Environmental Impact
Of Land Use
On Water Quality
(Progress Report)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY,
REGION V,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
NOVEMBER 1976
EPA-905/9-76-004
•:" ^f^'^l/i
.if,
-------
EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of tread
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommend-
ation for use.
-------
November, 1976 EPA-905/9 - 76-004
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
LAND USE ON
WATER QUALITY
(Progress Report)
BLACK CREEK PROJECT
Allen County, Indiana
by
James Lake
Project Director
James Morrison
Project Editor
prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago,Illinois 60604
RALPH CHRISTENSEN CARL WILSON
Section 108a Program Project Officer
Under U.S. EPA Grant No. GOO5103
to
ALLEM COUNTY SOIL & WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
U.S. Department of Agriculture. SCS, ARS
Purdue University
-------
N
Raingage sites
Stage recorder sites
Sampling sites
. FUELLING DRAIN
MALTMEE
RIVER
BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
ii
-------
CONTENTS
Section
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
Title Page
INTRODUCTION 1
LAND TREATMENT IN BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
1976 PROGRESS 3
PLANNING AND APPLICATION CHANGES
IN PHILOSOPHY 8
SIMULATED RAINFALL STATUS REPORT 11
CONSERVATION TILLAGE TRIALS 17
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT IN BLACK CREEK
WATERSHED DURING 1975 21
SEDIMENT BASINS AND CHANNEL STABILITY
STUDIES 26
FILTERING CAPACITY OF BLACK CREEK
WATERSHED BIOTA 31
DATA ACQUISITION PROCESSING AND
SIMULATION 34
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS 46
KEY PERSONNEL BLACK CREEK PROJECT 49
Number
FIGURES
Title
DATA PROCESSING SEQUENCE
Page
35
Lii
-------
TABLES
Number Title Page
1 ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF BLACK CREEK
LAND TREATMENT 4
2 COST OF LAND TREATMENT IN BLACK CREEK
WATERSHED 7
3 1976 REPLICATED TRIALS 18
4 1976 DEMONSTRATIONS 19
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY AREA 21
6 NUTRIENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
DURING 1975 22
7 PER CENT OF TOTAL TRANSPORT BY
TYPE FLOW (SITE 2) 23
8 PER CENT OF TRANSPORT BY SOURCE
(SITE 2) 24
9 RESPONSE TO THE QUESTION: "Is Pollution
of Streams a Major Problem
in this Country?" 47
10 SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK CREEK
FARMS IN 1975 48
iv
-------
INTRODUCTION
BLACK CREEK PROJECT
This document is a progress report on the Black Creek
Project, Allen County, Indiana, being undertaken by the Al-
len County Soil and Water Conservation District under U.S.
EPA Grant No. G005103. It concentrates on work done during
the 1975-1976 project year and is the last scheduled major
publication describing work on the project prior to the fi-
nal report which is due in the autumn of 1977.
This progress report supplements the following major
publications previously issued as the result of the Black
Creek Project:
(a) Envi ronmental Impact of Land Use on Water
Qualitv CEPA G005103) published in May of
1973 and outlining the plan of work for the
study.
(b) Ooerat ions Manual B1ack Creek Study, Al1 en
County Indiana (EPA-905-7^-002) which set
forth in detail standards by which the work
was to be carried out.
(c) Annual Report No. 1 which described work un-
dertaken during the first year of the pro-
j ect.
(d) Env i ronmental Impact of Land Use on Water
Qua!itv --Progress Report (EPA-905/9-75-006)
which reported on work undertaken'through No-
vember of 1975.
Data presented in this report are not as extensive as
those reported in the preceding progress reports. This is
because investigators were instructed not to report data un-
less they provided additional insight or conflicted with
previously reported findings, A comprehensive report on all
investigations and all data collected during the project
will be made in the final report.
The Black Creek Project was funded by the Environmental
Protection Agency in October of 1972 in an attempt to deter-
mine the impact of agricultural activities in the Maumee
Basin on the water quality of the Maumee River and on Lake
Erie. It is an outgrowth of a conference on the Maumee
River sponsored by Rep. J. Edward Roush in January of 1972
at Fort Wayne, Indiana.
There is, perhaps, some significance to the fact that
the Black Creek Project was designed and that a proposal for
-------
- 2 -
the project was forwarded to the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency under the provisions for Special Great Lakes
Programs prior to the adoption of PL 92-500 which provided a
direct Congressional mandate for a program/ under Sec. 208,
to deal with non-point sources of pollution. The Black
Creek Project deals with non-point pollution/ specifically
as it is impacted by normal agricultural operations in the
Maumee Basin.
The design of the Black Creek Project/ accomplished by
a consortium of the Environmental Protection Agency, the
Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture, Purdue University, and the Allen County Soil
and Water Conservation District, is that of a demonstration
supported by intensive research. The basic idea was to
select an area/ typical of the Maumee Basin. Through inten-
sive planning efforts and conservation salesmanship, needed
conservation practices would be applied on the land, working
toward 100 per cent treatment by the end of the five-year
study. Land treatment was to be designed in accordance with
the specification of the Techn ical Gui de of the Soil Conser-
vation Service.
Concurrently, researchers would attempt to evaluate the
efforts at conservation. Specifically, an attempt would be
made to correlate improvements in water quality that could
be attributed to improved conservation practices with the
cost of the practices and the social and economic aspects of
the!r adoption.
During the course of the project, there have been sig-
nificant changes in emphasis in both the technical and the
demonstration portions of the work. However, considering the
scope of the demonstration effort, the success of the work
to date has been better than could have been reasonably an-
t icipated.
The most substantial change to date has involved a re-
focussing of the planning and application of conservation
practices to reflect the growing awareness of the concept of
best management practices.
In the research portion of the project, the scope of
the modeling effort has been reduced somewhat/ and the at-
tention paid to the biota of the Black Creek area has in-
creased over that envisioned when the work plan was
developed. On balance/ it can be fairly said that it is not
remarkable that there have been changes in the work, but it
is remarkable that there have been so few of them.
-------
- 3 -
SECTION 1
LAND TREATMENT IN BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
1976 PROGRESS
As of Sept. 30, 1976, the success of the Allen County
Soil and Water Conservation District in meeting the land
treatment goals set forth in the work plan for the watershed
has been mixed. Per cent of goals accomplished ranges from
a low of 0 per cent on several practices to a figure nearly
double that originally contemplated in the case of terraces.
Land treatment goals for the project were established
by a team of Soil Conservation Service technical personnel.
The original goals are outlined in Table A-10 of the work
plan, Env\ ronmental Impact of Land Use on Water Qua!i tv --A
Work Plan.
The disparity in the degree of success which has been
obtained can be attributed to several factors, not the least
of which is that project personnel were entering new areas
without a firm idea of how the maximum impact of land treat-
ment on water quality could be obtained.
As a result, every practice from the Soil Conservation
Service Techn ical Gui de that seemed 1ikely to be usable was
included in the basic planning. In all, 32 practices were
recommended, not all of which can be expected to have their
maximum impact on water quality.
With the increasing emphasis on the concept of Best
Management Practices, the emphasis of the Allen County Soil
and Water Conservation District has shifted over the first
three-and-one-half years of the project toward those prac-
tices which it is now believed will have the greatest impact
on water quali ty.
This does not imply a criticism of any of the practices
which were outlined in the original work plan. In fact, in
another area and with different conditions of soil types,
drainage patterns, and land use patterns,- practices not
given so much attention in the Black Creek area could easily
have become more prominent.
The original goals for land treatment on the Black
Creek Watershed, an indication of the amount of those goals
which have been accomplished, and the per cent of success
this represents are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 is instructive for several reasons. A ready
glance will identify practices, such as contouring and strip
cropping that could not reasonably be expected to be major
practices in the flat lands of the Maumee Basin. Low goals
were set for these practices, and low accomplishments were
made, in each case zero. In another type of area, either or
-------
TABLE 1 ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF BLACK CREEK LAND TREATMENT
ITEM (Unit)
District Cooperators (No.)
Conservation Plans (No.)
Contour Farming (Ac.)
Land Adequately Treated (Ac
Conservation Cropping
System (Ac. )
Critical Area Planting (Ac.
Crop Residue Management (Ac
Divers ions (Ft. )
Farmstead and Feedlot
Windbreak (Ac. )
Field Border (Ft, )
Field Windbreak (Ft. )
Grade Stabi 1 ization
Structure (No.)
Grassed Waterway or Outlet
Holding Ponds and Tanks (No
Land Smoothing (Ac.)
Livestock Exclusion (Ac.)
Livestock Watering Facility
Minimum Tillage (Ac.)
Pasture & Hayland
Management (Ac. )
Pasture & Hayland Planting
Pond (No.)
Recreation Area
Improvement (Ac.)
Sediment Control Basin (No.
Stream Channel
Stabilization (Ft.)
Streambank Protection (Ft.)
St ri pcropping (Ac.)
Surface Drains (Ft.)
Terraces (Ft.)
Ti le Drains (Ft . )
Tree Planting (Ac.)
Wildl ife Habitat
Management CAc . )
Woodland Improved
Harvesting (Ac.)
Woodland Pruning (Ac.)
GOAL
148
170
769
. ) 10,573
7,418
) 10
.) 7,1*91
39,200
75
288,320
12,000
368
(Ac.) 68
. ) 11
300
215
(No.) 28
7,656
1*02
(Ac.) 501
39
12
) 6
6,000
122,000
300
90,000
22,000
200,300
10
ACCOMP-
LISHMENTS
145
133
0
5,986
5,621
15
1,149
1,750
4
102,809
0
138
62
7
0
22
2
291
97
30
9
9
3
9,900
74,100
0
200
41,612
63,599
0
PERC
95
78
0
57
76
150
15
4
5
39
0
38
91
64
0
8
7
4
2k
6
23
75
50
166
61
0
1
189
32
0
222
610
50
148
0
0
67
0
0
both of these practices could easily be important
standpoint of best management practices.
from the
An illustration of the adaptation of a practice which
at first does not seem particularly important in this type
of area is also provided in Table 1. In the case of parallel
-------
- 5 -
tile outlet terraces, no accomplishment was reported in the
Black Creek area until the beginning of this project year.
The general consensus among project personnel was that ter-
races/ like contouring and stripcropping, were best suited
to more rolling, rougher land.
The factor that made project personnel change their
minds was the enthusiasm of a soil conservationist, Gregg
Woods, who came to the project after experience with ter-
races in lovja. Mr. Woods not only demonstrated that lan-
downers in the Black Creek Watershed could be convinced that
terracing was a useful practice, he convinced project per-
sonnel that sets of parallel tile outlet terraces could be a
useful best management practice which it is believed will be
very important in reducing sediment and related pollutants.
A set of terraces can be used with success in most areas
where a grassed waterway might be considered and can be more
acceptable in some areas than a waterway due to the ease
with which large farm machinery can be used with terraces.
Several reviewers of the Black Creek project have of-
fered the opinion thet the goals for tile drainage were set
too high on this project and that too much money was spent
to encourage a practice that would have been carried out
without incentives. It Is therefore important that the con-
ditions under which drainage became eligible for cost share
payment be spelled out.
