UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
-OFFICE/OF THE
GREAT LAKES COORDINATOR
REGION 5
230 S. DEARBORN STREET
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60604
NOVEMBER 1976
EPA 905/9-76-005
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
FOR NON POINT SOURCE
POLLUTION CONTROL SEMINAR
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES SEMINAR
FOR NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL
Ramada O'Hare Inn
6600 Mannheim & Higgins Road
Rosemont, Illinois
November 16 - 17, 1976
You are invited to attend a Best Management Practices Seminar
for Nonpoint Source Pollution Control at Rosemont, Illinois,
November 16-17, 1976. The purpose of the two day Seminar will
be to provide guidance for section 208 planning and to describe
some best management practices for nonpoint source pollution
control.
The information was developed from three section 108 demonstra-
tion projects and one urban nonpoint source project. The data
are useful to elected officials, consulting engineers, scientists,
educators, and concerned citizens.
(
The accumulated knowledge will be presented through prepared
papers by principal investigators and the proceedings will be
published for distribution.
The seminar is sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois.
Sincerely yours,
George R. Alexander, Jr.
Regional Administrator
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EPA-905/9-76-005
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
FOR
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL
(Guidance for Section 208 Planners and Implementing Agencies)
A report on a Seminar
held at
Ramada - The O'Rare Inn
November 16-17, 1976
Rosemont, Illinois
Compiled by
Ralph G. Christensen Carl D. Wilson
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator Non-point Source Coordinator
Region V - Chicago Region V - Chicago
Published by
Section 108(a) Program
Office of the Great Lakes Coordinator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
>-
ot-cti°n Agency
230 South f.T,;.^ „.
Chicago, T^ ;,:''": '4 ^-reet
0 J -^*J'Oii-
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Disclaimer
This report was compiled and reviewed by the Office of Great Lakes Co-
ordinator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Chicago,
Illinois and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or com-
mercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
for
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL
Program Schedule
(Table of Contents)
Registration
Call to Order 1
RALPH G. CHRISTENSEN, Section 108(a), Program Coordinator, USEPA,
Region 5, Chicago, Illinois
Welcome and Introduction 3
GEORGE R. ALEXANDER, JR., Regional Administrator, USEPA, Region V,
Chicago, Illinois
SESSION CHAIRMAN - GEORGE R. ALEXANDER, JR.,
Regional Administrator, USEPA, Region 5, Chicago, Illinois
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Overview of Section 208 6
Planning
JOSEPH KRIVAK, Director, NPS Branch, Planning Division, USEPA,
Washington, D. C.
National Association of Conservation Districts View of Section 208 8
Planning
WILLIAM HORVATH, Upper Mississippi Representative, NACD, Stevens
Point, Wisconsin
Extension Service View of Section 208 Planning - 9
ELLSWORTH CHRISTMAS, Agricultural Extension, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana
USDAtView of Section 208 Planning - Soil Conservation Service 12
CLETUS GILLMAN, State Conservationist, USDA-SCS, Indianapolis,
Indiana
A State View of Section 208 Planning - 16
REX E. JONES, Div. Water Pollution Control, Indiana State Board of
Health, Indianapolis, Indiana
A County View of Section 208 Planning - 20
REUBEN SCHMAHL, Chairman, Washington County Board of Supervisors,
West Bend, Wisconsin
SETJRPC View of Section 208 Planning - 27
LYKAN WIELE, Planning Staff, Southeastern Wisconsin Regional
Planning Commission, Waukesha, Wisconsin
Section 208 - A Congressional View 32
CONGRESSMAN J. EDWARD ROUSH, Member, U.S. House of Representatives,
Washington, D. C.
iii
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SESSION CHAIKMAN - ROBERT J. SCHNEIDER
Great Lakes Coordinator, U. S. EPA, Region 5, Chicago
Washington County Project Overview 36
THOMAS C. DANIELS, Project Director, Board of Soil and Water
Conservation Districts, Madison, Wisconsin
Red Clay Project Overview 44
STEPHEN C. ANDREWS, Project Director, Douglas County SWCD,
Superior, Wisconsin
Black Creek Project Overview 52
ELLIS McFADDEN, Chairman, Allen Coonty SWCD, Fort Wayne,
Indiana
Challenge of Section 208 Planning 53
JAMES B. MORRISON, Congressional Assistant to Congressman J.
Edward Roush, Fort Wayne, Indiana
Public Participation in Land Use Planning and Management 56
FRED MADISON, University of Wisconsin- Madison
Land Management Institutional Design for Water Quality Objectives 59
CARLISLE RUNGE, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Planning Diffuse Pollution Control 65
ROBERT J. SCHNEIDER, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Best Management and Treatment Practices for Water Quality 73
GREG WOODS, SCS-USDA, Rensselaer, Indiana
Implementing and Monitoring Conservation Plans 82
DANIEL McCAIN, District Conservationist, SCS-USDA, Fort
Wayne, Indiana
An institutional Approach to Implementing Best Management Practice 86
JAMES E. LAKE, Project Director, Black Creek Project, Fort
Wayne, Indiana
Social Factors that Influence Participation in Soil Conservation- 95
Black Creek Watershed
WILLIAM L. MILLER, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana
SESSION CHAIRMAN - RALPH G. CHRISTENSEN
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator, USEPA, Region 5, Chicago,
Illinois
Conservation Tillage Trials in Progress in Black Creek Watershed 113
DONALD R. GRIFFITH and GARY CARLISLE, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana
Crop Sequence and Fall Tillage Effects on Soil Erosion H6
JERRY V. MANNERING, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana
iv
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Page
Sediment Yield from an Agricultural Watershed into the Maumee River 131
EDWIN J. MONKE, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Nutrient Contributions to the Maumee River 141
DARRELL W. NELSON and LEE E. SOMMERS, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana
Sediment Reduction by Streambank Modification and Sediment Traps 155
ROLLAND Z. WHEATON and RICHARD E. LAND, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana
Environmental Data Acquisition and Real-Time Computers 164
LARRY F. HUGGINS, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Determinants of Water Quality in the Black Creek Watershed 171
JAMES R. KARR, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
Culturally Induced Acceleration of Mass Wastage on Red Clay Slopes 185
JOSEPH T. MENGEL and BRUCE BROWN, University of Wisconsin-Superior
SESSION CHAIRMAN - CHRISTOPHER M. TIMM
Director, Surveillance and Analysis Division, Region 5, Chicago,
Illinois
Effects of Red Clay Turbidity on the Aquatic Environment 207
WILLIAM A SWENSON, LARRY BROOKE, and PHILIP DeVORE, University
of Wisconsin-Superior
Nonpoint Source Modeling for Section 208 Planning
WALT SANDERS, U.S. EPA, ERL, Athens, Georgia
Drain Tile Simulation Model
A. B. BOTTCHER, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Best Management Practices for Urban Storm and Combined Sewer Pollution 261
Control, a Case Study
CORNELIUS B. MURPHY, Managing Engineer, O'Brien & Gere Consulting
Engineers, Inc., Syracuse, New York
Simulation of the Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality,
"The Black Creek Model"
DAVID B. BEASLEY, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Irdiana
Summary
CARL D. WILSON, Nonpoint Source Coordinator, U.S. EPA, Region 5,
Chicago, Illinois
List of Attendees
Technical Report Data Sheet
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CALL TO ORDER
By
Ralph G. Christensen*
Ladies and gentlemen, I appreciate your attendance here today at this
non-point source pollution seminar. I am Ralph G.Christensen, Chief
of the Section 108(a) Program under P.L. 92-500. Section 108(a) pro-
vides for grants to support any State, political subdivision, inter-
state agency, or other public agency, or combination thereof, to carry
out one or more projects to demonstrate new methods and techniques and
to develop preliminary plans for the elimination or control of pollution
within all or any part of the watersheds of the Great Lakes. Such pro-
jects shall demonstrate the engineering and economic feasibility and
practicality of removal of pollutants and prevention of any polluting
matter from entering into the Great Lakes in the future and other re-
duction and remedial techniques which will contribute substantially to
effective and practical methods of water pollution prevention, reduc-
tion, or elimination. This program requires a grantee to provide a min-
imum of a 25% matching contribution to the total cost to the project.
Congress authorized to be appropriated $20,000,000 to carry out the pro-
visions of this program. To date, there have been nine grants awarded
under this section of the Act, three of which address the non-point
source pollution problem.
Section 108 allows the demonstration of new approaches beyond those re-
flected in state established construction priorities, beyond those de-
veloped and demonstrated within the specified scientific and engineer-
ing subprograms, and beyond the few basin planning efforts that have
been funded in the Great Lakes.
Section 108 implicitly recognizes that the approaches available in other
EPA programs may not be adequate for controlling pollution in a basin of
the scope and complexity of the Great Lakes system. It recognizes that
the water quality of the Great Lakes is of broad national interest that
may not be fully considered in setting state and local priorities. In
response, it provides opportunities to demonstrate the value of approach-
es receiving low priority at the state and local level. Section 108 also
implicitly recognizes that a piecemeal approach to wastewater management
and treatment, while an important immediate step, cannot provide the sys-
tematic solutions required by such a large, complex environmental system
as the Great Lakes.
Section 108 provides opportunities to supplement the piecemeal approach
with system studies, plans and demonstration projects that broaden the
focus beyond the boundaries of specific point sources, specific treat-
ment technologies, and local jurisdictions. For example, Section 108
*Chief, Section 108(a) Program, P.L. 92-500, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, II. 60604. Program Chairman.
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projects can address the full complexity of the multiple causes of
pollution, both point and non-point, within a basin system; or the
institutional barriers to arriving at areawide solutions in a polit-
ically responsible fashion; or the design of new treatment and control
measures combining the results of new technologies and regulatory tech-
niques .
Section 108, however, does not now provide a program of sufficient size
to stand alone. It is clear that $20 million of demonstration projects,
by themselves, would make little impact on the pollution problems beset-
ting the Great Lakes. Section 108 projects must be used in addition to,
in coordination with, and as a testing ground for, the use of authori-
ties and resources available under present legislation. Section 108 pro-
vides opportunities to weld together specialized technical advances to
yield new systems. It provides opportunities to fund new types of facil-
ities in combination with treatment facilities and demonstrations sup-
ported by Section 201 and Section 105 grants. And it provides opportu-
nities to channel these resources in ways that develop and strengthen
implementing institutions.
Four of our Section 108(a) demonstration projects will be reported on
during this seminar to provide some much needed data and information re-
lating to non-point source pollution control and best management practices.
This should be of value to all those associated with a Section 208 plan-
ning responsibility and also, implementing agencies.
I now introduce to you our Regional Administrator, Mr. George R. Alexander,Jr.,
who will welcome you, and also, be chairman of this mornings' seminar
session. Mr. Alexander.
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL v
Conference Held November 16 and 17, 1976
Welcome by
George R. Alexander, Jr.*
We welcome you to this conference on "Best Management Practices for
Nonpoint Source Pollution Control."
It is a pleasure to see this large audience today and we appreciate
the time you are taking out of your busy schedule to attend this con-
ference.
We, in the Environmental Protection Agency, hope to share some prac-
tical, social, and technical information derived from demonstration pro-
jects funded from Section 108 of Public Law 92-500.
The agenda for this conference provides an overview of the nonpoint
source pollution control mandate given to the U.S. EPA through Public Law
92-500. Among several sections of P.L. 92-500 which address the subject
of nonpoint source pollution are sections 208, 303, 304, and 305. In ad-
dition to these sections of the Act, Sections 108, 104 and 105 provide
for research and demonstration grants which can also address the nonpoint
pollution problems.
Nonpoint source pollution is recognized internationally as a problem
and is being addressed in the Great Lakes under the U.S.-Canada Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement. One of the references of this Water Qual-
ity Agreement is directed to inventory land-use activities and their pol-
lution effects on the Great Lakes. To do this, we have implemented four
land-use watershed studies in the United States and six watershed studies
in Canada to prepare the information and remedial recommendations to best
reduce and control nonpoint source pollution to the Lakes. Region V has
committed $12 million to support these Section 108 demonstration projects
and land-use watershed studies. Additional funds are being awarded in
grants to designated Section 208 agencies to study and prepare Areawide
Waste Treatment Management Plans for Implementation.
Russell Train, our EPA Administrator, stated in a recent speech that
nonpoint sources of water pollution, such as runoff from croplands, urban
stormwater, and strip mining, are becoming the single most important water
quality problem.
Congress placed primary responsibility for the management of nonpoint
*George R. Alexander, Jr., Administrator, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois 60604
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- 2 -
source pollution in the hands of the States. This is as it should be.
States and localities are better able to identify their problems as part
of their over-all planning process than is the Federal government. We
want to see localities, acting on a regional basis, getting more and more
into the business of really facing up to these issues. Plans for solving
such problems would be created and carried out through a political proc-
ess in which both citizens and their elected officials—not experts or ap-
pointed officials—make all the basic choices and decisions. We want to
encourage State and localities to tell us at the Federal level how we can
help with programs that are conceived and implemented at lower levels.
To highlight some problems associated with nonpoint pollution, let
me give you some examples:
(1) Two billion tons of sediment are delivered to lakes and streams
annually from over 400 million acres of croplands, as well as
large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from nonpoint sources,
animal wastes from feedlots, and toxic pesticides;
(2) Between 5 and 10 percent of the total sediment load is estima-
ted to come from 10 to 12 million acres of commercial forest
harvested per year.
(3) Strip mining, which affects about 350,000 acres annually, re-
sults in the discharge of millions of tons of acidity and sedi-
ment.
(4) Urban sprawl, which consumes hundreds of square miles per year,
generates sediment at an even greater rate than agricultural
activities.
(5) The runoff of stormwater in urban areas accounts for pollution
of waters with large amounts of toxic and oxygen-demanding ma-
terials.
Nonpoint sources of water pollution have become more than 50 percent
of the total water quality problems. As site-specific sources of pollu-
tion are reduced by municipalities and industries, other sources gain in
relative importance.
As a result of State and local interest, three demonstration pro-
jects have been implemented under Section 108 of P.L. 92-500. These pro-
jects will be reported on today by either the grantee project directors
and/or their principal investigators. I will describe to you briefly the
objectives of each project.
(1) The Allen County, Indiana, SWCD's Black Creek Project has been
active now since 1972 and has one year yet to go. This project
provides for a cooperative effort between the Allen County SWCD,
the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service
and a team of scientists and engineers from Purdue University
to demonstrate sediment reduction through use of land management
practices. A socio-economic study is in progress to ascertain
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what it will take to get landowners to implement best man-
agement practices for erosion sediment control.
At this time I would like to recognize:
—Congressman J. Edward Roush—
Congressman Roush was responsibile for calling a public meeting of
local citizens in 1972. From this group of concerned citizens, the Black
Creek Project of Allen County, Indiana was created. It has become the
forerunner of several similar studies.
The Black Creek Project is rather unique—it takes the old tried and
true conservation measures and applies the treatments to the land and as-
sesses the environmental impact of these measures on water quality.
The second project is the Red Clay Project located in Douglas County,
Wisconsin. The goal of this project is to initiate and implement an ac-
tion program for soil erosion and sediment control in the Lake Superior
Basin which will lead into a basin-wide program. Institutional arrange-
ments and vehicles for intergovernmental cooperation between local govern-
mental implementing authorities on an interstate basis will be established
to solve the basin-wide red clay erosion and sediment problems.
The third project has been initiated with the Wisconsin State Board
of Soil and Water Conservation Districts and is the Grantee for a project
in Washington County, Wisconsin. Their project is to demonstrate the ef-
fectiveness of land control measures in improving water quality, and to
devise the necessary institutional arrangements for the preparation, ac-
ceptance, adoption, and implementation of a sediment control ordinance
applicable to incorporated and unincorporated areas on a county wide basis.
I hope the progress reports presented today will benefit you in your
planning activities. I appreciate your attendance here today. If we can
be of assistance to you during the day, please contact Mr. Ralph
Christensen, Mr. Joseph Tynsky or Mr. Carl Wilson who will be happy to
help you.
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U.S. EPA OVERVIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
By
Joseph A. Krivak*
I appreciate the opportunity to participate in this conference for a
variety of reasons. First, I did have a small role in the inception of
the Black Creek Project, which to a great degree, is serving as a case
study for this seminar. Second, because the next year is a critical one
as far as areawide planning is concerned: when decisions must be made
between EPA/States/regional groups regarding the planning process is
important. And third because there is a message that EPA needs to tell.
To let the planners and the decision makers know what is expected before
the process is completed not after the plan is delivered.
Frankly, I harbor a healthy skepticism about planning — one born from
experience. And also reaffirmed within the last week by a review of the
first two 208 plans which have been completed. We have received prelim-
inary reports, two of the initial fourteen. The brief review made,
strengthened my belief about the kind of message EPA should put forward
to State and Area 208 at this point in the planning process. It is not
one of technical data collection and analysis — by and large, I think
that is being done. If anything it may be that we are spending too much
time and money on that part of our task. My message instead focuses on
our need to get tangible results from the 208 planning process.
The first principle I would like to share my thoughts on is: "Don't
spend too much time concerning yourself about how planning is conducted,
but worry a great deal about whether it works." Experience has shown
that the sophistication of the planning system often bears very little
relationship to the results achieved. Now let's translate this into a
common example. One of the biggest problems planners have is separating
their recommendations from the decisions that both public and private de-
cision makers must make. And so while we often go through a very elab-
orate set of planning gymnastics, those gymnastics often fail to provide
the basic information needed by the person or group who is faced with
making the decision.
The second principle is to plan sufficiently to produce specific targets,
then quit. Another way of expressing the same idea is to establish spe-
cific objectives — which can be realtered within the time and resources
available. EPA gave meaning to this principle in the non-point source
phase of the water quality management program. You were asked to iden-
tify your top priority NPS problems and concentrate on only those in the
208 planning process. Sure, it's nice to have a complete data base —
but not necessary. Sure, it's nice to have sophisticated modeling every-
where — but if we did that it would waste both time and money.
The third principle is: insist that the plans result in a commitment to
specified outputs for accomplishment. If I were going to make a guess on
*Chief, Non-point Sources Branch, Water Planning Division, U.S. EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460
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what will be the biggest weakness in the 208 plans when they are com-
pleted — failure in this respect would be my choice. Too many planners
think their job is done with that set of recommendations they produce.
No 208 plan should be comsidered completed until — for the priority
problems identified — the physical dimensions of the problems and the
technological and management means of solving them together with the in-
stitution responsible for getting the job done are set forth.
The final set of principles I would set forth is not for the planners
but for the decision makers. The people who hired the planners to get
the job done: (1) You have a major responsibility in seeing that the
proper goals and objectives are set. If there is one major problem that
most planners fail, it is their inability to develop a plan when they
don't know what they are planning for. And, I might add, those two plans
I looked at last week suffered from that weakness. And your other re-
sponsibility is keeping on top of the planning process — "don't waste
time with planners who cannot deliver results."
In a nutshell, that's the simple basic management guidance that EPA
offers you. Sure, there are complex regulations and jargon that may be
difficult to understand, but the job you have can be done if these prin-
ciples are followed.
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NACD* VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
by
William J. Horvath**
I would like to briefly state that the National Association of Conserva-
tion Districts has seven concerns for the 208 planning process. These
are:
(1) That the plan have local involvement in its development, in-
cluding conservation districts.
(2) That the plan be implementable - NACD feels this requires the
practical approach we have utilized in the district movement.
(3) That a vigorous educational program be undertaken with land-
owners and others to gain acceptance by those who must imple-
ment the plan and those landowners affected.
(4) That cost-sharing be available for application of Best Manage-
ment Practices (BMP's).
(5) That adequate funding be made available for securing the nec-
essary technical assistance for applying BMP's.
(6) That a continuing research program be undertaken to provide the
necessary information to determine the effects of BMP's on
water quality.
(7) That conservation districts have a major responsibility as a
designated agency for plan implementation, and that state soil
conservation agencies provide the necessary coordination of that
effort.
*NACD - National Association of Conservation Districts
**Upper Mississippi Representative, National Association of Conservation
Districts, Stevens Point, Wisconsin
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EXTENSION SERVICE VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
by
E. P. Christmas
It is indeed a pleasure for me to have the opportunity to meet with
you this week and to discuss with you my views as to extension's role in
the 208 planning process and non point source pollution control.
To set the stage for my comments relative to extension's role in this
endeavor, I feel that I should first describe the Cooperative Extension .
Service as I view it and tell you a little about its mode of operation.
The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 was the third of three major Public Laws
which brought about the development of the Land-Grant College with its
agricultural research and extension education activities in the United
States. This act provided for the formation and support of the agricul-
tural extension services at the land grant institutions across the coun-
try for the purpose of disseminating useful and practical information in
agriculture and home economics.
Over the years, the Extension Service has undergone a number of
changes in organizational arrangement, program priorities and methods of
disseminating information. However, a number of characteristics have
changed little since their design in 1914 to meet the original intent of
the Act. They are just as relevent today as they were 60 plus years ago.
I feel that a discussion of a few of these will be quite helpful in under-
standing how and why the Cooperative Extension Service functions as it does.
One of the great strengths of Cooperative Extension is its bottom up
form of organization. The vast majority of the Extension Service staff
work directly with their clientele in the field. This phenomenon can best
be illustrated by looking at the distribution of Extension personnel in
1976 on a national basis as follows:
Percent
1. Federal Staff Number of total
a. Extension Service, USDA 191 1%
2. State Staff
a. Directors and Administrative
Personnel 440 37.
b. Subject Matter Specialists 4,131 24%
3. County Staff
a. Program Leaders & Supervisors 702 4%
b. -Area Agents 1,413 8%
c. County Agents 10.037 60%
Total 16,914 100%
In reality, all Extension personnel except l.a and 2.a above are in
constant contact with the clientele which they serve.
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Most Extension program priorities are established at the local or
county level. This is accomplished by involving County Extension Boards,
program and/or commodity committees, farm organizations and other special
interest groups present in the local community in the program planning
process. If local people have a part in planning the extension program,
they will support it and see that it is carried out successfully. Par-
ticipation in these Extension education programs is voluntary and open to
anyone who can benefit from them.
The method of financing the Cooperative Extension Service is an
important contributor to its success. Joint funding involving federal,
state and county governments is common to all states. Nationally, distri-
bution of funding is approximately 407, federal, 40% state and 207, county.
Indiana, however, has one of the highest levels of local support in the
country of approximately 50% of the total field staff operation.
A knowledge base for Extension education is a necessary condition
for the successful transfer of useful and practical information. The
Land Grant Universities have played a unique role in this respect. The
fact that the technology to be disseminated has been developed or tested
at the local Land Grant University is an important factor encouraging
its application. The County Extension Agent is his communities direct
link with the Land Grant University and its knowledge resource base. This
close tie assures programs based on up-to-date, scientific information and
facts rather than emotion. It should be emphasized that the role of the
Extension agent or specialist should be to help diagnose problems and
recommend feasible alternatives for dealing with them. The clientele are
not told which alternative to select nor given any incentive to take one
particular course of action over another, but through the acquisition of
unbiased-factual information can make sound decisions relative to their
alternatives.
The Extension Service is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform
people of regulations and of their options in meeting these regulations.
This brings me to my views on Extension's role in the 208 planning
process and non-point pollution control. Some State Cooperative Extension
Services are working very closely with their states "208 planning agency"
in the development of educational programs related to 208 planning. The
Extension Service has a responsibility to provide information to the agri-
cultural community on the 208 planning process. This information should
be of such a nature as to fully explain the 1972 Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (P.L. 92-500), its purposes and goals. As a part of this
type of educational program, the agricultural community should be encour-
aged to actively participate in the planning process.
In Indiana, a committee has been organized to provide guidance and
direction for Extension Education programs in water quality management and
Non-Point Pollution abatement programs„ This committee is composed of
extension and research personnel from Purdue and representatives of other
agencies insterested and working in the water quality area. The committee
will also assist in drawing together information to assist Extension agents
and others as the 208 planning process is carried out and in identifying
areas needing additional research effort to back-up the extension program.
10
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At this point, I will assume that the "best management practices"
approach to reducing runoff is selected. If this is the case, the Co-
operative Extension Service can then mount an educational program to
acquaint agricultural producers with the various alternative "best
management practices" and the corresponding advantages and disadvantages
of each. The use of demonstrations, perhaps established as a joint
endeavor of the Extension Service, Soil Conservation Service and the local
Soil and Water Conservation District, could be very helpful in showing
the value of the various "best management practices". The agricultural
producer can then select those practices which best fits his operation
and still effectively control runoff of contaminates.
In summary, the key to the success of Extension has been its
unique structure as a partnership of the Land-Grant Universities, Fed-
eral, State and County governments, with strong guidance from those it
serves in the establishment of program priorities. The system has sur-
vived because of its objectivity and ability to use research based facts
and logical relationships to solve clientele problems.
The role of the Cooperative Extension Service in the 208 Planning
Process involves two areas of activity; first, an educational program to
inform the agricultural community of the 208 Planning process and secondly,
to acquaint agricultural producers with alternative "best management
practices" and their application.
11
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USDA - SCS VIEWS ON 208 PLANNING
by
Cletus J. Gillman*
It is a real pleasure for me to meet with you today to discuss
the views and responsibilities of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
and the Soil Conservation Service on Section 208 Planning. Concern-
ing the views of the Department and the Agency, I can say that they are
identical. Concerning responsibilities for assistance, I will prima-
rily relate to the Soil Conservation Service, but will talk briefly
about Departmental policy which guides all agencies within the Depart-
ment.
USDA and SCS both can be classed as strong and willing advocates
of the objectives of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, particu-
larly the control of nonpoint source pollution under section 208.
The Secretary of Agriculture, along with other federal departments,
in 1973 entered into an agreement with EPA to assure maximum utilization
of existing programs in assisting with 208 planning and implementation.
This agreement further established the basis for more specific agreements
by the various USDA agencies with EPA or with other planning entities
carrying out 208 planning.
All Departmental actions since that time indicates the sincerity be-
hind the agreement. Last year the Secretary established policy that
would assure proper coordination of USDA assistance to this effort. Agen-
cies in each state met to designate or establish a so-called "mechanism"
to achieve this coordination. In most states, the previously established
USDA Rural Development Committees, or one of their task forces, were des-
ignated to become this coordinating mechanism. As an example, in Indiana
the Land Use Task Force (within the State Rural Development Committee)
was so designated and is actively carrying out this coordination. USDA
agencies represented on the Land Use Task Force include Agricultural Sta-
bilization and Conservation Service, Farmers Home Administration, Forest
Service, Extension Service, Rural Electrification Administration and SCS.
Meanwhile the Soil Conservation Service was designated to have a
"lead agency" role in USDA, and further requested to set up the necessary
coordination. In most states the logical and eventual move was for SCS
to chair the committee for coordination. Prior to these Departmental ac-
tions, SCS established policy to maintain effective liaison with EPA at
the national, regional and state levels.
*Speech by Cletus J. Gillman, State Conservationist, USDA Soil Conserva-
tion Service, Indianapolis, Indiana at the Best Management Practices
Seminar for Nonpoint Source Pollution Control, Chicago, Illinois,
November 16, 1976.
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With this brief discussion of the broad policies which establish
a basis for effective cooperative assistance, I will get more specific
on SCS responsibilities, capabilities and actions.
The Soil Conservation Service believes that the objectives of the
Environmental Protection Agency in carrying out 208 planning are worthy
and that, because of our authorities and capabilities, we should be an
active participant in the teamwork that is essential for this program to
produce beneficial results.
Our basic agency authorities and programs do allow us to partici-
pate fully in nonpoint pollution control planning and implementation. SCS
was organized in 1935 to do the very thing we're talking about today —
use of conservation practices to control the erosion of soil. Today we
relate this more specifically to reduction of sediment for water quality
improvement.
Over these forty years we have developed an agency whose strength is
in its technically qualified people in the field of soil, water and plant
resources. We have developed an ability to work effectively with people
at all levels, but primarily at the local level to the agricultural com-
munity. Programs have been developed which provide great flexibility,
both in type of assistance and clientele or area that we can help. All
of this can be extremely important during both the planning and implemen-
tation stages of 208.
We have always worked directly with and through soil and water con-
servation districts in carrying out our conservation activities. We at-
tribute much of our success — certainly our acceptance — to this excel-
lent, long-standing relationship. In 208 assistance, we intend to follow
this procedure of working through districts and according to their prior-
ities. We join NACD in encouraging districts to become involved in 208.
Districts can be of tremendous assistance in fostering public participa-
tion, in both planning and implementation.
You may wonder, if SCS and SWCDs have been working at erosion con-
trol for so many years, why we have so much sediment being delivered to
our streams today from agricultural land. I believe, sincerely, that
there has been real success in erosion and sediment control. Unfortunate-
ly there are essentially no records to show levels of sediment delivered
from farmland today as compared to several decades ago.
One thing we do know is that all sediment can not be kept out of the
waters of America — even if complete controls were possible on agricul-
tural and developing lands. Perhaps 30% falls into this category. The
other thing we know, and what is of real concern, is that about 50% of
the sediment in streams and lakes does originate on farmland. This is a
real challenge to all of us. It is something that we must diligently try
to reduce. How much reduction there should be or needs to be, for meet-
ing established water quality standards I don't know. No one else seems
to know what the goals should be either. I am convinced that it is in
this field that we have our greatest opportunity for reducing total
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suspended solids in our streams. I am further convinced that no one
should have a pipe dream of holding in place a vast percentage of these
soil losses from agricultural land. We will always have some sediment
in our streams, some of it coming from farmland, and let's hope that no
attempt is made to establish water quality standards so high that the
agricultural industry will be stymied. There needs to be a continued un-
derstanding of balance among objectives for a quality environment and
s ound economic s.
We have always worked with SWCDs on a voluntary program of landusers
planning and applying conservation programs. There is much to be said
for the desirability of achieving control through volunteerism. But we
do recognize that this approach is not always as effective as desired.
Some further legal requirements may be required. Many states have indi-
cated, through legislation, that they believe so. Their recent experi-
ence seems to show that the actual or threat of legal requirements brings
out more volunteers.
Experiences in states which do have erosion and sediment control leg-
islation, and experiences in the 108 projects which you will be discuss-
ing later in this seminar, indicate that greater economic incentives -
cost sharing - will be required to achieve a significantly accelerated
sediment control program.
Now, specifically as to how we can and are helping in 208 planning
for control of nonpoint sources of pollution. There is a significant
data bank in our soil surveys and in our conservation needs inventories,
and we have the capabilities to use this information in determining what
the existing situations and needs are. We have a working knowledge of
the Universal Soil Loss Equation and somewhat less knowledge on a formula
for sediment delivery to streams. This accumulated information, and our
knowledge of how to apply it, must be made available to the agencies de-
veloping 208 plans.
We further have a technical guide in each soil and water conservation
district, which includes standards and specifications for time-tested con-
servation measures. We believe that these guides, along with current stud-
ies underway in 108 projects, will be your best guide to establishing
"best management practices" at the local level to be used in implementation
of 208 plans.
~L will use Indiana as an example of how we are providing our base of
information and our technical assistance to 208 planning agencies. Work-
ing through soil and water conservation districts, we have assigned two
qualified conservationists, under an Intergovernmental Personnel Act agree-
ment, to work directly on the staffs of two of the designated regional
planning agencies. In the other designated regions, we have assigned a
"lead" district conservationist to be primary liaison with the planning
group, coordinating the assistance from the SCS personnel in the regions.
At the state level, we have tried to work closely and cooperatively in an
advisory capacity during the early stages of planning for action, and
pledge to assist to the extent of available resources when actual planning
for the remainder of the state gets underway.
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We also serve, at the local, regional and state levels, on various
technical advisory committees for guidance primarily in the realm of the
agricultural situation, needs, and possible workable solutions. This
advisory committee work is generally in close coordination with the su-
pervisors of local soil and water conservation districts.
In each state, SCS has established and is carrying out a water
quality evaluation program. Though the work to date, and the primary
emphasis in the future, is on project type activities, the information
gained will help assess the current situation on our streams.
Today, I certainly can't give you a testimonial on the ultimate
value of our current assistance, except to say that we believe it is
essential. We have no choice but to be involvedI Your basic objectives
and ours, and those of SWCDs, are supportive and in many instances iden-
tical.
To summarize, we believe that improvements in rural water quality
will come about primarily from control of nonpoint sources of pollution.
This is part of our agency's established mission — it is our basic work.
We have all the authorities necessary — though short on people and money
to carry out this essential work. We strongly support a cooperative
effort to get the job done. I'm confident that we will change our oper-
ations to the degree needed to respond to present and future needs. We
in USDA and in SCS stand ready to assist.
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A State View of Water Quality Management Planning
Rex E. Jones
Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board
Non-point sources of pollution and their control are considered an integral
part of Water Quality Management Planning. Water Quality Management Planning is
provided for under Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972.
I was very pleased to be asked to participate in this conference and I
thank the Environmental Protection Agency for this opportunity.
It seems many times we speak in terms of numbers instead of talking in
words. It is especially important when working with the public that we talk in
understandable terms and not bureaucratic language. For instance, let's speak
in terms of Water Quality Management Planning and not 208 Planning.
My background is in agriculture and I often relate aspects of my job back
to the farm and the way we did things there. For instance, my father owns and
operates a dairy farm and has been developing his operation for 35 years. Most
farmers have a vision when they start out, of where they would like to be
30-40 years down the road. He won't know the future technology, the future
economic picture, or exact size of his operation. Therefore, he must plan for
his vision and build in flexibility to update his operation following economic
and technical changes without having to scrap everything that has been accomplished
along the way. I am sure each of you can relate this thought process of farm
planning to your individual background. The actual thought process for planning
is just plain common sense, no matter what your field of endeavor. Therefore,
we feel water quality management planning is common sense for maximum utilization
of our environment.
Since the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972, timing has been one of EPA's major problems. For instance, the States
have had the responsibility of developing River Basin Plans under authority of
Section 303 (e) of the Act. Each state has progressed at a different rate in
the development of the River Basin Plans. Planning under Section 208 is dependent
upon the completeness of the River Basin Plans. In the case of Indiana, we do
not have completed River Basin Plans so the designated 208 agencies must either
collect and analyze that information which is available or leave it out of the
plan. If the plan is to be meaningful it must be complete. This requires
additional manpower and expenses for the designated agencies. It does not do us
any good to point the finger to who's at fault, because it is a problem where
the fault crosses the paths of many people and agencies.
Therefore, it makes sense for us to assess where we are in the process and
proceed to where we want to be on November 1, 1978. This is a great opportunity
for each State to rethink their environmental program and determine where
changes need to be made to maintain an effective and meaningful pollution
control program. As with most problem situations we must ask ourselves who is
going to do what, when, where, and how? These are difficult questions to answer
and they apply to many different situations. It is a tremendous challenge to
the people of this country.
Water quality management planning requires an interaction between a multitude
of varying backgrounds if it is going to be successful. The problems cannot be
solved by any one group in our society because the solutions to water quality
problems will be a compromise between almost all segments of our society.
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In Part 130 of the November 28, 1975, Federal Register, there is a discussion
of the relationship of the Planning Process to other programs and I quote:
"Because State and designated areawide water quality management planning will
ultimately serve as the basis for implementation of essentially all programs
under the Act, the relationship of and impact on other programs was carefully
formulated in the proposed regulations."
This points up the importance of this program. The program should tie our
other ongoing programs together so they are more meaningful and coordinated.
It's similar to the mortar between the bricks.
It seems there is considerable confusion regarding the relationship of
point source pollution to the pollution associated with nonpoint sources. I
would like to discuss this for a brief moment. In Indiana, point source load
allocations are based on low flow conditions (7-day 10-year low flow). During
the low flow condition there are practically no nonpoint sources discharging
into the stream, except for ground water which partially makes up the flow of
the stream during low flow conditions. Therefore, point sources have the major
impact during low flow conditions. When it rains one can expect surface or
subsurface discharges entering the stream adding to the total flow of the stream.
Depending upon quantity and intensity of the rainfall, nonpoint sources potentially
become more significant to impaired water quality. As more flow exists in the
stream, the point sources become less of an impact because of the dilution
from additional water. Therefore, the more the rainfall the less impact on
water quality from point sources and the more potential (depending upon geographic
conditions) impact from nonpoint sources of pollution.
The control program for point source discharges is in place and functioning.
Maintaining compliance, enforcement, and future limits in the permits are
refinements that must be made in the program. However, control programs for
nonpoint sources of pollution have not been set by the Federal or State government.
This is a unique opportunity for the people to have real input to a planning
process which eventually will determine who is going to do what, when, where and
how to control nonpoint sources of water pollution. The control program is not
developed yet and input from the people is necessary to structure an implementable
and meaningful program to the people. If we do not involve the people early in the
planning process there are serious doubts as to whether the program can be
implemented.
To accomplish control of nonpoint sources of water pollution we must insert
a high degree of common sense and reasonableness into the program. This leads
into the utilization of best management practices in the solution of our problems.
Best management practices will be determined by technical experts in their
respective fields. For agriculture, the Soil Conservation Service is a likely
candidate to be heavily involved in the determination of potential best management
practices to be used in different parts of the country. We must look to best
management practices being applied on a case-by-case basis depending upon the
individual farm management practices and geographical and hydrologic conditions.
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To produce and maintain an effective and meaningful water quality management
plan on a statewide basis we must get the program close to the Governor's
office. This is necessary in our State to relieve some of the bureaucratic
processes if we are going to meet our deadlines for accomplishment. Without the
cooperation and support of our key state administrators the program will not
become effective.
The tasks of developing a good nonpoint source control program for our
State are difficult. I feel the approach we take to develop a good program is a
very important consideration. By approach, I mean the approach we take with
people. For instance, instead of talking entirely of a control program, I
prefer to speak in terms of problems and solutions. How can we help people
solve their nonpoint source pollution problems? Relating to my own experience
with the people of agriculture, they are, for the most part, quite willing
to cooperate in solving their problems. However, they do not appreciate government
people coming onto their land and telling them what to do. Instead a better
approach may be to offer some technical alternative solutions to the landowner
if he has a nonpoint source water pollution problem.
As I look around Indiana, I see a tremendous wealth of talent who could
help, solve many of our nonpoint source problems. For example, we have Purdue
University, Purdue Extension Service, Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Geological
Survey, Department of Commerce, State Planning Services Agency, Soil and Water
Conservation Districts, and the people of our State. We must utilize this great
reservoir of talent and I am sure the same is true of your State, if you will
just open up and ask for their contribution.
The problems from nonpoint sources of pollution are extremely complex. As
I mentioned earlier, approach is very important. Let's not just "point the
finger" and say solve your problem because solutions are just not that easy.
Instead, let's identify our problems, assess them, and determine how we can
collectively best solve it. The problem must be viewed from different perspectives,
such as, economic consideration, technical solution, social acceptance, and
management capability. The solution to the problem after being discussed from
each of the different perspectives would then be a compromise. Nobody will get
their way 100%, but I believe we can come up with solutions that all perspectives
can live with (a compromise).
A very important requirement of this plan is that it be implementable. To
me that means acceptable by the people. The easiest way to make sure the people
accept the plan is to have the people deeply involved in the development of it.
This water quality management plan is not some agency's plan, but it is the
people's plan.
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If we want an acceptable nonpoint source control plan it will be necessary
to make technical assistance available to the landowner. This involves the
cooperative approach I spoke of earlier. Another important aspect is the
financial feasibility and assistance that must be provided to the landowner.
The farmer does not have direct control of the price of his product. There must
be some financial assistance on best management practices if we want an acceptable
program by the "agricultural community". If you have a knowledge of agriculture,
I believe you would think this is reasonable.
One question I should answer in my presentation is the State's role in this
effort. It is my opinion that the State's role should be one of strong leadership.
Our objective in the Planning Section is to develop and maintain water pollution
abatement programs that are effective and meaningful to the people of our State.
To accomplish this the State must do certain things. We must provide equity on
a statewide basis. The programs must be fair and equal to all parts of our
State. The State must also provide consistency between designated agencies and
the non-designated part of the State. This must be provided throughout the
entire planning process. The State should provide guidance to the designated
agencies to provide for consistency and equity. A fourth area of responsibility
for the State is one of stimulating cooperation between local, regional, state,
and Federal agencies. We are all working toward the same goal, hopefully, let's
not fight each other. Each level of government has its responsibilities, these
should be delineated and agreed upon by all parties involved. The State should
lend support to educational programs to tell the story of what we are trying to
accomplish and why. It is the responsibility of the State to integrate the
designated and non-designated portions of the State to form the Statewide Water
Quality Management Plan by November 1, 1978. Another important factor in this
planning process is the continuous planning provision which makes the plan much
more workable for future application.
In summary, I would say one of the keys to making the program successful
will be the involvement of the people in the process before the alternatives are
developed and the decisions are made. The people of each State must decide what
kind of program they want and then support that program as a team. We must be a
team.
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A COUNTY VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
by
Reuben Schmahl*
When the white man came to America the Indians governed, there was no na-
tional debt, no taxes and best of all women did all the work. Into such
a Utopia white man moved in with the desire to make great improvements.
Instead white man has been guilty of many misgivings, one of which has
been the ravaging and misuse of our country's abundant natural resources.
What has been maimed we are striving to reclaim with a sense of urgency.
It would appear, however, even in Biblical times mankind was plagued with
environmental concerns. The story is related of God speaking to Moses
saying, "I have some good news, as well as some bad news. The good news
is that you have been chosen to lead the Israelites out of slavery in
Egypt into the promised land. To accomplish this you shall part the
waters of the Red Sea. The bad news is before you divide the waters of
the Red Sea you will be required to file an acceptable environmental im-
pact statement for review."
There is today a good segment of our people that have a firm determina-
tion to clean up our air and water and strive to halt, to a greater de-
gree, abuse of our lands and to preserve our many natural resources. They
have a conviction that we have not moved fast enough in dealing with those
problem areas that affect our environment which include erosion prevention
and pollution controls. Their great concern is whether existing programs
need to be reviewed, amended and refined to improve their degree of effec-
tiveness in reduction of environmental damages.
