
New planting per 5 year period
Figure 7. Establishment of Plantations in New Zealand, 1922-1986.
(Source: Anon. 1988)
43
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REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
120,000 hectares in timber was necessary. The
recommendations were accepted and rapidly put
into effect using the special work schemes
created to relieve the severe unemployment
that occurred during the 1920s depression. The
state target was achieved by 1931 (Fig. 7) and
private companies planted a comparable area.
By 1935, over 300,000 hectares had been plant-
ed (Sutton 1984). Radiata pine (Pinus radiata)
was the main species used but P. ponderosa, P.
contorta, P. nigra and Pseudotsuga menziesii
were also used for certain sites. Having achiev-
ed an area from which it was predicted that
self-sufficiency in timber could be achieved,
planting of new land by the state reduced
rapidly. Between 1936 and 1960 only 45,000
hectares of new land were planted. At that
time, the view prevailed that New Zealand had
little experience of exporting timber and could
not profitably export timber to the European
market (Bunn 1979). In addition, the local
wood-using industry was still very inexperienced
in the use of exotic softwood.
The period to 1960 saw a growing confidence
in the use of exotic softwood and its substi-
tution for dwindling native timber resources.
The demonstration sawmills established by the
state at Waipa and Conical Hills were very
important in fostering this growing confidence.
Market acceptance required the development of
proven methods of conversion, grading, season-
ing and preservation. The state played a leadi-
ng role in their development (Sutton 1984).
In 1960, following a policy review, it was
decided by the government to increase new
land planting to between 8,000 and 12,000 hec-
tares per year; to aim for an export target of
4,250,000 nrVyear and to aim for a total exotic
estate of 800,000 hectares by the year 2000
(Bunn 1979). Thus the objective of reforesta-
tion was expressly modified to provide an
exportable surplus. The government could
control its own planting by allocating money
and setting policy. It encouraged private-sector
planting by a mixture of grants and loans
(Forestry Encouragement Act 1962, Forestry
Encouragement Grants Regulations 1970), tax
incentives and export incentives. Instead of a
smooth and gradual increase in planting, howev-
er, a further planting boom occurred, in which
up to 40,000 hectares were planted per year,
leading once again to a maldistribution of age
classes. The intention was to make the export
target achievable earlier, and to smooth out the
age class discrepancy by silvicultural treatment.
Since clear felling and replanting of the earlier
planting boom occurred at the same time as the
new planting, the current exotic forest estate of
1.2 million hectares is dominated by young age
classes (Figure 8). Eighty-eight percent of the
total area is planted in one species: radiata
Exotic stocked forest area for NZ
by age class. As at 1/4/88
350
hectares (Thousands
1-5 6-10 11-1516-2021-2526-3031-3536-4041-5051-6061-80
Age class (years)
Figure 8. Exotic Stocked Forest Area for NZ by Age Class, 1/4/88.
pine.
The current situation with regard to refor-
estation is very different. In 1985, the govern-
ment decided to create a State-Owned Enter-
prise to carry out the commercial activities of
the Forest Service. The Forest Service had
multiple land-use as one of its goals (Kirkland
1989). The new State-Owned Enterprise said
in its statement of corporate intent that "the
44
-------
I. R. HUNTER
principal objective of the New Zealand Forestry
Corporation is to operate as a successful fores-
try and wood-processing business" (Fischman
and Nagle 1989). In other words, economic
objectives had become predominant. Kirkland
(1989) argued that it was impossible to practice
a multiple-use management because of the
difficulty of separating and valuing commercial
and non-commercial goals. Although Kirkland
(1989) showed that apparently greater financial
returns were achieved by the new entity than
had been achieved by the government depart-
ment, government policy evolved to the point
where after 30 months it passed the Crown
Forest Assets Act (Government Printer 1989)
and issued a prospectus entitled "the Sale of
State Owned Forests in New Zealand," thereby
initiating a process whereby the timber-cutting
rights (but not the land itself) are to be sold to
private-sector companies.
Fischman and Nagle (1989) speculate that a
"corporation is not a stable institutional ar-
rangement." Meanwhile, taxation incentives to
private companies had been removed and
eventually replaced by a taxation regime which
most private companies view as a negative
influence on new planting.
The view of the government is that the new
tax regime is "neutral" (Anon., 1990). Under
this new taxation regime, costs incurred in the
planting and tending of a stand must be "re-
membered" without inflation indexation and can
only be written off against income from that
particular stand at such time in the future as
revenue may occur. In addition, the impending
sale of the state assets has caused uncertainty
as to access to future wood supplies and cer-
tainty as to future cash requirements amongst
the private companies. As a result, planting of
new land has shown an actual and projected
decrease (Figure 9). Several New Zealand
companies have publicly signalled that they find
overseas investment more attractive. It is
necessary to point out, however, that govern-
ment statistics show a slightly different picture.
New Forest Plantings 1984-91
Source: Forestry Bulletin 3(4) Oct 1988
and NZ Forest Owners Assoc. (unpub)
Hectares Thousands
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
Years {actual to 1989;projected to 1991)
Figure 9. New Forest Plantings 1984-91.
(Source: Forestry Bulletin 3(4), Oct 1988, and Forest Owners Assoc.
unpub.)
While conceding that new planting has decreas-
ed (Anon. 1990), published figures to 1986
(Anon. 1988) give total areas of new planting
up to 30 percent higher.
One aspect of the state forest sale which
could have an impact on the future area plant-
ed in New Zealand is the absence of a require-
ment to replant. The licensee may use the
land for any purpose (Government Printer
1989). Some state forests were established with
too little regard for topography and siting and
justifiably deserve critical evaluation before
replanting. No such requirement to replant
currently exists over private company land and
nearly every hectare felled is replanted. There
is therefore no strong reason, based on past
experience, to fear that large areas of the
current estate will be alienated to other land
uses. It is probably fair to conclude, however,
that under current policies the present size of
the New Zealand forest estate will not increase
greatly in the immediately foreseeable future.
45
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REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
Policy in the area of the native forests has
moved firmly in the direction of conservation
(Anon. 1989). The proposed national policy
states that "the maintenance of the present area
of indigenous forest is in the national interest,"
but that sustainable management will be al-
lowed within tight minimum impact criteria
where it is demonstrated to be technically
feasible. If this policy is implemented, then the
forest on the 23 percent of the New Zealand
land surface which is currently under native
vegetation will continue to grow, replacing the
biomass removed over much of the area in past
partial logging. Mature indigenous beech/-
podocarp forest (at ages greater than 150 years)
contains as much living biomass as a mature
radiata pine stand (Beets 1980). It is worth
noting, however, that the native forest of New
Zealand is very slow-growing, with estimates of
volume production in some of the denser stands
of podocarps being as low as 1.5 to 3.5 nvVha/-
year (Franklin 1973, Herbert 1980). The New
Zealand beech may produce between 7-10.5
mVha/year (Evans and Jackson 1972).
SUCCESSES AND FAILURES
It is difficult to characterize aspects of the
reforestation program simply as either successes
or failures because all strengths, when looked at
from another perspective, can be seen as weak-
nesses. All successes carry the seeds of their
own failure. For example, the enormous suc-
cess in achieving physical targets of planting
began to create apprehension in the minds of
influential economists as to the future capital
demand for processing plants.
A major success of New Zealand's afforesta-
tion strategy was the early recognition of radia-
ta pine as a very flexible species capable of
growing on a wide range of sites and producing
outstanding volume. Radiata pine was intro-
duced to New Zealand about 1856 and used by
farmers and tree enthusiasts. By 1890 there
were many plantations (Sutton 1984).
At the same time, a very wide range of
species was tested informally. The Afforesta-
tion Branch planted blocks of species in the
early years of the 20th century, so that by the
time the big expansion came in the 1920s there
was considerable experience with a wide range
of species and clear evidence that radiata pine
outperformed all others on most sites. The
exceptions were on very cold, frosty sites and
on some nutrient-deficient sites. There is
general consensus that New Zealand had sev-
eral strands of good fortune.
In the first place, the seed that was collected
in the early days produced a land race com-
posed of Ano Nuevo and Monterey provenan-
ces which later provenance trail work has
shown to be near optimal (Burdon and Ban-
Table VHL STEMWOOD PRODUCTIVITY OF RADIATA PINE
IN NEW ZEALAND.
Location
Net AuGrowtk
m3flujyr.
Source
Av., all forests 18.8
Eastern N. Island 24.0
Max observed 44.7
Collins, et al. 1988
Collins, et al. 1988
Shula 1989
nister 1973).
In the second place, some of the more severe
diseases which attack radiata pine in its native
range have not been introduced into New
Zealand. Radiata pine is a very flexible species
capable of growing well on a wide range of
sites. It seldom goes into "check." Indeed, the
only circumstance that appears to cause ir-
reversible slow-down in growth is a rise in the
water-table such that the root zone is often
saturated.
Radiata pine produces on average significant-
ly more than the growth of native forest species
(Table VIII). At its best, radiata pine is cap-
46
-------
I. R. HUNTER
able of growing five times as fast as some of
the best native stands, and there is evidence
that after two rotations this high level of rela-
tive productivity will be sustained on most sites.
Its outstanding performance as a forest tree,
however, has led to its acceptance ahead of
other trees which grow well in New Zealand
and which might be more acceptable as a
timber either on the general world market or in
specific niches of that market. Except in the
Australian market, radiata pine is used chiefly
for packaging (Anon. 1990).
Cryptomeria japonica, on the other hand,
grows about two-thirds as fast as radiata pine
on selected sites and would possibly be more
readily acceptable on the Japanese market than
radiata pine.
It is also widely recognized by the forestry
community in New Zealand that being depend-
ent on one exotic species, whose full range of
native disease have not yet become established
in New Zealand, carries risks (Chou, 1981;
Bain, 1981). It is necessary to be aware of the
diseases that occur on the introduced species in
its native range and also to consider the pos-
sible impact of a meeting between the exotic
species and a new disease unknown in its home
range. A thorough risk assessment should be
undertaken before commencing large-scale
reforestation. Species for which there are
known fatal diseases, such as elm, should be
avoided.
A necessary characteristic of any refores-
tation scheme, however successful its main
species, is that strategic research is continued to
evaluate a large range of potential substitute
species (Bunn, 1979).
One of New Zealand's failures concerns the
attempt to plant cold, higher altitude sites on
which radiata pine initially failed. Pinus ponder-
osa was one of a small group of species chosen
to plant these sites, and at one time this spe-
cies was second only to radiata pine in area
planted. Nearly 30,000 hectares were planted
in the first planting surge. Insufficient atten-
Height in metres at age 16 years
P. r»
-------
REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
is fairly even over the whole country. There is
a trend towards slower growth in the more
southerly parts of the country and dry, high-
altitude sites in the South Island can produce
Distribution of radiata pine
Site index in New Zealand
8ourc»i Hunter «nd Qlbion (1994)
Ntw Zt«l«nd Journal of Forvct 8ot«nc« 14(1) 69-64
NEW ZEALAND
Fipue 11. Distribution of Radiata Pine Site Index in New Zealand.
Source: Hunter and Gibson, 1984
very slow growth (Figure 11).
New Zealand's afforestation program contains
both successes and failures in other aspects of
the choice of site. The failures came about
partly through lack of knowledge about site
productivity relationships, partly through not
considering the economic considerations rigor-
ously enough and mainly because choice of land
was constrained by land-use planning proced-
ures. Of the 75 percent of the estate for which
original land use is known, over 70 percent was
planted on land described as unutilized or
reverting farmland, 9 percent was planted on
land with varying erosion problems, 12 percent
was directly converted from native forest, and
only 7 percent was planted on land considered
to be viable farmland at that time (D.J. Evans,
pers. comm.). Thus the expansion of the
plantation estate was not directly at the ex-
pense of the native forest. There are good
historical reasons for the concentration of the
estate on unutilized or reverting land. The
state was constrained up to the 1970s by a
Land-Use Committee made up of Government
Department representatives who normally
allocated any land bought by the state with
agricultural potential to the state land develop-
ment agency (Fenton, 1965). When land-use
decisions became the prerogative of local
government, these bodies generally moved to
place forestry land use in a subordinate position
to pastoral land use: specific local authority
being required to afforest more than tiny
parcels of land (Rockell, 1980). The forestry
sector experienced considerable hostility from
the farming community and there were several
successful appeals against large-scale forest
expansion onto farmland. Smith and Wilson
(1984) showed that forestry was not one of the
more publicly favored options for land use.
Respondents to their survey gave environmental
concerns, life-style concerns and general land-
use preferences as their reasons for opposing
conversion of land to forestry. A really success-
ful reforestation program would control the
choice of site pro-actively. To do that, how-
ever, it would need to take public opinion with
it by confronting and dealing with issues of
public concern.
Despite these constraints on land availability,
there is nowadays a satisfactory concentration
of forests in the Central North Island (Figure
12). The soils in this region are deep pumice
48
-------
I. R HUNTER
Cent. N. Island 48%
Sth N Island 13*
Nth. N. Island
Sth S Island 055
E S. Island 3%
W S. Island 2%
Nth. S. Island 11%
Figure 12. Distribution of Exotic Forest in New
Zealand. (Source: Novis, et ah, 1989.)
ash, with high water-holding capacity. The
climate is moist. Radiata pine growth is rapid.
Nevertheless, part of the estate was planted on
land that proved to be chronically nutrient-
deficient. Annually about 30,000 hectares are
fertilized with boron, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium and/or nitrogen fertilizers. Moreov-
er, in the second planting boom, planting was
distributed around the regions and some minor-
ity of forests were planted on very steep slopes
in inaccessible areas (Bunn, 1979). Logging on
these steep sites will pose severe problems
(Carson, 1983).
Latterly, very high standards have been a-
chieved in the establishment (e.g., Hunter and
Skinner, 1986) and management of the planta-
tions (Sutton, 1984). This situation contrasts
with that in the first planting period where
there were some failures due to inadequate
technology. A Forest Research Institute was
established in 1947. Staff training through in-
house, sub-professional and university-based,
professional training accelerated through the
1950s (McKelvey, 1984). Research concentrat-
ed on practical outcomes. Scientists were given
considerable freedom to focus on medium-term
opportunities rather than on short-term prob-
lems, however, in an environment where long-
term stability of budget was guaranteed (Sutton,
1984). The phrase "scientific effectiveness,"
used by a past director of the Institute, encom-
passed the successful practical application of
research results to field situations. Particularly
successful were efforts in nursery techniques,
site preparation crop establishment, crop tend-
ing and utilization of the timber. These results
were communicated to managers through
research symposia (e.g., Chavasse, 1981), by
face-to-face communication (Balneaves, 1983),
and by practitioner-oriented publications (e.g.,
Hunter and Skinner, 1986).
The combination of applied research effort
and a highly trained staff who understand and
applied that effort was particularly successful.
Over the last few years, however, the Research
Institute has been required to earn an increas-
ingly high percentage of its costs from commer-
cial activity. Although mechanisms have been
found to ensure continuation of widely available
practical research through the founding of
research cooperatives, some of the research
effort has been diluted and diverted by proprie-
tary agreements. In addition, the number of
staff employed in forest management has dec-
lined sharply (D.J. Evans, pers. comm.) to the
point where the remaining staff feel unable to
put as much time into technical matters as was
previously the case. A successful reforestation
program needs the underpinning of an adequate
research and development agency, a highly
trained workforce and a high level of com-
munication between the two.
A weakness of New Zealand's afforestation
program was that the "Forest Service nurtured
a fraternal cadre of foresters who made man-
agement decisions largely insulated from polit-
ical or judicial pressure" (Fischman and Nagle.
1989). The management concentrated too
greatly on physical goals (number of hectares
planted for example) and not enough on finan-
49
-------
REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
cial goals (Grant, 1979), making it vulnerable to
financial inquisition. It also paid insufficient
attention to the changing and growing tide of
urban opinion which was firmly against the
destruction of native forests.
UNIQUE FEATURES
New Zealand's economy is moving from a
highly regulated one to a more free-market
approach. The government has introduced a
tax regime which has been negatively received
by industry. There are large areas of land in
New Zealand potentially available and suitable
for afforestation (Table IX), but recent new
land plantings have fallen to a 30-year low.
The state is removing itself from afforestation
by the sale of the state forests. If the area
planted in trees is to increase in the short term
then a mechanism will have to be found to
encourage private enterprise to plant more
trees than their current economic appraisal
considers desirable.
New Zealand has developed silviculture into
a considerable science (Sutton 1984). Years of
intensive field research culminated in a model-
ling phase which sought to bring the empirical
knowledge into one framework. Sutton (1984)
summarized the main conclusions of that mod-
elling effort thus:
* site productivity is the most important deter-
minant of profitability;
* topography and distance to market can have
a major impact on profitability;
* overhead costs can often be more important
than direct costs;
* for any one site, the choice of final crop
stocking is most important;
* low final crop stocking is most important;
* low final crop stockings and stem pruning
produce the highest value output. New Zea-
land's forestry practice is overwhelmingly in-
fluenced by these ideas, to the extent that it
might be difficult to obtain increased planting
in areas or in ways that contradicted this body
of knowledge. For example, Sutton (1984)
points out that it is almost impossible to maxi-
mize both volume production and value in the
same regime. New Zealand's forests tend to be
managed for maximum value, which means less
than maximum volume. Less than the poten-
tially immobilizable carbon would be immobil-
ized by such a silvicultural regime.
Table DC POTENTIAL LAND AVAILABLE TO EXPAND
EXOTIC FORESTRY (HARRIS, 1979).
REGION
AREA IN
THOUSAND HECTARES
North, North Island
Center, North Is.
East, North Is.
South, North Is.
North, South Is.
East, South Is.
South, South Is.
351
705
777
632
590
1041
1520
Afforestation can be a very capital-intensive
operation (Fenton, 1965). Following planting,
radiata pine plantations are usually live-branch
pruned and thinned (without commercial yield)
several times. These operations place a severe
cash-flow constraint on owners. The objective
of such operations is to produce high-quality
clear timber at rotation age. There are inci-
dental benefits from such treatment. Planta-
tions so treated are healthier than those left
untended (Sutton, 1984). The first crop, which
was mostly untended, was badly damaged by a
wood wasp, Sirex. Needle cast fungi such as
Dothistroma and Cydaneusma are more severe
in untended plantations as well. The costs of
establishing the plantation are small, however,
when compared to the capital costs of the
utilization plant. It is estimated that capital
investment of 6 to 7 billion N.Z.$ would be
required to process all the wood available over
the next 20 years (Anon., 1990). For a small,
relatively capital-poor country like New Zea-
50
-------
I. R. HUNTER
land, these capital costs can be a significant
constraint on plantation expansion.
New Zealand has a small population (3
million) and historically high wages for manual
labor. It has a very strongly regulated labor
market with very strong labor unions. The cost
of getting logs to the market amounts to 50
percent of the costs incurred in the whole 30-
year rotation. Labor availability and cost are
therefore significant factors in the expansion of
afforestation (Anon., 1990).
New Zealand has a land area equal to the
United Kingdom, or equal to the state of
Colorado. It has a low population density, yet
it has a very high degree of investment in
economic infrastructure and in education of its
people. It has a mild, moist climate capable of
growing one of the highest producing conifers
in the world. It has plentiful land that is both
suitable and potentially available for an affores-
tation program (Table IX). It has the capacity
to make significant world contributions to net
afforestation.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1988. Statistics of the Forests and Forest Industries
of New Zealand to 1987. Ministry of Forestry, Wellington.
Anon, 1989. A National Policy for Indigenous Forests; A
discussion paper. Ministry for the Environment, Wel-
lington, New Zealand, September, 1989-
Anon, 1990. New Zealand Forestry Briefing for the
Minister of Forests. Ministry of Forestry, Wellington.
February, 1990.
Bain, J., 1981. "Forest Monocultures - How Safe Are
They? An Entomologist's View." New Zealand Journal of
Forestry 26(l):37-42.
Balneaves, J.M. 1983. "Dissemination and Application of
Research Results. New Zealand Journal of Forestry 28(2):-
143-149.
Beets, P., 1980. "Amount and Distribution of Dry-matter
in a Mature Beech/Podocarp Community." New Zealand
Journal of Forestry Science 10:395-418.
Bunn, E.H., 1979. "The Consequences of the Past
Planting Program." New Zealand Journal of Forestry
24 (2) :152-8.
Burdon, R.D. and Bannister, M.H., 1973. "Provenances
of Pinits radiata; Their Early Performance and Silvicul
tural Potential." New Zealand Journal of Forestry 18(1):-
133-140.
Carson, W.W., 1983. "Is New Zealand Ready for Steep
Country Logging?" New Zealand Journal of Forestry
28(l):24-34.
Chavasse, C.G.R. (Ed and Comp), 1981. Forest Nursery
and Establishment Practice in New Zealand, FRI Sym-
posium No. 22. N.Z. Forest Service, Forest Research
Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand.
Chou, C.K.S., 1981. "Monocultures, Species Diversifica-
tion and Disease Hazards in Forestry." New Zealand
Journal of Forestry 26(l):20-36.
Collins, J., McGregor, F., and Novis, J., 1988. A National
Exotic Forest Description System. Working paper No. 3.3,
Ministry of Forestry, Wellington.
Evans, DJ. and Jackson, R.J., 1972. "Red Beech Man-
agement; Implications From Early Growth Plots." New
Zealand Journal of Forestry 17:189-200.
Fenton, R.T., 1965. Exotic Forestry and Land-use in New
Zealand. Proceedings of the Fourth N.Z. Geography
Conference. New Zealand Geographical Society Inc.,
Dunedin, New Zealand. Also New Zealand Forest Service
Reprint 121. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.
Fischman, R.L., and Nagle, R.L., 1989. "Corporation:
Implementing Forest Management Reform in New
Zealand." Ecology Law Quarterly 16:719-753.
Franklin, D.A., 1973 "Growth Rates in South Westland
Terrace Rimu Forest; 1. Growing stock and increment in
virgin forest." New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science
3(3):304-12.
Government Printer, 1989: Crown Forest Assets, Govern-
ment Printer, Wellington.
51
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REFORESTATION IN NEW ZEALAND
Grant, R.K., 1979. "The Role of Economics in Forestry:
The Case for an Independent View." New Zealand Journal
of Forestry 24(1):47-60.
Harris, G.S. (ed), 1979. The Potential of Energy Farming
for Transport Fuels in New Zealand. NZER&DC Report 46:
University of Auckland. Auckland, 132 pp.
Herbert, J., 1980. "Structure and Growth of Dense
Podocarp Forest at Tihoi, Central North Island, and the
Impact of Selective Logging." New Zealand Journal of
Forestry 25(l):44-57.
Hunter, I.R., and Gibson, A.R., 1984. "Predicting Pinus
radiata Site Index from Environmental Variables." New
Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 14:53-64.
Hunter, I.R., and Skinner, M.F., 1986. "Establishing
Radiata Pine on the North Auckland Podzols." New
Zealand Journal of Forestry 1986:17-22. New Zealand
Forest Service Reprint No. 1944.
Kirkland, A., 1989. "Accountability in Multiple Use
Enterprises -- Urgent Problem or Dead Horse?" Paper
prepared for the Thirteenth Commonwealth Forestry
Conference, Rotorua, New Zealand, September, 1989.
McKelvey, P J., 1984. "Eighteen Years On: A Progress
Report and Assessment of the Future, For the School of
Forestry." New Zealand Journal of Forestry 29(l):9-23.
Moore, A.M., 1944. "Pinus ponderosa (Dougl); Com-
parison of various types grown experimentally on Kain-
garoa State Forest. New Zealand Journal of Forestry 5:42-
49.
Nichols, J.L., 1980. "The Past and Present Extent of New
Zealand's Indigenous Forests." Environmental Conservation
7(4):309-10.
Novis, J., Turland, J., and Collins, J., 1989. A National
Exotic Forest Description. Edition 5. Ministry of Forestry,
Wellington, January, 1989.
Roche, M.M., 1984. "Forest History in New Zealand: A
Review and Bibliography. New Zealand Journal of Forestry
29(1):97-107.
Rockell, J.D., 1980. "The Place of Forestry in the Wairoa
Scheme." New Zealand Journal of Forestry 25(l):58-74.
Royal Commission, 1913. Report on Forestry. New
Zealand Government Printer. 87 pp.
Shula, R.G., 1989. "The Upper Limits of Radiata Pine
Stem-volume Production in N.Z." New Zealand Forestry
36(8):19-22.
Smith, G., and Wilson, P., 1984. "The Public's Evaluation
of Land-use Options in Two New Zealand Regions. New
Zealand Journal of Forestry 29(2):249-268.
Sutton, W.RJ., 1984. New Zealand Experience with
Radiata Pine. The H.R. MacMillan Lectureship in Forestry,
Vancouver, B.C., New Zealand Forest Service Reprint No
1675. Forest Research Institute Rotorua.
Thode, PJ., 1983. "Northland's Forest History."
Zealand Journal of Forestry 28 (2) :203-224.
New
Washbourn, R.W., 1978. "Establishment Practice on
Frost-prone Sites at Kaingaroa Forest. New Zealand
Journal of Forestry 23(1):107-120.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author very gratefully acknowledges the input and
advice of the very many people necessary to prepare a
complete statement. These people include: Dr. J.
Herbert, Mr. G. Horgan, Mr. J. Miller, Dr. R. Burdon, Dr.
R. James of the Forest Research Institute; Mr. Peter
Olsen of P.F. Olsen and Company Ltd; Mr. Peter Carter
of N.Z. Forest Products Forests; Mr. M. Craig of Tasman
Forestry Ltd; Mr. John Groome of Groome Poyry; Mr.
D J. Evans, Executive Research Officer for the N.Z. Forest
Owners Association, Inc.
52
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE
AMERICAN SOUTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR LARGE-SCALE
REFORESTATION TO SLOW GLOBAL WARMING
Joseph H. Hughes
Abstract
Tfie American South provides perhaps the best case study of large-scale plantation forestry in the United States. The primary
objective of this paper is to present this reforestation case study within the broader context of southern forest history. A
secondary objective -- the potential use of southern forest plantations for carbon storage as a means to slow global climate
warming -- is considered in the final sections of the paper.
INTRODUCTION
Forestry and forest products have been sig-
nificant and locally dominant in the southern
economy for more than 250 years. Southern
forest history over this time span is symbolically
divided into four eras ~ the first, second, third
and fourth forests (SFRAC, 1969; USDA,
1988). In reality, the eras overlap in time, both
across the South and locally, but are useful to
illustrate the historical development of timber
utilization and forest management. The eras of
southern forestry also provide comparisons to
forest management and forest exploitation in
other regions of the United States and of the
world. The virgin, old growth first forest
provided the "seed" for the second-growth
second forest, which in turn provided the "cap-
ital" for the pine plantations that are the third
forest, which in turn provides the "hope" upon
which we will establish the future fourth forest
The third and fourth forests are the models for
potential carbon storage in southern pine
plantations. We will consider each forest
sequentially in time, beginning with the first
THE FIRST FOREST
Coastal North Carolina, including my home
town of New Bern, located in Craven County,
is representative of the longest forest history in
the South. I will use this area as an example
throughout the paper. Savannah, Mobile,
Pineville or a hundred other locations could be
used. The first forest -- the original, virgin
stands of longleaf and other southern pines,
upland and bottomland hardwoods, cypress and
white cedar — powered the economy for more
than 200 years, until about 1930.
An early example of the importance of forest
products to this area is from the export records
for Port Beaufort for the shipping year ending
October, 1764. Naval stores were the principal
exports ~ nearly 40,000 barrels of pine tar,
turpentine, pitch, spirits of turpentine, and rosin
were shipped that year. Most were probably
extracted from the longleaf pine stands of
Craven County (Watson, 1987). Naval stores
put the South on the map of world trade. The
British navy was no longer hostage to northern
Europe for these vital materials. The domin-
ance of naval stores in the coastal Carolina
economy continued for more than 100 years.
53
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
The 1860 census for Craven County indicates
that 47 of 68 manufacturing firms produced
turpentine products, accounting for three-quar-
ters of the value of all manufactured products
from the second forest Incidentally, only one
sawmill operates on the New Bern waterfront
today. Additional forest products such as sawn
lumber increased this to 88 percent of the total
value for the county (Watson, 1987). Similar
statistics were applicable to Florida, Georgia
and Alabama as the naval stores industry as-
sumed dominance in those longleaf and slash
pine areas, especially after the Civil War.
The Southern economy was depressed for a
few years as a result of the war, but unprece-
dented demand for forest products forced a
turn around. Waves of immigration into the
United States after the Civil War resulted in a
building boom that placed a tremendous de-
mand on timber supplies throughout the coun-
try. This demand, coincident with internal
access provided by railroads, opened up vast
stands of southern timber which were previously
untouched. The result was a logging and
sawmilling boom across the South that lasted
from about 1870 until 1930. Craven County
shared in the boom. By the turn of this cen-
tury, the New Bern waterfront was crowded
with sawmills. The Neuse and Trent Rivers
were filled with log rafts and lumber cargo
vessels. About a dozen lumber companies were
operating in the area (Watson, 1987). John L.
Roper Lumber Company, with more than
200,000 hectares of timberland, a railroad
system and several mills in coastal North Carol-
ina, owned a sawmill complex in New Bern,
including the largest planing mill in the Carol-
inas and Virginia (Krinball, 1956). Blades
Lumber operated seven mills in the area.
Lumber production across the South peaked at
nearly 50 million cubic meters in 1909 (SFRAC,
1969). The 1920 census included 16 lumber
mills in the New Bern area (Watson, 1987).
The timber harvest level was not sustainable.
Remnants of the first forest were rapidly de-
pleted. The virgin forest was mostly gone by
1930, by the beginning of the Great Depres-
sion. The few remaining stands were harvested
by about 1945. Sawmill capacity reflects this
loss. In New Bern, the number by 1940 had
declined to 7 sawmills and 4 planing mills
(Watson, 1987). These mills were progressively
being supplied from the second forest. Inci-
dentally, only one sawmill operates on the New
Bern waterfront today.
Timber harvest during the last 50 years of the
first forest provides a good example of rapid
exploitation of a natural resource - of "cut-and-
-run," of "boom-and-bust." Was this the equi-
valent of tropical rainforest destruction today?
Probably not, although there are similarities.
The survival of some plant and animal species
was put at risk. Rainforests are, however,
much more complex systems. We also have the
advantage of hindsight. The second forest did
rise to replace the South's first forest, but we
do not want to manage the southern or any
other forest that way again.
THE SECOND FOREST
The second forest is the second-growth timber
that arose from the cutover timberlands and
degraded, abandoned farm fields across the
South. This forest is the product of exemplary
human effort and changing land use patterns.
Organized efforts to naturally regenerate the
cutover first forest were begun in the early
1900's. The regeneration period extended for
perhaps 50 years ~ from about 1900 until about
1950. The second forest resulted from natural
regeneration, not from tree planting. Primary
limiting factors to forest establishment were
wildfire and uncontrolled grazing that destroyed
young seedlings and tree sprouts. Wildfire and
unregulated grazing were gradually reduced by
the various state and federal forestry agencies
that arose during this period. An early fire-
control campaign was the Dixie Crusades of the
1920s (SFRAC, 1969). The culmination has
54
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J. HUGHES
been the Smokey the Bear campaign begun in
the 1950s.
A world class infrastructure for forest utiliza-
tion and management has evolved in the South
during the last 70 to 80 years. Individual state
forestry agencies, the national forests, federal
and state experiment stations, more than 30
major forest product companies, and the south-
ern forestry schools helped to create the second
forest and, perhaps as importantly, are here
because there is a second forest
Transition from the first to the second forest
as a source of timber must have occurred for
more than 20 years ~ from the 1920s into the
1940s. From 1935 to the present, total lumber
production southwide has averaged about 26
million cubic meters per year, and has been in
the range of 19 to 31 million cubic meters per
year. Pine is 60 to 80 percent of this volume
on an annual basis; the remainder consists of
hardwoods and softwoods other than pine
(USDA, 1988). Second growth southern pine
gave rise to a structural plywood industry in the
early 1960s with a current annual capacity of
nearly 1,000 million square meters. But most
impressively, the second forest is also the raw
material base for perhaps the largest regional
pulp and paper industry in the world. The
southern pulp industry, with very modest begin-
nings in 1891, had a 10-fold expansion in pulp
tonnage between 1920 and 1940, followed by an
11-fold tonnage expansion between 1940 and
1984 (USDA, 1988).
Amazingly, until perhaps 1980, the expansion
of the industry did not keep pace with the
growth and expansion of the wood supply.
Consider our example of New Bern and Craven
County. Weyerhaeuser built a 545-metric-
ton/day pulp mill at New Bern in 1968; expan-
sions have brought the capacity to 690 tons/day.
By 1987, southern pulp production included 106
mills with a total capacity of 111,890 tons/day
(Hutchins, 1989). The South is now the lead-
ing region in pulp and paper production with
70 percent of United States production and
ranks high in other forest products (USDA,
1988). The second forest serves us well. With
increasing demand for forest products and a
shrinking forest land base, however, second
forest growth rates of 2 to 7 rrrVha/yr will not
be enough. Raw material for sawmills, plywood
plants, pulp mills and other manufacturers of
forest products is increasingly coming from the
third forest. Even so, the South's second forest
is one of the greatest forest recovery success
stories of all times. The second and now
emerging third forests may be providing a
sustained supply of forest products at a higher
rate today than did the first forest at the height
of exploitation in 1909. Applied technology
and wise, active management are making this
possible.
DESCRIPTION OF THE
SOUTHERN FOREST
Before discussing the third and fourth forests,
we need an overview of trends in southern
forestland ownership and in the real composi-
tion by tree species groups. The dynamics of
the southern forest estate beginning in 1952
and projected to 2030 are presented in Table
X. Part of the dynamic is the transition from
second to third to fourth forests. The South --
the twelve-state region extending from Virginia
to east Texas — was about 60 percent forested
in 1952, including 78 million forest hectares.
Forest area peaked at 81 million hectares in
1963 (SFRAC, 1969), has declined to about 73
million hectares in 1990, with a continuing de-
cline projected to 70 million hectares in 2030
(USDA, 1988).
Urban expansion and agricultural development
are the primary causes of forest land loss. The
United States population of 152 million people
in 1950 increased to about 250 million by 1990
and is projected to be 319 million by 2030.
The South, especially on the coast, is a high
population growth area. This places increasing
demands on the forest for not only more timber
55
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
and recreational use, but also for the conver-
sion of 10 million forested hectares to housing,
agriculture, highways, etc., between 1963 and
2030. The forest ownership trend is one of
gradual, proportional increase for public owner-
ship from 9 percent in 1952 to 11 percent in
2030; gradual increase for forest industry from
17 percent in 1952 to 25 percent in 2030; and
steady decline in other private ownership from
74 percent in 1952 to 64 percent in 2030. The
greatest proportional shift in ownership is to
forest industry as companies try to guarantee a
wood supply to mills and to increase the effi-
ciency of timber production.
The percent of area occupied by each tree
species group remains surprisingly constant from
1952 to 1985 and on through the projection
period to 2030. During that interval hardwood
forest types range from 47 to 51 percent of the
forest land base, with upland hardwoods from
28 to 35 percent, and bottomland hardwoods
from 15 to 19 percent. The mixed pine-hard-
wood type ranges from 12 to 15 percent and
pure pine types (natural and planted) from 38
to 41 percent. The greatest proportional loss
is for bottomland hardwoods (19 percent in
1952 to 15 percent in 2030). The greatest
proportional gain is for pine (38 percent in
1952 to 41 percent in 2030).
TABLE X. Area of Timberland, by Ownership, Species Groups, and
Pine Plantation Details for the South7, 1952-1985, with Projections.