It is true that a large majority of the land in the
Black Creek area cannot be cultivated successfully without
some form of tile drainage. In that sense, drainage is a
production related rather than a water quality improvement
practice. On the other hand, practices which require the
establishment of vegetative cover, such as grassed water-
ways, also may require tile drainage for their establish-
ment. As a result, it has been the policy of The Allen
County Soil and Water Conservation District to cost-share on
tile drainage only for that portion which was necessary to
carry out another practice. In this situation, drainage
would be considered a Best Management Practice for the area.
In reflecting on the land treatment program, two impor-
tant points stand out. CD The cost of land treatment with
a water quality goal is not trivial. (2) It will not be pos-
sible to spend the full amount budgeted for this purpose on
the project. This latter point calls into question the dog-
ma that given enough technical assistance and cost-share mo-
ney, 100 per cent treatment can be achieved in any area.
A majority of the non-Amish farmers of the Black Creek
Watershed can be considered progressive farmers. As can be
seen in Table 1, a majority of these progressive individuals
agreed to cooperate with the district on a voluntary land
treatment program. As can be inferred from the other Infor-
-------
— 6 —
mation contained in the table, a commitment to cooperate did
not necessarily imply a commitment to spend all of the
private funds necessary to bring these farms into a condi-
tion which we would describe as "adequately treated." Some
farmers would not cooperate. Unfortunately, these farmers
tended to be those which we would consider most likely to
need assistance. It is becoming clear that even with the
best of intentions, a voluntary program will not achieve ei-
ther 100 per cent treatment or 100 per cent cooperation.
The question of how landowners who refuse to cooperate with
a voluntary program should be approached is a policy con-
sideration which is beyond the scope of this report.
Even though the originally budgeted $750,000 for land
treatment cost sharing will not be spent, the total cost of
land treatment, including the cost of technical assistance
provided under a contract between the Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District and the Soil Conservation Ser-
v i ce, i s not trivial .
A summary of cost data is presented in Table 2.
The total of incentive payments made for acres under
contract as of the date of this report was $i^
-------
TABLE 2 COST OF LAND TREATMENT IN BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
ITEM
Conservation Cropping
System
Critical Area Planting
Crop Residue Management
Di vers ions
Farmstead & Feedlot
Wi ndbreak
Field Border
Grade Stabil iziation
Structure
Grassed Waterway or
Outlet
Holding Ponds and
Tanks
Livestock Exclusion
Livestock Watering
Facility
Mi nimum Ti1lage
Pasture & Hayland
Management
Pasture & Hayland
Plant ing
Pond
Recreation Area
Improvement
Sediment Control Basin
Stream Channel
Stabilization
Streambank Protection
Surface Drains
Terraces
Tile Dra ins
Wildl ife Habitat
Management
DISTRICT
COST SHARE
11,035,60
2,752.57
2,159.60
1,222,31
289.70
24,678,76
71,900.36
33,004.95
1>, 711,08
7,772.68
864.50
1,550.80
.56
183.50
1.87
.70
72.42
.2k
521,02
532.33
1,387.30
353.30
432,25
5.32
474.40
4,462.72
10,827.66
549.29
4,448.90
95,673.53
51,424,74
408.54
26,714.85
81,703.98
148.76
1,203.07
61.30
1,482.97
9.57
.69
2.04
.64
1,28
1,171.37
UNIT COST PERCENT
TOTAL COST
70
65
70
75
70
70
75
80
50
80
70
80
65
70
60
50
70
80
70
65
90
70
60
3.85
7.91
to have had little positive effect on water quality. Some
practice money that has been spent would not be spent if we
were starting from the beginning. It is clear, however,
that the cost of undertaking adequate land treatment on
large areas of farm land will not be a small one. It will
be one of the goals of the final report to make seme sort of
assessment of what these costs might be expected to be, how
they might be paid, and who can be expected to pay them.
-------
SECTION II
PLANNING AND APPLICATION
-- CHANGES IN PHILOSOPHY
Changes in the philosophy of planning and applying land
treatment practices in the Black Creek Watershed reflect
changes in approach rather than changes in the objectives of
the project. Initial planning undertook a diverse, broad
spectrum approach which is sound conservation but not neces-
sarily the most cost effective method of focusing efforts on
obtaining improved water quality.
Because the Black Creek Project involved voluntary
cooperation on the part of local landowners, it was neces-
sary to find practices which could meet the needs of the
farmers while at the same time meeting the needs of the pro-
ject. Many times, the farmers assessment of needs and the
assessment of needs by project personnel were very dif-
ferent. Farmers were interested in drainage improvement and
other similar practices which also represent sound conserva-
tion in areas such as Black Creek, but which do not always
improve water quality.
Conservation planning has traditionally focused on
maintaining the productive capability of agricultural land.
If soil losses can be kept within predetermined limits, land
has been considered to be adequately treated. Such an ap-
proach makes feasible a rather rigid technical guide.
For many years, technical guides have shown conserva-
tion practices, each with their own set of detailed specifi-
cations. Frequently, planners have been unable to complete
farm plan because a potential cooperator was unable to modi-
fy his operation. The ability to modify specification and
planning requirements in the Black Creek project has greatly
increased flexibility.
A problem in developing total plans for improved water
quality was pointed up during the spring of 1976 In the
Black Creek area. Several farmers who had invested in the
equipment for minimum tillage did not use this approach, but
instead worked their fields intensively. This was brought
about be a warm, dry spring with many days suitable for
field work. Farmers felt compelled to work and rework their
fields/ saying that they were afraid that the weeds would
"get ahead of them11 or that their neighbors "might wonder
why I 'm not busy." It was obvious that these farmers con-
sidered intensive field work a better management practice
than the application of minimum tillage.
Selling management and treatment practices, without the
existence of any ultimate mandatory program. Is not simple.
The mechanics of planning and management of treatment prac-
tices is, however, rather basic. There are just three al-
-------
- 9 -
ternat i ves:
(a) Land use change
(b) Crop rotation change
(c) Practice intallation.
In evaluating a farm, each field is analyzed for basic
soil loss using the universal soil loss equaltion, a com-
plete discussion of which is carried in the interim report,
Envl ronmental Impact of Land Use O_Q. Werter Qualitv --a.
Progress Report. The universal soil loss equation involves
six variables, only three on which can be significantly
changed through management or construction. The three on
which an impact can be obtained are:
(a) Slope length
(b) Cropping management
(c) Control practices.
Pollution arising from soil erosion is generally de-
fined as non-point pollution. Within the context of non-
point, there are specific areas which can be defined as
point and non-point areas. Within this framework, a point
area is an area where a single source of erosion can be
treated with a single management practice providing a long-
term solution. Point areas are generally not farmed active-
ly and do not provide significant farm income. Practices
that ofen can be applied to point areas include streambank
protection, critical area planting, grade stabilization
structures and grassed waterways.
Non-point areas require a combination of management
practices working together to provide a long-term solution.
These areas are often actively farmed. Practices which can
deal with this type of pollution includ conservation til-
lage, parallel tile outlet terraces, pasture-hayland plant-
ing, and conservation cropping systems.
To consider this in operation, assume a farm field in
which a gulley has formed and heading has occured. Under
the previous definition, the gulley and heading would fit
into a point category. Even if land use is not altered, the
gully and heading can be attacked through the installtfon of
a grassed waterway and grade stabilization structure. These
will eliminate or greagly reduce the point-source erosion
and sediment contribution.
Unless land-use is within proper limits, however; the
installation of these practices may not have much Impact on
-------
- 10 -
water quality as the grassed waterway and grade stabiliza-
tion structure become a means of sediment transport for ero-
sion dependent on crop rotation, the tillage practices, and
the degree of slope.
This hypothetical situation makes clear the need to in-
corporate a series of practices which are usable and which
provide benefits of both erosion reduction and improved wa-
ter quality. tf the practices are to be maintained without
intensive supervision and a more effective set of legal
tools/ the practices applied should be relatively mainte-
nance free and should be capable of exacting a long-term
committment from the landov/ners.
In the Black Creek, a practice which seems to have a
good chance of meeting these requirements is a parallel tile
outlet terrace system. The PTO Terrace System, planned to
satisfy the needs of tillage methods, cropping system,tile
drains, etc. gets to the root of the problem of upland ero-
sion by leaving the landowner with a comfortable rotation,
better drainage, and better field topography. It also helps
meet the fundamental water quality objective.
John Hanway, Professor of Agronomy at Iowa State
University and John M Laflen, Agricutlural Engineer, North
Central Region, ARS, studied several PTO terrace systems
over a three year period. They found that the terraces re-
duced surface water yields at least 30 per cent. Sediment
output loads average about it.5 per cent of estimated erosion
between terraces. Average total phosphorus concentrations
were highly correlated with the sediment in the runofff.
-------
- 11 -
SECTION I I I
SIMULATED RAINFALL PROGRAM
STATUS REPORT
The field phase of the simulated rainfall program was
completed during the summer of 1976. However, some of the
samples are yet to be analyzed, and much of the data remains
to be organized and analyzed. Therefore, conclusions
presented as a portion of this annual report should be con-
sidered as preliminary and subject to change after analyses
of data has been completed.
The objectives outlined in the work plan, Env i ronmental
Impact of Land Use on Water Qual itv -- A_ Work Plan, pub-
lished in April of 1973 were as follows:
Ca) To determine the base values for the sediment
contributions of the major soil capability
units in the study area.
(b) To determine runoff and sediment composition
(physical and chemical) from the major soil
capabi1i ty un its.
Cc) To determine the relative importance of rain-
drop impact and surface runoff in detatching
soil material from nearly level lake plain
soil .
(d) To compare the runoff and soil erosion ef-
fects of presently used cultural practices to
those conservation cultural practices recom-
mended by the Soil Conservation Service.
(Several forms of Conservation tillage com-
pared to fall plowing, effects of crop rota-
tions, effects of various methods of residue
management, effects of winter cover, effects
of over grazing, effects of fertilizer and
manure applications on cropland and pas-
tures ).
Work was carried out in all of these areas during the
1973-1976 project period. Preliminary results are presented
in the following discussion:
The simulated rainfall program was started in the sum-
mer of 1973, and approximately six weeks of field testing
has been committed to this study each year during the last
four years. The individual studies and the status of each
at the close of the 1975-1976 project year are outlined
below.
-------
- 12 -
1. Base Erosion Losses
Values for the major soils in the watershed
were obtained during the summer of 1973.
Thirteen cm (5 in) of simulated rainfall were
applied to fall plots under uniform test con-
ditions on four different soils. Runoff/ in-
filtration/ sediment concentration/and total
soil loss were obtained in each study/ or
have been organized and reported in the first
annual report.
2. Particle Size in Sediment.
Sediments in runoff from all four soils in
the 1973 tests were analyzed for particle
size distribution (five sand fractions/ silt/
total clay/ colloidal clay/ and organic
matter content. These values have been com-
pared to the values that occur in the soil in
place. All data have been obtained/ but ana-
lyses are incomplete.