This sudden explosion of interest on the part of our public has brought
about the creation of our Environmental Protection Agency which was estab-
lished to deal with almost every conceivable aspect of the control and
regulation of water pollution and improvement of water quality. Our na-
tion has embarked seemingly on somewhat of a crash campaign against air
and water pollution.
The likelihood of mistakes and miscalculations that surface in our efforts
to resolve our dilemma may cause the mood of the American public to change
and substantially effect the approaches being undertaken to achieve both
clean water and air. I am of the firm belief that Soil and Water Conser-
vation District Boards are logical entities to take leadership and accept
responsibility to achieve reasonable and effective locally administered
programs dealing with land use and water quality.
*Chairman, Washington County Board of Supervisors, Jackson, Wisconsin
Chairman, Washington County Soil & Water Conservation Districts
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As a member of a S.W.C.D. board, I wish to share some of my views on non-
point pollution control and also relate a brief summary of activities to
date of our EPA Study Grant underway in Washington County.
Public Law 92-500 (208), the Federal water quality act deals with "non-
point" source pollution. "Non-point" source pollution is one that is
not well defined as to where the true source originates while "point"
pollution being one where the source is well defined. More specifically
then "non-point" sources are materials that enter streams and lakes in a
diffuse manner such as sediment, animal wastes, fertilizer and pesticides.
"Point" sources which have to date received the most attention, are pol-
lutants which reach water at a "point" such as municipal and industrial
wastes discharge outlets.
Our efforts in "non-point" pollution control become very complicated. Any
attempt to implement a corrective program involves many people and agencies
of varied interests to carry on a study and implement acceptable objec-
tives in a practical manner. Goals and objectives that have a reasonable
public acceptance become rather complex because, although a reasonable de-
gree of accord is reached amongst the various agencies (SWCD, County
Boards, Federal, State and local governments), it becomes vital that the
landowner's rights are not abused. The eventual success or failure of
any study or research is wholly dependent on how accurate the detail and
how the research was conducted and scrutinized by all agencies affected,
as well as the response of landowners. Has there been seemingly insur-
mountable division of opinions? Do landowners believe financial subsidies
are justifiable if they are to support a regulatory program which, in their
opinion, is more in the public interest than totally designed to benefit
them for their private gain? Public hearings on any tentative regulatory
proposals should help to evaluate in the drafting of programs. I believe,
however, prior to conducting such hearings, an all out series of educa-
tional programs must be conducted in an effort to completely inform the
general public and certainly the landowners who are the people most di-
rectly affected.
As soil stewards, we have a tremendous task confronting us to overcome
individual and group resistance to any regulatory or even suggestive
measures to correct water pollution and to implement good soil practices.
The very vocal and organized resistance to our highway improvement pro-
grams can be an example. SWCD boards have authority and a responsibility
to conduct programs to control erosion of lands and sedimentation of our
waters. Conservation districts have good organization and utilize effec-
tively an extensive network of cooperative arrangements with federal and
state agencies in planning, research, education, cost sharing and tech-
nical assistance. This arrangement has provided a very workable method
for cooperatively establishing conservation practices on our land and has
been used for about the past forty years.
Efforts, then, to control non-point pollution are not new, there is merely
now a greater emphasis on accelerating a nationwide water pollution con-
trol effort and expanding it to include urban lands in addition to agri-
cultural lands. To date, point source pollution has been receiving perhaps
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the most attention, and pressures to stop pollution of our waters from
municipal and industrial wastes has been great. The mood of the American
public, I believe, is new in that there is now a greater emphasis on lo-
cal administration of government programs, whether they are social, rev-
enue sharing, law enforcement or land use. In this context then SWCD's
and related agencies are being viewed as the logical entities to take
leadership and accept greater responsibility for the development and the
administration of practical, effective non-point source pollution con-
trol programs. If local government with the help of many cooperating
federal and state agencies fails to meet this challenge and opportunity
for exercising home rule, our people may well become the victims of man-
dated controls by people in power far removed from the scene.
Presently in my home area the Washington County Soil and Water Conserva-
tion District is working with federal and state agencies under an EPA
grant to monitor non-point sources of pollution in an agricultural water-
shed and a watershed which is changing from agricultural to urban uses at
an accelerated rate.
The objectives of the district in a sediment management program are as
follows:
1. Demonstrate a combination of voluntary and regulatory means of
sediment management.
2. Develop standards of sediment management for use in land use
and development.
3, Bring sediment management into urban development as well as farm
use of lands.
4. Develop and use local leadership in land use planning and man-
agement .
5. Carry out an information program to promote wise land use and
erosion control at all levels - individual, group and local units
of government.
6. Provide a technical service to individuals, groups, and units of
government in planning and implementing plans of land use and
sediment management in both the urban and agricultural demonstra-
tion areas.
7. Explore the institutional arrangement in incorporated and unin-
corporated areas necessary to bring the expertise of Soil and
Water Conservation Districts to bear on erosion and sedimenta-
tion problems of Washington County.
8. Determine the incentives necessary to accomplish the desired
level of conservation application.
We all recognize that it is no simple matter to make decisions on reasonable
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and effective approaches to regulatory environmental controls. Some
people will argue of programs not moving rapidly enough, while others
tend to criticize the seemingly unrealistic, impractical and highly
legal approaches being far too restrictive. We must, in my opinion,
strive to seek a better balance between both extremes.
Our local SWCD members are working closely with an institutional study
group from the University of Wisconsin. We are striving to develop in-
stitutional alternatives for non-point pollution and to prepare a sug-
gested model of a possible approach to the problem which recognizes pro-
gram trends in environmental and resource management in Wisconsin, partic-
ularly at a county level. The choice of alternatives will be based on
the observation of legislative and administrative trends based on the on-
going planning and management programs as well as the nature of the non-
point pollution source problems revealed.
As stated before, to document all the regulatory measures pertinent to
the solution of the problem and the assessment of estimated costs of or
apparent benefits from any corrective measures is obviously rather com-
plex.
The land developer may by means of regulatory ordinances be obligated to
comply with land conservation practices prior to any final plat approval.
It is obvious that these costs will be reflected in the buyers purchase
costs. On the contrary, acceptable land and water quality practices on
agricultural land are more difficult to administer for several reasons.
1. The cost of controlling non-point discharges of sediments, nu-
trients, pesticides and chemicals associated with agricultural
use may prove to be greater than the landowner is willing to
spend.
2, In rural areas today there are many varied types of landowners:
A. The land speculator who rents out his land and has abso-
lutely no desire to preserve the land or is certainly most
unwilling to expend monies for that purpose. His only pur-
pose for owning the land is to realize a gain on its sale.
B. The farm operator close to retirement age with no next of
kin to continue the operation, who, therefore, is adverse
to an expenditure of money on land use practices for the
balance of his active fanning years.
C. Those landowners who desire to ignore land conservation prac-
tices in spite of any monetary payments. The wish to "do
their thing" without restraints.
D. Landowners who may have an interest but are burdened with a
large debt and are reluctant to accept any greater financial
burden that costly soil conserving practices may incur.
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Hopefully, any remedial measures we formulate will have such a design
that any group of people, whether from a rural or urban area, receive
fair and equitable consideration.
Within the State of Wisconsin local governments are given the option of
adopting floodplain, shoreland, land division, zoning and sanitary regu-
latory ordinances. They need to comply with or may even exceed those
state standards. This allows for this type of ordinances being adminis-
tered by local units of government. If local governments fail to exer-
cise this option, states can enact regulatory rules after proper notice
and hearings. This concept seems to be generally acceptable.
To date the state and local boards of soil and water conservation dis-
tricts and the United States Agricultural Stabilization Conservation
Service (ASCS) are the key organizations in non-point pollution control.
Allocated funds have been disbursed by these agencies based on well de-
fined guidelines. I wish to again emphasize that these programs are
being administered locally, aided by technical and educational assist-
ance and a degree of objection powers from both the Federal and State
agencies. This cooperative program has had reasonable acceptance and
success. Historically, over the past forty years, this has been only an
agricultural program because there was a belief that the farmer was the
greatest and only offender of sound land management practices. Present-
ly, it is a well known fact, that the urban areas are equally in need of
good land use and conservation practices.
Over many years it has been deemed essential and to be in the public in-
terest for governments to expend large amounts of money for fish and game
management, human waste treatment, highways, human services. (The list is
endless and can include the costs of excursions to the Moon and Mars.)
If we are in accord that all these are justifiable costs and programs in
the general public interest can it not also be deemed in the public in-
terest to allocate some matching Federal and State monies to meet the
goals and purposes of our "208" planning.
In conclusion, what are some of my views on "208" planning that I deem
worthy of consideration?
I am of the opinion local units of government working in harmony with
Federal and State agencies can be the basis for meeting the ultimate goals
of "208" planning. We have an established solid base to continue build-
ing upon and aggressively seek to improve on that which, out of necessity,
was founded forty years ago. This base over a period of years has pro-
vided a degree of improvement of water quality and minimizing soil ero-
sion and sedimentation. Voluntary landowner cooperation has been achieved
by means of educational programs and monetary incentives. Let us build
then on this established, proven base, and move forward with a greater
degree of purpose and cooperation. This I believe to be more prudent than
the creation of a new governmental agency and the possible resulting boon-
doggling.
For non-point discharges, controlling a broader statutary legislative
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framework for regulating land use and management practices in both the
rural and urban areas may need to be made available at each level of
government. I deem it desirable that such a legislative framework be
based on discussions with those persons now actively working with the
present ongoing program.
In our attempt to adequately document the remedial measures pertinent to
the solution of "208" planning let us fully evaluate the assessment of
probable costs as well as the apparent benefits any corrective measures
create. In my observation of the EPA project study persently ongoing with-
in our county it appears quite evident that the costs generated by any land
management practices employed warrant monetary assistance for the cooper-
ating landowners.
If for any reason the cooperating governments and agencies cannot com-
plete our institutional and regulatory planning within the time constraints
of the present law I would like to believe that the Federal Government
would deem it prudent to extend the goal completion dates in the interest
of reaching a plan reasonably acceptable to all parties effected. Such an
approach would be comparable to those extensions that are presently al-
lowed to industry, cities and villages in the abatement of point source
pollution because federal and state funding has not been made immediately
available.
The public today is much more vocal in its responses to issues and expects
to play a more active role in government affairs. People are generally
better informed and educated and are less willing to accept government man-
dates. The public now expects to be considered in any decision which af-
fects them or their pocketbooks directly. We must by all means, create a
greater understanding and help to develop a general awareness of the pol-
lution problems associated with land use activities.
We must provide direct counsel and report to the public on specific prob-
lems and impacts on non-point source pollution as identified. We need to
offer this information to those people or interest groups most likely to
be affected.
We must totally assess the attitudes of individuals towards the adoption
of environmental practices and also their perception of the problem and
its resulting economic impact. This can be accomplished through full use
of the news media, distribution of printed materials and organizing com-
munity forums to stimulate public cooperation and action. This will pro-
vide an opportunity for citizens to make a positive contribution to the
design of remedial measures as well as administrative design.
To allow ample time for this process of dialogue and evaluation of any
"208" program planning may be sufficient reason to give consideration to
extending the law's deadline date for implementation. Any such delay may
help to avoid resistance and confrontations amongst parties involved and
be in the overall interest of achieving the reasonably acceptable major
water quality goals of our "208" planning.
I have attempted to express some of the concerns of "208" planning as I
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view them from the vantage point of being privileged to serve as Chair-
man of the County Board, the Soil and Water Conservation District and
the local Town Board, and yes, even as a farmer. I have cited some
areas in which I believe we cannot afford to do less than our very best.
As citizens of our nation and communities I believe we face only the
challenge of greater success although there will be many difficult de-
cisions that must be made relative to non-point source pollution planning
and the ultimate achievement of its goals. As leaders within the frame-
work of federal, state or local units of government or agencies thereof,
we should join in a pledge to create a greater degree of cooperation and
understanding of practical possibilities. The necessity for development
of the solutions to meet the goals of "208" law hopefully can be realized
with a very minimum infringement of the rights and cherished freedoms of
our citizens.
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SOUTHEASTERN WISCONSIN REGIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION
VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
by
Lyman F. Wible*
One of my colleagues advised me on this presentation. He said, "Don't
tell people your troubles." I asked why not and he told me, "Half the
people you tell don't care, and the other half are glad you're getting
what's coming to you." Nevertheless, I would like to present a very
brief summary of a regional planning commission view of areawide water
quality planning under Section 208. Our agency was designated as the
areawide water quality planning agency in December of 1974 and accord-
ingly we will conclude our 208 project period in December of 1977. The
Regional Planning Commission itself is composed of three representa-
tives from each of the seven counties in and around the Milwaukee metro-
politan area. It was organized in 1960 as a result of wide-ranging pub-
lic discussions and debate initiated in 1948. It is especially inter-
esting today to note the twelve years required to successfully deter-
mine the appropriate planning boundaries for the Southeastern Wisconsin
Region, as compared to the time available for designation of 208 agencies.
Since 1960 the Commission has been involved in the conduct of comprehen-
sive physical planning programs, which have included functional planning
in the topics of land use, transportation, airports, housing, libraries,
park and open spaces, water quality, air quality, floodland management,
coastal zone management, and sandstone aquifer modeling, as well as clear-
inghouse and comprehensive planning functions. For this reason, we must
consider the 208 product not as a plan as such, but rather as an element
of a comprehensive physical plan for regional development. Thus, we may
place a far more detailed importance on protection of environmental cor-
ridors or critical resources.
The areawide water quality planning program presents the Southeastern
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission with an opportunity to update, re-
fine, and extend certain previous planning efforts of the Commission.
The major previous activities related to water quality management in-
clude the development of comprehensive watershed plans for about 65 per-
cent of the Region lying in the Root River Watershed, the Fox River Water-
shed, the Milwaukee River Watershed, and the Menomonee River Watershed.
In addition, a regional sanitary sewerage system plan was prepared during
the period from 1969 through 1972. It is useful to the Commission to up-
date aspects of these planning programs to the same base year 1975, as
well as to extend the water quality aspects of these programs to the other
watersheds of the Region. In addition, the areawide water quality planning
*Lyman F. Wible, Areawide Water Quality Planning Project Coordinator,
Southeast Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
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program offers an opportunity for the Commission to refine the techni-
cal work done in the previous planning efforts. New planning and anal-
ysis techniques which yield more accurate and precise answers are ap-
plied in the 208 program to further extend the planning horizon of pre-
vious planning efforts from 1990 — which corresponds to all previously
prepared plan years — to the year 2000 which is, of course, the date
identified as the plan design year for the 208 programs.
Specifically, the 208 program for southeastern Wisconsin is intended to
provide a strategy for meeting and maintaining the water quality stand-
ards applicable to the lakes and streams of the Region from now to the
year 2000. The Commission includes as major elements of the program six
major phases. First is the formulation of objectives and standards;
second is the conduct of inventories; third is the analysis and forecast
phase; fourth is the design, test and evaluation of plan alternatives,
fifth is the selection and adoption of a plan alternative and sixth is
the plan implementation phase. Inventory data include base maps and aer-
ial photography, surface water quality, groundwater data, implementation
status of previous plans, surface water use data, review of concurrent
planning efforts, socioeconomic base data, land use and community plans
and zoning data, general natural resources and environmental data; exist-
ing and proposed sanitary sewerage systems; industrial wastewater dis-
charges; storm sewer systems; agricultural animal feeding operations and
cropping practices; sewage sludge handling and disposal data; the cost
and effectiveness of techniques for wastewater management; public finan-
cial resources; land and wastewater management institutional structures;
and existing legal mechanisms. The analysis and forecasts include the
forecasts of growth and change in the population and economics of the
Region, as well as the simulation of hydrologic, hydraulic and water
quality phenomena. An identification of land uses and environmental
constraints, wastewater conveyance needs and sewage sludge management
needs, as well as analysis of waste management institutions are also in-
cluded. Alternative plan elements for point source control, diffuse
source control, sludge management and disposal, and water quality manage-
ment agencies will be developed and evaluated for their environmental,
economic, technical, legal, financial, and administrative impacts. Plan
selection and adoption, as well as plan implementation are to be con-
ducted in a manner similar to the traditional approaches used by regional
planning agencies except that the additional approvals of the State and
Federal agencies and the special need for the involvement of affected
public will be given special consideration.
The 208 program presents a series of challenges to the Commission as a
continuing comprehensive physical planning agency. Because there are other
planning efforts currently underway or already accomplished by the Commis-
sion, there is a strong challenge to integrate the 208 program with cur-
rent and past planning programs. Similarly, it is exceedingly challenging
to provide a reasoned, objective and equitable integration of solutions to
the point source pollution problems, with the solutions for diffuse sources
of pollution. Perhaps most important, the program offers a similar oppor-
tunity to assess the importance of all major forces affecting water quality.
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In light of the previous work accomplished by the Commission, it is
highly challenging to conduct this program not only to provide useful
information, but also to assure that planning as a social function does
not suffer from overkill, or overfunding, or loss of credibility, due
to a failure to meet the difficult time schedules and demands of the
208 program. It is critical that the 208 program be properly appre-
ciated by local decision makers for what it is — a complementing but
not overlapping program.
The guidelines and requirements of the 208 program indicate that imple-
mentation is the critical measure of success of such a program. The
Commission agrees that "the true test of the pudding is in the tasting,"
as they say, however, it is particularly difficult for a Commission which
has been in existence for sixteen years, and involved in the development
of numerous local projects and the implementation of many physical
planning programs, to consider as realistic, some of the deadlines of
the 208 effort. The specific point is this: The Commission has had
numerous experiences in the development of sanitary sewerage systems on
an areawide basis, and has found it typical that such projects take be-
tween five and eight years for their development. They take from five
to eight years from the initial problem identification to the completion
of local acceptance, funding, construction and institutional and manage-
ment structures which assure effective and efficient operation and main-
tenance of such systems. Will the control of non-point sources take less
time? Anything from a change of local elected administrations, to ecol-
ogy concerns of local citizens, to the impacts of inflation on the local
tax base and its capability to support a project, can slow or deter the
completion of such important environmental control activities unless
knowledgeable and seasoned technical personnel are and remain available
to local decision makers during the project. Likewise, it is critical
that these personnel have a consistent and continuing appreciation for —
and dedication to — a sound and stable set of regional objectives. Many
actors perform this role. We like to think we too are helpful in this
regard. As an important example of this, it is useful to note the current
tendency of nationwide research results to be applied to the Southeastern
Wisconsin Region, where the Commission staff has consistently and public-
ally taken the position that in southeastern Wisconsin, it is the lack
of sewer extensions in conjunction with poor land use decisions, that
causes urban sprawl — not the availability of sewer extensions. A less
seasoned staff might not have come to the same conclusion. Today, in our
Region, essentially all of the sewered lots are sold — even those which
had been considered only marginally saleable, before the sewer extension
ban on overloaded systems was recently imposed by the Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Natural Resources. This is causing a trend in development onto
septic tanks, for which the suitable soils in southeastern Wisconsin lie
on the west side of the Region and about thirty miles distant from Milwaukee.
The technical conduct of the 208 program itself within such a short time
period also presents difficulties. The hiring, training and retention of
the number of qualified staff members needed; the constantly revised guide-
lines; the numerous guidance documents and publications which must be
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digested; the long hot summers of waiting for storm events; and the so-
called "administrivia" are all distractions from the analysis and devel-
opment of realistic alternatives for areawide water quality planning.
The technical products which are the heart of the work effort may be
momentarily forgotten in the scurry of administrative deadlines and ac-
tivities. Finally, the technical work must result in usable answers,
technical solutions, and realistic administrative structures. Against
this backdrop, the conduct of the technical work, to result in plans
which are supportable and will withstand the public scrutiny becomes
exceedingly difficult.
But let us look on the positive side for a minute. Perhaps one of the
most exciting aspects of this planning program has been the opportunity
to interact with not only the agricultural technical personnel within
the Region, but also some of the agriculatural practioners who have had
a role in the work effort to date. In the development of the agricul-
tural non-point source inventory, the Commission identified on low-flight
aerial photographs, the land in agricultural use in the spring of 1975,
when the aerial photos were taken. Working with the County Soil and
Water Conservation Districts, the Agricultural Stabilization Conservation
Service county staffs, the Soil Conservation Service district conserva-
tionists, and the University of Wisconsin-Extension service, the Com-
mission staff attended a series of shirtsleeve work sessions, in which
the delineated photos were further marked to identify the croplands; lo-
cations, the numbers, and types of animal feeding operations; and areas
of particularly severe erosion. Through the assistance of the county
staffs, the Commission was able to obtain the help of local township res-
idents — some were ASCS crop reporters, some were ASCS committeemen,
some were field technicians, others were members of the Soil and Water
Conservation District, some were drainage district members, and some were
just people who did lots of farming. Others were retired ASCS personnel.
Here is the testimonial Mr. Oilman hoped for — because with such grass
roots information, the Commission has been able to characterize the agri-
cultural land use practices within southeastern Wisconsin to a degree of
accuracy which could not be met with any amount of consultant services.
Similarly, with the assistance of the University of Wisconsin-Extension
service, the Commission has undertaken a public involvement program which
includes the identification of a series of public discussions at the
county level. It was the feeling of both the Commission staff, and the
assigned University of Wisconsin-Extension service specialist, that one
logical unit for the development of detailed and localized public involve-
ment efforts related to the areawide water quality planning program is in
fact, the county unit. For this reason, it is anticipated that both urban
and rural, point and non-point, long-term and short-term problems on water
quality management will be addressed in a series of public forums at the
county level. The Commission is optimistic that with this approach and
the continuing support of the agencies discussed here — as well as the
support of the general purpose units of government and the public works
directors and city engineers of the Region — a successful and implement-
able areawide water quality planning program can be accomplished.
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In summary, the Commission views 208 as an element of the comprehensive
physical plan for this Region; as a complementing program to update,
refine, and extend our previous water resources planning efforts, as a
challenge to be met in integrating diverse planning programs; as danger-
ously brief in its plan development and implementation emphasis; and as
an exciting experience in analyzing all of the factors affecting water
quality and in developing the public support necessary to abate pol-
lution.
It can be stated, by misquoting an old saying that, "The 208 Program
offers incredible opportunities to a regional planning commission —
but they come in disguise as insoluble problems." In solving those
problems we feel that highly useful information can be developed for
sound water quality management decisions in southeastern Wisconsin.
Thank you.
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SECTION 208 - A CONGRESSIONAL VIEW
By
J. Edward Roush *
The problem of non-point source pollution is one that
we have been aware of for some time, although I can remember
in the late 1960's when groups in Indiana representing agri-
cultural interests testified with great feeling, at hearings
on the state's water quality standards, that there was no
such thing as agricultural pollution. I think the aware-
ness of the problem of non-point source pollution was driven
home in 1972 at the Maumee River Conference in Fort Wayne.
I arranged the Maumee River Conference specifically
to talk about problems of the Maumee River which we had de-
termined was polluted and for which it seemed to us, things
were getting worse rather than better. At that conference,
speaker after speaker pointed an accusing finger at agricul-
tural as one of the prime contributors to the degradation of
the Maumee.
Speakers said that municipal pollution was being controll-
ed; that control of industrial pollution would soon be es-
tablished; but that no one was doing anything about non-
point pollution and particularly non-point pollution arising
from agriculture.
It has always been a particular source of satisfaction
to me that the agricultural community of Allen County, Ind-
iana reacted not with hostility to that charge, but with a
willingness to find out if there was in fact an environmental
problem and at the same time to find out if there was some-
thing which could be done about it. The result of that
willingness, the interest of the Region V office of the En-
vironmental Protection Agency, the cooperation of the De-
partment of Agriculture, of local government, and of Purdue
University, was the Black Creek Project which you will be hear-
ing about several times during this seminar.
It is worthy of note that the Black Creek Project was
conceived and was under dicussion with the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency prior to the passage of PL 92-500 which contains
Section 208. The subject of this two day meeting.
When congress was debating PL 92-500 there was, of course,
concern over the municiple construction grants program. There
was concern over stopping industrial pollution, but there
were other concerns too. Congressmen from the Urban Megalo-
polis saw a need to impose uniform controls over all of the
governmental units within a metropolitian area. They expressed
*Member of Congress, 4th District Indiana
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the fear that a city doing a good job would be ineffective if
other cities in the same area could not do a similarly good
job. Congressmen from sea coast areas, particularly California,
were concerned with the problems of salt water intrusion
which their districts were experiencing. Congressmen from
rural areas near large metropolitian areas were frightened
of the prospects of land disposal of metropolitian sewage.
Farm belt Congressmen were concerned that traditional excep-
tions for agricultural operations might not be placed in the
final bill.
The Congressional attempt to resolve concerns and fears
was area waste treatment planning. Both the Senate and the
House bill called for area waste treatment plans. The house
called for planning only in urban and industrial complexes,
the senate called for total planning for the total geographic
area of each state. The senate believed that plans should be
developed by July 1, 1974. The house saw a slower process
with planning initiated within two years of the adoption of
the act. The senate said state agencies should use part of
the construction grant funds for the planning. The house
felt that a separate fund should be created. When the Con-
ference Committee Report was issued the conferees, as we might
expect, had taken part of the house bill, part of the senate
bill, and put them together in what became section 208.
It is often popular to consider Section 208 a planning
program only for non-point sources of pollution. The confer-
ence report which became Public Law 92-500 went considerably
beyond that. The plan called for in Section 208 requires:
A. The identification of treatment works necessary
to meet the needs over a 20 year period.
B. The establishment of priorities.
C. The establishment of a regulatory program for
industry.
D. The identification of agencies necessary to con-
struct, operate and maintain all facilities.
E. The identification of measures including the
time necessary and the costs of carrying this out.
F. A process to identify and control agricultural
and sylvicultural related non-point sources of
pollution.
G. A process to identify mine related sources of
pollution.
H. A process to identify construction activity which
is a source of pollution.
I. A process to identify salt water intrusion and
decide how to control that.
J. A process to control the final disposition of all
residual waste which could effect water quality.
K. A process to control the disposal of pollutants on
land or in sub-surface excavations to protect water
quality.
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In other words Section 208 covers the entire plan for a
state and there is a very real basis for labeling this section
as the "heart" of Public Law 92-500.
It is fair to say, that over the past five years, the
Environmental Protection Agency has concentrated on other
sections of the act. As a result that National Commission
on Water Quality has indicated that the contributions of
pollutants from non-point sources may prevent the achieve-
ment of the water quality goals of the act and may even over-
whelm the improvements resulting from the control of point
sources.
Some estimates have been made that 208 planning will
not begin to address, area wide waste treatment problems,
until after 1977. By that time if the 1977 standards for
point sources have been met by municipalities and industries,
non-point source pollution would be expected to account for
145 million pounds which is 95% of the total of suspended
solids per day; 28.3 million pounds - 79% of the nitrogen
per day; 1.9 million pounds or 53% of the phosphorus per day
and over 98% of the national loadings for both fecal and total
coliform counts.
While Environmental Protection Agency has been dealing
with the Construction Grant Program and the discharge permit
program, it has consistently fallen behind in the implementa-
tion of Section 208, specifically, E.P.A. has:
A. Failed to meet the statutory deadlines required
by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act 92-500.
B. Promulgated regulations which were subsequently
found to be in violation by federal court.
C. Impounded 137 million dollars in contract authority
which had been ear-marked by Congress to provide
regional planning bodies with 100 start-up funding
for 208 planning.
With the adoption of 92-500, congress anticipated that
208 planning would be under way and would impact all water
quality decisions by mid 1975.
Over the past year, to year and a half, the priority of
implementing Section 208 has increased. In the last fiscal
year 135 areas were approved and additional 23 areas were
designated by governors or by local authorities where gover-
nors failed to act.
The reluctance of federal agencies to deal with section
208, particularly the problems relating to non-point source
pollution is certainly understandable. Solutions to the pro-
blems of non-point source pollution make the problems which
surrounded the implementation of the municiple construction
grants program and the implementation of the discharge per-
mit program seem simple. Plans to deal with non-point source
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pollution will not be able to point fingers at single heavy
sources of pollutants and require immediate action by well
identified groups or individuals.
The cost of dealing with non-point sources of pollution
will be great whether that cost is born by the federal govern-
ment, by state and local governments, by individuals or by
some combination. The municipal construction grants program
has involved the largest public works program in the history
of the nation. It is fair to predict that expenditures for
control of non-point source pollution will have to equal or
exceed that amount if a real impact on the problem is to be
achieved.
I remain convinced, however, that there is a cause for
optimism and a chance for success. I point again to the
reaction of the agricultural community in Allen County, Indiana
when after the adoption of the Maumee Conference Report and
after an accusing finger had been pointed at them, they did
not raise cries of anguish and vow to fight those persons
who had made the accusations. They instead vowed to band to-
gether, discover what the problem was, and find out how they
could help solve it. I believe this is a reaction that we
can expect from farmers.
I believe that the Black Creek Project has demonstrated
this. I believe that the kind of federal, state, and local
cooperation invisioned in Section 208 can accomplish wonders
and more over I believe that it will.
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THE WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT - AN OVERVIEW
by
T. C. Daniel*
The primary objective of the Washington County Project is to demon-
strate the effectiveness of land treatment measures in improving water
quality, and to devise the necessary institutional arrangements required
for the preparation, acceptance and implementation of a sediment control
ordinance or other management program applicable to incorporated and
unincorporated areas on a county-wide basis.
The conceptualization of the project, the participation and involve-
ment of appropriate interest groups and the development of project
objectives is reviewed. Each objective is discussed with emphasis on
strategies for implementation and accomplishments to date.
Development of the Washington County Project began in April of 1973
as a result of the Governor's Conference on Sediment and Erosion Control
held at Madison, Wisconsin (1). Preliminary meetings followed, identi-
fying those organizations and agencies concerned with nonpoint pollution,
particularly sediment. During the two year period, the list of partici-
pants in the project was expanded to include representatives of federal,
state and local agencies, academic institutions, elected officials and
appropriate interest groups. An executive committee representing the
participants was created and charged with the responsibility of reviewing
the status of the nonpoint pollution problem, identifying the major pro-
blems needing investigation, developing project objectives, and providing
a mechanism for project implementation (Table 1). For detail concerning
the organization, roles and responsibilities of the various committees
involved in the project the reader is referred to the Washington County
Project Work Plan (2).
The remainder of this report will provide information on the back-
ground of the project, project objectives, approaches to achieving those
objectives, and project accomplishments to date.
BACKGROUND OF THE WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act-Amendments of 1972 (P.L.
92-500) addresses the problem of protecting and improving the quality of
the nation's lakes and streams. The legislation is specific with respect
to the types of pollution to be investigated, the mechanisms and time
frame required and the agency(ies) having primary responsibility for
accomplishing the control aspects of the law. In the past, the US-EPA
has directed efforts towards the control of point sources of pollution
and the development, revision and updating of guidelines for controlling
the quality of effluent discharged from industry, municipal treatment
*Assistant Professor of Soil Science, Department of Soil Science,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin.
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plants and feedlots are being revised and updated to reflect advances in
treatment technology. Additionally, the US-EPA is focusing attention on
nonpoint or diffuse sources of pollution such as agricultural and urban
runoff. Because of their diffuse character, these pollutional sources
are more difficult to quantify and define. Undoubtedly, controlling
these pollutional sources is complicated by the interrelated complexities
and inherent variability in the systems involved and by the lack of back-
ground information required to define the problem. However, control of
nonpoint sources is of great importance for maintaining the quality of
surface waters and management methodology for minimizing their discharge
must be developed.
Sediment transport and deposition is a classic example of pollution
arising from a diffuse source. Nationally, sediment is by volume the
single largest pollutant of the nation's surface waters. Aside from the
objection to sediment from an aesthetic standpoint, deposition of sedi-
ment in surface waters can cause a degradation in water quality resulting
from increases in suspended and bed loads, total dissolved solids and
oxygen demand. Eutrophying and other components of the eroded material,
such as readily available ortho-phosphate, soluble nitrogen and pesti-
cides, etc., are also released as a result of the interaction between
eroded soil particles and surface waters. Annually, dredging costs to
keep the nation's streams and harbors open are conservatively estimated
at $300 million.
Table 1.
Organizations and Agencies Involved in the Development of the
Project
Abbreviations
Organizations and Agencies
NACD
SEWRPC
USDA-ASCS
USDA-SCS
US-EPA
USGS
UWEX
UW-MAD
UW-SNR
UW-Soil Sci
UW-WRC
WCSWCD
WDNR
WGNHS
WSBSWCD
National Association of Conservation Districts
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service
United States Department of Agriculture - Soil
Conservation Service
United States - Environmental Protection Agency
United States Geological Survey
University of Wisconsin-Extension
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Wisconsin - School of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin - Department of Soil Science
University of Wisconsin - Water Resources Center
Washington County Soil and Water Conservation District
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey
Wisconsin State Board of Soil and Water Conservation
Districts
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Although erosion and subsequent sedimentation is a natural geological
process which cannot be eliminated completely, man's activities can, and
have, greatly accelerated the process. The rates of soil loss are directly
related to types of land use. Sediment, with its deleterious effect on
water quality, has been identified as the major pollution problem in seven
of the 17 chapters describing the effect of different land use categories
cataloged as potential sources of loading to the Great Lakes by a Refer-
ence Group of the U.S.-Canada International Joint Commission (3). This
comprehensive review of land use in relation to pollutional loading into
the surface waters of the Great Lakes clearly identifies sediment as a
major pollutant and calls for new and innovative programs for its control
and prevention.
The primary source of sediments polluting surface waters is agricul-
tural and other rural lands lacking adequate conservation practices. How-
ever, a second major source of sediment is land undergoing changing use
patterns as exemplified by areas of rapid urbanization (construction sites).
This source comprises a major hazard because it is largely unabated and
conservation practices are normally not applied during construction. Rates
of erosion from urbanizing areas may exceed those from agricultural lands
by factors from 100:1 to 200:1. Sediment loading into surface waters will
continue to increase with time due to the increased demand for agricultural
production which involves both more intensive agriculture and the cultiva-
tion of formerly idle land, and to continual urbanization and the develop-
ment of previously rural lands. The land being newly brought into agricul-
tural production is likely to be critical when evaluated in terms of its
potential erosional hazard either because of the slope or shallowness of
the soil.
Historically, the problem of soil loss has been viewed strictly as
a rural problem controlled only for the economic benefit of the land-
owners. Presently, and to a greater degree in the future, deterioration
in water quality arising from sediment deposition either from rural or
urban areas must be viewed in light of the general public's right and
desire for high quality surface water and included in this evaluation
must be the downstream cost and effect of sediment deposition.
Prior investigations and experience by agencies such as the USDA-SCS
have led to the development of an erosion control technology which if
fully implemented will dramatically reduce soil loss from unprotected
cropland and construction site areas. The major obstacle has been an
inability to develop and implement programs which provide a uniformly
high degree of land application of conservation practices. Prior ex-
perience has shown that the voluntary and incentive mechanisms have been
successful to a point; however, these programs do not result in a uni-
formly high degree of implementation of land practices. Erosion can be
controlled—the problem is the development of new and innovative manage-
ment programs to correct the inadequacies of a strictly voluntary-
incentive program.
Solving the basic problems of implementation of conservation practices
necessitates investigating the social, economic, legal, and political
aspects of the issue as well as the technical components. Answers to these
questions can only be provided by multiagency and interdisciplinary pro-
grams devoted to problem-oriented research and demonstration. It is only
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through this mechanism that a forum of exchange between those affected by
management programs and the agencies (federal, state, local) required to
develop and administer such programs that realistic guidelines and methods
of implementation can be developed.
OBJECTIVES
As a result of input from the participants identified in Table 1 the
overall objective of the program is to demonstrate the effectiveness of
land treatment measures in improving water quality, and to devise the
necessary institutional arrangements required for the preparation, accep-
tance and implementation of a sediment control ordinance or other manage-
ment program applicable to incorporated and unincorporated areas on a
county-wide basis. Specific objectives deemed necessary for the success-
ful attainment of the overall objectives are:
1. Demonstrate through a monitoring program the effectiveness
of sediment and erosion control techniques for improving
water quality.
2. Develop a sediment control ordinance or other management
mechanisms acceptable to landowners and the several
governmental authorities responsible for implementing
such measures and determine the combination(s) of
institutional arrangements in the form of laws and
intergovernmental relationships involving federal,
state, county, and municipal governments required
for implementing management programs in incorporated
and unincorporated areas on a county-wide basis.
3. Develop a model of the personnel required and the
technical and financial assistance needed to imple-
ment a sediment control program.
4. Develop and systemize the educational and information
dissemination effort to the general public and appro-
priate user groups required for implementing a sediment
control program.
5. Provide an evaluation of the feasibility of implementing
management programs for sediment and erosion control
in the Great Lakes Basin States and other areas where
applicable.
PROCEDURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF OBJECTIVES
Each of the objectives will be discussed individually with respect
to mechanisms and procedures identified for their implementation. The
purpose of this document is to provide a brief summary of major project
activities. For more detailed information, the reader is referred to
the Washington County Project Work Plan (2).
39
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Demonstrating Improvement in Water Quality
The area of water quality vs. land use and its associated runoff
necessitated clarifications especially in light of potential regulatory
programs. Two watersheds, one agricultural (Kewaskum) and the other
rapidly urbanizing (Germantown) were selected in Washington County,
Wisconsin (Figure 1). The Kewaskum Watershed is devoted primarily to a
dairying type of agricultural enterprise. A dairy farming area was selec-
ted because dairying is the dominant type of agriculture in the Great
Lakes Basin (4). The Germantown watershed has been identified as the
areas in Washington County scheduled for rapid development and subsequent
construction activity (5). This rapid development is a result of pop-
ulation pressure from the nearby Milwaukee metropolitan area. Intensive
water quality monitoring activity is scheduled for the two watersheds and
information will be developed on a total loading basis for selected param-
eters. Background information will be developed concerning runoff under
present land use conditions with subsequent information collected as a
result of the implementation of intensive conservation practices. Infor-
mation provided from this activity will be utilized in various aspects of
developing a management program, i.e., cost benefit, background levels of
pollutants, effectiveness of conservation practices on water quality and
sediment delivery ratio.
Development of a Planning and Management Program for Sediment Control
Efforts in this area focused on identifying and integrating the ex-
pertise required to work on the legal, social, political, and economic
aspects of the project. Problem areas will be handled by individuals
whose research interests are devoted to the solution of problems of a
practical, people-oriented nature. Definition of objectives and mech-
anisms of accomplishment have been evaluated in each discipline for the
respective graduate research assistants and biweekly meetings are in
progress to insure coordination. Specific analysis of existing state
and local statutory authorities have been initiated. An examination of
existing federal, state and local institutional arrangements and their
potentials for implementing sediment control programs also has been
initiated.
Personnel, Technical and Financial Requirements
Any management program developed will require clear identification
of staff needs to implement and administer such programs. The importance
of this component cannot be overlooked for, in part, it will determine the
economic acceptability of the different alternatives and become increas-
ingly more critical when the results are projected on a regional basis.
The amount or level of personnel required at the local, state or regional
level is less known than the type of personnel required. These activities
will be accomplished in concert and concomitantly with objective 2.
Education and Information Program
Specific local audiences have been identified and informational bro-
chures and slide sets are in various stages of development. Numerous
visual aids, namely slides and film, showing the local leaders and mon-
itoring site installations have been collected. A slide set for use in
40
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Great
lakes
Drainage
' Dailn
Green Bay
Milwaukee
Croat.Lakes Drainage Divide —•
Study Watershed Boundary ——
Watershed Streans ——
KEWASKUH
WATERSHED
^
I
GREAT LAKES DRAINA&E BASIN
^Jackson
LGERMANTOHN $
WATERSHED '
Figure 1. Map of Washington County, Wisconsin, Showing Its Geographical
Location and Selected Project Sites in the Great Lakes Drain-
age Basin.
41
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describing the project at local meetings has been developed and will be
updated continually. Several informational brochures have been identified
which will provide information concerning sediment effects on water quality
and how the project is being structured to address the total question of
nonpoint pollution for distribution to state, regional (interstate) and
national audiences. The mechanism of developing appropriate brochures
and visual aid materials will be a coordinated effort among several disci-
plines within the University of Wisconsin-Extension.
Application of Results to Other Areas
The development of a sediment control management plan for Washington
County will serve as a demonstration of technical and institutional mech-
anisms for conducting a county-wide, rural-urban program. The demonstra-
tion must, however, achieve the goal of being implementable on a much
broader geographic scale, i.e., statewide, regional or perhaps, even
national. It is fully understood that this demonstration can only serve
as a prototype since other areas will have to develop programs taking in-
to account their own unique political, legal and economic constraints.
However, when utilizing Washington County as a demonstration site, part
of the evaluation of the alternatives must include those programs which
institutionally have the inherent ability to be projected to state, re-
gional and national scope.
SUMMARY AND PRESENT STATUS
The project was funded in June 1975 with the Wisconsin State Board
of Soil and Water Conservation Districts as the grantee and will continue
through December 1978. Initially, most of the activity centered around
accumulating project and support staff. Interdisciplinary groups have
been established and coordination of activity initiated. Monitoring
site installation is completed. Many elected and public officials in
Washington County have been active in all phases of the project and
have taken the leadership role at the local level. Accomplishment of
the objectives will be performed in concert with each other, however,
little substantive activity is expected on objective 3 or 5 until the
middle stages of the program.
REFERENCES
1. Soil Erosion is a Critical National Problem. 1973. Proc. of the
Governor's Conf. on Erosion and Sediment Control. Madison, Wis.
Apr.
2. Daniel, T.C. 1975. Washington County Project. Mimeo Report.
Water Resources Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Madison,
Wis.
3. International Reference Group on Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use
Activity. 1974. Prepared by the U.S. Section of Task Group A for
the Pollution from Land Use Activities Reference Group of the Inter-
national Joint Commission. Nov.