Year
_„ inf.? tpnfl 1P70
Total. aU ownerships 762 798 77.4
Projections
National Forest
% all ownerships
Other Public
% ill ownerships
Forest Industry
% all ownerships
Olher Private
% all ownerships
Pine PtantaOon flaftj/h
135
173%
57 a
739%
37.3
477%
224
287%
149
190%
110
140%
Pine (natural and planlod) 29.9
% total forest 38 2 %
43
54%
27
34%
14.S
182%
583
730%
43
56%
2.8
3.8%
155
201 %
548
707%
Total Hardwoods
% total forest
Upland
% total forest
Bottomland
% tola! forest
Mixed pine-hardwoods
% total forest
393 378
49 3 % 48 8 %
24.7 24 9
310% 32.2%
148
18.2%
tl.1
140%
29.4
368%
12.8
18.6%
11 8
153%
27.9
36.0%
171
232%
49.4
669%
37.8
513%
256
347%
122
166%
109
148%
25.1
340%
4.4
60%
30
4.1 %
17.2
23.6%
483
662%
3.0
4.3%
17.4
24.4%
46.4
65.1%
9.1
4.4%
17.8
25.0%
45.1
64.2%
368 34.2 32-8
50.5% 48.0% 46.7%
24.7 23.0 22.2 '
339% 32.3% 31.6%
121
16.6%
112 10.6
15.7% 15.1%
10.0 8.9
13.8% 124%
26.1 283
356% 39.6%
8.5
12.0%
29.0
41.3%
Pine Plantation
% Total form
% Pine lores!
Pine Plantation owners
% Public ownership
07
10%
25%
3.1 4.9 65
3.9% 6.3% 115%
105% 17.6% 33.8%
16.2% 9.5% 6.7% 5.6%
% Other-private ownership 46.0% 49.3% 46.2% 31.4%
% Industrial ownership 35.8% 41.2% 47.1% 63.0%
10.6 17.9 19.6
146% 25.1% 27.9%
40.9% 63.3% 67.6%
5.5% 5.6% 6.1%
33.6% 37.8% 38. J%
61.0% 56.6% (5.7%
1 Virginia. North and Soulh Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida. Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Arkansas, and the eastern forested counties ol Texa« «nd Oklahoma.
2 Dan lor 1852 «nd 1962 sie is of December 31. Oala for 1870.1885. snd the projections years a/i as
of January 1
THE THIRD FOREST
In a broad sense, the third forest is the one
that follows the harvest of the second forest
In too many cases the third forest is the inade-
quate natural regeneration that follows high-
grade logging, primarily on private, non-indust-
rial lands. This lack of natural regeneration,
especially of higher value pine, may or may not
be compatible with individual landowner objec-
tives (Alig, et al, 1990). We will say more
about this later in the paper. The narrow
definition for third forest is the pine plantation
resource, the so-called "man-made" forests that
are now emerging as a wood supply. This is
the definition that we will use, unless we speci-
fy the broader one. Pine plantation area
details are given at the bottom of Table X. A
very minor area was planted to pines as early
as the 1920s, with an accumulation to 729,000
hectares by 1952, about 2.5 percent of the pine
area and 1 percent of the total forest area that
year. Forest industry, other private owners and
public owners have planted steadily since then.
The resource expanded to 8.5 million hectares
in 1985, with projections to 10.6 million hec-
tares in 1990. Thus, by 1990, pine plantations
56
-------
J. HUGHES
would occupy about 15 percent of the total
forest area and about 41 percent of the pine
area. Forest industry dominates with 61 per-
cent of all plantations on the 24 percent of the
southern forest that it owns. These are pre-
dominantly on the flat coastal plain where most
industrial land is located. Other private owners
have nearly 34 percent of the planted area,
with public ownership at about 6 percent.
Plantation ownerships range in size from a few
hectares that are individually owned to several
hundred thousand hectares by a single cor-
porate owner. For example, Weyerhaeuser now
has more than 607,000 planted hectares in the
South, occupying about two-thirds of its south-
ern lands. Other major companies each have
several hundred thousand planted hectares.
What is the relative scale of this plantation
estate? In simple terms, forest plantations in
the United States are dominated by loblolly
pine (Pinus taeda) tree farms in the South.
Consider the following statistics presented by
Boyer and South (1984):
• 1.6 billion bare-root forest tree seedlings were
produced in the United States in 1980; 80
percent (1.3 billion) were produced by southern
nurseries;
• 1.1 billion of this total were loblolly and slash
pihe;
• 0.97 billion were loblolly pine;
•loblolly pine accounts for 60 percent of all
bare-root seedlings planted in the United
States;
•the southern pines account for nearly three--
fourths of forest planting in this country;
•southern hardwoods were only about one
percent of the southern bare-root tree nursery
crop.
More recent data for the 1986 to 1989 seed-
ling production years imply even higher refor-
estation rates in the South. The annual south-
ern tree nursery crop ranged from 1.6 to 1.8
billion seedlings for those years. A projected
crop of 1.3 billion seedlings for the next few
years implies surplus nursery capacity of per-
haps 400 million seedlings per year (Stanley,
1990). Southern-pine tree improvement statis-
tics for 1987 indicate that 33 private companies
and 12 public agencies produced 1.33 billion
improved seedlings to reforest 753,000 hectares
that year. This area was approximately 85
percent of all southern reforestation (White,
1990). By 1985, pine plantations in the South
were 9 percent of the reported world total of
92 million planted hectares. Only the USSR,
China and Japan claim to have more planted
forests (Postel and Heise 1988). The total area
planted in the South is more than 25 percent
greater than the combined totals for Australia,
Brazil, Chile and New Zealand.
Why do we plant pines? Pines are the prin-
cipal species used for lumber, plywood, pulp
and paper. Pine is used, especially locally, at
rates that approach or exceed the rate at which
it is being grown in natural stands (Robertson,
1989). To complicate matters, second forest
pine stands do not usually regenerate to pine
by natural seeding after harvest. The condi-
tions for successful pine regeneration — a
source of mature seed, exposed mineral soil,
and minimal brush competition - are seldom
present. Thus, hardwood or pine/hardwood
mixtures become the naturally regenerated third
forest. Total volume yield and certainly pine
yield from the naturally regenerated third forest
is often less than for the second forest. Pine
plantations are established by forest industry as
the low-risk way to guarantee the future pine
supply. Planting also permits use of the best
genetic material and is compatible with inten-
sive site preparation and silviculture.
Loblolly pine may not be the perfect tree, but
in the South it is far ahead of the rest, ac-
counting for nearly 90 percent of all pine
planting (Boyer and South, 1984). Slash and
longleaf pines have superior properties for most
lumber and pulp products. Both are planted on
a limited scale. So, why is loblolly number
one? Loblolly pine is an aggressive species that
practically blanketed the South through natural
57
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
regeneration with the advent of wildfire control.
Frequent fires, which favored longleaf as per-
haps the dominant pine in the first forest, are
no longer desirable or permitted on a broad
scale. Loblolly pine, more than any other spec-
ies, became the second forest, is the third
forest, and is the strong favorite for the fourth.
Loblolly has adequate wood properties for
most products and is the superior pine in most
other respects. Genetically, it is the most
diverse of all southern pines. Broad genetic
diversity is a necessary attribute for a tree that
is planted from Maryland to Florida to Ok-
lahoma, and on the spectrum of sites from dry,
rocky hills to wet peat swamps. No other
species native to the South, either pine or
hardwood, grows as well under such a wide
range of conditions. Hardwoods such as sweet
gum and green ash have been planted on about
32,000 hectares across the South, equal to only
0.30 percent of the area planted to pine (Lea,
1990). Hardwoods are more difficult and more
expensive to plant than pines. Natural hard-
wood stands occupy about 50 percent of the
total forest area and continue to supply ade-
quate volumes to satisfy demand (USDA, 1988).
Hardwood plantations will be more important
in the future, but in no way will planted hard-
wood approach the dominance of loblolly pine.
Exotic species such as eucalyptus, with poten-
tially high growth rates in the South, do not
survive the wide swings in winter temperatures.
Many have been tried. None are extensively
planted.
Droughts of the 1980s and root feeding by
grubs on old field sites are the recent causes of
plantation failures. These are confined to the
upper coastal plain, the piedmont, and to the
deep south. Loblolly plantation failures are
practically non-existent when the latest technol-
ogy of intensive management is applied. Mor-
tality due to drought, to girdling by rodents or
to root feeding by grubs (on grassy, old-field
sites) can be overcome by the proper planting
of genetically improved seedlings, on well pre-
pared bedded and fertilized or ripped sites, and
with follow-up treatments for insect and weed
control where needed. The most intensive
treatments are normally not required to get
good survival, but these nearly always result in
improved tree growth. Most failures occur
when the landowner tries to get by with a
cheap, poor-quality regeneration effort. Loblol-
ly is so forgiving that cheap regeneration usual-
ly has adequate survival, but tree growth is well
below potential.
The second and third forests are subjected to
wildfire, insect, disease, and weather-related
problems. Wildfire has been reduced to toler-
able levels by the state forestry agencies, in
cooperation with forest industry and with rural
fire departments. Southern pine beetle attacks
have increased in recent years due to droughts
in the 1980s, in combination with stress in
overstocked, maturing second forest pine stands.
Thinning to maintain maximum basal area
below 30 m2/ha will minimize the susceptibility
to beetle attack and subsequent tree mortality.
Fusiform rust losses are reduced by planting the
most resistant loblolly pine sources. Loblolly is
to some extent replacing the more susceptible
slash pine in the natural slash range as a result
of this effort.
Ozone pollution, as well as normal decreases
due to age, may be factors in declining growth
rates in older pine stands in the mountains and
the piedmont (USDA, 1988). Similar declines
have not been documented for plantations in
the coastal plain. Tornados are very destructive
on a local basis, but in total are not very
important. On September 21, 1989, Hurricane
Hugo set a new national standard for cata-
strophic forest destruction. Timber loss to
Hugo was more than five times the previous
standard set by Hurricane Camille in the late
1960s. Hugo claimed 15.8 million cubic meters
of sawtimber and 51 million cubic meters of
pulpwood. Hugo did three times the timber
damage of the Mt. St. Helens eruption (Davis,
1989). If the equivalent of Hugo was widely
58
-------
J. HUGHES
and frequently repeated across the South, forest
industry would be doomed. We must assume
that such will not happen.
TABLE XI Softwood Timber Removals', Net Annual Growth,
Inventory of Growing Stock in the Soutlr by Forest Mgmt Type,
Selected Years 1952-1984, with Projections^.
Pine plantations
Timber removals1
Net annual growth 2 2
Inventory4 186
103
IDS 8
1900
15.4 204 MS 73.4 103.1 1J0.4 193.1
292 370 6S.« 1054 1M.« 136.0 1426
2762 3642 466 5 612.S 1,1*1.9 1.347.8 1,916.1
Natural pine
Timber removals1 781 693 84.6 920 95.5 908 63.S 47.5 42.6 38.7
Net annual growth 799 905 995 1002 64.2 55.5 44.6 41.0 36.4 37.4
Inventory4 1.2495 1.4046 1.5227 1.6485 1,653.8 1,279.8 877.4 6692 617.2 575.3
Mixed pine-hardwoods
Timber removele1
Net annual growth
Inventory4
Upland hardwood!
Timber removal*1
Net annual growth
Inventory4
Bottomland hardwoode
Net annual growth
Inventory4
83
127
1943
Z7
40
73.8
50
1134
82
186
2669
26
59
1060
73
1595
98
249
3977
26
60
1432
68
IBI3
175
26.1
4675
55
96
1733
66
2074
220
237
4563
89
100
1613
69
2265
218
154
461.3
4 1
5.4
S37.7
71
272.0
248
134
3770
43
3.5
J43.1
5.4
2616
16.1
16.7
2964
56
4.1
231.0
5.3
2703
14.1
16.3
311.7
6.3
4.8
314.7
5.6
251.3
14.3
14.5
331.8
61
5.2
200.6
60
2313
All manegement types
Timber removals1 916 830 1044 1336 1519 1612 1720 1800 190.6 t90.3
NM oiuninl growth 1113'J I32C 1502 1717 1020 1409 1725 192.6 201.2 205.4
Inventory4 I.649Q 2.0C4 7 2.4439 2,7748 2.8840 2.7390 2.5916 2.628.4 2.742.7 2,656.5
1 Includes removals in inrj lorm ol roundwood products, logging residues. Ihe volumes of timber removed In cuttural
operations such as noncommercial thinning, and Inventory losses resulting from Ihe diversion of tlmberland 10 olher
uses such es cropland. pasrureiand. parks, and urban u»ee
2 Virginia, North and South Carolina. Tennessee. Georgia. Florida. Alabama.. Mississippi. Louisiana. Arkansas and Ihe
eastern forested counties ol Texas and Oklahoma.
a All projections at equilibrium prices, I.e. the slumpage prices at which projected timber demands and supplies ere
equal. Data are averages lor 5 years cantered on Ihe projection year
4 Data for 1952 and 1962 are as ot December 31 Data lor 1970 and all projection years are as of January l. Data lor
1976 and 1964 are as ol January 1, 1977. and January 1.1985
Nole Deta may nol add to totals because of rounding
The South's third forest is young. The hu-
man analogy is that of a teenager or perhaps
a young adult. In south Georgia, south Ala-
bama and north Florida, the region with the
greatest number of pulp and paper companies
and with the oldest plantations, many mature
planted stands have been harvested and replant-
ed within the last 10 years. Some are managed
for relatively short pulpwood rotations of about
25 years. The resource in the rest of the South
is younger and also more likely to be managed
on longer sawlog rotations of 30 to 40 years.
For many owners, highly mechanized first and
second thinnings have produced an increasing
wood flow during the last 10 years, but few
hectares have been clearcut. Table XI illus-
trates the transition to plantations as a wood
supply. Comparisons are made for pine timber
removals from the two major pine sources -
planted and natural pine stands. A small
amount of pine also comes from mixed pine-
hardwood stands; this is excluded because I had
no method for identifying the pine component.
In 1970, plantations accounted for only four
percent of the pine supply from both planted
and natural pine stands. By 1984, the pine
plantation harvest of 20.4 million cubic meters
was 18 percent of the combined harvest of
115.9 million cubic meters from pine plantations
and pine natural stands.
Consider again our example of New Bern and
Craven County. Craven County is now the first
or second county in pulp roundwood production
in North Carolina each year. With about
612,000 cubic meters harvested per year it
usually ranks in the top dozen counties across
the South (Hutchins, 1989). Thinnings from
Weyerhaeuser's well-managed plantations are a
significant and increasing percentage of the
Craven County and coastal North Carolina
wood supply. The proportion will increase
dramatically over the next 20 years as planta-
tions mature and are clearcut. Some of this
will supply Weyerhaeuser's new high technology
lumber facility which began operating in 1989 in
nearby Greenville. Rated at 320,000 cubic
meters per year, it is the largest sawmill in
North Carolina. The consistently top wood-
producing counties across the South are those
with intensively managed industrial plantations.
Across the South, the projection for 1990 is for
plantations to provide about 30 percent of pine
harvest, rising to nearly 54 percent by the year
59
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
2000 (USDA, 1988). This is an incredible rate
of rise and brings us to a consideration of the
fourth forest
THE FOURTH FOREST
Southern pine plantations are a must ~ no
other option will produce the projected demand
for wood (USDA, 1988). The fourth forest,
our wood supply in the future, will more than
ever depend upon the wise management of
pine plantations. The pine volume to be
required in 2030 is 25 percent greater than in
1990. The projection for 2030 is that pine
plantations must supply 76 percent of the pine
volume to be harvested from natural and plant-
ed pine stands. At this rate, pine plantations
should produce 65 percent of total wood re-
quirements in the South for all wood uses for
all species (USDA, 1988).
Can we get there from here? The history of
forest utilization and management in the South
actually makes it more difficult to supply the
projected demand in 2030. First forest ex-
ploitation established a pattern of "high-grading"
that continues with all too many private, non-
industrial owners. No provisions are made for
either natural or artificial regeneration when
forest tracts are harvested. And the South has
been spoiled by the success of the second
forest For nearly 50 years, from perhaps 1940
until the late 1980s, excess timber volumes
relative to demand were grown at no cost or
low cost to both industrial and other private
land owners. Industry mill expansions and
increasing wood demand have exceeded the
expanding wood supply in only a few areas.
Excess supply kept a lid on wood prices and
was a disincentive to investment in plantation
establishment. Most plantations have not been
intensively managed. Plantation growth rates
per unit area in the South are modest because
of this. Plantation growth rates per unit area
in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Brazil and
South Africa exceed those in the American
South by a factor of two or three only partly
because of milder climates and faster growing
tree species. On average, the limited plantation
resources in these countries are very intensively
managed. Site preparation, weed control, and
fertilization are much better than we practice,
on average, in the South.
Federal and state governments have recog-
nized the need to increase reforestation in the
South. Most industrial companies have land-
owner assistance programs (Smith, 1989). More
sources of financial and technical assistance are
available to non-industrial, private timberland
owners for reforestation and timber stand
improvement practices than ever before (Gunt-
er and Ogden, 1989). Federal programs include
the Agricultural Conservation Program begun in
the 1930s, the Forest Incentives Program of
1974, the Conservation Reserve Program of
1985 and the Tree Assistance Program of 1988.
Seven southern states have reforestation incen-
tive programs begun in the 1970s and 1980s.
Virginia and Mississippi have mandatory regene-
ration "seedtree" laws.
Federal and state incentive programs typically
have limits oa.minimum land area to be treat-
ed, maximum annual payment and permissible
treatments. The proportion of timber harvest
sites that are replanted has increased because
of these programs. The ratio of replant-to-har-
vest, which was perhaps only one in ten in the
early 1970s, has increased to better than one in
two in many areas. The programs do not,
however, tend to encourage the most intensive
forestry, but they are getting more land area
planted.
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP),
authorized by the Food Security Act of 1985
and the Conservation Reserve Soil-bank Progr-
am of the 1950s and 1960s are good examples
of the incentives required to put large areas of
private, nonindustrial lands into forest pro-
duction. The CRP program, which was design-
ed to retire highly credible land from row crop
production, has been a real success. About
60
-------
J. HUGHES
810,000 hectares of farm land in the South
have been planted to pine since the program
began in 1986 (Canavan, 1990). A similar area
-- about 810,000 hectares of farm land -- was
planted to pines by the Soil Bank program 30
years ago (SFRAC, 1969). CRP program
financial incentives are two-fold: a cost-share
payment of up to 50 percent of plantation
establishment cost and ten annual rental pay-
ments for keeping the land as a tree plantation.
The cost of establishment and the lack of quick
income are disincentives to forestry for most
private landowners, even if the ultimate finan-
cial returns in 25 to 40 years are very high.
The CRP program has successfully overcome
these barriers. Any large-scale reforestation
program that involves private landowners will
need a similar package of incentives.
The South is capable of growing twice as
much timber volume as it does today (Robert-
son, 1989). Some of the increase can result
from timber stand improvement (TSI) of exist-
ing forests. The biggest opportunity, however,
is for new planting. More pine plantations
need to be established, using the most intensive
treatments available. Forest industry has prov-
ed that higher yields are possible. The fourth
forest wood supply projections apply a 50
percent higher growth rate for a 30-year crop
cycle to industry plantations than to private
non-industrial ones (USDA, 1988). Forest
industry growth rate for medium sites is 7
rrrVha/yr, compared to 4.6 nrVha/yr for private,
nonindustrial plantations. By comparison,
natural stands of either pine or hardwoods
typically grow at only half these rates ~ at 2 to
3.5 mj/ha/yr. Companies committed to the most
intensive management have average growth that
is much better than this ~ in the range of 10 to
14 nrVha/yr. With repeat fertilizer applications,
growth can easily exceed 14 nrVha/yr on large
areas of intensively managed lower coastal
plain. Figure 13 compares growth rates and
total volume yields that we would expect from
three levels of management in coastal North
Carolina. If all were established as one-hectare
demonstration plots in 1990, the most intensive
plantation would potentially store four times as
much carbon as a typical natural stand by age
40, in the year 2030. Well managed, long-rota-
tion pine plantations are the way to store
carbon in the South. This is in contrast to the
Pacific Northwest where the ancient forest
already stores very high volumes. Westvaco
and Weyerhaeuser are just two of several
companies that have committed to research, to
high technology and to intensive management
to improve forest productivity (Martin, 1990).
600-
Average Natural Extensive
Stand Plantation
ntenslve
I Total Volume
I Mean Annual
Increment
Figure 13. Comparison of Mean Annual Increment
and Total Volume Yields That are Typical for 3 Levels
of Forest Management.
61
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
The university-forest industry cooperative
research programs are key in the effort to
increase yields through genetics, nutrition,
nursery practices, pesticides, yield modeling and
development of environmentally sound best
management practices (BMP's). Nearly every
major company and state forestry agency is a
member of one or more of the cooperatives.
FOREST MANAGEMENT
FOR CARBON STORAGE
If forestry is to be a significant solution to
the atmospheric problem of excess CO2, what
are the requirements?
• a large-scale effort -- The CO2 problem is
massive and global. Estimates for the incre-
mental carbon sink range from 200 to 500
million hectares of new, fast-growing forests (>.
14 mj/ha/yr) (Woodwell, 1987; Sedjo, 1989;
Sedjo and Solomon, 1989).
•fast startup ~ Forest growth rates need to be
high, very quickly - the atmospheric CO2 level
has risen 25 percent since the early 1800s and
is increasing at an increasing rate relative to
human population growth, which is projected to
double to 10 billion by 2040. Carbon storage
is directly proportional to forest growth rate
expressed as dry weight accumulation. Every
kilogram of tree growth removes half a kilo-
gram of carbon (i.e., 1.8 kilograms of CO2)
from the atmosphere.
• long-term carbon storage — Carbon should be
stored in growing trees and/or non-oxidizing
products for at least 30 to 50 years until other
technologies are developed to reduce the
excessive production of CO2 and other green-
house gases (Sedjo and Solomon, 1989).
As a forester, how do I think that these
requirements can be met?
•A large-scale effort -- The magnitude of the
problem is so large that it cannot be solved by
plantations in just one region of the world. In
the near term, resources should be applied to
several or all areas that have:
1) an infrastructure for plantation forestry
and forest utilization;
2) cost-efficient plantation systems, express-
ed as cost per unit of carbon stored;
3) a large land area that can be reforested;
4) potentially high growth rates.
•fast startup ~ Establishing plantations that
rapidly achieve maximum growth rates per tree,
per unit area and per region can be met by:
1) an infrastructure for plantation establish-
ment;
2) a large land area that can be reforested;
3) potentially high-site land;
4) intensive management;
5) tree species with high growth rates;
6) relatively high stocking levels.
•long-term carbon storage - Long-term carbon
storage may be the most difficult part, especial-
ly if you achieve the first two — a large scale
and a fast startup. Strategies that quickly
produce high growth rates over large areas will
have high rates of tree mortality due to in-
traspecific competition unless steps are taken to
prevent this. Dead trees rot and release CO2
very quickly in most tropical and subtropical
regions; thus do not provide carbon storage
comparable to temperate regions. Short rota-
tions (5 to 25 years) for energy fiber or pulp
production are one solution to the excessive
tree mortality problem. Short rotation crops
can help solve the excess CO2 problem if used
to recycle CO2 in lieu of new CO2 production
from fossil fuels. Short rotations, however, put
the chance of long-term carbon storage at risk
and for a variety of reasons will be harder to
sell to the public. Some variation of Weyer-
haeuser's High Yield Forestry (HYF) program
can meet all three requirements -- large area,
high growth rates and relatively long crop
cycles. The objective of HYF is not only to
double the growth rate per unit area relative to
natural stands, but also to provide multiple
thinnings and a final harvest which yields a high
percentage of veneer bolts and sawlogs (i.e.
long-term carbon storage in products). Applied
62
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J. HUGHES
technology and mechanization have made
commercial thinning economically feasible and
routine across the flatlands of the South. The
economic result in the South justifies relatively
long rotations of 30 to 50 years for HYF
loblolly pine. High Yield Forestry requires:
1) commitment, cash and competence (Mc-
Carthy, 1974);
2) an infrastructure for plantation establish-
ment, management, and utilization;
3) land ownership on a moderately large
scale;
4) potentially high-site land;
5) intensive management to achieve site
potential;
6) tree species that have high growth rates;
7) ability to thin, but to also maintain rel-
atively high stocking levels throughout the
rotation;
8) enlightened political, social and environ-
mental treatment.
One of the best examples in the world where
such a regimen has been made to work for
nearly two crop cycles (100 years) is in the
"Down under" South - in South Australia
(Boardman, 1988). Radiata pine (Pinus radi-
ata) is intensively grown at the edge of the
desert by the Woods and Forests Department
at the remarkable rate of nearly 21 m5/ha/yr on
a 50-year crop cycle. Seventy (70) percent of
the total volume is harvested as sawlogs which
go into long-term carbon storage as particle
board, plywood and lumber. Sixty (60) percent
of the total volume is removed by five thinnings
that are made between age 12 (primarily as
pulpwood) and age 42 (primarily as sawlogs).
South Australia provides the best example of
"speedand-power-at-the-same-time" carbon
storage that I have seen. Some owners, includ-
ing Weyer- haeuser, are beginning to manage
loblolly in similar fashion.
PINE PLANTATIONS FOR
CARBON STORAGE IN THE SOUTH?
Yes, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency should strongly consider an incentive
program for privately owned, large-scale pine
plantations for carbon storage and for wood
production in the American South. These are
a few of the reasons:
•The United States is the leading producer of
CO2 (Marland, 1988). We should take the
leadership in reducing the problem by increas-
ing the area of forests that provide carbon
storage where it is being produced as well as
encouraging reforestation in other countries.
•The South is the most logical region in the
United States in which to do this:
1) The South is a vast timber growing region
of 73 million forest hectares ~ the forest area
can be expanded.
2) The South provides an impressive example
of increasing carbon storage as a result of
forest management. The bottom line from
Table XI (page 59) is that timber inventory in-
creased from 1,650 million cubic meters in 1952
to 2,884 million cubic meters in 1984. The
inventory will decline, however, due to increas-
ed wood demand and to conversion of forest
area to other land uses unless forest manage-
ment is intensified and expanded to more land
area (Robertson, 1989; USD A, 1988).
3) The South has a timber growing and
utilization infrastructure second to none in the
United States and on par with the best in the
world. Such a structure is imperative to suc-
cessfully grow and store carbon on a long term
basis.
4) With the best intensive management,
loblolly pine plantations have high growth rates
(>L 14 nrVha/yr).
5) The South is 90 percent privately owned
and all sites have previously been harvested at
least once. The forces of private enterprise can
most easily be harnessed to do the job in the
South. With proper incentives, forest produc-
63
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
tion in the South can more than double current
growth and growth rates. Further, the South
has 9.3 million hectares of marginal and/or
highly credible agricultural lands better suited
for forestry (USDA, 1988). Also, in my opin-
ion, an additional 10 to 20 million hectares of
cut-over forest, and poorly stocked, slow-grow-
ing natural pine, pine-hardwood mixtures and
hardwood uplands can be replaced with inten-
sively managed pine plantations.
6) The South can provide 5 to 10 percent of
the global need for incremental carbon storage,
based upon my most optimistic estimates.
7) The South is going to need the wood.
Without a greatly expanded pine plantation
resource, the South is projected to have a
serious timber shortage within 20 years ~ with
the potential loss of 297,000 jobs ~ 85,000
directly in forestry and 212,000 in service
industries (USDA, 1988). New plantations are
a win-win solution. If projected wood demand
occurs, new plantations can fill the gap. If it
does not or if new technology or recycling
offset demand, well-managed plantations with
extended crop cycles provide even greater
incremental carbon storage.
ENVIRONMENTAL, POLITICAL
AND SOCIAL ISSUES
Large-sale reforestation to slow increases in
atmospheric CO2 and thus to slow global warm-
ing will encounter the same issues that similar
efforts for commercial wood production have
encountered. In fact, forest plantations for
carbon storage in the South should be inten-
sively managed on long rotations for commer-
cial timber production. In recent years, en-
vironmental issues very quickly become social
and political issues. The following are a few of
the issues that confront forest managers in the
South:
Clearcutting. The most efficient harvesting
and regeneration method for loblolly pine and
most other rapidly growing pioneer species is by
clearcutting mature natural stands or planta-
tions, intensively preparing the site and planting
genetically improved seedlings. Many people
equate clearcutting with tropical rainforest
destruction and are against it, anywhere, any-
time.
Monoculture/reduced genetic base. Loblolly
pine grows best in pure stands and better still
if from a reduced genetic base selected for
disease resistance and high growth rates. The
most efficient management is for trees planted
in uniformly spaced rows. The negative term
for this is "cornfield" forestry.
Natural is better than managed. For aesthetic
and perceived biological reasons, the virgin
forest and the natural second growth forest are
assumed to be better than an intensively man-
aged plantation. Part of this issue is related to
arguments concerning a reduction in biological
diversity. Words such as plantation, tree farm,
high yield forestry, intensive management and
managed forest have a negative to very negative
connotation for some people.
Competition from alternative land uses.
Urban expansion, agriculture, wilderness, high-
way rights-of-way, impoundments, etc., continue
to reduce the land available for production
forestry. Intensive forest management is re-
quired to offset this trend. Intensive manage-
ment does this in two ways: 1) an increased
wood growth rate on a reduced land base can
offset the loss of area, and 2) intensive manage-
ment gives economic returns that are high
enough to prevent some lands from being
converted to agriculture. Nevertheless, the
returns from intensive forestry are probably
never high enough to compete with urban
development.
Water use. Rapidly growing tree plantations
cycle proportionally large amounts of water.
Some people have suggested that droughts and
water shortages in the South in recent years
may have been magnified by the increasing area
of intensively managed pine plantations. Con-
versely, others have suggested, as in the case of
64
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J. HUGHES
the Amazon rainforest, that forests are an
integral part of the hydrologic cycle and con-
tribute to rainfall and water supply.
Tax base. Timberland is at or near the low
end of the spectrum for land values. Farmland
that is planted to forest trees normally will lose
both market value and appraised value for tax
purposes. Large-scale reforestation of such
lands has serious consequences for local govern-
ments that depend upon property taxes as a
primary source of income.
Wetlands. The most productive loblolly pine
plantations in the South are intensively manag-
ed wetlands. Section 404 of the Clean Water
Act provides permit exemptions for normal
silvicultural activities in forested wetlands. The
National Wetlands Forum strongly endorsed
and encouraged continuing commercial forest
management in wetlands (Conservation Founda-
tion, 1988). Several activists groups do not
agree with this, however, and have threatened
lawsuits to greatly limit the intensity of manage-
ment of forested wetlands.
Second rotation (2R) problems. Long-term
soil/site productivity is a concern for lands that
are intensively managed for successive harvests
of high yielding timber or agricultural crops.
South Australia provides the best example of
second rotation decline and how to avoid it in
forest plantations (Boardman, 1988).
Pesticides. Herbicides and, to a lesser extent,
insecticides and fungicides are necessary for
successful intensive forest management. Pes-
ticides can improve seedling quality and in-
crease survival and growth rates, thus making
the difference between plantation success and
failure. Pesticides pose minimal environmental
hazards when used by professionals according to
label directions. Nevertheless, some activist
groups are opposed to the use of all pesticides
and advocate extensive rather than intensive
silviculture.
Habitat loss/endangered species/minor species.
Intensive management on a large scale will
encounter the issues of endangered species and
habitat. Some problems are a matter of per-
ception, others are a matter of content; both
type problems must be confronted and solved.
Successful large-scale reforestation for wood
production and for carbon storage will require
that the above issues are resolved. A national
and international consensus must be reached,
because these issues concern all regions in the
world that are suitable for large-scale reforesta-
tion. I believe that a designed landscape-scale
mosaic of intensively and extensively managed
forests, farmlands, residential areas and other
land uses will be part of the ultimate solution.
Forest industry, other land owners, state and
federal agencies and environmental groups must
reach an agreement on how to fit it all togeth-
er. Elements of this solution are already being
used. Most states are developing forestry best
management practice (BMP) guidelines that
address sedimentation, water quality and other
issues. Scott Paper Company has won several
awards for involving the public in an effort to
utilize and regenerate natural hardwoods in the
Mobile River Swamp. Champion International
Corporation has recently developed manage-
ment guidelines for the company's Escambia
River bottomlands in Florida (Champion, 1990).
These guidelines were developed jointly not
only by company foresters and loggers, but also
with input from state and federal agency and
university professionals. Maintenance of wet-
land hydrology, wildlife habitat, and timber
production functions are equally provided for in
the guidelines.
I am a member of two environmental groups
that are also beginning to say and do things
that support the need for managed plantations,
not just passively managed, natural timber
resources. An element in the Sierra Club's
Global Warming Action Campaign is for each
member to "plant a tree, or two" (Sierra Club,
1990). This is good public relations. And, if
planted in the right locations, trees will not
only store carbon, but will also shade your
home to reduce the need for air conditioning
65
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FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH
powered by electricity that is produced by
burning fossil fuels. The Sierra Club should be
very happy with at least part of what the
forestry community did in 1989 - we planted
2.7 billion trees in the United States (Polsky,
1990). That is more than one-half tree for
each person on planet Earth. Audubon maga-
zine editor Les Line made a very strong state-
ment in support of both the need to preserve
the ancient forest and the need for southern
pine management in the March 1990 issue
"Etcetera" column (Line, 1990). "As for trees,
we're not chainsawing old-growth hemlocks to
print Audubon. An average issue requires the
cutting of three acres (1.2 ha) of managed
Mississippi pinelands, a total of 900 trees 14
inches (36 cm) in diameter. One could argue
that we're helping to keep trees growing.
Indeed, the United States Forest Service is
worried because too much private timberland in
the South, acreage that should be growing trees
for future harvest, is being converted to crops
or pasture, simply not replanted, or lost to
urbanization." Mr. Line said it better than I
have in writing this paper. He has begun the
description of a landscape-use mosaic upon
which we all need to reach an agreement.
Perhaps the universal need for both forest
products and increased carbon storage will force
us to resolve our differences.
REFERENCES
Alig, R.J., Lee, KJ. and Mouton, RJ. 1990. Likelihood
of timber management on nonindustrial private forests:
evidence from research studies. Gen. Tech. Rpt. SE-60,
Asheville, N.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southeastern Forest 27 Experiment Station. 17
pp.
Boardman, R., 1988. Living on the edge - the development
of silviculture in South Australian pine plantations. Aust.
For. 51(3):135-156.
Boyer, J.N., and South, D.B. 1984. Forest nursery
practices in the South. South. J. Appl. For. 8(2):67-75.
Canavan, James,
unpublished data.
C.
1990. Personal communication /
USD A Forest Service, Washington, D.
Champion International Corporation.
River management guidelines. 23 pp.
1990. Escambia
The Conservation Foundation. 1988. Protecting Ameri-
ca's wetlands: An action agenda. The final report of the
National Wetlands Policy Forum. 69 pp.
Davis, N.D. 1989. "Hugo flattens forest;" American
Forests. 95(11,12). Global Releaf Alert (insert).
Gunter, John E. and Ogden, L. 1989. "Government
programs that benefit timberland owners;" Forest Farmer.
48(5):44-46.
Hutchins, C.C. Jr. 1989. Southern pulpwood production,
1987. Resour. Bull. SE-106. Asheville, NC: USDA
Forest Service: 28 pp.
Krinball, H.R. 1956. "Southern white cedar -- the
forgotten tree;" The Southern Lumber Jnl. Nov., 1956.
Lea, Russ. 1990. Personal communication. Director,
North Carolina State University Hardwood Research
Cooperative, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Line, L. 1990. "Stop your newspaper!?" Etcetera
column. Audubon. 92(2). p 4.
Marland, G. 1988. The prospect of solving the CO2
problem through global reforestation. US Department of
Energy. DOE/NBB-0082. 66 pp.
Martin, John. 1990. Personal communication. Research
Forester, Westvaco, Summerville, South Carolina.
McCarthy. T. 1974. "Lamar Cantelou and the three
c's." American Forests. 80(ll):28-29.
Polsky, B., 1990. The United States - The world's woodbas-
ket. American Forest Council. New Release. April 22,
1990.
Postel, S. and Heise, L. 1988. Reforesting the earth.
WorldWatch Pap. 83. 55 p.
66
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J. HUGHES
References, cont'd.
Robertson, F. Dale. 1989. "The South's fourth forest;"
Forest Farmer 48(5):72-73.
Sedjo, R.A. 1989. "Forests to offset the greenhouse
effect;"/. For. 87(7):12-15.