3. Soil Loss as Aggregates
Sediment occuring in runoff from four soils
(each soil with fall plow/ fall chisel/ fall
disk/ and no tillage treatments) has been
analyzed for soil loss In aggregated form as
constrated to that occuring as primary parti-
cles. Field and laboratory work was complet-
ed during the 1975- 1976 project year and
data have been fully analyzed and reported in
an H.S. thesis by Steve Schroeder/ Sol 1
Aggregates Transported in Runoff from
Cropland and Thei r Relationshi P to Total Soi 1
Loss.. Purdue University/ May 1976.
4. Fertilizer Loss in Runoff
The effects of surface applied nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilizer on nutrient content of
runoff were obtained under fallow plot condi-
tions in 1973 and under four tillage systems
(fall plow/ fall chisel, fall disk/ no til-
lage) in 1971* and 1975. In some instances/
the tests were conducted on soybean land and
in other instances/ the tests were conducted
on corn land. In all instances/ runoff from
fertilized plots was compared to runoff from
not-fertilized plots. The analyses of all
samples has been completed and most of the
data has been organized and reported in the
M.S. thesis of D.B. Kaminsky/ Jr., Nitrogen
-------
- 13 -
and Phosphorus in Surface Runoff from
Agricultural SoiIs. Purdue University/ May
1975.
5. Raindrop Energy vs. Surface Runoff
The relative importance of raindrop energer
and runoff in the soil erosion process on
both nearly level and sloping soils was meas-
ured in 1973. The tests were conducted on
fallow plots on four major soils in the
watershed. The results were reported in the
first annual report.
5. Tillage and Crop Residue Effects on Sediment
Loss
Soil erosion was determined from four basic
fall land treatments (fall plow, fall chisel,
fall disk, no tillage) following both corn
and soybeans during 197U, 1975, and 1976.
Runoff, infiltration, and sediment concentra-
tion of the runoff were also obtained. Per
cent surface covered by crop residues were
determined for all treatments. A portion of
the data have been analyzed and reported in
the 1975 and 1976 progress reeports. Some of
the runoff samples from 1976 remain to be
analyzed. When this is completed a report
will be made.
7. Effect of Application of Animal Waste
The effects of animal waste application to
land both on run-off and soil loss as well as
on water quality were tested during the
spring of 1976. Individual tests were of the
followi ng:
(a) Spring application of liquid
and solid swine waste (surface
applied and incorporated) on
corn stalk land.
(b) Spring application of solid
swine waste on corn stalk land
that had four different fall
treatments (plow, chisel,
disk, no tillage).
(c) Spring application of soild
cattle waste to closely grazed
pastures.
-------
8. Sod Buffer Strips and Water Quality
The effects of sod buffer strips in reducing
the sediment load of runoff water was a prel-
iminary investigation and results obtained
are at best an indication of the efficiency
of the system. Results were reported in the
first annual report.
Much of the analyses are yet to be completed so valid
conclusions are still premature at this time. However, to
assist other workers on the project, a brief interpretive
summary is offered where sufficient data exists.
1. Base Erosion Losses
Soil erosion losses from nearly level lake
plain soils are low when compared to the more
sloping soils in the watershed. Under fallow
conditions, soil losses from 13 cm (5 in) of
simulated rainfall ranged from 4.5 MT/ha(2
4.5 t/a) for soils with slopes less than one
per cent to over 34 MT/ha (J5t/a) for a soil
on a 5 per cent slope.
2. Particle Size Distribution of Sediment in
Runoff
Results show the erosion process to be highly
selective with the sediment showing distinct
clay enrichment and a decreasing sand content
compared to the soil in place. In many com-
parisons, the sediment also showed an enrich-
ment of the silt fraction. The relationships
occurred on both the nearly level soils as
well as the sloping fields.
Soil Loss as Aggregates
Soil transported in runoff as aggregates
larger than 210 microns was less than 30 per
cent of the total soil loss on all soils and
treatments tested. The values ranged from a
low of 1.75 per cent to a high of 29 per cent
with differences (in some cases) attributed
to treatment (especially those where appreci-
able surface crop residues were present). It
was concluded that on nearly level soils, ef-
fective measures for reducing erosion should
be based on prevention of detachment and
dispersion of naturally occurring aggregates
by raindrops since the low-velocity runoff is
not capable of transporting much soil as ag-
gregates .
-------
- 15 -
k, Fertiliser runoff from Surface Applications
This information is discussed in Section V of
this report.
5. Raindrop Energy vs. Surface Runoff
On all four soils tested, raindrop induced
runoff contained approximately 10 times the
sediment concentration of that obtained when
equal amounts of runoff were introduced by
inflow. These results suggest the importance
of protecting the soil surface from raindrop
impact if sediment concentrations in runoff
are to be minimized.
6. Effects of Conservation Tillage vs Fall Plow-
i ng
Although analyses of these data are incom-
plete/ some significant conclusions can be
made from the present data. Soil losses are
greatly reduced by those tillage systems that
leave appreciable residues on the surface.
Spring measurements of surface residue cover
on the four locations ranged from 50 to 80
percent on the no-tillage disk treatments to
a low of less than five per cent on the fall
plow treatments where corn was the prior
crop. Residue cover from the chisel system
ranged from 30 to 60 per cent.
Where soybeans was the prior crop, Spring
residue cover ranged from eight to 26 per
cent on the no tillage and disk treatments to
less than five per cent on the fall plow
treatments. Chisel values ranged from nine
to 12 percent.
Soil losses from the treatments on corn land
from 13 cm (5 in) of simulated rainfall
ranged from 0.9 - 5.k MT/ha (.Ofc -2.U t/a )
on the no tillage and disk treatment to k.5
-26 MT/ha (1.9 -11.6 t/a ) on the fall plow
treatment. Losses from fall chisel ranged
from 1.6 - 13.9 MT/ha (.07 - 6.1 tja ).
Soil losses from these treatments on soybean
land ranged from 6,9 to 17.5 MT/ha (3.1 - 7*8
t/a) on the no tillage and disk treatments to
5.U - 17.7 MT/ha (2.4 -7.9 t/a) on the fall
plow treatment. Losses from fall chisel
ranged from 6.3 - 15.9 MT/ha (2.8 - 7.1 t/a).
-------
- 16 -
Comparison of results from two nearly level
locations can be made between the erosion ef-
fects of corn vs. soybeans. Soil losses
following corn were about 12 percent Cno til-
lage and disk), 2.k per cent (.chisel), and 68
per cent Cfall plow) of those from the
respective treatment following soybeans.
Although these tests were made at only one
stage of the erosion season/ they do illus-
trate the major influence various crop
species can have on the erosion process and
most of this difference can be attributed to
the amount of soil surface protected by crop
res idues.
7. Effects of Animal Waste Application
The analyses of samples have not been com-
pleted, but observation during the tests in-
dicated that animal waste containing appreci-
able amount of bedding (straw, etc.) is very
effective in reducing soil erosion when sur-
face applied to the land.
8. Effects of Sod Buffer Strips
Sediment concentration of runoff decreased
from 1,01 per cent to O.U6 per cent (a 5k
percent reduction) when passed through a 15 m
(50 ft) strip of bluegrass sod. Although
this was a significant reduction, a change in
appearance of the runoff water was not obvi-
ous.
-------
- 17 -
SECTION IV
CONSERVATION
TILLAGE TRIALS
Simulated rainfall studies (Section III)
have shown that conservation tillage tech-
niques are quite effective in reducing water
runoff/ soil loss, and pollutants associated
with soil loss. Previous research in Indiana
and other Cornbelt states indicates that the
various conservation tillage systems are not
uniformly adapted in all soil - climate si-
tuat ions.
Factors shown to have a major influence
on the success of conservation tillage sys-
tems are as follows:
(a) Soil drainage
(b) Previous crop
(c) Length of growing season
(d) Soil physical properties
Soils in the Black Creek Watershed are quite
diverse in drainage and other physical characteristics.
Cropping sequences also vary greatly. The watershed is
in the northern fringe of the Cornbelt areas where con-
servation tillage is more popular.
Two primary objectives were identified for the
conservation tillage trials portion of the Black Creek
project. These are:
(a) To determine which conservation tillage
systems are adapted on the primary soil
types in the watershed.
(b) To have conservation tillage techniques
in use by a high percentage of farmers
in the watershed.
Adapted in this case simply means that the system
can be used by farmers of average managerial ability
without risk of significant yield reduction.
-------
- 18 -
Original efforts to obtain information and promote
conservation tillage consisted of farmer comparisons of
several tillage systems on several different soil
types. Due to unusual weather, non-replication of the
plots, and farmer inexperience with the new techniques,
little information was gained during the first three
years of the project. However, fall chisel plowing,
with limited secondary tillage in the spring* appeared
to be successful with a wide range of soil types and
weather conditions,
It was decided to expand the tillage trial phase
of the project in 1976. Researchers now control and
implement the trials producing greater uniformity which
shoud provide more accurate information on which to
base tillage recommendations to farmers in the
watershed.
Fi ve
watershed,
trials. T
moldbord
till age.
corn,corn
Conservati
in other
farmers.
and k.
sites, represent
were leased
i11 age systems
plowing, chisel
Comparisons wil
after soybeans
on tillage pract
areas by speci
This information
ing major soil types In the
to conduct replicated tillage
now being compared include
plowing, disking, and no-
1 be made with continuous
, and soybeans after corn.
ices are being demonstrated
al agreement with cooperating
is summarized in Tables 3
Farm
Shanebrook
Woebbeki ng
Stieglitz
Shaffer
Bennett
TABLE 3 1975 REPLICATED TRIALS
Soils 1975 Residue
Hoytville c.l,
Napannee s i,c,
Wh ttaker si.1
Raskins 1.
Mo r1e y c.l.
Morley c.l.
1
Soybeans
Corn
Soybeans
Soybeabs
Soybeans
Soybeans
Number
rep]ications
k
k
k
k
2
2
The following material has been purchased by the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District to
implement the tillage work:
(a) J.D. iiOZO tractor with spray tanks
-------
- 19 -
Farm
Schlatter
Delagrange
Schaefer
TABLE U 1976 DEMONSTRATIONS
Soi Is
Rensselaer 1.
1976
Crop
Corn
Morley si. 1. Corn
Pewamo si.c.l. Corn
Hasklns 1. Corn
1975
Residue
Soybeans
Soybeans
Soybeans
Sod
1976
Tillage
a.No-tm
b.Disk
a. No-til 1
b.Disk
No-till
Cb) A.C. four-row, no-till planter with
broadcast spray attachments.
(c) Four-bottom plow
(d) 13-foot disk
(e) 10-foot chisel plow
(f) 10-foot field cultivator
Cg) Four-row Lilliston cultivator
Other equipment needed , such as a stalk chopper,
has been borrowed from cooperating farmers. Seed, fer-
tilizer, and chemicals are purchased by the District
for leased acreage, but are provided by cooperating
farmers for demonstration plots.
Not all tillage treatments could be accomplished
as planned for tne first year in the replicated trials.