42
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4. Great Lakes Basin Commission. 1971. Land use and management—
Appendix 13, In Great Lakes Basin Framework Study. Ann Arbor, Mich.
pp. 13-91. Draft copy.
5. Anonymous. 1969. Germantown, Wisconsin...Comprehensive Plan.
Tech-Search, Inc., Wilmette, 111. p. 16.
43
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WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN
EROSION-SEDIMENT CONTROL PROJECT
(RED CLAY PROJECT)
by
Stephen C. Andrews
Project Director
The Red Clay Project is a research and demonstration
project funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
under Section 108 of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal Water
Quality Act (PL92-500). Section 108 provides funds for pro-
jects in the Great Lakes Basin for the collection of data to
be used as a basis for planning and implementing non-point
source pollution control programs to help improve water qual-
ity.
The red clay soils in the Western Lake Superior basin
were formed by lake deposits which have subsequently become
exposed by the receeding lake and geologic uplift and are
now part of the land mass forming the Lake Superior basin.
In geological terms, this makes these soils young, unstable
and susceptable to a relatively high rate of erosion. The
process of erosion and the deposition of the resulting sedi-
ment in lakes are very natural processes. However, these
processes are accelerated by man's activities and the results
can be very detrimental and costly. Through a combination of
these natural events and inadequate planning and management
on the part of man, valuable agricultural land is lost, shore
front property is eroded away, sediment pollutes the waters,
carries other pollutants with it and fills economically impor-
tant harbors.
Over the years there have been considerable numbers of
studies done on the problems of red clay erosion. The Red
Clay Project came into existence as another part of the on-
going research. It will be making use of past research but
should not be viewed as the end result of all the previous
studies. The Project did not arise out of other studies, but
grew independently to examine problems which others did not
and to add to the storehouse of information upon which compre-
hensive, long-term control programs can be built.
NEMADJI BASIN
Detailed soil surveys have been completed on 55530 acres
and 75760 acres of reconnaissance soil surveys were made dur-
ing the past year. Some winter soil survey work was completed
on large organic soil areas with the aid of snowmobiles.
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Detailed soil profile descriptions were written and cor-
relation samples were gathered for 7 series. In addition, 4-
profile samples for detailed laboratory analysis were taken.
Soil survey field sheets for completed areas and soil inter-
pretations are available from the Soil Conservation Service
Office in Superior upon request.
The Critical Area Treatment plans for roadside erosion
control throughout the Nemadji Basin have been completed.
These plans call for erosion control on 3^-7 acres of road-
sides in the Town of Summit, Town of Superior and City of
Superior. Twenty-seven areas have been identified as need-
ing structural measures to control the erosion.
In addition, two sites have been selected to demonstrate
innovative techniques of roadside erosion control. One site
is on clayey soils and one site is on sandy soils. On these
study sites various combinations of seeding mixtures and
mulching techniques will be demonstrated in plots 4-0' wide
to provide for comparison.
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK STUDY AREA
Floodwater Retarding Structures
Floodwater retarding structures are installed to provide
for temporary storage and controlled release of floodwater
during periods of peak flow. These structures also trap sedi-
ment. It is intended that the controlled release of flood-
water will lower the runoff peaks and reduce damage to the
streambanks downstream from the structure sites. The effect
of trapping sediment and reducing streambank erosion will
improve water quality in the Little Balsam watershed.
Several alternative sites were considered for this por-
tion of the overall program:
1. Section 16, on the main tributary, in the upper
part of the watershed.
2. West tributary in Sec. 34- in the lower part of
the watershed. This will control flow on an inter-
mittent stream.
3. East tributary in Sec. 34- in the lower part of the
watershed. This will control flow on an inter-
mittent stream.
4-. Section 3, on the main channel, in the lower part
of the watershed.
After field evaluation and hydrologic routings were com-
pleted, it was decided that adequate floodwater retarding
structure sites do not exist in the basin. All sites evaluated
-------
lacked the needed storage capacity to accomplish program ob-
jectives. Therefore it is recommended that floodwater retard-
ing structures be deleted from the proposed plan of work.
Foxlord Boad and Soo Line Railroad Crossings
Little Balsam Creek flows through a concrete culvert "be-
neath the Soo Line Railroad tracks. There is a streambank
failure on the north bank of the railroad fill. Surface water
is cutting a channel on both sides of the creek where the cul-
vert, railroad fill and streambank meet.
Replacement of eroded fill, stabilization of the failing
bank and proper disposal of surface runoff water will improve
water quality in Little Balsam Creek.
Little Balsam Creek flows through a concrete culvert
under Foxlord Road approximately .1 mile west of Patzau.
Roadfill stability is poor because the side slopes are steep
and poorly vegetated. Roadside runoff has eroded gullies
adjacent to the roadway where the roadfill meets the steep
ravine bank. Large amounts of fill are deposited by mass
wasting of the roadfill and roadside gully erosion. Hazard-
ous travel conditions are created when the roadfill slopes
fail.
Detailed engineering field surveys and a topographic map
have been completed for both crossings. Several construction
alternatives have been developed for both sites.
Streambank Slip and Slide Control
Large amounts of sediment are contributed to Little
Balsam Creek by mass wasting of the streambank. Structural
measures will be installed to protect the toe of the slope
and stabilize the streambank.
Streambank slip and slide stabilization will be demon-
strated on 5 slides identified in Section 3^, North of the
Burlington Northern Railroad tracks.
Several alternative methods of stabilization will be con-
sidered for installation along the main channel of the Little
Balsam Creek:
1. Groins in the stream to deflect current from toe
of slope.
2. Rip-rap of the streambank.
3. Cribbing of the toe of the slope.
4. Snag removal from stream channel to redirect stream
current.
46
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5- Gabions.
6. Subsurface drainage to eliminate seepage areas on
streambanks.
7. Diversion above slope to divert excess surface water
from the streambank.
In addition, several vegetative alternatives that could
be used alone or in conjunction with structural measures, were
considered:
1. Shaping and seeding entire area.
2. Shaping and application of seed to horizontal bands.
3. Tree removal on slope to encourage growth of dense
ground cover.
Pour resource conservation plans (LTA) have been completed.
Installation of fencing for livestock exclusion and a livestock
watering facility started this spring. Resource conservation
planning is in the process with three additional landowners in
the study area.
The most common practices being requested by landowners
include fencing for livestock exclusion from streams, pasture
and hayland planting and/or management, livestock watering fa-
cilities, and livestock stream crossings. Manure storage facil-
ities, grassed waterways and surface drainage have also been
requested. Each farm unit will be using its soil resources
within the allowable soil loss limits upon installation of all
planned practices.
Inventories and evaluations are being completed for those
landowners who are presently using the land within allowable
soil loss limits and/or for those who do not want or are unable
to cooperate with the program at this time. The average annual
soil loss from sheet erosion measured in the inventories and
evaluations completed to date is less than 2 tons per acre.
PINE CREEK (FISH CREEK BASIN) STUDY AREA
Modification of a stream channel near the junction of
Pine and Fish Creeks is proposed in the workplan. This pro-
posal is intended to demonstrate the effect of channel modifi-
cation on streambank stabilization and improved water quality.
Detailed engineering field survey is completed for the
channel modification site. A topographic map is available for
the area. Several channel modification alternatives have been
discussed, but no final decisions have been reached to date.
47
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Resource conservation plans (LTA) have "been developed and
approved for fourteen landowners in the Pine Creek study area.
Surface drainage, grassed waterways and diversions have been
installed. Work is progressing on the installation of fences
for livestock exclusion.
Resource conservation plans are in the process of develop-
ment for additional landowners. Landowners have requested
assistance with fencing for livestock exclusion, livestock
watering facilities, livestock stream crossings, grassed water-
ways, surface drainage and manure storage facilities. Each
farm unit will be using its soil resources within the allow-
able soil loss limits upon installation of all planned practices.
Soil survey is completed on 47,700 acres of the Fish Creek
study area. Copies of individual field sheets and soil inter-
pretations, may be obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation
Service Office in Ashland, Wisconsin.
SPOON CREEK (ORONTO-PARKER BASIN) STUDY AREA
The site for the proposed debris basin has been moved from
Oronto Creek to Spoon Creek. This change resulted from con-
cerns voiced over fish migration in Oronto Creek and detailed
field evaluation of the structure site. The Spoon Creek site
will eliminate these concerns.
The Universal Soil Loss Equation has been applied to all
the land within the Spoon Creek study area. The average
annual soil loss from sheet erosion is .59 tons per acre. Ap-
proximately 40% of the material removed by sheet erosion reaches
the stream channel.
Detailed field engineering survey is completed for the
Spoon Creek debris basin. Field notes have been plotted and a
topographic map of the structure site and floodpool is avail-
able. Several alternatives have been proposed.
The debris basin will be designed for maximum sediment
accumulation. Approximately 930 tons per year will be deliver-
ed to the proposed structure site from sheet erosion, stream-
bank erosion and gully erosion. This sediment accumulation
will occupy 31 acre feet at the end of 50 years.
The detailed soil survey of Spoon Creek basin is com-
plete. Copies of field sheets and soil interpretations may
be obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service Office in
Ashland, Wisconsin.
SKUNK CREEK STUDY AREA
Engineering plans and specifications have been completed
and approved for the Elim Creek floodwater retention structure.
48
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The floodwater retarding structure has teen advertised for
construction. The Sponsors are presently selecting the "best
qualified "bidder. The contract will have a performance time
of 80 calendar days.
The soil mechanics analysis of the Elim Creek structure
site material indicates that the foundation is pre-consolidated.
Shear strength analysis of the foundations material, along
with test fill studies, were used to complete the slope stabil-
ity analysis. With a 4-0 foot fill height the following slope
requirements are planned:
1. Downstream slope - 3 to 1 slope with a 10 foot wide
stability berm at 1/3 the fill height.
2. Upstream slope - 3 to 1 slope above the permanent
pool; a foot wide berm at pool level; 3-5 "to 1 slope
below the pool level.
A complete soil mechanics report is available from the
Soil Conservation Service, Duluth, Minnesota upon request.
The principal spillway will be a 24-inch diameter rein-
forced concrete pipe with pour concrete riser. The pool will
be a maximum of 18 feet deep and will provide for 50-year sed-
iment accumulation and livestock water supply. The slow draw-
down pool between will be controlled by an orifice that will
provide temporary storage for 1 inch of watershed runoff.
A second floodwater retarding structure is proposed on
Skunk Creek on the Hanson property. Field engineering surveys
and geologic investigations have been completed for the Hanson
site. The addition of the Hanson structure will reduce flood
peaks by 4-0 percent in Skunk Creek below the junction with
Elim Creek. Flood peaks above 'the junction with Elim Creek
will be reduced by 50 to 60 percent.
Construction plans are nearly complete for about one-
half of slide stabilization work to be done along County Road
103, and will be titled Red Clay Erosion Control, Part I.
The main item of work is building a buttress against the slide
just north of the bridge. This will be accomplished by di-
verting the stream away from the slide and raising the stream
bed about 11 feet. A 4-8 inch diameter culvert will pass 150
cfs (Q2) at present stream gradient and a 12 foot drop struc-
ture will stabilize the downstream end of the raised channel.
Considerable rip-rap and some slope drainage compliments this
structure.
Another item is a rock gabion wingwall extension on the
northwest corner of the bridge. Also about 4-,000 feet of
tile drain is included in the upland south and east of the
bridge and along the cut slope sides of County Road 103 both
north and south of the bridge. About 1,000 feet of cut slope
49
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will be shaped and reseeded. The resulting excavation will
be used to build the buttress referred to earlier.
Additional stabilization work is planned along County-
Road 103 and upstream on Elim Creek and Skunk Creek. Con-
struction plans on this will be completed this fall and winter
for next year's construction. Alternatives considered include:
1. Logs placed longitudinally on the bank and fastened
together to protect the banks from scouring. Some
of the logs will be made of concrete to insure dur-
ability and antiflotation. This will be done with
minimum construction disturbance to the natural
landscape. Total length of protection would be
4-00 - 500 feet. Estimated cost is S30 per foot.
2. A bin wall type structure that will be back filled
and bin filled with pit run gravel. This protection
is planned for 250 feet on one side at an estimated
cost of $200 per foot.
3. Tile drainage is planned immediately above the erod-
ing slope. Total length of tile would be about 2,000
feet in the upland. The depth will be determined
by soil drilling to find the water producing strata.
Use of plant material, "biological pumps", is also
planned for this eroding slope. Final selection of
plants to use hasn't been completed. Estimated cost
of tile installation is $4,000.
Resource Conservation plans (LTA) have been developed and
approved for sixteen landowners in the Skunk Creek study area.
Implementation of planned practices started this spring and
will continue until all planned practices are applied. All
implementation is scheduled for completion prior to July 1, 1978.
Fencing for livestock exclusion, and hayland planting practices
have been completed to date.
Resource Conservation Plans are in the process of develop-
ment for several additional landowners. Landowners have re-
quested assistance with livestock stream crossings, livestock
watering facilities, grassed waterways, surface drainage and
sediment traps.
Woodland management plans are being developed by the
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Land and
Forestry. Eight landowners requested forestry planning assist-
ance at an informational meeting held this winter. Several
of the requested plans have been completed and delivered to
the landowners.
The use of vegetation to remove excess soil moisture, will
be demonstrated along Highway 103. A draft copy of the plan
for this proposal will be completed this fall.
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ASHLAND SHORELINE STUDY AEEA
Ashland County was selected to demonstrate shoreline
protective devices including rip-raping and selected con-
figurations of Longard tubes.
Early surveys of four potential sites indicated that
the Indian Cemetery site on Madeline Island would be an ap-
propriate location for rip-raping. In addition to providing
demonstration capability, it also will protect a valuable
archeological resource. Madigan "beach, about 15 miles east
of the City of Ashland was chosen for the Longard tube re-
search and demonstration area. This beach has many high erod-
ible clay bluffs which need stabilization. The primary pro-
blem is one of waves eating out the toe of these slopes. It
is felt that Longard tubes in seawall and grain configur-
ations may be useful in stabilizing the bluffs.
At the time of this report, permits have been secured
from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources and the
Army Corps of Engineers. It is expected that construction
will commence early in the spring of 1977-
RESEARCH
All research is on schedule. Several reports of interest
have been included in the proceedings.
MONITORING
All proposed water quality monitoring stations have been
installed and are operating.
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BLACK CREEK PROJECT OVERVIEW
by
Ellis McFadden1
The Black Creek Sediment Control Study, an Environmental Protection
Agency funded project to determine the environmental impact of land use
on water quality is finishing its fourth year of activities. The project,
which is directed by the Allen County Soil & Water Conservation District,
is an attempt to determine the role that agricultural pollutants play in
the degradation of water quality in the Maumee .River Basin and ultimately
in Lake Erie.
The Black Creek project was designed and developed by a consortium
of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Soil Conservation Service of
the United States Department of Agriculture, Purdue University, and the
Allen County District. It is a response to allegations, first brought
to the attention of Allen County residents at a conference on the future
of the Maumee River sponsored by Representative J. Edward Roush in Janu-
ary of 1972.
At the conference, sediments and related pollutants were named as
major contributors to the degradation of water quality in Lake Erie. It
was further suggested that agricultural operations significantly increased
the amount of sediment and sediment related pollutants.
The Black Creek Sediment Study, funded by a grant of nearly two million
dollars is an attempt to discover the role that agricultural operations
play In the pollution of the Maumee River and how that role can be dimin-
ished through the application of significant land treatment practices.
The project represents a multi-agency, multi-discipline approach to
the total problem of non-point source pollution. It involves demonstra-
tion, through a problem of accelerated land treatment with the assistance
of the Soil Conservation Service, applied research by Purdue University,
administration by the Allen County Soil & Water Conservation District,
and cooperation from a variety of state, federal and local agencies, as
well as the private landowners in the study area.
^Chairman of the Allen County Soil & Water Conservation District Board of
Supervisors in charge of administering the Section 108 grant from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency for the Black Creek Study.
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THE CHALLENGE OF 208 PLANNING
By
James B. Morrison *
These remarks are directed to the non-point aspects of
section 208, particularly as they relate to agricultural
pollution and the requirement that section 208 plans address
the needs of the agricultural communities. They are made
from the perspective of a person who has functioned as a
close observer of the Black Creek Project, and they deal
with with what might be described as "consciousness raising".
I direct your attention to the reports on Lake Erie
Water Quality issued in the late 1960s, and particularly to
the statements made at that time about the Maumee River Basin.
The consensus was that although the Maumee contributed large
amounts of silt to Lake Erie, this could not really be con-
sidered a source of water quality degradation.
By 1972, enforcement officers at the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency were saying that the Maumee River was a
major contributor to the pollution of Lake Erie because of
the silt load and the related nutrients which were carried
with it. It was fairly common to hear the prediction that
by simply applying standard techniques of soil conservation,
the load of silt and related pollutants could be cut in half.
Currently, as Section 208 planning begins to be imple-
mented, we have reached the position of believing that soil
erosion is a major part of the non-point problem, but we are
not as convinced as we once were that the application of
standard techniques are going to easily solve the problem.
This is the kind of consciousness raising that relates
to the environmental movement in general -- first we have a
belief that there is no serious problem, we progress to a be-
lief that there is a problem, but feel confident that the
solution is relatively simple, finally we understand that the
problem we have is a complex one and is not subject to answers
that are immediately obvious.
You are going to hear many people say that the problem
of agricultural non-point pollution is different than other
problems we face in obtaining water quality. This is true,
but not true for the reasons that are frequently cited. In
farming, planners and regulators are dealing with a basic
resource -- food - as opposed to a manufacturing operation
or finished product. Tinkering with agricultural production
has an impact not only on the financial condition of individual
farmers and the cost of food at the super market. It has an
impact on the availability of a basic resource.
*Field Representative for Congressman Roush
53
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This dual impact can be considered in relationship to
the profit potential of individual farms, and the resource
availability of food and fiber. Let's look at some possi-
ble combinations.
No Reduction In Profits - No Reduction In Product-
Soil conservation, as it has been conceived by the Soil
Conservation Service, has been aimed at maintaining soil
loss below the amount which can be regenerated on the land.
Many of the traditional practices advocated by SCS will in
fact increase productivity and can increase profits by the
simplification of operation, the need for reduced supplies
of fertilizer, etc. These same practices can have a benefi-
cial effect on water quality, although it is not certain
that they can meet the objectives of control of non-point
source agricultural pollution.
2. No Reduction In Profits -- Reduction in Productivity
Certain practices, of which certain applications of
minimum tillage are a good example, can result in an increase
in profits, even though there is a reduction in yield. By
this I do not mean to imply that minimum tillage necessarily
results in a reduction in yield, but in some cases it can,
and profits can be maintained because of lower expense in-
curred in the reduced number of farming operations. In this
case, there is no profit reduction, but there is a reduction in
the basic food resource availability.
3. Reduction In Profits --No Reduction In Productivity
The installation of practices which require heavy capi-
tal outlay such as elaborate systems of terraces or the in-
stallation of sediment basis on non-productive land at the
base of a watershed may have no effect on the productivity
of cropland in the upstream area. They may, however, involve
capital costs so large that the costs cannot be recovered
over the normal farming life of an individual landowner. His
profits are reduced (or eliminated) but productivity is main-
tained.
4. Reduction In Profits -- Reduction in Productivity
Finally there is the situation in which measures requir-
ed -- perhaps removing land in critial areas from production,
imposing a rotation with more years of grass crops, or re-
quiring the construction of a sediment basin on land which would
otherwise be productive, results in both a reduction in pro-
fits and a reduction in productivity.
The challenge to water quality planners is to recog-
nize what combination of these impacts pertain. In those situa-
54
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tions where there can be demonstrated to be no-long terms
decrease in profit potential, education and regulation has
a good chance of success in achieving water quality goals.
Where there can be expected to be a reduction in profit
potential, farmers are going to expect incentive payments
as a condition for accepting controls. This does not nec-
essarily mean that they will receive them or that they should
receive them, but it is certain that they will expect them.
Finally, in dealing with the question of reduced pro-
ducitivy, a decision must be made about what the prime
need is. It is possible that the imposition of controls in
any individual region or state will have no significant
national impact. However, if all regions and all states
imposed regulations and controls that led to a reduction in
food production, there would be an important impact.
More to the point, I have heard at least one 208 planners
offer the opinion that regulations have to be uniform across
a state; because it would be unfair to farmers in erosion
prone areas did not have to meet. That is a politically
satisfying proposition, but it may be a silly point of view
when we consider the potential impact of regulations such
as these on basic production of food resources.
Congress, in writing section 208, inserted four words
in mandating planning for control of agricultural pollution.
Those words were "to the extent feasible".
It may very well turn out that the challenge of 208
planning as it relates to agricultural non-point pollution
is to define what "feasible" means in relation to the water
quality goals we are striving for.
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Public Participation in Land Use Planning and Management
by
F. W. Madison*
f .
At the outset, it should be pointed out that the Washington County
Project which is funded under Section 108 of Public Law 92-500 is working
solely with control and management problems of urban and rural nonpoint
source pollutants. As such, its scope is somewhat limited in that it
does not deal with the broad spectrum of pollution problems, as 208 plan-
ning must; but from the standpoint of an educational and information pro-
gram these differences are relatively unimportant. The strategies for
education, for information dissemination and for technology transfer are
basically the same.
The goal of the Washington County Project is to develop and institu-
tionalize a sediment control mechanism for Washington County, Wisconsin.
To accomplish this, technical information generated by physical scientists
from an extensive monitoring network as well as legal and institutional
alternatives developed by social scientists must be transferred to citizens
and local decision makers to create an awareness of and support for those
legal and institutional changes needed to control nonpoint source pollution.
It should be made clear that the Washington County Project is operating at
two levels: one, of course, involves the development of a specific sedi-
ment control mechanism or mechanisms for Washington County while the other
involves the development of methodologies, strategies for implementation
or whatever that can be generalized and utilized in other parts of Wis-
consin, of the Great Lakes Basin and perhaps of the entire country.
Strategies for information dissemination and public participation
in the Washington County Project were identified by project staff working
with local citizens and county personnel. Initially, they involved two
important assumptions. First, it was agreed that the general level of
understanding and awareness of nonpoint source pollution was limited and
thus, that early informational effort would have to be directed toward
simply pointing out the problem and explaining some of the more basic—
and technically well understood—processes and problems. Secondly, it
was recognized that nonpoint source pollution is basically a people prob-
lem. Much of the problem can—and probably will—be solved if people
are made aware of the causes and dimensions of the problem and of the
fact that many of the things they do in everyday life can affect the
problem. In urban areas, fertilizers and pesticides improperly applied
to lawns and gardens are a problem as are grass clippings and leaves
dumped in gutters. On farms, cattle watering in streams and manure
spread on steep, frozen ground are significant nonpoint source pollution
problems.
The public participation effort in Washington County is based on a
fairly standard approach. To start with, key publics including service
*Project Associate, Water Resources Center, University of Wisconsin-
Madison, Wisconsin.
56
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organizations, farm groups, garden clubs, environmental groups, and the
like were identified within the county. A check list was made, each
group contacted, and wherever possible, speeches were given which de-
scribed the problem of nonpoint pollution, what the project was and how
it—the project—was going to address those problems. This early effort
was handled entirely by local (Washington County) project personnel.
While this first round of speaking engagements was going on, a
support staff was developed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison to
generate materials to support the education and information program.
A photographer was hired to record project activities specifically and
nonpoint problems in general, to provide photographs for news stories
and brochures, to gather slides for slide-tape sets and to take footage
for a 16mm color film to be developed in the later stages of the project.
A print media specialist was engaged to write news releases for
weekly and daily papers, to develop materials for specialized publica-
tions and to coordinate media activities. Graduate students and project
staff were utilized for developing public participation strategies and
for writing much of the necessary backup material.
A working group made up of the previously described individuals,
project staff, and local and University Extension specialists was set
up to oversee and coordinate the public participation effort, to review
brochures, press releases and other written materials and to update and
revise operational strategies.
In the first year of operation, all identified groups and organ-
izations within the county were spoken to by project personnel. Two
brochures—one on the project and the nonpoint problems and the other
specifically on nonpoint source pollution—were written and printed.
A slide-tape set describing the nonpoint problem and project activities
was completed. A press tour of the Washington County Project and the
closely related International Joint Commission project on the Menomonee
River in Milwaukee was held and a series of news releases and feature
stories were written for local weekly and daily newspapers. It is
intended that this general level of backup or support activity will be
continued throughout the life of the project.
Two additional public involvement strategies are currently being
implemented. First, an extensive program for the schools involving
grades K through 12 has been developed. Contacts have been made with
teachers in the five public school districts and in private and paro-
chial schools in Washington County. Problems of nonpoint source pollu-
tion and project activities were presented to them initially recognizing
their dual roles as citizens and teachers. A graduate level seminar on
the nonpoint problem will be offered to those teachers interested in
utilizing in their classrooms materials developed by project staff.
These materials will be work units on soil and water conservation, sedi-
mentation, water quality, and the like which will be designed to fit into
existing environmental education programs.
Funds are being sought to support a summer teacher training workshop
both to increase the awareness and understanding of nonpoint source pol-
lution and to develop additional curricula. An extensive evaluation of
57
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student's increased environmental awareness will also be undertaken in
conjunction with the implementation of the newly developed curricula.
Secondly, a specific effort aimed at involving the broad spectrum
of political leaders in Washington County in the project is being mounted.
Sediment management and control will inevitably involve certain institu-
tional changes and it is hoped that many of the required changes can be
accomplished at the local level based on local understanding of and
response to nonpoint source problems.
Quite obviously, concern for solving these nonpoint problems is not
limited to Washington County. From the standpoint of the educational
effort, the county is viewed as the jumping off place. Primarily through
a process of repetition the education-information effort will build on
itself. Through broader publicity and information dissemination the
program becomes multi-county in scope, then region-wide, then statewide.
Successful public participation strategies are utilized in other areas;
new school curricula are made available to schools everywhere; written
materials are broadened in scope to meet new needs.
Nonpoint source pollution abatement—perhaps more than any other
environmental control effort—is a people problem and without public
support, the programs necessary to control the problem will fall flat.
It is relatively easy to generate public support for stopping point
source pollution as it is generally a visible and easily understood
problem. Nonpoint source pollution is a whole new ball game.
58
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LAND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN FOR WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES
by
Carlisle P. Runge*
The problem of nonpoint source water pollution control is at once a
problem of the interface of land use and water quality problems and a
problem of federalism—the carrying out of policy in the intergovernmental
framework. The purpose of this paper is to present the issue of nonpoint
source pollution control in its historical/institutional contexts and to
suggest principles of institutional design which respond to this context
and which build on it, with emphasis on institutional patterns in Wiscon-
sin and the experience of the Washington County Project.
INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND LEGACY OF NONPOINT SOURCE PROBLEMS
The set of nonpoint source problems should be seen, institutionally,
as the combination of developments in water resources policy and land
management. These two issues have developed along separate "tracks"
through the history of the United States. Each requires examination in
terms of institutions and authority at federal, state and local levels
in order to establish a framework for approaching the problems of land
related pollution control.
Water Resources Policy
Historically, the federal government has been the major force in
water resources development and water quality planning, policy and allo-
cation of resources. The Gallatin Report of 1808 was an early statement
of the need for a nationally organized system of waterway improvements
which would supersede the construction role of the states and private
interests. This position was disputed, but was settled by the U.S.
Supreme Court in 1824 in the classic case of Gibbons v. Ogden which
recognized navigation and related water resource programs within Congress1
authority to regulate interstate commerce (1).
On this authority, the federal government has established a tradi-
tion of direct implementation of numerous development programs for
canals, dams and flood control, irrigation hydropower and other purposes.
These began in the 19th century and continue in the work of the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, and other federal agencies. Multiple objectives, and
planning requirements have led to broader policy considerations which can
be seen in the federal involvement in river basin planning over many years
and federal concern for water pollution. Pollution abatement had been a
modest responsibility of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1912 and
was strengthened in 1948 (2). This function eventually shifted to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration in the Department of
Interior, signifying a broadening from health concerns to resource policy.
*Professor of Urban Planning, Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin.
59
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Now, of course, water pollution abatement is the responsibility of the
Environmental Protection Agency. The development of national policy,
standards, regulation, and funding procedures can be traced through this
history down to the comprehensive legislation of 1965 (P.L. 89.20) and
in particular to P.L. 92-500 enacted in 1972.
The state role in water resources policy has been that of regulation
of areas where the federal power has not been exercised, and recently,
in serving as the agencies for the implementation of federal policy as
defined in P.L. 92-500. State authority has been employed over the years,
typically, for the regulation of municipal and private use of water re-
sources. The emphasis has been on the use of water, or the direct effect
on water, rather than on the direct state regulation of land use activ-
ities related to water quality.
In Wisconsin, examples of state involvement include the public
health concern for municipal sewage reflected in the early version of
Ch. 144 of the Wisconsin Statutes, enacted in 1919 (3). This law has
been restructured several times and broadened to constitute much of the
authority of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources in the water
quality area. Additional state responsibilities included matters of
water supply, diversion of waterways, groundwater, and industrial waste.
It is important to this discussion to appreciate that these were
centralized regulatory functions carried out by the state with only
modest delegation to local governments. The point source regulations of
the State of Wisconsin, defined in Ch. 147, of the Wisconsin Statutes,
in conformance with the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
of P.L. 92-500, follow this model.
The local role in water resources matters has been operational and
relatively modest in regulatory terms when compared to federal and com-
plementary state functions, as they have been conducted throughout our
national history.
Land Management
The emphasis is very different in the historical direction of land
management and its institutional structure. The rights of individual
landowners and the state-local roles in the regulation of their activ-
ities have been the major forces in the development of institutions for
land management in the United States. The federal role in the manage-
ment of private lands has always been most limited.
Federal land policy reflects the historical concept of allodial
tenure as the sine qua non of the development program of trans-Appalachian
lands—reflecting social concern for individual freedom, a sharing of the
wealth of the nation in a manner unencumbered by governmental (or feudal)
ties, and for a democracy based on many small landholders. Thomas Jeffer-
son led the fight against restrictions, or "entails", calling the small
landholder, "the most precious part of the state" (4). Hence, federal
policy was aimed at disposal in fee simple as enabled in the fundamental
law of the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 and subsequent federal enactments
providing for the distribution and sale of the public domain. This line
of policy culminated in the Homestead Act of 1862.
60
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Continuing federal policy in the area of land management has been
restricted to public lands under proprietary control and incentives for
state and local land management as illustrated in the Costal Zone Manage-
ment Act of 1972 and the proposed national land use planning assistance
legislation which has been before Congress in several forms in recent
years.
The authority to regulate the private use of land has been reserved
for the states through their police power, and other means. Tradition-
ally, these powers were delegated to local units of government which
developed land management ordinances, including zoning which was upheld
by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Euclid v> Ambler Realty case in the
1920's Other codes have augmented local authority.
The states in the 1970's have attempted to recapture some of their
authority, earlier delegated, through the development of state land
management programs. This trend was described in The Quiet Revolution
in Land Use Control by Fred Bosselman and has since been presented in
numerous publications. Yet it is important to note that only eight
states conduct planning and regulation of some areas of private land use
on any sort of comprehensive basis (5), and of these only Vermont, Maine
and Hawaii directly regulate landowners. Most states either review the
activities of local government, or define areas of "state interest" or
larger than local impact for intensive review, or, in some cases, regu-
lation. These generally include critical resource areas, or major devel-
opments such as power plants. What is significant is that a great deal
of state land management responsibility remains delegated to local gov-
erments and is not conducted in the centralized fashion of water quality
regulation; point source control being the major example of centralized
water pollution control.
Local governments remain closest to the numerous individual land-
owners and occupiers and carry the burden of land management, or regu-
lation of private landowners. Despite other influences, particularly
state policies, land use retains this local emphasis. It is evident
not only in the traditional land use controls which are based on the
police power, but also in the history of federal soil conservation pro-
grams. Since the 1930's, federal policy objectives have been carried
out at the local level through state-local institutions—the Soil and
Water Conservation Districts. Federal staff involved at this level
serve a technical assistance function to local institutions, rather than
an administrative function.
The differences between the development of water resources versus
land management policy is quite clear with respect to the degree of
direct federal policy which is applicable to specific local conditions
and how this policy is executed. Federal emphasis in the water resources
area remains significant and direct, although in some cases it is admin-
istered through the states. In land management, activity is primarily at
the local level, with state prerogatives for assuming its soverign author-
ity in the background, but little direct involvement of the federal gov-
ernment, except through technical and financial assistance.
61
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IMPLICATIONS
What these two lines of institutional development imply is that
institutional design in the nonpoint source area must create a linkage
between water resources and land management frameworks. This does not
only mean the association of land management programs with water quality
goals. It also raises a complex problem of federalism, of how best to
relate national policy and resources to the executory powers of the sev-
eral states and to their local units of government with their diverse
experiences and environments.
The association of land and water programs suggests a set of rela-
tionships which would attempt to take advantage of existing interfaces
and which would improve vertical and horizontal coordination in order to
best utilize existing resources.
PRINCIPLES OF INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN
At the most general level, the institutional approach suggested by
this brief review requires the recognition of existing authority at all
levels of government, major sources and channels of resources, and on-
going program responsibility, as it is now practiced. More specific
design principles attempt to build on potentials for coordination and
existing models for cooperative implementation of programs, particularly
between states and their local governments and also between state struc-
ture and federal agencies which operate in the several states.
The following observations may serve to respond to some of the
different areas of emphasis outlined above:
1. Overall policy and major funding sources are clearly lodged at
the federal level in the national water quality policy stated in P.L.
92-500 and in the programs for planning assistance, cost sharing and
technical assistance which are available from E.P.A. and the U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture.
2. Consistent with federal policy, the guidelines for institutional
design and standards for the performance at the local level may be most
suitably the responsibility of the states. These guidelines and stand-
ards should include criteria and assistance for local regulation or
implementation. Additionally, state coordination of funding which might
"pass-through" from federal sources to local institutions would be
indicated.
In Wisconsin, the Floodplain and Shoreland zoning programs are exam-
ples of a state agency with water quality responsibility (DNR) working
with local units of government to implement a state policy through local
institutions. The programs are examples of land management programs with
water quality implications. The well-known Just v. Marinette County case
(Wisconsin Supreme Court, 1972) upheld the Shoreland program and illus-
trated the substantial impact on private lands of regulation for water
quality purposes. The nonpoint source problems presents an even more
complex set of concerns, due to the far greater number of affected land-
owners and occupiers. This is further evidence for the need to develop
62
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a framework which is supported by state standards, but which would not be
administered by the state unilaterally.
3. The local level of government and institutions appears then to
be well suited for the actual execution of nonpoint source control pro-
grams. The experience of local institutions in land management through
the devices of land use controls, and also, the conduct of soil and water
conservation programs, and the distribution of cost sharing funds to
farmers for management practices, suggests that there are relationships
now established between these institutions and landowners which can mate-
rially assist in the implementation of a comprehensive nonpoint pollution
control program.
4. Coordinated efforts between local institutions like the Soil and
Water Conservation Districts and the planning and regulatory elements in
local government well could be the "cutting edge" of an eventual program.
A coherent set of relationships between state and local institutions
appear to be essential in developing the program. Further support may be
desirable from regional institutions, such as Regional Planning Commissions
and the district level units of both federal and state agencies. At the
state level, the Department of Natural Resources and the Board of Soil and
Water Conservation Districts should be appropriately related.
CONCLUSION
These general principles of institutional design and observations
suggest a substantial local role in program implementation based on state
guidelines and standards, which, in turn, carry out federal policy; all
should be seen as an institutional arrangement which is conditioned by
the historical experience of the separate approaches to water resources
and land management in the United States. They are consistant with
Constitutional precepts and legal history which limit the federal role
in private land management in favor of authority reserved for the states
and conducted locally in most instances. They also recognize the degree
of federal influence in water resources matters which is a policy of long
standing. The administrative experience of numerous institutions at the
several levels of government is incorporated into such a possible ap-
proach. These observations include an appreciation of the social tradi-
tions and values which are associated with the holders of land in America.
Finally, these considerations have a bearing on the degree of public man-
agement of private lands, the levels of government and the issues of
private-public cooperation, responsibility and allocation of costs and
expected benefits.
REFERENCES
1. Holmes, B.H. 1972. A History of Federal Water Resources Programs,
1800-1960. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Econ. Res. Serv. Misc. Pub. No. 1233.
Washington, DC. p. 3.
2. Holmes, B.H. 1972. A History of Federal Water Resources Programs,
1800-1960. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Econ. Res. Serv. Misc. Pub. No. 1233.
Washington, DC. p. 30.
63
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3. Natural Resources Council of State Agencies. 1973. Managing
Wisconsin's Natural Resources. Madison, WI. p. 19.
4. Hibberd, B.H. 1965 (1924). A History of the Public Land Policies.
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. p. 143.
5. Council of State Governments. 1975. Land: State Atternatives for
Planning and Management. Lexington, KY. p. 10-11.
64
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PLANNING DIFFUSE POLLUTION CONTROL
by
Robert Schneider
Section 208 of the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Public
Law 92-500) has forced planners to consider programs regulating nonpoint
pollution; particularly the runoff of sediment and nutrients from rural
and urban land. The task appears formidable, requiring the synthesis of
concepts ranging from those associated with the discipline of economics
to those more likely to be found in the literature of geomorphologists
and water chemists.
This paper is designed to aid planners in conceptualizing and de-
signing nonpoint pollution control programs. It's central concern is the
design of legislation achieving a socially optimal allocation of water
resources among various competing uses, i.e., the assimilation of waste
vs. recreational, aesthetic and others. Achieving this allocation de-
mands consideration of the various physical properties of the pollutants,
their impact on water quality, and the public's perception of and desire
for quality water. The framework developed below makes explicit the
physical and social dimensions of the nonpoint pollution problem. It
should prove useful in analyzing pollution control regulation as well as
determining priorities for nonpoint pollution related research.
The economists' general paradigm for efficient allocation of re-
sources is reviewed, and a conceptual model is considered to incorporate
the specific analytical problems of nonpoint pollution. Finally, an
analytic framework corresponding to the conceptual model is suggested and
used to develop an approach to legislation based on a system of classifi-
cation of polluters on the basis of their potential to impose damages.
COSTS AND BENEFITS
For water quality as for other desirable goods and services, social
well-being is promoted when the difference between its cost of production
and the accruing benefits is maximized. A hypothetical relationship be-
tween the benefits and costs associated with a range of pollution reduc-
tion is graphed in Figure 1. Costs are assumed to increase at an
increasing rate and benefits increase at a decreasing rate. The assump-
tion of increasing cost implies that those interested in reducing pollut-
ant yield will rank all possible means of control from the least to the
most expensive, increasing pollution reduction through the application
of more expensive techniques only after all cheaper techniques have been
implemented. The decreasing benefits assumption implies that as water
quality continues to improve the public's perceived benefit from further
increments of improvement decreases. For exatnple, at point (a) benefits
are rising faster than cost and further pollution reduction is desirable.
*Project Associate, Water Resources Center, University of Wisconsin-
Madison, Wisconsin
65
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A change from level "a" of pollutant reduction to level "b" increases
the excess of benefits over cost. A further increase from "b" to "c",
however, would not be in the public interest. Such a move results in
loss of net benefits, the increase in costs being greater than the in-
crease in benefits.
costs and
benefits of
pollution
reduction
pollutant
J reduction
Figure 1. Optimal Level of Sediment Reduction (b)
However, Figure 1 demonstrated the need for information about the
shape of the cost and benefit curves associated with different levels of
sediment reduction. The problems of estimating such cost and benefit
curves are great. Although one strives to design legislation capable of
achieving point (b) for all polluters and waterbodies, the state of the
art allows neither such a precise estimate of the costs and benefits nor
the implementation and enforcement ,of laws sufficiently discriminating
to achieve this optimum.
Approximating the cost and benefit relationship of Figure 1 requires
a great deal of technical knowledge about the physical characteristics of
pollutants and their interaction with the environment. This knowledge
may be conveniently placed into four categories: (1) cost of pollutant
control, (2) the delivery of pollutants to points of economic damage,
(3) water quality response to changed pollutant loads and how to measure
it, and (4) the water quality indicator/waterbody value relationship.
Figure 2 presents a conceptual model of these relationships which will
be developed in the next section.
DEVELOPING A POLLUTER CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
In this section the relationships shown in Figure 2 are developed
into a scheme for classifying polluters according to (1) their potential
to impose downstream damages and (2) the costs they incur in reducing
their pollutant load. The objective of this scheme is to aid policy-
makers in equating incremental pollutant reduction costs and benefits
without incurring administrative and enforcement costs overshadowing
66
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change
in cost due to change in intensity
of pollutant control effort
change
in availability of pollutants
for transport
change
in quantity of pollutants
transported to site of damage
public and private cost of
pollutant reduction
2. pollutant delivery
change
in ambient conditions at damag
site (measured by an index)
3. water quality response
4. public and private benefits
of pollutant reduction
change
in public perceptions of recreational
and aesthetic value of a waterbody and
change in costs incurred for processing
water for irrigation and water supply
purposes
Figure 2. Conceptual Model for Evaluating Costs and Benefits of Pollutant
Reduction
67
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savings resulting from such a distriminating "efficient" policy.
The method of the suggested scheme is to assign each polluter to a
subcategory in each of the four main categories of relationships dis-
cussed. The four main categories are: (1) cost of control, (2) deliv-
ery, (3) response, and (4) value. The subcategories are determined by
characteristics that strongly differentiate potential polluters within
each of the four major categories. The number of useful subcategories
depends on the homogeneity of the entities considered. If, for example,
all waterbodies in a planning area were identical in terms of their
value determinants (location, phsiography, etc.) and their water quality
response to a changed pollutant load, there would be no subcategories
under categories 3 and 4. Examples of characteristics important to the
determination of subcategories are given in Table 1. Figure 3 demon-
strates how such a system might function. Three curves are estimated
for each category. Each curve represents a subcategory and each is
estimated under assumed conditions with respect to the determinants of
Table 1. Changing these cetevis paribus conditions may change the para-
meters of the relationship between the dependent and independent variable
(Figure 3.2) or may change the functional form completely (Figure 3.3).