Sedjo, R.A. and Solomon, A. 1989. Climate and forests:
in greenhouse warming: abatement and adoption. Norman
Rosenberg, et al., eds. Resources for the Future.
Washington, DC. pp. 105-119.
Sierra Club. 1990. "Fight the global warming crisis."
Post card mailing for Sierra Club's Global Warming
Action Campaign.
Smith, Donald W., 1989. "Industry-sponsored landowner
assistance programs;" Forest Farmer 48(5):41-43.
Forest Resource Analysis Committee (SFRAC). 1969.
The South's third forest... How it can meet future demands.
[Place of publication unknown]: Southern Forest
Resource Analysis Committee. Ill pp.
Stanley, Larry, 1990. Personal communication / un-
published data. Seedling Business Marketing Manager,
Weyerhaeuser Company, Hot Springs, Arkansas.
USDA Forest Service, 1988. The South's fourth forest:
alternatives for the future. USDA For. Resour. Rep. 24.
512 pp.
Watson, Alan D., 1987. A history of New Bern and
Craven County. Tryon Palace Commission. New Bern,
North Carolina. 746 pp.
White, Tim, 1990. Personal communication / unpublish-
ed data. Director, Cooperative Forest Genetics Research
Program. University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida.
Woodwell, G.M., 1987. "The warming of the industrial-
ized middle latitudes;" paper presented at the Workshop
on Developing Policies for Responding to Future Climate
Change, Villach, Austria.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Mrs. Sandra McCandless very patiently and accurately
processed many drafts of this paper and the oral presen-
tation graphics.
67
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AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
--A COMMENTARY
Douglas C. Malcolm
Abstract
Ecological conditions in Britain allow a wide range of productive species to be used in afforestation. Progressive destruction
of the species-poor natural forest and a national crisis stimulated the initiation of a 70-year program of planting, by state and
private owners, of 2,000,000 hectares by the year 2000 that achieved its initial objectives. Techniques to afforest difficult sites
emerged from applied research while concentration on financial criteria led to uniform plantations of a few species that did
not gain public approval The replacement of fiscal incentives by grant aid has caused a loss of confidence and further
expansion of the forest estate is in doubt, despite the need to transfer agricultural land and a permanent timber deficit.
INTRODUCTION AND
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The British Isles lie off the western seaboard
of Europe between latitudes 50-58° N. This
account will refer briefly to Britain and will
concentrate on Scottish conditions, where the
bulk of forests now occur and where the poten-
tial for further expansion of the forest area is
greater than in England and Wales, despite
their greater land area.
At the end of the last main glaciation (11,000
BP), which covered most of Britain except the
southernmost parts, there followed a short
reversion to colder temperatures for 1,000 years
resulting in a recurrence of glacial and perigla-
cial conditions. This had marked effects on the
development of topographic features and the
deposition of morainic and fluvioglacial depos-
its. Release of the land from ice-cover led to
isostatic rebound of the surface with comple-
mentary fluctuation in mean sea level, leading
ultimately (about 5,500 BP) to the separation of
Britain from mainland Europe.
From 10,000 BP onwards, the development of
forest vegetation was rapid, reaching its greatest
extent by 5,500 BP when further colonization
from Europe ceased. The composition of this
forest was of mixed deciduous species with the
only conifer, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.),
being confined essentially to the Scottish High-
lands. Some species (e.g. Fagus sylvatica, Tilia
cordatd) never penetrated north of Cumbria in
northern England. The so-called 'climatic-
optimum' (ca 6,000 BP) allowed forest vegeta-
tion to reach 880m in elevation when mean
summer temperatures are thought to have been
about 2° C warmer than present.
From 5,000 BP onwards man had an increas-
ing effect on vegetation which, together with
persistent oceanic climatic conditions, led to the
decline in forest cover and expansion of peat-
or heath-covered landscapes. Although be-
tween the period of greatest extent and 2,000
BP it is difficult to distinguish climatic and
anthropogenic effects, the decline of forest
vegetation thereafter is due to agricultural and
industrial developments. Sheep pasturage and
arable production removed most forest in South
Scotland, England and Wales by the 16th
century. In the highlands of Scotland the intro-
duction of extensive sheep farming together
with charcoal production for iron smelting
during the 18th century led to massive clearan-
69
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AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
ces which culminated in the 19th century.
It is interesting that the development of
forest management in the 18th century in
western Europe to restore its war-devastated
forests was not paralleled in Britain despite the
attempts of a few farsighted individuals to
create interest in existing woodlands and the
first attempts to introduce exotic species.
Relatively small areas of broadleaved species, of
course, had been managed on a coppice-with-
standards system throughout the Middle Ages.
The basic reasons for exploitation of native
forest were the reliance on imports of high
quality timber from an expanding colonial
empire and abundant sources of cheap energy
from fossil fuel. After 1850 there was increas-
ing pressure for forestry development from the
larger landowners, particularly in Scotland, who
recognized the strategic weakness of relying on
overseas sources and the irony of introducing
forest management in tropical forests in India
whilst neglecting those at home. Government
took no action.
The potential for afforesting bare land was
recognized in the latter part of the 18th century
when initial plantations of European larch
(Larix decidua Mill.) was established over about
4,000 hectares on the Duke of Atholl's estate
in Perthshire. This species became popular
throughout Britain because of its general use-
fulness for estate purposes. At the same time
the upsurge of interest in amenity plantings led
to botanical exploration throughout the temper-
ate regions and collection of a long catalogue
of exotic species that were more or less suc-
cessful when planted on good sites around
landed properties. The outstanding introduc-
tions were those originating from the coastal
regions of western North America, brought
back by Menzies, Douglas and Jeffrey. The
potential for productive forestry was immeasur-
ably increased by these introductions, beyond
the limited scope in the British climate for the
earlier introductions of larch, Norway spruce
(Picea abies (L.) Karst.), silver fir (Abies alba
Mill.) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.).
The importance of this period in the late 19th
century in the empirical assessment of species
potential for British conditions cannot be over-
emphasized. Much of the subsequent expan-
sion of forest area depended on this 'sifting'
period which began to concentrate foresters'
minds on the West Coast species.
In summary, by the start of the present
century indigenous forest had been reduced to
a few much-altered remnants and total forest
cover was reduced to about 3 percent of the
land surface (ca. 700 k ha). There was no
national policy, although forestry education had
begun and there were some small-scale initial
attempts to establish plantations of exotic spec-
ies.
DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT
POLICY - OBJECTIVES AND MEANS
The first World War demonstrated very
clearly the need to have a forest resource
independent of imports. The small areas of
utilizable timber were exploited heavily, general-
ly with little regard to regeneration or restora-
tion. The national crisis led directly to the
formation in 1919 of a forest service - the
Forestry Commission (FC). Interestingly, this
organization was from the start independent of
the agricultural departments. The FC was
charged with developing a forest estate to
provide three years' supply of timber as a
strategic reserve. This was thought to require
the afforestation of about 710,000 hectares in
the 80 years following the war to add to the
restoration of the 800,000 hectares estimated as
existing woodland. These figures also included
what is now the Republic of Ireland. Planting
targets were 60,000 and 20,000 hectares for FC
and private woodlands (PW) respectively in the
first decade, for which £3.5 M was budgeted in
the new Forestry Fund.
Subsequent budgetary constraints altered the
program but not the objectives of expanding
70
-------
D. MALCOLM
the forest area, until the Second World War
once again led to intensive felling in those
areas which had been too young twenty years
earlier. Forestry Commission plantings were
still too immature to contribute to the war
effort. In 1943, however, the FC published a
White Paper on Post War Forest Policy, later
enacted in 1945 and 1946, which enhanced
public support for PW and expansion of the
state sector. The planting targets set for ten
years were in line with the aim of 2,000,000
hectares by the end of the century, although
this aim was not formally adopted. The re-
quirement for felling licenses was introduced.
Forestry policy in Britain has evolved pro-
gressively by periodic review and ministerial
pronouncement. It became clear by the mid-
1950's that creation of a strategic reserve of
timber was no longer appropriate and this was
replaced by commercial and social objectives.
Private woodland owners' organizations were
then reorganized and support schemes were
strengthened.
Starting in the 1950s and increasing rapidly
thereafter, management companies were able to
attract investment from the city for the afforest-
ation of bare land. This development took
advantage of the existing fiscal measures where-
by those who paid high marginal rates of tax
could offset new investment. It also attracted
those who wished to pass on their woodland
estates to heirs with minimal reductions in
capital value through the estate duty provisions.
With the increase in PW planting (Figure 14)
afforestation began to impinge on the public's
perception of the countryside and more par-
ticularly the treeless uplands. Equally the
application of economic criteria, notably net
discounted revenue techniques, to the forests
in the lowlands was leading to a change from
predominantly broadleaves to conifer plantings.
As the affluence and mobility of urban popula-
tions grew they increasingly resented changes in
the landscape. Public opinion led to the pass-
ing of the Countryside Acts of 1967-68 which
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Figure 14. New Planting Since 1950.
set up the Countryside Commissions in Eng-
land/Wales and Scotland. These Acts also
empowered the FC to develop recreational sites
and to plant and manage trees for amenity
purposes.
A major review of policy took place in 1972
as a result of a cost-benefit analysis conducted
by the Treasury and was published as a Consul-
tative Document. This laid down the principal
objective of new FC planting as the creation
and maintenance of rural employment which
was to be achieved by a planting/replanting
target of up to 22,250 ha y7. The FC was
allowed to pursue amenity objectives with profit
foregone and recreation was to be emphasized.
The accounting system was reconstructed to
set FC a target rate of return of 3 percent in
real terms. The difference between this rate
and the amounts normally charged to govern-
ment departments is considered a forestry
subsidy. This rate of return and subsidy have
been reviewed quinquennially after a revalua-
tion of the estate. The private sector support
was also altered. In return for grant aid, not
only sound forestry practice was demanded but
also good land use, including effective integra-
71
-------
AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
tion with agriculture, environmental benefits
and provision of recreation and access. In
1977, rates of grant aid were further increased.
Support for private sector forestry does not
work in a vacuum but is influenced by general
economic conditions and the fiscal approach of
governments of different political persuasions.
The introduction of Capital Transfer Tax in
1975 was softened for woodland owners as they
could opt to defer payment, after the death of
the previous owner, until the trees were har-
vested. Tax is then due on timber values at
the time of transfer. Further, the investor in
new planting could not only obtain relief by
offsetting current tax liabilities but could, with
a change of ownership, revert to another tax
schedule that taxed land values rather than
timber sales. In addition, commercial wood-
lands were not subject to capital gains tax.
These benefits led to an increasing rate of
land transfer to forestry, particularly where
farmers were having difficulty financially.
Whole farms were purchased and large blocks
of forest were established. Each transfer was
subject, of course, to approval of the agricul-
ture departments, but as they had to handle
each case separately there was no overall land
use planning mechanism that ensured a reason-
able balance between competing land uses. In
general, clearance for planting could be ob-
tained (i.e., qualification for grant-aid) only for
land of poor quality at higher elevations unless
the better, lower land could no longer be con-
sidered as economically viable in agriculture.
The market for land became distorted and in
effect the vendor's sale price included the
grant-aid for planting; that is, land prices were
enhanced, as the investor sought the fiscal
inducements rather than the grants.
The silvicultural developments, described
later, made it possible to effectively afforest
almost any quality of land profitability. Forestry
thus expanded onto areas of extensive peatland
and remote upland because of technical pos-
sibility, low prices of land and the government
policy of retaining a reasonable amount of land
in agriculture.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND
CHANGES OF DIRECTION
Since 1980 there have been a number of
important changes in forestry policy and its
support. These have arisen from the develop-
ment of agricultural surpluses in the European
Economic Community (EEC), the increase in
environmental concern amongst the public at
large, a disposal policy for state forests and,
crucially, the alteration of fiscal arrangements.
The efficiency of agriculture, which has
increased steadily since 1945 in Europe, began
to generate huge surpluses within the EEC in
the 1970s and became intolerable burdens for
taxpayers in the 1980s. The imposition of
dairying quotas was a first response, although
beef, sheep and cereal support have all at-
tracted attention. In the UK there are es-
timates of more than 1,000,000 hectares surplus
arable land which might be removed from
production. Government response has been to
loosen planning restrictions on land transfer
from agriculture, adopt 'set-aside' schemes and
encourage diversification. As part of the latter
approach, the planting target for forestry was
increased to 33,000 ha/y in 1987. Similarly a
trial farm woodland scheme aims for 12,000
ha/y of new planting by farmers between 1988-
1991. The EEC proposals for forestry indicate
the desirability of large scale transfer from
agriculture to forestry.
Public concern with environmental matters
has been evinced in a number of directions.
One has been the effects of atmospheric depos-
ition and associated fears of 'forest decline.'
Although quite high atmospheric inputs are
measured, particularly in the uplands, no clear
evidence of general pollution damage to trees
and forests has been discovered so far. There
is, however, good evidence that forests are
effective in trapping pollutants that are sub-
72
-------
D. MALCOLM
sequently transferred to water courses, where
they can be detrimental to fish and other
aquatic life. This problem is of greatest con-
cern on acidic igneous rock types where alumi-
num concentrations in forest streams can be
quite high.
A second concern has been the change in
habitat type from open moorland consequent
on afforestation. Although new forests soon
develop a wide range of wildlife, including the
expansion of residual forest-dwelling creatures
that were endangered, this is not considered by
many conservationists sufficient compensation
for the "loss" of open range species, particularly
birds. This aspect of conservation has received
the greatest publicity and resentment against
afforestation in the media. The conservation
organizations, particularly the Royal Society for
the Protection of Birds and the Government's
own department, the Nature Conservancy
Council, have attacked forestry policy, with
much attendant publicity, adducing evidence
that does not always withstand scientific scrut-
iny.
The third and related concern has to do with
landscape, originally in the lowlands but increas-
ingly in the uplands. Complaints here have to
do with ease of access for hillwalkers, but more
particularly the visual aspect of the countryside.
The industrial approach to agriculture and the
formation of large, uniform, plantation forests
has led to a perceived loss of visual diversity.
This feeling has been growing in strength,
particularly in more densely populated England,
for the last twenty years.
These expressions of public opinion have
separately and together had some impact on
politicians so that there has been a number of
reviews, such as the House of Lords Select
Committee's investigation of the Scientific
Aspects of Forestry in 1980 and, this year
(1990), the publication of the House of Com-
mons Agriculture Committee's two years of
deliberation on Land Use and Forestry.
The effect of public concern has been to
modify the possibilities of large-scale afforesta-
tion by the government's adoption of a series of
constraints since the 1950s. These include:
• National Parks (England and Wales)
• National Scenic Areas (Scotland)
• National Nature Reserves
• Sites of Special Scientific Interest
•Environmentally Sensitive Areas
Not all of these prevent afforestation but they
influence its location, extent and type. Finally
in 1988 the Minister of the Environment an-
nounced that approval would not normally be
given to proposals to plant conifers above 240
meters elevation in England.
A further response to public pressure was the
adoption by The Forestry Commission of a
Broadleaves Policy in 1985. This encourages
broadleaved species by enhanced grant pay-
ments loaded heavily towards small woodlands
and by insisting that all planting, even in the
most extreme conditions, should comprise five
percent broadleaves. This has been put into
practice in all FC forests at the regeneration
stage.
The present administration is well known for
its emphasis on the supposed benefits of free
market forces and the undesirability of national
enterprises. Shortly after taking office (1981)
it passed an act empowering the FC to dispose
of forestland and then instituted a program of
disposal to reduce the dependence of the FC
on the public purse. A target of £82 M sales
was set for six years and this year has been
extended to a further 100,000 hectares in the
next ten years. This rationalization has allowed
the FC to get rid of some small and unecon-
omic areas and is supposed to improve the
efficiency and commercial effectiveness of the
forestry enterprise. The funding of the FC has
been positive to the Exchequer (excluding
interest on earlier payments) since 1982-83.
The whole basis of support for private forest-
ry changed abruptly in the March, 1988, budget.
As part of general policy, the marginal rate for
income tax payments was reduced to 40 per-
73
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AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
Table Xn WOODLAND GRANT SCHEME,
1988
WOODLAND GRANT SCHEME OBJECTIVES
* To encourage timber production.
* To provide jobs in and increase the economic potential
of rural areas with declining agricultural employment
and few alternative sources of economic activity.
* To provide an alternative to agricultural production
and thereby assist in the reduction of agricultural
surpluses.
* To enhance the landscape, to create new wildlife
habitats and to provide for recreation and sporting
uses in the longer term.
* To encourage the conservation and regeneration of
existing forests and woodlands.
The rates of grant will be increased to levels set out in the
following table:
AREA APPROVED
FOR PLANTING OR
RF>GEN. (HA)
RATES OF
GRANT
Cowfcn Broadkarvcx
£perka
Area band
10 and over
0.25-0 9
1.0-2.9
3.0-9.9
1,005
800
795
615
1,575
1,375
1,175
975
Both new planting and replanting areas qualify for grant aid.
cent. This would have markedly affected city
investment in afforestation in any case, but the
Chancellor went further and removed forestry
from all tax arrangements except inheritance
tax. At a stroke, this stopped investment of
the type that had driven private afforestation.
It also removed management incentives from
existing woodland owners, who could no longer
offset expenditure on desirable silvicultural
operations. These drastic changes in fiscal
support were rapidly followed by a new grant
scheme that unified previous schemes and in-
creased materially the payable amounts (Table
XII). Nevertheless, much confidence was lost,
millions of plants in commercial nurseries were
burnt and few investors who do not already
own land are presently forthcoming. This is
not altogether surprising, as present interest
rates provide ample alternative opportunities to
invest and the anticipated drop in agricultural
land prices, because of uncertainties in future
support, have not materialized. Existing land-
owners have shown some interest in the new
scheme, but in its first year the new grant-aid
planting reached only 318 hectares. There was,
of course, a carryover from earlier approved
schemes so that the total private woodland new
planting for 1988-89 was a record 25,000 hec-
tares. For the current year, forecasts range
from 8,000 to 16,000 hectares, depending on
one's degree of optimism.
THE PRESENT SITUATION
AND TRENDS
In summary, the development of afforestation
in Britain is a story of government reluctance
to initiate a national program until forced by
circumstances in a world war. Once begun,
successive administrations have pursued a policy
of expansion, reinforced by a second war,
although they have never officially set other
than periodic planting targets for the succeed-
ing few years. Ironically, when the present
government deliberately slowed down FC
expansion and initiated a disposal program to
emphasize private planting, public opinion was
being swung against afforestation in the up-
lands. While the government began to tackle
agricultural surplus land by increasing annual
targets to 33,000 hectares and initiating a farm-
woodland scheme of 12,000 hectares, the Chan-
cellor, apparently in response to conservationist
and media clamor, removed the means by which
land transfer could take place. The switch to
entirely grant-aid incentives might broaden the
base of ownership of forest but the level of
grant set does not take account of the inflated
price of agricultural land. It is clear that either
the planting targets or the incentives will have
to change.
A number of verities continue to exist. De-
spite the increase in forest area to 10 percent,
Britain still is dependent for 88 percent of its
wood consumption on imports (Figure 15).
74
-------
i
2.4
2 0
1.2
0.8
0.4
D. MALCOLM
roundvood sawn sawn board
hardwood softwood products
I I UK Production
Figure 15. Value of U.K. Consumption,
Showing Contribution of U.K. Production.
paper
Imports
c
o
e
X
OJ
c_
•*-
OJ
*—«
These imports of about 50 million m3 per year
cost about £6 billion, which is approximately
equal to one month's total exports. The 6
million m5 currently cut annually in Britain is
predicted to rise to about 10 million m3 annual-
ly by 2005 (Figure 16). On the strength of the
existing wood resource, the timber industry has
installed more than £650 millions-worth of
processing capacity in recent years. Needless to
say, processors are concerned at the present
hiatus in afforestation, fearing supply shortages
next century (Figure 17).
The steadily increasing felling program over
the next decades will cut into the post-1945
plantings progressively so that, without con-
tinued rapid expansion, total production will
fall. Assuming a 50-year rotation for conifers
and 120 years for broadleaves, the current
forest estate might be expected ultimately to
balance out, in very crude terms, at an annual
cut of 30,500 hectares and 4,750 hectares
respectively. A very approximate sustained
yield might then be 18.3 million m5 conifer and
2.3 million m3 broadleaves, which is still rather
less than half present consumption levels.
The distribution of the current forest estate
by ownership and type is shown in Table XIII,
page 77. Some 57 percent is private woodland,
including the vast bulk of broadleaved areas,
predominantly in England. By contrast, 63
percent of conifers are found in Scotland and
that is where further expansion of productive
7-
6-
5
4-
3-
2-
1 -
1980 82 84 86
Actual to 1986.
1989 1994 1999
Forecast to 2005
2004
Figure 16. Timber Production in Britain —
Total of FC and Private Sector.
forests will occur.
Present trends in public thinking are interest-
ing. The aversion to large-scale upland affor-
estation does not extend to trees in general.
For example several organizations have been
formed recently to specifically promote tree
developments with an emphasis on amenity
planting. These include the National Hard-
woods Program, The Woodland Trust, and the
Small Woods Association, all of which pursue
amenity and nature conservation through the
use mainly of native species. The Countryside
Commission in England propose a large, dis-
persed forest in the English Midlands and a
similar scheme has been set up in the Central
Lowlands of Scotland. These have been met
75
-------
AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
with general approval and, although the initia-
tives will alter the social environment, they will
add little to timber production.
To overcome the outright conflict between
conservation and afforestation interests and to
take account of local interests, as expressed by
local government, there has been evolving in
Scotland so-called Indicative Strategies for
Forestry. These identify areas where afforesta-
tion is or is not appropriate and have been
supported by land capability maps that take
account of major site factors. Local authorities
recognize the employment potential forestry
brings to rural areas and have not been over-
awed by conservation claims. Whether indicat-
ive strategies are worthwhile remains to be seen
in the light of any return to large-scale invest-
ment in afforestation.
450-
400-
350-
i/>
2 300-1
a
250-
200-
-a
c
1 150-1
o
100
50-
1980 70 60 50 40 30 20 101900 90 80 70 60 50 40 Pre-1840
Areas planted by decades
Figure 17. Age Profile of Forests in Britain Updated from Census of
Woodlands, 1980.
SILVICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
apparently uniform organic soils to small-scale
(< 0.5 ha) mosaics in fluvioglacial deposit
areas. These variations have marked effects on
species performance and demand varied cultural
treatments. The condition of the sites (bare
land) also owes a great deal to the man-induced
effects of long-continued pastoralism, with its
attendant regime of burning to remove un-
palatable old or dead herbage. As indicated
earlier, such practices began in Mesolithic times
and were intensified in recent centuries. Dom-
inating all other site factors is the climate,
which is oceanic and very similar in general
characteristics to that prevailing at similar
latitudes on the Pacific seaboard of North
America. The main and important difference is
the windiness experienced in Britain. Wind has
both physiological and mechanical effects on
tree growth and ultimately tree stability. It is
the single most limiting factor in British silvicul-
ture. Windiness is greatest in the north and
west but is related to distance from any coast.
It increases rapidly with elevation so that, with
the concomitant decline in heat sum, it is
possible to linearly relate the productivity of
tree species with elevation.
Table XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST AREA (K HA).
England
Walci
Scotland
395
175
956
430
60
79
38
2
0
863
237
1035
233
130
525
630
107
510
Unproductive woodland amounts 10 \Ti Wia and comprises amenity, pastorage and scrub
areas
FC - Forestry Commission, PW - Private Woodlands
The complex geology and topography, domin-
ated on the smaller scale by the effects of the
last glaciation, has given rise to a wide range of
site types, particularly in the Scottish Highlands.
Site types vary from quite extensive areas of
76
-------
D. MALCOLM
The initial attempts at afforestation relied
heavily on the native Scots pine and sometimes
the then-economic native oaks (Quercus robur
L. and Q. petraea (Matt.) Lieblein). The latter
species generally failed when tried on other
than the best sites, readily identifiable as re-
cently forested, while Scots pine is a tree of
well-drained sites and relatively low elevations.
It proved highly successful when transferred to
heathlands in Southern England. There was
therefore great interest in the successful use of
European larch in early plantings on freely
drained soils up to quite high elevations (450
m) because it was useful for a wide range of
products. It was planted pure and as a nurse
species with broadleaves. During the 19th
century many stands were planted as mixtures
of larch, pine and Norway spruce, any of which
could become dominant on different site types.
The range of species available was limited,
however.
When serious afforestation began it was
quickly realized that there were extensive areas
of land of very low agricultural productivity in
the uplands. The problem lay in knowing what
cultural treatments would be required to es-
tablish productive forest. There were examples
of failed plantings of well-tried species indicat-
ing that site amelioration was required. At the
same time, a range of newer exotics were
selecting themselves in arboreta and trial plan-
tations. The most promising were Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr) and
several others from northwest America.
Pioneer work on exposed low fertility land at
higher elevations (350-450 m) in the Sottish
Highlands had indicated the value of, first, an
aerated planting site and, second, the need for
phosphatic fertilizer. The former made use of
upturned turves on peaty land, an idea obtained
from spruce planting in the High Ardennes in
Belgium. The latter was discovered empirically
using basic slag, a waste material from steel
mills. The value of these two techniques
applied manually on organic or organo-mineral
soils was known by the mid-1920s but they were
slow to become standard practice. One reason
for this was the cautious approach engendered
by a lack of knowledge of the characteristics of
the newer species. It was not until the 1940s
that it was fully realized that, in Sitka spruce,
British forestry had found a most responsive
species, clearly well-adapted to extreme ex-
posure and productive on a wide range of site
types from fertile brown earths to acid peats up
to elevations not previously thought plantable
(550 m).
Table XTV. CHANGES IN USES OF CONIFER
SPECIES SINCE 1920.
21-30
46
Percentage composition of planting decades
Species 81.90 71-80 61.70 51-60 41-50 31-40
Scoopine 3 5 13 22 24 26
Cancan pine 6343 36
Lodgepole pine 10 15 14 8 11
Sinaspnice 68 63 42 29 37 26
Norway sproce ) 3 8 10 16 19
European larch - 122 48
Japanese larch 5 6 7 13 10 8
Douglas fir 4245 23
OtDercomfen 1143 11
NB 81-90 rcten 10 FC only, til often include PW
Since 1945 the expansion of forest, forced on
to poorer land by agricultural policies, has
involved the development and mechanization of
these two basic cultural techniques, drainage
and fertilization on the wetter uplands, with
corresponding treatments for the drier heath-
land soils. Sitka spruce has proved the most
productive species on all but the more shel-
tered fertile sites, where its performance is
equalled by Douglas-fir, grand fir (Abies grandis
Lindl.), noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.) and
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.)
Sarg.). On the poorest of peats and the drier
infertile heaths, Sitka spruce suffers nitrogen
stress and there it is replaced or mixed with
either Scots pine or lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta Dougl.). As Sitka spruce provides a
All AfC*
1!
4
10
39
9
3
I
77
-------
AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
versatile wood equally suitable for saw timber
or pulping, it is easy to understand why its use
has expanded so much (Table XIV). Addition-
al aspects of its popularity have been the ease
of raising it in nurseries, its robust nature in
plant handling and its ability to withstand and
recover from browsing or other damage.
Until 1960, species selection was usually
determined on the basis of a site classification
which made use of existing ground vegetation.
The extensive use of mechanical site prepara-
tion and aerial application of fertilizer - mainly
ground rock phosphate - became standard at
this time and allowed afforestation to extend
to the poorest sites. It became important then
to identify soil factors that might limit root
growth and wind stability of the trees, so that
a site classification based on major soil types
evolved along with cultivation machinery to
appropriately remove these limitations. Thus
the site could be altered for the species, rather
than the species selected for the site.
The increasing emphasis on poor quality sites
in new planting is evident from Table XIV as
the proportions of Scots pine and Norway
spruce steadily decline. Another factor, of
course, was the demand that forestry should be
economic, which has been interpreted in vol-
ume production terms. Sites which are unlike-
ly to achieve a yield class of 8 (maximum mean
annual increment, m3/ha/yr) are generally not
acceptable for planting. In effect, this limita-
tion applies to climate, as the soil factors can
be ameliorated readily with positive economic
results. The steady use of a low proportion of
Douglas-fir and Corsican pine again reflects site
availability. The former is restricted to freely
draining soils at lower (< 280 m) elevations
and Corsican pine is adapted mainly to lowland
heaths in south and east England.
FAILURES AND PROBLEMS
Failures in afforestation usually arise from
incorrect species to site matching. Failures to
establish a viable stand disappear quickly, while
later failures may materialize in pole stage or
semi-mature stands. Perhaps success should be
assessed in the second rotation. So far, failures
in British afforestation have been few because
species choice has tended to be conservative
and species trials in the uplands have almost all
indicated the superiority of Sitka spruce. Most
of the failures that have occurred have been
related to inadequate appreciation of proven-
ance differences within species. Important
examples include European larch and lodgepole
pine. The 18th century introduction of larch
proved highly adapted to the British climate,
but in the rapid expansion after 1920, a series
of alpine sources were introduced that were ill-
adapted to an oceanic climate and became
subject to a variety of pests and diseases. Early
introductions of lodgepole pine were of ssp.
murrayana and ssp. latifolia, but the species was
not used initially to replace the native Scots
pine as the more productive Corsican pine was
available on appropriate sites. When afforesta-
tion moved on to peaty soils, the inexacting
nature of lodgepole pine was recognized as a
virtue and its use increased. Seduced by the
early rapid growth of ssp. contorta (shore pine),
of Oregon and Washington origin, however,
these south coastal origins were favored, but
proved to be of poor form and very liable to
snow damage in the thicket or pole stages.
Further problems have arisen with this species
when used in large-scale afforestation of infer-
tile peat in North Scotland. An innocuous and
endemic moth, the Pine Beauty (Panolis flam-
mea), normally on Scots pine, switched to
lodgepole and rapidly reached epidemic propor-
tions, defoliating and killing several hundred
hectares at a time.
All the provenance trials with Sitka spruce,
many of which followed expansion in its use,
demonstrate that the original selection of the
Queen Charlotte Island origin was among the
best. In areas of low frost incidence, origins
from Washington perform as well or slightly
78
-------
D. MALCOLM
better. In real exposure in North Scotland,
Alaskan origins are better, but over most of the
country Queen Charlotte spruces are preferred.
This selection, which was fortuitous initially, has
been a real success. Despite its widespread
use, only Elatobium aphid has caused reductions
in growth and, although the much-feared bark
beetle (Dendroctonus micans) has appeared in
Britain, its spread has been slow and capable of
containment so far.
The critical silvicultural problem mentioned
earlier is wind-throw. Catastrophic gales (wind
speed of about 40 m/s sustained over several
hours) periodically devastate forests over whole
regions. The most recent in 1987 blew down
about 6 million/m5 in southeast England.
Clearance and replanting is the only remedy.
On the other hand, most upland areas are
subject to 'endemic' windblow from about 12
gales per year (> 15 m/s) which partially dam-
age stands that have reached pole stage. Initia-
tion of damage can now be predicted from a
knowledge of the region, elevation, geomorphic
shelter and rooting depth. Silvicultural regimes
can thus be adjusted to potential time of wind-
blow or attainment of 'critical stand height,'
which ranges from 13-20+m depending on site.
Early windblow obviously affects the economic
return and thus provides another criterion for
determining afforestation limits.
The other major problem influencing affor-
estation practice is the occurrence of browsing
animals. More than 300,000 red deer (Cen>us
elaphus) are an expanding wild population in
the Scottish uplands that necessitate expensive
exclusion fencing at the afforestation stage.
This is a temporary measure, as inevitably they
invade the plantations by the polestage, where
they are difficult to see and control. In forests
the deer are more fecund and suffer less mor-
tality than on the open hill. Within the forest
they, together with roe, Sika and fallow deer,
damage young plants by browsing and in older
stands sometimes by bark stripping. Tree
species show differential palatability to deer
browsing, with broadleaves and the possible
alternative species to Sitka spruce highly sought
after. Thus, potential deer damage is a major
factor preventing the increase of species diver-
sity in second rotation stands. Sitka spruce is
the least palatable of all commonly used spec-
ies.
CONCLUSIONS
It has been possible here to highlight only
some of the many ecological, silvicultural, social
and economic factors that have influenced the
development of large-scale afforestation in
Britain.
Located on the seaboard of Eurasia, Britain
enjoys an equable climate, much warmer than
its latitude might suggest. The adequacy of
precipitation over most of the country, together
with the topographic and geological conditions,
provides an environment ideally suited to the
growth of a wide range of exotic species drawn
from very disparate parts of the world. The
paucity of the post-glacial tree flora and the
careless destruction or wastage of the native
forest was a stimulus to the introduction of
exotics, initially for aesthetic reasons.
The availability of large areas of low-quality
land, suitable species and a program of vigorous
empirical research allowed afforestation tech-
niques to be developed for almost any site.
Mistakes, of course, were made but were few in
relation to the successes. A national crisis was
required to motivate government to begin a
serious afforestation program. This was doubly
successful because suitable incentives were
given to attract private investment to match
public endeavors. The initial objective of
2,000,000 hectares productive forest in 80 years
was achieved in 65 years.
Changing political circumstances removed the
concept of a strategic reserve of timber even
though the UK remains the second largest
importer of timber products in the world. Most
economists do not support arguments in favor
79
-------
AFFORESTATION IN BRITAIN
of import substitution by home-grown products,
but simple prudence would seem to suggest
otherwise.
The application of somewhat simplistic econ-
omic criteria to forest management operations
led to attempts to maximize financial return
with insufficient attention being paid to other
benefits. An increasingly affluent and environ-
mentally aware public perceived land-use chan-
ges as being adverse to nature conservation and
aesthetic values. Despite the man-made nature
of the landscape and the long-term national
economic and resource realities, public opinion
forced a government dedicated to free market
forces to withdraw the main fiscal incentives of
the afforestation program.
Undoubtedly the trend toward diversity of the
existing forest in structure and species composi-
tion will continue. Similarly, small-scale plant-
ing of broadleaved woodland for urban recrea-
tion and landscape purposes will gather momen-
tum. Without a radical rethink of policy and
incentives, however, the present hiatus in
developing productive forest in the uplands will
not be temporary, far less will the transfer of
excess agricultural land be achieved. Afforesta-
tion programs depend on a sustained effort
towards defined objectives and the political will
to achieve them.
REFERENCES
Forestry Industry Committee of Great Britain. 1987.
Beyond 2000. Agricultural House, London. 76 pp.
House of Commons 1990. Land Use and Forestry Vol. 2.
Minutes of Evidence and Appendices. HMSO London, 490
pp.
House of Lords 1980. Scientific Aspects of Forestry Vol.2.
Min. of Evidence.HMSO London, 394 pp.
Lines, R. 1987. Choice of Seed Origins for the Main Forest
Species in Britain. Forestry Commission Bulletin 66.
HMSO, London.
Macdonald, J., et al. (eds.) 1957. Exotic Forest Trees in
Great Britain. Forestry Commission Bulletin 30. HMSO
London. 165 pp.
Price, RJ. 1983. Scotland's Environment During the Last
30,000 Years. Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh. 224
PP-
Ratcliffe, D.A., and Oswald, P.H. (eds.) 1986. Nature
Conservation and Afforestation in Britain. NCC Peter-
borough. 121 pp.
Ryle, G.B. 1969. Forest Service. The First 45 Years of the
Forestry Commission of Great Britain. David and Charles,
Newton Abort. 340 pp.
Zehetmayr, J.W.L. 1954. Experiments in Tree Planting on
Peat. Forestry Commission Bulletin 22. HMSO London.
110 pp.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The figures are updated and redrawn from those
published in Land Use and Forestry, 1990. The Forestry
Commission kindly provided recent data.
80
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THE NEED FOR REFORESTATION
Renato Moraes de Jesus
Abstract
This work emphasizes the necessity of breaking inertia and aggressively initiating programs for environmental recuperation.
The reforestation activities in Brazil are summarized, where reforestation is characterized by and has historically been
accomplished through fiscal incentives. The supply-and-demand of wood in Brazil is presented, demonstrating that 69 percent
of the wood supply originates from natural forests under an alternative use. Pros and cons of fiscal incentives are discussed.