Plowing and chiseling, intended for fall practices,
were done in the spring since the land and equipment
were not available in the fall. The 1975 crop residue
was the same for all tillage at a particular site.
Thus, residue effect on tillage cannot be measured. In
two of the trials (Shanebrook and Stleglilz), row
direction must be opposite from the 1975 rows in order
to have plots go across existing tile lines. This
would be too non-uniform for no-till planting, so these
plots were disked once this year.
Corn and soybean plantings were begun on April 23
and May 21 respectively on the well-drained Whitaker
soil. The only major problem at planting was in get-
ting coulter penetration and seed cover in no-till
planting on the poorly structured Nappanee silt loam
soil. Corn germination was variable in these plots.
-------
- 20 -
Weeds not control]ed with no-plow systems were
primarily species resistent to herbicides used. These
included field bindweed, morning glory, and Canada
thistle. The pre-emergence herbicides used were an
Atrex-Bladex-Lasso-Paraquat combination on corn and a
Lorox-Lasso-Paraquat combination on soybeans.
Phvtophthora root rot disease of soybeans
developed in the Nappanee silt loam trial. (r became
much more severe in no till and disK plots. This
disease will have an effect on yield.
All three of the conservation tillage demonstra-
tions appear to be successful. The sod-planted corn
showed no drouth stress during an early season dry
period/ while other corn in the same fields was showing
drouth symptoms. Moisture conserved with no-till sod
planting is a prime advantage for this system on well-
drained soils. Grain yields will be checked for both
corn and soybeans in replicated and demonstration tri-
als. While tillage practices in the first year of the
revised study do not always represent intended tillage
systems/ information gained on chisel and disk tillage
should be of great interest to farmers in the
watershed.
Farmers in the watershed have been made aware of
the tillage trials underway through field tours and
mass media coverage. A field tour of the trials on
July 13 drew 60 area farmers. Fort Wayne television
farm director Wayne Rothgeb filmed segments at planting
and at several times during the growing season. News-
paper coverage has also been very good. Conservation
advantages of the no-plow tillage systems and soils
where they are likely to be adapted were emphasized in
all contacts with farmers.
-------
- 21 -
SECTION V
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT IN BLACK CREEK
WATERSHED DURING 1975
One of the key questions posed In the work plan,
Env\ronmental Impact of Land Use on Water QualItv was
the effect of land use on the nutrient loadings to the
Maumee River and Lake Erie. This was studied during
1975 and 1976. Analyses of data for 1975 have been com-
pleted.
Nutrient transport in the Black Creek Watershed
during 1975 was studied by continuously measuring the
flow of water past monitoring sites 2 and 6 and by
analysis of water samples collected by hand (represent-
ing base flow) or by automatic pump samples (operated
during storm events).
Data flow measurements and chemical analyses were
integrated by computer techniques to provide Informa-
tion on total transport of sediment and various nu-
trient forms by a given storm event and by flow past
the sampling sites for the entire year. Table 5 pro-
vides information on the subwatersheds contributing wa-
ter/ sediments, and nutrients to the ditches flowing
past sites 2 and 6. Values for the subsurface drainage
component were estimated from hydrologic data for simi-
lar agricultural watershed and values for amounts of
nitrogen and phosphorus CN and P) applied in fertiliz-
ers and manures was estimated based on interviews with
farmers in the watershed.
TABLE 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA
CHARACTERISTIC SITE 2 SITE 6
Area Cha) 942 71k
Tiled area Cha) U21 k31
Rainfall (cm) 107 107
Combined runoff & subsurface
drainage 53.7 kS.5
Tile drainage (cm) 15.lt 12.7
Subsurface drainage
(untiled areas) (cm) 22.9 22.9
Houses in watershed 28 Iit3
Nitrogen applied (kg) kQ,2k6 33,080
Phosphorus applied (kg) 31,93U 2ti,205
Water samples taken 705 kkl
The total amounts of nutrients and sediments tran-
-------
- 22 -
sported past sites 2 and 6 during 1975 are reported in
Table 6. The amounts of sediment were fairly con-
sistent at the two sites; however, higher amounts of
soluble nutrients were present in water flowing past
Site 6 as compared to Site 2. Conversely, the amounts
of sediment bound nutrients at Site 2 were higher than
those at Site 6. Sediment and nutrient losses were
generally similar to those of other agricultural
watershed previously studied with the exception that
nitrate N losses in the Black Creek Watershed were
quite large.
TABLE 6 NUTRIENT AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT DURING 1975
COMPONENT SITE 2 SITE 6
Water (cm) 53.8 48.5
Sediment (kg/ha) 5,644 5,402
Soluble inorganic P (kg/ha) .331 .581
Soluble organic P (kg/ha) .175 .231
Sediment P (kg/ha) 11.526 7.357
Ammonium N (kg/ha) 2.75 3.39
Nitrate N Chg/ha) 33.65 25.14
Soluble Organic N Ckg/ha) 71.84 34.73
From, 90 to 96 per cent of the total P transported
in the watershed was sediment P whereas soluble inor-
ganic P (SIP) accounted for 3-7 per cent of the total
P transported. The relatively high percentate of total
P transported as SIP at Site 6 was the result of the
large amount of SIP discharged into ditches from septic
tanks in this subwatershed. Sediment N and nitrate N
accounted for 52 - 64 and 30 - 37 per cent respectively
of the total N transported in the watershed. The find-
ing that nitrate N accounts for a substantial amount of
total N transport in the watershed suggests that nitro-
gen movement in an agricultural watershed cannot be
modelled by relation to sediment transport.
Computer techniques were used to partition the to-
tal transport of sediment and nutrients in the
watershed into classes based on types of flow. Base
flow was arbitrarily defined as any flow in which the
stage was less than 18 cm , and large events were de-
fined as storms producing 2.5 cm or greater of total
subsurface drainage and surface runoff. Small events
comprise all flow other than base flow or large events.
Table 7 presents data on the partitioning of sedi-
ment and nutrient transport at Site 3 into base flow,
small events, and large events. Data for Site 6 are
-------
- 23 -
very similar to that for Site 2, Base flow accounts
for relatively small proportions of the total amounts
of water, sediment/ and nutrients transported in the
watershed. The two large events which occured in 1975
accounted for about Ik per cent of the total water
flowing past Site 2. However, the proportion of sedi-
ment, sediment P, and ammonium N and Sediment N tran-
sported in the two storms was higher than that for wa-
ter. This finding suggests that proportionally large
storms move more sediment and sediment associated nu-
trients than do base flow or small events.
The large percentage of water, sediment and nu-
trients were transported in small events which occured
frequently throughout much of 1975.
TABLE 7 PER CENT OF TOTAL TRANSPORT BY TYPE FLOW (SITE 2)
COMPONENT
BASE
FLOW
SMALL
EVENTS
LARGE
EVENTS
Per Cent of lotal Transport
Water
Sediment
Soluble Inorganic
Soluble Organic P
Sediment P
Ammon i urn N
Nitrate N
Soluole Organic N
Sediment N
,3
,3
,5
,0
,8
.9
,9
.7
U.O
78
72
72
77
71
68
83
81.U
67.5
,0
,3
,3
,3
.7
.3
.8
13
25,
25
111,
26,
22
10
13
7
5
5
7
5
8
3
9
28.6
The finding that almost all sediment and nutrients
transported in an agricultural watershed are associated
with storm events points out the necessity for careful-
ly measuring water flow and sampling continuously dur-
ing the event. Grab sampling of streams CMost samples
would be taken during base flow) does not provide an
adequate base from which to access nutrient transport.
The sources of nutrients present in ditches of the
Black Creek watershed were determined from estimates of
flows originating from each source and knowledge of
concentration in non-til subsurface drainage water.
Nutrients in surface runoff for each subwatershed were
computed from knowledge of total nutrient transport and
estimated amounts of nutrient originating from tiles,
subsurface drainage, and septic tanks.
-------
- 2k -
Table 8 gives data on the percentages
passing Site 2 which originated from t
subsurface drainage, septic tank effluent,
runoff. Water was derived alost equally
runoff and subsurface P plus tile drainage
most all sediment, on the other hand, or
surface runoff. Abouc 80 per cent of SI
from surface runoff and 11 per cent of the
culated as coming from septic tanks.
of nutrients
ile drainage,
and surface
from surface
water, Al-
iginated from
P originated
SI P was cal-
TABLE 8 PER CENT OF TRANSPORT BY SOURCE (SITE 2)
COMPONENT
Water
Sediment
Soluble Inorganic
Soluble Organic P
Sediment P
Ammon i urn N
Nitrate N
Soluble Organic N
Sediment N
TILE SUBSURFACE SEPTIC SURFACE
FLOW RUNOFF FLOW RUNOFF
Per Cent of Total Transport
10.6
0.6
2.2
7.1
0.2
6.1
17.7
5.8
0.1
36.6
7.7
2k.B
13.7
62.U
20.1*
0.2
0.1
10.6
2.7
0.6
2.k
.06
0.2
52.7
99.3
79.it
65.3
99.2
70.0
19.6
73.8
99.7
At site 6, over kO per cent of the SIP originated
from septic tanks due to the large number of homes in
this subwatershed. A substantial proportion of soluble
organic P (SOP) was dervived from subsurface and tile
drainage water although 65 per cent of the total SOP at
Site 2 originated in surface runoff. Surface runoff
was responsible for an excess of 99 per cent of the to-
tal sediment N and sediment P passing Site 2, whereas
80 per cent of the nitrite N at this site originated
from subsurface and tile drainage water. Surface runoff
was the source of greater than 70 per cent of the am-
monium N and soluble organic N passing Site 2. A sub-
stantial proportion of total ammonimum N transported at
Site 6 originated from septic tanks.
Determination of the amounts of nutrients in per-
cipitation revealed that from 1U6 to 180 per cent of
the total ammonium N transported In the watershed is
accounted for in rain and snow. Similar values for ni-
trate N and SIP are 19-25 per cent and 2k - k5 per
cent respectively. These represent a contribution of
-------
- 25 -
about 5 kg/ha of ammonium M, 6 kg/ha of nitrate N/ and
0.15 kg/ha of Inorganic P per year. This finding
demonstrates that a natural source may account for sig-
nificant proportions of the total amounts of soluble
nutrients transported in the watershed.
-------
- 26 -
SECTION VI
SEDIMENT BASINS
AND CHANNEL STABILITY STUDIES
Discussions of techniques useful for the control
of pollution from non-point sources has often included
a reference to construction of basins at the base of
watersheds to allow sediment and related pollutants to
settle out of the drainage way. These sediment removal
basins function by removing velocity from the drainage
stream. At lower velocities/ the flowing water is capa-
ble of carrying less sediment. Two of these basins were
constructed in the Black Creek watershed. To distin-
guish between them, they have been designated as The
Sediment Pond and The Des i11i ne Basin.
The Sediment Pond was constructed on the Virgil
Hirsch farm in the early fall of 1973. It was filled to
overflowing in November of that year. The pond serves
a drainage area of U60 acres (185 ha) in which Hoyt-
ville and Nappanee soil types predominate. Slopes are
generally less than one per cent. When the water level
is at the crest of the mechanical spillway/ the water
surface area of the pond is slightly more than six
acres. Flood storage is 11 acre feet (Ht/OQO cubic me-
ters) with a detention time at flood design of U 1/2
hours and an estimated flow-through time of one hour.