The system depicted in Figure 3 classifies each potential polluter into
one subcategory in each of the three graphs. The resulting hypothetical
system contains a possible 81 (3^) schedules which may be combined to
Table 1. A Classificatory Scheme: Determinents of Subcategories
Lnants
0)
4J
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Fig. 3.1. Cost of Control
Fig. 3.2. Delivery
Gross
Pollutant
Yield
(P)
Water
Quality
Indicator
(Q)
Cost of control (Y)
S » S(Y physiography
farm size
farm product
soil type)
Fig. 3.4. Value Response
4b. 4a.
Pollutants reaching lake (D)
D = D(P location in watershed
drainage network of
watershed
other uses
relief-length ratio)
Fig. 3.3. Water Quality Response
Water
Quality
Indicator
(Q)
3c.
Value of waterbody (V)
Pollutants reaching lake (D)
V(Q
other Bite characteristics
distance to pop. center
substitutes)
Q - Q(D
pH of lake
size and depth
hydraulic residence time
present eutrophic state)
Figure 3. Representation of a Hypothetical Polluter Classificatory System
69
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represent a given polluter and determine the level of reduction to be
imposed upon him. Figure 4 illustrates the procedure. Consider two
farms, each in its respective watershed. The farms, watersheds, and
lake values (Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.4) are identical in every way. The
water quality response of the lakes to the pollutant is different (Figure
4.3), however. Lake A responds discontinuously at a "critical level"
of the pollutant. Lake B, on the other hand, is less responsive but
continuously so.
Figure 4.1 depicts increasing cost of pollutant control. Figure 4.2
assumes that 83 percent of the pollutants produced on the farms gets to
the lakes. Figure 4.3 shows the water quality response of each lake to
pollutant reduction. Lake A responds fairly markedly from GQ to Gj,
has a critical area from GI to G2 and is relatively unresponsive from
62 to 63. Lake B responds continuously but is less responsive than A
from GO to 62, but more responsive thereafter. That the potential for A
to achieve good water quality is not as high as B is evidenced by their
respective intercepts with the water quality axis. Figure 4.4 represents
the public's valuation of the lakes at various levels of water quality.
The shape of the curve represents the fact that the value of a waterbody
is less responsive to water quality changes at the extremes of good and
bad than it is near the average, i.e., below a certain level it is unde-
sirable for any water related activities and above a certain level fur-
ther improvement does not significantly change people's behavior or
perceptions. The major value changes take place near the midpoint; a
slight improvement allows the lake to support a new activity, i.e.,
boating, game fishing, swimming, snorkeling, or scuba diving. Thus,
lake A, possessing low water quality potential, can never obtain the
changes in value to pollutant reduction achievable by lake B. Comparing
the return on the equal increments of pollutant control costs of Figure
4.1, it can be seen that a cost of CgC} for each farm returned a benefit
of AgAj for lake A and BoBj for lake B. A further increase in cost of
CiC2yields a benefit of AiA2 to lake A and BiB2 to lake B, etc. It is
evident from this diagram that only the initial outlay for pollutant con-
trol is of significant benefit for lake A. For lake B, however, further
costs continued to yield "substantial" benefit.
In application these curves can be presented as schedules as shown
hypothetically in Table 2. This table demonstrates that in watershed A
it pays to incur the first 10 cost units of control, but further costs
are unwarranted. A second 10 cost units, for example, would only yield
one benefit unit. In watershed B, on the other hand, costs up to 20
units are warranted. Using these schedules to prioritize control expen-
ditures, a planner would make the following recommendations: (1) apply
10 cost units to A" to reduce the on site pollutant yield from 30 to 15
pollutant units; (2) apply 20 cost units to B to reduce on site pollu-
tant yield from 30 to 6.5 pollutant units; and (3) further costs are
unwarranted.
70
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Fig. 4.1. Cost of Control
Fig. 4.2. Delivery
Pollutant
Yield at
Source
Pollutant
Yield at
Source
Cost of pollutant control (units)
Fig. 4.4. Value Response
Pollutants reaching lake
4.3. Water Quality
Water
Quality
Indicator
direction
of water
quality
improve-
ment
Water
Quality
Indicator
Lake A
(critical level
model)
inuous response
I model)
Value of waterbody (units X2)
Pollutants reaching lake
Figure 4. Analytic Procedure for Determining the Optimal Level of
Pollution Reduction
71
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Table 2. Hypothetical Schedules for Determining Optimal Pollution
Reduction Strategy
Marginal
cost of
control
Pollutant Pollutants Water
Cost of yield at reaching quality Value of
control source lake indicator waterbody
Marginal
value
10-
10
30
15
6.5
25
12
20
11.0
10.5
10
k+21,
k+23-
10-
10"
30
15
6.5
25
12
12
k+28«
SUMMARY
A framework was developed formalizing the evaluation of costs and
benefits of nonpoint pollution control and making explicit the informa-
tional requirements necessary to the analysis. Its usefulness in
designing discriminating legislation was considered. Such a scheme
should prove useful in (a) developing a system of classification useful
for efficient nonpoint pollution control, and (b) determining areas of
major research priority to aid in the development of nonpoint pollutant
control.
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BEST MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT PRACTICES
FOR
WATER QUALITY
by
Gregory L. Woods
The philosophy of planning and applying land treatment practices in
the Black Creek Watershed has changed. This change does not reflect a
change in the objectives of the project. But, it is basic to effective,
efficient land treatment practices as it addresses itself to maintaining
water quality, first, and to sound soil conservation second. Identifying
management and treatment practices which are most pertinent to water quality
is necessary and right. A diverse broad-spectrum practice approach, is
sound conservation, but it does not zero in on getting at water quality.
A task, which in Black Creek is bounded by a fixed time frame. And, in
this day when the american farmer must produce more, BMP's encourage him
to do that without foregoing land and water protection.
Selling management and treatment practices on individually owned land
is a complex sociological, economical and chronological chore. The mech-
anics of planning management and treatment practices, however is rather
basic. The planning process has three basic alternatives: (1) land use
change, (2) crop rotation change, (3) and, practice installation.
In evaluating a farm, each field or farming unit is analyzed for basic
soil loss using the universal soil loss equation. The equation, our only
tool for estimating soil loss is shown as:
A = RKLSPC, where
A = is the computed average annual soil loss per unit area
R = rainfall factor
K = soil erodibility factor
L = slope length factor
S = slope steepness factor
C = cropping management factor
P = is the erosion control practice factor
It is readily seen that of the six factors only three can be signi-
ficantly changed or altered by man. Rainfall, soil erodibility, and slope
steepness always remains static.
It is necessary to distinguish the different types of erosion areas,
and their relationship to the universal soil loss equation. Within the con-
text of "non-point" pollution from agriculture land we have "point" and
"non-point" areas.
•'•District Conservationist, Jasper and Newton Counties, Indiana. USDA Soil
Conservation Service, R.R. #1, Box 19A, Rensselaer, Indiana.
Former Soil Conservationist in Alien County for the Black Creek Sediment
Control Project.
73
-------
A "point" area is defined, where a single source of erosion can be
treated with a single management practice providing a long term solution.
These are areas usually not farmed actively and their use does not
provide significant income. Nor as these areas related to the factor in
the universal soil loss equation and the soil loss cannot be accurately
estimated.
Example of practices falling into this category would be streambank
protection, critical area planting, grade stabilization structure, and
grassed waterway.
A "non-point" area is defined, where a diverse source of erosion re-
quires a series of management practices working together yearly to provide
a long term solution.
These areas of land are usually actively farmed and their use provide
income. These areas relate to the factor in the universal soil loss equa-
tion and the soil loss cannot be accurately estimated.
Example of practices falling into this category would be minimum til-
lage, parallel tile outlet terraces, pasture hayland planting, and conser-
vation cropping system.
The objective is to obtain a long-term committment of management prac-
tices which provide erosion control and water quality on the "non-point"
source area.
74
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LAND UNIT
Overfall Area - Heading
Despite the land use in a land unit -
a gully and "heading" are recognizable
"point" sources of erosion and sediment.
75
-------
Grade Stabilization
Structure
Despite the land use, by constructing
a stable grass waterway and grade stab-
ilization structure where the gully and
"heading" were, the "point" sources of
erosion and sediment have been solved.
76
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2) LAND UNIT
(Cropland)
\
Grade Stabilization
Structure
Despite money and time invested, in
solving the "point" sources (gully
and heading) by grass waterway and
grade stabilization structure, without
a change in; 1) land use, 2) crop rota-
tion, 3) practice installation;
Given S = 4% slopes
C = Continuous corn
P = Cross-slope, fall
plow
the grass waterway and grade stabiliza-
tion structure become a means of sediment
transport with no effect on "non-point"
erosion, and limited influence on water
quality.
77
-------
This fact reinforces the need to find a series of practices which
are farmable and sellable, which provide dual benefits of erosion re-
duction and improved water quality which are relatively maintenance free,
and which above, demand a permanent committment and support from a land-
owner. These types of practices require other related practices for sup-
port. For example, to properly plan and install a PTO Terrace System one
must have satisfied the need and process for tillage methods, conservation
cropping system, tile drains and contour farming. This practice gets to
the root of the problem of upland erosion by leaving the landowner with a
comfortable rotation, better drainage, better field topography, besides
meeting the fundamental water quality objective.
Maintenance of high quality water, demands development of agricultural
practices that will minimize pollution of surface and ground waters. Han-
way and Laflen studied several PTO terrace systems over a three year
period found that they reduced surface water yields at least 30%, and sed-
iment output loads average about 4.5% of estimated erosion between terraces.
Average total P concentrations (P) were highly correlated with the sediment
amounts in runoff.
Tremendous soil loss can be reduced by minimum or conservation tillage.
When a landowner invests $5000 to $8000 for a new no-till planter, or mod-
ifies his present planter, one feels that a firm committment "has been made.
If conservation tillage is being performed, so is crop residue management.
And very seldom when either PTO terraces are constructed or conservation til-
lage performed, do we have to worry about sedimentation from those fields.
2
Hanway, John J. and Laflen, John M., Professor of Agronomy, Iowa State
University, Ames, and Agricultural Engineer, North Central Region, ARS,
USDA, Ames, Iowa, (respectfully).
78
-------
LAND UNIT
(Cropland)
Parallel Terraces
-or-
No-till Planting
-or-
Contour Strip Farming
-or-
Cons. Cropping System
Despite land use, erosion is within
soil loss limits and water quality
has permanently been enhanced by al-
tering permanently one factor of the
soil loss equation - - "slope length."
79
-------
BEST MANAGEMENT & TREATMENT PRACTICES
I. Parallel Tile Outlet Terraces
A. Conservation Cropping System
B. Tile Drain
C. Contour Farming
Di Stripcropping
E. Tillage Operation
II. Minimum Tillage
A. Crop Residue Management
III. Pasture and Hayland Planting
IV. Streamchannel Protection & Stabilization
A. Critical Area Planting
B. Livestock Exclusion
80
-------
SUMMARY
EVOLVEMENT TO BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
I. Emphasis on water quality and erosion control. Although total ero-
sion control may not be reached on certain lands, best management
practices will provide water quality.
II. Public dollars for public benefit.
III. Other conservation practices encumber many dollars which may not
provide significant results.
IV. BMP's require less man power for planning, follow-up, engineering,
and compliance.
V. Many BMP's are economical, provide for an economic return, make
common service, are famiable and provide a minimum of change in
the crop sequences.
81
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IMPLEMENTING AND MONITORING CONSERVATION PLANS
by
Thomas D. McCain
Reviewing land treatment accomplishments in the Black Creek Sediment
Study Project as we complete this fourth construction season, reflects in-
teresting changes in attitudes of technicians, planners and the people of
the watershed. The current emphasis on major management objectives has
been a modification of original ideas. When the initial work plan was
assembled four (4) years ago there was conserted effort by the Allen SWCD,
SCS and Purdue University people to accumulate, analyze and evaluate all
the resource data available for Black Creek. Even looking back to the
initial review of the Maumee Basin we set out to find a difficult situation
where some type of "demonstrational" applied land treatment program could
accomplish the desired objectives. Black Creek was selected as the most
typical mini-basin.
INITIAL PLANNING PHASE
In initial planning phases, soils and other related maps were used to
help analyze the needs of the watershed. The review of existing conser-
vation plans prepared for a limited number of SWCD cooperators within the
watershed was an asset. These old plans gave a clue as to the land treat-
ment of the past and the potential acceptance by some land users.
As the work plan began to take shape, several objectives relating
directly to the needed land treatment began to unfold. Our task in SCS
was to provide planning and application assistance to every cooperative
landowner or group. We were committed to developing a complete conserva-
tion plan before the SWCD could cost-share on individual practices.
At First, Drainage Is Most Popular
Many times the farmers own assessment of needs and our assessment of
their needs are very different. Drainage improvements rate "high" in the
minds of farmers when given this opportunity to receive cost-sharing.
Several Black Creek practices are basically "sediment control" but are
popular with farmers because they maintain the drainage system.
We choose not to emphasize drainage even though this is necessary to
adequately treat soils with severe wetness hazards. There are aspects of
drainage however, that become an integral part of erosion control prac-
tices such as tile under waterways and tile for parallel tile outlet ter-
races .
District Conservationist, Allen County, Indiana, U.S.D.A. Soil Conser-
vation Service, 2010 Inwood Drive, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805.
82
-------
A Myriad Of Practices Were Selected
A "committee approach" was used to the development of Table A-10.
We grouped conservation practices and asked individuals with expertise
to evaluate needs and develop practice specifications that could be
used for cost-share purposes. As we might reflect now, we "threw the
book" at Black Creek in numbers of conservation practices and consider-
ed many land treatment combinations available to the cooperators of the
watershed. In retrospect, it might have been better to have decided
upon 8 or 10 practices that best served the needs.
Early Plans Contained Too Many Practices
It has been a "nightmare" in conservation plan follow-up — many
practices are in conservation plans which are not mandatory but were ag-
reed to by the cooperator at the time of planning. These non-mandatory
items fall by the wayside and have not been agressively used. Thus many
of these non-essential practices have been weeded out after the "grace
period" has expired.
All resource development projects involve the developments of human
interest as a desire for conservation. We went knocking "door to door" in
the early stages to secure cooperators. This effort and the efforts of
the Purdue sociologists helped make many people aware of the Black Creek
Program. We still recognize that the old SWCD cooperators were instrumen-
tal in getting us started in the field. These people readily accept new
ideas and by their own progressive nature have been successful farmers
in their neighborhood.
Existing Cooperators Provided A Starting Point
These early cooperators formed the nucleus of the Black Creek Group,
and had it not been for this Black Creek group, there would not have been
the 140 thousand dollars of private funds collected for development of
the group drainage and erosion control measures on Black Creek and its
tributaries. The Black Creek group reflected their own priorities in
development of drainage outlets. However, letting landowners take a free
hand in promoting drainage in channel modifications has not complimented
the total program. This last statement may not be a very acceptable point
with the local people, but their efforts to get Black Creek activities
underway gave a "showplace of something" for which they are to be commend-
ed.
The Black Creek group is to be commended for their immediate action
and forcefulness in getting cooperation from as many people as they did.
It was fortunate that they were well organized as a group even before Black
Creek became a viable project. Some things accomplished by the group were,
as Dr. Karr might put it, "cosmetic" and only added to the attractiveness
in the farmer's eyes rather than as true erosion control. However, general
improvement throughout the watershed was the most instrumental thing in
opening the eyes of other potential cooperators to the efforts being made
on individual farms.
Just as we were fortunate in working with Joe Graber very early in
the program, perhaps he used us as a testing ground for his own people. Mr.
Graber gave us an opportunity to apply a considerable total land treatment
83
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program on an Amish farm. The effects of livestock exclusion with the
fencing and field borders on the Graber farm served as a tour stop and
focal point many times. We overused many areas for "show and tell"
during the early years because they were perhaps few and far between.
Now we can reflect on what we have learned and the attitudes of
farmers in terms of an acre by acre approach to sediment control.
MONITORING WATER QUALITY
Conservation today cuts across traditional ideas by focusing on
water quality goals rather than strictly on soil loss limits when plan-
ning erosion control management systems. Land users may be applying prac-
tices that allow moderate soil movement within a farm, but such that,
they are able tc recover or reuse sediment within the farm.
Conservation planning to meet water quality goals will require the
application of practices which will better control annual soil losses,
rather than relying strongly on crop rotations to protect soil producti-
vity. In reality soil productivity will not be depleted if water quality
goals are practically achieved. In other words, the installation of
terrace systems and sediment basins for control of soil loss from farms,
coupled with cropping rotations, conservation tillage, crop residue use
and all the other traditional management practices, will provide the
necessary control.
Conservation today, places a high priority on applying cultural (man-
agement) practices in combination with structural control (terraces, water-
ways, structures, etc.) treatment.
Land Treatnen^t _Go_a_lsi Must Be Realistic
Setting goals too high may be a mistake. "Treating each acre accord-
ing to its needs" may not dictate the same priorities for SCS assistance
in the future. Even within a farm, the approach may be taken from the
standpoint of: doing something in a positive way on the most critical
area of the farm may be better than doing nothing because an entire con-
servation plan was not acceptable or possible.
For many years SCS technical guides have defined many conservation
practices, each with pages of explicit specifications. Often we found
ourselves unable to complete a basic conservation plan due to the inability
of a cooperator to modify his operation — thus the loss of our productive
time and the opportunity to accomplish water quality goals.
The ability to modify specifications and planning requirements in the
Black Creek project has increased flexability considerably. Progress charts
also point out areas of greatest success. Cost-share payments now have
been higher than necessary but the short duration of the project demanded
rapid application.
84
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THE FUTURE OF CONSERVATION PLANS
The next main item of importance, is the possibility that future land
use regulations may require conservation plans to be prepared. A mandatory
adherence to these plans follow. Some practices are much more difficult
to assure continued success than others. As an example, full use of annual
management or cultural operations makes frequent, on-site inspections nec-
essary to determine compliance. The installation of permanent conservation
practices makes compliance determination easier.
Perhaps another way to look at this is to analyze the cooperators in-
volvement in this plan. If a conservation practices such as terraces is
necessary and appropriate, then the farmer will likely contract this work
for a specified amount of money to be installed in a short period of time.
This will not involve much of the farmers own time, machinery, or concern.
Farmers Are Very Independent - And Proud
Last spring (1976), several prominent farmers had equipment capable
of performing minimum tillage practices but instead they performed the
opposite (maximum tillage). A very favorable warm early spring with pro-
longed days suitable for field operations caused this to happen. These
farmers with their large tractors and enormous tillage tools would have
idle time if they were not in the field. Many felt compelled to work and
rework their ground with fear the weeds would get ahead of young crops,
or their neighbors might wonder why they weren't busy, or just the old
pride of having the best seedbed in the neighborhood.
We must work toward a few conservation practices that touch poten-
tially every acre of cropland down to the last square foot and these prac-
tices must be proven to be a desirable method of reducing soil loss. Or-
iginally the 33 land treatment practices identified in the Black Creek work
plan presented a myriad of planning challenges. Now in the retrospect per-
haps it would have been best to identify 8 or 10 basic conservation prac-
tices for Black Creek watershed which are the most dynamic in helping meet
acceptable water quality standards. The Black Creek program serves as a
proving ground whereby we have narrowed the time frame in finding some
answers to our water quality objectives to four years.
Who Wi 11 Wr i te The^ NewJ'Rule Bo ok s ?''
We find todays conservation work includes a greater involvement of
agencies, organizations, and people. Some people may want all out water
quality without knowledge or respect for agriculture. We must modernize
our approach as we meet these new challenges and we must not forget the
farmers interests. We are trying to satisfy our total society. Perhaps
now we have a new "rule book" to live by. Water quality standards when
presented to the land user in the proper perspective can be attained, we
can meet these goals if we COOPERATE!
85
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AN INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH TO IMPLEMENTING
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
by
i
James E.
The Black Creek Study, one of three section 108 projects funded by
Region V of the United States Environmental Protection Agency is present-
ly finishing its fourth year of activity. The project is scheduled to
last one more year, ending September 30, 1977. The formal name for this
study is Environmental Impact £f_ Land Use on Water Quality, however it is
more commonly referred to as the lrBlack Creek Study/1The Allen County
Soil & Water Conservation District, Allen County Indiana, accepted the
1.8 million dollar grant from EPA in October of 1972.
The main purpose of the study is to attempt to determine the role
that agricultural pollutants play in the degredation of water quality in
the Maumee River Basin and ultimately Lake Erie.
The project was designed and developed by a consortium of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Pur-
due University, the office of U.S. Congressman J. Edward Roush, and the
Allen County Soil & Water Conservation District. It is a response to
allegations first brought to the attention of Allen County residents at a
conference on the future of the Maumee River, sponsored by Congressman J.
Edward Roush in January of 1972. At that conference sediments and related
pollutants were named as major contributors to the degredation of water
quality in Lake Erie. It was further suggested at that conference that
agricultural operations significantly increased the amount of sediment and
sediment related pollutants in the Lake. Through the Black Creek Study
we are attempting to realistically define the role that agricultural op-
erations play in the pollution of the Maumee River, Lake Erie and to det-
ermine those land treatment practices which, if applied, could most signi-
ficantly reduce the pollution from agricultural operations. Through this
project we also hope to define those sources of non-point pollution which
are not directly related to agriculture, but do exist in an agricultural
watershed and need to be reduced, and if possible, eliminated.
This project represents a multi-agency, multi-disciplinary approach
to the total problem of non-point source pollution in agricultural areas.
It involves demonstration through a program of accelerated land treatment
applied on private lands with assistance from the Soil Conservation Service,
applied research by Purdue University, with leadership and administration
by the Allen County Soil & Water Conservation District. It requires the
cooperation from a very diverse group of federal, state and local agencies
as well as private landowners.
County Conservationist in charge of directing the "Black Creek
Study" Environmental Impact £f Land Use on Water Duality for the Allen
County Soil & Water Conservation District.
86
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After completing four years of this five year study, we have obtain-
ed some very interesting results, and we have also verified some assump-
tions that we had only thought to be true in the beginning. The scienti-
fic investigators that the district has contracted with to do the research
in the watershed will be presenting detailed information about results
obtained in the project in other papers to be presented at this seminar,
therefore, I will only discuss the land treatment aspects of the program
and how it might affect future district programs.
First, I think it is significant that we were able to sign coopera-
tive agreements with 95% of the landowners in the watershed. A coopera-
tive agreement simply means that the landowners we contacted were inter-
ested enough in knowing what was available through the project that they
signed an agreement asking for the technical assistance to survey and de-
sign measures that could be applied on their land. Only 5% of the land-
owners in the watershed were unwilling to venture this far. Over 80% of
the landowners in the watershed have signed a legal contract with the
district for the application of land treatment practices on their farms.
The contracts simply state that the landowners will install the needed
erosion control practices as outlined on their contract and that the
district will supply the cost-share incentives and technical assistance
as stipulated on the contract. Cost-share incentives on the practices
averaged 70% for all the practices applied. At the end of four years of
application a little over 57% of the watershed has been adequately treated
with erosion control measures. The district has spent approximately
four hundred and forty-four thousand dollars as of September 30, 1976 for
payment to landowners applying practices. We began this study with the
feeling that we should offer all presently known conservation practices
to the landowner with cost-sharing. There were thirty-one practices
recommended by the Soil Conservation Service which were adopted by the
Black Creek Study when it began. Our district feels that we have learned
through these last four years that it would not be feasible to cost-share
on all thirty-one practices as we have in this study if we were to apply
them on a larger area in the future.
In evaluating the practices our district can only justify the expen-
ditures on less than ten practices relative to the goals of erosion con-
trol and improved water quality. We will attempt in the last year to
further define those practices and relate their use to improved water qual-
ity. Through this process of elimination we are going to be able to real-
istically define best management practices for water quality improvement
in the Black Creek Study. In looking at the cost summary for land treat-
ment, (Table #1) note that if the total dollars spent for land treatment
and payment to SCS for technical assistance is applied to the acres
adequately treated in the watershed the cost runs over one hundred dollars
per acre. One does not have to figure very long before he realizes it is
not feasible to consider a non-point pollution program on a national scale
that involves costs at that level. However, if we define the best manage-
ment practices the costs could be significatnly reduced. In evaluating
cost sharing for best management practices we really have to use the phil-
osophy of public dollars for public benefit, and therefore, we have to
concentrate on those practices which are necessary for erosion control and
improved water quality. We also have to consider those practices which
are permanent so that the public can be assured that the practices will re-
main on the land for a long period of time, even with land ownership changes.
87
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COST SUMMARY FOR LAND TREATMENT
Black Creek Study
September 30, 1976
ACCOMPLISH- TOTAL UNIT
UNIT MENT COST COST
Total incentive payment for acres under contract Ac. 10,795 444,702.89 41.20
Technical assistance costs for acres under contract Ac. 10,795 183,432.87 16.99
Total cost of land treatment including technical Ac. 10,795 628,135.76 58.19
assistance on acres under contract
Total incentive payments for acres adequately Ac. 5,986 444,702.89 74.29
treated
Cost of technical assistance for acres adequately Ac. 5,986 183,432.87 30.64
treated
» Total cost for land treatment including technical Ac. 5,986 628,135.76 104.93
assistance for acres adequately treated
NOTE: District cost share for all practices
averaged 70%
-------
Ideally, practices that meet these requirements can be called best manage-
ment practices. One definition for best management practice would be
those that provide maximum erosion control, maximum economic return to the
landowner and allows for maximum production. Of course it is very diffi-
cult to find that combination in the "real world". Therefore, for example,
if a best management practice is needed for erosion control and improved
water quality but will reduce economic return and production for the land-
owner, we must recognize that the lost revenue and lost production must
be compensated for through some means such as financial incentives. We
can determine how great the financial incentive must be, based on how much
production has been lost, how much economic value has been reduced and
thirdly, by the farmers reaction to installing the practice on their farms.
From our experience on the project to date,of the thirty-one practices
originally outlined in the work plan, the district would recommend these
best management practices: The first best management practice which is
very significant to Black Creek and many areas of the country is Conserva-
tion Tillage and within conservation tillage you gain proper crop residue
management. The second would be Parallel Tile Outlet Terraces. In order
for terraces to be installed other practices must be incorporated in the
terrace plan and are really required by the terrace system; these would
be conservation cropping system (crop rotation), tile drainage and contour
farming. The third practice is Pasture & Hayland Planting. Some areas
are critical enough that they need to be removed from crop land and placed
in permanent pasture. Another "BMP" would be Animal Waste Holding Ponds
and_ Tanks. Included in this practice area would' be any management fac-
ility which would control runoff of animal waste into public waterways.
Other best management practices would include: Grade Stabilization Structures,
Grass Waterways, and Sediment Control Basins where needed. The last cat-
egory of best management practices would be those practices related to
the streams, which are: Streambank Protection, Streamchannel Stabilization,
anc* Figld Border establishment. The other practices listed in the original
work plan can be considered on a complete conservation plan for a land
unit but we feel should not be assisted with public dollars because there
are not sufficient public benefits to justify public funding. Another
point that needs to be made is that the more practices you have included
in a legal contract the more difficult a land treatment program becomes to
administer. This is a point that needs to be looked at very carefully.
There needs to be less emphasis on getting numbers for progress reporting
purposes and more emphasis in getting acres under proper erosion control
through the installation of the best management practices.
The cost data prepared and attached on table #2, certainly bare out
that the landowners reacted consistantly with what I have pointed out. They
have installed only those practices they could recognize as being needed
and important. If you will add up the dollars spent by the district for
financial incentives as I have, it shows that of the four hundred and forty
four thousand dollars spent for cost-sharing on land treatment practices,
four hundred and two thousand of that was spent on the best management
practices listed previously. That means that only a little over forty-two
thousand was spent on the other seventeen practices. If you will note the
accomplishments on the other seventeen practices you can see why few dollars
were spent. For many of them there has been no accomplishment at all in
four years. These figures are significant. If we really want to concentrate
-------
PROGRESS REPORT - LAND TREATMENT
Black Creek Watershed
September 30, 1976
ITEM
District Cooperators
Conservation Plans
Contouring Farming
Land Adequately Treated
Conservation Cropping System
Critical Area Planting
Crop Residue Management
Diversions
Farmstead & Feedlot Windbreak
*Field Border
Field Windbreak
*Grade Stabilization Structure
*Grassed Waterway or Outlet
^Holding Ponds & Tanks
Land Smoothing
Livestock Exclusion
Livestock Watering Facility
*Minimum Tillage
Pasture & Hayland Management
* Pasture & Hayland Planting
Pond
Recreation Area Improvement
* Sediment Control Basin
* Stream Channel Stabilization
*Streambank Protection
Stripcropping
Surface Drains
* Terraces
*Tile Drains
Tree Planting
Wildlife Habitat Management
Woodland Improved Harvesting
Woodland Improvement
Woodland Pruning
UNIT
No.
No.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ft.
Ac.
Ft.
Ft.
No.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
No.
Ft.
Ft.
Ac.
Ft.
Ft.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
PROJECT
GOALS
148
170
769
10,573
7,418
10
7,491
39,200
75
288,320
12,000
368
68
11
300
215
28
7,656
402
501
39
12
6
6,000
122,000
300
90,000
22,000
200,300
10
222
200
610
50
ACCOMPLISH-
MENT
141
133
0
5,986
5,621
15
1,149
1,750
4
102,809
0
138
62
7
0
22
2
291
97
30
9
9
3
9,900
74,100
0
200
41,612
63,599
0
148
0
0
0
PER-
CENT
GOALS
95%
78%
0%
57%
76%
150%
15%
4%
5%
36%
0%
38%
91%
64%
0%
8%
7%
4%
24%
6%
23%
75%
50%
166%
61%
0%
1%
189%
32%
0%
67%
0%
0%
0%
AMOUNT OF
DISTRICT
COST-SHARE
N/A
N/A
0
N/A
4,035.60
2,752.57
2,159.60
1,222.31
289.70
24,678.76
00
71,900.36
33,004.95
16,711.08
0
7,772.68
864.50
1,550.80
374.40
4,462.72
10,827.66
549.29
4,448.90
95,673.53
51,424.74
0
408.54
26,714.85
81,703.98
0
1,171.37
0
0
0
DISTRICT
UNIT
COST
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.56
183.50
1.87
0.70
72.42
0.24
N/A
521.02
532.33
1,387.30
N/A
353.30
432.25
5.32
3.85
148.76
1,203.07
61.03
1,482.97
9.57
0.69
N/A
2.04
0.64
1.28
N/A
7.91
N/A
N/A
N/A
PER-
CENT
COST
N/A
N/A
80%
N/A
70%
65%
70%
75%
70%
70%
70%
75%
80%
50%
70%
80%
70%
80%
65%
70%
60%
50%
70%
80%
70%
80%
65%
90%
70%
70%
60%
65%
70%
70%
*Best Management Practices in Black Creek Watershed
-------
on getting land treatment on the eroding agricultural acres then we need
to go with the best management practice approach and eliminate all the
frills. As a result, the cost of technical assistance and administration
would be reduced significantly, and that is very important, because those
costs are all overhead to the taxpayers.
At this point, I would like to go into a somewhat detailed explana-
tion of how I feel, from the experience gained on this project, that we
can apply best management practices nationally in a way that it can be
both economically feasible and acceptable to society as well as an implemen-
table approach to applying best management practices." Keep in mind that this
is only my opinion, however through my discussions I feel that there are
many people who agree. First, I think the institutional structure must
be supported at the federal level and implemented at the local level. As
we know, congress has passed Public Law 92-500 and has mandated the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency to carry out that law. In the area of
non-point pollution relative to agricultural operations I feel that EPA
needs to spell out the requirements of the law and ask that each state
provide it with guidelines as to how non-point pollution control for ag-
ricultural sources will be controlled in that particular state. This is
consistant with the 208 planning approach. The state then, or an agency
thereof, needs to rely on the Soil & Water Conservation Districts through-
out that state to use the states guidelines and within them select those
best management practices that apply to their particular district.
It is not feasible to select best management practices at any level
higher than the local SWCD, simply because the practices vary with loca-
tion. For example, it is obvious that a best management practice in Wash-
ington County, Wisconsin, is stripcropping on the contour, however in the
Black Creek Watershed, Allen County, Indiana, stripcropping is not feasible.
After the district has spelled out the best management practices for its
county the state must provide the district with funds to provide financial
incentives for installation of the best management practices that meet the
guidelines of the state. The state hopefully will be able to obtain the
funds for this use from the federal government, or at least a portion of
them. When the district is provided with money it can proceed with working
with landowners to install best management practices for land treatment
with cost sharing and technical assistance.
The Soil Conservation Service will still be needed to provide the
technical assistance to the district, however the district will require
that the assistance is provided for the application of best management
practices first. If the Soil Conservation Service wishes to apply other
practices they will continue co do so, however it would be a very low prior-
ity with the district and there would be no cost-sharing. Contacts by the
district to the landowner for needed best management practices would be
made as the result of requests by the farmers or by complaints by other
taxpayers. The application of these practices would be based on the dis-
trict's availability of funds and technical assistance. The priorities
would be placed on those requests which seem most serious to water quality
and application assistance would be provided there first.
In all reality, however, the application of best management practices
to the level necessary for water quality improvement will not be accomplish-
91
-------
ed on a totally voluntary program. Enforcement will be needed on a small
percentage of the landowners, in order to be sure that best management
practices are installed properly and at the amount necessary for erosion
control in the county it will be necessary for the state agency to provide
enforcement when requested by the district. It would be the district's
obligation however to submit a written request to the state agency for
its assistance in seeing that enforcement is properly carried out when
needed. This, however, would not be direct enforcement but would come
about as the result of the district informing the landowner that if he
does not cooperate with the district and install the needed practices the
state will come down on him with enforcement measures such as fines, etc.
Using this approach there will probably be very few cases where the district
will be unable to obtain cooperation for proper application of practices.
However, I would estimate that there are approximately five percent of the
landowners who will not react to anything less than enforcement.
If all of this is to come about, and in reality be a implamentable
program, the first thing that must be recognized is that Soil & Water Con-
servation Districts do need to hire professional district representatives
to assist them with management. By this I mean the local soil and water
conservation district supervisors must have an executive secretary who is
a professional, qualified to manage their programs. This needs to be some-
one who is in the district office day by day and knows what is happening
and can inform the supervisors of the local needs and problems. Supervi-
sors have to rely heavily on the information that they receive at the
monthly board meetings. At the present time, in most districts, the only
form of information that supervisors receive is that supplied to them by
the District Conservationist. The District Conservationist is a federal
employee of the U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service and must represent that
federal agency. Therefore, the supervisors are only informed of those
things that are in the best interest of the federal government, Many times
that is in the best interest of the supervisors as well, however, what is
important is there are times when that is not so. For example, supervisors
are not directly concerned about how many visits the D.C. has made with
landowners, or the number of groups he has spoken to, or the number of times
he has visited the county plan commission, or whether the district office
complies with the new "open space" concept for the U.S.D.A. Service Centers.
Supervisors are only directly interested in how much application of erosion
control practices has been and is being accomplished in their district.
Therefore, if we get into administering the application of best management
practices on agricultural land, it will be important that the district's
executive secretary see to it that priorities are kept day to day. For
example, it will be more important that all requests for information and
application relative to installing best management practices be dealt with
before we become concerned with working with some urbanite to develop wild-
life habitat management, a back yard pond, or tree planting on their ten
acre spread. There are other service agencies as well as private consul-
tants available to do this.
A district professional will also be needed simply to follow up on
requests and complaints of erosion control problems where best management
practices might be needed and to handle the enforcement procedures when
necessary. In terms of handling the cost-share money needed to install
best management practices, it could be done either of two ways. My first
choice would be that the district receive and administer funds themselves.
92
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In the Black Creek Study we have proven this to be a very efficient
means of handling cost-share dollars. The district knows what the top
priorities are for funding because they are involved in the planning and
technical needs determination by the Soil Conservation Service. The other
alternative would be to allow the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
vation Service (ASCS) to handle the cost-share dollars. This agency is
already set up to handle cost-share monies as they have for years in the
ACP program. However, if the decision would be to use ASCS it would be
very important that the district have more involvement and authority as
to how the funds are spent. It is only logical that since the district
and its technical staff from SCS will be reviewing the needs and preparing
the technical plans for establishing best management practices, that they
would have the best knowledge as to what requests should be funded and
at what level. Many times in the history of the ACP program, funds have
been allocated with very little knowledge of the work and effort already
encountered by the district and SCS or the severity of the problem con-
sidered for funding. This situation could not be tolerated in the type of
non-point pollution control program needed in the future. If the history
of the ACP programs can be used as an example, it is obvious that ASCS
would involve more staff and more dollars in administering the funds for
installing best management practices than the district would need. As the
case is with most everything, the more people you involve the less eff-
icient you become. However, with some changes, ASCS could handle this
phase of the program, someone else will need to make that determination.
In summarizing this whole approach, the most significant thing that
must be remembered, is that we cannot afford to loose tract of the "grass
roots" contact and understanding that the local soil and water conserva-
tion districts have with its agricultural landowners. There is no way
that a federal agency or even a state agency will be able to have an
effective non-point pollution control program without involving the local
soil and water conservation districts. Farmers are willing to do all they
can when they understand and the districts do have an understanding with
farmers simply because the districts are supervised mostly by farmers.
If this link is ever broken, we will be in for serious problems. If
an effort is made to enforce land treatment controls on farmers without
their understanding, the problems will be much greater than anyone in gov-
ernment realizes today. "You cannot control erosion by sentencing all
the farmers to jail, or the bailiff will get hungry." It is very import-
ant that some real serious long term thinking be done as to how the non-
point agricultural pollution problems will be handled. The approach that
I have outlined, I am confident is a workable approach and an implementable
one. I'm sure that I do not have a perfect plan; it does need some addi-
tional thought and there are probably changes needed in many parts of
the proposed program. However, I think the concept is very sound, I also
believe that the example that has been demonstrated by the Black Creek
Study, not only in how a local district can administer the installation
of practices on private landowners, but also how farmers are willing to
cooperate by installing best management practices, is a testimony to the
plan I propose.
This project also points out the need for some type of soft enforce-
ment if we hope to accomplish an effective non-point control program. Soil
and Water Conservation Districts throughout the country want to be part of
93
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planning for non-point pollution control. Anyone involved in 208 programs
should definitely consider getting the local SWCD involved if they have
not already done so. The project also points out that soil and water con-
servation districts ate going to need to make some changes to meet the
challenges of non-point pollution control in the future. The most impor-
tant change would be the district's hiring an executive secretary'for each
soil and water conservation district. The supervisors cannot be expected
to take on a project of the proportion that non-point pollution control on
agricultural lands involve without some staff of their own. Also, the Soil
Conservation Service and the Cooperative Extension Service must recognize
that this change is needed if we are to enter a program of this nature.
I know there is reluctance in some parts of these agencies to such a change,
however those who will look into the future with an open mind will recog-
nize that the effectiveness of both the Soil Conservation Service and thfe
Cooperative Extension programs would be enhanced by the district's becoming
self-sufficient. "We no longer can afford to look back at the problems of
the past; we must instead look ahead at the challenges of tomorrow."
94
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SOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PARTICIPATION IN SOIL
CONSERVATION: BLACK CREEK PROJECT1
by
2
David L. Taylor and William L. Miller
One of the most important tasks that faces any program designed
to influence or alter the social behavior of a group of people is
how to attain the cooperation and participation of those people.
This is absolutely necessary if the project is going to achieve its
goals without coercion and/or creating an unfavorable image among
those persons.
In the Black Creek Project, farmers are being encouraged to
adopt agricultural management practices on their farms which bene-
fit society by reducing the runoff of sediment and nutrients which
pollute streams and lakes. To achieve this objective economic incen-
tives have been combined with information designed to encourage the
farmer to adopt management practices to reduce runoff. To personnel
involved with this project who have,worked with the farmers, it has
been apparent that the adoption of a particular management practice
varies between farmers and groups of farmers in the project area.
Previous reports have emphasized achieving cooperation and par-
ticipation by working within the local social structure particularly
in the Amish community [1], The need for this was verified by the
different attitudes toward the project held by leaders in comparison
with other farmers in the project area.
This research was financed in part by EPA grant No. G005103.
2
The authors wish to thank Joe Donnermeyer for his comments on this
paper. The authors are Graduate Research Assistant in Sociology
and Professor in Agricultural Economics, respectively.
95
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This paper builds on the previous research and utilizing recent-
ly available data rigorously analyzes the relationship of social
factors to the adoption of the new management practices. The statis-
tical technique utilized for this analysis is the path analytic pro-
cedure. This technique permits the assessment of the relative impor-
tance of each factor on the subsequent adoption or rejection of the
new management practice.
The objective of this research is to determine which factors
are most important for adoption of the management practices. In ad-
dition, it will determine at what stage in the decision making pro-
cess these factors exert their major infuuence on the behavior of the
farmers.
This paper is divided into three additional sections. The next
section examines the theoretical basis for the model which is based
on previous sociological research on the diffusion of innovations.
The following section examines the results of the path analytical
model. The last section indicates conclusions and policy implica-
tions derived from the analysis.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
The Rogers and Shoemaker Theoretical Model
The assumption that adoption is the result of a social or psy-
chological process has been evident in virtually every study of
adoption behavior. However, there has, in general, been little agree-
ment regarding how many stages are involved in this process.
For instance, Wilkening [2] and Emery and Oeser [3]
utilized a three-stage process. Wilkening [A] proposed
four stages, as did Ryan and Gross [5] and Rakim [6],Seal
and others [7]and Copp and others [8] used five stages.