For third world countries, reforestation must help to solve imminent problems, and in this manner will have greater motivation
for implementation. For tropical conditions, the potential of reforestation through natural regeneration cannot be ignored.
In conclusion, reforestation on a large scale will be successful onfy if the planting units are on the scale of small farms, where
the problem becomes a question of forest extension and environmental education.
INTRODUCTION
As in many countries around the world, the
devastation of Brazilian forests is reaching
intolerable levels. Despite increasing denuncia-
tion of deforestation through the media, the
process is still accelerating. According to the
World Bank, the Amazon forest lost 12 percent
of its original area in the last 20 years, and the
Atlantic forest is today restricted to little more
than 6 percent of its original area, mostly in
small fragments.
The principal objective of this paper is to
bring attention to the status of reforestation in
Brazil today and to offer some alternatives for
overcoming the problems of large-scale projects.
There has been and is currently a great deal of
energy spent in speaking, writing and promoting
the cause of ecology and of saving the remain-
ing Brazilian forests. Unfortunately, the im-
plementation of reforestation as part of the
restoration and sustainability of forest resources
is rare, occurring in the cyclic rhythm of cata-
clysmic events. For example, in the states of
Espirito Santo and Rio Grande do Sul, a great
deal has been said about deforestation over the
last three decades, but what has happened? In
Espirito Santo, only 1.5 percent remains of the
primary forest, much of it removed during this
time period of 30 years. Rio Grande do Sul
has the largest area of desert in the country
today. There was an increase in the awareness
of ecology in general, yet what good did this do
for those forests which no longer exist?
The first step is to halt the process of de-
struction, and in any part of the world the
methods are available to do so. It is not
necessary to spend more money diagnosing the
issues, as they are known to be cultural and
economic. With the restoration of the environ-
ment, genetic resources for the future are
assured. Ideally, recuperation should be imple-
mented at least as swiftly as the destruction.
Certainly there are difficulties involved in
reforestation, but they can be addressed only
after the process begins in the field. The
obvious and urgent need is to get the trees in
the ground, to begin the process. Reforestation
on a large scale is needed and, though the total
area should be large, in reality for Brazil it
must consist of many small areas at the local
farm level. Paradoxically, the destruction was
at the same level. Deforestation began with
axes and manual saws, progressing to chainsaws,
81
-------
NEED FOR REFORESTATION IN BRAZIL
chemical defoliants and modern skidders.
THE REFORESTATION OF BRAZIL
Data from the last century was recorded in
the first forestry register of reforestation in
Brazil. Around 1860, in the city of Rio de
Janeiro, about 120 thousand seedlings of native
and exotic tree species were planted on the
hills of Morro da Tijuca with the objective of
recuperation of the watershed.
The first reforestation for economic objectives
was made at the beginning of this century
through the introduction of Eucalyptus species.
The wood was utilized principally for fuel and
railroad ties for the Companhia Paulista de
Estradas de Ferro (Paulista Railroad Company),
located in Jundai, in the state of Sao Paulo.
By the end of the 1940s and beginning of the
1950s, the coniferous species were introduced,
principally the genus Pinus. The introduction
of conifers was largely motivated by the severe
reduction of natural populations of Araucaria
angustifolia (Parana pine).
It was in the decade of the 1960s that refor-
estation attained truly operational levels. In
1965, the federal government instituted the
Brazilian Forestry Code, establishing rules for
permanent preservation of forests, conservation
of water and soil, and forest harvesting. The
Brazilian Institute of Forest Development
(IBDF) was created as the controlling institu-
tion (Cherkassky, 1990).
From 1966 on, with the implementation of
fiscal incentives by the government, reforesta-
tion in Brazil increased significantly. The
incentives given were trade-offs as a function of
taxes. A company could write off a certain
portion of taxes by implementing a reforestation
project. As shown in Table XV, reforestation
projects reached about 6.2 million hectares, and
were composed of 52 percent Eucalyptus, 30
percent Pinus, and 18 percent other species.
Table XVI shows the supply and demand of
wood in Brazil for the period 1987-1988. Of
the total wood supply, 69 percent originates
from natural forests.
The Negative Side
The fiscal incentives for reforestation were
abolished in December, 1987, and after 20 years
resulted in a reported planting of 6.3 million
hectares. In practice, however, this area was
not planted. Many projects, despite the pro-
tocol, were never planted at all; others were
planted with inappropriate species in areas
unsuited to reforestation. In little less than two
TABLE XV. REFORESTATION WITH FISCAL INCENTIVES IN
BRAZIL 1967-1986 (1000 ha)
YR.
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
PINUS
18
61
96
120
99
101
86
83
94
87
99
141
89
117
158
74
71
65
85
TOTAL 1,862
Source: IBDF,
1988
EUC.
14
30
54
84
129
172
161
188
223
262
194
228
272
230
187
91
124
131
174
3,231 1,159
OTHER
3
12
12
18
21
31
47
53
81
100
53
43
75
71
86
50
91
89
150
6,252
ALL
35
103
162
222
249
304
294
324
398
449
346
412
436
418
431
215
286
285
409
years after planting, many plantations were lost
completely. Evidently this political mechanism
contributed to the public deficit and generates
judicial problems even now.
To some extent the political incentives stimu-
lated the creation of graduate courses in for-
estry which were unfortunately based principally
on the silviculture of Pinus and Eucalyptus. In
a country where 60 percent of the territory is
covered by natural forests and less than one
percent is reforested, the education of students
should not be allowed to be based solely on
exotic species. If this continues, we will not
use the potential of our tropical conditions,
82
-------
R. MORAES DE JESUS
natural regeneration, and vast resources. More
than this, we have already bypassed many
alternative uses and have not fully utilized the
forests up until now.
Companies which chose reforestation projects
for fiscal incentives were obligated to plant one
percent of their area in so-called native species,
or to leave ten percent of the natural vegeta-
tion intact. In most cases, the preference was
to plant the one percent, yet the lack of sil-
vicultural data for those species led to the loss
of nearly the whole area. Nevertheless, there
has been impressive progress in Brazil in devel-
oping silvicultural technology by industry-led
research programs as a necessity to increase the
productivity and decrease costs for these native
species used in planting projects.
TABUi XVL SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF WOOD IN BRAZIL,
1987-1988
SOLID WOOD TEM EQUIVALENT % (lOOnv3)
A) WOOD DEMAND
Cellulose (10 t)
Charcoal (vegetal)
Sawn wood
Veneer
Fuelwood
14,740
68,700
33,500
7,550
139,000
6
26
13
2
53
TOTAL DEMAND 263,490
100
B) WOOD SUPPLY
From refor-
estation 82,300
31
C) WOOD SUPPLY
From native
forests 181,190
69
TOTAL SUPPLY 263,490
100
Source: 1PT/SBS
In contrast, research with native Brazilian
species did not receive the same attention. The
immediacy of capitalism in developing countries
inhibits private initiative to do research involv-
ing species with longer rotation cycles. As a
result, the sector left responsible for native
species has been governmental institutions,
which suffer from a lack of continuity. In-
variably, each government came forth with their
plan of research and, since forest species do
not have the short cycles of agricultural crops,
programs ended without conclusions.
The Positive Side
Despite many problems, the fiscal incentives
promoted excellent development of the silvicul-
ture of Eucalyptus and Pinus in Brazil. Initially,
there was not much concern for the selection
of species, much less provenance. The actual
goal for improvement is to develop a local race.
According to Ikemori (1990), the criteria for
selection should be as inclusive as possible.
Considering phenotypic traits as well as geno-
type, the following characteristics should be
included:
•volume of tree in relation to age
•disease resistance
•insect damage resistance
•branching habit
•branch size
•bark proportion
•sprouting ability
•root formation ability
•wood properties for pulp, charcoal, etc.
• properties of leaves, extractives, etc.
• metabolic efficiency.
Productivity has been significantly increased
through the perfection of silvicultural tech-
niques and success in the area of forest bio-
technology. According to Cherkassky (1990),
yields up to 100 cubic meters per hectare in
Eucalyptus and 45 cubic meters per hectare in
Pinus have been attained. The specific con-
sumption of wood (mVt90 eel.), or the amount
of wood used to produce 1 ton of cellulose
with 90 percent dryness, on a commercial scale
in Brazil is 4.87, and at Aracruz Florestal has
reached 3.71 in the second stage of work
(Ikemori, 1990).
The cost of production of Eucalyptus seed-
lings has been gradually reduced and now does
not carry excessive costs in reforestation pro-
jects. To give an idea of the planting costs of
this species using the dibble tube, Jesus and
83
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NEED FOR REFORESTATION IN BRAZIL
Junior (1984) reported a cost of US$ 0.02/seed-
ling. In addition to this reduction, the dibble-
tube system allows the following advantages:
•diminishes problems with fungi;
• uninterrupted production, (nightfall, precipita-
tion, etc.);
• better working conditions not only due to the
nature of materials but also operationally;
•significantly more economical transport of
materials to the field;
•decrease of man-hours/ha from the conven-
tional 25 hours/man/ha to 8 hours/man/ha.
IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED
According to present knowledge, reforestation
programs on a large scale with ftnus and
Eucalyptus in Brazil do not have problems
which would prevent implementation. Neverthe-
less, more conservation practices need to be
incorporated such as:
•no more destruction of natural forests to
implement reforestation programs;
•breakup of monocultures with associations of
leguminous species;
• integral protection and recuperation of water-
shed forests occurring throughout the projects;
•limitations on the annual cut of contiguous
areas;
• elimination of clear-cut by leaving a minimum
of 50-60 trees/ha;
• in those projects involving cellulose, debarking
will be made on site;
•limitations on type of burning used for site
preparation;
• implementation of biological control programs
for insect and disease control.
Operationally, it is necessary to improve the
efficiency of protection against leaf-cutting ants.
With the homogenization of tropical resources,
there is a loss of the natural enemies and leaf-
cutters become a formidable enemy. The cost
for protection is US$35/ha/year. At the same
time, it is necessary to reduce the cost of site
preparation as this constitutes a significant
proportion of the project costs.
Another concern involving costs will be the
allocation of projects to more productive sites,
which may diminish the total area available for
reforestation. According to a specialist in the
region of Sao Mateus, north of the state of
Espirito Santo, there are sites which could
reduce the area needed for reforestation by 20
percent. Additionally, the areas which are not
reforested could enter into the natural regener-
ation process and contribute to reducing the
impacts of monoculture.
REFORESTATION TO DIMINISH CO2
LEVELS
The problems caused by increasing levels of
CO2 are of global order and logically no one
country alone can solve the situation. Every
day it becomes more urgent to adopt methods
to reduce these trends. Reforestation on a
large scale is one of them, notwithstanding that
it requires large investments and a lot of motiv-
ation.
We must consider that in countries of the
Third World, including in this case Brazil, the
destruction of forests has caused infinite serious
damage and reforestation has had objectives
which do not necessarily include diminishing of
CO2 levels. It is much more urgent to control
erosion, reduce the siltation of rivers, maintain
or restore site productivity, regulate the water
tables and rivers, and to produce wood for
energy.
For whatever reasons reforestation is imple-
mented, the planting of trees in areas where
there were none is contributing to the reduc-
tion of CO2 levels. It could be a case of
marketing, but should be considered when
making decisions about the promoting of refor-
estation on a large scale. It is still difficult to
convince the small landowner to include trees
in the management plans for his property. It is
even more difficult for him to understand the
implications of increasing levels of CO2 in the
84
-------
R. MORAES DE JESUS
atmosphere.
In addition to reforestation through planting,
natural regeneration management in tropical
regions should be encouraged. In Amazona,
for example, significant areas of pasture are
abandoned annually. Since the occurrence of
fires is not a threat, naturally regenerated
secondary forests are often formed. Active
management to maintain these fast-growing
forested areas should be prompted along with
standard planting methods. In the same way,
degraded forests must be managed in such a
way as to stimulate growth and production, thus
increasing the capacity for CO2 absorption.
Due to the magnitude of conflicting needs to
both utilize and preserve forest resources in
Brazil, large areas must be reforested to both
assure a supply of wood and to restrict the use
of natural forests. It is not easy to make large-
scale reforestation operational, especially when
costs of establishment of species other than
Eucalyptus and Pinus are used.
Ab'Saber et al. (1989) present a plan for
mega-reforestation for potential areas of about
20 million hectares, where corrective forestry,
mixed reforestation and industrial reforestation
attain percentages respectively of 14.3, 13.8 and
71.8 of the total area respectively. The project-
ed rotation cycle is 30 years and costs present-
ed in the televised press are on the order of
US$l,500/ha, financed primarily by fiscal in-
centives.
The intention is very good; however, once
more the beneficiaries are large industries and
the plan leaves behind the small landowner. If
6 million hectares have already brought serious
social problems, imagine 15 million! It would
be difficult to find a way out of these problems;
this approach will not be the way to implement
large-scale reforestation.
Since the paternalistic system of fiscal incen-
tives has immobilized us and there are many
well-known cases of corruption, we want to
emphasize systems of reforestation which ad-
dress the reality of the small landowner. It is
the obligation of the government to make
known the available technology and to orient
the landowner as to how, where and why to
plant trees.
In an effort to create many smaller planting
units instead of a few large units, the problem
becomes more one of forestry extension and
environmental education. It is essential that
each municipality has its own program in order
to solve problems in a consistent and effective
manner. It must have favorable backing of
technology, inputs, training and practical ex-
amples in order to be successful (Jesus, 1989).
This author affirms that this type of structure,
called Horto Florestal (Forest Garden), pro-
vides not only the conventional structure for
seedling production, but also is a community
unit where essentially all of the benefits are
assimilated and reproduced in the local region.
The government of the state of Espirito
Santo, through its Development Bank, is im-
plementing the Horto Florestal Project (Jesus,
1989) in various municipalities. The expecta-
tion of the state is that each of its 80 thousand
farmers plant annually at least 1 hectare of
forest in Espirito Santo. In this way, the Horto
Florestal will become a place where farmers can
exchange ideas and see examples of conserva-
tion, utilization and recuperation of the ecosys-
tem.
85
-------
NEED FOR REFORESTATION IN BRAZIL
REFERENCES
Ab'Saber, A. N., L. Rodes, and W. Zulane. Identificagao
de Areas para Reflorestamento no Espafo Total No Brasil,
Institute de Estudos Avancados -- Universidade de Sao
Paulo; Serie Ciencias Ambientais 02. Dezembro, 1989.
Cherkassky, H., Mercado Brasileiro de Produtos Florestais:
Papel e Celulose. 1 Simposio sobre Conservacao Ambien-
tal e Desenvolvimento Florestal do Cone Sul. Foz do
Iguacu, 1990.
Ikemori, I. K. Programa de Melhoramento Genetico de
Eucalyptus spp. da Aracruz FlorestaLl Simposio sobre
Conservacao Ambiental e Desenvolvimento Florestal do
Cone Sul. Foz do Iguacu, 1990.
Jesus, R. M., and Junior, J. C. C. Produydo e Formagao
de Mudas de Eucalyptus Atraves do Sistema Dibble Tube na
Florestas Rio Dace S/A. V. Congresso Florestal Estadual.
Nova Prata, 1984.
Jesus, R. M. Programa Horto Florestal - RANDES; Banco
de Desenvolvimento do Espfrito Santo, Boletim Tecnico.
Vit6ria, 1989.
SBS (Sociedade Brasileira de Silvicultura). A Sociedade
Brasileira e Seu Patrimdnio Florestal Boletim Informative.
S3o Paulo, 1990.
86
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INDUSTRIAL EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS
IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
TECHNICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Francis Cailliez
ABSTRACT
In the Congo, near Pointe Noire, the proximity of a deep-water port and a city providing a large labor pool, a favorable
political climate, and a vast area of unoccupied savannah with little relief allowed the realization of a large-scale forestry
project.
From the example of these Congolese plantations, we intend to show how an important afforestation project that addresses
the financial and social requirements imposed by economists can also contribute to the maintenance of a satisfactory global
environment, even if it involves plantings of Eucalyptus and conifers, which often have a poor reputation, primarily among
misinformed people.
INTRODUCTION
Recent evolution in scientific and public
thought, which should include political leaders
and funding organizations, has occurred requir-
ing that a greater awareness of global environ-
mental constraints be brought to bear in devel-
opment projects, no matter what the field.
Two important themes within the concept of
"global environment" are closely linked with
protection and improvement of tropical forests:
They are the conservation of biodiversity and
the atmospheric changes related to the "green-
house effect".
During the last 50 years in temperate coun-
tries the land tenure system, political stability
and the accessibility of lumber mills have all
played an important role in allowing large-scale
forestry projects to be both economically profit-
able and socially acceptable. These projects
involve either improving existing stands or
creating new plantations (France, Portugal,
Chili, New Zealand).
In tropical countries, which are generally
developing countries, however, reforestation and
conservation projects are neither economically
secure nor profitable enough to warrant the
amount of investment necessary for largescale
projects. In general, other more immediate
problems tend to be given higher priority over
forestry projects in investment decisions.
It was in this vein that the European Devel-
opment Fund (EDF) decided in 1969 to fund
only projects which would pay for themselves
within five years. It was therefore no longer
possible to count on financing for forestry
projects from the EDF for tropical countries.
Fortunately, however, this philosophy of the
EDF is changing.
In francophone Africa, there are some excep-
tions to this rule: the Congo is one (described
below in detail); in Madagascar, 265,000 hec-
tares of plantations on savannah soils supply
raw materials to local paper industries and
sawmills and furnish fuelwood and polewood to
nearby towns; in Burundi, high population
density puts a large demand on forest products,
making reforestation and protection of remain-
ing indigenous forests easily justifiable.
In the Ivory Coast, the government supports
the planting of around 1,000 hectares per year
with a dozen commercial species of medium
rotation rates using mechanized planting
techniques. This is carried out in areas where
87
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EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE CONGO
the existing forest is judged to be too poor and
is consequently suppressed and replaced. These
projects have had various levels of success,
having encountered difficulties associated prim-
arily with questions of land tenure, a lack of
secure long-term financing, a lack of a viable
market for by-products from thinning, and
appropriate means of marketing the products.
THE CONGOLESE CASE
The country of the Congo is not heavily
populated. It has approximately 1.9 million
inhabitants, of which 600,000 live in Brazzaville
and 300,000 in Pointe Noire. The rest of the
country is practically empty with only three
people/km2.
Natural forests of the Congo are not really
threatened, except in the Mayombe (South) and
in the vicinity of the main cities, in particular
around Brazzaville, where the influx of popula-
tion has lead to the disappearance of natural
forests, sometimes accompanied by severe
erosion.
Natural forests have supplied the Congo with
large resources contributing significantly to
national revenue: log exports were 600,000 m3
in 1985 and 715,000 m3 in 1986, and are ex-
pected to reach 1,000,000 m3 in 1990.
Since the end of World War II, large areas of
forest have been exploited in order to retrieve
only a relatively few commercially valuable
species. As larger tracts of land are explored,
the exploitable timber is found farther and
farther from the sole practicable shipping port,
Pointe Noire. As a consequence, foresters have
responded by concentrating their efforts on
high productivity plantations.
It was as part of this response that the 6,500
hectares industrial plantation of Limba (Ter-
minalia superba) was established in the May-
ombe district between 1949 and 1961.
This project concentrating on Limba was not
as large as that carried out in the neighboring
Gabon for okoum6 (Aucoumea klaineana).
There, plantings of 2,000 hectares (with an-
ticipated increase to 300 hectares) annually
from 1960 to 1965 were almost adequate to
compensate for the annual export volume, at
that time 1,250,000 m3. A total of 26,000
hectares of okoume were planted in Gabon.
Like many other governments in newly in-
dependent African countries, the Congolese
authorities emphasized plantations of fast-grow-
ing species rather than management of natural
forests to solve forestry problems linked to fuel
wood needs or papermill projects.
Two initial objectives were ascribed to the
experimental Eucalyptus plantations:
• to supply the city of Pointe Noire with fuel
wood,
•to provide raw materials to a papermill
planned in the Niari valley (Loudima experi-
mental farm) in parallel with other activities
related to a power dam project on the river
Kouilou Niari (which, ultimately, was never
completed).
Eventually, the needs of the papermill became
the primary force behind the reforestation
projects around Pointe Noire, as fuel wood was
obtained as a by-product of these industrial
plantations.
Since 1958, this forestry research has been
supported by the Centre Technique Forestier
Tropical (CTFT), of France, which set up a
local experimental branch, now included in the
Congolese Research Department7. Research on
industrial plantations is growing and is now in
the process of reorganization in order to in-
tegrate public research carried out by the CTFT
and the research carried out by the United
Afforestation Industrial of the Congo (UAIC),
an organization which will be described in more
detail below.
BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT
Climate
Pointe Noire is situated near the equator at
4°45' south latitude. The southern tropical
88
-------
climate is characterized by consistently high
temperatures (mean annual temperature =
24.5° C), average rainfall of 1250 mm/year, and
two contrasting seasons: one is humid, hot and
sunny from November to May; the other is
rather cool, dry and cloudy with high relative
humidity (80 to 85%) and heavy dew.
Topography
Pointe Noire lies on a low coastal plain
extending about 30 kilometers inland from the
coast. The soils date back to the quaternary
period and are generally fine, sandy soils,
increasing in clay content with depth. These
soils cover an area of about 100,000 hectares.
The tableland vegetation is a grassy savannah
with scattered shrubs, burned every dry season.
It becomes more wooded and more broken as
one goes farther from Pointe Noire.
The soils are deep, homogeneous and easily
tilled, but they are nutritionally very poor and
therefore neither cultivated nor grazed, so there
is no objection to devoting them to wood
production. In contrast, experiments have
shown that wood can be produced on these
soils using fast-growing species and appropriate
symbionts (e.g. mycorrhizae).
The valleys are wooded, but these stands are
threatened by shifting cultivation and, until
recently, by cutting for fuel wood.
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF
EUCALYPUS
More than 60 Eucalyptus species have been
introduced in trials since 1956. A number of
species have been selected for use as pure
species, e.g. E. tereticornis and E. urophylla.
Outstanding individuals were first observed in
1963 among progeny collected in trial plots
composed of several different species. These
progeny resulted from interspecific hybridiza-
tions that would not occur in the natural range
of the species because of natural barriers
(geographic distance, physiology).
F. CAILLIEZ
Bi-specific seed orchards were established in
1970 with potentially interesting hybrid parent
species in order to favor desirable combinations.
However, seed production (by natural pollina-
tion) in these seed orchards is heterogeneous
and uneven and cannot be depended on for
large-scale plantations.
Efforts then were concentrated on vegetative
propagation. This led to the development of
reliable rooting techniques for Eucalyptus
hybrids in 1974, paving the way for the devel-
opment of clonal forestry based on vegetative
propagation of high-performance hybrids. First
clonal tests were established in 1975. Nearly
1,000 clones have been selected since, in a two-
phase selection scheme.
This intensive clonal selection has two main
objectives:
•To improve productivity
• To enhance the genetic diversity of the plant
material in use in large scale plantations, in
order to minimize the effects of climatic or
health hazards.
Hybrids occurring naturally in the trial plots
are of two types only, however, and interesting
clones are from a limited number of parent
trees. In order to more systematically explore
all the possibilities (different hybrid types and
different combinations within each type), con-
trolled pollination techniques have been used
since 1978.
During the first phase, an extensive testing of
possible interspecific combinations was done to
find out which are the most interesting. Since
1983, proper crossing plans have been applied
for the more interesting interspecific combina-
tions. This quite recent development of the
breeding program significantly enhanced the
genetic diversity of the plant material in use,
while maintaining its productivity. More im-
provement is expected as more artificial hybrids
come through the clonal selection scheme.
89
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EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE CONGO
STARTING FULL-SIZE PLANTATIONS
Following improvements in these rooting
techniques in 1976 to make them more prac-
ticable, it was decided to undertake the "Kis-
soko Pilot Project" in 1978 to test the techni-
ques on a relatively large scale by planting
3,000 hectares. This successful project led to
the creation of a Congolese state-owned forest
plantation company, the United Afforestation
Industrial of the Congo (UAIC), with broad
ambitions. Its goal was to establish industrial
plantations to supply enough raw materials to
run a pulp mill.
The researchers then began to propagate
trees from natural hybrids in the stands, pro-
ducing several clones whose performance has
been evaluated in clonal tests since 1975.
Several advancements were made: mastery of
techniques of propagation from buds; successful
multiclonal plantations on several dozen hec-
tares; confirmation of the ability to massively
reproduce genetic copies of the best clones.
These all set the stage for the proposal of a
3,000-hectare project whose goal was to show
the feasibility and advantage of such an enterp-
rise on an industrial scale.
THE UAIC: REALIZATION AND
PROSPECTS
Today, UAIC manages a 25,000-hectare area
and has the technical experience necessary to
manage these types of modern and highly
productive clonal plantations. The company
currently produces 400,000 m3 of paper pulp-
wood per year, which is exported to the Europ-
ean market and as such, the UAIC has become
a prime supplier of pulp wood. Given the
relatively modest cost of the investment (1,400
$/ha), the high production per unit area (up to
30 nvVha/yr pulp wood) and the very strong
world demand for this type of industrial wood
(homogeneous Eucalyptus), the project is today
mainly geared towards satisfying external inves-
tors which will bring the firm to 50,000 hectares
and eventually 100,000 hectares capacity. This
capacity could even be doubled within 10 years.
Due to this breathtaking growth rate, foreign
partnerships will likely become the rule. Al-
ready, a 25,000-hectare cooperative project with
the Shell Company is establishing plantations at
the rate of 4,000 hectares per year. The plant-
ing methods are described in Appendix II and
as shown on the location map in Appendix I.
Table XVIL ADVANTAGES OF CLONAL
EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS, COMPARED WITH OTHER
TYPES OF FORESTS (source: UAIC)
Type of Forest
Total Pole
production
Coniferous
Climate
Traditional
Plantations of Hybrid
Congo (1971) Eucalyptus (1985)
Mian Valley Niari Valley
20 m/ha/yr
40 mVha/yr
7 yrs
AITCJ Required tc JOO.OOO ha.
Produce 1,500,000
37,500 ha.
Planting Cost
per Hectare
Total Investment 4 5 billion FF 750 million FF 300 million FF
'French France, 1090 vnlue Si US = 5 6 FF
The UAIC is proposing to extend the planta-
tions in the Niari valley where the soil is more
fertile and tree growth better than on the
coastal plains of Pointe Noire. The UAIC
presents Table XVII, comparing the advantages
of clonal Eucalyptus plantations to other types
of forests.
Logging and export began at the end of 1986
from the earliest planted stands. At this time,
a series of contracts had already been signed
with European industries for the long-term
supply of high quality pulpwood.
In the heart of the plantation, a mill was set
up to treat posts and poles for use as electric
and telephone lines. Moreover, UAIC negoti-
ated with foreign partners to create small- and
mid-sized wood processing units for charcoal,
90
-------
F. CAILLIEZ
glued laminated products, prefabricated wood
materials, etc.
In the future, with increasing production, the
construction of a local pulp mill is a realistic
priority for the Republic of the Congo.
SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES
The development of such a large forestry
project creates considerable employment, par-
ticularly since the philosophy of the UAIC is
not to mechanize at any cost but to maintain a
balance by providing jobs to suburban or un-
skilled rural workers. On-the-job training of
team-monitors is given by French and Con-
golese technicians.
The creation of suburban and rural employ-
ment opportunities provides resources to help
revitalize the villages which were in recession a
short time ago. The employment of women in
the nurseries allows a more even distribution of
family revenues. The network of forest roads
reduces the isolation of villages, helps make life
a little easier and opens the villagers to the
outside world.
The UAIC employs both permanent and
temporary workers, with peak employment at
the height of the planting season. Table XVIII
describes the labor needs in 1985 to plant at a
rate of about 5,000 hectares per year in three
sites.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
The primary goals of protection of the health
of these plantations consist of a dynamic and
evolving process aimed at providing the UAIC
with plant material of constantly improving
genetic diversity and of providing intense prote-
ction against fire.
Multiclonal Stands of Hybrid Eucalyptus
A monoclonal plantation of a highly produc-
tive hybrid offers an advantage only in terms of
production. This criterion is applied to poplar
Table XVm. UAIC PERSONPOWER REQUIREMENTS TO
PLANT 5,000 HA/YR (EXCLUDING HARVEST AND EXPORT)
cutting unit
Permanent
Personpower
C August)
Supplementary Total
Personpower Personpower
(February)
25 nursery workwomen
3 planting units
Mechdniied field work
Central garage
Surveyor office
Maintenance Unit
Financial anU
Administrative office
for harvesting, bark removal and logging operations in June
1987, the UAIC employed 1900 people, including some small,
private contractors. The total amount of money distributed
monthly was 80 m. francs CFA, with an average amount per
worker/mo, of 40,000 francs CFA (equivalent to 800 French
francs, or approx. $140 U.S.). In total, an average of one job
was created for every ten hectares planted.
plantations, for example, or fruit orchards. But
one cannot ignore the risks inherent in planta-
tions of only a single or a few clones.
There is no doubt that one must research and
conserve enough genetic diversity to assure
resistance to eventual disease or insect attacks.
Therefore, strong efforts are made to increase
the number of clones planted. At the beginn-
ing of the project, the choice of the clones was
limited by the small number present in the
existing clonal test plots, but now UAIC can
widen its choice every year. Since its initiation,
the goal has been to establish about 40 dif-
ferent clones each year, a number which seems
sufficient to assure adequate protection against
parasitic attacks.
The question of how many clonal types to use
91
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EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE CONGO
remains open: numerous related clones may
represent a very poor genetic diversity com-
pared to relatively few clones (five or six) from
unrelated hybrid stock.
New clones are now created by man-made
pollination. New introductions of planting
stock from natural ranges of the selected spe-
cies are going to be included in future hybrid
combinations in order to again improve the
requisite genetic diversity.
This dynamic strategy adopted by the UAIC,
which involves the continuous production of
new and more efficient clones coupled with a
patchwork spatial distribution of small (25
hectares) monoclonal blocks, serves to assure
the protection of these plantations against pests
or diseases.
Controlled Mycorrhizal Inoculation
The study of mycorrhizal associations on
planted Eucalyptus and of more efficient part-
ners (ectomycorrhizae) and the use of antagonist
interactions with parasitic fungi are of interest
not only to control the parasites but also to
improve the yield. Research work is on-going
in these areas.
Protection Against Fire
Great importance is given to good mainten-
ance of the stands in regard to fire protection:
mechanical and manual weeding are carefully
performed.
A strict observance of the timing of the
silvicultural operations allows an early canopy
closure and better protection of the stands.
Look-out towers have been set up on two high
points on the edge of the plantation with
immediate radio communication with a fire-
fighting team.
Biodiversity
The natural biodiversity - as opposed to the
manmade biodiversity of the different clones ~
is preserved by this Eucalyptus afforestation.
This assertion may appear to be paradoxical.
Nevertheless, the natural, more diverse, woody
vegetation in the valleys is respected by the
project and left undisturbed. Harvesting of
fuelwood in these areas is actually decreased,
since the woody debris in the Eucalyptus stands
is available to the workers' families to gather
for fuelwood. In addition, in spite of the young
age of the plantation, we have already noted
the reappearance of some of the original flora
(this has also been observed in other planta-
tions, e.g. in Cameroon). One notes, then, an
actual enrichment of the flora compared to the
pre-existing savannah which was regularly
burned.
Also, big game and other wildlife can be seen
here again, due probably more to better tree
cover than to significant enhancement of the
vegetation. After over a dozen years, this is an
encouraging sign.
A Contribution Against
"The Greenhouse Effect"
A more favorable carbon balance can be
expected for three reasons:
• fixation of carbon dioxide by photosynthesis
in a 25,000-hectare plantation producing at least
20 nvVha biomass (much more than the amount
of dry matter found on an equal area of savan-
nah) corresponds to a gross reduction in at-
mospheric CO2. About 8 tons of carbon are
fixed yearly per hectare.
• Eucalyptus is a very efficient producer of dry
matter (a 7-year-old Eucalyptus plantation will
produce 350 kg dry matter for every 1 kg
nitrogen in the leaves, compared with spruce,
which will produce only 20 kg.).
• The emission of gases due to the yearly
burning of savannah since time immemorial is
halted, except perhaps from accidental fires
which up to now have been quite rare.
• Plantations improve the soil structure by
significantly increasing organic matter, through
leaf litter, logging residues and the removed
bark.
92
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Sustainability
Management of these populations after the
first harvest at seven years is now completely
defined: only a single coppice shoot is allowed
to develop until the next harvest. But manage-
ment guidelines have not yet been established
following the second harvest at 14 years. Based
on observations of other, older plantations, one
should be able to expect a third harvest at 21
years. At this point it will undoubtedly be
necessary to remove the stumps and replant.
A precise study of nutrient contents in the
leaves, branches, bole, bark, etc., of trees from
a seven-year-old clone has provided an estimate
of nutrient export per hectare from barked
trees (e.g., bark and fine branches are left on
the ground):
Calcium
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Magnesium
Potassium
5.99 kg/ha/yr
3.83 kg/ha/yr
15.57 kg/ha/yr
2.36 kg/ha/yr
7.66 kg/ha/yr
It is difficult to compare these figures with
those of available nutrients in the soil in order
to estimate the time during which such produc-
tion can be maintained under these conditions.
It is very likely that fertilizer applications will
be required, since the littoral Atlantic soils of
Pointe Noire are very nutrient-poor, with the
exception of phosphorus. A 48-month study of
the effects of mineral fertilizer (N-P-K in one
or two applications) on wood production gave
the following results:
100 g in one dose: +18%
200 g in one dose: +38%
200 g in first dose, 150 g
in second dose: +47%
F. CAILLIEZ
TOWARDS A VAST REGIONAL PROJECT
A look at the map of Central Africa reveals
a large area of grassy plateaus surrounded by
dense forest stretching from Gabon to Zaire
and covering, in particular, the Bateke plateau
of the Congo. These plateaus, at an altitude of
700 meters, offer a favorable climate to Euca-
lyptus trees and a soil richer than that of the
more washed-out coast savannah.
The development of a large interstate project
covering 3 million hectares could be of global
importance. For an investment of 1,200 billion
F CFA (24 billion French francs) -- i.e., the
equivalent of the Congolese debt - it could be
possible within seven years of planting to
provide 60 million tons of wood, enough to
produce 20 million tons of first class pulp. This
represents the equivalent of the anticipated
increase in world demand for paper over the
next 20 years.
Such an investment would provide jobs to
300,000 workers (the number of heads-of-
households in the current Congolese popula-
tion). The parallel development of an intensive
agricultural system would be necessary to
ensure the harmonious development of this
population. At the end of the seven-year
period, the gross income generated by such a
project would be approximately 1,000 billion F
CFA (20 billion FF) per year.
The economic pressure on natural forests
would be decreased. Further, the standard of
living of the population on the plateau would
be significantly improved, reducing the excessive
demand on the dense forests of the region. By
such production, CO2 fixation would be ap-
proximately 30 million tons per year, or one
percent of the total carbon dioxide poured into
the atmosphere every year as a consequence of
human activities.
93
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EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE CONGO
REFERENCES
Corbasson, Michel, 1986. Eucalyptus Hybrids Tropicaux
du Congo. Revue Forestiere Francaise, Numeio Special
Amelioration Vegdtale (XXXVIII-1986).
Chaperon, H., 1977. Amelioration des Eucalyptus
Hybrids au Congo. Troisieme Consultation Mondiale sur
l'Am£lioration del Arbres Forestiers. Canberra pp. 579-
592.
Chaperon, H., 1978. Vers une Meilleure Combinaison
des Facteurs de Croissance pour une Ligniculture des
Eucalyptus en Rdpublique Populaire du Congo. Huitieme
Congr&s Forester Mondial, Djakarta, Indonesia. 11 pages.
Delwaulle, J.C., et al., 1961, Ligniculture en Milieu
Tropical. Les Reboisements en Eucalyptus Hybrids de la
Savane Cdtiere Congolaise. Revue Forestiere Francaise
(3): 248-255.