On May 18/ 1976, cross sectional profiles of the
pond were run with the assistance of the Soil Conserva-
tion Service and the SCS State Geologist. Depth of ac-
cumulated sediment was determined across each base line
or station with a recording fathometer and by probing.
Sediment deposits were examined for determination of
particle size. Sediment samples were collected for
analysis at a later date.
Sediment deposits were found to be of uniform
depth throughout the pond. Average accumulation was G.I
cm. Particle size also appeared to be uniform. Parti-
cles were primarily in the clay and silt fractions with
a small amount of fine sand. Laboratory analysis of
the sediment samples has not been completed.
Between the construction of the pond and the late
spring of 1976/ the sediment pond has accumulated ap-
proximately 2/UOO cubic yards (1880 cubic meters) of
sediment. If an average dry weight of 55 pounds per cu-
bic foot (857 kg/cu m) is assumed/ this amounts to an
average of nearly 1.2 tons (2.8 MT/ha) of sediment per
year per acre for each of the three years between con-
struction and survey.
Projection of this figure beyond the three-year
-------
- 27 -
average should be approached with caution. It is prob-
able that the accumulation is well above the long-term
average because of the following factors:
(a) The area immediately north of the pond
was in transition and was subject to
erosion until the conservation practices
on it were completed in 1975. Thus, this
area may have contributed an above aver-
age amount of sediment in this period.
There has also been some construction
activity on the west end of the pond
site.
(b) In May 1975, a storm of nearly 100-year
frequency was received. This storm pro-
duced the highest runoff volume and sed-
iment concentrations yet measured at
many of the monitoring stations. It pro-
duced between 1/3 and 1/2 of the annual
sediment transport for 1975 at some mon-
itoring stations.
(c) No easy way of determining what portion
of the sediment collected has resulted
from uniform erosion over the watershed
and what portion has resulted from
stream bank erosion exists.
The Desilting Basin is located on the main stem of
Black Creek. It was constructed in September 197*i and
was first surveyed on July 30, 1975. A second survey
was conducted July 7, 1976. Sediment samples have been
collected from the basin for particle size determina-
tion.
The first survey covered a period of approximately
9 months. It revealed an accumulation of 80 cubic
yards (770 cubic meters) of material. The second sur-
vey showed an additional accumulation of 530 yards (W.6
cubic meters) in approximately a one year additional
period. Sediment sample analyses have not been com-
pleted, but observation of the material indicates that
it is mostly sand and gravel as was found in the first
nine-month accumulation.
These observations lead to a tentative conclusion
that much of the material being trapped by the desilt-
ing Basin is bed load. However, to date no evidence
has been seen of additional scour of the channel im-
mediately below the desilting basin.
-------
- 28 -
The first 150 feet C50 m) of the basin is nearly
fu]] of sediment and there is considerable accumulation
throughout the entire basin. If material is trapped at
the current rate, the basin will require cleaning
within two years if it is to remain effective.
The original work plan included a study of bank
stabiltiy. This work has been completed, it was re-
ported in earlier documents Including the interim re-
port. Studies consisted of slope-mulch studies plus a
100 per cent bank erosion survey by the Soil Conserva-
tion Service Staff as part of the Maumee River Study of
the International Joint Commission on Great Lakes Water
QualIty.
The IJC study reported bank erosion to be rela-
tively small, although conceding that at eroding loca-
tions it could be quite severe.
To determine if bank cover, particularly trees vs
grass has any relationship to bank stability, the re-
ported data of the SCS study has been reviewed. While
this data shows a strong correlation between soil type
and bank erosion, it is not possible to relate erosion
and cover in the published data. An additional review
is being undertaken, but it appears that the effect of
soil type may mask any effect of type cover on bank
erosion.
Considerable effort has been put into the Black
Creek watershed to stabilize channel banks and slopes
throughout the area. Earlier reports have indicated
that the structures and the bank stabilizing practices
have generally been very successful. However, contin-
ued observations throughout the study have suggested
that in some reaches of the channel, the bottoms may be
continuing to downgrade.
Early soil mechanics studies identified several
locations where the channel bottoms were potentially
unstable. This study showed that the most likely reason
for instability was excess channel slope and often a
less resistent soil material in the profile near the
channel bottom. It is evident that if a channel bottom
degrades,eventually even stable banks must become un-
stable .
Channel stability studies were Initiated by the
selection of four sites In 1975. One of these* on the
Joe Graber farm, was known to have lowered one or two
feet deeper following revegetation of the banks. In
this area, small rock drop structures were installed in
1975 in an attempt to control the channel degradation.
The 1976 results in this area shown both degradation
-------
- 29 -
and aggradation.
About 150 feet C50 m) above the structure* the
channel has accumulated sediment and appears to be fil-
ling up, but farther up stream, there has been contin-
ued erosion since the last survey was made approximate-
ly one year ago.
It cannot be determined if the erosion occurred
before the installation of the rock structure, or if ft
is erosion since the installation of
ture. These surveys will be repeated
bly in succeeding years to determine
rock structures as installed will
the erosion of the channel bottom.
the control struc-
in 1977 and possi-
whether or not the
adequately control
Another site on the Gorrell drain along Notestlne
Road, stretching for about 500 feet (165 m) downstream
of the monitoring site, shows the ditch bottom to be
almost identical with the original conformation. Thfs
is the smallest slope of any of the four sites being
studied.
The Black Creek channel at Notestine Road was sur-
veyed for a distance of 150 feet (30 m) upstream and
200 feet (65 m) downstream of the bridge. This is an
area where rock was used for channel training. It is
also an area that the soil mechanics studies indicated
had a potentially unstable channel at flood flow. This
channel was shown to be unstable because of the soil
material in the channel bottom and also because of the
slope (.25 per cent). This 350 foot (115 m) section
has degraded approximately l.k feet (k2 cm) between May
of 1971; and August of 1976. The channel appears to have
considerable grass and other water vegetation in the
bottom. It may become stabilized at its present posi-
tion. Additional surveys will be made to determine
this.
Wertz drain between Notestine Road and the main
channel of the Black Creek for a distance of approxi-
mately 1,000 feet (305 m) was a site of the bank
slope-mulch studies. This channel reash has an average
slope of .k per cent (k feet per 1,000 feet or O.U me-
ters per 100). Earlier observations had Indicated thai
the channel bottom was eroding in several sites. The
survey conducted in August 1976 shows that with the ex-
ception of a section between 600 and 700 feet C200 and
230 m) below the Notestine Road, all of the channel has
eroded. For the first 500 feet (.160 m), an average
lowering of approximately one foot (30 cm) occurred
between March 197U and August 1976. The 200 feet (160
m) of the Wertz Drain above the main Black Creek chan-
-------
- 30 -
nel eroded approximately 1.5 feet ftS cm) during this
period. There are several areas in this 1000-foot sec-
tion where erosion of the channel bottom has caused the
toe of the banks to slip into the channel. This survey
will also be repeated during 1977 to determine if the
erosion is continuing.
These survey results/ plus other observations, in-
dicate that there are a number of sections throughout
the Black Creek watershed where channel bottom erosion
is producing unstable bank conditions. If this channel
bottom erosion continues at the present rate/ it will
be necessary to install some type of control structure
in order to stabilize the total channel.
-------
- 31 -
SECTION VI I
FILTERING CAPACITY OF
BLACK CREEK WATERSHED BIOTA
Several attempts are being made by various water
quality planning agencies to utilize the Universal Soil
Loss Equation and a set of modifying parameters to
predict the sediment potential of a watershed.
Changes in nutrient and sediment dynamics of
streams following the clearing of natural vegetation
are well documented. These studies indicate that in-
tensification of land use results in a decay in water
quality as the buffering capacity of the terrestial
vegetation is lost.
Evidence from a small study area in the Black
Creek Watershed suggests that small scale changes in
land use may have a profound effect on sediment and nu-
trient dynamics. Caution should therefore be exercised
in the application of the Universal Soil Loss Equation
to estimate the sediment potential of a watershed.
Small scale variation in the vegetation cover near
the stream and characteristics of the stream channel
(especially pool and riffle frequency and meander
characteristics) are particularly significant* They
affect the sediment and nutrient dynamics of the stream
and the nature of the stream biota/ a prime indicator
of water qua 1i ty.
Studies conducted in Black Creek have demonstrated
the significance cf a small area of forest on sediment
dynamics in Wertz Drain. However, sample intensity and
distribution has beer, limited by time and manpower
availability. As a result/ the sampling required to
determine the effects of a more general set of channel
and bank characteristics on sediments and nutrients
have not been undertaken
In June of 1976, an expanded sampl ing effort //as
undertaken by Dr. James Karr, University of Illinois/
and Dan Dudley to investigate the following questions:
Ca) How cnuch filtering capacity do grass
channels with and without field borders
have to reduce sediir.ents?
Cb) How do those potentials compare with
sediment reductions in heaviJy forested
areas?
Cc) What is the impact of buffer strips on
-------
- 32 -
Cd)
trees and shrubs?
What are the dynamics
sport in straight vs
areas when vegetation
stant?
of sediment tran-
mearidering channe]
cover is held con--
(e)
How do these patterns relate to the na-
ture of the stream biota, especially
fish, communities?
(e) What is the microbiological
the Black Creek Watershed?
status of
(f) How are nutrient and sediment dvnamics
in the Black Cr'3ek Watershed correlated
with varying agricultural practices.
The Black Creek Watershed has been divided into
four major regions as follows:
(a) Driesbach Drain C20 channel stations)
(b) Wertz Drain (33 stations)
(c) Smith Fry-Drain (23 stations)
(d) Black Creek (32 stations)
An additional 12 stations at PTO terraces and oth-
er sites are located to monitor areas of special in-
terest. For the period March to October* samples will
be taken at biweekly intervals with monthly samples
from November to February.
These four major sample areas differ in a number
of respects and are therefor idea for this study pro-
gram. The Driesbach Drain has been the subject of in-
tense efforts to improve agricultural and conservation
practices, Wertz drain has several areas of forest and
agricultural activity; and the Smith-Fry Drain has seen
little activity as the result of the Black Creek pro-
ject. The Smith-Fry Drain has also been the site of
several major fish, kills and mere intensive monitoring
may help clarify the reason for these fish kills. The
main Black Creek channel is a major area for seasonal
changes in fish communities and considerable effort has
been made to stabilize stream banks in this area.
-------
- 33 -
A large number of water quality parameters will
routinely be monitored at each sample station. These
include total alkalinity, specific conductance, total
dissolved ionized solids, hardness, turbidity, total
phosphorus, soluble orthophosphate, nitrate, nitrite,
ammonia, organic nitrogen, total residue Csuspended
solids) and sulfate.
At each sample station, a number of parameters are
being measured to characterize the biota and landform
near the sample site. A major effort v/ill be made to
identify correlations between water quality and biota
and landform characteristic near the sample station.