Lavldge and Steiner [9] postulated six stages while Singh
and Pareek [10] proposed an eight stage model, [ll]
The theoretical model of the innovation-decision process utilized
to study adoption of management practices in the Black Creek Water-
shed is presented in Figure 1. This model was developed by Rogers
and Shoemaker [ll]. They propose that their model accounts for the
criticisms of earlier models, is logically consistent with the learn-
ing process (in the conventional S-R conceptualization), and follows
Hovland's [12] model of attitude change, [ll]
As Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] describe it, their model contains
three major divisions: (1) Antecedents, (2) Process, and (3) Conse-
quences. "Antecedents are those variables present in the situation
96
-------
VO
(ANTECEDENTS)
Receiver Variables
1. Personality
characteristics
(e.g., general
attitude toward
change)'
2. Social
characteristics
(e.g., cosmopoliteness)
3. Perceived need for
the innovation
4. Etcetera
(PROCESS)
Communication Sources
(CONSEQUENCES)'
| Adoption
Continued Adoption
1
1
KNOWLEDGE
(Channels)
i
PERSUASION
II
DEC!
1
/
/
"s^
Discontinuance
1. Replacement
2. Disenchantment
/
\ / t
"5ION , fc rONFIR
1 1
MATIOM
V
k. k. M
Social System Variables
1. Social System Norms
2. Tolerance of Deviancy
3. Communication Integration
4. Etcetera
I Perceived Characteristics of Innovations
1.Relative Advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
A.Trialability
5. Observability
TIME
Rejection
Later Adoption
Continued Rejection
•For the sake of simplicity we have not shown the consequences of the innovation in this paradigm but only the consequences of the process.
Figure 1. The Rogers and Shoemaker Theoretical Model.
-------
prior to the introduction of the innovation. Antecedents consist of:
(1) the individual's personality characteristics, such as his general
attitude toward change, (2) his social characteristics, such as his
cosmopoliteness, and (3) the strength of his perceived need for the
innovation."; The authors group the above antecedents together in a
category called "Receiver Variables." A second category ,of anteced-
ents is referred to as "Social System Variables." These include the
relevant norms of behavior (e.g., modern and traditional) the group's
tolerance for deviancy, the amount of communication integration, etc.
Also affecting the Innovation-Uecssion process is amount and
type of communication which the individual receives abput the innova-
tion. Sources of such communication can be both formal, such as change
agents and the media, or informal such as interpersonal communication
with friends, relatives, etc. One may readily infer from the diagram
of the Rogers and Shoemaker [11] model—see Figure I—that these Ante-
cedents are directly related to the Knowledge stage of the Innovation-
Decision process,and only indirectly related to later stages in the
process through this stage.
Specifically, Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] propose a four-stage
process, consist-ing of (1) initial knowledge of the innovation, (2)
persuasion, or the formation of attitudes toward the innovation, (3)
decision about whether to adopt or reject the innovation, and (4)
confirmation seeking about the decision made.
The Knowledge stage is where the individual is initially ex-
posed to innovation's existence and gains some understanding of how
it functions. There is some uncertainty regarding whether the indi-
vidual becomes aware as a result of his active seeking of knowledge,
or as a result of the efforts of others to bring the Knowledge to
him [13]. However, since the situation discussed in this paper is
one wherein -the individuals are clearly passive receivers of the
knowledge of the innovations, this issue is unimportant.
Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] also discuss the relationship between
the Knowledge stage and the Decision stage. They note that "most
individuals know about many innovations which they have not adopted."
This may be because the individual does not regard them as relevant
or useful, or there may be monetary or social constraints which pro-
hibit him from adopting them. Thus, Rogers and Shoemaker propose
that the Knowledge stage has no direct relationship with the Decision
stage, due to the intervention of attitude formation, and other con-
straints.
To summarize, the Knowledge stage is the first stage of the
Innovation-Decision process. It is the link between the Antecedent
variables and the second, Persuasion stage of the process.
98
-------
communication, and change agents than later knowers ( Kivlin,[18];
Beal, et al., [26]; Seal, et al.,[27]). Finally, early knowers also
tend to be more cosmopolite than later knowers (Kivlin, [18]).
Communication sources have been found to effect all three stages
of the innovation-decision process. Specifically, mass media sources
of communication have been shown to be more important at knowledge
stage, whereas interpersonal sources of communication are more impor-
tant at the persuasion stage (Beal and Rogers,[28]; Beal and Rogers,
[29]). However, the relative importance which change agent contact
plays at the three stages has not been specifically examined. This
is one of the purposes of the present study.
The internal consistency of the three theoretical stages has
already been discussed. However, it may be reiterated that the stages
are consistent with existing literature on knowledge, attitude form-
ation, and behavior in the field of social psychology (McGuire,[14];
Hovland, et al.,[12]).
ANALYSIS
Data Base and Data Collection
The data presented in this paper were obtained as part of a
larger project undertaken by Purdue University and several federal,
state, and county agencies under the auspices of the Environmental
Protection Agency. The Agency selected a watershed of about 12,000
acres along the Maumee River in Allen County, Indiana, because a
number of farmers in the watershed had serious erosion problems on
their land which were causing major pollution problems in the Maumee
River and, ultimately, in Lake Erie. One of the main purposes of
the project was to indroduce a number of agricultural innovations to
the farmers in the watershed. To measure the impact of the project
and the reactions to it, a sample of farmers in the area were inter-
viewed. In January, 1974, a 97 percent sample of all farms 10 acres
or larger was interviewed (N = 89). Two years later, in February
1976, 80% of those initially interviewed were reinterviewed (N =
71).
The questionnaire was designed to measure characteristics of the
fanning operation, as well as various social and psychological char-
acteristics of the farmer, including his attitudes toward pollution,
government, and toward the project itself. The specific measurement
of the variables included in the study are described below.
Age (AGE) is the actual age in years of the farmer.
Education (EDUCA) is the education of the farmer, coded from
(0) - no formal education to (8) some graduate work.
102
-------
The age of the farmer has been shown to be related in various
ways to adoption behavior in different studies. Age has been found
to be positively related [18], negatively related [19], and unrelated
to the adoption of innovation [20].
In this model, it is hypothesized that age is negatively rela-
ted to adoption of the pollution control practices, since there are
a number of older, more traditional farmers in the community. Addi-
tionally, most of the Amish farmers are older, this should also con-
tribute to the negative relationship between age and adoption.
Education of the farmer has been found to be related to adoption
behavior in numerous studies. Most of these studies (e.g. Kivlin
[18]) have found it to be positively related to adoption, this is the
type of relationship proposed in the present model.
Whether the person has additional, off farm employment has also
been found to be related to adoption, in the sense that it indicates
a non-subsistence or commercial orientation on the part of the farm-
er. This has been shown by Beal, et al. [19] and Reddy & Kivlin [21]
to be positively related to the adoption of innovation. This is pre-
cisely the form of relationship expected in this study.
Another measure related to the adoption behavior is the farmer's
leadership in the community (Arndt,[20]; Loomis,[22]). In this study
leadership in the community, measured sociometrically, is proposed to
be related positively to adoption behavior.
Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] note that the three social system vari-
ables most relevant to the adoption of innovation are: (1) social
system norms, (2) tolerance of deviance, and (3) communication inte-
gration. Because the area of study contains a number of Amish farms
(31) as well as a number of conventional, small and large farms
(termed "Non Amish"), the social system variables may be simply op-
erationalized by a dummy variable coded (0) for Amish and (1) for
Non Amish. This procedure is supported by the fact that the Amish
have a particularly rigid normative structure, low tolerance of devi-
ance from group norms, and high communication integration (e.g.
Hostetler,L23j; Kephart, [24]).
Though the specific theoretical model proposed by Rogers and
Shoemaker [ll] has not been tested prior to the present study, there
are some studies which find relationships that are, in general, con-
gruent with those proposed in the model.
For example, the level of education of the farmer has been found
to be positively related to early knowledge of innovations (Kivlin,
[18]; Roberts, et al.,[25]). Additionally, early knowers of innovations
have been found to have greater exposure to mass media, interpersonal
101
-------
RECEIVER VARIABLES
1. Personal
age
education
perception of need for
innovation
2. Social
off-farm employment
leadership in community
COMMUNICATION SOURCES
KNOWLEnCE
I
Familiarity
with the
project
~ PERSUASION |
II 1 '
Overall reaction 1
toward the
project
DECISION ~]
III 1
Participation
in the
project
o
o
SOCIAL SYSTEM VARIABLES
Ethnic Group
Figure 2. Tne Black Creek Theoretical Model.
-------
The persuasion stage is simply the stage at which, after gaining
knowledge of an innovation, the individual forms a favorable or un-
favorable attitude toward it. "Whereas the mental activity at the
Knowledge stage was mainly cognitive (or knowing), the main type of
thinking at the Persuasion stage is affective (or feeling)." [11]
The temporal sequence here is logically correct, in that an individual
cannot form an attitude toward something with which he is not famili-
ar. Additionally, this conception of attitudes as intervening be-
tween knowledge and behavior is supported by research and theory in
social psychology [14].
The relationship of the Persuasion stage to the third, Deci-
sion stage, is discussed by Rogers and Shoemaker [11] in terms of
attitude-behavior consistency. They point out that logically a per-
son's attitudinal position should be positively related to his sub-
sequent overt behavior regarding the attitude object.- However,
they recognize that the correspondence between attitudes and behavior
is seldom perfect, and may even be quite low. They cite the classic
study by LaPiere [15] and others (e.g. Festinger,[16];Rokeach,[17])
where attempts were made to explain low correlations between atti-
tudes and behavior.
Thus, Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] propose that there will be a
direct, positive relationship between attitudes and the decision to
adopt. However, they appear to believe that this relationship may
not be particularly large due to constraints which may affect the
person's overt behavior. (See McGuire[14] for further discussion of
this issue.)
The Decision stage, as Rogers and Shoemaker [11] describe it,
consists of the individual's initial decision to adopt (or at least
try) the innovation. This is the stage which measures the success of
the Black Creek project because the objective of the project is to
encourage farmers to adopt management practices which improve water
quality. Since the final stage of confirmation is not presently im-
portant to the analysis of the Black Creek situation, it will not be
discussed further.
Black Creek Theoretical Model
The appropriate variables to measure the participation of farmers
in the Black Creek Watershed were selected on the basis of the Rogers
and Shoemaker [ll] model and other appropriate theoretical and empi-
rical research on the adoption of new technology. The variables are
identified in Figure 2 in a format similar to the Rogers model. The
specific reasons particular variables were selected and a detailed
description of these variables are presented below.
99
-------
Perception of need for innovation (CSNRPA) is derived from
the farmer's response to the statement "Conservation of soil
is not a real problem in this area." The fact that this
statement is negatively worded means that an "agree" response
to this question indicates little or no perceived need for
soil conservation innovations and related practices. This
was scored (1) for agree and (2) for disagree.
Off farm employment (EMPLOY) is a dichotomous variable indi-
cating whether or not the farmer has additional off-farm
employment.
Leadership score (LEADER) is the actual number of sociometric
choices the farmer received when respondents were asked who
was a well-respected farmer in the area.
Ethnic Group (ETHGRP) is a dichotomous variable which indicates
whether the farmer was Amish or Non-Amish.
Agency Contact (AGENCYCT) is an index of the amount of con-
tact the farmer has had with each of the agencies involved in
the project. Each agency is coded from 0 - no contact, to
3 - contact 3 or more times. The scores for each agency are
then summed to yield a total score for each farmer.
Advice from Leader (ADVICE) indicates whether the farmer had
sought advice about farming practices from the person he selec-
ted as a well-respected farmer—used here as "LEADERS", the vari-
able operationalizing community leadership.
Familiarity with the project (BCDP) is a dichotomous variable
indicating whether the farmer had had contact with project
personnel as of January, 1976.
Overall reaction toward the project (FAVOR74) is the farmer's
attitude toward the project in 1974. It is scored from 1 to
5, with 5 being very favorable.
Participation in the project (PARTBCP) indicates whether and
how much the farmer has participated in the project as of
February 1976. It is scored 0 - none, 1 - a little, 2 - very
much.
The Statistical Model
The path analytic technique was selected to analyze the relation-
ship among the factors identified in the Black Creek theoretical model.
Considering the current debate regarding the possibility of mis-
placed precision in the use of path analysis for sociological research
(Coser[33]; Featherman,[34]; Treiman [35]), as the skepticism voiced
by Miller and Stokes [36] over the technique's applicability to rural
103
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sociological issues, it is particularly important that the use of
such sophisticated statistical procedures be well-justified.
First, by considering the three stages of the Innovation-De-
cision process to be a causal chain of three endogenous variables,
path analysis will allow the relative effect of the exogenous or
antecedent variables on each stage of the process to be assessed,
even though the variables are measured in different units. It al-
lows one to control for the effects of all other variables, so each
variable's independent effect may be measured.
Second, this property of path analysis is important because it
enables a test of the hypothesis of Rogers and Shoemaker [11] that
Antecedent variables have direct effects only on the Knowledge stage
of the process. This same property also enables a test of their
hypothesis that formal sources of communication affect mainly the
Knowledge stage, whereas informal communications mainly affect the
later stages. Since the division between the effects of the two
forms of communications is not absolute, it is particularly impor-
tant to have relatively precise measures of the effects of each type,
while all other factors are controlled. This will insure that the
correlation is not due to relationships among other variables in the
system.
The theoretical model which has been proposed is analyzed with
regression analysis of three separate structural equations. First,
as mentioned above, participation in the Black Creek Project (PARTBCP)
is regressed on favorability toward the Black Creek Project in 1974
(FAVOR74), amount of contact with government agencies involved in the
project (AGENCYCT), the farmer's familiarity with the Black Creek
Project in 1974 (BCDP) and then on the various receiver variables and
the variables operationalizing the communication between the farmer
and local leaders and government agencies. Additionally, PARTBCP
is regressed on the relevant social system variable of whether or
not the farmer was Amish.
In the second equation, the farmer's favorability toward the
Black Creek Project in 1974 is regressed on BCDP and on the exo-
genous background variables. The third equation consists of the
regression of the farmer's familiarity with the BCP on the exogenous
variables.
In developing this model of participation in the project, the
parameters of each of the three equations have been estimated by or-
dinary least squares (Land,[30]). These regression coefficients in-
dicate the direct effect that an independent variable had on a de-
pendent endogenous variable with the effects of the other variables
appearing in that equation controlled. In Table 1 the numbers in
the far right column are the standard errors for the regression co-
efficient. The multiple correlation coefficient is shown in the
second column (Anderson,[3l]).
104
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Table 1. The Results of the Path Analysis.
Dependent
variable
PARTBCP
FAVOR74
BCDP
Independent Multiple
variable R
FAVOR74 .67
EMPLOY
ETHGRP
CSNRPA
BCDP . 74
AGENCYCT
EDUCA
LEADERS
AGE
ETHGRP
AGENCYCT . 56
ETHGRP
ADVICE
Standardized
partial
regression
coefficient
.37
.49
-.27
-.19
.56
.10
.14
.15
-.13
.08
.55
-.46
.20
Standard
error
.09
.08
.08
.09
.09
.11
.09
.09
.08
.10
.10
.11
.10
In a few instances the standard error is relatively large com-
pared to the regression coefficient. These variables have been re-
tained in the equation when necessary to retain congruence with the
theroetical model of Rogers and Shoemaker [ll] or when empirical
evidence supported their inclusion. The statistical justification
for this procedure is that the omission of such variables results
in an error in the specification of the equation, and in biased
estimates of the coefficients of those variables included in the
equation (Kmenta, [32]).
Figure 3 depicts the hypothetical causal relationships between
the variables. This model is diagrammed in accordance with the
stages or functions of the Innovation Diffusion process presented by
Rogers and Shoemaker [ll]. This path analytical model indicates
linear, additive relationships among the set of variables that are
included in the model. The eight variables at the left are consid-
ered to be exogenous. The three remaining variables, BCDP, FAVOR74,
PARTBCP, are considered to be endogenous, and thus completely de-
termined by the variables in the model and by the residual variables
(Ra, Rj,, and RC). These residual variables represent the effects of
all other variables not included in the model that cause variation
in an endogenous variable. It is assumed that the residual variables
are uncorrelated with each other, and uncorrelated with any other
variables in the same equation.
105
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AGE
EDUCA
AGENCYCT
ADVICE
-,13
LEADER
EMPLOY
CSNRPA
ETHGRP
.15
Jfi.
-.19
T.tfi
\\
\
,84
r
BCDP
,56
-,13
,67
FAVOR74
-,27
Rc
PARTBCP
Figure 3. The Path Analytic Model with Standardized Partial Regression Coefficients.
-------
Analysis of the Structural Model
In general, this structural model indicates that there is a dis-
tinct applicability of Rogers and Shoemaker's [11] model of adoption
behavior to the present data. First, using several of those variables
which Rogers and Shoemaker indicate are important factors in the pro-
cess, it was possible to explain 45 percent of the variance in PARTBCP.
Second, in accordance with the theoretical model, several antecedent
variables did not have a direct effect on PARTBCP, but instead had
only indirect effects on this variable through BCDP and FAVOR74.
Third, the fact that BCDP explains much of the variance in
FAVOR74 and FAVOR74 explains much of the variance in PARTBCP validates
the important role that knowledge plays in the formation of favorable
attitudes, and the importance which these attitudes play in the devel-
ppment of participation on the part of farmers through the adoption
of agricultural innovations which are proposed by the project.
Specifically, the measure of participation through innovation—
PARTBCP—was regressed upon four variables: FAVOR74, EMPLOY, ET1IGRP,
and CSNRPA. The combined direct and indirect effects of these vari-
ables explained 45 percent of the variance in PARTBCP.
Though the farmers' attitudes toward the project and the inno-
vations it proposes have a large positive effect on the farmer's de-
cision to participate, an even larger effect is that of the farmer's
employment status. That is, farmers who are employed off the farm
are more likely to participate in the project than those who work sole-
ly on their farm. One way this may be explained is that this is a
measure of cosmopoliteness in the sense that farmers who work off the
farm have greater contact with other persons with a wide variety of
attitudes. Also, farmers with additional employment are likely to
work in business or in industry (these were the most common responses
to the question of where they were employed), and both of these fields
feature extensive utilization of technology and innovativeness. Thus,
such persons would have had more contact with social and technological
change than farmers working only on their farm. Another dimension of
this relationship is illustrated when the relationship with ETHGRP
is considered. This relationship indicates that Amish farmers are
more likely to have high participation through innovation than the
Non-Amish. This is consistent with EMPLOY since EMPLOY is negative-
ly correlated with ETHGRP. This means that Amish farmers are more
likely to have additional employment than are Non-Amish farmers.
Given this relationship, the positive correlation between off farm
employment and participation becomes even more important. Since
traditionally Amish are conservative and opposed to innovation, it
is interesting to note that those Amish with off farm employment
are more likely than other groups to participate in the project.
107
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Applicability of the Model
Undoubtedly the major advantage of using the Rogers and Shoemaker
[ll] model as the theroetical basis for the organization of the data
is that it illustrates very clearly the fact that developing any sort
of public involvement and participation is a process, which goes through
several stages before the question of whether or not to participate
(and, if so, how much) is finally resolved.
To those involved with the farmers personally over the past few
years, this must be quite apparent. First, it is necessary to meet
the farmers, to identify themselves, the project, its purposes, its
technology, and its concern with planning and improvement of conserva-
tion practices. This is the knowledge stage of the model.
Second, the members of the project must demonstrate their tech-
nology, and especially their concern for the farmer and his problems
through continued contact. Because the technology and methodology pro-
posed by the project are new to many of the farmers, it is particularly
important that they have sufficient knowledge and contact with the
project. This is important because the attitudes which the farmers
hold toward the project should be based on the facts: on the farmers'
acquired knowledge of the project, rather than on an arbitrary rejec-
tion of the new and an embracement of the traditional. This informed
attitude which the farmer develops toward the project is the Persua-
sion stage of the model.
Finally, after having gained a certain amount of knowledge about
the various features of the project, and after having formed atti-
tudes toward the project, the farmer acts on his beliefs. The far-
mer thus makes a decision whether or not to participate in the project
by adopting its technology and practices. Additionally, should the
farmer decide that he is going to participate, he must decide to what
extent he will participate—how involved he will get in the project.
These decisions represent the Decision stage of the model.
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
This model has several implications for the Black Creek Project,
in terms of understanding the process of developing participation
among farmers, and the role that the agencies of the project and in-
formal social relationships play in this process.
To a large extent, the model indicates that agencies play their
principal role in simply informing the farmer about the project, the
large positive effect of BCDP on FAVOR74 means that farmers who simply
know about the project develop a favorable attitude toward it. This
is important, because it means that it is not necessary to coerce
farmers to participte in the project.
108
-------
The structural equation model also illustrates the importance
of both formal and informal channels of communication play in the
innovation-decision process. However, the role of these two sources
are not as hypothesized in the Rogers and Shoemaker [11] model. Both
formal (AGENCYCT) and informal (ADVICE) sources have their major ef-
fect at the Knowledge stage of the process, although AGENCYCT has
a minor effect at the Persuasion stage also.
Another important implication of the model is indicated by the
important effect of ETHGRP at the Knowledge and Persuasion stages.
The model indicates that the Amish are more liksly to report a high
level of knowledge and participation than the Non-Amish. This is
probably due to two factors: (1) The Amish have a very integrated,
effective communication system within their community, so that if
the project contacts only a few Amish farmers, many of them will
know about it in a very short time. This is very different from
the situation among the Non-Amish, where farmers tend to know fewer
of their neighbors, have less frequent contacts with them, etc.
(2) The Amish might also be more likely to have received knowledge
of the project early (in 1974) because their land is generally poor-
er and suffered more erosion problems. Thus, they would have been
more likely to have been contacted by project personnel than Non-
Amish, who are situated on better land, and had already been using
several of the innovations proposed by the project. Thus, the pol-
lution situation among the Amish was in general more critical and
required the more immediate attention of the project.
Policy Implications for the Black Creek Project
For the members of the Black Creek Project, this model has sev-
eral specific implications: (1) Making contact with the farmers
(AGENCYCT) in the early stages of the project is very important, be-
cause this is when such contact has its greatest impact on the farmer.
(2) There are also certain farmers whom it is important to contact
first. These are persons recognized as local leaders, persons who
have off-farm employment, because they tend to be more cosmopolitan
than farmers whose sole source of income is from their farm. (3)
Also, since younger farmers with more education tend to be most
favorable toward the project, it would be most fruitful to approach
these farmers before others, who would be less likely to be as favor-
able. (4) Another important variable is the farmer's perceived need
for the innovation (CSNPJ»A). Since farmers who see a need for par-
ticular agricultural innovations or practices are most likely to
participate in the project, these individuals—identified by a sur-
vey—should be contacted early in the project. (5) Though not as
prominent in this final model, earlier models indicate that the far-
mers contact with local leaders (ADVICE) plays a small, but signi-
ficant,role at all three stages of the project. This makes it even
more imperative that local leaders be contacted early, since they
will be able to spread the information they have obtained. This
will give the project and its proposed innovations the additional
credence that comes with a highly accredited source of information.
109
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1. Brooks, Ralph M. and David L. Taylor. 1975. Impact of social
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5. Ryan, Bryce and Neal C. Gross. The diffusion of hybrid seed corn
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8. Copp, James H., et^ aJU The function of information sources in
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Pakistan. 1965. Demography, 2:44-96.
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28. Seal, G. M. and E. M. Rogers. Information sources in the adop-
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49:630-634.
29. Seal, G. M. and E. K. Rogers, The adoption of two farm practices
in a central Iowa community. 1960. Ames: Iowa Agriculture
and Home Economics Experiment Station Special Report.
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hypothesis testing in recursive sociological models. 1973.
A. S. Goldberger and 0. D. Duncan (eds.), Structural equation
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the development of social systems models. 1973. American So-
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mil Ian.
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American Sociological Review, 40:6:691-700.
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112
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CONSERVATION TILLAGE TRIALS IN PROGRESS IN THE
BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
BY
Donald R. Griffith and Gary W. Carlisle*
Simulated rainfall studies have shown that conservation tillage
techniques are quite effective in reducing water runoff, soil loss,
and pollutants associated with soil loss. Previous research in
Indiana and other Corn Belt states, however, indicates that the vari-
ous conservation tillage systems are not uniformly adapted in all
soil-climate situations.
Factors shown to have a major influence on the success of con-
servation tillage systems are soil drainage, previous crop, length
of growing season, and soil physical properties. Soils in the Black
Creek watershed are quite diverse in drainage and other physical char-
acteristics. Cropping sequences also vary greatly. The watershed
is in the northern fringe of the Corn Belt and has a shorter growing
season than southern Corn Belt areas, where conservation tillage is
more popular.
OBJECTIVES
Specific objectives of the tillage trials, listed below, are
aimed at reducing soil erosion in the watershed.
1. To determine which conservation tillage systems are adapted
on the primary soil types in the watershed. Adapted, in
this case, means that the system can be used by farmers of
average managerial ability without risk of significant yield
reduction.
2. To have conservation tillage techniques in use by a high
percentage of farmers in the watershed.
PROGRESS
First Three Years
Original efforts to gain information and promote conservation
tillage consisted of farmer comparisons of several tillage systems
on several different soil types. Due to unusual weather, non-
replication of the plots, and farmer inexperience with the new tech-
niques, little information was gained during the first three years
of the project. However, fall chiseling, with limited secondary
tillage in the spring, appeared to be successful with a wide range
of soil types and weather conditions.
* Research Agronomist, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Ind.;
Soil Conservationist, SCS-USDA, Fort Wayne, Ind.
113
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Current Activities
It was decided to expand the tillage trial phase of the Black
Creek study in 1976. We now control and implement the trials our-
selves. The greater uniformity attained should provide more accur-
ate information on which to base tillage recommendations to farmers
in the watershed.
Five sites, representing major soils in the watershed, were
leased to conduct replicated tillage trials. Tillage systems now
being compared include moldboard plowing, chisel plowing, disking,
and no-tillage. Comparisons will be made for continuous corn, corn
after soybeans, and soybeans after corn. In addition, conservation
tillage practices are being demonstrated in other areas by special
agreement with cooperating farmers. This information is summarized
below.
Table_l_.;__Reglicated_Tillage_Trialsi_Black_Creek_StudY
Number
Farm Soils 1975 residue of reps
Shanebrook
Woebbeking
Stieglitz
Shaffer
Bennett
Hoytville c
Nappanee si
Whitaker si
Raskins 1 .
Morley c. 1
Morley c. 1
. 1.
. c. 1.
. 1.
.
Soybeans
Corn
Soybeans
Corn
Corn
Corn
4
4
4
4
2
4
Table=24_=TJllage=Demonstrationsi_Black_Creek=StudY_=====_=======_==
1975 1976
Farm Soils 1976 crop residue tillage
Schlatter
Delagrange
Schaefer
Rensselaer 1.
Morley si. 1.
Pewamo si . c . 1
Haskins 1 .
Corn
Soybeans
Wheat/beans
Corn
Soybeans
Soybeans
Soybeans
Sod
a. No-till
b. Disk
Chisel
No-till
No-till
The following equipment has been purchased by the Allen Co.
SWCD to implement this new tillage work: J. D. 4020 tractor with
spray tanks, AC 4-row no-till planter with broadcast spray attach-
ments, disk, 4-bottom plow, field cultivator, and 4-row Lilliston
rolling cultivator. Other equipment needed, such as a stalk chopper
chisel plow, etc. will be borrowed from cooperating farmers. Seed,
fertilizer, and chemicals needed are purchased by the SWCD for
leased acreage but are provided by cooperating farmers for demonstra-
tion plots.
Not all tillage treatments could be accomplished as planned
for this first year in the replicated trials. Plowing and chiseling,
114
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intended for fall practices, were done in the spring, since land and
equipment were not available in the fall. Crop residue from 1975
was the same for all tillage at a particular site; thus, residue ef-
fect on tillage cannot be measured. In two of the trials (Shanebrook
and Stieglitz), row direction must be opposite from the 1975 rows in
order to have plots go across existing tile lines. This would be too
non-uniform for no-till planting, so these plots were disked once
this year.
Corn and soybean plantings were begun on April 23 and May 21,
respectively, on the well drained Whitaker soil. The only major
problem at planting was in getting coulter penetration and seed
cover in no-till planting on the poorly structured Nappanee silt
loam soil. Corn germination was variable in these plots.
Weeds not controlled with no-plow systems were primarily species
resistant to herbicides used. These included field bindweed, morn-
ing glory, and Canadian thistle. The pre-emergence herbicides used
were an Aatrex-Bladex-Lasso-Paraquat combination on corn and a Lorox-
Lasso-Paraquat combination on soybeans.
Another interesting observation during the growing season was
the development of phytophthora root rot disease of soybeans in
the Nappanee silt loam trial. It became much more severe in no-till
and disk plots than in deep tilled plots, and yields were reduced by
75%.
All three of the conservation tillage demonstrations appear to
be successful. The sod-planted corn showed no drouth stress during
an early season dry period, while other corn in the same field was
showing drouth symptoms. Moisture conserved with no-till sod plant-
ing is a prime advantage for this system on well drained soils.
Grain yields are being checked for both corn and soybeans in
replicated and demonstration trials. While tillage practices in this
first year of the revised study do not always represent intended til-
lage systems (for reasons previously stated), information gained on
chisel and disk tillage should be of great interest to farmers in the
watershed.
Promotion of Conservation Tillage
Farmers in the watershed have been made aware of the tillage
trials underway through field tours and mass-media coverage. A field
tour of the trials on July 13 drew 60 area farmers. Ft. Wayne tele-
vision Farm Director Wayne Rothgeb filmed segments at planting and
at several times later during the growing season. Newspaper coverage
has also been very good. Conservation advantages of the no-plow til-
lage systems and soils where they are likely to be adapted were em-
phasized in all contacts with farmers.
115
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CROP SEQUENCE AND FALL TILLAGE
EFFECTS ON SOIL EROSION
by
J.V. Mannering and C.B. Johnson*
The Black Creek Watershed, a 4,850 ha sub-watershed of the Maumee
River Basin is an area of intensive fanning with an estimated 60% of
the area devoted to row crop (corn and soybean) culture. The dominant
cultural practices used in corn and soybean production within the water-
shed consists of fall turn plowing, secondary tillage for seedbed pre-
paration in the spring and cultivation for weed control. Although this
method of crop production is agronomically sound (except on highly ero-
sive soils), it does leave a large percent of the watershed unprotected
and subject to erosion during a large part of the year. Conservation
tillage systems have been shown to effectively reduce soil erosion at
several locations in the Cornbelt where erosion is a problem (1, 2, 6, 7).
It is important, then, to determine the effectiveness of these conservation
tillage systems in reducing the soil erosion and resultant sedimentation
problems in the Black Creek Watershed.
There is also increasing concern that soil erosion from soybeans is
much more serious than from corn. Workers in Iowa (5) showed corn fol-
lowing soybeans to be 40% more erosive than either soybeans following
corn or continuous corn using conventional tillage. Indiana workers (3)
showed that with a common-prior-crop history there was no significant
difference in soil erosion from soybeans or corn from planting until
harvest. This would indicate that the residual effects of the prior
crop may have more influence on soil erosion than the present crop.
Since the corn-soybean rotation is a very common rotation in the Black
Creek Watershed and since there is some indication that there is an inter-
action effect of tillage system and crop sequence on soil erosion, it
was felt desirable to measure these effects within the Watershed.
Specific objectives of this study are, therefore, to:
1) determine the effects of tillage system and crop sequence on crop
residue cover.
2) determine the effects of tillage system and crop sequence on soil
erosion.
3) evaluate the relation between crop residue cover and soil erosion.
*Professor of Agronomy, Purdue University and Research Technician, Agri-
cultural Research Service, USDA, West Lafayette, Indiana.
116
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PROCEDURE
Tillage Treatments
Test sites were prepared after harvest in the fall on areas that had
been previously cropped to either corn or soybeans. A description of the
test locations is found in Table 1. Crop rows of the prior crop were
approximately up and down slope at all four locations. Prior crop resi-
dues were not removed prior to applying the tillage treatments. The
tillage treatments applied in the fall were:
1) Check - No tillage performed after harvest of crops. All residues
left on the surface.
2) Disk - Light disking (5-7 cm deep) - slight incorporation of resi-
dues.
3) Chisel - Chiseling (15-20 cm deep) - some incorporation of residues.
4) Plow - Plow (15-20 cm deep) - nearly all residues buried.
No further tillage treatment was applied prior to applying simulated
rain tests in the late spring. Weeds were controlled in late spring by
spraying plots with a contact herbicide. At the time of the simulated rain
tests the plots had undergone the winter weathering process and were re-
presentative of the erosion potential that would likely occur in late
winter and early spring. This would correspond to Wischmeier's (8) Fallow
Period for the three tillage treatments and Crop Residue Period (Crop
stage period 4) for the Check treatment.
All tillage treatments were replicated once. Individual plots were
1.8 m by 10.7 m. A paired plot-randomized block design was used.
Table 1. Identification of Test Locations
,, Dates of Tests-^
Location Soil type % Slope-/ corn soybeans
1. Yerks Farm
2. Hirsch Farm
3. Hirsch Farm
4. Bennett Farm
Haskins loam
Nappanee clay loam
Hoytville silty clay
Morley clay loam
1.8
0.7-1.0
0.8
4.0-4.1
1974
1974
1974
1976
1975
1975
1975
1974
-'Plot locations were moved slightly each year to avoid confounding effects
of prior year tests. This resulted in slight changes in % slope at some
of the locations.
*/Designates prior crop as well as the year the simulated rainfall tests
were made. All tests were conducted between May 15 and June 15.
117
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Surface Residue Measurement
Six photographs (slides) of the surface of each of the tillage plots
were taken immediately prior to applying the simulated rainstorms. The sl-
ides were then projected on a grid and estimates were made of the amount
of surface covered by crop residues. The results from the 6 photos were
averaged and reported as % surface cover.
Simulated Rainfall Tests
Simulated rainfall tests were conducted during May-June and consisted
of the following:
Initial storm - 60 minutes of rainfall at 6.35 cm/hr.
Wet storm - 30 minutes of rainfall at 6.35 cm/hr applied twenty-
four hours following the initial storm.
Very wet storm - 30 minutes of rainfall at 6.35 cm/hr applied fifteen
minutes after the end of the wet storm.
Samples were taken from the 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth for antecedent
soil moisture determinations prior to the initial and wet tests. Run-
off rates and amounts were determined by the use of flumes and water
stage recorders and 1% aliquot samples of runoff were taken throughout
the test for determining sediment load and composition. Procedures deve-
loped in earlier studies (4) for conducting simulated rain tests and
analyzing the results were used in this study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Surface Cover
The effects of prior crops (soybeans and corn) and tillage system
on percent surface residue cover are presented in Table 2. These results
show that various forms of fall tillage do have a significant influence on
the amount of residues remaining on the surface the following spring.
Obviously, the treatment that did no incorporation (check) had the highest
amount of surface cover after both corn and soybeans. The disk treatment
reduced soybean residues, but had little if any influence on corn residues
when compared to the check. Generally, residues remaining after chiseling
were appreciably lower than the check on both corn and soybeans. Plow-
ing resulted in the least residues, as was expected, however, the dif-
ferences between plowing and other treatments were much less following
soybeans than corn. In fact, the difference in surface residues between
chisel and plow treatments following soybeans were minor and probably did
not significantly influence runoff and erosion.
The results show a major difference in the amount of surface cover
remaining in the spring following corn as compared to soybeans. Although
the plow system which essentially buried all of the residue, whether corn
or soybeans, resulted in little if any difference in cover, all three of
118
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the other treatments in most cases showed corn to have significantly more
residues remaining than soybeans.
Table 2. Crop and Tillage Effect on % Surface Cover -^
% Cover
Soil Tillage Soybeans Corn
HASKINS LOAM
Check 21 57
Disk 8 55
Chisel — 36
Plow 4 1
NAPPANEE CLAY LOAM
Check 15 53
Disk 9 58
Chisel 10 29
Plow 3 5
HOYTVILLE SILTY CLAY
Check 24 78
Disk 12 77
Chisel 9 57
Plow 1 4
MORLEY CLAY LOAM
Check 26 69
Dick 17 70
Chisel 12 25
Plow 1 7
-^Surface cover determined photographically. Each value listed is
an average of 6 determinations.
In another study (3) where surface cover was measured immediately after
harvest in 102 cm-width rows, surface cover was actually greater follow-
ing soybeans than corn (95% vs 60%). This resulted from the better dis-
tribution of soybean residues from the "combine" harvester than from corn
where the picker-sheller left corn stalks well in tact.
The major decrease of the surface soybean residue cover as compared
to the remaining corn residue the following spring which is reported in
this study, probably resulted from appreciably less residue produced from
soybeans than corn as well as the more rapid oxidation of the bean resi-
dues because of a lower carbon-nitrogen ratio.
119
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Runoff and Soil Loss
Infiltration, runoff and soil loss results from the initial, wet, very
wet, and 3-storm totals are given in Tables 3-10.
Haskins Loam: The effects of tillage system following corn and soy-
beans on runoff and soil loss on the Haskins loam are presented in Tables
3 and 4. Generally the check and disk treatments following corn results in
slight increases in infiltration, therefore reduced runoff compared to the
chisel and plow treatments. However, the major soil loss reductions re-
sulting from these treatments resulted from a much lower sediment concen-
tration of runoff as a result of the increased surface cover (See Table 2).
Table 3. Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Haskins Loam
1973^/ Crop-Corn
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm Appl .
(cm)
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Very Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Total (2 hours) 12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
Infil.
(cm)
3.86
3.10
3.10
1.96
1.70
1.17
.71
.63
1.09
.36
.38
.41
6.65
4.62
4.19
3.00
Runoff
(cm)^
2.49
3.25
3.25
4.39
1.47
2.00
2.46
2.54
2.08
2.82
2.79
2.76
6.05
8.08
8.51
9.70
Slope
1.76% slope
Soil
Loss2/
t/ha &
3.20
2.44
5.78
12.25
.94
.72
4.01
6.81
1.12
.76
3.99
7.01
5.26
3.92
13.78
26.07
-^Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by
2.54. To convert t/ha to T/A divide by 2.24.
=t Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35
cm/hr.
120
-------
Both reduced runoff and sediment concentration of the runoff were respon-
sible for less soil loss from the chisel treatment than the plow treat-
ment. Greater surface roughness (more surface storage) and surface cover
contributed to effectiveness of the chisel system.
The effect of tillage system in reducing soil loss following soybeans
(Table 4) shows the check treatment to be far more effective than either
the disk or plow treatment. This reduction results from lower sediment
concentration rather than reduced runoff. For some unknown reason, the
soil loss from the disk treatment is extremely high based on the amount of
surface cover present. The chisel treatment was not applied in the fall so
a spring plow treatment was included in its place. The spring plow treat-
ment proved to be effective in reducing the runoff because of greatly in-
creased plow-layer storage. It has long been known that recently plowed
land is highly receptive to large amounts of water infiltration and storage.
Table 4. Summary of results ^ by test storms, May-June-1975. Haskins loam -
1974 crop soybeans - slope l.i
Treatment
Storm
Appl.
(cm)
Infil.
(cm)
Runoff^/
(cm)
Soil ,
Loss-^
(t/ha)
Check
Disk
Sp. Plow
F. Plow
Check
Disk
Sp. Plow
F. Plow
Check
Disk
Sp. Plow
F. Plow
Initial (60 min)
Wet (30 min)
Very Wet (30 min)
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
1.93
1.35
5.13
1.70
.66
.58
1.32
.69
.48
.66
.97
.89
4.42
5.00
1.22
4.65
2.51
2.59
1.85
2.49
2.69
2.51
2.21
2.29
3.54
9.92
1.39
9.54
1.72
3.99
2.22
4.19
1.75
3.45
2.69
3.88
Check
Disk
Sp. Plow
F. Plow
Total (2
II
II
II
hrs.)
12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
3.07
2.59
7.42
3.28
9.63
10.11
5.28
9.42
7.01
17.36
6.29
17.61
-'Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by 2.54.
To convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
•=/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35 cm/hr.
A comparison of the interaction effect of crop sequence and tillage
on surface cover and resulting erosion is shown for the Haskins loam in
Table 11. The results show that the interaction effect is great for both
the check and disk treatments in that surface cover from soybeans is only
37% and 15%, respectively, of that from corn. This further implies that
the fall disking increases the decomposition rate of soybean residue, but
121
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has little influence on breakdown rate of corn residue. Little importance
is attributed to the greater cover from soybeans than corn on the plowed
treatment since both had less than 5% surface cover (Table 2).
Soil loss ratios of soybeans/corn show soil losses to have a strong
inverse relationship to amounts of surface cover. Although the soil
erosion from the check treatment on the soybeans is abnormally low the
4+ fold increase in soil loss from disked soybeans supports this obser-
vation.
Nappanee Clay Loam: The effects of tillage following corn and soy-
beans on runoff and soil loss are shown in Tables 5 and 6. Treatments
had little consistent influence on water infiltration, thus runoff, fol-
lowing corn (Table 5). The major soil loss reductions shown for the check,
disk and chisel treatment, therefore, were the result of reduced sediment
concentrations of the runoff. Although soil losses from the chisel treat-
ment were much greater than from the check and disk treatments, they were
appreciably lower than that fromtheplow treatment. The soil loss
differences again appeared to be closely related to surface cover.
Table 5. Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Naopanee Clay Loam.
19731/ Crop Corn
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm Appl .
(cm)
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Very Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Total (2 hours) 12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
Infil.