Delwaulle, J.C. and Y. LaPlace, 1988. La Culture
Industrial de l'Eucalyptus en R^publique Populaire du
Congo de la Recherche au De"veloppement. Revue Bois
et Forgts des Tropiques. No. 216 pg 35.
LaPlace, Y., 1989. The Humid Savannah, A chance for
the Planet, the Example of Clonal Plantations in the
Congo. Investigation Commission of the German Bundes-
tag on Preventative Measures to Protect the Earth's
Atmosphere. Protection of Tropical Forests. 7-8 June,
1989. Bonn, West Germany.
Loumeto, JJ., 1986. Contribution h 1'Etude de la
Distribution Mine'rale dans les Eucalyptus du Congo.
Doctoral Thesis, University of Rennes 1, France. October
1986. Series C. Order No. 962, Series No. 372.
Mallarde, Etienne, 1990. Revue de Geopolitique Africain-
e. Congo: Une Chance & Saisir. pg 43.
Martin, B., 1977. Amelioration Genetique des Eucalyptus
Tropicaux. Contribution Majeur £ la Foresterie Clonale.
Doctoral Thesis. University of Paris, XI.
NOTE
; Jean-Claude Delwaulle, Director, Centre Technique
Forestier Tropical, B.P. 764, Pointe Noire, Congo
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This communication makes use of published documents
or recent experimental results presented in internal
technical papers by agents of the Center Technique
Forester Tropical and the United Afforestation Industrial
of the Congo. The particular publications are listed in
the citations.
Further information on this project may be obtained
by contacting the project director directly at the address
given below:
Yves LAPLACE, Director General, United Afforestation
Industrial of the Congo B.P. 1120, Pointe Noire
People's Republic of the Congo
Tel: (242) 94.04.17; Telex: UAIC 8303 KG
Fax: (242) 94.40.54
94
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APPENDIX I
UAIC INDUSTRIAL EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS
IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO
UAIC INDUSTRIAL EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
LOCATION MAP
NATIONAL BORDERS
MAIN RIVERS
FOREST LIMIT
COASTAL SAVANNAH
NIARI VALLEY
BATEKE PLATEAUX
250 Km
ANGOLA
\,WP BY CTFJ, MAY T990
95
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APPENDIX II
FIELD WORK SCHEDULE
Trees in the mass production parks are
coppiced and the shoots are cut one month
after the beginning of the rainy season. Irriga-
tion allows the timetable to be forced some-
what. Forty thousand cuttings are produced
per hectare.
Shoots are collected 6 to 8 weeks after
coppicing during the most physiologically suitab-
le time, which lasts only 2 or 3 days. They are
brought immediately into the nursery, then
pruned, processed and finally cut and rolled in
a man-made "Melfert" ball. This ball consists of
a non-woven envelope containing vermiculite
and fertilizer. The volume of each ball is 200
cm3, containing one two-leafed cutting. Balls
are placed under fog sprinklers for 20 to 25
days and fertilized. The rooting rate is up to
80 percent. Plants are plantable 60 days after
cutting.
They are transported in boxes containing 60
balls. One truck carries 180 boxes, that is
10,800 plants, enough to plant 15 hectares.
The management schedule begins with stump
removal (ofAnnona aenaria), most often manu-
ally, followed by burning and plowing with a
heavy harrow. Tilling, fertilizer application and
marking the place where the plants are to be
set is done by a single machine which beeps
each time it covers a pre-set planting distance.
At this point, two workers, one for each line,
hearing the sound, drop the amount of fertilizer
and marking powder required into each of two
bins. This mixture is released, marking the
planting spot. Holes are dug by hand at each
mark and the seedlings are planted. Each is
then watered and given a single application of
a termaticide.
The interplant spacing has been optimized to
provide the maximum volume of pulpwood after
a 7-year rotation. In the beginning, a 5m x 5m
spacing was used. It later became 4.5m x 6m
(370 plants/hectares), and then changed to 3m
x 3m and 3m x 4.70m (709 plants/hectares).
Weeding with a disk harrow is carried out four
times between the initial planting and the next
rainy season.
96
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA:
MITIGATING GLOBAL WARMING THROUGH
SOCIAL FORESTRY
Mark C Trader
ABSTRACT
Scientific debate on the likelihood and magnitude of human-induced global warming has been underway for almost a
century, but calls for national and international action to respond to the threat have proliferated only in recent years. The
1988 decision by a United States power generation company, Applied Energy Services (AES), to offset the carbon emissions
of a newfy constructed coal powerplant was one of the first actions taken by the U.S. business community to counter the threat
of global warming. To achieve the carbon offset, AES is now funding a sustainable development forestry project in
Guatemala. It is the first forestry project ever funded specificaUy for carbon offset purposes.
This paper introduces and describes the AES-funded and CARE-administered forestry project now underway in Guatemala.
Although the project is projected to offset more than the 15.5 million tons of carbon that will be emitted from the coal-fired
power plant over the next 40 years, the paper also highlights the many uncertainties involved in making such projections. In
addition, the paper sets out to assess the advantages and disadvantages of this project, an example of a sustainable development
forestry project, as compared to the type of plantation forestry more conventionally suggested to counter global warming.
INTRODUCTION
The literature addressing forestry's potential
role in mitigating global warming is growing
rapidly and is generally enthusiastic about the
prospects for large-scale arresting of deforesta-
tion and replanting of degraded lands.7 Domes-
tically, the President's recent "America the
Beautiful" initiative involving the planting of an
additional one billion trees per year in the
United States remains the only global warming
policy initiative that has received broad-based
political support.2
Forestry-based options appear to be among
the most politically, technically and economical-
ly attractive of potential global warming policy
responses. Politicians see few of the economic
and political impediments that face efforts to
modify energy consumption patterns and forest-
ers see the opportunity to capitalize upon their
own expertise to intensify forest management
and to plant huge areas of degraded and ap-
parently abandoned lands in developing nations.
Although the economic analysis of forestry
options has been markedly simplistic thus far,
such options are often characterized as the
cheapest way of significantly slowing the build-
up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
When forestry projects are actually proposed
as global warming mitigation mechanisms,
however, it becomes difficult to assess their
likely effectiveness in offsetting fossil fuel
emissions. This can be readily seen from the
analysis surrounding the only such project yet
undertaken.
PROJECT HISTORY
During 1988, Applied Energy Services (AES)
finalized plans to construct a new coal-fired
power plant in Thames, Connecticut.5 During
its 40-year life, the plant is expected to emit
some 15.5 million tons of carbon as carbon
dioxide(CO2), a primary contributor to whatever
global warming occurs in future years/ For all
practical purposes, stripping CO2 from the
97
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
it k to po»mc»(l).t»[fe|iciUr •£*!•*• ftc cut** fct* form of MX* laia cffion ft Bkiplc 0*
WorUknrtolMte)
Figure 18. Conceptual Functioning of a Carbon-Offset
Project
plant's flue gas is not feasible. This led AES to
request the International Institute for Develop-
ment and Environment-North America (now
the Center for Development and Environment
within the World Resources Institute [WRI]) to
suggest means by which the plant's emissions of
CO2 could be offset and its role in aggravating
global warming negated. Based on a review of
several alternatives, WRI concluded that a
forestry project located in the tropics was likely
to prove the most cost-effective carbon offset
opportunity (Figure 18). WRI's conclusion to
focus on the tropics grew primarily out of three
variables:
•Higher potential biomass growth rates;
•Lower costs and much greater grant leverag-
ing opportunities;
• Greater social need for forestry-based services.
Once AES decided to pursue a project, WRI
developed and circulated a Request for Propos-
als (RFP). Four criteria formed the basis for
the RFP:
• Carbon offset: The RFP required proposed
projects to provide for an average carbon offset
rate of 387,000 short tons per year for 40 years,
totaling 15.5 million tons over the life of the
powerplant.
• Local participation: The RFP noted the
desirability of projects that would promote
social goals beyond the mitigation of global
warming. Any proposed forestry project had to
further the general aims of sustainable develop-
ment, and proposals involving planting or
management of trees that would be harvested
required a plan for sustained yield management.
The RFP encouraged local participation, par-
ticularly by women. It emphasized sensitivity
to and consistency with the needs and goals of
the host country. The RFP discouraged propo-
sals for the establishment of large-scale planta-
tions.
• Grant leveraging: AES was willing to provide
a grant of $2 million. Since a project capable
of offsetting the emission of 15.5 million tons
of carbon would cost much more than $2-
million, it was crucial that grant recipients be
able to leverage additional funding.
• Organizational experience: WRI recognized
that no organization responding to the RFP
would have past experience with the concept of
carbon-offset forestry. Sustainable development
projects of the sort envisioned by WRI, howev-
er, are generally difficult to implement and
WRI viewed a proven track record in this field
as important.
The eight proposals submitted to WRI in
response to the RFP ranged widely in ap-
proach. One proposed sealing off and protect-
ing standing forest, counting the carbon benefit
as deforestation foregone. Another proposed
a restoration ecology program as the means to
store the required carbon. Several involved
variations on agroforestry and woodlot develop-
ment programs. Based on the recommenda-
tions of an RFP review panel, WRI ultimately
recommended to AES that it fund the interna-
tional relief organization CARE's agriculture
98
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M. TREXLER
and natural resources activities in Guatemala.
AES' decision to undertake this funding reflects
the first time a U.S. corporation has accepted
responsibility for offsetting its CO2 emissions in
the same manner that current law often re-
quires for other pollutants.
PROJECT ENVIRONMENT AND CONTEXT
Guatemala, which is in Central America, is
roughly the size of Tennessee. Its topography
is highly variable, ranging from a fertile coastal
zone to highlands of 1,800 to 12,000 feet,
making the region the highest in Central Amer-
ica. Twenty-one volcanoes, some of them still
active, formed a large portion of the highland
soils. The broad diversity of Guatemala's
climatic and soil conditions, as well as the
variable topography, have resulted in the most
diverse vegetation in the region. The country's
forests contain at least 16 species of conifers
and 450 species of broadleaf trees.
Guatemala's natural endowments contrast
sharply with severe imbalances in income and
land distribution. Of a population of approxi-
mately 8 million people, 6.5 million are consid-
ered poor. With a three percent population
growth rate, the country's resource base is
coming under intense pressure. Biomass, pri-
marily firewood, supplies an estimated 80 per-
cent of the country's energy needs. Defor-
estation has been extensive.5
CARE has actively promoted agricultural
productivity, reforestation, and soil conservation
in Guatemala since 1974 (Figure 19). In part-
nership with the former Guatemalan forestry
department (INAFOR) and the Peace Corps,
and with funding provided by the U.S. Agency
for International Development (USAID),
CARE undertook to improve the livelihoods of
farmers in the highlands by improving the
management of the natural resource base.
Specifics of the program have evolved over
time and vary from region to region within
Guatemala. The program incorporates several
&&, Piojecl Regions (in Roman Numerals)
Dc'pai (mental Boundary
Regional Boundary
•^T CAUL I'toject Officer
Figure 19. Map of CARE Project Areas
major forestry elements:
•Emphasizing seedling production in dispersed
community nurseries, with subsequent planting
of the trees in woodlot and agroforestry
applications.
• Sustainably increasing biomass yields and land
productivity through soil conservation techn-
iques; e.g., live and dead barriers.
•Conservation of biomass through techniques
such as the establishment and training of com-
munity forest fire brigades.
• Providing technical forestry extension services
to farmers.
•Promoting long-term sustainability of project
initiatives through empowerment of local and
national organizations, ranging from farmer
99
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
cooperatives to the national forestry depart-
ment.
•Involving women in project activities.
CARE's forestry record in Guatemala is
impressive. Since 1979, its activities have
resulted in the planting of 25 million tree
seedlings. These seedlings are providing fuel,
food and building materials for 360,000 people
in 400 communities. During 1988, CARE's
activities were responsible for at least 50 per-
cent of all organized tree planting in the coun-
try. Aggregate nursery capacity now exceeds
four million seedlings per year and is increasing.
THE PROJECT IN PRACTICE
CARE's response to WRI's RFP did not sug-
gest a sudden interest in expanding the scope
of CARE's work to include global warming
mitigation. In CARE's eyes, offsetting carbon
emissions through its activities is an ancillary
benefit to its primary goal of benefiting poor
farmers. AES' decision to finance the CARE
proposal will make it possible for CARE to
continue to expand its outreach and training
programs to new communities around the
Table XDC CARE GOALS OVER THE NEXT 10 YEARS
* To involve 40,000 farm families in project activities
* To produce more than 25 million woodlot trees
* To produce more than 25 million agroforestry trees
* To plant trees for:
- fuelwood and fodder
- nitrogen fixing
- fruit and nut production
- live barriers
- living fences
* To see more than 12,000-ha woodlots established
* To see more than 60,000 ha of agricultural land converted
to agroforestry
* To establish more than 3,000 km of live fencing
* To undertake soil conservation and rehabilitation
activities on more than 2,000 ha.
country over the next 10 years (Table XIX).6
During these 10 years, some 40,000 farm famil-
ies will be involved in growing over 50 million
trees in community nurseries. With the expan-
sion of CARE operations from about 80 to 100
sites in the next few years, annual seedling
production should reach over 7 million seed-
lings. Many more trees will be planted during
the subsequent 30 years if nursery production
becomes self-sustaining after the end of
CARE's involvement.7 These trees will be
planted on private as well as community lands
for pole, lumber and firewood production, as
part of agroforestry plantings yielding fuelwood,
fodder and soil nitrogen-fixation, and for fruit
and nut production. A wide variety of species
will be used in the project, many of them
indigenous.
The more than 50 million trees grown in
project nurseries over the next 10 years will
allow some 12,000 hectares of new woodlots to
be created, while agroforestry practices will be
extended to some 65,000 additional hectares of
agricultural land.8 The fast-growing nature of
these trees will allow farmers to begin reaping
the benefit of their labors within just three to
five years. Several other practices intended to
improve productivity and conserve the resource
base will accompany these two aspects of the
project. Some 3,000 kilometers of live fencing
will be planted, terraces will be built to protect
2,000 hectares of vulnerable slopes, and forest
fire brigades will be formed to protect the
newly planted trees and existing forest.9 Train-
ing and technical extension services will support
the tree-planting efforts. Hundreds of forestry
committees will be established to define local
needs, develop forestry plans, plan activities,
assign responsibilities, and share benefits. The
groups will coordinate in the management of
community woodlots, community nurseries, and
forest fire brigades. These educational and
technical support activities are viewed as crucial
to long-term project sustainability.
The CARE project operates through a
100
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M. TREXLER
carefully developed infrastructure reliant upon
both indigenous and external resources. Each
of the approximately 80 Guatemalan municipal-
ities containing project sites is served by a local
"promoter," a farmer employed by the current
Guatemalan forestry department, DIGEBOS.
The promoter organizes farmer cooperatives in
the municipality within which he works. An
average of five actual project sites are located
within each municipality. Approximately 20
DIGEBOS "coordinators" are responsible for
line supervision of the promoters. Some 35
Peace Corps volunteers are distributed among
the municipalities served by the project, provid-
ing technical instruction in agricultural and
forestry techniques, including the establishment
of tree nurseries. Finally, about a dozen
CARE employees provide training for promot-
ers and Peace Corps volunteers, technical back-
stopping for all forestry and agriculture ac-
tivities, and general administration of the pro-
ject. As such, CARE's role is much more than
an administrative one. CARE financial support,
for example, allows the purchase and main-
tenance of DIGEBOS vehicles. CARE's or-
ganizational support allows DIGEBOS to play
a partnership role in an important domestic
project it would otherwise be powerless to
implement/*'
THE CARE PROJECT
AND CARBON STORAGE
WRI's analysis of the carbon off-set potential
of the several proposals received in response to
its RFP immediately suggested how complex
such analysis could become. WRI's review of
project proposals demonstrated that the reliabil-
ity and predictability with which forestry pro-
jects can serve as carbon sinks depends sig-
nificantly on whether existing trees are being
protected or new ones are being grown, on
their location and type, on the rotation times of
the trees being planted, on the ultimate disposi-
tion of the wood being grown, and on the
indirect implications of this disposition for the
utilization of other biomass and fossil fuel
resources. Unless trees are planted for the
long term on currently denuded land, the
quantity of carbon storage cannot be measured
simply by quantifying total biomass growth.
In the case of this project, however, trees are
not being planted for the long term. Instead,
it is assumed that they will be harvested for
poles, fuelwood or fodder within several years
of their being planted. Much of the carbon
withdrawn from the atmosphere through project
tree planting will therefore be released to the
atmosphere in a relatively short time period.
As a result the carbon storage benefit of the
project does not result primarily from the tree
planting itself.77
Instead, the tree planting provides services
for which project participants would otherwise
have had to turn to the natural forest. Since
the protection of standing forest is being as-
sumed, carbon offset assumptions have to be
predicated on estimates of the degree to which
incursions into standing forest are actually
prevented, the carbon content of the saved
forest, and how much of the currently standing
forest would actually have been lost in the
absence of the new tree planting. These
assumptions are in turn dependent on local
sources of deforestation, possible shortages of
fuelwood or other wood products, and the
impacts of the project on land use as well as
population migration patterns.
Given these and many other related variables,
a complex model of the carbon flows associated
with a sustainable development project can
easily be envisioned. Unfortunately, the inform-
ation needed for construction of such a model
was simply unavailable. Indeed, such informa-
tion is just now becoming available even for
more conventional forestry projects in temper-
ate zones, and the information required for this
case would be considerably more complex. In
addition, organizations such as CARE have
historically had little reason to even identify,
101
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
much less collect, the information necessary for
modeling project-related carbon flows.
WRI's conclusion that the project would more
than offset the 15.5 million tons of carbon
emitted by the powerplant, therefore, had to be
based on highly simplified assumptions. Using
empirical data regarding seedling production
and mortality, as well as limited data on repre-
sentative growth rates, the following primary
assumptions were used to calculate the size of
the carbon offset:72
1) The planting of 25 million trees in wood-
lot applications, with an assumed stocking rate
of 2,000 trees/ha, an assumed stemwood growth
rate of 20 nrVha/yr, and a biomass multiplier of
2.0."
2) The planting of 27 million trees in agrofor-
estry applications, with an assumed stocking
rate of 400 trees/ha, an assumed stemwood
growth rate of 13 nrVha/yr, and a biomass
multiplier of 2.0.
3) Ten percent of the biomass growth over
40 years is assumed to represent a net addition
to standing biomass.
4) Ninety percent of total stemwood growth
is assumed to be harvested.
5) Each cubic meter of harvested wood is
assumed to displace the harvesting of a cubic
meter of wood from standing forest as well as
the oxidation of the equivalent of an additional
half a cubic meter of biomass in the form of
forest roots and other vegetation.
These assumptions, among others, make it
possible to conclude that 40 years from today
some 18 million tons of carbon that would
otherwise have been emitted to or remained in
the atmosphere will instead be tied up in
biomass or soils as a result of this project
(Table XX). This estimate exceeds the 15.5
million tons the AES powerplant is projected to
release during that same period, and thus
supports the conclusion that the project will
offset the plant's emissions.
Inevitably, however, the robustness of this or
any other estimate of carbon offset resulting
Table XX FINAL ESTIMATE OF CARBON FIXATION VS. SE-
QUESTRATION
CARBON FIXATION
Total carbon fixed in project biomass 17.2 x 10* tons
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
Net addition to standing inventory of
biomass carbon 2.6 x
Usable harvested carbon 9.7 x
Standing forest carbon retained as result of
demand displacement 14.4 x
Carbon added to project soils .4 x
Standing forest carbon protected through fire
brigades
TOTAL LONG-TERM
CARBON SEQUESTRATION:
40-YR. EMISSIONS OF
AES POWERPLANT
.7x
18.1 x
15.5 X
PROJECTED NET PROJECT BENEFIT 2.6 x
10tf tons
10tf tons
10* tons
10tf tons
10* tons
10* ton
10* tons
10* tons
from a sustainable development project is
suspect when the project is located in a devel-
oping country facing rapid population growth
and serious economic problems. Guatemala's
rural poverty and political instability as well as
its three percent population growth rate raise
serious questions about the ability of forestry
projects to achieve long-term carbon storage,
even those well-integrated into the self-interest
of individual farmers such as this one. Even if
the project is successful in planting and growing
the trees, for example, it may simply allow more
people to remain on the land rather than be
forced into the cities. Rural populations might
consume not only the trees being planted, but
the original standing forest as well, in effect
simply delaying a crash of the resource base.
Unfortunately, it will probably prove impos-
sible to accurately determine the degree to
which these and other uncertainties will under-
cut the long-term carbon-offset success of this
102
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M. TREXLER
project. Although CARE will track the more
measurable of the project's milestones, many
uncertainties that might affect its long-term
success are likely to prove impossible to evalu-
ate. This is partially a function of the large
geographic coverage represented by CARE
activities in Guatemala. Nevertheless, this is
likely to be a common problem facing evalua-
tion of almost any sustainable development
forestry project.
THE GUATEMALA PROJECT AND
ITS LESSONS FOR GLOBAL
WARMING MITIGATION
There is little doubt that extrapolation of
biomass growth rates across huge land areas in
order to arrive at estimates of forestry's global
potential to mitigate global warming is of quite
limited usefulness, regardless of the forestry
strategy envisioned.74 Nevertheless, if pursued
on a large enough scale, a wide array of forest-
ry approaches could, in principle, contribute
significantly to the mitigation of global warming.
These include forestry policies aimed at protect-
ing or managing existing forests, restoring
degraded or secondary forests to their natural
state, pursuing industrial plantation forestry for
timber or energy, as well as sustainable develo-
pment forestry utilizing such techniques as
agroforestry and woodlot development.
The uncertainties surrounding estimation of
the carbon storage benefits achieved through
sustainable development forestry projects such
as the one being funded by AES might appear
to argue for an emphasis on other forestry-
based options. CARE's activities in Guatemala,
for example, might appear sadly insufficient
when viewed against the context of Guatemala's
natural resource crisis or against the threat of
global warming. Given rural energy shortages
in Guatemala, it could be argued that large-
scale fuelwood plantations would be a more
productive vehicle for storing carbon. Indeed,
most discussion of forestry as a global warming
mitigation strategy assumes the planting of fast-
growing plantations rather than the implementa-
tion of alternative options such as sustainable
development forestry.
In Guatemala and many other developing
countries, however, it is not at all clear that
large, fast-growing plantations are superior to
other options such as sustainable development
forestry in mitigating global warming, either
substantively or as a matter of public percep-
tion. While large-scale plantations will certainly
be appropriate under some circumstances in
developing countries, large-scale plantations are
inimical to the forestry goals being pursued by
many interest groups around the world, par-
ticularly in the non-governmental sector/5 Dif-
ferent forestry options will often differ widely in
terms of their practicality, ethics, sustainability,
and public acceptability. There are, in fact, a
number of important issues raised by the con-
cept of carbon offset forestry that are high-
lighted by the differences between this project
and the more conventional plantation approach.
Using the situation in Guatemala as a point of
reference, one can identify several problems
with a course of action premised on large-scale
plantation forestry.
The Practicality of Plantation
Forestry in Developing Countries
Where would the projects be sited? As al-
ready noted, Guatemala has high population
densities, particularly in those areas possessing
the best climates and soils for agriculture and
forestry. Most private landholdings in these
regions are very small and barely able to sup-
port the existing residents. Tree planting on
communal and municipal lands has proven
problematic in CARE's experience due to
uncertainty regarding future ownership and
utilization rights. The large private landhold-
ings that do exist are often located in arid parts
of the country, and there is no guarantee that
these lands will not be subject to future land
tenure reform. Even today, however, these
103
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AQROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
private holdings are far from unused. Share-
croppers may have established themselves, and
owners routinely graze cattle on these lands.
What would be the immediate purpose of the
project? Because global warming mitigation per
se is unlikely to be a convincing rationale for
tree planting in many developing countries, it
will usually prove important to link forestry
activities to more pressing national concerns.
In Guatemala, current deforestation is caused
by needs for additional agricultural land and for
energy. Unlike agroforestry and other sus-
tainable development techniques, however,
conventional plantations would be unlikely to
improve agricultural productivity. Depending
on the location of the plantations and on the
price ultimately charged for wood products,
conventional plantations might or might not
decrease energy-related pressures on natural
forest.
Who would have an interest in project success?
The strength of successful sustainable develop-
ment forestry efforts is their linkage to the self-
interest of the individuals working on them.
Farmers' cooperatives, for example, can see
agroforestry on their lands as a source of future
revenue, as a source of greater agricultural
productivity and as a labor-saving device.
Whose self-interest is served by plantation
forestry as a tool to mitigate global warming is
much more difficult to ascertain. If pursued
primarily through subsidies to wealthy landown-
ers to plant trees on their own holdings, the
tree-planting effort might even be reacted to
with hostility by the economically less fortunate.
And if land-reform were to occur eventually,
who would provide for the protection of the
already established plantations?
Who would administer the projects? Numerous
organizations support forestry activities in
Guatemala. With the exception of DIGEBOS,
however, these organizations are almost ex-
clusively relief- and development-oriented and
would have little interest in or experience with
large-scale reforestation. DIGEBOS, however,
is a weak organization that has its capabilities
already stretched to its limit. CARE, for
example, sees little opportunity for expanding
even its own activities significantly within Gua-
temala given the institutional weakness of its
government partner. Short of a willingness to
simply supplant the government's role in forest-
ry policy, any large-scale reforestation effort
would have to look elsewhere for expertise and
institutional support.
Thus, small-scale social forestry may be more
appropriate than first impressions might have
suggested. This is not to suggest that planta-
tion forestry has no role in the country. In-
deed, some successful reforestation has oc-
curred on large private landholdings. For
example, the country's largest cement manufac-
turer has reportedly reforested enough area in
the neighborhood of the plant to supply its
future fuel needs. Nevertheless, the oppor-
tunities for large-scale forestry are probably
quite constrained in comparison to alternative
approaches.
The Ethics and Public Acceptability
of Plantation Forestry
Many tropical countries face crises in their
forest sectors, and there is a clear need for
increased efforts in providing and maintaining
forest-related services. Demand for forest
products is increasing while forest stocks are
decreasing, watersheds are being denuded and
topsoil is being lost. Indigenous peoples in
many tropical forest regions face severe threats.
When forestry is discussed as a global warming
response option, however, it is already common
to hear the argument that such forestry would
represent just another instance of the rich,
developed nations solving their problems ~ in
this case excessive fossil fuel use ~ at the ex-
pense of the poor masses in developing nations.
Indeed, issues of ethics and public perception
may be the most obvious point of difference
among alternative forestry approaches to miti-
gating global warming, particularly in tropical
104
-------
M. TREXLER
countries. CARE's agriculture and natural
resources project in Guatemala, for example, is
oriented primarily towards addressing the sur-
vival and development needs of the people of
Guatemala. A large-scale plantation achieving
the same amount of carbon storage, however,
might involve the displacement of residents
from their land and might benefit only those
who are already wealthy. So, while there is
little reason to suggest that AES funding for
CARE's activities constitutes an attempt to
dump the pollution of the United States onto
the backs of the people of Guatemala, other
forestry approaches are likely to prove far more
susceptible to this argument.
The degree to which global warming forestry
is welcomed around the world will depend
partially on the degree to which forestry pro-
jects can be matched to the perceived needs of
the country. If future global warming forestry
projects can meet the same test as this project
does, the ethics of forestry response strategies
should not be excessively suspect. Many forest-
ry projects, however, will probably not meet
this test. Projects could reduce the funding
available for critically needed economic devel-
opment. Projects could displace large numbers
of people from their lands, and indeed buttress
inequitable systems of land tenure. Projects
could result in the loss of critically needed
agricultural land. Projects could be constraining
to the development opportunities of developing
country populations. These are all key issues in
considering the circumstances under which
different types of forestry can help respond to
the threat of global warming.
In considering these issues, it is helpful to
remember experience with international forestry
assistance in the past. Development assistance
in the forestry sector, for example, has been
criticized historically for its emphasis on large-
scale projects with few benefits for local resi-
dents. Indeed, large numbers of farmers have
on occasion been displaced by such projects.76
In response to these problems, the originators
of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP),
established in 1985 to slow global deforestation,
- intended to foster an integrated forestry sector
planning process through which the social,
environmental and economic needs of a coun-
try would be addressed through development
assistance targeted to the forestry sector.77
Most tropical forest countries are now involved
in the TFAP planning process/*
The TFAP has come under attack, however,
for failing to live up to its goals. Deforestation
is increasing rather than decreasing, and for-
estry assistance continues to emphasize indust-
rial forestry projects at the expense of sus-
tainable development for the millions of individ-
uals already living off of the forests. As a
result, it is commonly alleged that the national
TFAP planning processes have failed to account
adequately for the voices and interests of those
countries' non-governmental communities and
indigenous peoples. Several groups are now
calling for a complete moratorium on funding
for TFAP projects pending a restructuring of
the program.79
Discussion of large-scale plantation forestry
for the mitigation of global warming could be
perceived as yet another attempt to ignore the
interests of the rural poor in developing count-
ries. Severe damage will be done to the credi-
bility of global warming forestry if it is per-
ceived by the non-governmental community to
simply reflect an extension of the TFAP.
Avoiding this perception, however, is likely to
prove difficult for the initiatives currently being
discussed in the global warming literature. It is
commonly argued, for example, that some one
billion hectares of degraded lands are available
for reforestation in tropical countries.20 As
non-governmental organizations in many of
these countries might point out, however, these
lands are rarely, if ever, abandoned regardless
of the degree of degradation, and the people
on them face far more important concerns than
sacrificing their meager livelihoods to offset
pollution emitted in developing countries.
105
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
Sustainability of Plantation Forestry as a Global
Warming Response Option
The long-term viability of any forestry initia-
tive intended to mitigate global warming is of
paramount importance. At the same time, it is
by its very nature difficult to predict the success
of such initiatives. The approach taken by
CARE in Guatemala is to give local farmers
good reasons to protect and nourish the plant-
ed trees, in the hope that the many benefits
accruing from their planting will persist over
time. Even then the long-term viability of the
project is uncertain. What if population growth
continues unabated? What if future political
instability deprives many small farmers of the
lands they currently farm, but to which their
claim is questionable?
These questions are hardly unique to
CARE's approach to sustainable development
forestry. Indeed, questions of long-term project
viability are almost certainly more severe for
projects that do not correspond as closely as
this one to individual perceptions of self-inter-
est. If tax incentives are established to en-
courage large-scale reforestation of private
holdings, what would be the effect of their
discontinuance by a future government? What
would be the fate of subsidized plantations if
further land-tenure reforms are enacted?27 If
large amounts of money become available to
foster tree planting, corruption is obviously an
additional threat. And local opposition to
unpopular projects can take quite tangible
forms including the sabotaging of plantations.
Even more broadly, what are the implications
of the mounting debt crisis for developing
countries' ability to manage and fund greatly
enlarged forestry sectors? All of these variables
will significantly affect the viability of a large-
scale forestry response to global warming in
developing countries.
CONCLUSIONS
It is often assumed that a ton of carbon
stored in new biomass is the mitigation equival-
ent of a ton of carbon not emitted in the first
place through fossil fuel combustion. The
numerous uncertainties surrounding charac-
terization of forestry's potential role in mitigat-
ing global warming, however, suggest caution
about carrying the presumed equivalence too
far. First, under most circumstances one must
wait for years for trees to grow large enough to
further significantly carbon sequestration goals.
Many energy sector initiatives, on the other
hand, begin preventing carbon emissions im-
mediately. Second, it is impossible to predict
with complete reliability the extent to which the
projected carbon storage goals of forestry-based
projects will actually come to pass, particularly
when tropical forestry is considered. Although
forest protection, reforestation and afforestation
can further global warming as well as many
other policy objectives, forestry-based options
should not be seen as substituting for far
reaching emissions-reductions efforts.
The agroforestry and woodlot approach being
taken in Guatemala to offset the emissions of
Applied Energy Services' U.S. powerplant is
just one of many forestry options that are
available. Other approaches could be based
upon large-scale plantations for timber, electric-
ity or biofuels, the regeneration or physical
protection of existing natural forest, or even
urban forestry. Proposals for future carbon
offset projects will have to take a case-by-case
look at the different options and decide which
to pursue. The desirability and viability of
these different options will differ markedly from
country to country, leading different projects to
rely upon different approaches for achieving
carbon offsets.
Most analysis, however, unjustifiedly assumes
that commercial plantations are the mechanism
of choice for global warming forestry. This
conclusion is generally arrived at by overlooking
several important social and economic variables
relating to the suitability and acceptability of
alternative project types under different cir-
106
-------
M.TREXLER
cumstances. For forestry to be viable as a the concept of large-scale carbon offset forestry
significant global warming response option, will be discredited among both governmental
policy analysts and planners will need to pay and non-governmental communities in many
attention not only to physical and economic developing countries. Moreover, large sums of
variables, but to social and human variables as money could be spent with little or no long-
well. If these variables are not adequately term global warming mitigation benefit.
considered, there is good reason to fear that
NOTES
;Houghton, R. A., 1990. "The Future Role of Tropical Forests in Affecting the Carbon Dioxide Concentration of the
Atmosphere." Ambio 19 (4):204-209; Sedjo, R. A., 1989. "Forests: A Tool to Moderate Global Warming?"
Environment 31 (1): 14-20.
2Trexler, M. C., in press. Reforesting the United States to Combat Global Warming? Washington, D. C.: World Resources
Institute.
•'AES is a nation-wide independent power producer that relies on advanced coal combustion technologies to control
the conventional range of air pollutants.
The validity of concern over the prospect of global warming is assumed for the purposes of this paper.
5A 1987 survey of the country's forest resources classified only 38 percent of the country as forested - just half of
the proportion found 35 years earlier. Only the forests in the northern Department of El Peten remain relatively
intact, and migration into this region threatens them as well. University of Georgia, Institute of Ecology, 1981. An
Environmental Profile of Guatemala: Assessment of Environmental Problems and Short- and Long-Term Strategies for
Problem Solution. Athens, GA; Leonard, H. J., 1987. Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central America.
International Institute for Environment and Development, Washington, D. C.
AES funding is therefore making possible the continuation and expansion of an existing forestry project, rather than
the undertaking of a completely new one. One advantage of this approach was the opportunity to avoid the lead time
of several years that would have been required to get a new project of any comparable size off the ground. Under
most circumstances, however, future proposed projects will have to overcome this problem.
7CARE does not intend to provide assistance to rural communities on a permanent basis. Instead, it attempts to
provide infrastructural assistance as well as training and extension services in the expectation that project participants
will eventually become self-sufficient in all aspects of the forestry program.
sAlthough CARE expects to continue its work in the project area for only 10 more years, the expected lifetime of AES's
coal-fired powerplant is 40 years. For purposes of analyzing the carbon offset benefits of CARE's forestry operations,
it was decided to assume that the areas planted during the first 10 years will be sustainably managed and replanted
for another 30 years after CARE's involvement ends. The possibility that planted areas will continue to expand as a
result of the successful functioning of the infrastructures put into place by CARE was not accounted for in calculating
the carbon offset benefits.
Forest fires, often intentionally set for brush clearing, currently consume millions of trees each year.
; "Although DIGEBOS pays the salaries of its promoters and coordinators, for example, CARE staff play a major role
in hiring and training them.
1IThis is similar to planting trees for energy. Since the trees themselves will eventually be oxidized to produce energy,
107
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AGROFORESTRY IN GUATEMALA
NOTES, cont'd,
the real global warming benefit is in keeping an equivalent quantity of fossil fuels in the ground. Since the trees
cannot release more CO2 than they originally absorbed via photosynthesis, they contribute no net CO2 to the
atmosphere.
;2These assumptions are more extensively documented in Trexler, M. C., Faeth, P. F., and Dramer, J. M., 1989. Forestry
as a Response to Global Warming: An Analysis of the Guatemala Agroforestry and Carbon Sequestration Project.
Washington, D. C.: World Resources Institute.
did not have growth rates for specific species at particular sites available for its analysis. Representative growth
rates for tropical softwood species under reasonably good conditions were therefore used.