The expanded biological program also includes some
small scale surveys of heavy metal, PCB, and possibly
pesticide contamination in the watershed, including
samples of water and of fish tissues. The low flows
during the summer of 1976 made it impossible to collect
samples for these studies.
Finally. U2 sample stations have been located
throughout the watershed for routine studies on mi-
croorganisms. About half of the samples C20) are from
tile outlets with the rest (22) from the streams In the
watershed. Samples from each of these locations will
be taken two or three times. Sample times will be
selected to coincide with high and low flow periods.
Total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal streptococcus
counts will be made on each sample. Laboratory ana-
lyses of these samples are being done by the Allen
County Board of Health Laboratory.
-------
SECTION VIII
DATA ACQUISITION*
PROCESSING AND SIMULATION
In the Black Creek Watershed, rainfall data is
collected from as many as seven recording rain gages.
Water stage data is collected from as many as nine
pressure-activated stage recorders. Water quality sam-
ples are collected either manually or mechanically.
Three pumping samplers, each capable of collecting
72 consecutive samples, are located at junctions of two
primary drains into Black Creek and on the main stem of
Black Creek approximately 1.5 miles from its confluence
with the Maumee River. The pumping samplers are
storm-activated. Grab samples are collected at all
stage recorder sites, at strategic locations upstream
from the stage recorder sites, and at selected till
outfalls. Grab samples are collected weekly and during
storm events.
Rainfall or water stage data and water quality
samples have been collected since early 1973. An enor-
mous amount of information is available for various
kinds of analyses, some of which have not yet been dev-
ised. In order to put the data into useful form for
future analysis, a procedure as illustrated by Figure 1
was initiated. Raw data, as represented by rainfall
charts, water stage charts, grab samples, and automated
pump samples are processed largely by computer and then
stored to be used by researchers connected with the
project and researchers outside of the project who may
be interested in the regional aspects of the data.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of data processing
for the Black Creek project. Steps in this process are
as follows:
Step 1 Water stage and rain gage charts are read
on a chart reader and the data punched
on paper tape.
Step 2 Data on paper tape are read into the di-
gital computer file.
Step 3 Rainfall data which are in accumulated
inches of rainfall are transferred tnto
rates in cm/hr
Step k Areal rainfall is calculated by taking
the weighted average of the rainfall
data on an area basis between adjacent
-------
DIGITAL
COMPUTER
FILE
CHANGE FROM
CUMULATIVE
DATA TO RATE
DATA
AVERAGE TWO
RAINFALL
SITES ON
AREA BASIS /
STORE DATA
BY
YEAR & SITE
DIGITAL
COMPUTER
FILE
REFORMAT
FILE
STORE DATA
BY
YEAR & SITE
KEYPUNCH
2 DECKS
_
VERIFY
FOR
PUNCH
ERROR 7
__
SORTED
BY
TIME&
SITE g
ERROR
CHECK
9
_
BEST
ESTIMATE
10
_
STAGE
CONVER-
SION
11
_
STORE
DATA BY
YEAR&
SITE 5
STAGE
DATA
ADDED
12
KEYPUNCH
2 DECKS
VERIFY
FOR
PUNCH
ERROR
SORTED
BY
TIME&
SITE g
ERROR
CHECK
BEST
ESTIMATE
10
STORE
DATA BY
YEAR&
SITE 5
COMBINE
PREPROCESSED
DATA FILES
INTO SINGLE
FILE BY YEAR
AND SITE
13
COMPREHENSIVE
DATA
FILES
U
2
w
Q
in
w w
& tq
D U
O O
H «
Cn (X
-------
- 36 -
sites.
Step 5 Rainfall data and waterstage
quality data are stored by
the site number.
and
year
water
and by
Step 6 Water stage data are edited for commas
and characters and then stored by year
and by the site number as in Step 5.
Step 7
Grab sample
ing errors
data are verified for punch-
and corrections made.
Step 8 Grab sample data are then sorted out by
time, date/ and site number
Step 9 Grab sample data and also pump sample
data are checked for errors and omis-
sions such as poor response from a site,
unrealistic dates and times, unreadable
characters, abnormally high values, and
bad values of N or P constitutents.
Step 10 Best estimates are made for missing data
or for water quality parameters which
are flagged for possible error in
analysis or for wrong entries in the
data log. If errors are duto faulty
analysis, rules for obtaining the best
estimate are:
Let soluble N = NOa +NH4 if
Let total N = soluble N if
Let soluble P = inorganic P if
Let total P = soluble P if
N03 +NH4 > soluble N
soluble N > total N
inorganic P > soluble
soluble P > total P
Step 11 The distance from a benchmark to the wa-
ter level is converted to depth of water
for the stage record with grab samples.
The grab sample data are now stored as
in Step 5.
Step 12 As in Step 11 for the grab samples*
stage data are added to the pump sample
file. Stage data are necessary to calcu-
late for loadings. The pumping sample
data then go through the same steps as
for grab sample data and are also stored
as in Step 5.
Step 13 The data files are
sorted according to
and then placed on
now combined and
time and location
disks into a
-------
- 37 -
comprehensive data base*
Automatic Data Acquisition Network
Primary emphasis concerning the
development and installation of an au-
tomatic, real-time data acquisition net-
work for the Black Creek Watershed has
been concentrated on three major areas:
Ca) Design, construct ion* and
installation of interfac-
ing electronics for the
various remote instrument
]ocattons
Cb) Reduction of data errors
in the transmission of
information over the
dedicated telephone ]ine
between the watershed and
the computer facilities
in West Lafayette
Cc) Development of the funda-
mental operating system
software to permit real-
time interaction between
the instrumentation in
the watershed and the
computer system which Is
located 2UO km away.
The automatic data acquisition system planned
for the Black Creek watershed was designed to pro-
vide data transmission from the network of instru-
ments distributed throughout the catchment to a
central site using a combination of local dedicat-
ed telephone lines and radio telemetry. Data ac-
quisition received at the central watershed re-
ceiving station are punched on paper tape and
transmitted to the computer in West Lafayette over
a dedicated/ long-distance telephone linkage. The
entire system is designed to provide two-way com-
munication so than an analysis of the Incoming
data can be used by the computer to control opera-
tion of water sampling equipment in the watershed.
During 1976, most of the field instrumenta-
tion were received and installed including sensors
-------
- 38 -
for water-level,, rainfall, temperature, etc. The
central watershed receiving location was fulJ in-
strumented together with fts battery-operated pa-
per tape punch. This equipment has been operating
satisfactorily since early in 1976, Both the lo-
cal telephone drops for data communication within
the watershed and the long-distance linkage wave
been installed. Existing water sampling equipment
has been modified to accommodate remote computer
control.
Although data collected during the past
spring and summer have been successfully recorded
on paper tape at the central station, prolonged
difficulties with data transmission errors on the
long-distance telephone line made it impossible to
attain an operation status with the interactive
control system. Because of the dry conditions
during 1976, this has been relatively unimportant
for an operational viewpoint. A major cooperative
effort between General Telephone of Indiana and
project personnel seems to have overcome these
problems to an acceptable degree.
The sensing instrumentation to be used with
the automated data acquisition system was all com-
mercially available; however, the equipment neces-
sary to interconnect it to a loop of telephone
lines with the watershed in order to transmit data
and to receive commands from the central site was
designed and built by project personnel. All of
this equipment was designed to permit unattended,
battery-powered operation. Intital designs ex-
perienced componet failures due to electrical
transients on the local telephone lines. Subse-
quent design modifications appear to have elim-
inated these problems.
The fundamental operating software (computer
program) necessary to allow remote, interactive
data acquisition and control on a general purpose,
multi-user, time-sharing system has now been
developed and successfully installed on the host
computer in West Lafayette. While substantial
development remains to be done on the application
programs which will collect and analyze the data,
the operating system system now permits this to
proceed in an orderly fashion without disruption
of the other concurrent demands for computer ac-
cess .
During 1977, it is anticipated that the pri-
mary equipment development will be related to the
design an construction of the radio telemetry por-
-------
- 39 -
tion of the data network. A licence to operate the
fm transceivers was obtained during 1976. The
primary software effort will be on application
programs to analyze Incoming data and provide for
tansfer of updated data files to a remote large
computer which will be used for hydrologic simula-
tion studies.
The inability to fill a graduate instructor-
ship position on the project seriously delayed
progress in the real-time modelling effort. A de-
cision to forgo filling the position with a gradu-
ate student was finally necessary. Dr. J.R. Bur-
ney/ an individual with several years experience
with distributed hydrologic models, was subse-
quent 1y hi red.
The Land Use Model
Currently, there are two basic approaches to
the modelling of hydrologic processes and the
resulting runoff. The more widely used and publi-
cized concept is the "lumped parameter" approach
to modeling. The newer and more complex concept
is the "distributed parameter" approach.
In the "lumped parameter" approach, the
watershed is treated as a unit. The varying hy-
drologic responses of the different areas within
the watershed are "lumped" into several parameters
which describe the watershed's response as a
whole. Such widely known models as the Stanford
Watershed Model(s) and the USDAHL - 7k are exam-
ples of the "lumped parameter" approach. This
type of model has several strengths. It is a much
cheaper model to run and can simulate long, con-
tinuous records when calibrated and verified
correctly. It is also somewhat easier to set up
the descriptive data file for the simulation runs.
The "lumped parameter" approach has several
weaknesses, however. In order to simulate even
small changes in land use within the watershed,
the parameters describing the watershed charac-
teristics must be totally recalculated. The out-
put of the model can only be collected at a
specific point Cgenerally a gaging station* or
similar location)< Due to the "lumped" nature of
the hydrologic parameters, very little physical
significance exists in the simulation, and as a
result, sediment production, deposition, and tran-
sport can only be handled on a statistical or sto-
chastic basis. Finally, a rather extensive data
base is required in order to calibrate and verify
-------
the model.
The "distributed parameter" approach involves
dividing the watershed into areas sma]] enough to
be considered uniform Csoil type, slope* crop,
etc.). The small areas or elements are modeled
separately (using flow from upstream or uphill
elements as inputs along with rainfall) and the
outputs routed through the watershed. There are
several strengths in this approach. The actual
processes occurring at a specific point in the
watershed are being simulated. The output from
the model can be collected at any point or many
points in the watershed. Although the data file
necessary for the simulation is rather complex, it
is easily and quickly changed to reflect manage-
ment or cropping changes. Finally, the sedimenta-
tion process can be described much more precisely.
Two weaknesses are inherent in this model. First,
it requires very large amounts of processor time
and computer core run. It is not capable of simu-
lating long periods of record economically. Thus
it is limited to event or single storm simula-
tions. It requires more data for its descriptive
data file.
The need for a computer model of agricultural
runoff for use in prediction and management prac-
tice optimization was realized at the outset of
the Black Creek study. However, certain portions
of the modeling philosophy have changed as the
project investigators have become more familiar
with the processes that govern runoff, drainage,
and sedimentation. In order to accurately
describe the processes involved in agricultural
runoff, it is necessary to select an area that is
small enough so that most of the factors influenc-
ing the processes of water and sediment movement
can be considered to be uniform. For this reason,
a distributed parameter modelling approach was
chosen for this study.