(cm)
3.20
3.35
3.38
3.51
1.47
2.11
1.37
1.47
1.12
1.32
.79
.79
5.79
6.78
5.54
5.77
Slope
Runoff^/
(cm)
3.15
3.00
2.97
2.84
1.70
1.06
1.80
1.70
2.05
1.85
2.38
2.38
6.91
5.92
6.16
6.93
0.66%
Soil ,
Loss^
(t/ha)
.90
.72
2.22
4.14
.36
.16
1.08
1.72
.38
.20
1.41
2.15
1.64
1.08
4.71
8.01
Table 6 shows that tillage effects on runoff following soybeans were
minor compared to the effects following corn. There appears to be slight-
ly less soil loss from the check and disk treatments than from the chisel
and plow treatments. Surface cover (Table 2) was low for all treatments
and explains to a great extent, the absence of major tillage effects on
soil loss.
122
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Table 6. Summary of results-^ by test storms, May-June 1975. Nappanee clay loam-
1974 crop - Soybeans - Slope 1.03%.
Treatment Storm Appl-r/ Infil. Runoff^ Soil9/
Loss-^
(cm) (cm) (cm) (t/ha)
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
2.77
1.70
2.44
2.36
3.58
4.65
3.91
3.99
5.20
7.68
8.54
7.01
Check Wet (30 min) 3.17 .81 2.36 3.22
Disk " 3.17 .76 2.41 2.71
Chisel " 3.17 .86 2.31 3.79
Plow " 3.17 .89 2.29 3.58
Check Very Wet (30 min) 3.17 .71 2.46 3.16
Disk " 3.17 .89 2.29 2.76
Chisel " 3.17 .81 2.36 4.37
Plow " 3.17 .53 2.64 3.58
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Total (2 hrs)
II
II
11
12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
4.29
3.35
4.11
3.78
8.41
9.35
8.59
8.92
11.36
12.63
15.84
14.18
-^Results are averages of two replications. To convert cmtoin, divide by 2.54.
To convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
•=/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35 cm/hr.
Ratios of soybeans/corn (Table 11) further illustrate the interaction
effect of crop sequence and tillage system on both surface cover and soil
loss. Soybeans were only 28, 16, and 24% as effective as corn in devel-
oping surface cover on the check, disk, and chisel treatments, respectively.
Again, values for the plow treatment have little significance since percent
cover following both corn and soybeans was less than 6%. These results
agree with those on the Haskins soil in that fall disking reduced soybean
residue cover, but had little, if any, effect on corn residue.
Soil losses from the check, disk and chisel system following soybeans
were several times the losses following corn. These differences can lar-
gely be explained by the differences in residue cover. The less dramatic
increase of soil loss from soybeans versus corn on the plowed treatments
must have resulted from the residual effect of plowing under greater a-
mounts of residue following corn than beans, since surface cover was not
a factor here.
123
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Hoytville Silty Clay: Tillage effects on runoff and soil loss fol-
lowing corn and soybeans are given in Tables 7 and 8. Tillage treatments
had little consistent effect on runoff after corn except for the chisel
where runoff was greatly reduced (Table 7). There was little difference
in soil loss from the check and disk treatments, but both were extremely
effective compared to the plow treatment. Surface cover effect on sedi-
ment concentration again appeared to be the major factor in soil loss
reductions (Table 2). In the case of the chisel treatments, the reduced
soil loss was primarily a result of less runoff, however reduced sediment
concentration was also a factor.
Table 7. Summary of Results-' by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Hoytville Silty
Clay
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
I/
Storm
1973 Crop-Corn
Appl Infll.
(cm) (cm)
Wet (30 min)
Very Wet (30 min)
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
73
08
54
1.22
1.02
.79
1.37
.94
Slope 0.75%
RunoffZ/
(cm) (t/ha)
1.44
1.09
.63
1.95
2.15
2.38
1.80
2.23
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
3.38
4.42
5.11
3.35
2.97
1.93
1.24
3.00
.54
.38
.60
2.02
.25
.31
.27
1.08
.31
.25
.78
1.21
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Total (2
ii
ii
M
hours)
12.
12.
12.
12.
70
70
70
70
6.
7.
9.
5.
12
29
02
51
6.
5.
3.
7.
58
41
68
19
1
1
4
.10
.94
.66
.30
Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by 2.54.
To convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35 cm/hr.
Tillage effects following soybeans (Table 8) were highly variable.
As can be seen in Table 2 surface cover was relatively low on all treat-
ments and apparently had only minor effects on sediment concentrations of
the runoff. The plow treatment, probably because of topographical varia-
tions, appears to be the most effective in reducing soil loss. The results
do indicate that where residue cover is limited that fall tillage effects
on runoff and soil loss in the spring are minor.
124
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Table 8. Suimary of results-^ by test storms, May-June, 1975. Hoytville
Silty Clay - 1974 crop-Soybeans-Slope 0.77%.
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm Appl .
(cm)
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Very Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Total (2 hrs) 12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
Infil.
(cm)
2.54
1.14
2.16
3.00
1.12
.97
.94
1.75
1.02
.69
1.42
.64
4.67
2.79
4.52
5.38
Runoff^/
(cm)
3.81
5.21
4.19
3.35
2.05
2.20
2.23
1.42
2.15
2.48
1.75
2.53
8.03
9.91
8.18
7.32
SoiU,
Loss^
(t/ha)
4.19
3.96
5.29
2.69
1.66
1.30
2.73
1.21
1.95
1.59
1.30
1.37
7.80
6.85
9.32
5.26
•I/Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by
2.54. to convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
•^/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35
cm/hr.
The ratios of soybeans/corn comparing both surface cover and soil loss
on the Hoytville silty clay agree fairly closely with the results from the
other locating (Table 11). Surface cover is greatly reduced across all
tillage systems following soybeans as compared to corn. Partial incorpora-
tion of soybean residues hastened their decomposition while tillage treat-
ments following corn were much less affected. On all but the plow treat-
ment, soil loss from soybean land was several fold that from corn land.
The almost complete inversion of the residues by plowing evidently elimina-
ted most of the interaction effect between tillage system and crop sequence
on soil erosion.
Morley Clay Loam: Tables 9 and 10 show the tillage effects on runoff
and soil loss. Tillage treatments on corn land had little consistent
effect on runoff (Table 9). The only treatment where runoff amounts were
appreciably different was the chisel treatment where increased amounts were
observed. This result is not in agreement with those from other studies
where chiseled cornland usually reduces runoff. Soil losses on this slop-
ing soil were shown to be greatly reduced by both the check and disk treat-
ments. These effects can be largely attributed to effective surface cover
(Table 2). Soil loss reduction attributed to the chisel treatment was much
125
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less, probably as a result of only 25% of the surface covered at the time
of the test storm. Reduced sediment concentration of runoff was the fac-
tor responsible for reduced soil loss.
Table 9. Summary of tillage results-' by test storms May-June, 1976. Morley
Clay Loam - 1975 crop - corn. Slope 4.14%.
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm Appl .
(cm)
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Very Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Total (2 hrs.) 12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
Infil.
(cm)
1.83
1.65
1.27
3.15
1.12
1.02
.71
.76
.99
1.04
.43
.56
3.94
3.71
2.41
4.47
Runoff^
(cm)
4.52
4.70
5.08
3.20
2.05
2.15
2.46
2.41
2.18
2.13
2.74
2.61
8.76
8.99
10.29
8.23
So1l2/
Loss-^
(t/ha)
1.32
1.39
8.31
9.88
.52
.60
3.36
5.69
.54
.52
3.34
6.27
2.38
2.51
15.01
21.84
-/Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by
2.54. To convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
•=/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35 cm/hr.
Table 10 shows tillage treatment on soybean land to have significant
effects on soil loss on the Morley clay loam. The results are in agreement
with other locations in that tillage treatment had little effect on runoff,
but is not in agreement with the results at the other sites regarding
treatment effect on soil loss. Surface cover (Table 2) was slightly higher
for the check, disk, and chisel treatments at the Morley location than at the
other three locations and may be partially responsible for greater soil
loss reductions. Sediment concentrations in the runoff were about 30% of
those of the plow treatment for both the check and disk treatments while the
concentrations of the chisel treatment were about 70% those of the plow.
126
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Table 10. Summary of Results-^ by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Morley Clay
Loam
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chi sel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
1973 Crop-Soybeans
Storm Appl. Infil.
(cm) (cm)
Initial (60 min) 6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Very Wet (30 min) 3.17
3.17
3.17
3.17
Total (2 hours) 12.70
12.70
12.70
12.70
1.45
1.91
1.91
1.50
.53
.86
.69
.51
.10
.41
.41
.64
2.08
3.18
3.00
2.65
Slope
Runoff!/
(cm)
4.90
4.44
4.44
4.85
2.64
2.31
2.48
2.66
3.07
2.76
2.77
2.53
10.62
9.52
9.70
10.06
3.99%
Soil-,,
Loss-'
(t/ha)
5.94
6.63
14.86
21.97
3.36
2.84
7.93
10.30
4.08
2.96
2.96
8.62
13.37
12.43
30.26
40.90
-/Results are averages of two replications. To convert cm to in, divide by
2.54. To convert t/ha to T/A, divide by 2.24.
-/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 6.35 cm/hr.
Table 11 again shows strong interaction effects between crop sequence
and tillage system on surface cover and soil loss. Cover from soybeans
was only 38, 24, 48 and 14 percent as great as from corn on the check,
disk, chisel, and plow treatments, respectively. The significance of the
ratio for the plow treatment is questionable because of the low residue
cover values.
These resultant cover differences following tillage after soybeans
versus corn are responsible for several fold differences in soil losses
between the two crops. These findings further strengthen the need to
consider the interaction effects of tillage system and crop sequence before
assigning soil reduction credit for a particular tillage system.
127
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Table 11. A comparison of surface cover and soil loss between soybeans
and corn.
Surface Cover
I/
Soil Loss
Soil
HASKINS LOAM
NAPPANEE CLAY LOAM
HOYTVILLE SILTY CLAY
MORLEY CLAY LOAM
Tillage
Check
Disk ,,
Chisel-^
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
soybeans/corn
.37
.15
4.00
.28
.16
.34
.60
.31
.16
.16
.25
.38
.16
.48
.14
soybeans/corn
1.3
4.4
0.7
7.0
11.7
3.4
1.8
7.1
7.3
5.6
1.2
5.6
7.3
2.0
1.9
Spring plowing substituted for fall chisel so no comparison is possible.
CONCLUSIONS
These results are still considered to be of a preliminary nature and
further analyses might alter them slightly. However, several conclusions
can be made at this time. These include:
a) Tillage systems performed in the fall have significant effects
on the amount of crop residue remaining on the surface in the
spring. Surface cover averaged over four locations amounted to
21, 11, 10, and 2% respectively, for the check, disk, chisel and
plow treatments following soybeans. Following corn these values
were 64, 65, 37, and 4%.
b) There is a strong interaction between crop sequence and tillage
system as to their effect on surface cover. When averaged over
the four locations, surface residue cover in the spring after
fall tillage following soybeans was 33, 18, and 33% respectively,
of that after corn from the check, disk and chisel treatments.
c) Soil losses in the spring are much greater following a crop of
soybeans than following a crop of corn. Averaged over four loca-
tions, land following soybeans was found to be 5.2, 7.1, 2.7 and
128
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1.4 times more erosive than land following corn from the check,
disk, chisel and plow treatments, respectively. This relationship
did not appear to be greatly different on the nearly level lake
plain soils or the sloping glacial till soils. It should be
mentioned, however, that soil losses across all treatments were
much lower on the nearly level sites than on the sloping sites.
Another point should be made about these data. They represent
only the most erosive part of the fallow and crop residue periods,
not the entire season.
d) Soil losses are inversely related to percent surface cover.
Generally, the greater the surface cover, the less the erosion
regardless of the crop involved. However, some crops produce
more total residue than others and the residue produced decom-
poses slowly because of high carbon-nitrogen ratios. A good
example is corn versus soybeans.
e) Those tillage systems that leave large amounts of crop residues
on the surface are effective in significantly reducing soil
erosion in the Black Creek Watershed. Particularly effective
are check (no till) and disk treatments following corn since
large amounts of surface residue still remain in the spring.
Fall chiseling following corn although not as effective as the
two treatments mentioned above, significantly reduces erosion,
compared to plowing. The degree of erosion control is dependent
upon the amount of surface cover remaining as well as the rough-
ness of the surface. None of the conservation treatments are as
effective following soybeans as following corn because of reduced
surface cover. Chiseled soybean land can be particularly erosive
following a poor crop and when chisel marks run up and down slopes.
f) Gross field erosion is 3 or more times greater from the sloping
soils in the watershed than from thenearly level portions. For
this reason, it is still more important to concentrate conserva-
tion tillage and other conservation practices in the more erosive
areas.
129
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REFERENCES
1. Harrold, L.L., G.B. Triplett, and R.E. Youker. 1967. Less soil and
water loss from no-tillage corn. Ohio Report 52:22-23.
2. Mannering, J.V. and R.E. Burwell. 1968. Tillage methods to reduce
runoff and erosion in the Corn Belt. USDA Agricultural Information
Bui. No. 330, p. 14.
3. Mannering, J.V. and C.B. Johnson. 1969. Effect of crop row spacing
on erosion and infiltration. Agronomy Journal 61:902-905.
4. Meyer, L. Donald. 1960. Runoff plot research with the rainulator.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 24:319-322.
5. Moldenhauer, W.C. and W.H. Wischmeier. 1969. Soybeans in corn-soybean
rotation, permit erosion but put blame on corn. Page 20, Crops and
Soil Magazine.
6. Siemens, J.C. and W.R. Oschwald. Dec. 1974. Effect of tillage system
for corn on erosion. Paper no. 74-2525. ASAE
7. Wischmeier, W.H. March 28-30, 1973. Conservation tillage to control
water erosion. Proc. of the National Conservation Tillage Conference.
Des Moines, Iowa.
8. Wischmeier, W.H. and D.D. Smith. 1965. Predicting rainfall-erosion
losses from cropland east of the Rocky Mountains. Agriculture Handbook
No. 282, ARS, USDA.
130
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SEDIM2NT YIELD FROM AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED
INTO THE MAUMEE RIVER
by
E. J. Monke*
ABSTRACT
The annual sediment yield from the Maumee River into Lake Erie
averages around 500 kg/ha from the entire Maumee Basin. This sediment,
consisting almost entirely of suspended load, may be contributing to
the eutrophication process in Lake Erie by acting as the transporting
agent for chemicals notably phosphorus.
During 1975, the sediment production from the Black Creek Water-
shed into the Maumee River averaged about 3900 kg/ha. This rate was
substantially higher than the estimated 1000 kg/ha for 1974 and was
caused by greater than average rainfall. Also several large storms
occurred during May when around 50 percent of the land surface had
been just recently tilled. Total phosphorus and nitrogen runoff were
9 and 78 kg/ha, respectively.
Two subwatersheds were studied in particular: One contained 26
percent mostly level and 74-percent rolling topography and was 40-per-
cent in row crops, and the other contained 71-percent mostly level and
29-percent rolling topography and was 63-percent in row crops. The
first subwatershed had a sediment yield of 5400 kg/ha as compared to
3500 kg/ha for the latter. Phosphorus yields were about the same for
both watersheds even though the sediment yields were substantially
different. Higher fertility levels were maintained in the more level
subwatershed, however. The nitrogen yield was 67 kg/ha for the first
subwatershed as compared to 89 kg/ha for the other. Again the more
level subwatershed had higher fertilizer application rates. It is also
extensively tile drained. The difference in sediment yield from the
two subwatersheds suggests that the more rolling land contributed a
large share of the total yield even though the soil surface was better
protected (40 vs 63-percent in row crops). The major portion of the
soil loss from the more level lands occurred only during the large
storm events.
The best management practices for reducing soil erosion in the
watershed seem to be those practices which protect the most soil sur-
face over the longest period of time. Any form of minimized tillage
and better residue management would fall into this category. A best
management practice for substantially reducing the off-site effects of
erosion is the temporary storage of runoff. Parallel, tile-outlet
terraces (also reduces field soil loss) and small detention reservoirs
located near the outlets of tributary drains are examples where the
temporary slow-down and storage of runoff waters may allow 90-percent
or more of the sediments to drop out.
*Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
131
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INTRODUCTION
The Maumee River is usually a gently flowing river and even in
flood periods the velocities are relatively low because the gradient
is not steep. However, the waters in the Maumee River never appear
clear because of its suspended sediment load. For a 10-year period
of record, 1961-71, the sediment rate from the Maumee River into Lake
Erie averaged about 500 kg/ha annually (1,2). However, sediment yields
even of this rather low order of magnitude may be highly active because
they are composed mostly of colloidal-sized particles. For a small
volume, the sediments can and do carry a large loading of chemicals
notably phosphorus. Unknown at this time, however, is the contribution
of the phosphorus which is attached to sediments to the eutrophication
rate of Lake Erie. That some of the attached phosphorus becomes avail-
able to the degradation process is implicitly assumed in this study.
The relatively low annual sediment yield into Lake Erie probably
is not very detrimental to the agricultural productivity of the Maumee
Basin. Also this low rate consisting mainly of colloidal-sized parti-
cles suggests that control may be difficult. Soil conservation practi-
ces are more effective with larger-sized particles which tend to readily
fall out when runoff velocities are reduced.
Wolman (3) estimates that duration of sediment transport may take
around 20 years in the major river systems of the United States. Cer-
tainly the sediment output of the Maumee River is an imprecise indica-
tor, then, of the causative factors of sedimentation. Also we do not
know the state of equilibrium of the Maumee River bed — whether it is
aggrading, degrading or at steady state. However, we are currently
facing a major problem of the degradation of water quality in Lake
Erie. Non-point source pollution from watershed areas must be measured
and means of control studied and implemented even though we may have to
estimate the ultimate off-site benefits. One such source area currently
being studied is the Black Creek Watershed.
BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
The Black Creek Watershed was chosen as being fairly representative
of the soils and agricultural practices of the Maumee Basin although it
is only 4900 ha in size compared to 1,711,500 ha for the Maumee Basin.
An outline map of experimental watershed is shown on Figure 1.
The soils in the Black Creek Watershed can be roughly divided into
two categories — those soils which were formed entirely in glacial till
and those soils which were also influencied at various stages in their
formation by shallow water cover or by wave action. These soil cate-
gories are subsequently referred to as glacial till soils and lake plain
and beach soils, respectively. Indiana Highway 37 as shown in Figure 1
divides these soils fairly well with the glacial till soils to the north
and the lake plain and beach soils to the south. The glacial till soils
also are gently rolling while the lake plain soils in particular are
nearly level.
132
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^ Raingage sites
• Stage recorder sites
A Sampling sites
\ FUELLING DRAIf*
T32M
T3I N
Figure 1. Black Creek Watershed with Raingage, Stream Stage
Recorder, and Water Quality Sampling Sites as Shown.
133
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Five major drains empty into the main stem of Black Creek. Two of
these drains were studied in particular — the Driesbach Drain which
is located along the western boundary of Black Creek Watershed and the
Smith-Fry Drain which is located along the eastern boundary of the water-
shed. These two drains, of comparable size, represent the greatest con-
trast in soils and land use to be had in the watershed. The Driesbach
Drain contains 74-percent rolling and 26-percent nearly level topography
while the Smith-Fry Drain contains only 29-percent rolling and 71-percent
nearly level topography. Also, in 1975, the Driesbach Drain was 40-
percent in row crops while the Smith-Fry Drain was 63-percent in row
crops. The drainage areas of the Black Creek Watershed and the Driesbach
and Smith-Fry Drains as well as percentages of these areas in the major
soil categories and 1975 land use practices are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the Black Creek Watershed and the Driesbach
and_Smith-Fry Drains_
Characteristics Black Creek Driesbach Smith-Fry
Watershed Drain Drain
Drainage area 4950 ha 735 ha 890 ha
Soils:
Lakes plain and beach 64% 26% 71%
Glacial till 36% 74% 29%
1975 land use:
Row crops 58% 40% 63%
Small grain and pasture 31% 44% 26%
Woods 6% 4% 8%
Urban, roads, etc. 5% 12% 3%
SEDIMENT YIELDS
Sediment yields as well as chemical runoff (4) from the major
tributary drains into Black Creek and from Black Creek into the Maumee
River are being determined by integrating concentrations with flow rates.
The primary water quality sampling sites, stream stage recorder sites
and raingage locations are shown in Figure 1.
Evaluating Sediment Yield
Stage-discharge relationships have been developed for the principal
tributary drains which enter into Black Creek to give flow rates. Water
levels are being continuously recorded at these locations with a pressure-
type recorder (Model 12 Flow Recorder, Foxboro)*.
*The product description and manufacturer are given for reader infor-
mation and should not be contrued as an endorsement of the product.
134
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Water samples for determining the concentration of sediment as well
as other quality parameters are being collected either manually or with
automated samplers. Grab samples are routinely collected each week and
then at select times usually following a storm event. The automated
samplers are triggered at a set minimal stage and continue to operate
automatically until the sampling capacity is exhausted. Usually, how-
ever, the water samples are collected and the automated sampler reset
before this happens.
Three automated pumping samplers (PS-69, developed by the U.S.
Interagency Sedimentation Project) were installed at the junction of
the Driesbach and Smith-Fry Drains with Black Creek and on the main
stem of Black Creek near its entrance into the Maumee River. Each
sampler is capable of automatically collecting 72 samples on a set time
interval. At the present time, a 500 ml water sample is collected every
30 min after the sampling sequence has been initiated. Samples are
being collected from the suspended sediment profile of the streams near
the elevations at which the automated samplers are triggered.
Sediment and Nitrient Yields for 1975
The automated pumping samplers became operational early enough in
1975 to sample most of the major storm events occurring during the year.
The most extreme event during 1975 occurred in May when about 90 mm of
rainfall fell over the entire watershed in 2 hours. Rainfall frequencies
were estimated from 50 to 100 years at the various raingage locations (5).
The 1975 values of average depth of rainfall and runoff over the
drainage areas and the suspended sediment, total nitrogen and total
phosphorus yields on a unit area basis are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Rainfall, Runoff, and Sediment, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Yields
from the Black Creek Watershed and the Driesbach and Smith-Fry
Drains for 1975
Parameter
Rainfall
Runoff
Sediment
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Black Creek
Watershed
1130 mm
490 mm
3900 kg/ha
78 kg/ha
9 kg /ha
Driesbach
Drain
1130 mm
480 mm
5400 kg/ha
67 kg/ha
9 kg /ha
Smith-Fry
Drain
1120 mm
490 mm
3500 kg/ha
89 kg/ha
8 kg /ha
During 1975, about 1130 mm of rainfall occurred over the Black
Creek Watershed. This was 26-percent above the average rainfall at
Ft. Wayne. Of this amount, 490 mm or more than one-third of the annual
135
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rainfall was discharged from Black Creek into the Maumee River.
Sediment, nitrogen and phosphorus yields on a unit area basis were
3900 kg/ha, 78 kg/ha and 9 kg/ha, respectively. The sediment yield
was substantially higher than the estimated 1000 kg/ha which occurred
during 1974. However, only about 760 mm of rainfall occurred during
1974 which was 16-percent below the average rainfall for this locality.
Nearly one-third of the total sediment yield for the year occurred
during May mostly from several intense storms which took place during
the latter part of the month when nearly 50-percent of the land had been
just recently tilled. One storm in particular caused scouring on the
nearly level lake plain soils which are usually not affected much by less
severe storms. Existing drains were overtopped, temporary new drainage-
ways established, and sufficient runoff velocities occurred to cause
quite severe erosion on that portion of the watershed containing these
soils. Also a great share of the recent tillage had been accomplished
in this part of the watershed.
Samples from 20 tile drain outlets were collected weekly. Based
on the analysis of the'*QutfJ,Cg# from these drains, the contribution of
subsurface drainage systems to the total sediment yield from the water-
shed was estimated at 200 kg/ha. The contribution from tile drains
represents about 5-percent of the total sediment yield into the Maumee
River.
Comparison Between Two Subwatersheds
Rainfall and runoff depths for the Driesbach and Smith-Fry Drains
were approximately the same. However, the sediment yield for the
Driesbach Drain was approximately 50-percent higher than the Smith-Fry
Drain even though 63-percent of the area contributing runoff to the
Smith-Fry Drain was in row crop agriculture compared to 40-percent for
the Driesbach Drain. The difference in sediment yield from the two
subwatersheds suggests that the more rolling land consisting mostly of
the glacial till soils contributed a large portion of the sediment yield
from the Black Creek Watershed into the Maumee River. Based solely on
the areas occupied by the principal soils, the sediment yield from the
glacial till soils would be around 6500 kg/ha as compared to 2400 kg/ha
for the lake plain and beach soils.
Total phosphorus yields were about the same from both subwatersheds
even though the sediment rates were substantially different. The total
nitrogen yield for the Driesbach Drain was 67 kg/ha as compared to
89 kg/ha for the Smith-Fry Drain. Higher fertility levels were maintained
on the land contributing runoff to the Smith-Fry Drain, however.
The subwatershed contributing runoff to the Driesbach Drain contain
portions of the rural community of Harlen. A substantial portion of the
nitrogen and phosphorus loadings undoubtedly came from this community due
to direct waste discharge into the Driesbach Drain. This would tend to
further separate the unit area contributions of phosphorus and particularly
nitrogen from the agricultural lands of the two subwatersheds.
136
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CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO SOIL EROSION
For 1975, the primary contributing factor to erosion in the Black
Creek Watershed was the large amount of bare soil surfaces which were
exposed to intense storms during late May and early June. Over one-half
of the watershed area is normally in rowcrop agriculture. During this
time of the year, nearly all of this land had either been recently
worked or planted to crops. Nearly one-half of the total sediment yield
occurred during this period. During one severe storm, the outlet drains
overtopped onto the nearly level lake plain soils causing severe erosion.
Ordinarily very little surface erosion would be expected from these lands
which cover approximately the lower one-half of the watershed.
The average annual streambank erosion from the Black Creek Water-
shed has been estimated at 9 kg/ha (6). Although this erosion rate is
small, eroded soils are directly available for transport in the streams.
More streambank erosion undoubtedly occurred during 1975 because of the
severe storms and recent construction on some of the outlet drains.
However, even if increased, streambank erosion would probably only re-
present a small percentage of the total sediment yield to the Maumee
River.
Tile drainage effluent also contributed to the sediment yield from
the Black Creek Watershed. Tile effluent was sampled weekly from about
20 select tile outfalls. However, none of the first flush occurring
after a storm or thaw was sampled and no samples were collected when
the tile outlets were inundated. Based on the samples from the 20 tile
outfalls, the sediment yield from the tile drains in the watershed was
estimated at 100 kg/ha. However, this value should probably be doubled
to account for the peak yields which were missed. The sediments which
are discharged from the tile drains, however, are colloidal-sized parti-
cles. Also, these sediments are discharged directly into the stream
system of the watershed where they are directly available for transport
to the Maumee River.
The tile drains in the watershed have been observed to sometimes
flush large quantities of drainage water into streams during the winter
and early spring months. This occurrence is primarily dependent on
temperature although rainfall which probably occurs at the same time
may increase the discharge. When the soil surface freezes, a surface
seal is formed which transfers free soil water above the tile drains
into a negative pressure state. Tile discharge for all practical pur-
poses stops although downward movement of water in the soil may still
take place. Then when thawing occurs, the drains seem to flush. High
seepage pressures may also simultaneously occur causing movement of
sediments into the drain. Many freeze-thaw cycles often occur at this
latitude during the winter-early spring months of the year.
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
The best management practices for reducing soil erosion in Black
Creek Watershed seem to be those practices which protect the most soil
surface over the longest period of time. Any form of conservation till-
137
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age and better residue management could fall into this category (7).
Prior to 1975, many of the obvious localized sources of erosion such as
sluffing of some ditch banks and gully erosion at the upper ends of
the drains had been remedied. However, during 1975, severe erosion
from land surfaces, even from the nearly level surfaces of the lake
plain soils, occurred. Surface erosion from the nearly level topo-
graphy was caused by intense storms, one with a return period of 75
years, which took place during the planting season. Measures to pro-
tect the nearly level lands may not be cost effective, however, because
even with the intense storms which occurred during 1975, the erosion rate
from the nearly level lands was estimated to be only about one-third
of the rate on the gently rolling glacial till soils located in the
upper portion of the watershed.
This difference in erosion rates between the nearly level lake
plain soils and the gently rolling glacial till soils occurred even
though the soils in the glacial till area seemingly were better pro-
tected. Around 46-percent of the area containing the glacial till
soils was in rowcrop agriculture while 63-percent of the area contain-
ing the lake plain and beach soils was in rowcrop agriculture. Con-
servation tillage and better residue management would be very beneficial
on the more rolling lands of the watershed in particular.
A best management practice for substantially reducing the off-site
effects of erosion is the temporary storage of runoff. Recently in-
stalled parallel, tile-outlet terraces and one small detention reservoir
are allowing 90-percent or more of the sediments to drop out (8,9,10).
The terrace systems are also good erosion control structures because
they decrease the volume and velocity of surface runoff by reducing the
slope length. The small detention reservoir is located near the outlet
of a tributary drain into Black Creek. The uniform depth of sediments
over its entire area suggests that it is an effective trap even of the
smaller-sized sediments. The location of the reservoir does not help
to reduce sediments getting to it, however.
Relating Sediment Yield to Best Management Practices
Sediment yield from the Black Creek Watershed can only be related
to best management practices in general terms with the one possible
exception of the small detention reservoir where 90-percent or more of
the sediment coming from the land is trapped. It is difficult to
quantify sediment yield reductions for specific practices because these
practices may cover a small portion of the area above a gaging and
sampling station and because the effectiveness of a practice varies
with time and management. Then, also, the period of record has so far
been short. As an aid for quantifying sediment yield reductions for
specific practices, a distributed watershed model is being developed
(11,12). This model will have the ability to further define what is
now known only in a general way.
138
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SUMMARY
For 1975, the sediment yield from the Black Creek Watershed into
the Maumee River was 3900 kg/ha. Major storm events during late May
and early June caused about one-half of the total sediment load. Since
many drains were overtopped from one particularly intense storm, severe
scouring on the nearly level portions of the watershed contributed a
normally disproportionate share of the total sediment yield. Even so,
the sediment yield from the nearly level portion of the watershed was
estimated at only 2400 kg/ha as compared to 6500 kg/ha from the gently
rolling portion. Best management practices put into the upper one-
third of the watershed on the gently rolling glacial till soils should
prove to be the most beneficial of any location in the Black Creek
Watershed.
REFERENCES
1. Geological Survey. 1971. Water Resources Data for Ohio. Part I.
Surface Water Records. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington,
D.C. 223 p.
2. Monke, E.J., D.B. Beasley, and A.B. Bottcher. 1975. Sediment con-
tributions to the Maumee River. EPA-905/9-75-007, Proc. Non-Point
Source Pollution Seminar, November 20, 1975 in Chicago, IL. pp. 71-85.
3. Wolman, M.G. 1977. Changing needs and opportunities in the sediment
field. Water Resources Research. In press.
4. Nelson, D.W., L.E. Sommers, and A.D. Bottcher. 1976. Nutrient
contributions to the Maumee River. Paper presented at the Best
Management Practices for NFS Pollution Control Seminar, November 16-17,
1976 at Chicago, IL. In this publication.
5. Yarnell, D.L. 1935. Rainfall Intensity - Frequency Data. Misc.
Publ. No. 204, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 68 p.
6. Wheaton, R.Z. 1975. Streambank stabilization. EPA-905/9-75-007,
Proc. Non-Point Source Pollution Seminar, November 20, 1975 in
Chicago, IL. pp. 86-92.
7. Soil Conservation Society of America. 1973. Conservation Tillage.
Proc. National.Conservation Tillage Conference, March 28-30, 1973
in Des Moines, IA. 241 p.
8. Laflen, J.A., H.P. Johnson and R.C. Reeve. 1972. Soil loss from
tile-outlet terraces. Jour. Soil and Water Cons. 27(2):74-77.
9. Wheaton, R.Z. and R.E. Land. 1976. Sediment reduction by stream-
bank modification and sediment traps. Paper presented at the Best
Management Practices for NPS Pollution Control Seminar, November
16-17, 1976 at Chicago, IL. In this publication.
139
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10. Bendy, F.E. 1974. Sediment trap efficiency of small reservoirs.
Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Engrs. 17(5);898-901.
11. Beasley, D.B. 1976. Simulation of the environmental impact of
land use on water quality: The Black Creek Model. Paper .presented
at the Best Management Practices for NFS Pollution Control Seminar,
November 16-17, 1976 at Chicago, IL. In this publication.
12. Foster, G.R. and L.D. Meyer. 1975. Mathematical simulation of
upland erosion by fundamental erosion mechanics. ARS-S-40, Present
and Prospective Technology for Predicting Sediment Yields and
Sources, Agric. Res. Service, USDA, Washington, D.C. pp. 190-207.
140
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NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MAUMEE RIVER
by
«
D. W. Nelson, L. E. Sommers, and A. D. Bottcher
ABSTRACT
Total amounts of water, sediment, and nutrients discharged from
two subwatersheds of the Black Creek study area during 1975 were de-
termined. In excess of 5000 kg of sediment/ha was transported past
the two sampling sites during the year. Quantities of most nutrient
forms were similar to those observed in other watershed studies ex-
cept that the amounts of nitrate N discharged were high (25-3^ kg/ha).
Most of the total P transported was sediment-bound P, whereas a sub-
stantial proportion of the total N in stream water was nitrate. Par-
titioning the total amounts of sediment and nutrients transported
by type of flow indicated that small hydrological events were re-
sponsible for most transport, however, large events transported a
higher proportion of sediment and sediment nutrients in relation to
water discharge as compared to other types of flow. Amounts of sus-
pended and soluble constituents transported in base flow was low.
Surface runoff was the major source of sediment, sediment-bound
nutrients, ammonium N, and soluble organic N and P transported in
the subwatersheds. Significant proportions of nitrate N originated
in tile drainage and subsurface drainage water. A substantial pro-
portion of soluble inorganic P was derived from septic tank effluent
in one subwatershed containing a large number of houses. Calcula-
tion of proportions of N and P added as fertilizer and manure which
were recovered as soluble inorganic nutrients in streams indicate
that significant losses of added N are occurring in the watershed.
Very low losses of added P were observed.
Associate Professors of Agronomy and Graduate Instructor, Ag-
ricultural Engineering Department, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN. 1*7907
141
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INTRODUCTION
The primary objectives of the Black Creek study are to determine:
(l) the sources and amounts of sediments and nutrients "being trans-
ported from agricultural land to surface water resources, and (2)
the effects of applying soil conservation practices to the land on
the amounts of sediment and nutrients that are being contributed
to streams and lakes by water runoff and subsurface flow. Therefore,
two of the major tasks involved in the Black Creek study are to deter-
mine the amounts of nutrients and sediments that are flowing in the
drainage ditches in the watershed throughout the entire period of the
year and to analyze transport associated with specific storm events
to determine the periods of year when most of the nutrients and sedi-
ments are delivered to surface waters.
During 1975, we were able to accurately measure the amounts of
water flowing past sampling sites 2 and 6 in the Black Creek water-
shed and were able to adequately sample the water for quality para-
meters throughout the course of the year. By using computer tech-
niques we were able to calculate the fluxes of sediments and nutrients
transported within the watershed. For the first time in Black Creek
study, data is available which allows estimates of the contributions of
various land use activities to water quality in the watershed. We
were also able to determine the types of storms which transport most
of the sediments and nutrients and were able to determine the relative
contributions of rainfall, soil runoff, subsurface flow, and human
population activities to sediment and nutrient concentrations in the
streams. This paper is a discussion of our findings concerning sedi-
ment and nutrient transport in the Black Creek watershed during 1975.
Similar data will soon be available for 1976. However, the 1976 data
has not been completely collected or analyzed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Figure 1 presents a map of the sampling locationswithin the
Black Creek watershed. This report will deal with detailed flow
measurements and sampling conducted at sites 2 and 6 in the watershed.
Site 2 receives drainage water from largely level, heavily-cropped,
and relatively heavy-textured soils. Little drainage water derived
from upland soils passed by site 2. Site 6, on the other hand, re-
ceives a substantial amount of drainage water from a rather rolling
upland area containing a significant proportion of Amish farms. Site
6 also receives drainage water and sewage wastes from the town of
Harlan. Consequently, at site 6 a lesser proportion of total drain-
age water is received from level, heavy-textured soils which are in-
tensely farmed. These two sampling sites provide a contrast in land
use patterns and in size of human population discharging waste into
agricultural drainage ditches.
Table 1 presents detailed information on the characteristics of
the subwatersheds which contribute runoff and subsurface flow to
sites 2 and 6. Site 2 receives drainage from an area of 9^2 hectares
of which approximately 1*21 hectares are tile drained. There are 28
houses in the drainage area which contribute water to site 2. Site
142
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RIVER
•LACK CHEEK STUDY ME*
ALLEN COUNTY. INDIANA
MAUMEE RIVE* BASIN
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL a WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AOENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USOA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
SCALE 1/51,6(0
0 '/2
APPROXIMATE
SCALE IN MILES
7V 7
Figure 1 Location of Sampling Sites for Evaluation of Wnter Quality
143
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6, on the other hand, drains an area of 71 ^ hectares of which about
!+31 hectares are served by tile systems. There are approximately
1^3 houses in the subwatershed drained by the ditch flowing past
site 6. It is also of interest to note that 705 water samples were
taken at site 2 during 1975, whereas UUl water samples were taken at
site 6. It is felt that this number of samples adequately character-
ized the water flowing past the two sites during 1975. Values in
Table 1 for amounts of tile drainage water and subsurface drainage
water which are flowing into ditches in the watershed are estimates
based upon other studies conducted in similar soils and upon the hy-
drology of the Black Creek watershed.
Table 1. Characteristics of the subwatersheds studied
Area, ha
Tiled area, ha
Rainfall, cm
Combined runoff &
subsurface drain
Tile drainage, cm
Subsurface drainage
tiled areas, cm 15. ^
Subsurface drainage
untiled areas, cm 22.9
Houses in watershed 28
Estimated M applied, Kg U02H6 33080
Estimated P applied, kg 31931* 2U205
Water samples taken 705 Ml
Flow past sites 2 and 6 was continuously monitored by a weir
stage recorder system and flow rate was calculated by solution of
the flow equation which involves the cross-sectional area of the
weir, the flow velocity of the stream, and the stage of the stream.
Flow velocities were estimated by measurements made in the watershed
and by the grade of the stream. Total flow for 1975 was derived
by integrating the flow curve for the entire year. Water samples
were taken on a weekly basis by use of a grab sample technique.
Additional water samples were taken during storm events by use of
an automatic water sampler (PS-69). Water samples were immediately
frozen and transported to the laboratory where they were analyzed
for total solids, total P, total N, ammonium N, nitrate N, soluble
organic N (SON), soluble inorganic P (SIP), soluble organic P (SOP),
and soluble organic C. Concentrations of solids and nutrients were
multiplied by the flow over the period of time which the sample
represented yielding values for sediment and nutrient transport.
The resultant values were summed to arrive at the total amounts of
solids and of the various forms of nutrients which flowed past the
two sampling sites for the entire year.
In partitioning of the data into type of flow events, base flow
was taken as anytime when the stage was less than 12.5 cm and large
144
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storms were defined as storms that produced more than 2.5 cm of runoff.
Small storms are thus defined as any runoff event yielding a stage
greater than 2.5 cm with the stipulation that the storm produce less
than 12.5 cm of runoff. Amounts of nutrients present in precipitation
were calculated by multiplying the average concentration of nutrients
in precipitation samples times the total amount of precipitation
which fell upon the landscape during 1975. The amounts of nutrients
transported in subsurface drainage water flowing into ditches were
estimated by multiplying the concentration of nutrients in subsurface
flow (assumed to be the same as those in tile drainage water) by the
estimated amount of water flowing into the ditches from subsurface
flow. The amounts of nutrients present in tile drainage water were
similarly estimated by multiplying the average concentration of nutri-
ents present in the tile drainage water measured in that subwatershed
times the estimated flow of water from the tile drains in the watershed.
RESULTS AMD DISCUSSION
Total Amounts of Sediments and Nutrients Transported During 1975;
Table 2 gives data on total amounts of nutrients and sediment
transported past sites 2 and 6 during 1975. The amounts of sediments
were fairly consistent between the two sites; however, higher amounts
of soluble nutrients were present in water flowing past site 6 as
compared to site 2. The amounts of sediment-bound nutrients at site
2 were higher than those at site 6. It is interesting to note that
the amounts of SIP, SOP,and ammonium N are substantially higher (when
expressed on a kilogram per hectare basis) in water flowing past site
6 as compared to that flowing past site 2. This finding is to be ex-
pected if septic tanks effluent is contributing substantial amounts
of soluble nutrients to the drainage ditches in the site 6 subwater-
shed due to the larger number of houses present in this subwatershed.
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the amount of nitrate N
flowing past site 2 is considerably higher than that flowing past site
6 even though the amount of tile drained land in these two subwater-
sheds is approximately the same. The higher nitrate content in water
flowing past site 2 may result from the fact that cropland in the
site 2 watershed receives higher amounts of nitrogeneous fertilizers
than do soils in the other subwatershed. It is also interesting
that even though the total amounts of sediment passing sites 2 and
6 is approximately equal, the amounts of sediment N and P in water
flowing past site 2 is markedly higher than that in water passing
site 6. This finding indicates that sediment passing site 2 contains
considerably higher amounts of P and N constituents than sediment
passing site 6 and may reflect the relative nitrogen and phosphorus
status of the soils in the two subwatersheds. When taken as a whole,
the sediment and nutrient losses in the two subwatersheds were gen-
erally similar to those of other agricultural watersheds previously
studied, with the exception that nitrate N losses in the Black Creek
watershed were generally quite large (from 25 to 33 kilograms of N
per hectare).
145
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Table 2. Amounts of nutrients and sediment transported past sites 2
and 6 during 1975.