^Unfortunately, this is about as far as such analysis has gone. The author is currently involved in research aimed at
integrating country-specific physical and social variables into estimates of forestry's global wanning mitigation potential
in the tropics.
^5For an introduction to the social forestry literature, see: Cernea, M. M., ed., 1985. Putting People First: Sociological
Dimensions of Rural Development. New York: Oxford University Press; Chambers, R., 1983. Rural Development: Putting
the Last First. Longman Press; Gregersen, H., et al., eds., 1989. People and Trees: The Role of Social Forestry in
Sustainable Development. EDI Seminar Series. Washington, D. C.: World Bank; Foley, G. and Barnard, G., 1984. Farm
and Community Forestry. London: Earthscan.
;<5Lohmann, L., 1990. "Commercial Tree Plantations in Thailand: Deforestation By Any Other Name." The Ecologist
20 (1): 9-17.
;7World Resources Institute, World Bank, and United Nations Development Programme, 1985. Tropical Forests: A Call
to Action. Washington, D. C.: World Resources Institute.
'8Winterbottom, R., 1990. Taking Stock The Tropical Forestry Action Plan After Five Years. Washington, D. C., World
Resources Institute.
/9Sierra Club, 1990. Stop the Tropical Forestry Action Plan.
20Grainger, A., 1988. "Estimating Areas of Degraded Tropical Lands Requiring Replenishment of Forest Cover."
International Tree Crops Journal 5(1-2).
2/The issue of land tenure reform is a vexing one in the context of global warming forestry. Land reform is often
characterized as a prerequisite to the long-term economic development of many countries. But if large-scale
afforestation is pursued on large private holdings, will the industrialized countries that will likely have footed the bill
be in the position of having to oppose such reform in the future?
108
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REFORESTATION IN INDIA
A. N. Chaturvedi
ABSTRACT
The legal meaning of forest includes areas with good overwood cover, scrub, grass lands and wastelands devoid of tree
growth. According to 1989 assessment the forest cover is only 19.52 percent of the total geographical area of the country,
dense forest being only 10.99 percent. The population density varies from 21 per km2 in eastern Himalayas to 418 km2 in
the Gangenc plain. While the population of livestock has increased by 42 percent between 1951 and 1982, that of goats alone
increased by over 100 percent during the period. The fodder production is only about 700 million tonnes against the
requirement of about 2000 million tonnes. All forest areas are open to grazing. Excessive grazing is resulting in ecological
degradation and gradual loss in productivity. Plantation forestry is more than 150 years old and about 12 million hectares
have been reforested. The bulk of reforestation was started in 1951 with changing emphasis on objectives. The present
emphasis is on meeting the increasing demand of fuel and fodder. Wood prices have shown increasing trend since 1980 and
this increase has encouraged tree farming, but it is still confined to only a few states in India. Large number of tree species
and bamboos have been raised under afforestation projects to suit the edapho-climatic conditions. Aerial seeding tried over
a large area has been a total failure. The technology for afforestation is available, but the resources commensurate with needs
are lacking. The political and social environment fosters a lack of will to control the agencies responsible for deforestation
and land degradation. Wood-based industries have not been involved in any forest plantation projects. The forestry program
lacks clear thinking and patience. The present rate of deforestation exceeds that of afforestation. Far too many social benefits
are expected from afforestation in too short a period.
INDIA'S FORESTS
The legal meaning of "forest" includes not
only tree growth of varying density and quality
but also scrub and grasslands, wasteland more
or less bare of vegetation and hilltops above
the altitudes at which tree growth is possible.
The forests of India include a greater range of
composition and appearance than can be found
over a similar area in any other part of the
globe. Their silviculture is accordingly more
complex by far than that of the relatively
narrower range of types and conditions met
with in Europe and temperate North America.
The number of tree species of importance runs
at least into several hundred. Some of the
forests of the country, notably the tropical ever-
green forests of the wetter portions, are un-
doubtedly still in their original state just as they
have developed in accordance with natural
conditions of climate, topography and soil. The
greater part of them, however, have been much
influenced directly or indirectly by human ac-
tivities. Although sometimes, owing to the
different hardiness of some tree species under
ill-treatment, the impact of a human population
has favored a more valuable tree species against
less valuable ones, the results of human ac-
tivities have mostly been destructive to the
forest.
In the earlier stages of the occupation of the
land, the forest has everywhere been looked
upon as the enemy of mankind and its destruc-
tion an indication of progress. This hostile
attitude still persists. Where local conditions
promote luxuriant growth and the pressure of
population is not too great, but where the
larger part of the forest has already been
destroyed and the last remnants are seen to be
doomed to early disappearance unless some-
thing is done to protect them, the realization of
the great benefits conferred by the forest is
109
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REFORESTATION IN INDIA
gradually dawning on those who are at the
same time both the destroyers and among the
victims. The climatic conditions of India, and
in many parts soil conditions also, are such that
the adverse consequences of forest destruction
are quicker to appear than in most countries of
the temperate region. The heavy monsoon
rainfall is largely responsible for this difference
(Champion and Seth, 1968; World Bank, 1978).
FOREST COVER AND POPULATION
The 1989 assessment of the forest cover of
India carried out by the Forest Survey of India
based on maps of 1:250,000 scale resulted in
33.33 percent required for ecological stability as
enunciated in national forest policy.
FOREST AND POPULATION
The forest cover situation by ecofloristic
zones and population density is shown under
Table XXII.
Eco-floristic Zone 4, which comprises Goa,
coastal areas of Karnataka, Kerala, and the
Andamans and Nicobar Islands, has a good
forest cover in spite of a high population
density because of its unique climate conditions.
In the rest of the country, population density
is inversely related to forest cover (Anon. 1989).
TiMe XXI FOREST COVER IN INDIA, 1989.
Category Area in Knr
Forest:
Dense forest
(crown density
40% and over)
Open forest
Mangrove forest
TOTAL
361,412
276,583
4,046
64Z041
% of Total
Geographical
Area of Country
11.0
8.4
0.1
19.5
Table XXtt FOREST COVER BY ECOFLORISTIC ZONES
AND POPULATION DENSITY, IN INDIA.
Scrub Area:
(tree lands w/less
than 10% crown
density)
Uninterpreted Area:
(under clouds,
76,7%
2.3
shadows, etc.)
Non-forest
(incl. tea gardens)
GRAND TOTAL
11,524
2,557,436
3.287.797
0.3
77.8
100
the figures given in Table XXI.
This study estimates the actual forest cover
in the country at 64.20 million ha (19.52%)
against the official recorded area of 75.1 million
hectares (22.8%). Of the actual forest cover of
64.20 million hectares, only 36.14 million hec-
tares is of more than 40 percent crown density.
Thus only 10.99 percent of the country's geo-
graphical area has adequate forest cover against
SI. Lico-Homlic ZoncTolal Gcog.
No. area (sq km)
1 2
1. Western Himalayas
2. Eastern Himalayas
3. North East
4. Western Coast and
Andaman & Nicobar Isl;
5. Deccan
6. Central India
7 Gangetic Plain
8 Indus Plain
3
283035
94029
171470
69738
inds
581358
750600
548867
632770
Actual Forest % ot 4 to 3 Population/
cover (sq km) density
4
56754
73565
97592
30793
133145
177249
44542
26360
5
20.0
78.2
56.9
44.1
23.0
23.6
8.1
4.2
6
53
21
152
433
174
153
418
155
Anonymous, 1989 Table 6
FOREST AND LIVESTOCK
Besides a high human population, the forests
of India have to support a very large bovine
population. While the forest areas have shrunk,
the livestock population has increased by 42
percent over a period of 31 years between 1951
and 1982. Goat population recorded over 100
percent increase. The position with respect to
different categories of livestock given in Table
XXIII.
The estimated fodder requirements of the
110
-------
T«He XXffl. LIVESTOCK POPULATION OF INDIA (GIVEN IN
MILLIONS)
Unit: Nos. in Millions
Livestock Population in
Different Years
Category of Livestock
1951 1956 1961 1966 1972 1977 1982
1
Cattle
Buffalo
Sheep
Goats
Horses/
Ponies
Pigs
Camels
Others
155.3
43.5
38.4
47.1
1.5
4.4
.6
1.3
158.7
44.9
39.3
55.4
1.5
4.9
.8
1.1
175.6
51.2
40.0
60.9
1.3
5.2
.9
1.2
174.1
53.0
42.0
64.6
1.2
5.0
1.0
1.2
173
57.4
40.0
67.5
.9
6.9
1.1
1.1
180.1
62.0
41.0
75.6
.9
7.7
1.1
1.3
190.8
69.0
48.0
94.7
.9
9.6
1.0
1.8
Anonymous, 1987 (Table 12.2)
livestock population has been worked out as
under Table XXIV.
The estimated fodder production at present
(1985) is shown in Table XXV. The demand
for fodder for the livestock is not fully met by
the estimated production. All forest areas are,
therefore, open to grazing except in the na-
tional parks, covering an area of 3.39 million
hectares (Anonymous, 1989; Table 9.2). The
grazing pressure, however, varies with the local
conditions. The intensity of grazing is higher in
A. N. CHATURVEDI
the hilly parts and the semi-dry and dry tracts
of the country. The livestock migrate from one
area to another during periods of stress. This
is one of the main reasons for the decreasing
density of the forest cover. The grazing is also
responsible for frequent fires in forest areas.
The forest floor is deliberately burnt year after
year. The burning induces a new flush of grass
which is eaten up by the hungry livestock. The
fire, however, causes heavy damage by killing
the regenerating forest plants. It destroys
whatever little humus was built up along with
the accompanying microflora. The species
composition of grasses also changes and coarse
grasses replace the softer grasses. In the
Dudhwa National Park, lying between 28°18' -
28°42' N and 80°28' - 80°37' E, the study over
some years has shown the ingress of fire toler-
ant Themeda anathera grass into the areas
previously occupied by reeds Arundo donax and
Phragmitis karka (Chaturvedi, AN and Misra,
CM. 1985). The overall biomass production
goes down and the exposed soils gradually
erode.
Table XXV.
IN INDIA
ESTIMATED PRESENT FODDER PRODUCTION
Type of Fodder Fodder Production (million tons)
Dry fodder Green fodder
TAIeXXTV. LIVESTOCK FODDER REQUIREMENTS (IN
MILLION TONS)
Year Fodder Requirement (million tons)
Dry fodder Green fodder
1985 780
1990 832
1995 890
2000 949
932
992
1064
1136
1. Agric.residues 236
2 Grasses 205
3. Green fodders:
a) cultivated
green fodder
b) top feed,
incl. sugarcane
tops
c) weeds
4. Fodder from
trees
TOTAL
441
208
4
14
24
250
Anonymous, 1987 (Table 12.5)
Anonymous, 1987 (Table 12.4)
111
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REFORESTATION IN INDIA
HISTORY OF FOREST PLANTATIONS
Plantation forestry has been known in India
since the middle of the last century and the
oldest plantation dates back to 1842 when teak
was artificially raised in Nilambur (Kerala). In
northwest Bengal, teak was raised in 1868 in
Bamanpokhri (west Bengal) and planting con-
tinued till 1888 in the first phase. Eucalyptus
globulus was introduced in Ootacamund (Tamil
Nadu) in 1843 and was later extended by both
government and private agencies for meeting
the fuelwood demand and local oil distillation
plants. Wattles were planted at about the same
time for leather tanning and for fuelwood. In
the Western Himalayas planting of conifers was
taken up little later and Cedrus deodara was
the principal species while in the eastern reg-
ions Cryptomeria japonica marked its advent in
1868 with an admixture of indigenous oaks,
maples, laurels and magnolias. Plantations of
Dalbergia sissoo have been raised in the dry
Punjab plains with and without irrigation since
1866.
FIVE-YEAR DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Afforestation was taken up on a bigger scale
with the launching of five-year development
plans. The objective in the first few plans was
to raise plantations for meeting the demand of
the wood-based industries, especially paper,
matches, plywood, sporting goods, etc. Some
plantations for afforestation and soil conserva-
tion were also started during this period. The
progress of afforestation through successive
development plans has been as shown under
Table XVII. In the plantations by forest
departments, the targets and achievements were
in the land area proposed and reforested.
SOCIAL FORESTRY
The concept of social forestry evolved
through different stages over a period of 100
Table XXVL AFFORESTATION IN INDIA SHOWN UNDER
SUCCESSIVE DEVELOPMENT PLANS
SI.
No.
1.
1
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Five-Yr.
Plan
First
Second
Third
66-69
Fourth
Fifth
Interim
Sixth
Seventh
Period
1951-56
1956-61
1961-66
1969-74
1974-79
1979-80
1980-85
a)1985-86
b)1986-87
Area Affor.
(m. ha.)
0.1
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.7
1.2
0.2
4.7
1.5
1.8
Affor.
Exp.(m.INR)
128
6S.6
211.3
230.2
443.4
10718
371.0
9260.1
3785.8
49121
TOTAL 11.6 20,368.0
(Note: 1 U.S.$= 17.20 INK, Indian Rupees)
(Source: Anon., 1987, Table 5.1)
years but the Fifth Plan changed the emphasis
of forestry plantations. Under its social forestry
program, the plan indicated that plantations be
raised on both wastelands and community lands.
For areas deficient in forests, a program of
plantations along the roads, canals and railway
tracts was proposed. Raising of trees on the
edges of fields of private land holders was also
included. In the subsequent plans, the major
object of plantations shifted to afforestation to
meet the growing local demand for fuel, fodder
and small timber. These were also considered
as rural employment programs. As area meas-
urements were difficult in such programs, the
targets were fixed on the basis of number of
trees. Areas were computed by assuming the
rate at a density of 2000 trees per hectare.
During 1987-88 and 1988-89, 3800 million and
4500 million seedlings were planted. These
were computed to afforest 1.9 million and 2.3
million hectares of the area respectively.
FARM FORESTRY
Due to increased demand and reduced sup-
plies, the wood prices increased at a higher rate
than the averages during the last decade.
112
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"WMe XXVDL INCREASE OF WOOD PRICES OVER PAST
DECADE IN INDIA
Year
All commodities Logs/Timber
1970-71
1975-76
1980-81
1985-87
198748
100.0
173.0
257.3
357.8
405.4
100.0
164.5
407.1
820.5
871.8
(Source: Anon., 1987, Table 126)
The increase in prices of wood induced
fanners to plant trees on their lands for profit.
Farm forestry on private lands has developed
in India as a business only recently. This is
supported by financial institutions and by wood
based industries. As profit is the chief motive,
fast-growing species are preferred over slow-
growing ones. Eucalypts, Poplars, Bamboos,
Acacia nilotica, Prosopis juliflora, Casuarina
equisetifolia are the main species planted.
AFFORESTATION
In the afforestation of degraded and barren
lands a number of species are used, depending
on existing conditions of the sites. Basically,
the problem is of water budgeting and soil
conservation. A large number of species are
being raised which include Acacia auriculiformis,
Acacia nilotica, Acacia tortalis, Ailanthus
excelsa, Albizzia lebbek, Anacardium occidentale,
Azadirachta indica, Bambusa arundinacea,
Cassia siamea, Casurina equisetifolia, Dalbergia
sissoo, Dendrocalamus strictus, Eucalyptus
hybrid, Pongamia pinnata, Prosopis juliflora,
Syzygium cumini etc.
In the hills, Acacia meamsii, Alnus nepalensis,
Alnus nitida, Cedrus deodara, Cupressus torulo-
sa, Eucalyptus globulus, Fraxinus floribunda,
Juglans regia, Melia azedarach, Populus ciliata,
Salix spp. are generally planted. Vast tracts of
barren lands of the country are affected by
salinity and alkalinity. Equally large tracts are
severely eroded and ravines have been formed
A. N. CHATURVEDI
in the catchment areas of several rivers, es-
pecially the Yamuna, Chambal, Sabarmati, etc.,
in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and Gujarat. These call for special techniques
of soil working, water conservation and affor-
estation (Chaturvedi, AN. 1982; 1983; 1985;
1986 and 1989).
AERIAL SEEDING
Afforestation through aerial seeding was
started in India in 1980 and has been carried
out each year in different regions. Initially,
only clean seeds were used. Later, seeing the
poor success, the seeds were pelletized with
insecticides and fertilizers. By 1989, about 0.20
million hectares had been covered without any
success whatsoever. Aerial seeding failed due
to lack of protection from domestic animals,
compact soils and drought following germina-
tion.
RESULTS OF REFORESTATION
Reforestation activities in the area under the
control of forest departments have been reason-
ably successful. Teak, Shorea robusta, Eucalyp-
tus globulus, E. grandis, E. hybrid, Acacia mear-
nsti, Acacia nilotica, Casurina equisetifolia,
Anacardium occidentale (Cashew), Dendrocala-
mus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Prosopis
juliflora, Acacia tortalis, Alnus nepalensis, Pinus
roxburghii have been successfully grown as
plantation crops. During the last decade suc-
cessful plantations of Eucalyptus, Poplars,
Bamboos, and Acacia nilotica have been raised
by farmers on their farmlands, especially in the
states with low forest area cover such as Harya-
na, Punjab, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. Af-
forestation along roads and canals has also been
very successful. The afforestation has largely
been a failure on public lands where local
pressures of grazing and firewood removal
could not be controlled (Shingi et. al. 1986).
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REFORESTATION IN INDIA
TECHNOLOGY
Technology for afforestation of lands with
different edaphic and climatic conditions is
available from few individuals and institutions.
Because of constraints of funding and lack of
support from the government, enough resources
are not made available for setting up demons-
tration projects. Even where such successful
demonstrations have been done, these are not
maintained. The staff involved is changed
frequently and long-term protection of such
areas is lacking. The successful works do not
receive adequate publicity as they do not gener-
ate news.
INVOLVEMENT OF INDUSTRIES
Because of land ceiling legislation due to
government policy on land holding, the wood-
based industries cannot buy lands. These
industries are not, therefore, involved in any
large-scale afforestation activities. There is a
strong possibility of substantial afforestation
taking place if there is a change in policy and
industries are encouraged to plant trees by
exempting such activities from land ceiling acts.
This has been done for tea, coffee, rubber, etc.,
but not for wood production.
SOCIAL PRESSURES
Afforestation for social purposes has in recent
years become a populist subject. Many social
scientists advocate that all forests natural or
artificially created are meant for local use. Any
government control is undesirable. This is
unduly publicized by the politicians and the
press in the name of supporting the poor. This
results in heavy damage to existing natural
forests as well as young plantations. Using leaf
fodder, which destroys the photosynthesis and
soil amelioration mechanism of the trees, is
one such practice encouraged under social
forestry programs. These pressures discourage
planting of non-fodder trees while fodder trees
cannot be protected. This "functional" approach
to forest management has fostered a narrow
view of the role of forestry in the economic
development process and, in turn, has resulted
in inadequate government funding of forestry
programs or, in extreme cases, the complete
exclusion of forestry from rural or agricultural
development schemes.
LIMITATIONS OF AFFORESTATION
Successful afforestation programs have several
limitations:
1. Due to harsh edaphic and climatic condi-
tions, the process of afforestation is necessarily
slow. The social forestry programs, however,
envisage meeting the social needs of fodder and
fuel from such plantations at an early age. The
expectations are not realistic.
2. Originally the program envisaged affores-
tation over 5 million hectares per year, but the
areas available for afforestation were not iden-
tified. The program could not reach anywhere
near the expected area of five million hectares.
The average area afforested was only about 1.5
million hectares annually.
3. The money allocated for afforestation
projects was not commensurate with the physi-
cal targets fixed.
4. The expectations of supply of goods and
services from these afforestation projects are
very high and have ignored the productive
capacity of the sites.
5. The agencies responsible for deforestation
were not correctly identified and no efforts are
made to control them.
6. It is thought that people's participation
can be realized by involving non-governmental
agencies which are funded by government and
international agencies. Most NGO's lack the
technical know-how of afforesting difficult sites.
The funding agencies expect quick results.
Therefore, the data of achievements are pro-
duced to impress them.
114
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A. N. CHATURVEDI
7. The demand of firewood is estimated at
about 155 million tonnes while the recorded
production is only about 50 million tonnes.
Thus, there is continuing process of deforesta-
tion. This rate exceeds the rate of afforesta-
tion. It is, however, possible to meet the fire-
wood demand by afforesting about 40 million
hectares of land. This can be done at dispers-
ed locations to minimize cost of transport.
Since the sites for firewood farming will be
generally degraded lands, the harvest rotations
will have to be such that land productivity is
restored (1, above). Presently the annual af-
forestation rate is about 1.5 million hectares.
8. Success of afforestation is dependent on
protection from grazing and fires. The live-
stock population is beyond the carrying capacity
of land. Afforestation cannot succeed unless
the bovine population is reduced.
SUMMARY
Successful large-scale afforestation is possible
in India and technology is available. The
program is not, however, supported correctly
either by the government or the public at large.
There is no clear mandate of what the nation
wants. Lots of vested interests have joined in
and are taking the afforestation program in
wrong directions. Afforestation can provide
large employment opportunities and restore
ecological balance with connected benefits, but
besides funds the program needs patience and
restraint on local use in the early stages. The
program should be linked to reduction of
livestock population, especially goats. The
wood-using industries should be actively in-
volved in industrial plantations on presently
degraded lands. Large areas under open-cast
mining should be afforested by appropriate
technology and linked to mining concessions.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (1987). India's Forests. Government of India, Chaturvedi A.N. (1985). "Firewood Farming on Degraded
Department of Environment and Forests.
Anonymous (1989) "The State of Forest Report 1989."
G.O.I. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun, U.P. pp 7 and 8.
Lands," U.P. Forest Bulletin No. 50
Chaturvedi A.N. (1986). "Bamboos for Farming," U.P.
Forest Bulletin No. 52.
Champion H.G. & Seth S.K. (1968), General Silviculture Chaturvedi A.N. (1989). Fuel and Fodder Trees for
for India. G.O.I. Publication Branch pp. ixvii to xix. Man-Made Forests in Hills Environment Regeneration in
Himalaya. Concepts and Strategies; The Central Himalayan
Chaturvedi A.N. & Misra C.M. (1985) "Ecological Survey Environment Association & Gyanodaya Prakashan,
of Grasslands at Dudhwa National Park." Indian Forester,
Vol. Ill No.8.
Nainital, U.P. (India).
Shingi et. al (1986). Development of Social Forestry in
India. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
Chaturvedi A.N. (1982). "Poplar Farming in U.P., U.P.Fo-
rest Bulletin No. 45.
World Bank (1978). Forestry Sector Policy Paper. World
Chaturvedi A.N. (1983). "Eucalypts for Fanning," U.P. Bank 1018 H Street, N.W. Washington D.C.20433 USA.
Forest Bulletin No. 48.
115
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INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
GROUP DISCUSSION
PARTICIPANTS: Jack Winjum, moderator; Francis Cailliez, A. N. Chaturvedi, Chris Geron, Joe Hughes, Ian Hunter, Dean
Jerstad, Lew Ladd, Denis Lavender, Leon Liegel, Douglas Malcolm, Renato Moraes de Jesus, Pete Owston, Charles Peterson,
Paul Schroeder, David South, Ben Stout, Mark Trexler, Tom Turpin, Terrafyn Vandetta, Steve Wmnett, and Jamie Wyant.
Winjum (after introductions of those in atten-
dance): For this discussion, we will take for
our background and assumptions that there will
be a climate change in the next four or five
decades as a result of man's activity (Table
XXVIII). Further, we will take the position
that forests do sequester carbon and can there-
fore be a significant aid or help in reducing
CO2 buildup. There is a need to have some
international consensus and coordinated effort
on a world scale for reforestation. We will
Table XXVia BOARD NOTES #1.
PERSPECnVES/ASSUMFTIONS
* Climate change natural vs. induced
* World forests: boreal, temperate, tropical
* Carbon sequestering by forests a significant aid
* International consensus for reforestation
* Land is available, but:
where?
what kinds?
how much?
* Technology and know-how:
- start-up period: adequate/CRP?
- long-term: will improve through research,
experience, species vs. site?
* Costs: modest (?) vs.
energy efficiency
* Benefits: many com-
patible
* Objectors: few; supply/demand shift:
esthetics, cattlemen
* Educational and extension needs:
especially in tropics, over time.
economic equity?
take the position that land is available but that
there are questions of how much, where and
what the productivity is of those lands. Also,
we feel the technology, experience, and avail-
able know-how exist to get started.
In the longer term, we can even improve on
the knowledge base with experience and re-
search on a global scale. We take the position
that compared to other mitigating possibilities,
such as alternative fuels and energy conserva-
tion to reduce greenhouse gases, that refores-
tation is moderate in cost - even though we
have heard some pretty big numbers on cost
per hectare mentioned. There are many com-
patible benefits such as reducing erosion, pro-
viding jobs and a better standard of living, and
all of the positive factors that forestry can
provide to serve humans everywhere.
There is what the textbooks call economic
equity. Large blocks of people are penalized
when we impose a tax on CO2 emissions or
prohibit the burning of high-sulfur coal or any
coal at all. How would large-scale reforestation
affect the supply and demand of some wood
resources and therefore the economic equity of
people in forested regions?
And there's another matter that we've fre-
quently heard in the workshop papers: that of
human displacement. There are many people
currently living at subsistence levels in non-
forested areas, or in areas that don't carry a
heavy forest cover but could be reforested. It
117
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
isn't a matter of just going in and moving
people aside to establish plantations, however.
So there are some down sides; but there are,
by and large, mostly positive ways of looking at
global reforestation. We've heard that there
are objections to large-scale reforestation that
would certainly affect the supply and demand of
some wood resources. Some people just don't
like the whole idea of a man-made forest
because they aren't "natural." We should
expand that category to include agricultural
lands; in our country we are going to compete
for land availability, especially with the cattle
people, who look askance at this notion.
Trader: If you assume that forests are a
significant aid, it seems like you've stacked the
decks before you've gotten into the discussion,
since that's going to depend a lot on the land
availability. And if you assume that the costs
are going to be modest, there are people who
will argue that energy efficiency is much, much
cheaper than forestry, so I'm not sure about
the basis of that assumption as well. It is going
to vary dramatically over the extent of a billion
hectares. And I think we want to be careful -
- some types of forestry activities will have
beneficial characteristics and some won't. I
don't think you can make a blanket statement
that "forestry is good." Sometimes we achieve
economic equity and sometimes we don't. We
must be careful about assuming that we have
that problem solved. Some people argue that
energy efficiency is a negative cost. They're
probably wrong as well, but different things will
fit into different places in the curve. What I'm
saying is, if you assume it's a panacea going
into the discussion, it's not going to be surpris-
ing to come out falsely with forestry as a
panacea.
Jerstad: In the South, where we plant one-and-
a-half billion seedlings a year, you'd think we'd
know how to plant trees and keep them alive.
The recent Conservation Reserve Program
(CRP) is a good example to show that in all
cases we don't have the know-how. They are
planting old agricultural fields. In some of
those old "ag" fields, there were problems that
were hard to identify. The trees did not sur-
vive. It seems that in a massive program like
this there should be some start-up research
dollars provided so that these problems can be
solved.
Lavender: Another thing, Jack, is that if we
are doing this with reference to a possible
warming, that warming could take place before
these plantations are sequestering very much
carbon. This is certainly true in the temperate
zone and as we go toward the boreal forests it
will be more true, so we'd better know what
we're doing. Otherwise the plantations will
disappear because of the climate change itself.
That would be true on the west coast in Oreg-
on and Washington. If we were to start plant-
ing Douglas-fir, then have it warm up to where
the Douglas-fir is no longer a viable species,
we'd have nothing but dead plantations.
Winjum: We need to take a longer term view.
A rotation or two in the tropics wouldn't show
significant change, but if we are going to be
thinking about rotations in the more northern
climates, the considerations Denis mentions
need to be taken into account.
Turpin: It seems to me, as we sit around the
table here, we know how to regenerate our
land and plant trees in general, but there's got
to be a massive education program, both public
and private, to make global reforestation both
feasible and acceptable.
Winnett: That's especially the case when we're
dealing with people in the tropics who are not
familiar with good forestry methods. You're
trying to change their life practices in agricul-
tural methods. It will have to be even more
massive an educational push, and it's going to
118
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GROUP DISCUSSION
have to be continuous.
Moraes: Jack, this "push" must include both
extension and education.
Stout: Jack, during the course of the pres-
entations, we saw wide expanses of land in the
Congo where there appeared to be blanket
planting. Also, what I understood in Brazil,
there is blanket planting of Eucalyptus and
conifers over wide areas. I kept wondering as
I watched how it was done. I can remember
when I was working in New York state and
seeing plantations that were put in in the 1930s
that were dying in the 1950s. These were
species that were put in off-site. Do we have
an understanding, do we know how to fit
species to site? Is that important, or isn't it?
I don't know.
Lavender: Well, that was my point. Even if
we do know for the present day, the changes
that occur in the future may adversely affect
what we plant today.
Malcolm: The trouble is, we don't know
exactly what the climatic changes are going to
be.
Winjum: Yes, in that regard I was surprised.
We recently had Stephen Schneider here in
Corvallis to present a seminar on global climate
change. He's the author of Global Warming:
Are We Entering the Greenhouse Century? Some-
one asked him about the current climate
change scenarios and the probability of getting
improvements on those. His answer was,
"Don't hold your breath." He felt it would be
ten to twenty years before there are reliable
global circulation models which would give us
more definitive answers - even with the ad-
vanced computer and modelling technology that
we have today. And he's a person who would
come down on the side of "It's here today, it's
going to happen."
Schroeder: And then he went on to tell us
that in particular circumstances, we don't even
know the signs of the change.
Winjum: Yes. Schneider said we have a feel
for the confidence limits (wide), but we don't
know whether the signs are pluses or minuses.
His comment was a bit tongue-in-cheek, but it
punctuates the idea of uncertainty.
Winnett: What we have to do is try to incor-
porate the idea that climate change will take
place. In the Pacific Northwest, for example,
we might plant ponderosa pine mixed with
Douglas-fir. Then with climate warming, the
ponderosa pine would take over. If it didn't
take place, the Douglas-fir would predominate.
Winjum: Yes, hedging our bets, taking some
precautions, may not be an unwise thing to do.
Ladd: Does anyone know today anywhere in
the world where trees have been planted in
anticipation of global climate change?
Stout: Yes, I did, and I hadn't thought about
this in years. Irving Bailey, who was a world-
reknown plant anatomist, came to me when I
was working on the Black Rock Forest in the
1950s. He had been talking to Paul Mengel-
thorpe, who was one of the developers of
hybrid corn, and he said, "Ben, the people who
are growing hybrid corn in Illinois are sub-
stituting genotypes and moving them north
constantly. You are going to have to do the
same thing with trees. Therefore, go into the
valleys on the Black Rock Forest and collect
red oak seeds, take them up to the tops of the
mountains and plant them." So I did, and the
mice followed me around and ate the seed, and
I went off to another job.
Peterson: So you were tipped off 30 years ago.
You should have come here with a lot of
answers!
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Hughes: I can think of a situation where we
are thinking the opposite: we've moved loblolly
pines of North Carolina to Oklahoma, and so
far we have not had a serious problem. Ok-
lahoma is a more interior climate, lower rainfall
and a little harsher environment for loblolly
pine. We're defying gravity, you might say, or
by doing that, defying predictions. But so far
we're doing it with good success -- higher
growth rates for loblolly from North Carolina
than from the local sources.
Winjum: Bill Carlson told me a couple of
years ago that one thing Weyerhaeuser Com-
pany was doing was trying to identify some of
the droughty sites in the Oklahoma-Arkansas
region. Knowing that if it's dry now and global
warming takes place it may get drier, they are
planting plots of each of the loblolly pine
families that they are using at these droughty
locations. Then the last several summers
they've observed growth, pre-dawn water stress
measurements, etc., on these plots. In this
manner they will identify which families are
more drought-resistant to plant more widely if
climate change causes drier conditions on their
southern forest lands.
At the same time they applied vegetation
management treatments to some of the plots
for moisture conservation. Their philosophy
was that if an increasing number of droughts
occurred the plantations would have to be
predisposed to withstand drier conditions -
waiting until droughts occurred would be too
late.
Hughes: There are other cultural practices to
offset droughts also; for instance, lower stocking
levels.
Winjum: I don't know if Weyerhaeuser has
gone operational on this, but at least from a
research standpoint it is being tested.
Chaturvedi: One point related to climate
change in India is that we have found that
where we have planted eucalyptus on typically
dry sites, they have died in years of unusually
high rainfall. So, even when you plant for a
particular condition, you may get an unexpected
temporary change that will cause a problem.
Lavender: There are people who say that
these exceptional weather events correlate with
the increasing greenhouse effect.
Chaturvedi: Yes, that adds to my point.
Winjum: It also emphasizes the need for better
climate scenarios on a more regional basis.
Until we get that, we are going to have to
expect that atypical weather events are probably
going to occur more frequently.
Liegel: One more question, Steve: is the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), and their group on forestry looking at
reforestation strictly from a carbon sequestra-
tion standpoint, or are they looking at it also
from the standpoint of improved standards of
living or increased GNP? The answer affects
where we come from on large-scale reforesta-
tion.
Winnett: Part of the analysis has to do with
what the effects of increased planting would be
on local economies, the timber supply, the price
of timber and agriculture, and the supply of
agricultural land for increasing populations, but
the main purpose of the analysis is for the
sequestration of carbon. So they are looking at
it for that reason but they are also looking at
all the additional effects that would result.
Trexler: But remember, the level of analysis
being done by the agricultural and forestry
group is extremely low. It's really been an
educational exercise for all these countries
which have never encouraged the concept of
forest management for sustainability. So there
120
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GROUP DISCUSSION
is not much advanced analysis in this work yet.
Winnett: But the economic models they use
are becoming more refined; as we get more
data we can look at more and and more off-
shoot effects.
Winjum: The answer to Leon's question seems
to be, then, that the IPCC is definitely inter-
ested in carbon sequestration but also is trying
to be mindful of all the ripple effects of social
and political considerations. (See Table XXIX)
Geron: They also are taking into consideration
other options in developing countries in a bit
more thorough manner than what we've heard
discussed the last few days. That is, they've
done a more thorough job of integrating the
policy and agricultural people into their delib-
erations.
Table XXDC BOARD NOTE #2
PERSramVES/ASSUMPTIONS
* Climate change: natural vs. induced
(temperate and boreal)
* World forests: boreal, temperate, tropical
* Carbon sequestering by forests significant aid
* International consensus for reforestation
* Land is available, but-where? what kinds? how
much?
* Technology and know-how
-start-up period: adequate/CRP?
-long-term: will improve through research experience
species vs. site?
Costs - modest (?)
vs. energy efficiency
Benefits — many compatible
economic equity?
Objectors — few: supply/demand shift;
aesthetics; cattlemen
Educational and extension need, esp. in tropics, over
time
Trexler: The primary conclusion out of the
agricultural and forestry group is, of course,
that they are saying, "Look, maybe we can do
some good on the forestry side, but it is ab-
solutely up to the energy side to make it pos-
sible for us to do anything."
Winnett: Yes, and in fact, if you will look at
the second page of the handout on the IPCC,
the workshop that took place in Brazil in
January, 1990, recommended the development
of a world forest conservation protocol (see
Appendix to Group Discussion). But on the
energy supply and use question, the convention
made very clear that most developing nations -
- especially the tropical countries — were not
interested in doing anything until the energy
question was addressed by the developed coun-
tries - and quickly.
Lavender: I think we are going about this
whole thing backwards. I think the first priority
as far as forestry is concerned is a greatly
beefed-up, much more efficient fire-fighting
establishment. For instance, in Canada last
year we burned over 7 million hectares of
forests. It will take a tremendous amount of
planting and a good number of years before we
put back the carbon that went up in flames in
a brief period last summer. I don't see that
these forest fires are necessary. The point is,
we have never really put the resources into
controlling the forest fires that we should have.
It is far cheaper to control forest fires than it
is to reforest the area that's been burned over -
- particularly in the temperate and boreal
zones.
When you get a fire in the boreal zone,
there's a tremendous amount of carbon that's
stored in the soil, and when you get a forest
fire there the soil starts to warm up. Then you
lose not only what was in the trees, but tre-
mendous quantities of carbon that become
oxidized in the soil as well.