There are several levels of descriptive
parameters within the model. First, there are
watershed-level descriptive parameters. These in-
clude the interception parameters, channel
descriptions, antecedent moisture conditions, and
control depth for infiltration. Next, there are
elemental descriptive parameters. The include the
element's location within the watershed, the mag-
nitude and direction of slope, the elementls soil
type, the crop being grown, the current management
practices, whether or not the element is a stream
element, and whether or not the element is tile
-------
drained. Finally there are descriptive parameters
based on combinations of the above parameters.
The Infi]tration, soil roughness, and sedimenta-
tion parameters are based on combinations of the
soil type/ crop, and management practices within
and element.
The element used in this model is a square-
shaped area that is 330 feet on a side. This
means that the element is exactly 2.5 acres or ap-
proximately 1 hectare in size. The topographic
information Cdirection and magnitude of the
steepest slope) is obtained from USGS 7.5 minute
quadrangles that have been photographically en-
larged to a scale of 16 inches to the mile and
then have been partitioned off using a 1-inch grid
pattern. Likewise/ the field boundaries and soil
types are taken from aerial photographs that have
been similarly enlarged and divided into grid pat-
terns. The model then divides the flow off an
element into its horizontal and verticle com-
ponents with respect to the map and sends this
output to the receiving elements. No flow Is
routed to diagonally located elements.
The inputs to an element can consist of rain-
fall/ overland flow from uphill elements/ channel
flow from upstream elements/ and subsurface
drainage or tile flow (channel elements only).
The outputs from an element consist of a depth of
flow (either channel or overland) a subsurface
drainage rate, and a rate of sediment movement.
(The lesser of total detachment or transport).
In order to accomplish the complex task of
routing the overland/ channel, and subsurface
drainage flows and to set up the elemental data
files/ a separate program was written in order to
set up all of the data files necessary for the
simulation. This was also necessitated by the
fact that the combination of an initialization and
simulation program took up more computer core that
the Purdue Computer Center would allocate for a
single program.
The simulation program uses the data file
(common blocks) set up by the initialization pro-
gram and stored for this purpose. The simulation
consists of adding the rainfall for a specified
(GASP IV dependent) period of time and routing the
resulting runoff and subsurface flow throughout
the watershed in a sequential manner Cupper left
to lower right). The rainfall intensity and over-
land flow rates are used to determine the amount
-------
- 1*2 -
of detachment and transport of sediment within
each element. The channel flow elements also
determine the transport capacity of the stream
flow. Thus, as flow builds up, the detached sedi-
ments begin to move. Subsurface drainage uses the
same routing as surface drainage for simplicity.
The normal output of the model describes the flow
and sediment concentration with respect to time
that occurs at the watershed outlet element. How-
ever, as stated earlier, the output from any ele-
ment or elements can be collected.
Si mulat i on of Tile Eff1uent
A model to provide a predictive tool for the
determination of sediment losses from tile ef-
fluent is under development as a part of the Black
Creek effort. The model will provide a flow hy-
drograph with associated sediment loading as a
function of the input variables (rainfall and Ini-
tial soil moisture profile). The model will have
the capability of being easily modified to
represent different tile system designs and soil
propert i es.
The need for a better knowledge of tile
drainage's influence on water quality is shown by
the significant contribution it has to stream
flow. Approximately 50 per cent of the Black
Creek Watershed is drained by subsurface tile sys-
tems. A tile system can contribute anywhere from
10 to 100 per cent (typically 30 per cent) of the
total runoff of a given area. This indicates that
approximately 15 per cent of the runoff from Black
Creek is from tile effluent. Values will vary
greatly depending on the rainfall distribution.
An estimate of the sediment contribution of
the Maumee River from Black Creek tile effluent is
approximately 100 kg7ha/yr. This is based on_ the
previous flow assumptions and the mean sediment
concentration of tile effluent being approximately
100 ppni. The loading rate can be much larger as
shown by G.O. Schwab U973). He measured annual
sediment losses from tiles as high as itOOO
kg7ha/yr. His results Indicate that in some crit-
ical areas, the tile effluent may be the dominant
effect on water quality.
Glacial tilled soils of the Midwest seem to
be very susceptible to erosion losses through
-------
tiles. These soils generally have high fine silt
and clay contents. The fine particles are able to
move within the soil profile by forces exerted on
them by flowing water.
A model for the force balance of particles in
cohesive soils is given by D. Zaslavsky. The
value of this model is the implied interrelation-
ship of the flow and the fine particles movement.
Particularly, it shows that for a given particle
size, a threshold flow level must be reached be-
fore particle movement will occur. Also the ef-
fect of the flow channel size on the critical flow
is provided. Therefore, it is now possible to ob-
tain an expression which will relate the critical
flow for particle movement to a given particle
size assuming a mean pore channel size is avail-
able. The particle movement model described above
requires knowledge of the flow distribution within
the soil profile. The flow in the unsaturated
profile region is determined by Darcy's law which
is the tension - conductivity method. The water
flow from the tile is determined by Toksoz and
Kirkharn's (1961) relationship using the watertable
height above the tile. The watertable position in
the soil profile can now be determined by con-
tinuity i.e.
Change in water storage = Inflow - Outflow
Using the assumption that the flow pattern near
the tile is radial, the magnitude of water move-
ment near the tile can be generated as a function
of R (radial distance from the tile). This flow
magnitude is then used to determine the relative
volume of soil which is greater or equal to the
critical flow as determined by a given particle
size. Therefore, knowing the flow properties and
the soil particle size distribution, one can ex-
press the potential for the erosion loss as a
function of time. The sediment loss, as Indicat-
ed, is determined as a distribution shape, and
therefore absolute magnitudes are not directly
provided by this approach. Field data are needed
to quantify the sediment loss distribution.
The tile model is programmed in the GASP IV
Simulation Language. GASP IV was selected because
of its advanced time stepping and differential
equation solving techniques. The computer model
breaks the soil profile above the tile into N
layers. Hydraulic conductivity for each layer can
be provided separately. This gets tremendous la-
titude in the types of soil profiles which can be
-------
analyzed. Flow between each layer is determined
for each time step by use of Darcyls law.
= k { 3(T + z) / 3Z}At
Continuity at the watertable is determined by com-
parison of the flow into the layer in which the
watertable is located and the flow out of the tile
as determined by Toksoz and Kirkham's method
Tq (Tile flow ) = RH
SF+H
the relationship of an erosion potential can be
determined by
n
f± x ( ^- -1)
Potential =
Tq
L f± X ( K^f^ -1)
The computer model solves the above relation-
ships for an rainfall distribution provided. The
output of the model is a plot and table of tile
outflow and sediment loading rate as a function of
time. Also, at any time during the simulation/ a
moisture plot can be obtained for the soil profile
above the tile.
List of Variables
Variable Description
q = Vertical water flux
R = Hydraulic conductivity
T - Soil mositure tension head
Z = Elevation head
t = t i me
H = height of watertable above tile
Tq - Flow out of tile per unit length
S = tile spacing
F = Geometry coefficient for tile system
Qcr = critical flow for particle movement
g = Zaslavsky piping function
s - Mean particle size
-------
fi = Fraction of particle stz.es In ith interval
The hydrological part of the tile model has
been developed and tentative results obtained.
However, additional work is required in the water
movement part of the model to determine the effect
that different simplifying assumptions have on the
output. This is needed so the run times for the
model can be reduced. Soil moisture profile plots
have also been made and appear to behave according
to the theory. Five different methods of initial-
izing moisture contents in the soil profile have
been developed to provide greater flexibility in
the testing and convergence of the model. The
sediment loss potential function has been
developed/ but has not yet been added to the com-
puter model. The potential function will be added
when the hydrological model is running satisfac-
tori1y.
The need for field data to calibrate and ver-
ify the computer model is critical. The sediment
loss potential as determined by the modei does not
provide absolute magnitudes of the sediment loss.
Therefore/ to calibrate this potential distribu-
tion/ at least one water quality sample is needed
during a significant flow period. This in itself
does not assure that the computed shape of the po-
tential distribution is correct. Therefore/, it is
necessary to have water quality data for as many
flow conditions as possible in order to compare
the distribution shapes of both the actual and
simulated sediment loss curves. To obtain this
data base/ as automatic pumping tile sampler was
installed on a tile line draining a typical soil
type (Hoytville) in the watershed.
The sampler has been operational since March
1976. Due to low rainfall amounts, only five sam-
ples have been collected since its installation.
The pump sampler data will be analyzed to provide
loading rates directly for the determination of
the tile effluent's effect on water quality. The
fertilizer nutrients will also be looked at close-
ly to find their loss rate through the tile sys-
tem.
-------
SECJ I ON IX
ECONOMIC AND SOCtAL
ASPECTS
Several activities were accomplished during
1976. The major work involved preparing an Instru-
ment to survey the social and economic charac-
teristics of the farmers in the Black Creek
watershed. This instrument was prepared during
the winter. Interviews were conducted with the
farmers before they began their spring work. Am-
ish farmers were questioned about both economic
and social characteristics because they represent
a smaller subset of the watershed. The larger
group of Non-Amish farmers were questioned about
either the economic characteristics of their farm-
ing operation or the social questions relating to
att i tudes.
This sampling procedure permitted reliable
extension of the results to the population of the
Black Creek area while at the same time minimizing
the amount of time each respondent would have to
spend in the interview process.
The data collected in interviews are being
utilized in several ways. A summary is provided
here. These data provide useful insights into the
economic potential for modifying operations and on
changing attitudes of farmers toward soil conser-
vat ion.
While summarizing the data and comparing them
to the results of the survey conducted two years
earlier provides useful insights, the more funda-
mental research results from detail analysis of
tnese data in various economic and sociological
models. The more fundamental researcn provides
the opportunity to reach specific conclusions and
recommendations which are valuable for planning
pollution control activities. The specific models
include single period and multi-period farm
management models of representative farms which
can aid in identification of the cost to the farm-
er of adopting specific best management practices
to control nonpoint pollution. In addition,
specific models which identify the factors which
influence the attitudes of different farmers to-
ward soil and water conservation activities are
being developed in the sociological area of the
research on them Is completed this winter.
Returning now to the summary of the survey
data, two examples will be cited to illustrate the
-------
- k7 -
kind of information available about the Black
Creek project. This will be interpreted in
respect to the EPA program in water qualtty.
The data presented below in Table 9 clearly
indicate the positive impact of the educational
program conducted by the Allen County Soil and Wa-
ter Conservation District in the Black Creek
Watershed. Farmers were asked if pollution of
streams was a major problem in Allen County. Dur-
ing the survey conducted in the Spring of 197^,
only 19 per cent of the Amish farmers and 53 per
cent of the non-Amish farmers agreed with that
statement. In contrast, during the survey con-
ducted in the spring of 1976, 59 per cent of the
Amish and 71 per cent of the non Amish agreed with
that statement. This reflects a major change in
attitude and the identification of a major social
problem by the people. The major change was a
reduction of the number of people who did not know
whether pollution of streams was a problem. In
1974, kk per cent of the Amish and 19 per cent of
the non Amish were undecided, but in 1976 only Ik
per cent of the Amish and 8 per cent of the non-
Amish were still undecided.