Component Site 2 Site 6
Water, cm
Sediment, Kg/ha
Soluble inorganic P, kg/ha
Soluble organic P, kg/ha
Sediment P, kg/ha
Ammonium N, kg/ha
Nitrate N, kg/ha
Soluble organic N, kg/ha
Sediment N, kg/ha
53.8
56UU
0.331
0.175
11.526
2.75
33.65
3.38
71. 8U
U8.5
5^02
0.581
0.231
7.357
3.39
25. lU
3.90
3U.73
5================
Table 3 presents data on the forms of phosphorus present in
water flowing past sites 2 and 6. At site 2, sediment P made up
almost 96% of the total P transported during the year, whereas at
site 6 sediment P represented 90% of the total P transported. At
site 6, SIP accounted for 1% and SOP represented approximately 3% of
the total P transported in 1975. These values for site 6 are higher
than the percentages of total P which were represented by SIP and
SOP in water flowing past site 2, and likely reflect the contribution
of septic tank effluent to the total flow in the subwatershed which
discharges into the ditch flowing past site 6.
Table 3. Proportion of total P transported as soluble inorganic P,
soluble organic P, and sediment-bound P past sites 2 and
6 during 1215,.
=====================±1:======::======================================
Form of P transported
Site Sol inorg P Sol org P Sed P
2
6
2.7
7.1
l.U
2.8
95.9
90.1
Table k presents the proportions of total N flowing past sites
2 and 6 which are present as ammonium N, nitrate N, SON, and sediment
N. Sediment N accounts for 6k% and 52$ of the total N flowing past
sites 2 and 6, respectively. Ammonium N and SON account for a rela-
tively small proportion of the total N passing site 2, however, these
forms of N account for greater than 10$ of the total N passing site 6.
This finding suggests that septic tank effluent may be responsible
for increasing the relative proportion of soluble nutrients present
in the water passing site 6.
146
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Table U. Proportion of total N transported in various forms past site
Form of N transported
Site
2
6
NH^-N
2.5
5.0
NO~-N
— % of
30.1
37. U
Sol Org
total N trar
3.0
5.8
N Sed N
isported
61*. 6
51.7
It is interesting to note that nitrate N accounted for 30 to 37/5
of the total N passing sites 2 and 6 in 1975. This finding would indi-
cate that it is very difficult to model N transport in an agricultural
watershed when using sediment transport as the basic model because
the amounts of nitrate being moved are not related to sediment or sedi-
ment nitrogen transport, but rather reflect the amounts of nitrate N
present in subsurface drainage water and tile drainage water. On the
contrary, it is realistic to attempt to model total P transport in a
watershed based upon the sediment concentration in drainage water be-
cause total P transport and sediment transport are very closely related.
Nutrient transport as related to types of flow.
Computer techniques were used to partition the total transport
of sediment and nutrients in the watershed into classes based on types
of flow. Base flow was arbitrarily defined as any flow in which the
stage was less than 12.5 cm and large events were defined as storms
producing 2.5 cm or greater of combined surface runoff and subsurface
drainage water. Small events thus comprised all flows other than base
flow or large storm events.
Table 5 presents data concerning the partitioning the amounts of
sediment and nutrient flowing past site 2 into three types of flow.
Similar results were obtained for data collected at site 6. Although
base flow occurred for 275 days during 1975, the amounts of water,
sediment and nutrients transported in the site 2 subwatershed by
base flow was a relatively small proportion of the total amounts of
these materials transported during the year(from 2.3 to 8.9%)of the
materials transported in this watershed). The largest proportion of
materials which were transported past site 2 during 1975 resulted from
small runoff events. From 67 to Qh% of the total amounts of water,
sediment, and nutrients which flowed past site 2 were transported in
30 small events which occurred during 1975. The two large runoff
events which occurred during 1975 accounted for approximately lU#
of the total water which flowed past site 2. However, these two
storm events were responsible for transport of approximately 26% of
the total sediment and sediment nutrients which were present in
water flowing past site 2 during the year. Large storm events
accounted for relatively low proportions (ll-lW of soluble nutrients
transported in the site 2 subwatershed during the year. These findings
suggest that small runoff events are largely responsible for sediment
and nutrient transport in agricultural watersheds; however, large
147
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events can have a very significant impact upon the total transport of
sediment and sediment nutrients because of the high soil erosion
potential of heavy rainstorms associated with these events.
Table 5. Partitioning of sediment and nutrients transported past site
==========i=:i8li=ISili=iI=IiiIi=======================================
Component
Base flow
Small events
Large events
of total transport
Water
Sediment
Soluble inorganic P
Soluble organic P
Sediment P
Ammonium N
Nitrate N
Soluble organic N
Sediment N
8.3
2.3
5.5
8.0
1.8
8.9
5.9
U.7
H.O
78.0
72
83
77
71
68.3
83.8
8l. U
67.5
13.7
25.5
11.3
1U.7
26.5
22.8
10.3
13.9
28.6
===========
Table 6 presents data on the average concentrations of sediment
and nutrients in water flowing past site 2 of affected type of
events occurring in the watershed. Similar values were obtained for
the site 6 watershed. It is interesting to note that the concentra-
tionof sediment in water passing site 2 increased as the amount of
flow in the drainage ditches increased and that the mean sediment
concentration for the year was much higher than the average sediment
concentration during base flow periods. This finding would suggest
that grab samples taken largely during base flow periods (as is
customarily done in watershed studies) would not accurately character-
ize the sediment concentrations actually present in the watershed
throughout the year. Sediment concentrations in large rainstorm
events averaged almost 2000 mg/1 and individual values as high as
5000 mg/1 were obtained in samples taken at the peak of the run-off
hydrograph.
Table 6. Average concentrations of sediment and nutrients in water
passing site 2 as affected by type of flow.
===
Component
Type of flow
Total Base flow Small events Large events
Sediment
Sol. inorganic P
Sol. organic P
Sediment P
Ammonium N
Nitrate N
Sol organic N
Sediment N
1050
0.062
0.032
2.1UU
0.51
6.26
0.63
13.36
28U
O.OUl
0.031
O.U61
0.55
U.l+5
0.36
0.63
973
0.066
0.032
1.971
O.U5
6.73
0.66
11.57
191*8
0.050
0.032
U.151
0.85
U.69
0.6U
27.8U
148
-------
There was little relationship between the SIP concentration in
stream water and the type of flow. At site 2, the highest levels
of SIP were associated with small runoff events, and SIP concentra-
tions during periods of base flow and large events tended to be lower
than those during small events. The concentration of SOP in drainage
water was very constant throughout the entire year and was not related
to types of flow events. The concentrations of sediment-bound P
directly paralleled the sediment concentrations in stream water.
Therefore, as the flow events became larger (from base flow to large
events), the sediment P concentration also increased markedly. The
concentration of ammonium N in stream water was not greatly effected
ty type °f hydrologic event. However, there was a higher concentra-
tion of ammonium N during large runoff events as contrasted to base
flow or small runoff events.
The concentration of nitrate N in stream water did not seem to
be related to type of flow event, however, the concentrations of
nitrate N in stream flow associated with small events tended to be
higher than that associated with base flow or large events. The
concentrations of SON in water did not seem to be related to the type
of flow events occurring, however, somewhat lower concentrations of
SON were observed in base flow as contrasted to storm events. The
concentrations of sediment-bound N were directly related to the con-
centrations of sediment present in each type of flow event. Base flow
contained low quantities of sediment-bound N, whereas the concentra-
tion of sediment N in flow resulting from storm events tended to in-
crease as the severity of the storm event increased. Relatively high
levels (average of 28 mg N/l) of sediment-bound N were present in
stream water associated with large storm events.
Sources of Water, Sediment, and Nutrients in the Black Creek Watershed.
Table 7 provides data on the proportion of the total amounts of
water, sediment, and nutrients transported past site 6 which originated
with various sources of flow, identified in the watershed. The flow
sources identified as significant were tile drainage water, subsur-
face drainage water (other than tiles) discharging into surface streams,
effluent from septic tanks serving households in the subwatershed,
and surface runoff water. Approximately one-half of the total water
transported past site 6 originated from surface runoff and one-half
was subsurface drainage water derived from tile systems and subsurface
flow into the streams. Septic tanks effluent accounted for only about
1/J of the total flow observed in the subwatershed.
Surface runoff accounted for almost 99% of the suspended solids
produced in the site 6 watershed, whereas tile drainage contributed
only about 1% of the total suspended solids measured during 1975.
Approximately hO% of the total amount of SIP present in stream water
originating from the site 6 subwatershed was derived from septic
tank effluent. Surface runoff produced h2% of the SIP transported
from the site 6 subwatershed. Subsurface drainage accounted for slight-
ly less than 20% of the SIP present in stream water passing site 6.
149
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Table 7. Sources of water, sediment, and nutrients transported past
site 6 during 1975.
Sources
Component
Tiles Subsurface Septic tanks Runoff Precip.
% of total transported
Water
Sediment
Sol inorganic P
Sol organic P
Sediment P
Ammonium N
Nitrate N
Sol organic N
Sediment N
15.9
1.0
5.3
10.3
0.7
U.9
1U.8
9.3
0.8
11.9
23.0
10.9
32.9
20.7
1.1
0.5
ho.k
13.9
6.3
13.1
5.3
2.U
U8.3
98.5
U2.U
53.3
93.0
71.0
U7.0
70.0
96.8
(25.9)
(1U5.7)
(25.2)
Values in parenthesis are percentages of soluble nutrients in
water which could be accounted for in precipitation.
stream
Surface runoff and septic tank effluent accounted for approximately
53$ and lU?, respectively, of the SOP transported past site 6. Tile
drainage water and subsurface drainage water accounted for a combined
total of about 33? of the SOP measured in water draining from the sub-
watershed. About 93? of the sediment P present in drainage water
passing site 6 was derived from surface runoff, whereas about 6%
of the sediment P transported in the subwatershed originated from
septic tanks. Surface runoff accounted for greater than 70? of the
ammonium N present in water flowing past site 6. Septic tank effluent
and subsurface drainage water were the sources of most of the remain-
ing ammonium N observed in water flowing from the subwatershed. Sur-
face runoff and subsurface water drainage contributed 70 and 21?, re-
spectively, of the SON observed in water flowing past site 6. A
substantial quantity (9?) of the SON transported in the subwatershed
was derived from tile drainage water. Almost 97? of the sediment-
bound N transported past site 6 originated from surface runoff,
whereas septic tank effluent contributed 2.U? of the total sediment N
measured in the subwatershed.
Almost 26? of the SIP flowing past site 6 was originally present
in precipitation which fell on the land surface within the site 6
watershed. More than lU5? of the total ammonium N and 25? of the
nitrate N transported past site 6 was contained in precipitation
falling within the subwatershed during 1975. This finding may, in
part, account for the relatively large amounts of nitrate N observed
in drainage water and surface runoff within the subwatershed because
it is known that ammonium N is rapidly converted to nitrate N by
soil bacteria and nitrate is readily transported in runoff and per-
colating water. This finding also indicates why knowledge of the
concentrations and amounts of nutrients in precipitation is important
if investigators are to properly partition the sources of nutrients
in an agricultural watershed.
150
-------
The annual average concentrations of sediment and nutrients in
stream water passing site 6 and in tile drainage water, subsurface
drainage water, septic tank effluent, surface runoff and precipitation
samples taken within the site 6 subwatershed are given in Table 8.
The average sediment content of stream water was greater than 1000 mg/1,
whereas the sediment content of tile drainage water was only 70 mg/1.
Surface runoff contained an average of almost 2300 mg/1 of suspended
sediment and surprisingly, the suspended solids content of septic
tank effluent was approximately 1+70 mg/1. As expected, the SIP con-
centration in tile drainage water and subsurface drainage water was
markedly lower than the SIP concentration of stream water. However,
the concentration of SIP in precipitation samples was lower than the
concentrations of SIP in subsurface drainage water or in surface runoff.
This finding suggests that during water flow through soils or runoff
of water from the soil surface equilibrium reactions release inorganic
phosphorus from soil constituents to the water phase. These reactions
lead to increased concentrations of SIP in percolating water and in
surface runoff. High concentrations of SIP were observed in septic
tank effluent, thus reemphasizing the importance of septic tanks as
a source of SIP in this agricultural watershed. The concentration of SOP
was generally low in drainage water from tiles, in subsurface re-
charge water, in surface runoff, and in stream samples taken at site 6.
The concentration of SOP present in septic tank effluent was higher
than those from other sources, however, it averaged only 0.6 mg/1.
The concentration of sediment P present in water flowing in the stream
was slightly greater than 1.5 mg/1, whereas the concentration of
sediment P in surface runoff exceeded 2.9 mg/1. The concentration of
sediment P in septic tank effluent was quite high (8.1+ mg/l). Tile
drainage water contained only low concentration of sediment-bound P.
Table 8. Average concentrations of sediment and nutrients in stream
water and in various flow sources present in the site 6
Flow source
Component
Sediment
Sol inorganic P
Sol organic P
Sediment P
Ammonium N
Nitrate N
Sol organic N
Sediment N
flow
1115
0.120
O.Ql+8
1.518
0.70
5.19
0.80
7.17
Tiles
71
O.Ol+l
0.032
0.073
0.22
1+.92
0.1+8
0.36
Subsurface Septic
—
O.Ol+l
0.032
-
0.22
It. 92
0.1+8
_
1+71
1+.230
0.570
8.1+0
7.99
21+.00
_
15.31
Runoff
2273
0.105
0.053
2.92
1.03
5.05
1.17
11+.36
Precip.
_
0.011+
_
_
0.1+6
0.59
_
151
-------
The concentration of ammonium H in septic tank effluent was
high (8 mg/l) whereas the concentration of ammonium N in water, stream
water, tile drainage water, subsurface drainage water, and surface
runoff was low (0.2-1.0 mg/l). Precipitation contained about 0.5
mg/l ammonium N (equivalent to 6 kg of NH^-N/ha during 1975). The con-
centration of nitrate in tile drainage water and subsurface drainage
water averaged about 5 mg/l. Similar concentrations were observed in
surface runoff water and in stream water samples. The concentration
of nitrate N in septic tank effluent was very high (2k mg/l)
suggesting that some aeration of septic wastes occurred prior to dis-
charge into streams. The concentration of nitrate in precipitation
was approximately 0.6 mg/l (for 1975 rainfall contributed 7 kg of
NO" -N/ha). The concentration of SON in stream water, subsurface
drainage water, and surface runoff was generally low (0.5-1.2 mg/l).
The concentration of sediment-bound N were related to the concentra-
tion of sediment present in stream water, tile drainage water, and
surface runoff. The sediment N content of surface runoff exceeded
lU mg/l, whereas stream water contained an average of 7.2 mg of
sediment N/l. The concentration of sediment N in septic tank effluent
was quite high (15 mg/l) even though the sediment content of septic
tank effluent was not particularly high (1*70 mg/l). This would suggest
that solids present in septic tank effluent contain high concentrations
of N as well as P.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Contents of Sediment and Soils in the Watershed.
Table 9 presents the average concentrations of total N and total
P in soils in the watersheds and in sediment derived from various
sources in the subwatersheds. The concentrations of total N and
total P in sediment present in tile drainage water are similar to
those concentrations present in the soils located in the subwatershed.
This finding would suggest that soil materials being transported in
percolating water and ultimately flowing out tile drains are representa-
tive of the soils drained by the tile systems, i.e., there is no
selective enrichment of any soil fraction during the sediment trans-
port process. Sediment present in water flowing in streams and in
surface runoff contain much higher concentrations of total nitrogen
and total phosphorus than do the soils in each watershed. This find-
ing suggests that selective erosion is occurring during runoff events
in the subwatershed with the result that sediment contains high
proportions of clay and organic matter than the soils being eroded.
There are significant water quality ramifications to this finding
because the fine materials being transported as a result of selective
erosion contain high quantities of N and P which are most susceptible
for release to the water phase. The sediments associated with septic
tank effluents contained very high concentrations of total N and total
P. It seems likely that septic tank solids may be readily decomposed
by aerobic organisms present in water upon discharge of septic tank
effluent in the streams resulting in release of significant quantities
of soluble N and P.
152
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Table 9. Average concentrations of total N and total P in soils and
sediment from various sources in watersheds draining into
sites 2 and 6.
Total N Total P
Sediment source Site 2Site 6Site 2Site 6
—mg/kg of sediment
Soils in the watershed 1725 1800 660 700
Sediment in stream 12730 6U30 20UO 1360
Tile drainage 1930 U990 700 1020
Septic tanks 29050 32U70 17810 17820
Surface runoff 12780 6320 20UO 1280
Table 10 presents data from an attempt to estimate the proportion
of N and P added as manure and fertilizer to cropland which was
recovered as soluble inorganic N and soluble inorganic P in stream
water passing sites 2 and 6 during 1975. The method employed was
to sum the amounts of soluble inorganic N and P present in precipitation
falling on the subwatersheds and the amounts of soluble N and P dis-
charged into streams with septic tank effluents. The resultant
sum was subtracted from the total amounts of soluble inorganic N
and soluble inorganic P present in water transported out of each water-
shed during 1975. The soluble nutrients present in stream water not
accounted for in precipitation or in septic tank effluent were assumed
to be derived from agricultural activities, largely from applications
of inorganic fertilizer and animal waste. This is a simplistic approach
fordetermining the amounts of added N and P lost in combined runoff
and subsurface flow because no account is taken of N fixed by legumes,
N and P mineralized from soil organic matter, or N and P present in
runoff from barnlots or feedlots where animals are fed in confinement.
However, this approach was necessary because no estimates were avail-
able for amounts of nutrients contributed by other sources. Calcula-
tions revealed that greater than 57 and 33!? of the N added to cropland
in subwatersheds draining into sites 2 and 6, respectively, was lost in
runoff and subsurface flow. These values are very high and it seems
likely that the calculation method overestimate the actual loss of
added N by a substantial amount. However, the high calculated losses
of N do serve to point out that significant amounts of added N are lost
from cropland in the Black Creek watershed in surface and subsurface
drainage water. This finding suggests that fertilizer management
techniques can be effectively employed in this watershed to decrease
the amounts of N removed in drainage water. The percentage of added
P lost in runoff and subsurface flow from cropland present in site
2 and site 6 subwatersheds were O.h and 0.6$, respectively. This
finding indicates that only limited amounts of added P are lost in
water draining cropland in the Black Creek watershed and that good
management techniques have apparently been employed to minimize losses
of added P. The data presented here on losses of added P in surface
and subsurface drainage water are similar to those observed previously
153
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in studies of runoff losses of applied P in small plot experiments
where artificial rainfall was used.
Table 10. Estimates of the N and P added as manure and fertilizer
which were lost in drainage water from subwatersheds 2
========
Site 2 Site 6
Sol inorg N not orig- 23265 (2U.7) 11009(15.*0
inating from precipi-
tation or septic tanks(kg)
Sol inorg P not origi- 136 (O.ll+) 139(0.19)
nating from precipi-
tation or septic tanks(kg)
% of added N lost in run-
off and subsurface flow 57.8 33.2
% of added P lost in run-
off and subsurface flow O.U3 0.57
* Values in parenthesis are amounts of added nutrients apparently
lost in drainage expressed as kg of nutrient per hectare.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the data presented
in this discussion:
1. Sediment and nutrient losses in watershed are not large
with the exception of high NO--N losses.
2. Greater than 90% of total P transported in watershed is
sediment P; only 50-60? of total N transported is sediment N.
N movement is more difficult to model than P transport.
3. Transport of sediment and nutrients in the watershed is
associated with storm events; less than 10$ is transported
during base flow. Storms must be well monitored.
k. Sediment content and sediment nutrient concentrations
increase markedly during storm events. Concentrations of
soluble nutrients usually decrease during large storm events.
5. Surface runoff is the major source of sediment, sediment-
bound nutrients, soluble P compounds, and ammonium.
Subsurface drainage water is the major source of nitrate.
In heavily populated parts of the watershed septic tanks
may be a major contributor of inorganic P.
6. Approximately ^5% of the N added as fertilizer and manure
is recovered in drainage water from the watershed. Only
0.5!? of the added P is recovered in drainage water.
154
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SEDIMENT SEDUCTION BY STREAMBANK
MODIFICATION AND SEDIMENT TRAPS
by
R. Z. Wheaton and R. E. Land*
CHANNEL STABILITY STUDIES
Bank Stability Studies: were a part of the original plan of work.
This work has been completed and reported in the proceedings of the
November 1975 Seminar. It consisted of slope-mulch studies plus a 100
percent bank erosion survey by SCS staff as part of the IJC Maumee
River study. This latter study reported bank erosion to be relatively
small although at eroding locations it could be quite severe. To de-
termine if a correlation might exist between bank cover, particularly
trees vs. grass, and bank stability the reported data of the SCS study
has been reviewed. While this data shows a strong correlation between
soil type and bank erosion it is not possible to relate erosion and
cover in the published data. An additional check is being made using
the raw data, but it appears at this time that the effect of soil type
may mask any effect of type of cover on bank erosion.
Considerable work has gone into the Black Creek watershed in sta-
bilizing channel banks and slopes throughout the area. As reported at
the 1975 Seminar the structural and the bank stabilizing practices have
generally been very successful. However, continued observations through-
out the study has suggested that in some reaches of the channel the
bottoms may be continuing to degrade. Also, soil mechanics studies
identified several locations where the channel bottoms were potentially
unstable. This study showed that the most likely reason for instabil-
ity was excess channel slope and often a less resistant soil material
in the profile near the channel bottom. It is evident that if a chan-
nel bottom degrades that eventually even stable banks must become
unstable.
In 1975 four sites were selected for study of the channel bottom
stability. One on the Joe Graber farm was known to have lowered 30 to
60 cm (1 to 2 feet) deeper following revegetation of the banks. In
this area small rock drop structures were installed in 1975 in an at-
tempt to control the channel degradation. The 1976 results in this
area show both degradation and aggradation above one of these struc-
tures, Figure 1. About 50 m (150 ft.) above the structure the channel
has accumulated sediment and appears to be filling up but farther up
stream there has been continued erosion since the last survey was made
approximately one year ago. It cannot be determined at this time if
the erosion occurred before the installation of the rock structure or
*Respectively Associate Professor and Instructor, Agricultural Engi-
neering Department, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
155
-------
if it is erosion since the installation of the control structure. These
surveys will be repeated again in 1977 and possibly in succeeding years
to determine whether or not the rock structures as installed are going
to adequately control the erosion of the channel bottom.
The Black Creek channel at Notestine Road was surveyed for a dis-
tance of 30 m (150 ft.) upstream and 65 m (200 ft.) downstream from the
bridge. This is an area where rock was used for channel training. It
is also an area that the soil mechanics studies indicated had a poten-
tially unstable channel at flood flow. This channel was shown to be
unstable because of the soil material in the channel bottom and also
the slope, 0.25%. This 115 m (350 ft.) section has degraded approxi-
mately 42 cm (1-4 ft.) between May of 1974 and August of 1976, Figure
2. The channel has considerable grass and other water type vegetation
in the bottom and it may possibly be stabilized at its present posi-
tion. Additional surveys will be made to determine whether or not this
channel has stabilized.
Another site on the Gorrell drain along Notestine Road for a dis-
tance of 165 m (500 ft.) downstream from the monitoring site shows the
ditch bottom to be almost identical with the original. This section
has an average slope of 0.2 m per 100 m (0.20%). This is the smallest
slope of any of the four sites being studied. See Figure 3.
Wertz drain between Notestine Road and the main channel of the
Black Creek a distance of approximately 305 m (1000 ft.) was a site
of the bank slope-mulch studies. This channel reach has an average
slope of 0.4% (0.4 meters per 100). Earlier observations had indicated
that the channel bottom was eroding in several sites. The survey con-
ducted in August of 1976 shows that with the exception of a section
about 200 meters below the Notestine Road all of the channel has eroded.
For the first 160 m (500 ft.) an average lowering of approximately 30
cm (1 ft.) has occurred between March of 1974 and August of 1976. The
last 70 meters (200 ft.) above the main Black Creek channel has eroded
approximately 45 cm (1.5 ft.). There are several areas in this section
where erosion of the channel bottom has caused the toe of the banks to
slip into the channel. This survey will be repeated in 1977 to deter-
mine if the erosion is continuing. See Figure 4.
These survey results plus other observations indicate that there
are a number of sections throughout the Black Creek watershed where
channel bottom erosion is producing unstable bank conditions. If this
channel bottom erosion continues at the present rate it will be neces-
sary to install some type of control structure in order to stabilize
the total channel.
EFFECT OF SEDIMENT BASINS
The Sediment Pond: on the Virgil Hirsch farm was constructed in
the fall of 1973 and filled to overflowing in November of that year.
It serves a drainage area of 185 ha (460 acres). The soil types are
Hoytville and Nappanee. The land slopes are generally less than one-half
percent. With the water level at the crest o'f the mechanical spillway
the water surface area of the pond is just over 2.4 ha (6 acres). The
156
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flood storage is 14,000 cu meters (11 acre ft.) with a detention time
at flood design of 4-1/2 hours and an estimated flow-through time of
one hour.
On May 18, 1976 with the assistance of the Soil Conservation Serv-
ice state geologist cross sectional profiles were run every 30.4 meters
(100 ft.). Depth of accumulated sediment was determined across each
base line or station. These depths were determined by the use of a
recording fathometer and by probing. Sediment deposits were examined
for determination of particle size. Sediment samples for laboratory
analysis were collected at a later date.
Sediment deposits were found to be very uniform in depth through-
out the pond area with an average accumulation of 6 cm (0.2 ft.).
Likewise particles size appeared to be very uniform, being primarily
in the clay and silt fractions with possibly a small amount of fine
sand.
Laboratory analysis of the samples confirmed that the sediment is
a silty clay texture. The range of the sample analysis were as fol-
lows:
silt 52.1 — 63.9%
clay 31.9 — 42.0%
sand 4.2 — 5.9%
From the depth of the sediment accumulation calculations indicate
that in the nearly three year period since construction the sediment
pond has accumulated approximately 1880 cu m (2400 cu yd.) of sediment.
Assuming a dry weight of 857 kgm per cu meter (55 pounds per cubic
foot) this amounts to an average of 2.8 tonnes per ha per year (1.2
tons of sediment per acre per year) for each of the three years of the
nearly three year period from construction until the survey. However,
this figure should not be considered anything more than the average
accumulation for the years 1973-1976.
It may well be above the long time average because of two fac-
tors.
1. The area immediately to the north of the pond site was in a
transition stage and was very subject to erosion until the
conservation practices on it were completed in 1975, thus
this area may have contributed above a normal amount of sedi-
ment in this three year period. There has also been some
construction activity on the west end of the pond site.
2. In May of 1975 a nearly 100 year frequency storm was received.
This storm produced the highest runoff volume and sediment
consentrations yet measured at many of the stations. It pro-
duced between 1/3 and 1/2 of the 1975 annual sediment transport
at some of the measuring stations.
The Desilting Basin: on the main stem of the Black Creek was con-
structed in September of 1974 and was first surveyed on July 30, 1975.
A second survey was conducted July 7, 1976. Sediment samples have also
been collected from this basin foi particle size determination.
157
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The first survey covering a period of approximately nine months
showed an accumulation of 770 cubic meters (980 cubic yards) of mate-
rial. The second survey shows an additional accumulation of 416 cu
meters (530 cubic yards) in approximately a one year additional time.
Sediment sample analysis are shown in Table I. This table shows only
the percent sand by size fraction and does not include the finer silt
and clay fractions. It is only at stations 460 and 461 where less than
one-half of the sediment accumulated was in the sand size fraction.
Table 1. Percent Sand and Sizes in Desilting Basin Deposits at
Stations Listed.
Size Range in mm
Station
457+000
458+000
459+000
460+000
461+000
>2
26.58
7.94
.85
.38
0
2tol
11.68
5.15
1.09
.46
0
lto.5
17.36
11.52
2.41
.19
.13
.5to.25
27.46
46.07
14.88
1.28
.88
.25to.l
6.67
16.43
33.01
17.02
13.59
lto.05
1.48
2.44
13.93
21.24
21.08
Total
%*
Sand
91.23
89.55
66.17
40.57
35.68
*% sand is based on total dry oven weight of sample.
This would indicate that much of the material being trapped by
this desilting basin is bed-load. To date no evidence has been seen
of additional scour of the channel immediately below the desilting ba-
sin. The first 50 meters (150 ft.) of this basin is nearly full of
sediment, Figure 5. There is considerable accumulation throughout the
basin. If it continues to trap material at the present rate it will
have to be cleaned out in a year or two to remain effective.
158
-------
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159
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Figure 2. Profile Black Creek at Notes tine Road.
160
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A- TYPICAL CROPS SECTION OF ORIGINAL DITCH
B- TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF CONSTRUCTED BASIN
C- CROSS SECTION OF ACCUMILATED SEDIMENT (7/76)
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ACQUISITION AND REAL-TIME COMPUTERS
by
L. F. Huggins
S. J. Mahler*
One of the most important prerequisites to intelligent human
decision making is the availability of complete, current and accurate
information about the situation or process under consideration. This
is especially true of the complex problems concerned with maintaining
a suitable environment in highly industrialized societies. The nature
of these problems requires an extremely wide variety of data: environ-
mental, economic, sociological, technological and political. This
paper will address the immediate and future needs related only to
environmental data. Its purpose is to substantiate the hypothesis
that the collection and effective utilization of large amounts of
accurate environmental data is an important national need which can
be dramatically and favorably influenced by employing computer assisted
data acquisition techniques.
The availability of environmental data is, of course, essential
to rational planning and equitable enforcement of state and federal
programs concerned with improving our environment. However, these
uses are by no means the only viable ones for such information. For
example, Peart and Barrett (1976) have clearly outlined the food pro-
duction efficiencies that may be realized by using crop ecosystem
simulations as agricultural management tools. To be of value, such
simulations demand extensive data concerning current and projected
environmental conditions in the region of interest.
Planning is a process of evaluating the relative effectiveness
and costs of alternative courses of action designed to attain stated
goals. One of the evaluation methodologies which is particularly
appropriate for planning non-point source pollution control programs
is known as simulation. This approach utilizes a mathematical model
of the system under consideration to evaluate the effectiveness of
alternative control strategies. Watershed models based on the concept
of using distributed parameters, Beasley (1976), appear to offer great
potential toward accurately characterizing the physical aspects of
non-point source pollution control measures. However, the development
and verification of such models depend upon comprehensive data sets
from test catchments such as the Black Creek watershed. Effective
utilization of available computer technology can expand the scope of
environmental parameters which may be monitored, reduce the unit cost
of collecting comprehensive data sets and greatly increase the value
of the data base by making it immediately available to the user.
*Respectively, Professor and Visiting Instructor, Department of
Agricultural Engineering, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47907
164
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DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
One useful method of classifying data collection systems is
according to the controller to which the basic sensors are attached.
This approach allows automated systems to be divided into two broad
classes: data logging and real-time computer controlled. The primary
emphasis of this paper concerns the latter type.
A data logging system is one in which the primary function is to
record the data supplied from multiple sensors usually, on a computer
readable medium, for latter analysis. Some of the more sophisticated
data loggers also have options for alarm level detection and remote
activation of equipment when alarm levels are exceeded. The user
benefits of data logging systems are: (1) reduction of the labor and
long time delay between data recording and availability of the analysis
associated with strip-chart records; (2) elimination of the transcrib-
ing errors associated with converting the data into a computer com-
patible format prior to analysis and permanent file storage; (3) elimi-
nation of time registration errors that occur when each variable being
monitored is recorded on independent clock-driven charts; and (4) ex-
pansion of the capacity for monitoring a large number of variables
(channels) at small incremental cost increases, i.e. the primary
expense is associated with the basic controller and recording device
rather than with increasing the number of channels scanned.
A real-time computer is one which not only collects data from a
process, but also has the ability to analyze that information in a time
frame that is sufficiently short to effect a desired response dependent
upon the results of that analysis. Thus, a real-time computer must be
able to communicate at all times with sensors supplying information
about the processes being monitored, i.e. in computer vernacular the
transducers are referred to as being "on-line". An environmentally
related example of real-time response would be monitoring rainfall
distribution during storm conditions concurrently while running a
watershed runoff simulation in order to be able to issue advance warn-
ings concerning points of potential flooding hazards. In summary, the
fundamental differences between data loggers and real-time systems
result from the greatly expanded analytical opportunities available
because the sensors are connected to an on-line computer.
Real-time Computer Functions
Real-time data acquisition inherently provides all the benefits
ascribed above to data logging systems plus those resulting from the
expanded analytical capabilities of an associated on-line computer.
While real-time systems are generally more expensive, the additional
costs are normally a small percentage of the total for an environmental
data acquisition network; in view of the substantially increased bene-
fits, they can often be easily justified.
165
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Data acquisition; Of course, the most basic of all system func-
tions is to acquire readings from transducers which provide outputs,
normally electrical in nature, proportional to parameters being moni-
tored. It is not the purpose of this paper to provide a detailed dis-
cussion of the transducer considerations important for configuring an
environmental data acquisition system. However, the impact which an
on-line computer might have on their selection is germane.
The most important factor which determines the success of a data
collection system is the fidelity of the data collected. The fidelity
of a data base refers to its ability to accurately portray the complete
behavior of the system it purports to characterize. Data base fidelity
is dependent upon: 1) proper positioning of adequate numbers of sensors
to permit continuous inference of the complete state of the processes
under study and 2) the operational reliability of all components of the
data acquisition system. Selection of sensor location is highly process
dependent and outside the scope of this paper. However, the fact that
operational reliability is strongly influenced by system organization
as well as tranducer hardware selection is inadequately appreciated.
Assembling a system to collect data from a dispersed network of un-
attended instruments which must operate over wide environmental ex-
tremes is not easy; it requires both careful selection of reliable
instruments as well as proper system configuration. This latter con-
sideration involves the design of a system with redundancy and cross-
checking measurements. An on-line computer contributes to both of
these areas. First, it affords a direct means of providing a redundant
data recording system. No real-time data acquisition which is intended
to maintain a continuous historical data file should solely rely on the
on-line computer to record incoming data. A backup data logging capa-
bility, preferably battery powered, which requires neither the computer
nor the communication link between the computer and the field instruments
should be a part of the system. Secondly, the analytical capacity of
an on-line computer makes it feasible to institute quite sophisticated
transducer error detection schemes. In addition to the very simple
alarm limit approach, one can incorporate tests for rates of change on
single and correlated variables. Cross checking can also be program
controlled. For example, air temperature readings can be combined with
net solar radiation data to yield independent estimates of soil tempera-
tures adequate to detect a questionable operational status for a soil
temperature transducer.
Since the communication link to an on-line computer is a two-way
path, it is a comparatively minor task to implement operational control
to field equipment which is dependent upon environmental conditions.
Consider the data acquisition needs associated with monitoring non-
point source pollution in a stream. Many of these pollutant problems
are storm related and involve rapidly changing concentrations. A real-
time computer monitoring hydrometerological conditions in a watershed
can control the activation of remote pumping water samplers to collect
frequent samples during rapidly changing conditions, but infrequent samples
during slowly changing conditions. Such an approach simultaneously
improves the fidelity of the data base and reduces the cost of subsequent
water sample analyses.
166
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Data Archiving/Retrieval; An integral part of any data collection
program is the "permanent" storage of data in a format suitable for
subsequent intended uses. This function, outlined in detail by Wong,
et al (1976), is virtually unchanged between real-time and off-line
systems. However, the virtually instantaneous availability of current
as well as historical data files with on-line systems has many ramifi-
cations for utilizing this information.
Analysis and Interpretation: The real payoffs for real-time systems
almost all are direct consequences of immediately applying the phenomenal
analytical capability of a general purpose computer to data arriving
from a remote sensor network. It is the elimination of the time lag
between the acquisition of data and its analysis/interpretation which
makes real-time systems attractive. Of course, any benefits to be real-
ized are totally dependent upon the ingenuity of the persons responsible
for developing the computer programs which must analyze all incoming data.
An example of one application for real-time analysis was alluded
to above in the discussion concerning detecting erroneous data and in-
strument malfunctions. This application takes advantage of the effici-
ency with which computers perform repetitive, mundane tasks. By making
a series of validity checks on each piece of received data the percent-
age of time instruments are operating satisfactorily can be increased
while simultaneously reducing field service costs by eliminating un-
necessary field inspections.
Simulation models are computer programs composed of groups of
mathematical relationships which describe the behavior of physical
processes occurring in the system being modelled. When real or hy-
pothetical data concerning physical constants and boundary conditions
are supplied, the resulting model predicts, i.e. simulates, the cor-
responding behavior of the physical system it models. Sanders (1976)
gives an excellent overview of simulation models and their role in
environmental planning. The rapidly growing area of simulation offers
numerous exciting links with real-time data acquisition systems. Peart
and Barrett (1976) outline several on-going applications which involve
using crop ecosystem simulation models to provide a dynamic crop
management system. They combine a near real-time environmental data
base with a fast-running crop ecosystem simulator to yield information
useful to a farm manager for making operational planning decisions.
The economic viability of such applications is highly dependent upon
the continuous availability of a near real-time data base.
The Black Creek Project has recently installed a real-time data
acquisition system to monitor conditions throughout the test area and
demonstrate the utility of such a system. Details concerning the
selected sensors, data transmission formats and operational charac-
teristics are available elsewhere, Huggins (1975). The intended
utilization of the system demonstrates several applications directly
relevant to water resource planning and water quality monitoring.
167
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ALERT Configuration
The development of a system designed to accomplish the Acquisition
of Local Environmentally Related Trends, ALERT, on the Black Creek pro-
ject was intended to accomplish two primary objectives: (1) to automate
the process of collecting hydrometeorological data from the Black Creek
catchment in order to reduce data transcribing delay and labor while
expanding the scope of data collected and (2) to demonstrate a real-time
acquisition system capable of providing a data base to permit hydrologic
simulation of watershed responses concurrently with naturally occuring
storm events. An integral part of the second objective involved using
the computer to generate operational commands to control pumping samplers
which collect periodic water quality samples during a runoff event. The
availability of simultaneous data from a network of sensors dispersed
over the watershed together with the predictive capabilities of the on-
line computer are intended to improve the fidelity of these water samples.
This improved fidelity is anticipated as a result of using short sampling
intervals when pollution concentrations are likely to be changing rapidly
and much slower sampling rates when conditions are stable. The rapid
sampling rates make possible an accurate evaluation of total quantity
of pollutants in the runoff while slow rates during stable conditions
reduce the number of samples collected and the cost of subsequent labor-
atory analyses. While the ALERT system was designed to satisfy the
objectives of a specific project, the requirements were of such a nature
that the resulting system is directly applicable to a large percentage
of environmental data acquisition applications.
The specific configuration of the ALERT system can best be describ-
ed by reference to the block diagram of Figure 1. The remote sensor
blocks actually correspond to dispersed locations within the catchment
which are each capable of supporting multiple transducers and receiving
equipment control commands from the remote computer. Information is
transmitted between the central receiver and the remote locations over
a closed loop telephone link (solid lines in Figure 1) or battery-
powered FM radio telemetry links. The choice between a telephone or
radio transmission linkage is determined by the degree of availability
of a telephone drop at a given remote site and the distance from the
central receiver. The radio transmitters employed are limited to an
8 km radius.
PAPER TAPE
PUNCH
D
CENTRAL
RECEIVER
-o
COMPUTER
rt/
DEDICATED
TELEPHONE LINE
MODEM
MODEM
REMOTE
SENSORS
Fig. 1. Block diagram of ALERT system.
168
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Data received by the central station from the remote transducers is
simultaneously transferred to two outputs. First, it is presented to a
battery operated paper tape punch. Secondly, it is serialized and,
through a modem* interface, transmitted over a dedicated telephone line
to a remote on-line computer on the Purdue campus approximately 250 km
away. The on-site paper punch provides a back-up record and degree of
redundancy essential to maintaining a continuous historical data file
in the event of interrupted communication with the remote computer. Of
course, any real-time analysis and control capability is lost during
such conditions.
The on-line computer on the Purdue campus is a minicomputer running
a general purpose time-sharing operating system. The Black Creek in-
stallation is seen by the computer as simply one of several simultaneous
users active on the system. The operating program which controls com-
munication with the Black Creek station has four primary responsibilities:
(1) assembling the incoming data into suitable files and permanent stor-
age of these files on magnetic disk and/or tape, (2) maintenance of a
dynamic file of the instantaneous level of all variables being monitored
in the watershed and the operational status of all transducers, (3) pro-
viding a preliminary analysis of water stage data in order to issue feed-
back control commands to operate the water sampling equipment, and
(4) detection of storm conditions in the watershed that indicate the need
to activate a complete real-time simulation of the hydrologic behavior
of the catchment. During a runoff producing storm, a simulation model
is activated which combines historical data files describing physical
characteristics of the catchment with real-time, dynamically changing
data concerning rainfall intensity distribution and stream stage to
estimate height and times of peak flows at all points in the drainage
network. If the geographical location warrented such action, the com-
puter could be programmed to automatically ALERT responsible authorities
in the event of impending dangerous flood levels.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The collection of comprehensive environmental data is an essential
requirement for rational planning of non-point pollution control measures
and for subsequent enforcement and post-planning evaluation activities.
Several examples of such activities underway in the Black Creek Study
Area have been described. The dramatic impact of utilizing real-time
computers to collect environmental data has been outlined. Proper trans-
ducer selection and data network configuration allow existing time-
sharing computer systems to serve as real-time systems for most environ-
mental data requirements with no additional hardware or system level
software changes. This approach provides the benefits of an on-line
computer with no capital outlay beyond those associated with a data
*Modem is an acronym for modulator-demodulator. Operating in pairs,
these devices provide a standard means of converting the voltage or
currents generated and required by computers into tones suitable for
transmission over telephone lines.
169
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logging system of greatly reduced capability. While operating costs
will be slightly higher for the real-time system, these extra costs are
primarily proportional to the degree of utilization of the on-line
features of the srystem and are therefore subject to cost/benefit con-
siderations and administrative control. Furthermore, many of these
associated benefits are sufficient to significantly influence the
economic justification of the network of field transducers required for
any degree of automation of data collection procedures.