121
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Winnetfc You could also include methane and
nitrous oxide. We are increasingly trying to ad-
dress now questions of soil emissions following
biomass burning or forest burning. Emissions
include nitrous oxide that has a heat absorbing
factor of 170 times that of CO2 and methane,
which has seven or eight times that of CO2. So
these emissions are very important.
Geron: I think that some of the other Canad-
ian forestry people might question the cost
effectiveness of excluding fire from the Canad-
ian systems, given that it is a natural part of
the ecology there.
Lavender Yes, but if we're interested in the
cost of maintaining carbon where it is so it
doesn't get into the atmosphere, this is a dif-
ferent economic question than has ever been
addressed by Canadian foresters.
Table XXX BOARD NOTE #3, a and b.
APPROACH
Fwt Protet&m — a top need, particularly in temporal and
boreal forests;
vs. reforestation
- and from N2O and NH^ new
Quatiau-
Fuel Buildup and eventual fire preservation
vs. planting relative to CO2 and C storage;
Depending upon condition of existing forest;
Timber stand improvement
Geron: A couple of points that were made by
Canadian fire ecologists should be mentioned.
Fire suppression has been successful in keeping
the fire size down, but this increases fuel loads.
Then when a fire does eventually comes
through, the intensity is increased. In this way,
organic build-up in the soil is less than what
might have occurred if fire were allowed to
evolve on its natural cycle.
Wyant: That is one of the Yellowstone issues,
but the jury is still pretty much out on that
conclusion. Yellowstone is a good example of
the attempts to increase fire fighting efficiency
not working very well. When there is a horiz-
ontal roll of fire vortices sweeping across land-
scapes, there's nothing you can do to stop this
type of wildfire.
Stout: What we're saying, then, is that all
carbon in forests is going to recycle sometime.
Winnett: The objective of sequestering carbon
with forests is to buy ourselves a little time; in
other words, to delay global warming 50 or 60
years. Not only do we need to talk about fire
protection in forests, we have to protect stand-
ing forests in general ~ especially the tropical
forests. Given that for every hectare of tropical
forest lost for whatever reason, even if we
could replant them we are not going to get the
same carbon sequestration as is sitting there in
the existing forest. This depends, however, on
the extent of durable products that are made
out of whatever is removed ~ and to be effec-
tive, that should be for one hundred or more
years. So one of the points in the IPCC discus-
sion has been that it is more economic to
preserve standing forests than it is to replant.
Malcolm: That's the negative approach, is it
not? You're saying that this carbon is stored in
this climax forest, where it is in fact neutral in
terms of CO2. It's stopped, but it doesn't
relate to younger stands which are sequestering
CO2.
Hughes: It depends on the kinds of stands you
are preserving, too. In the ones we saw yester-
day, obviously there are great quantities of
carbon there. A lot of forests in the South and
other parts of the world, however, will store a
lot more carbon in the next forty years if they
122
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GROUP DISCUSSION
are cleared now and replaced by managed
plantations.
Winnett: It should be noted that there are at
least three analyses on the question of whether
harvesting the Northwest old-growth trees and
replacing them with young, vigorously growing
stands for the sake of sequestering. In those
three cases, the results came down in favor of
keeping old-growth stands.
Hughes: I think I would agree.
Winnett: It was clear from your presentation
that the intensively managed loblolly stands
would be very well suited to contributing car-
bon sequestering.
Lavender: No one has addressed the question
of internal rot. Many years ago I was inves-
tigating internal rot in old-growth Douglas fir,
and we looked at stands from 200-500 years
old. We were unable to find many that were
over 400 years because once they get beyond
that age the internal rot becomes progressively
greater, until by the time they are 500 years,
over half of what appears to be standing bio-
mass is totally rotted out. The same thing is
true to an even greater extent in the old-
growth boreal forests of Canada: lots of those
forests are shells of wood around nothing.
Winjum: Another chart put together some
time ago can be used as an entry point to the
next question: If we were called upon to
address people at the top levels of federal
agencies, what recommendations we would
make with respect to the whole issue of global
reforestation? Let's discuss what we would say,
with all the appropriate caveats about ecological
issues, the socio-political concerns, and the
technical management considerations. Using
this as a guide, how might we summarize the
workshop? This is our objective for this day.
The first one is the land availability question.
T*ble XXXL BOARD NOTES #4
WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS
SHOULD WE MAKE ABOUT:
* Ecological/Biological Considerations
Lands
Species
Hazards
* Social/Political Concerns
Present policies
Economic development
Social acceptibility
* Technical/Management Requirements
Planning
Infrastructure
Follow-up tending
Research needs
As a first approximation based upon the litera-
ture and preliminary discussions, Paul and I
estimated that an upper limit was 1 billion hec-
tares in 25 years. This says nothing about
suitability, only availability. The estimate
consists of 750 million in the tropics and possib-
ly 250 million in the temperate and boreal zon-
es.
The remark came back to us, "Okay, that
sounds great, but does it pass the laugh test?"
That's the question I'd like to ask you now.
Does it pass the laugh test?
Trexler: Could you explain where you got
these numbers?
Schroeder: The 750 million comes directly
from Alan Grainger, in a paper in the Interna-
tional Journal of Tree Crops, 1988. All are very
rough numbers, mostly guesses.
Ladd: He got them, as I did, from the United
Nations F.A.O.
Winjum: And how much of that did he say
was degraded or abandoned land?
Liegel: Did he specify whether it is dry or
more moist and humid?
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Table XXXIL BOARD NOTES #5
LAND: TECHNICAL SUITABILITY
Upper limit 1 billion hectares over 25 years
750 b. in tropics (Brazil, approx. 200 m.)
-not arid lands
250 b. in temporal and boreal
1AO m. in s.e. United States
Also, New Zealand, Australia
Population effects
Shifting agriculture will continue
Food needs will continue to call for
agricultural lands
Much uncertainty and need
CIS analysis
More research
Schroeder: This leaves out the most arid part.
We actually came up with a grand total of
about 2 billion hectares in the tropics, of which
1.25 billion are unsuitable for trees because of
aridity. The lands run from being quite moist
to semi-arid.
Winnett: Jack, did the 250 million include
more than North America? Does that include
the Soviet Union and degraded eastern Eur-
ope?
Winjum: Only in very rough terms. For the
temperate regions, we took the number out of
the Trees for U.S. Report. It was about 15
million hectares for the U.S. alone. We said,
"If there's that much for the U.S., surely in the
circumpolar, temperate region there ought to
be 250 million hectares available.
Winnett: What do people think? I haven't
heard anyone's reaction to this, what do people
think about the feasibility?
Schroeder: This says nothing about feasibility.
Nobody is standing here proposing to plant a
billion hectares of forest.
Winnett: What you're saying is a billion will be
available over the next 25 years?
Winjum: That was our estimate. We confess
that we're pretty naive about this, which is why
we want to get the reaction of this group.
Caillez: I think part of the issue is whether
agriculture will be able to feed the coming
generation of people in every type of climate.
In the subtropic areas the numbers of people
will increase and it will be possible to feed
them. But in the humid zones we do not have
a good agricultural model for feeding people,
and the shifting population will be increasing
more and more. We will have strong immigra-
tion problems in Africa. For instance, the
population from Sudan will go south to count-
ries where agricultural development is not
advanced. So I think deforestation in the
tropics will increasingly go up. This number
seems to me very much optimistic.
Trexler: Since Grainger does a lot of sustain-
able agriculture work, is he assuming that we
are bringing the latest technology in sustainable
ag to bear on existing ag lands so all the other
lands could be freed up? In principle, we
could grow a lot more food on a lot less land
if we're willing to make some heroic assump-
tions about those lands. But as you said, the
FAO calculates that we're going to be using
more than an additional 200 million hectares
just to grow food.
Schroeder: He didn't say that, but that may be
the case.
Owston: One of our project leaders went to
an international meeting in Vienna about two
months ago. I don't know whether it was a
meeting about a monitoring system or whether
it dealt with land inventory, but I think the
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GROUP DISCUSSION
latter. I will check on this and see if any
useful data is available.
Hunter: Could we not accept the Grainger
numbers as being indicative of the potential
amount of land that's going to be available, and
that there will be some conflict with agriculture,
with the result that we may need to use some
kind of global information system?
Trexlen That's an incredibly high number. To
leave that number in as the number seems
dangerous.
Hunter: What I didn't say in my paper was
that Australia has got itself into a pickle with
badly acidified land in the east of the country.
Winnett: Ian, if you had to give a best guess
for Australia, what would you say?
Hunter: I just don't know. I'd have to get the
figures and get back to you with them.
Ladd: The methodology isn't spelled out. I'm
not so interested in getting specific numbers
and estimates, but in getting ideas on how we
could make better land availability estimates.
Moraes: Jack, the main issue in the tropics is
to produce forests and food. So how to grow
food with forests is highly important. Some of
the land could be used for agro-forestry.
Winjum: That's a good thought, too. We
didn't really consider the agro-forestry oppor-
tunity.
Liegel: Let me just make a comment. I heard
Lanly of FAO speak a few years back. He
admits there are a lot of unknowns in how the
countries report the figures. Some use remote
sensing; some use no remote sensing, but just
the best estimates of the people on the ground.
There are big discrepancies in the quality of the
Table XXJOIL BOARD NOTES #6,
AOROFORESTRY
Factored in
Promising trend in India
* Grainger's estimate may be too high; others lower
Availability vs. Need
* Need: 5.6 Gt C - optimal
—to offset deforestation in last 10 yrs.
Natural reforestation? -- Yes!
India gap planting - Yes!
(special conditions; e.g., Diptocarps)
Extension of natural forests into savannah;
e.g., Gabon, okum£
data and in some instances, it is just a paper
exercise.
Hunter: I'd like to ask Mark why he's unhappy
with the figure of 1 billion hectares, because to
me, maybe the land availability isn't a con-
straint. There are constraints we haven't really
talked about, one being suitability.
Trexler: The thing is, there's so much degrad-
ed land out there, but as we heard yesterday,
we aren't going to be able to put forests on
that degraded land in any sort of large-scale
manner. I think the degraded lands account for
an awful lot of what Grainger summed up.
Many more people rely on Houghton's num-
bers. He estimates that five to six million hec-
tares are available for reforestation. And he
admits even that may be too high, since all it
consists of is adding up the brown spots on the
GIS maps.
Ladd: How does one look at the brown spots,
then assess the other criteria associated with
that, and make it a reasonable estimate?
Trexler: I don't think we've done that yet.
This is a first level of brown spots.
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Schroeden Personally I don't think there is the
number. Whether it's a half-billion or three
quarters of a billion, it doesn't make any dif-
ference one way or the other; it's such a huge
number. The realm is so big, it's irrelevant
whether it's one or the other.
Hughes: It's either big or small according to
what you think you need. They are relative
numbers. I was confused a little when I read
something that you sent out (prior to the
workshop). I saw your availability numbers and
I read it to be need. The earliest article said
200-300 million hectares needed, I think. And
Roger Sedjo's estimate was about twice that.
But the availability numbers we're discussing
here are the highest I've seen in respect to
what you need.
Schroeden But what do you need?
Malcolm: The objective is to sequester 5.6
gigatons of carbon per year. If you don't think
it should be that, then how much do you need
to sequester? How much land do you need to
sequester how much carbon to meet that objec-
tive?
Winjum: Yes, one of the targets was to se-
quester 5.6 gigatons of carbon annually, but it
could be less and still aid in delaying global
warming.
Moraes: Natural forest management should be
included in this as well.
Winjum: Yes, I would think so. What we
have focused on are the new forests. I don't
know what the opportunity is for managing the
natural forest. We did look a little bit at
timber stand improvement, for example, forest
fertilization or weed control. That opportunity
seemed quite small in terms of its carbon-
sequestering potential versus reforestation. We
didn't analyze natural reforestation through
natural seeding.
Chaturvedi: There are parts of India where we
have started planting by a method called gap
planting. In the existing forest we depend on
natural regeneration, but in most of the areas
we have also been gap planting as a method for
increasing stocking density. We find this to be
working much better than other methods of
planting. In many of our natural forests we
have introduced teak in this fashion. We have
found this method to be satisfactory provided
you don't plant very large areas or too densely.
Hughes: That's going to depend on the spe-
cies, isn't it? We would never think of doing
that in the southern United States.
Chaturvedi: One problem is, if you open up
the canopy then suddenly lots of weed species
come in, which we must then spend a lot of
money to eliminate. In India, shifting cultiva-
tion is on the decline, the primary reason being
that the cycles of cultivation have been shor-
tened and the productivity is much lower.
Therefore, it is no longer effective. So it is
possible to increase forest cover in these areas
by combining tree growing with agricultural
crops. This agro-forestry approach is a promis-
ing trend.
Cailliez: I think it is rather difficult to plant in
small openings for a system of enrichment or
artificial planting. In Gabon there was a lot of
land occupied by agriculture when there was
slave labor. Since the end of the slavery, with
the population at a low level, The natural
forest of okume grows up, provided some
simple and cheap working of the ground is
done. Okoume is in high demand and grows in
almost pure stands. The cost of this practice is
l/6th that of a forest plantation establishment.
The area conserved can be as large as 2
million hectares. So I think it's a third type of
possibility, which favors the natural expansion
126
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GROUP DISCUSSION
of natural forests in combination with some
small, cheap mechanical work of the ground.
This is possible in certain types of areas where
populations are low. If I were the Minister of
Forestry for Gabon, I would prefer to receive
a certain amount of dollars to do this type of
forestry, instead of the same amount to es-
tablish forest plantations..
Winjum: To conclude this land availability
question, I'm still trying to decide what's the
sensible thing to tell agency policy-makers? We
can say we made an early estimate of this based
upon library sources. Then we asked the
opinions of people from the international
scientific community at this workshop. They
responded that one billion hectares of available
land is on the high side. Over the next 25
years, they felt there may be only half that
number.
But that's probably not the major limiting
factor we must think about. There are more
matters that will influence the decision to
support large-scale reforestation than just the
land availability, such as the socio-political
considerations relating to needs and concerns of
local people. But this original estimate does
say that there are a good number of hectares
available if we learn how to approach the
whole issue in the right manner.
Hunter: Do you want to use the phrase "avail-
able land," or do you want to say "technically
suitable?"
Trexler: You may have your terms reversed
here. Suitable land is land that we can grow
trees on, and no one can disagree with that.
Available land is much, much more constrained.
Available means available in a holistic sense
and is not a scientific term.
Winjum: Do you agree with that, Ian?
Hunter: I think technically suitable is the right
term.
Winjum: We want to keep the land estimate
more realistic. There isn't a lot of background
material, but your impressions are what we are
after now, given the level of familiarity we all
have.
Hunter: I think you need to stress the fact
that more analysis needs to be done before a
realistic estimate of the amount of available or
technically suitable land can be made.
Malcolm: I think you need to emphasize what
the objective is in terms of the quantities of
carbon you are trying to sequester.
Trexler: But isn't that backwards? I mean, the
amount of carbon you sequester depends on
the land, it's not the amount of land that's
dependent on the carbon.
Malcolm: The amount of land you're looking
for also depends on the amount of carbon you
want to sequester. Is the goal to mop up the
entire fossil fuel input or is it not? If it isn't,
then you're not looking for that much land.
Winnett: The Noordwijk Ministerial Declara-
tion, in November, 1989, suggested the goal of
reforesting 12 million hectares annually over
the amount of hectares deforested annually.
This would be another way of looking at it,
rather than purely in terms of carbon sequester-
ing. Could we replant 12 million more than is
deforested annually in order to regain that
which has been lost?
Wyant: What is the ultimate goal, a return to
the extent of pre-Pleistocene forest cover?
Winnett: Well, I think this Nordwijk Mini-
sterial Declaration was looking at the last 10
years of deforestation as the beginning, and
then setting a goal of trying to gain back that
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
which has been lost by planting 12 million
hectares annually for 40 years over the level of
deforestation.
Liegel: Even in that context one needs to get
an estimation of how much has reverted natur-
ally to forest, either from agriculture or from
some other source. And those estimates are
probably just as poor as the estimates on
deforestation.
Winjum: We do need a better inventory
system on a global scale.
Winjum: From the workshop papers, we have
presented some examples on costs, incentives
and social/political considerations of large-scale
reforestation. Some of these numbers are on
the board (Table XXXIV). Let's discuss them
to get an idea of how much one-time develop-
ment cost it takes to produce so many cubic
meters. The point is that in different parts of
the world and under different forest situations,
it is going to take different levels of investment
to establish new forests. Then, based on the
growth rates, the cost in dollars of wood pro-
duced is going to vary. But such analyses will
guide strategies on where dollars are best
Table XXXTV. BOARD NOTES #7
Reforestation Data
COUNTRY
New Zealand
S. U.S.
Brazil
Congo
U.K.
India
West Coast US
BC
MAI COST
(M5/HA/YR) $/HA
25
9
35
30
14
9
14
6
300
300
600-1000
1400
1100
800
1730
1000
EST.COST
$/M5
12
33
-
47
78
88
124
166
invested.
Lavender: I think the MAI (mean annual
increment) numbers you have for British Col-
umbia should be doubled from three to six,
nvVha/yr. There's a lot of land that no one in
their right mind would spend money to plant
that is involved at 3
(Land costs are not included)
Hughes: But that's fair. If you can increase
the productivity on lands with poor productivity,
you don't need as much area for new planta-
tions..
Hunter: Has anybody included the capital cost
of the land? That would greatly change the
New Zealand figures.
Stout: No, and no maintenance costs are
shown either. I think we should think about
this, Jack, and go back to my New York ex-
perience. In the 1930s, during the depression,
New York State planted 400,000 acres of pine
plantation. In the 1950s all of the state budget
for forest management was devoted to those
400,000 acres, which were degraded because
the pine were planted so much off-site. Yet
they had four million acres of good hardwood
forest that was not being managed simply
because of the money tied up in plantations.
The money was spent and and New York
foresters felt compelled to take care of the
plantations with the funds available. I can see
this happening worldwide.
Hughes: This points to the issue of incentives.
Land availability is one thing, but there have to
be incentive costs to get people to do reforesta-
tion.
South: On the incentives, I'd like to point out
that in Scotland they have changed from tax
breaks for growing forests to a grant system. A
grant to a forest land owner now ranges from
$1500 to $1700 per hectare, with an additional
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GROUP DISCUSSION
$1500 to $1700 per hectare, with an additional
$340 per hectare per year for 20 to 30 years,
depending on what species is planted. Correct
me if I'm mistaken, Douglas.
Malcolm: That's certainly applicable to the
farmer who owns woodlands.
South: My point is, however, that even though
you are spending that much money, or holding
that much money out as a carrot, it often
doesn't work as well as a tax break.
Lavender In Oregon, landowners have the
option to choose between a forest yield taxes
or an ad valorem taxes. Under the forest yield
tax system, the landowner pays a minimum tax
until harvest; then he pays 12.5 percent stump-
age value to the state in lieu of the taxes he
would have paid before. Oregon pioneered
forest practices regulations and has almost 100
percent compliance with its forestry regulations.
Malcolm: There's a psychological aspect to the
tax break. It's doing the tax collector out of
some money, and that's very attractive com-
pared to receiving a hand-out.
Winnett: Is that necessarily the case in the
developing countries?
Winjum: How about it, Renato, what kind of
financial incentives would work in Brazil?
Moraes: In Brazil, there is no longer a monet-
ary incentive to plant trees.
Winjum: But when an incentive existed, what
was its form?
Moraes: Before, all people paid taxes and part
of it was applied to reforestation; but this has
been discontinued.
South: In Chile, plantation costs were put into
the tax break category.
Hunter: Yes, they were. There was a trem-
endous effect in terms of increases.
Schroeder: How do the economics of things
like agro-forestry or small farm woodlots com-
pare with the more traditional type of refores-
tation practices?
TaMeXXXV. BOARD NOTES #8.
AOROFORESTRY COSTS VS. REFORESTATION
* Agroforestry costs usually much cheaper
(i.e., few J/ha; but also consider $/nr)
-because local people are involved in helping
themselves, this would greatly reduce all reforestation
costs.
• Brazil: forests then not taxed
• China: 8 billion trees/yr. planted
Trexler: In my experience, agro-forestry is very
inexpensive by comparison. If in fact you are
providing extension services for doing what the
local farmers want to do anyway, then to grow
seedlings there's no labor cost ~ they do it
themselves; there's no land cost ~ it's their own
land; it's generally not fertilized, so there's
virtually no cost except putting into place the
infrastructure to manage the extension services
and the training. That costs money, clearly, but
it's dollars and not hundreds of thousands of
dollars per hectare. (See Table XXXIII.)
Hunter: What you are saying, Mark, is exactly
the same in philosophy as in housework.
Trexler: Well, I wouldn't take it that far. But
the point is that these people are doing some-
thing in their own interest that has a payback
in terms of their property rights; a payback in
terms of not having to go and collect the
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
lumber and pay for it, so overall it's an econ-
omic activity on their part that can legitimately
be supported because local people are better
off without large financial payments. A lot of
people in these systems would argue that you
shouldn't be paying people to undertake large
planting programs. If you are paying local
people to plant trees, you have no idea wheth-
er they are doing it for the pay or for the long-
term interest in the tree. Survival rates and
success is likely to decline pretty substantially if
there is no long-term interest as found by
experience of some past programs.
Table XXXVI BOARD NOTES #9.
INCENTIVES: EXAMPLES
* Tax breaks vs. grants
(or ad valorem yield tax)
Brazil: None now for reforestation
Chile: Tax breaks
India: Low interest loans to private land owners
-Land ceiling laws - exemptions for non-forest
plantations (tea-coffee), but a need for cutting permits.
•Need to eliminate
-Money for forests competes with other land uses
Ladd: While we're on the subject of incentives,
it seems that we should consider the disincen-
tives or counter-incentives (Table XXXVI).
For instance there might be an incentive to
develop land for ranching that would be a
disincentive to planting trees.
Winjum: What are some of the examples of
where there are more financial incentives for
other land uses which competes with forestry
land use?
Chaturvedi: In India there would be two
applications of this example. One is tree
planting on private lands. These farmers do
need money at a low rate of interest. Govern-
ment-backed, low-interest loans as incentives
work well for the private small fanner. With-
out such incentives, land is used for other pur-
poses.
The second, which is equally important in
India, is that we have what we call the land
ceiling laws. You cannot own more than 16
acres. The government has exempted some
plantations, those that grow coffee, tea, cocoa,
etc., from these laws, but not forestry. There
would be greater incentive if forestry planta-
tions could be taken out of the land ceiling
laws, or if the limit to land ownership was
increased for forests. Also, there is a tree
protection act. People plant trees in order to
use them in a few years, not to protect them.
They believe they should be able to cut them
down.
Moraes: Formerly in Brazil, landowners paid
taxes on productive forests. Now, owners with
forested land are not taxed on that land.
Peterson: If there are no forests, then there
are taxes, right?
Moraes: If you have forests on your land, then
you pay no tax. There are taxes on other kinds
of land, but not on forests.
Hunter: Jack, I think the point that Renato is
trying to get across is that if governments can
find a way to give incentives which harnesses
their energy, then reforestation can be achiev-
ed at very much less cost. So there are quite
a number of case studies which show that rela-
tively minor changes in taxation laws can have
enormous leverage in promoting forest activity.
Chile and New Zealand are good examples. I'd
guess that's the kind of incentive that needs to
be achieved.
Lavender: The Chinese have planted eight
billion trees a year. I wonder what kind of
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GROUP DISCUSSION
Trexler: The biggest incentive in the world is
land tenure.
South: The chart (Table XXXIV) shows that
it's cheaper to plant in the U.K. than in the
Congo. But from a broader perspective it
would be cheaper to plant in the Congo. Just
because reforestation is cheaper per hectare
initially doesn't mean it is cheaper in the long
run.
Peterson: You mean we need another column
of figures which includes maintenance costs?
South: I am suggesting we need another
column for the agroforestry numbers.
Table XXXVU BOARD NOTES #10.
LAND TENURE
* Developed Countries
* Developing Countries
o people do not own land, so hard to motivate local
population
o even in cases of small land owners, no annual
incomes w/o some incentives (e.g., Puerto
Rico)
o for mega-reforestation, where would agricultural
people go? Cities!
o perhaps could use income from forests to buy feed;
e.g., India
Winjum: Do we need to talk more about land
tenure? I seem to hear that it can be both an
incentive and a disincentive.
Trexler: Denis talked about Canada ~ a
developed country where land tenure is helping
to prevent poor forest and land practices. In
many, many developing countries where people
don't own the land, it's very tough for them to
get excited about reforestation for long-term
purposes. It's a very big issue.
Ladd: Somebody owns the land. What incen-
tives do they see or feel?
Trexler: In many cases, it's the government
that owns the land and people are doing long-
term squatting. They just don't know at what
point they might be kicked off. In some cases,
you can grow the trees on your land, but even
then you don't have the right to cut them.
Hunter: In some cases, they may own their
land and the taxation may be low, but if they
sell the land to a forestry organization, for
example, they have to go out and look for
some kind of employment. They must change
their lifestyle to that of an employed wage-
earner.
Liegel: It's like a lot of small countries in the
Caribbean; in Puerto Rico, for example, where
a farmer might own an acre. In such cases,
even if the program gave the trees free to the
people, there is no incentive to growing them
for ten years. Furthermore, though there's a
law in that country which says that forest areas
greater than five acres in size are forest re-
serves and no tax payments are required until
the timber is harvested, basically nothing is
planted.
Trexler: Why is that? Because they don't own
the land?
Liegel: No, local people still own the land, but
they can plant bananas or tomatoes or some-
thing which produces an income once or twice
a year, even on steep slopes.
Winnett: What is needed is to create a situa-
tion where land tenure is granted to grow
longer term crops, and also to provide the
ability to produce in the short term yields until
the long-rotation crops are ready and sustain-
able.
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Liegel: In regard to the technical suitability of
the land, there have been umpteen studies that
show that out of .9 million hectares of land in
Puerto Rico, 200,000 hectares are technically
suitable for forests and forest-growing is the
best use of the land. This was first reported in
1950 and they still know it in 1990. To get
that land into trees for water protection and for
forestry, and for other benefits, however, does-
n't work.
Hunter: Renato made a point that should be
followed up. The large corporations in Brazil
had to put considerable pressure on the farmers
to make them give up their land.
Winjum: And what happened to the farmers?
Moraes: They are finished, they have to move
away. That is the result of mega-reforestation
Brazil.
Winnett: A question here might also be: is it
possible, in this conflict between agriculture and
forestry, to substitute the income from forestry
to provide food for the people who were
growing agricultural food to support themsel-
ves?
Winjum: You mean as an incentive?
Winnett: Well, no; if the conflict is between
people producing their own food and people
producing forests, is the income from the
forests sufficient to pay for the food which they
would otherwise raise? Does that solve the
problem?
Winjum: Is that an approach that has been
used anywhere?
South: In India, when I was there last, the
EEC was sponsoring such a project. They went
into an area and on some communal land,
instead of having the goats running loose there,
the organization said, "We will lease the land
from the community, fence the whole area, so
there will be no more goat grazing, and pay the
community a certain amount per hectare of
land leased and fenced."
Table XXXVIIL BOARD NOTES #11.
UNITED STATES - CR.P. LANDS
o 2 million acres, agriculture to forest
$55/ac. initially,
then
$45/ac/yr. for 10 years
—so some income to landowner in place of
agricultural income
Top countries with average income also are
forested, so forests can produce wealth.
Hughes: The C.R.P. program provides an
example we ought to consider. It took 2
million acres (810,000 hectares) of land out of
agriculture and converted it to forests. The
cost to government was half down plus ten
annual payments to the land owner, so there's
some income. The program proceeded at
about a half million acres a year from 1986
through 1989, to accomplish the 2-million-acre
goal.
South: In some parts of the United States, I
think the cost was $55 an acre initially, plus
$45 per year for ten years ($135 and $110/hec-
tare, respectively).
Hughes: That first $55 an acre was actually
about half the cost of replanting.
South: That's half the cost; so the landowners
finally have to pay $110 an acre to get planta-
tions established, but the maximum reimburse-
ment was $55.
Hughes: That's the sort of example of what
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GROUP DISCUSSION
Hughes: That's the sort of example of what
might be done in the third world, where land-
owners either work the land or lease it out.
Ladd: Is there any stick associated with that
program; in other words, any penalties?
Hughes: The landowner has to reimburse
government for the entire amount if he takes it
out any time during the 10-year period. These
were erodable lands. This year, apparently, the
program was started for wetlands within farm-
lands. It's similar except that at the end of the
10-year period wet forest lands are created
which can't be cleared again for agriculture.
But landowners would probably leave it in
forest anyway, because within five years they'd
be able to harvest a thinning for income. In
that way, the plantation is far enough into the
rotation that there's quite an incentive to leave
it in forest.
Lavender: Jack, I think we see a correlation,
or a cause-and-effect situation. If you look at
the countries with the highest average income
in the world, a remarkable proportion of these
are heavily forested countries, like Norway,
Sweden, Finland, Canada, even the U.S. (a-
Ithough in the U.S. I wouldn't ascribe it to
forestry). So apparently forest resources pays.
Malcolm: But the rate of return on most
forest land is one-half of one percent.
Lavender: That may very well be, but forest
incomes contribute to a country's balance of
payments.
Hughes: These are the nations where people
don't necessarily make a living on forest land
that they own. The one reason we have exten-
sive forests in the southern U.S., for example,
is that people aren't really dependent on their
own land. They may live out in the forested
countryside, but they actually work in a mill
somewhere.
Lavender: I'm just suggesting that forests are
capable of producing wealth.
Hughes: Oh, no doubt. I'm saying that people
in these situations are not dependent upon the
forests for feeding themselves.
Table XXXDC BOARD NOTES #12
SPECIES
* Native species not always the best
* What local people want may need to be tempered
* Seed availability needs to be considered
* Climate change will require some changes in
species
* Need a column in Table XXXII for native species
to compare with exotics
* Technology of large-scale limited to few species and
provenances
* Wood use of harvest needs to be considered
* Biodiversity or protection factor should guide
species question
* Need to consider public resistance
* What is temperature tolerance of key species?
Precipitation?
* Maybe a diverse base is best
RESEARCH QUESTION:
Productivity problem, as caused by genetics
vs. site: must consider this for spp. selection
in certain sites
Winjum: We've talked about land availability,
reforestation costs and land tenure. What
about species and hazards? What we heard
yesterday was that we have to learn to match
species to sites if we are really going to be
effective. It seems to be a fundamental, under-
lying concept for reforestation success. I
thought the point that Mr. Chaturvedi made
was interesting too: that since we're going to
be looking at these varied lands where the soil
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
facing climate change also, it makes sense to
look at the use of exotics more widely. That is,
we shouldn't be locked into native species, but
maintain flexibility in the choice of species.
Cbaturvedi: Yes. In many sites, exotic species
do much better than natives.
Winjum: Even though in some of these sites,
the local population is much more in favor of
the native species.
Chaturvedi: Yes, local people generally give
preference to trees because of their material
use, not because they necessarily grow best on
the site. For instance, in India, most people
will plant oaks in the hills because they grew
there historically, but it is not necessarily true
that oaks should be planted on those sites. So
here too much importance is given to what the
site historically grew, but it may not be techni-
cally sound.
South: If we're talking plantation establishment
of natural species by artificial regeneration --
like hardwoods in the southern United States -
- you can triple the numbers in the second
column (Table XXXIV), and most of the time
it will reduce the numbers in the first column,
i.e., yields.
Moraes: Another point, Jack. Without the
tree seed, we cannot grow the most valuable
species. It depends upon seed availability.
Malcolm: Also, we should consider what Den-
ny said this morning regarding the matter of a
likely interaction between climate change and
the potentiality of the species.
Hunter: I wonder what people would really
think if we used education to convince them of
the necessity of using exotics. I wonder if they
could be persuaded to plant potentially more
valuable species.
Winjum: Comparing the numbers for exotics
with those for native species might help per-
suade people that they ought to consider a
change of species. It may be a bit naive,
however, to think people will jump on the
bandwagon just based upon a set of numbers.
Demonstration trials will likely be needed also.
Table XL BOARD NOTES #13
CARBON TAXES?
* Could help to educate or persuade people toward more
forests.
Rapid communications and technology can do a better
job to evaluate where and what species
are better in certain locations.
Maintaining long-term productivity with successive crops
Biomass for fuel might not be so efficient, especially
for liquid fuels (in southern US)—
—need the right accounting system
Malcolm: Taking up a point that Ian was
making earlier, there's a school of economic
thought developing in Britain that there should
be a ban on exotic plantations. If they went
through that route, however, and raised the
money for the sequestration of carbon by taxing
the use of fossil fuels, it might alter the percep-
tions about fast-growing exotic plantations quite
quickly.
Liegel: One of the comments I'd like to make
relative to species has to do with world com-
munications and the knowledge base. That is,
right now in this day and age, due to instan-
taneous communications, we have, via satellite
link-ups and computers, computerized data
bases and a wealth of information available for
each individual country. For these reasons, I
think we are in a much better position now to
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GROUP DISCUSSION
know what species are suitable under different
climatic and soil conditions.
No one has started to assemble such a system
for forestry, but assuming that climate goes up
and it's warmer than it is now, it should be no
mystery about what can be brought in from
someplace else. The warmer conditions are
probably similar to someplace else on the globe.
Twenty -- even fifteen - years ago people
planting in the tropics had to invent the wheel,
species trials were established over and over
again, in part because the English didn't know
German or French and couldn't use their
information. That is, because of language
barriers, they didn't know what was going on in
other countries. I think that era is past now,
but it's going to take a lot of money to syn-
thesize all that information, to educate people
about that knowledge and how to utilize it.
Moraes: Another consideration is the system of
rotation. If plantations are harvested after
seven years and replanted again and again,
there is long-term concern regarding main-
tenance of the productivity of the land, par-
ticularly when growing fast-growing exotics.
Lavender: If we're going to have a significant
carbon tax, Jack, then a lot of the areas we
commonly think of as having low productivity
could be managed for something like fast-
growing poplar to fix much more carbon and
then convert it to alcohol. That would con-
serve fossil fuel and conserve carbon at the
same time.
Trexler: We were just talking about this yester-
day. Some of the work that Chris Geron is
involved with includes early studies accounting
for the exchanged carbon. It hasn't changed
that much from years ago, when it was estimat-
ed that to make synthetic natural gas it took
about 1 Btu of fossil fuel for every 1.4 Btu's of
gas you got out of the energy plantation. So a
lot of carbon benefits seem to leak out on the
way to the gas tank.
Hunter: Is that still true?
Geron: Yes, it's basically still the case. Just to
get to the standing wood to generate energy,
half the amount of energy produced is used to
establish the plantation, whether it be from
fossil fuels or other sources. It's more econom-
ical in the third world to use agricultural crops,
such as sugar cane, to convert to methanol.
Stout: But doesn't that mean that you might
have to put in more than you get out?
Geron: Yes, after you account for the chemi-
cals that you need for the process.
Trexler: A lot depends on the accounting
system. For ethanol production, if you don't
count the value of the cattle or chicken as
food, then you are losing energy by producing
ethanol. If you do count those things and give
them separate credit, then you gain energy. So
the accounting is everything.
Ladd: There are people in New England mak-
ing a living selling firewood. How are they
doing that?
Geron: That could be different. I'm talking
about synthetic fuel. I don't know what the
regional numbers are for firewood.
Winjum: Any more broad generalities that you
can think of here that need to be considered?
Hunter: We need to warn reforestation plan-
ners, and I'm reluctant to say this, that we have
only limited species.
Winjum: You're saying that we have a rather
narrow kit of tools right now.
Hughes: It's even narrower than species, too.
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
There's a very much reduced genetic base.
Caillez: We should consider the final product,
too. We should put forward the idea to people
who use wood, the architects and others, the
idea that wood is wood. As long as a rich
country demands of a poor country some
defined species, we cannot make proper utiliza-
tion of tropical forests. In France, for instance,
if you want to build a house you see an ar-
chitect. The architect demands just certain
kinds of wood or specifies certain species. This
has no importance at all; an equally good job
can be done with a wider mix.