From a policy standpoint, it is possible to
change farmers awareness of the problem. It is
most useful to direct the educational material to-
ward those who lack the information to take a po-
sition on the problem. As is illustrated in this
question, when provided with appropriate informa-
tion, most of the undecided will recognize that
pollution of the streams is a serious social prob-
1 em.
TABLE 9. RESPONSE TO THE QUESTION;
"Is Pollution of Streams a Major Problem in this Country?"
197U Percentage 1976 Percentage
RESPONSE AMISH NON-AMISH AMISH NON-AMISH
Agree 19 53 59 71
Did not know kk 19 Ik 8
Disagree 37 221 27 21
The initial evaluation of the economic data
indicated the diversity of farming operations in
the watershed. These data were grouped into ftve
classes of farms for the purpose of analysis. The
1975 crop year information on selected farm
-------
characteristics are presented in TabJe 10,
TABLE 10. SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK CREEK FARMS IN 1975
CHARACTERISTIC
Ful 1 Time
Large
Non-Ami sh
Acres in Farm
Typical Power
Source
Full Time
Employees
CAverage)
Acres in Corn
Yield of Corn
680
125,75,+60
HP Tractors
1.7
210
90 bu/a
CLASS
Full Time
Medium
Non-Ami sh
254
110+60 HP
Tractors
1.6
107
100 bu/a
Part Full Part
T i me T i me T i me
Non-Amish Amlsh Amish
61
HP
Tractors
1.0
11
100 bu/a
122
13
hours
2.8
87
15
hours
2.3
31 15
60 bu/a 56 bu/a
Average Commercial Fertilizer Application
(Pounds Per Acre)
Ni t rogen
Phosphorus
Potass i urn
110
71
109
95
50
56
129
yk
92
26
26
39
5k
The diversity in farm size
tion reinforce the need to main
the 208 planning guidelines rel
ment practices. For example,
for the Amish community to shif
cultural practices, e.g. chisel
equipment not presently availab
use with horses. However, the
pasture and hay may permit sign
in soil loss through rotations.
and type of opera-
tain flexibility in
ated to farm manag-
it is not feasible
t to certain agri-
plowing unless new
le is developed for
ir extensive use of
ificant reductions
Different amounts of fertilizers are applied
per acre by the differnt classes of farms which
indicates that control of fertilizer application
would have differential economic impacts. These
and other aspects of diversity will be explored in
more detail in the economic models presently under
study.
-------
KEY PERSONNEL
BLACK CREEK PROJECT
The following are brief biographical sketches
of some of the key personnel for the Black Creek
Project:
DAVID B. BEASLEY held the position of gradu-
ate research insrctor In agricultural engineering
at Purdue with full-time responsibilities for
wathershed modeling/ data analysis, and data in-
terfacing with companion projects. He completed
requirements for Ph.D from Purdue on March 30,
1977 and presently holds the position of Assistant
Professor of Agricultural Engineering in Soil and
Water at the University of Arkansas.
ADELBERT B. BOTTCHER is a graduate research
instructor in the Agricultural Engineering Depart-
ment at Purdue University. He is a graduate of
South Florida and the University of Florida in
physics, mathematics and agricultural engineering
respectively. His work on the Black Creek Study
includes responsibility for maintenance of sam-
pling equipment, data analysis of all water quali-
ty and climatic data from Black Creek, and
development of a tile drainage simulation model.
DR. JACK BURNEY, visiting associate professor
in tne Department of Agricultural Engineering, Is
specializing in increasing the capability and op-
timizing the storage and execution time require-
ments for the distributed parameter watershed
model being developed by the project. Primary
areas of emphasis include developing procedures to
model channel flow, inundation area and rainfall
intensity dependent infiltration, and independent
element rainfall, cropping, management and soil
parameter selection.
DANIEL R. DUDLEY is an aquatic biologist em-
ployed by the Allen County Soil and Water Conser-
vation District to assist Dr. James Karr in stu-
dies of fisheries, microbiological parameters, and
water quality within the BJack Creek watershed.
He holds a BS in biology from Kent State Universi-
ty and an MS in animal ecology from Iowa State
Un ivers i ty.
DONALD R, GRIFFITH is a research and exten-
-------
- 50 -
sion agronomist at Purdue University who has par-
ticular interest in corn and soybean cultural
practices. He has directed the conservation til-
lage trials and demonstrations on the Black Creek
Study. At Purdue/ he has coordinated agronomic
research at regional Purdue agricultural centers,
served as leader of an interdepartmental research
project on tillage-planting systems for corn and
soybeans, and as coordinator of state-wide exten-
sion program in the tillage area. He is a member
of the American Society of Agronomy, Alpha Zeta,
Gamma Sigrna Delta/ and Epsilon Sigma Phi. He holds
BS and NiS degrees from the University of Illinois
in general agronomy and soil fertility.
DR. LARRY F. HUGGINS, Professor of Agricul-
tural Engineering/ has been involved with two as-
pects of the project: watershed modelling and
field data acquisition automation. In the model-
ling area/ he has been involved with supervising
the development of the hydrologic components of
the distributed parameter watershed model/
ANSWERS. The work concerning field data acquisi-
tion has involved supervising both the
design/installation of the real-time, automatic
data acquisition system/ ALERT/ located on the
watershed and the development of the associated
computer programs required to control this network
of instruments from a remote on-line computer.
JAMES R.KARR is associate professor of ecolo-
gy at the University of Illinois in Urbana-
Champaign. He holds a B.Sc. degree in fisheries
and wildlife from Iowa State University and M.Sc.
and Ph.D degrees from the University of Illinois
in Zoology. He is a member of the American Associ-
ation for the Advancement of Science/ Ecological
Society of America, Association for Tropical Biol-
ogy/ American Institute of Biological Sciences/
and the Wildlife Society. His principal areas of
research involve the study of structure and func-
tion in ecological systems. Special areas of in-
terest include community ecology, effects of land
use on water quality, and strategies for develop-
ment of natural resource systems.
JANiES E. LAKE is executive director of the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District
and project manager for the Black Creek Study, He
is responsible for day-to-day supervision of all
phases of the project including coordination of
the efforts of subcontractors and communication
with USEPA. He holds a BS in agricultural educa-
tion from Purdue University with a minor in soils.
-------
- 51 -
RICHARD E. LAND is field coordinator for Pur-
due University on the Black Creek Study wi.ih
responsibility for continuing field data acquisi-
tion, sampling of tile and stream water/ collec-
tion of climatological data/ and recording field
cover changes. He has designed and installed spe-
cial sites for measuring stream discharge and sed-
iment accumulation. He also coordinated the appli-
cation, monitoring, and research phases of the
project. He holds the BS in Agricultural En-
gineering from Purdue and has been employed by the
Soil Conservation Service and in private industry
working on agricultural drainage and irrigation.
STEPHEN J. MAHLER is a visiting instructor in
the Agricultural Engineering Department. He re-
ceived a Bachelor of Science in 1975 from Purdue.
During his undergraduate studies he designed and
implemented software for a USDA researcher to con-
trol and store weather data. He was involved in
the design, construction, installation, and main-
tainence of the Remote Data Acquisition and Con-
trol System, ALERT, for the project. In addition,
he developed the software to interface the moni-
toring system to a computer to be used for real-
time simulation of the watershed. Free time ac-
tivities include upgrading the systems level
software for the in-house computer and when the
weather cooperates water sports.
DR. JERRY V. MANNERING is professor of agron-
omy and extension agronomist at Purdue University.
He directed simulated rainfall research in the
Black Creek Study to establish base erodibility
values for major soils in the watershed and to
evaluate the influence of crops and tillage prac-
tices on runoff, soil loss, and nutrient loss from
major soils. Dr. Mannering has held his present
position since 1967. Prior to that time, he con-
ducted soil erosion research as a member of the
Agricultural Research Service of USDA. He holds
the BS degree from Oklahoma State and the MS and
Ph.D from Purdue.
THOMAS DANIEL McCAlN is district conserva-
tionist assigned by SCS to assist the Allen County
Soil and Water Conservation District. Since 1969,
he has been responsibile for SCS filed office
operations in Fort Wayne. McCain holds a BS in
agronomy from Purdue.
WILLIAM L. MILLER holds the Ph.D. in agricul-
tural economics from Michigan State University. He
has specialized in resource economics at Purdue
-------
- 52 -
University where he has been a member of the
Department of Agricultural Economics since 1965,
He is in charge of socio-economic studies on the
Black Creek Project,
DR. EDWIN J. MONKE is Professor of agricul-
tural engineering at Purdue University where he
teaches and does research in soil and water
resources. He received a BS in agricultural en-
gineering in 1950, an MS in the same discipline in
19:>3, and a Ph.D in civil engineering in 1959, all
from the University of Illinois. He has been on
the Purdue staff since 1958. Dr. Monke's research
has been in the mechanics of erosion, hydrologic
modeling, the hydraulics of sediment-laden flow,
the treatment of water from small reservoirs for
domestic consumption and the movement of water
and chemicals in soils. In the Black Creek Study,
he has been engaged in the use of mathematical
simulation of surface and subsurface discharge of
sediments and related pollutants into receiving
streams. He is a registered professional engineer
in Indiana and is a member of the National Society
of Professional Engineers, American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, Soil Conservation Society
of America, and American Geophysical Union.
JAMES B. MORRISON is an information special-
ist in the Department of Agricultural Information
at Purdue University. He was a field representa-
tive for Cong. J. Edward Roush during the design
of the Black Creek Study and has served as project
editor for basic documentation of the project. He
holds a BS in mathematics and has completed re-
quirements for an MS in biology, both from Purdue.
ROLLAND Z. WHEATON has coordinated Purdue
research efforts on the project and retained
responsibility for ditch bank studies and for stu-
dies of sediment basins. He holds a Ph.D in en-
gineering from the University of California. His
major areas of specialization are irrigation and
soi i and water.
-------
-53-
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1, REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-76-004
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality
(Progress Report)
5. REPORT DATE
November 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
James E, Lake
James Morrison
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District
Executive Park, Suite 103
2010 Inwood Drive
Fort Wayne9Indiana 46805
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BA645
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA Grant G005103
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Project Progress Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Carl D. Wilson-EPA Project Officer
Ralph G. Christensen-Section 108(a) Program Coordinator
16. ABSTRACT
This is a progress report on the Black Creek sediment control project. This project
is to determine the environmental impact of land use on water quality and has com-
pleted its third year of watershed activity. The project, which is directed by the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District, is an attempt to determine the
role that agricultural pollutants play in the degradation of water qualtiy in the
Maumee River Basin and ultimately in Lake Erie.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Sediment
Erosion
Land Use
Water Quality
Nutrients
Socio-Economic
Land Treatment
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to the public through
the Natural Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia 22151
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
21. NO. Of PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
------- |