Winjum: That is related to another important
point. While reforestation might buy us some
time, we still have to know ultimately what to
do with the wood produced, converting it into
durable wood products, substituting it for fossil
fuels, or other approaches to prevent release of
carbon back to the atmosphere, must ultimately
be factored in as well.
Caillez: Only a few of the total trees found on
the list of principal species are used. The
others could be used by glueing them together
or covering them with something such as paint.
In fact, you could mix a lot of kinds of wood,
except for furniture, of natural wood. So I
think we could transform many other forest and
tree species into productive and working planta-
tions.
Moraes: Another aspect to think about is the
protection of forests. Biodiversity and the
protection factors should guide the species
selection also.
Licgel: It's a kind of two-edged thing, though.
We are not only talking about maintaining the
diversity of the native species, some of which
we don't know because they haven't been
categorized. What are we doing to those areas
where exotic species would be widely planted?
How is this practice going to affect local animal
and plant diversity? Really, at this point no
one has dealt with that.
Stout: On plantations the productivity shown
up there (Table XXXTV) in cubic meters per
hectare per year, how much of that is site con-
trolled and how much is germ plasm controlled?
I guess what I am leading to, Jack, is the
question of selection of species for the site.
How are the best species fit to the site? In
considering tree breeding, how much of that is
going to have to be done? Maybe this applies
to research needs, but it seems to me that we
in forestry have said, "We have a species, this
is what it is, and we will live with that." We've
said it too long.
Winjum: This is a research issue that with
more attention would contribute to more
efficient carbon sequestering by forests.
Owston: Another point here. Maybe we need
to reforest with a diverse genetic base to kind
of hedge our bets against the probability of
climate change.
Hunter: Do we need to know the temperature
tolerance of a species?
Wyant: I think it's important to think in terms
of more than just temperature. Precipitation
regimes, for instance, must also be considered.
It might not even be drier; it might be the
temporal distribution of precipitation that may
change — the wet season, the dry season -- with
relatively minor shift on an annual or area
basis.
Owston: And planting a species that normally
has a wide genetic variability, like a seed-lot of
Douglas-fir, which has more variability than,
say, lodgepole pine.
Hunter: The reason I raised the point of using
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Hunter: The reason I raised the point of using
too narrow an array of species is because we
are already considering use of species that
there's a lot of public resistance to. Think of
the problems of trying to use more exotics.
Schroeden That point came out in several of
the papers yesterday. (End of Morning Ses-
sion.)
(Afternoon Session)
Winjum: This afternoon we will begin with dis-
cussion on those points of particular interest to
EPA's policy group (i.e., OPPE). What are
some of those points now, Steve, that this
group might discuss to be of help?
Winnett: I am anxious to focus some attention
on the Noordwijk Declaration goal of attaining
12 million net hectares of reforestation per year
for, say, ten years. I wasn't quite sure we'd
answered that question this morning. Does this
workshop group think it is feasible to attain 12
million net hectares of additional reforestation
per year over the next ten years. That would
be defined as 12 million hectares gained over
and above what is being lost through defores-
tation. In other words, if 12 million hectares
are being lost each year, that entails planting
24 million hectares per year, or stopping the
deforestation completely for a given year and
Table XU. BOARD NOTES #14.
CAN WE STOP DEFORESTATION?
• WHAT TO DO WITH PEOPLE?
• WHAT TO DO ABOUT EMPHASIS
FOR QUICK DOLLARS
GROUP DISCUSSION
planting an additional 12 million hectares.
So the first question is, whether people feel
that it is possible to do this, and if they aren't
sure, how do we go about doing a global
analysis of the deforestation and reforestation
goal to determine the feasibility?
Caillez: Do you wish to differentiate between
continents?
Winnett: We're speaking of a global goal, but
partitioning by continents would be appropriate.
Obviously some gearing up is going to be
necessary. One of the questions is what is
necessary to achieve this? There is a dispute
over what the level of yearly deforestation is
now. The estimation in 1980 was 11 million
hectares per year. The most recent estimates,
which I believe will be coming out this year,
are expected to be in the range of 20 million
hectares. The Dutch ministers picked 12
million.
Trexler: I don't think those deforestation rates
include about a million hectares that are being
degraded annually in one way or another.
Caillez: For me, it seems to be completely out
of reach. With an increasing population, it is
completely impossible. We speak of between
10 and 15 millions of people in Gabon alone in
100-150 years. Even if 10 percent of these
people die of illnesses, there is a need for land
to support an increasing amount of agriculture.
To compete with this situation by establishing
a large amount of more or less productive
forests — I don't think it is possible.
Stout: You see no change in rate of popula-
tion increase, as the pressures build?
Caillez: I think it will begin to go down in a
hundred years.
Hunter: Well, Steve, do you want something
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
practical? I can start the ball rolling by es-
timating that a technically feasible plan for New
Zealand might be to return to a 40,000-hectare-
a-year rate. This wouldn't be beyond the boun-
ds of possibility and could go up to 100,000
hectares a year net increase. The two problems
confront this rate. First, we would need to find
a mechanism to actually do it. There would
have to be some kinds of incentives — first,
people wouldn't do it altruistically; and second,
we also have to embark on a fairly large prog-
ram of propagation if we intend to use radiata
pine.
Hughes: We've got to convince the public that
they are on the Titanic, it is sinking, and se-
questration of carbon is the only way by forests
or other means to keep it from sinking.
Winnett: Or, if you could convince the public
that it was in their economic best interests to
stop deforestation, the next question is, how do
we stop deforestation? Or can we stop defor-
estation, and if so, how? And along with that
is the question, is it possible to make the con-
servation of standing forests as economically
attractive as harvesting them for wood products.
And can someone get out there and demon-
strate how it's possible to make more money
through reforestation, than it is through land
practices that destroy biomass.
Malcolm: You've got at least two other prob-
lems in relation to people. One is where will
you put the people who are on the land that
you're going to reforest? The second thing is,
if you get involved, as I understand it, with
trying to manage native forest in the tropics,
you've got to deal with the problem of the
need for more agricultural lands. That seems
to be insuperable at the moment, unless you
can convince everyone that they're on the
Titanic.
extremely fortunate if Canada reforests as much
land as it cuts over in the next years, and that
does not take into account the forest lost by
insects, disease and fire. So if you are looking
at Canada as a possible contributor to the 12
million hectares, I would say no. Why? Be-
cause Canada has a budgetary crisis that's worse
than that of the U.S. Canada depends almost
entirely on forestry products for their balance
of foreign payments and I just don't see Canad-
ians putting up the amount of money necessary
to do the reforestation.
The province that's the worst is Ontario, and
most of the people in Ontario couldn't care less
about forestry. They are concerned about
what's going on in Toronto. I see the same
thing in British Columbia ~ they are concerned
about what's going on in Vancouver. They're
not interested in paying taxes for Ontario
reforestation. So I think Canada will be lucky
to hold its own in the foreseeable future.
Winnett: You can almost guarantee then that
if the western countries are unwilling to foot
the bill, in terms of reforestation, third world
and developing countries are going to be as
unwilling, if not more so, to do it, and probably
justifiably so.
Lavender: On top of everything else, there's a
very good possibility that Canada is going to
split up and not remain a single country, any-
way.
South: If you are talking about artificial refor-
estation, the ratio of hectares planted to hec-
tares harvested in the South could be a 1:8
ratio for the private land owners.
Hughes: It's all successfully reforested event-
ually, however, because nature abhors a vacuum
and something will come in on these deforested
lands.
Lavender: I would suggest that we would be Winnett: What sort of incentives would in-
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GROUP DISCUSSION
crease artificial reforestation?
Hughes: I think incentives comparable to the
CRP program, in which up to half the cost of
regeneration is subsidized plus some annual
payment for a period of years, like 10. We
know that it works in getting the highly erod-
able lands put into something other than crops.
It worked in the 1950s and '60s through the
soil bank program and it worked again just
recently. We know that it was a carrot that
brought a significant number of acres into
forest through reforestation practices.
Jerstad: I think it would take a lot more
money now, though, because fewer available
lands are old agricultural lands.
Hughes: Actually, there are two sets of acre-
ages. One is the ag lands that could go into
forestry if the incentives were there, other than
erodable or wet lands. The second is the 23
million acres of highly erodable or marginal
crop lands in the South. These would give a
better return in forestry. So if you had an
incentive program comparable to the CRP
program for highly erodable, then the 2 million
acres would be available.
Lavender: If you look at the trends for prod-
uct values and regeneration costs, the regenera-
tion costs have risen a lot faster than the
product values, which is another disincentive.
Hughes: The larger driver would be stumpage
values. What you'd really want for incentive
would be a very competitive market. It's
independent of the value you put on the prop-
erty. To some extent we are already seeing
that happen because there is more overlap
between the wood baskets in the South and a
tightening wood supply. Therefore, the prices
have gone up rapidly. Locally, it's had a tre-
mendous impact on prices and improved the
ratio of reforested areas among the cut-over
lands. For instance, in south Georgia, it's
something like 80 to 90 percent of the lands
that are either planted or have successful
regeneration, so if you put a high value on
stumpage, people will put their lands back in
forests.
Wyant: But if we have a global objective of
planting a billion hectares, it kind of wreaks
havoc on the supply curve.
Hughes: In the longer run, that's for sure, but
in the shorter run, the market anticipates.
Winnett: Renato, do you have any ideas on
what kind of incentives would encourage refor-
estation and stop deforestation in Brazil?
Moraes: I think first, education. If you have
money, the people will conserve the forests for
one year, two years, three years, but after that
they cut the forests. I think a good incentive
is education.
Winnett: Do you think that standing forests
can ever become as attractive financially as the
products of deforestation?
Moraes: In the cut-over areas, where there are
no more forests, the big problem is in the
government. People do not receive money
annually so they cut the forests to use the land
for agriculture.
Winjum: So, some alternative is needed to
compensate people who depend upon defor-
estation. And where that money is going to
come from is an issue.
Liegel: Yes, and where do those people go?
There's not just the matter of paying them for
their food. There would be all these other
costs, of where they are going to be housed,
their water supply, sewers, and all the other
supporting necessities. Deforestation basically
139
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
doesn't get you a whole lot of wood to use on
the market. If Jari, in Brazil, is an example, I
think out of two hundred and some species
they were harvesting, only 40 were being util-
ized for any type of wood products. The rest
were basically being burned. Some near Jari
were being utilized at the mill by being ground
up and burned to supply the energy for the
mill. Under ordinary circumstances, though,
that doesn't happen; half of it is being burned
so the person can use the lands to plant a food
crop. It's a very inefficient way to do things.
Moraes: With the lack of enforcement, any-
body can cut the trees.
Winjum: There's also a lack of infra-structure
to provide enforcement.
Stout: What kinds of things are you thinking
about when you ask if people could get as
much from an uncut forest as from cutting,
Steve?
Winnett: Deforestation leads, in most cases, to
a temporary, several-year, ability to harvest
agricultural products or graze livestock. These
uses eventually run out when productivity falls.
The alternatives people have suggested include
such things as ranching iguana meat (and you
can laugh), which in some cases can produce
more meat in pounds per year, sustainably, than
can be produced in pounds of beef for 7-9
years. Nuts, fruits, rubber, herbs, medicinal
drugs, birds nests were even mentioned. You
could even go so far as to say, "What about
selectively cut trees that would preserve the
character of the forests?" Those types of things
have been suggested. The question is, whether
on a yearly basis, people who manage the
forests for those products can make as much
money doing that as they can through defores-
tation. And of course they have to move after
7-9 years.
Hunter: It's not the money they make. It's
the food they raise.
Winnett: Can they make the cash that would
be required to buy the food they need?
Trexler: A large part of deforestation has been
for the money realized from exports of meat
and other products. In a lot of cases it has
been strictly financial, allthough in some cases,
most of the money came from subsidies.
Owston: Another point. If President Bush's
program to plant a billion more trees gets going
and is successful- and I gather that's in a
dispersed way in urban and rural areas, not in
large-scale reforestation — at 500 trees per acre,
a billion trees comes out as being enough to
plant 2 million acres if there were a hundred
percent survival. He doesn't budget the money
for that, but that's the goal. It's supposed to
be a ten-year program.
Winnett: Some of the money will go to refor-
estation and some to community groups.
Winnett: They're assuming a standard cost
share like the CRP, but no land rental costs?
Winjum: One question that interests me is how
do we get better data on land availability or
technically suitable land. Can we get this from
the FAO or is it available from satellite or
remote sensing imagery?
Owston: It's being planned. This Forest
Service person I tried to call this morning is in
Rome now on a two-month detail working with
FAO to plan out a process for this.
Winjum: So there's someone working on it in
the Forest Service, but apparently it is FAO-
related. Is this the best source?
Trexler: The FAO started a 1990 tropical
140
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TaHe XLU BOARD NOTES #15.
LAND AVAILABILITY
Sept Report
• FAO project
Tropical forest assessment, 1980 and 1990
• ILCA vegetation monitoring
$250,000 from UNEP
• NGO meeting in Central America
(June, 1990)
• NASA - EOS: interested
• EPA-U.S. Forest Service
Monitoring
Diffuse: need social/political input
forestry assessment, but they have fewer people
working on forestry than we do at WRI, and to
make a global assessment? —it's crazy. They're
not going to make much progress. They are
having to rely mostly on information the count-
ries submit, with virtually no ground crew and
very little satellite data in most cases. Our
people who monitor these things don't think
the 1990 assessment is going to be any more
realistic than the 1980 assessment.
Wyant: But there are other agencies that are
taking on such monitoring efforts. International
Lifestock Center for Africa is beginning rudi-
mentary efforts in both western and eastern
Africa. They are concentrating largely on dry
zones, as you might imagine, but they are
looking at vegetation monitoring for the most
part. The funding is limited - a quarter million
dollars from UNEP. They are looking for
leadership in monitoring programs. NASA's
EOS system - Earth Observation System — is
a possible source of information. Lots of
people are gearing up to use it but no one
really knows what to do. The joint EPA and
Forest Service forest health monitoring program
is another possible source of data, though no
one really knows what to do just yet. In the
U.S., the Forest Service's FTA program does 10-
GROUP DISCUSSION
year, or decadal, assessments, with 50-year
projections. This is probably where you are
getting the numbers about losses of lands to
industrial and urban use. There there are
economic modelers working on the problem as
well. But the information is diffuse.
Winjum: Diffuse -- that's probably the conclud-
ing word right there.
Ladd: If the question is land availability, then
introducing other needs of society for the
landscape has to be considered.
Winjum: You are going back again to saying
that technically suitable is one thing, but how
much is economically, socially and politically
available? How do we factor in all these land
characteristics? I wonder about the IPCC. Are
they trying to get themselves into a position to
provide some leadership?
Winnett: I think the idea of IPCC is to reach
some sort of consensus about what should be
done and then get various companies to go off
and do it.
Winjum:
away.
So that's probably a year or two
Winnett: The big IPCC report is supposed to
be out in September of this year. It will des-
cribe what the situation is, the response strateg-
ies, and such.
Trexler: But it won't have this number? They
are making no attempt to come up with the
land availability number?
This workshop we are doing in a couple of
weeks in Guatemala, which involves the Central
American NGO's, should provide interesting
information. For the first time, I think, we'll
be asking the NGO's of tropical countries, and
governmental representatives, what do you
think will pass the laugh test in terms of refor-
141
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
estation in Central America? If they say,
"Don't be ridiculous, there's no potential for
that at all," then that's going to be a pretty
unfortunate sign. But it will be the first time
we will have gone in and talked with a broad
spectrum of people in respect to this issue.
Winjum: Will there be a report or proceed-
ings?
Treaden Yes.
Hunter Going back to what Renato just said,
isn't the problem here the perception that the
world's timber supply is just about okay, but
that there may be a shortage sometime in the
future? How do we move people away from
that notion and ask them to plant large areas
of trees or some kind of non-economic crop?
I don't think we've addressed how we attain
that behavior.
Wyant: Ian, I don't think it's a non-economic
motive. It's just a non-timber economic motive.
I think it still has to be driven by an economic
stick or carrot.
Hughes: I think we see regional shortages
looming. The South's Fourth Forest Report
says that within 20 years we could lose 85,000
jobs in the forest industry in the South directly,
and another 200,000 in service industries be-
cause the supply of wood won't be there. This
is because we are currently cutting eight acres
and only regenerating one. I assume somewhat
the same figures can be used for Canada — is
that true?
Lavender. It's like everything else, the politi-
cians are interested in the election next month
and business is interested in the next quarter
profits and very few if any are interested in the
next 50 years of forest resources.
Another question, where are we going to get
the labor to do all this reforestation? We're
having trouble with this matter already in
British Columbia.
Table XUtt BOARD NOTES #16.
LABOR SUPPLY?
United States:
* Southeast - with machines, it seems to be no problem
(could double the program in the next few years)
* Other U.S. regions and Canada - could be a problem
Just affecting the 12-19 million ha would be remarkable!
Hughes: In the South, I think we are a ways
away from being saturated; I think there is
some room to expand. If you look at the
North America, the place that you could in-
crease reforestation levels relatively easily is in
fact in the South. There's a lot of land that is
not doing what it could do. There's an in-
frastructure, the population, all you need is en-
ough carrots and I believe you could reforest
somewhere between 50 and 75 million acres. I
don't know whether society would put up with
all these pine trees in rows, though.
Wyant: But in the global picture, Joe, isn't
that really just the tip of the picture of what
needs to be done?
Hughes: Light one candle! A thousand points
of shade! Who if not us? When if not now?
Trexler: Could I ask a variation on Steve's
question? Given the feedback on the Noord-
wijk Declaration, I am sort of getting the
impression that people would find it remarkable
if we could offset the current forest loss
through increased reforestation, without even
considering starting to offset 5.6 billion tons of
carbon from fossil fuel emissions. Would it be
142
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T»Me XLIV. BOARD NOTES #17.
SOUTHEAST UNITED STATES
• Artificial reforestation to harvest is 1:8
-Won't change without incentives-
WHAT KIND OF INCENTIVES?
CRP-type works, but would have to have
more dollars now to get 23 million acres of
marginal farm lands that could be in forests.
BRAZIL
• INCENTIVES
-Money to compensate people who depend on natural
forests
-Where do the people go?
-Where does the money come from?
UNITED STATES
• One billion trees would reforest 600,000 ha/yr.,
providing we keep up w/harvests
remarkable if we could just end biotic release
of the carbon and forget about fossil fuel
release?
Hunter: Yes.
Trexler: That would be remarkable.
Ladd: It strikes me that our possibilities for
conservation, for not putting the CO2 in the
atmosphere, is much more feasible, much more
achievable, than offsetting it later.
Lavender: That was my point about increased
fire protection. That's one way to do that.
Winjum: We should spend a few more minutes
scanning down our list (Table XXXI). We've
talked about most of the items. We've heard
a lot about the hazards; gone down through the
socio-political sorts of things; the economic
issues in terms of incentives; social acceptibility
-- how people feel about exotic species and
plantations that are in straight rows ~ that sort
of thing. It may, as somebody mentioned, take
some public education, with some comparisons
GROUP DISCUSSION
on the table like Dave put together (Table
XXXIV), where there is another column for
the natural forests as well. It seems that those
kinds of numbers need to be developed.
Sequestering significant amounts of carbon
through a higher level of global reforestation
will take considerable international planning
and good follow-up. Without local infrastruc-
tures, however, all the good intentions, plans
and money wil not accomplish reforestation.
These are tough problems. Some work is going
on to try to approach that through the NGO's
and some organizations such as CARE. I
suspect that the IPCC must be considering
some of these matters, too.
What else can you think of that we should
bring out to heighten our awareness of the
potential for large-scale reforestation? There
are research needs also. We can pull ideas out
from the workshop papers. Examples are
matching species or genetic source to site
conditions and expanding the use of more
indigenous species.
Malcolm: One point I'd like to make is that
these figures depend upon stands which are in
a healthy condition. Also stands which are
managed. If you allow the stand to reach its
maximum basal area, it is difficult to maintain
its health and increase its carbon fixing rate.
It's not simply a case of going out in the forest
and increasing growth for this purpose. Other-
wise you would start out with less dense stock-
ing. It ties in a bit with increasing the hazards
from wildfire through accumulation of fuels,
too.
Hunter: I have this awful feeling that we have
a lack of knowledge as to how that's achiev-
able. There's the question of how to do a
global analysis of reforestation and forest
management for carbon sequestering. When
we have the information, then we can come out
with a series of prioritized schemes.
143
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
Table XLV. BOARD NOTES #18.
MAINTAINING FOREST
C-SEQUESTERINO
• MAI's won't go on without follow-up treatments
or tending
• also need to reduce hazards to maintain
What's really achievable?
« -but we have to start somewhere while we're
improving knowledge
(5 million ha mentioned in Washington, D. C,
at ministries meeting)
• Need to "quantify" the other forest benefits
besides wood
• Add in other values
Trader: I would point out that if we wait until
we have priorities, we will be here for 20 years
before we actually do any tree-planting. There
are a lot of forestry projects that could be
undertaken for a whole series of reasons be-
sides global warming. Why not just go ahead
and say let's try to push some of those along?
We don't need to have the complete answer
before we start doing something.
Hunter: I agree, but I think we have to be
gradually improving on the choices.
Trexlen It would be nice.
Hunter: Steve, was it you who said that they
figure 5 million hectares reforested as soon as
possible?
Trader: That was sort of a funny story that
came out of Noordwijk. There was an con-
ference in Washington two weeks ago where
parliamentarians from all over the world were
brought together. The number that they had
given to them, based on some phone calls that
his forestry staff made, was that conceivably it
might be possible to reforest 5 million hectares
per year, but as soon as they remembered what
had been said at Noordwijk, that number went
out the window in favor of 18 million hectares.
Ladd: There's an awful lot of money that's
been invested in reforestation that you could
argue was probably wasted. If these inter-
national meetings are serious about continuing
on with reforestation for carbon sequestering,
it's up to us to come up with investment dollar
figures. We can say, yes, it's economical, it
won't cost a trillion dollars, or it will cost
whatever. It seems reasonable to push the
analysis in that direction instead of turning our
backs and saying wood prices will be depressed
as the end of the argument.
Winnett: And it might be more valuable. At
least in the Northeast, we don't know what the
demand for products is going to be, say 30 or
40 years from now. We don't know what the
technology will be or possibly what manufac-
turers are turning wood into. Thirty years ago
the black cherry species in the Northeast was
considered to be junk wood, and now it is the
most valuable species, next to black walnut, on
the entire continent.
Winjum: We've got the same story with red
alder here on the West Coast. It was a weed
20 years ago, and now they are growing it in
nurseries and in plantations.
Hughes: Jack, what are your next steps?
Maybe I'm getting to that too soon, but if we
knew what your next steps were we might be
able to facilitate them.
Winjum: I think we're at the point now where
we are going to have to go over the papers and
glean from them a summary report. We say we
went through this exercise, we brought some
people together, we asked some questions, now
we are going to say something about the feasib-
ility of large-scale reforestation projects in the
world, and what the main concerns and limita-
144
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GROUP DISCUSSION
tions are that we've heard about. Also the land,
the lack of data, the lack of information about
indigenous species -- there are a whole litany of
uncertainties.
Hughes: To whom is the information from the
workshop going and what choices will they have
in terms of action?
Winjum: I can give you my view and others
can elaborate. We've been given some resour-
ces to do an exercise on the problem of large-
scale reforestation projects to sequester carbon.
That is, what are the possibilities, what are sen-
sible estimates about the feasibility. A summary
proceedings will be prepared that is aimed at
informing agency policy makers. A further aim
is to give us some indications of where we
might reasonably put some research dollars in
the next five to ten years.
Schroeder: The audience is what you might
call senior management.
Hughes: So essentially we're setting the stage
for research that the EPA will do.
Winjum: That's part of it, yes. And gathering
some information that may shed some light now
on the realities of what we know about the
applicability of large-scale reforestation in the
world.
Hughes: Is it connected to President Bush's
initiative? Does it feed into that?
Winjum: It could contribute to that, but really
it's more independent. As acid rain research
winds down, the next big issue on the horizon
is this warming. How does the agency, which
has a mission of air quality regulation, position
itself to help this country provide some lead-
ership, some guidance, to play a role, to make
a contribution internationally to the global
warming issue? I think we're all kind of fishing
for those kinds of sensible directions, recogniz-
ing that it is going to have to be international
in scope.
Lavender: One very positive contribution
Canadian forestry can make to global warming
overall, not just reforestation, is an example
from the province of Quebec. They have
developed an extremely sophisticated forest fire
fighting system, by the use of triangulation by
radar and extremely sophisticated weather
records. In 1980, their average forest fire in
Quebec was about 16 hectares in size. They
lost a substantial acreage in wildfires. In 1985,
they got their fire fighting system pretty well in
place. Now the average fire in Quebec is .6
hectare, and the losses through forest fire in
that province have been dramatically reduced.
They were able to do it on an economic basis,
apparently with provincial funds. As I say, they
have a very sophisticated radar system that
covers the province. In daylight hours they
have planes in the air the entire daylight per-
iod. I think this is very significant and is an
alternative to reforestation that should be
pushed. We say we can't do anything about
forest fires, but Quebec is an example of where
they have done something about it very dramat-
ically. The rest of Canada has burned off
something like 7 million hectares. That's a lot
of reforestation.
Winjum: That's a good point and we'll try to
include that. Another matter where we need
coordination is with the Forest Service. They
are getting active in global warming too, and
they are the major forest land management
agency in the U.S.
Owston: Global climate change is the number
one research priority item for the Forest Serv-
ice for the FY 91 budget year. They just
appointed a new national coordinator and four
regional coordinators for the various regions.
The one for the Pacific Northwest and Califor-
145
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LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
nia combined is Sam Sandberg, and he's going
to be moving to Corvallis in a few months.
One advantage to his move is that he'll be
close to the EPA Corvallis laboratory so we can
coordinate efforts.
Caillez: Last month there was a meeting in
Gabon where the ministers of forestry from
eight countries, the main countries of central
Africa, met. They decided there to give much
more attention to the management of natural
forests instead of plantations. In collaboration
with logging companies which want help to
develop a type of silviculture to favor about 80
forest tree species. Right now this isn't pos-
sible. The logger harvests about 10 species and
must be reimbursed for removing the other
trees.
Trader: In the natural rainforest, have they
decided to protect biodiversity?
Caillez: As long as we have an upper story
with more than a hundred species represented,
it is considered impossible to manage these
forests with realistic silviculture. There is no
dominant species in this kind of forest, so with
regard to biodiversity, this means it will not be
protected in the forests put under new silvicul-
tural management.
Chaturvedi: So far we considered the value of
forests mostly for the wood and its carbon
content. What about considering the soils,
water, shade trees along the road, esthetics,
recreation, and so forth? Some method of
quantifying these values must be found. We
have not given any value to the shade of a
stand of trees, for instance.
Winjum: Yes, we need to add in other values.
I know that it's been considered by forest
economists, but often the issue is how to
accurately quantify the value of other benefits,
like water, esthetics, recreation. Those sig-
nificant additional benefits are also gained with
reforestation investments, and they should be
part of the overall cost/benefit evaluation.
In conclusion, let me say we've appreciated
having you all here. There are so many inter-
esting people in this room. It would be nice to
be able to spend a lot more time with each of
you. It seems we just got the discussions
started and now it's over. But I do want to
thank all of you, especially those who presented
papers. Thank you very much.
146
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GROUP DISCUSSION
INDEX TO GROUP DISCUSSION
Africa
Central, ministers' meeting 146
deforestation 124
immigration problems 124
Agricultural lands
education in use of 118
in humid zones 124
in subtropic areas 124
need for more 138
Agriculture 124
feeding populations 124
subtropic areas 124
Agro-forestry 125, 129
in Brazil 125
in India 126
Australia 125
Bailey, Irving 119
Biodiversity 136
in managed forests in Africa 146
Black Rock Forest 119
Blanket planting
Brazil 119
Congo 119
Boreal forest
rot in old-growth 123
Bush, President
tree-planting program 140
Carbon
benefits 135
in boreal zone 121
Carbon sequestration 122, 123, 126
by taxing fossil fuel 134
in boreal and temperate zones 118
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) ... 118, 139
Data
available for countries 134
Deforestation 137
as source of wood 139
in tropics 124
Degraded land
in Australia 125
Demand
uncertainty 144
Disincentives
for reforestation 130
Energy 121
efficiency 118
EPA's contribution
in global warming issue 145
Exotic plantations
resistance to 137
Forest fire 121
ecologists 122
fighting establishment . 121
fire-fighting system in Quebec 145
in Canada 121
in Yellowstone 122
Forest Service
role in global warming issue 145
Forestry projects
urgency of starting 144
Forests
Douglas fir 118
health of managed 143
natural regeneration 126, 127
old-growth 123
Oregon and Washington 118
protection of 122
Fossil fuel emissions
offsetting through reforestation 142
Gap planting
in India 126
Global climate change 119
India 120
Grainger, Alan 123-125
Grant system
in Scotland 128
Greenhouse effect 120
Houghton 125
Incentives
for reforestation 128
in Brazil 129
in Chile 129
in Scotland 128
Income from forestry
for food 132
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) 120, 121
Internal rot in trees 123
Investment dollar figures 144
Land
alternative uses on degraded land . . . 140
availability 118, 123, 126, 127
availability estimates 125
ceiling laws, in India 130
costs 118
degraded 125
estimates 123
leasing erodable 133
leasing for forestry 132
long-term productivity 135
suitability, in Puerto Rico 132
technical suitability of 132
tenure 131
tenure in Carribean/Puerto Rico .... 131
Mean annual increase
147
-------
LARGE-SCALE REFORESTATION
for British Columbia 128
Mengelthorpe, Paul 119
Monitoring programs 141
Natural forest management 126
Next steps
after workshop 144
Noordwijk Ministerial Declaration 127, 137,
142, 144
Plantations 118, 123, 134
ban on exotics in UK 134
in Oklahoma-Arkansas droughty re-
gions 120
New York state 119
off-site pine 128
on private lands 130
Population shifts
subtropics/tropics 124
Reforestation 137
in Brazil 139
in Canada 138
in Central America 141
in developing countries 138
in Gabon 137
in Georgia 139
in New Zealand 138
in the South 138
increase of, in the South 142
old agricultural fields 118
on erodable lands 139
socio-political considerations in 127
Regeneration costs 139
Relocation of people from forest lands 138
Replanting costs in southern U.S 132
Schneider, Stephen 119
Sedjo, Roger 126
Soil emissions 122
Species selection
for effective reforestation 133
Sudan 124
Taxation
Chile and New Zealand 130
in Brazil 130
in Oregon 129
laws to promote incentives 130
Timber shortage 142
Timber stand improvement 126
Tree seed 134
Tree species
choosing 136
Douglas fir 119
eucalyptus 120
limitation 135
loblolly pine 120, 123
oaks 134
okum6 126
ponderosa pine 119
poplar 135
radiata pine 138
teak 126
use of exotics 134
United Nations F.A.0 123
1990 tropical forestry assessment .... 141
Lanly 125
Value of forests
other considerations 146
Weyerhaeuser Company 120
Wood species
proper utilization 136
Yellowstone fire 122
148
-------
GENERAL APPENDIX A
Tree Species List
-------
TREE SPECIES LIST
Abies
alba - silver fir
grandis • grand fir
procera • noble fir
Acacia
auriculiformis
meamsii - black wattle
nilotica - gum arabic
tortalis
Acer
pseudoplatanus • sycamore
saccharinum - silver maple
Ailanthus excelsis
Albizia lebbel - Lebbek tree
Alnus
sp. - alder
nepalensis
nitida
rubra - red alder
Anacardium occidental - cashew
Araucaria angustifolia * Parana pine
Aucoumea klaineana - okoum£
Azadirachta indica - neem
Bambusa arundinacea • bamboo
Cassia siamea - Kassod tree
Casuarina equisetifolia - Australian pine
Cedrus deodara - deodar cedar
Cryptomeria japonica - Japanese cedar
Cupressus torulosa • Bhutan tree
Dalbergia sissoo - sissoo
Dendrocalamus strictus - giant bamboo
Eucalyptus
globulus - blue gum
grandis • rose gum
(Eucalyptus)
tereticomis - forest red gum
urophylla
Fraxinus floribunda - ash
Gmelina sp.
Juglans regia - English walnut
Larix decidua - European larch
Lauras sp. - laurel
Limba terminalia superba
Magnolia sp. - magnolia
Melia azedarach (australis) - bead tree
Picea
abies - Norway spruce
sitchensis - Sitka spruce
Pinus
sp. - Caribbean, Corsican pines
contorta - lodgepole or shore pine
nigra - black pine
roxburghii - emodi pine
sylvestris - Scots pine
taeda - loblolly pine
Pongamia pinnata - Karum tree
Populus sp. - poplar
Prosopis juliflora - mesquite
Pseudotsuga menziesti - Douglas-fir
Quercus
robur - English oak
petraea - durmast oak
Salix sp. - willow
Shorea robusta
Syzygium cumini - Java plum
Tectona grandis - teak
Tsuga heterophylla - western hemlock
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GENERAL APPENDIX B
Table of Equivalents
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TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS: AREA
ACRE
MILE2
HECTARE
KILOMETER2
FEET2
43,560
27,878,400
107,600
10,760,000
MILE2
.0016
1
0.004
0.386
ACRE
1
640
2.47
247.1
METER2
4046.86
2,490,929
10,000
1,000,000
HECTARE2
0.4047
258.999
1
100
KILOMETER2
0.004
2.59
0.01
1
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GENERAL APPENDIX C
IPCC Structure, Recommendations
Noordwyk Declaration
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IPCC Structure
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Chair: Dr. Bert Bolin (Sweden)
Science Assessment
Chair: UK
Effects
Chair: USSR
Response Strategies Work Group
Chair: US
Steering Committee
Chair: US
Task A - Global
Emission Scenarios
Task B - Implementation
Issues
1
Energy,
Industries
(Japan/China)
1
i
Agriculture,
Forestry
(FRG/
Zimbabwe)
1
i
Resource Use
Management
(France/Canada)
1
i
Coastal Zone
Management
(New Zealand/
Netherlands)
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IPCC Brazil Conference on Tropical Forestry
Subgroup on Agriculture and Forestry
Sao Paulo, January 1990
Workshop recommended:
IPCC support the development of a World Forest
Conservation Protocol in the context of a climate
convention process that also addressed energy supply and
use.
Possible elements include:
- Trade
- Labelling of tropically produced forest products
- No-net-loss policy
- Reforestation
- Conservation
- Biodiversity
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Dutch Ministerial Meeting
Noordwyk Declaration
Examine Stated Goal:
Achieve a Net gain in forest area of 12 Million Hectares /
Year, Globally, through conservation of existing forest and
reforestation of degraded forest lands, and agricultural,
pasture and savannah land.
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Identification of Noordwijk Goal Feasibility Issues;
- How to do a global analysis of reforestation goal
feasibility
- How much reforestation can be done (local, national
and global goals)
- Where can it be done (land availability)
- What kinds of changes in policies and new policies are
needed to slow deforestation and increase reforestation
- How to launch national and global programs to design,
coordinate and implement such goals
- How to stop deforestation, especially in the tropics, and
reach goal of no-net-forest-loss
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Data Needs for Assessing Noordwijk Remand;
Forest Assessment Data:
- Forest per capita
- Forest area, by type, by country
- Reforestation potential
* Lands available
* By land-use type
* By condition, quality
* Cost data, including management, and
timber product revenues
- End-use of converted forest land, by country
* Forest products
* Fuel wood
* Agriculture
* Pasture
* Development
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Land and Resource Use Data:
- Energy supply mix, by country
- Gross National Product, by country
- Demand for agricultural land from forest sector,
by country
- Presence of timber export industry, by country
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sequestration Data:
- Emissions coefficients for natural forest
ecosystems, disturbed systems, and other land uses
• CO2, N2O, and CH4 from primary and secondary
forests, fallow, pasture and agricultural systems
- Carbon sequestration rates (biomass growth
rates)
- Standing biomass, by forest type
- Soil Carbon
*U.S. GOVERNMENT HUNTING OFFICE: 1 991 -548. l87/25638
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