REFERENCES
Beasley, D.B. 1976. Simulation of the Environmental Impact of Land
Use on Water Quality — The Black Creek Model. Proc. Best
Management Practices for NPS Pollution Control. EPA Seminar,
Chicago, Nov. 16-17.
Muggins, L.F. 1975. Computer Monitoring .of Environmental Conditions
in a Watershed. Proc. Non-Point Source Pollution Seminar. EPA,
Chicago, Nov. 20. p. 151-161.
Peart, R.M. and J.R. Barrett, Jr. 1976. Simulation in Crop Ecosystem
Management. Proc. Winter Simulation Conf. pp. 389-402.
Sanders, W. 1976. Non-point Source Modelling for Section 208 Planning.
Proc. Best Management Practices for NPS Pollution Control. EPA
Seminar, Chicago, Nov. 16-17.
Wong, G.A., S.J. Mahler, J.R. Barrett, Jr. and L.F. Huggins. 1976.
A Systematic Approach to Data Reduction Using GASP IV. Proc.
Winter Simulation Conf. pp. 403-410.
170
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DETERMINANTS OF WATER QUALITY IN THE BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
by
James R. Karr* and Daniel R. Dudley**
ABSTRACT
A series of 120 sample locations have been selected within the
Black Creek watershed to sample areas of different stream morphology,
land use, vegetation cover, and other factors with the objective of a
detailed analysis of relationships between these factors and water
quality. The short time since initiation of our expanded effort pre-
cludes a detailed analysis. Three major stream conditions are identi-
fied during a prolonged dry period in the summer of 1976. These three
regions are: 1) base flow area maintained by groundwater, 2) inter-
mittent flow zone downstream from Harlan, and 3) dry stream channels
with stagnant pools. Groundwater flow had significantly lower tur-
bidity, phosphorus, and ammonia than downstream stations indicating
these materials are accumulated from the Black Creek channel rather
than being picked up by surface runoff.
Four major regions of stream were selected for comparisons of water
quality throughout the watershed. In general, Driesbach Drain carried
the largest volumes of sediment and nutrients while Wertz and Smith-Fry
Drains contained the lowest concentrations. The main Black Creek chan-
nel below Brush College Road was intermediate. Harlan was a major
source of nutrients and suspended solids in the watershed. Considerable
fine scale variation is evident throughout the watershed and detailed
analysis of that variation will be presented in a future report.
A number of channel and tile flow sites were selected for monitoring
organic pollution levels in the watershed. In general, highest bacterial
counts are associated with Harlan and lowest counts occur in the tribu-
taries such as Wertz and Smith-Fry Drains. Bacterial counts decline
downstream in Black Creek. Counts in the nearby Wann Ditch are below
those in Black Creek. A number of surface and tile samples throughout
the watershed indicate contamination from domestic sources. Fecal
coliform/fecal streptococcus ratios indicate that most contamination is
from human wastes. Accumulation of organic pollutants in anaerobic
sediments suggests that the capacity of the biota to assimilate these
materials is being exceeded.
*Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, Ethology and Evolution,
Vivarium Building, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 61820.
**Aquatic Biologist, Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District,
Executive Park, Suite 103, 2010 Inwood, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
171
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INTRODUCTION
Declining water quality seems to be an inevitable result of inten-
sification of land use by human society. This decline results from
disequilibria in both the terrestrial and aquatic sections of watersheds
as well as in the aquatic-terrestrial interface. Signs of these dis-
equilibria are easily recognized and include the following (1):
1. Rapid runoff resulting in drastic fluctuations 'in stream
levels, including both floods and droughts,
2. Large volumes of nutrients and sediments released from ter-
restrial to aquatic ecosystems, often over short time periods,
3. Increased fluctuations in stream temperatures,
4. Increased streambank erosion as streams attempt to re-establish
equilibria by forming pools and riffles and a meandering topog-
raphy , and
5. Decreased diversity and stability in the biotic component of
the aquatic ecosystem.
These consequences are easily predicted when one considers the
nature of changes imposed on watersheds by human society. The task of
society is to develop management programs which maintain water quality
levels without unduly compromising the requirements of high yield
agriculture.
Unfortunately, problems arise when management programs and regula-
tions are developed with insufficient knowledge of the detailed dynamics
which result in varying water quality. Our present research efforts at
Black Creek are designed to clarify the origins of sediments and nutri-
ents and their transport dynamics at the land-water interface. In addi-
tion, we have been involved in an examination of the microbiological
environment in Black Creek.
WATER SAMPLING STATIONS
From an initial sampling base of 12 stations on a small section of
the Wertz Drain (2) we have expanded to an intensive series of 120 sample
stations throughout the Black Creek watershed (Figure 1). These stations
were selected to allow intensive sampling on four major areas of the
watershed.
1. Driesbach Drain. Since the initiation of the Black Creek
Sediment Control Project, Driesbach Drain has been the subject
of intense efforts to improve agricultural and conservation
practices. A series of 20 channel stations between Springfield
Center and Brush College Roads has been established to monitor
the impact of changes in agricultural and conservation practices
on water quality.
172
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\
WATER SAMPLE STATIONS
1 - Dnesbach
2-Wertz
3- Smith-Fry
M- Black Creek
Scale (miles)
Figure 1. Map of Black Creek Watershed Showing
Location of Water Sample Stations.
2. Wertz Drain. Our original sampling included 12 stations between
Knouse and Antwerp Roads. The number of stations in that reach has been
expanded to 16 and an additional 18 stations have been located in the
remainder of the Wertz Drain between Boger Road and Black Creek. This
expansion is designed to clarify the changes in stream quality resulting
from several planned conservation activities initiated in the summer of
1976. In addition, we will continue the earlier monitoring efforts in
the Wertz Woods area.
3. Smith-Fry Drain. Little or no conservation planning work had
been initiated on the Smith-Fry Drain by summer 1976. As a result,
water quality in this channel may reflect that of other Black Creek
tributaries before initiation of the Black Creek Sediment Control Project.
A total of 23 channel stations is located along the Smith-Fry Drain.
4. Black Creek. Thirty-two stations have been located along the
Black Creek channel between Brush College Road and the Maumee River.
The deeper waters and increasing flow volumes of the Black Creek channel
will help to clarify the dynamics of sediment and nutrient movements in
larger streams.
In addition to these stations a number of other sites have been
selected to measure such areas as tile outflows from fields with and
173
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without parallel tile outlet terrace systems. Low runoff volumes during
the summer of 1976 prevented studies of the effectiveness of these ter-
race systems.
The sample sites for this expanded effort have been selected to
sample areas of different stream morphology, land use, vegetation cover,
and other factors. We are presently developing a system to classify
each sample location to allow a detailed quantitative analysis of rela-
tionships between these factors and water quality.
In the meantime we have collected water samples every two weeks since
early June. Chemical analysis has been completed on all samples taken in
the June to August period. Each water sample is analyzed for the fol-
lowing parameters: total alkalinity, specific conductance, total dis-
solved solids, hardness, turbidity, total phosphorus, soluble ortho-
phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, organic nitrogen, total residue
(suspended solids), and sulfate.
In addition to these activities we routinely monitor the micro-
biological conditions in surface waters and tile flows throughout the
watershed. Samples for microbiological studies were collected at these
stations on March 29, June 7, and August 23.
Finally, we have continued monitoring fish populations throughout
the watershed. However, because of limited time and space we will not
discuss the results of the fish studies in the present report. This
report includes information on three components of our study in 1976:
1) condition of the Black Creek watershed; 2) variation in water quality;
and 3) microbiological assays in spring and summer.
CONDITION OF THE WATERSHED
The Black Creek watershed experienced a prolonged dry period this
past summer. Rainfall events were generally less than one inch and
were quickly absorbed by dry soil resulting in very little or no sur-
face runoff. Most suspended solids and nutrients carried in Black Creek
were from within streams, drain tiles, and domestic sewage sources.
Furthermore, by late summer most of the streams in the watershed were
reduced to isolated pools with no surface flow.
Because of the low flow conditions on the Black Creek watershed
during July, August, and September it is possible to divide the water-
shed into several distinct units (Figure 2). The lower reaches of
Black Creek had a base flow maintained by groundwater all summer.
Estimated flow rates during these base flow conditions ranged from
0.0005 to 0.0040 m /sec. Most of the water for this flow originates at
two distinct locations; Gorrell Drain at Notestine Road and about 150 m
downstream from station 131 (east of Bull Rapids Road on Black Creek).
Water samples of this outflow reflect lower phosphorus, ammonia, and
turbidity levels than found at downstream stations (Table 1). Data for
Table 1 were collected on August 24 and 25 after a period of at least
one week without flows from any tributary drain or from the upper reaches
174
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Stagnant pools
A Organic pollution
• Clean water
' Base flow
"Harlan" flow
'No" flow
Summer, 1976
Scale (miles)
Figure 2. Map Indicating Three Major Stream Conditions
in the Black Creek Watershed During the Summer
of 1976.
of Black Creek. Since there was no surface runoff or upstream channel
flow, the changes in water chemistry indicated by Table 1 result from
the accumulation of materials from the stream channel and riparian
environment of Black Creek. A hog watering facility a short distance
above station 132 may have been responsible for some of the changes in
concentrations of some nutrients. Unfortunately, we did not have any
sample stations between the groundwater source and the hog lot.
Two other sources of pollutants in the lower section of Black Creek
were tile lines near stations 140 and 154 which carried domestic sewage
effluent. No significant shifts in water chemistry could be detected
at these locations, suggesting that these sources are generally of little
consequence in affecting water chemistry.
Immediately following the few rainfall events of summer 1976
Driesbach and Richelderfer Drains experienced increased runoff rates
while other tributaries were little affected by the rains. These inter-
mittent flows identify a second major area of the watershed: areas with
very low flow or intermittent flow through most of the summer but with
an occasional spate originating in Harlan (Figure 2). We do not have
any regular sampling stations on Richelderfer Drain near Harlan but a
series of stations on Driesbach Drain yield interesting results. Vir-
tually all water chemistry parameters increase sharply as the stream
175
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Table 1. Chemical Characteristics of Groundwater and Channel Flows in
the Lower Segments of Black Creek, August 24 and 25, 1976
Parameter Groundwater Channel Flow
Alkalinity
Conductivity
Dissolved Solids
Hardness
Turbidity
Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
Nitrate
Nitrite
Ammonia
Organic Nitrogen
Total Residue
(Suspended Solids)
Sulfate
267
702"
512
357
27
0.047
0.003
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.29
532
88.1
268.7
783.7
571.3
358.3
58.0
0.64
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.087
0.313
578.7
88.8
+ 6.35
+ 35.01
+ 25.00
+ 3.51
— b
+ 4 . 00
+ 0 . 02b
+ 0 . 008
+ 0.005
+ 0.095
22.7
1.15
a Stations 132-134, Mean +_ standard deviation
b Groundwater and channel flow concentrations significantly
different at p<0.05
c mg/1 except turbidity in Jackson Turbidity Units
passes Harlan (Stations 115 and 116). As the stream continues south
beyond Harlan all parameters decline and reach levels similar to those
above Harlan. This generally happens at or slightly below station 118
about 1 km south of Harlan. This seems to be a result of settling out
of organic matter between stations 115 and 118. Apparently, this par-
ticulate matter cannot be metabolized by the stream ecosystem during
low flow periods. It accumulates in anaerobic sediments and is later
washed downstream during rainfall events (see discussion of micro-
biological sampling below). It is significant that a population of
fish is able to persist at station 118 but very few persist above that
sample station.
The dynamics of nutrients in this section of stream are less clear.
Perhaps the decline in nutrients is due to incorporation into algal bio-
mass, which settles to the bottom. It is then flushed out with other
organic matter during runoff events.
Observations of Richelderfer Drain in late September and October
(water samples not yet analyzed) indicate that channel flow from Harlan
is considerably more turbid than that in the main Black Creek channel.
The third major situation in the watershed existed upstream of
Harlan on the Driesbach and throughout Wertz and Smith-Fry Drains.
Generally, flow conditions in these areas were very low or stagnant.
Upper Driesbach (above station 113) remained dry through much of the
summer (Table 2). Some flow occurred in Smith-Fry Drain in late June
and July and flow rates in Wertz Drain were lower and more intermittent.
Most areas along the tributaries were reduced to standing pools many of
which dried up completely by the end of summer. This resulted in pro-
gressive concentration of fishes and ultimately death for many as habitat
176
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Table 2. Number of Stations Without Water During the Summer Sample
Periods on Driesbach Drain, 1976
Total Number No. of Stations Without Water On
Stream Segment _ . ; ;
of Stations June June July July Aug Aug
10 29 13 26 9 24
Upper Segment
(Springfield Center 11 2 4 8 9 9 10
to Antwerp Roads)
Lower Segment 9 000104
deterioration made them especially susceptible to raccoon and other
predators. The most severe condition occurred in early September when
the isolated pools could be classed into two groups. Many pools were
maintained by tile flows which commonly contained significant amounts
of organic effluents (Figure 2). Pools in areas not receiving such
effluent maintained relatively better water quality.
VARIATIONS IN WATER QUALITY
As demonstrated by earlier studies of the Wertz Woods area (2),
local variation in streamside vegetation, channel morphology, and land
use affect water quality characteristics. Our expanded study, although
preliminary and limited by low flows in the summer of 1976, substantiate
that conclusion.
Over the next year we shall continue our collections of data in an
effort to clarify quantitative relationships between water quality and
land use and land form. The following discussions demonstrate that com-
plex and intriguing patterns of variation among subareas of the watershed
which result in varying water quality.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids content of Black Creek declines in the first 3 km
downstream from Brush College Road. After this decline from 800 to
600 ppm, suspended solids concentrations remain rather constant to the
Maumee River. In subsequent discussion we shall refer to the average
level in the main Black Creek channel as our "Index Value" (see dashed
line in Figure 3). This "Index Value" will be used to compare, quali-
tatively, the four major segments of the watershed. For example, with
an index of 600 in Black Creek, it is clear that most values in
Driesbach Drain are above the index (Figure 4). Note also that the
values increase abruptly as the stream reaches Harlan, but decline
downstream from Harlan. In both the Wertz and Smith-Fry Drains upstream
values are above the index while middle and lower reaches tend to remain
below the index value for suspended solids (Figures 5 and 6). This
general pattern is found in all three tributaries for most water quality
parameters. However, it is less obvious in data from the Driesbach Drain
where a large spike occurs for most parameters when the stream reaches
Harlan.
177
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H-
LQ
C
oo
cn
C
cn
cn
rt
H- a
a. PJ
w i-i
„ »•
O M
(U H
a ^
O
H- H
D Hi
Us
(1) (D
cn m
cr 3
Co
O >T|
3- O
b(
a
h!
PJ
)-••
3
Suspended Solids (mg/l)
Suspended Solids (mg/l)
(D
u>
w S
e n>
CO 0)
•a 5
(D
3 B>
cn
cn rt
O PJ
a
cn
0 W
P> H
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£*
pi (D
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-------
WERTZ
JUN-AUG
1976
58 62 70 80
Station (158 - 19O)
Figure 5. Mean and Standard Error of Mean for
Suspended Solids Loads in Wertz Drain
600
en
E
in
~ 400
O
T>
0)
T3
c
10
200
SMITH-FRY
JUN-AUG
1976
91 96 1 5 9
Station (213,191-212)
12
Figure 6. Mean and Standard Error of Mean for
Suspended Solids Loads in Smith-Fry Drain
179
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The significance of small scale variation in water quality parame-
ters is demonstrated by sample station 189 at the lower end of the
Wertz Drain (Figure 5). Suspended solids loads at 189 are about
200 mg/1 above the two nearest stations. A small farm pond adjacent to
the stream supports several domestic ducks. These ducks frequently
travel to the adjacent channel to feed. Their feeding activities
increase the suspended solids load of the stream.
Phosphorus
Two phosphorus parameters are measured for all water samples:
total phosphorus and orthophosphate. For both, concentrations decline
downstream in Black Creek (Table 3). Relative to the Black Creek seg-
ment, concentrations are low to very low in Wertz and Smith-Fry Drains
but high in Driesbach Drain. Phosphorus spikes are especially high at
Harlan where they are 10 to 100 times higher than the index value for
total phosphorus and soluble orthophosphate, respectively.
Nitrogen
Routine analyses include evaluations of four forms of nitrogen
(Table 3). Nitrate and nitrite levels are constant in Black Creek
while ammonia and organic nitrogen decline downstream. All four forms
of nitrogen are much higher than the index value in Driesbach Drain.
Nitrate and nitrite forms tend to be higher than index values in Wertz
and Smith-Fry Drains but ammonia and organic nitrogen are generally
lower. High spikes also occur in upstream areas and at Harlan.
Turbidity and Total Residue
Turbidity levels do not change significantly between Driesbach Drain
and Black Creek (Table 3). Turbidity levels in the two other tributaries
(Wertz and Smith-Fry) are below those for the lower Black Creek index
value. Similarly, for total residue the two tributaries are below those
in the main Black Creek channel. Driesbach Drain levels are above those
in the index stream.
Other Parameters
Five other parameters are included in our analysis (Table 3).
Three (alkalinity, conductivity, and dissolved solids) have significantly
decreasing trends in the lower segment of the watershed. Two other
parameters (hardness and sulfate) are relatively stable in the index
area. All five are in high concentrations in Driesbach Drain. Con-
ductivity, dissolved solids, and sulfate are low in the Wertz and Smith-
Fry sample areas. Alkalinity and hardness are near or above their
respective index values in the tributary streams.
MICROBIOLOGICAL DATA
The distribution of microbiological samples is shown in Figure 7.
Flow conditions for 'the first two samples (March 29 and June 7) were
near the seasonal normals while the August samples (August 23) were
180
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Table 3. Relative Water Quality Characteristics in the Major Study
Segments of the Black Creek Watershed, June-July, 1976
ty
lesidue
Solids)
ity
s
ivity
ed Solids
I
High
High
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
High
I
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
I
High
Low
Low
Low
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
(D)
(D)
(D)
50
600
140
220
700
500
30
Stream Segment Index
Parameter Driesbach Wertz Smith-Fry Black Creek Value
Phosphorus
Total Phosphorus High Low Very Low I (D) 0.70
Soluble
Orthophosphate High Very Low Very Low I (D) 0.15
Nitrogen
Nitrate Very High Very High High I 0.01
Nitrite Very High I High I 0.03
Ammonia Very High Low Low I (D) 0.40
Organic Nitrogen Very High I Low I (D) 0.50
Other Parameters
Turbidity
Hardness
Sulfate
collected during a period of very low flows. The number of stream sta-
tions without flowing water was 6 for both the March and June samples
and 11 for August. The number of tiles without flow in the three months
were 0, 6, and 14.
The small number of samples severely limited detailed analysis of
organic pollutants in the Black Creek watershed. It is possible, how-
ever, to detect some general patterns with available data.
Stream Samples
Nineteen sample sites can be grouped into seven sets that reflect
ecological and/or geographical affinity groups (Table 4). The results
from all stations within each group are averaged over all samples.
Since there is considerable variation among sample periods the data in
Table 7 should be considered order of magnitude approximations.
The only station located upstream from Harlan shows evidence of
domestic pollution. The presumed source is a tile line just upstream
of station 304. In general, it appears that the upper portion of the
Driesbach Drain receives greater overall organic contamination than any
portion of the Wertz or Smith-Fry Drains.
181
-------
X
t
Microbiological
Sample
Locations
0
H
0 5
Figure 7.
Scale (miles)
Map of Black Creek Watershed Showing
Microbiological Sampling Locations
Total coliform counts from samples at Harlan increase by 50 X over
levels at the upstream station on the Driesbach. Data indicate higher
levels of contamination on the Richelderfer, especially for fecal counts,
than in the Driesbach. The Richelderfer undoubtedly receives more wastes
than does the Driesbach. The majority of the flow entering the Driesbach
at Harlan receives some secondary treatment at a small sewage treatment
facility associated with a trailer park.
Downstream from Harlan in the intermittent flow zone fecal counts
decrease rapidly, although total coliforms remains rather high. Bac-
terial levels continue to decline in the base flow area of the lower
Black Creek. A station at Black Creek and Ward Road showed unusually
high total coliform counts although the reason is not clear. In lower
Black Creek fecal streptococcus occur only at stations (312 and 314)
below known domestic sewage outfalls.
Stations located on tributary drains without nearby (upstream)
sources of organic pollution have counts similar to stations along lower
Black Creek. Two stations on tributary drains (322, 327) have bac-
terial contamination levels near those of Harlan. They are associated
with sources of organic pollution.
Wann Ditch east of the watershed had total coliform counts well
below those of Black Creek. Total coliform counts from the Maumee
182
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Table 4. Mean Bacterial Counts for Seven "Affinity Groups",
March to August, 1976
Number of Total Fecal Fecal
Location Stations Coli forms Coliforms Streptococcus
Driesbach Drain
above Harlan
Driesbach and
Richelderfer at
Harlan
6,250
4,600
309,000 317,000
300
157,000
Intermittent Flow
Zone downstream
from Harlan
Base Flow Zone
Lower Black Creek
Tributary Drains
w/o Organic
Pollution
4
4
15,100
11,200
2,800
640
330
740
340
150
250
Wann Ditch
Maumee River
1
1
1,200
11,000
230
1,500
<100
<100
a Coliforms per 100 ml
b August counts unusually high (by 10X)
River were near those in the lower reaches of Black Creek. Fecal coliform
counts were higher in the Maumee River than in Black Creek. We can only
speculate on the sources of contamination in the Maumee River.
Tile Samples
Twenty tile lines are sampled routinely in the microbiological
survey. It is more difficult to extract meaningful results from the
tile data than from the surface flows discussed above. A number of sta-
tions (305, 310, 318, 329, 331) are obviously influenced by domestic
sources of pollution. Mean bacterial counts for these stations were
4 X 10 for total coliform, 5 X 10 for fecal coliforms and 3 X 10 for
fecal streptococcus. Early samples at station 330 were heavily con-
taminated with fecal coliforms but this line did not flow through most
of the summer.
Other sites (302, 324, 334, 337) had lower levels (below 103) of
fecal coliform and/or fecal streptococcus. These levels of contamina-
tion seemed without pattern. Many sites with low bacterial counts in
March and June were not flowing in August. Remaining tiles showed no
evidence of organic pollution.
From March to June bacterial counts declined at 7 stations,
increased at 2, and 5 were not flowing at the time of June samples.
Thus low flows generally resulted in fewer tctal coliforms in tile
effluents.
183
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In summary, our surveys show significant pollution levels, in and
downstream from Harlan. Waters in lower Black Creek, Wertz Drain, and
Smith-Fry Drain had lower levels of contamination. In addition to the
major sources of organic pollution from Harlan contaminants originating
from rural sources are also present at no less than 20 other localities
within the watershed.
Organic pollution throughout the Black Creek watershed is well
above EPA guideline levels indicating possible health hazards. Further-
more, fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratios are generally above 2.0,
indicating that most effluent is from human wastes. This certainly
affects the water quality and biotic communities of Black Creek. Extreme
low flow conditions in August 1976 probably lessened the impact of
Harlan's effluents on the lower reaches of Black Creek. However, the
lack of flow to flush streams magnified the problem of organic pollution
in the vicinity of Harlan. Minor spates in September and October flushed
Driesbach and Richelderfer Drains, and thereby, alleviated some of the
pollution problem in the intermittent flow zone. During the low flow
conditions prevailing in 1976 the effects of domestic pollution were
irregular in many parts of the watershed.
Significant build-ups of organic material in anaerobic sediments
found in the upper watershed suggest that the biotic systems of Black
Creek cannot assimilate or break down the quantities of organic material
discharged into Black Creek. This seems to be true despite the flushing
and scouring action of runoff events.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
O. Gorman, P. Angermeier, A. Gora, D. Ratcliffe, and K. O'Halloran
helped with the often tedious field and laboratory studies involved with
this project. B. Jones helped in preparation of computer programs for
analysis and graphical presentation of water quality data. Chemical
analysis of water samples was conducted at the Water Quality Laboratory
of the Illinois Natural History Survey under the direction of Dr. A.
Brigham. Microbiological assays were done by the Allen County Board of
Health. Without the technical assistance of all these persons and
agencies this study would not have been possible.
REFERENCES
1. Karr, J. R. and I. Schlosser. 1976. Methods for controlling non-
point source pollution: Greenbelts and channel morphology. 82 pp.
In press.
2. Karr, J. R. and O. Gorman. 1975. Effects of land treatment on the
aquatic environment, p. 120-150. Non-point Source Pollution
Seminar. Technical Report EPA-905/9-75-007.
184
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CULTURALLY INDUCED ACCELERATION OF MASS WASTAGE ON RED CLAY SLOPES,
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK, DOUGLAS CO., WISCONSIN
by
J. T. Mengel Jr.1, and B. E. Brown2
GEOLOGY
General Statement
The Little Balsam Creek drainage was selected for investigation
in the hope that it was representative, within a limited area, of many
of the geologic and engineering conditions in the Nemadji River water-
shed and other parts of the red clay plain which borders the south-
western side of Lake Superior. Data in this report proves that it is
representative of the Douglas County portion of the Superior plain and
it is probable that the conclusions reached here are applicable to much
of the remainder of the plain in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
In Douglas County, Wisconsin the altitude of the Superior plain
ranges from about 625 feet above mean sea level along the Lake to about
1100 feet along the South Range, a sand covered highland with a lava
bed rock core which is the south boundary of the red clay area
(Figure 1). The plain is underlain by glacially derived materials con-
sisting of a thick surface layer of red brown and associated grayish
clays and brown sands, which rest on a vaguely stratified clay layer
which contains large but variable amounts of silt, sand, gravel, and
coarser material. These Quaternary age sediments are underlain, in
turn, by red sandstones or black basaltic lava flows of Late Pre-
cambrian (Keweenawan) age.
. T. Mengel, U. Wisconsin-Superior
. E. Brown, U. Wisconsin-Milwaukee
185
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The Quaternary age sediments accumulated between about 9,000 and
12,000 years ago at a time when the last continental glacier to cover
the region was retreating but still filled the eastern end of the Lake
Superior basin, impounding high level lakes in the west end (Farrand,
1969). The floor of these high level lakes, now the gently north or
east sloping surface of the Superior plain is being dissected by a
stream system which has cut steep-sided valleys in the underlying sedi-
ments, and in some cases removed them entirely, exposing the Precambrian
age rocks beneath. The Little Balsam Creek and other parts of the
drainage system is in a geologically youthful stage of evolution and
is undergoing the kind of valley widening and deepening characteristic
of such a stage.
Stratigraphic Succession
In the Little Balsam Creek drainage, south of the 1050 foot
topographic contour, the Stratigraphic succession within about 30 feet
of the upland surface is fine to medium brown colored sand with some
silt and gravel. Mappable Stratigraphic subdivisions cannot be identi-
fied in this unit. A somewhat similar sequence of sands is present
along the South Range in most localities marginal to the red clay area.
The sands are above the level of strong high level lake action and
exhibit a knob and kettle or channeled outwash topography which contrasts
sharply with the smooth upland surface of the Superior red clay plain
below an elevation of about 1100 feet. In the Little Balsam area the
sand sequence grades laterally into the clays of the plain indicating
their contemporaneous deposition.
North of the 950 foot topographic contour in the Little Balsam
drainage the gently and smoothly rolling upland surface of the plain is
underlain by a red brown clay layer up to about 25 feet thick. A gray
brown or brownish gray clay of equal or somewhat greater thickness un-
derlies the red unit. Limited amounts of silt, sand, pea-size gravel
and cobbles or boulders are present in both these clay units. The
lowest part of the gray brown unit shows distinct varves where it crops
out in the Balsam Creek drainage. The Atterberg Limit tests data does
not indicate any obvious mechanical difference between these two clay
units which are the main slope-forming materials in the area. Similar
clays underlie the surface of the Superior plain in most localities.
Slope Profiles
Slope basal angles are in the range 7-17° in the lower valley of
the Little Balsam (i.e., north of the 950 foot topographic contour)
and are usually over 25° in the upper valley, south of the 950 contour.
South of the 950 foot elevation the slopes are underlain by the sand
unit and typically exhibit convex profiles with little or no evidence
of failure. No study was made of this portion of the drainage since
no red clays occur here.
186
-------
North of the 950 foot elevation slopes are underlain mainly by
clays and show evidence of flow and sliding almost everywhere. Tribu-
tary valleys have nearly straight to slightly convex valley wall pro-
files. Movement is particularly evident on slopes with basal angles
greater than about 10 degrees and a rise of more than about 10 feet
above the valley bottom. Flow of red clay downslope over the gray brown
clay is widespread and most slopes north of the 950 foot contour show red
clay as their surface material.
The Little Balsam has a valley wall profile which is mildly to
strongly convex near its toe and mildly to markedly concave near the
upland surface. A very steep inclination or a raw notch is typical
at the toe of any slope along the lower valley of the Little Balsam.
This toe steepening is due to clay falls triggered by stream under-
cutting. The presence of dessication cracks and of several sets of
high angle joints in the clay provide natural directions of weakness
for such failure.
Toe undercutting triggers movement of the bank surface which may
extend far up slope and involve piecemeal movement of the entire sur-
face. The depth of the sliding mass rarely exceeds 5-7 feet and does
not involve the entire valley wall, only its surface. Movement is
mainly translational downslope rather than rotational into the slope.
Small scale rotational slump along shallow arcs is common especially
at the toe and the crest of the more active slopes.
The failure surfaces pass beneath the depth of development of the
root systems of even the larger trees now present in the area. It is
probable that vegetation capable of protecting the toe of slopes from
stream erosion and vegetation capable of preventing excessive drying
out of the slope surface will prove to be more important in the pre-
vention of sliding, than that serving mainly to bind the surface layer
together.
A man who grew up in the Little Balsam drainage a half a century
ago mourned the loss of the trout ponds which were present in his youth.
These ponds had been created by log jams which resulted from lumbering
wastes. The loss of the ponds places the triggering of the latest
round of accelerated slope failure through general valley deepening
within the lifetime of those now living. This observation is rein-
forced by study of conditions elsewhere in the red clay area which
indicate that a combination of timber removal and upland drainage im-
provement for agricultural purposes has upset the previously established
relationship between slopes and stream erosion. Toe protection can
probably still help reduce clay loss from some slopes, but in most cases
where recent stream downcutting and toe undermining is already advanced,
such measures will be of little help because such slopes already con-
tain numerous fractures which allow easy water penetration and the
slopes lack necessary toe support.
187
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RED CLAY
Angle of Internal Friction
Undrained triaxial shear tests run at a slow rate (6 hours to ob-
tain failure) on three sets of core samples taken in the NE 1/4, Sec.
36-T.49N-R.14W are perhaps the best data currently available from which
values of internal friction angles ( angles) and cohesion can be
obtained.
Table I.
Depth (ft.) <|> c = c
12-14 12.5 17 .05kg/cm2
32-34 9.0 14 .20kg/cm2
80-82 8.5 9.5 .35kg/cm2
where: <|> = angle of internal friction
_ (total stress)
<|> = angle of internal friction
_ (effective stress)
c = c cohesion
Construction site data give internal friction angles ranging from
a low of 11 degrees to a high of 32 degrees. Present data suggest that
an internal friction angle of about 18 to 20 degrees for the effective
state is a reasonable assumption. Based on long term natural slope
angles, an internal friction angle about half as great is indicated for
the total stress state. More study is needed to establish regional
variations in materials and to associate internal friction angles with
particular stratigraphic units.
Clay Density and Moisture Content
The dry weight of red clay is typically in the range from 70 to
83 pounds per cubic foot and averages about 78 pounds. The natural
moisture content of the clay, expressed as a percentage of the dry
weight, is typically in the range from 29 to 50 percent and averages
about 39 percent. Use of these average figures gives a unit weight of
about 108 pounds per cubic foot as representative of the clay.
The Wisconsin Department of Transportation uses 120 pounds per
cubic foot as an average value for bulk clay in the natural state in
well drained areas being considered as possible borrow sites. Because
of the presence of scattered pebbles, cobbles, boulders and other
variability which cannot be sampled this value is probably more repre-
sentative of actual bulk conditions than the 108 pound one.
188
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Moisture content influences the unit weight of the clay and is a
factor in determining slope stability. A moisture content 20% higher
than is typical would add an additional 16 pounds per cubic foot,
assuming a dry weight of 78 pounds, or using the Department of Trans-
portation value of 90 pounds for the bulk clay, an additional 18 pounds
per cubic foot. Since moisture content in the 55 to 65 percent range
has been measured in several slide localities and in several non slide
areas in the present investigation, it is probable that weights in the
124-138 pound range are not uncommon and should be allowed for in slope
design.
In addition, laboratory determinations of moisture cannot take
into account the highly variable conditions in the surface zone about
5-7 feet deep where open shrinkage cracks and joints are present. Ten
percent open space in this zone, if filled with water, would add about
6 additional pounds per cubic foot to the values cited above. Since
this zone is the one in, or at the base of, which most down slope move-
ment takes place slope stability calculations should make allowance for
soil weights to reach the 130-145 pound per cubic foot range during wet
intervals.
The relationship of moisture content to depth, as determined from
samples obtained by auger boring is shown in Figure 2. From this plot
it can be seen that the moisture content of the clays in the first 10
feet of depth beneath the upland surface is apt to be in the 27-35%
range and that below this depth moisture content is apt to be higher,
averaging over 40%. Although there is no free water table in the clay
units anywhere in the red clay district. Figure 2 shows that there is
a considerable stabilization of the rate of change of water content
below depths of about 10 feet.
Clay Consistency
The moisture content at which clay passes from one physical state
to another are shown by empirical parameters known as Atterberg Limits.
The two most commonly determined are the Plastic Limit and the Liquid
Limit, which together define the range of moisture content through which
the clay behaves plastically. At moisture contents less than the Plastic
Limit the clay behaves as a brittle solid; at moisture contents higher
than the Liquid Limit the clay will flow under its own weight. The
difference between the Plastic Limit and the Liquid Limit is the
Plasticity Index of the clay.
Index and Limit data are useful to classify clays which in hand
samples appear to be very similar. Little Balsam and other Douglas
County red clays are classified according to the Unified Soil Classi-
fication into the major groups CL and CH (Figure 3). Data throughout
the area closely follow the straight line PI = .88(LL-18). The clays
are inorganic and range from low to high plasticity. With increasing
silt content these clays grade into groups ML and MH and it would be
189
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possible to select thin layers in the red or grayish clay units which
would fall into these categories although almost all of the thickness
of the clay sequence is in either the CL or CH group.
The Plastic Limit of the Little Balsam samples tested is typically
in the range from 20 to 32%, Comparison of this data with the previously
cited data on moisture content indicates that clay within about 5-10
feet of the surface of the ground will tend to behave as a brittle
solid and be capable of maintaining open fissures for considerable
periods of time, thus giving it an entirely different mechanical
character than the plastic clays at depth. Penetration of water to the
depth at which plastic flow closes fissures may create a very low
strength zone at this depth as can be seen during some seasons of the
year along the raw clay slopes bordering Lake Superior. Such a low
strength zone may serve as a decollement surface along which the over-
lying stronger materials slide. Conversely since dessication fissures
do not close upon rewetting, moisture collecting in the fissure system
above the zone of plasticity may gradually, within a few months to
several years, render the upper layer mobile and promote plastic flow
or even development of local mud flow on any part of a hillslope.
The Plastic Limit is only moderately influenced by increasing
total clay content or by increasing clay content in the -.2 micron size
range, although it is more influenced by the percentage of montmorillo-
nite.
The Liquid Limit of the Little Balsam samples tested is typically
in the range 40-80%. Comparison of this data with that on the moisture
content of the clay shows that situations where the clay will flow
under its own weight are to be regarded as common. The Liquid Limit is
strongly influenced by increasing total clay content in a sample and is
particularly highly influenced by the amount of montmorillonite present.
This relation is shown in Figure 4.
The Plasticity Index is typically in the 15-55% range. As with
the other Limits, montmorillonite content particularly influences the
Plasticity Index (Figure 5). Additional study should be directed
toward understanding more about the type of montmorillonite present and
what changes in its cation content may influence its mechanical pro-
perties.
Tests of the free swelling characteristics of the red clays indi-
cate that the clays have a "moderate" swelling capacity corresponding
to a volume change of 20 to 40%. Swelling has not been recognized as
an engineering problem in the area but the capacity to swell and the
frost heave (several tenths of a foot) are factors promoting the wide-
spread occurrence of down slope plastic creep throughout the area.
190
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Clay Strength
Hand penetrometer strength data for the red clays of the Douglas
County red clay area is such that at most construction sites the
strength ranges from about .75 to 3 tons per square foot (TSF) and
averages about 1 TSF or a little more. An "average" strength has little
meaning because of the stepwise variation of strength with depth such as
can be seen in Figure 6.
The profile of Figure 6 makes evident the fact that throughout the
red clay area from low elevation to high and from east to west the red
clays exhibit a near surface zone no more than perhaps 10 feet thick
in which average strength is substantially, sometimes as much as 2 or
3 times, greater than it is at depth. The existence of this near
surface zone is the reason why most slope failure is superficial in
nature and is highly sensitive to slope toe erosion. Because moisture
can penetrate the upper surface of this brittle and broken zone tree
and other roots are concentrated in it at shallow depth.
The cover of the clay surface influences its strength and consis-
tency. A sandy road bed, a marshy low on the upland, or thick organic
soil cover softens the surface, lowering the strength to well below
that which obtains at depths a few feet greater. Roadsides and fields
with thin grass cover show a near-surface crust having penetrometer
strength in excess of 4 TSF.
Any action which tends to promote drying of the red clay surface
has the possibility of changing the mechanical behavior of the clays
from a more plastic to a more brittle state, thereby changing the type
and rate of gravity transport down slope — plastic creep giving way to
sliding and flow of a surficial zone. Since the changes which promote
drying also tend to change the rapidity and amount of run off, thereby
quickening stream flow and increasing its lateral and vertical erosive
capacity, the entire natural equilibrium between streams and bank
materials is altered, even in localities where natural cover remains
along some portions of a stream course. Although questions remain to
be answered and linkages demonstrated quantitatively it is probable
that this model approximates events in the Douglas County red clay area.
It must also be remembered that any such clays will be slow to develop
by human standards and will be affected by longer term climatic varia-
tions. Changes in any part of the drainage basin are apt to influence
all other parts over a period of time.
The relationship between clay moisture content and strength is
shown in Figure 7. There is apparently a nearly linear and drastic
decline of strength with increasing moisture content in the range from
about 28-35% moisture -- which overlaps with the upper half of the
Plastic Limit range (20-32%). Thus there is a linkage between the
strength and the consistency of the clay — high strengths coinciding
with brittle behavior and lower strength with plastic behavior. There
191
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is a nearly linear, but far more gradual, decrease in strength as the
moisture content increases from about 35 to 65%. This is the moisture
content/strength which is typical of the vast bulk of the clay sequence
in the subsurface.
The red clay sequence cannot be considered to be a single deposi-
tional unit, as has been indicated before and is clearly seen in the
strength variation w/depth. Such stratigraphic units are doubtless
systematic in their distribution and future drilling should seek to
outline their extent, thickness and strength because it is by such
efforts that the red clay plain can be divided into districts within
which particular types of slope ordinances may be applicable and
certain types of engineering behavior are indicated.
MINERALOGY OF THE RED CLAY
The nature and behavior of the Red Clay material is determined
principally by the nature of the material and by the nature of con-
ditions which have been imposed upon it. This portion of the investi-
gation has as its purpose the determination of the sizes and types of
minerals which make up the Red Clay aggregate. Interpretations re-
garding mechanical behavior, geologic and geographic uniformity of the
material, can be made from such mineral and size distribution data.
Mineral Determination and Size Distribution Methods
Separation and Particle Size Distribution: Selected samples from
the drilling in the Little Balsam Creek location and from along the
south shore of Lake Superior make a group of 15 samples upon which
mineralogical analyses were run. Because we were interested in a
complete picture of the particle size distribution and because particle
size segregation also segregates certain mineral species each sample
was split into six particle size ranges which were: sand (>44y),
coarse silt (44-20y), medium silt (20-5y), fine silt (5-2u), coarse
clay (2y-0.2y), and fine clay (<0.2y).
In order to facilitate dispersion, to improve the x-ray diffraction
results, and to determine the amount of pigmenting iron oxide material,
the clays were first subjected to an iron oxide removal process that
reduces and complexes.the iron in a neutral solution (Aguilera and
Jackson, 1953) . The samples were dispersed with a Calgon dispersant
(sodium hexametaphosphate). Sand was separated with a wet sieving
procedure, the silts, using settling decantation techniques, and the
clays using centrifuge washing techniques after the methods outlined
by Jackson (1956, p. 101). The particle sizes were also determined
independently using a settling, pipette withdrawal method as outlined
by Volk (p. 37, 1974).
192
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X-ray Diffraction Procedures for Mon~Clay Minerals; An internal
standard procedure such as described by Azaroff (1968, p, 518} was used
for the minerals quartz, potassium and plagioclase feldspars, and cal-
cite and dolomite. This procedure requires the addition of a known
substance as a constant weight fraction of a series of standard mixtures
and as a similar constant weight fraction of the unknown samples,
Calcite and dolomite were determined by measurement of the CO^
volume evolved when the sample was immersed in acid. A weighted sample
was introduced into a flask, acid was added, and the CC>2 volume measured
at ambient temperature and pressure. After correction to STP this could
be converted to percent calcite or dolomite. The x-ray diffraction
results were modified to conform to the gasometric data. In general the
agreement between the x-ray results and the gasometric results was good
in terms of total carbonate.
Clay Mineral Determination; The following clay minerals were iden-
tified on the following basis:
1) smectite: identified on the basis of a d_ spacing of 17A in the
presence of ethylene glycol. (Smectite is the group name for
minerals that expand upon solvation. Montmorillonite is con-
sidered to be a member of this wider group.)
2) clay mica or illite: identified on the basis of a d_ spacing
of 10A and 3.33A which was non-expandable in the presence of
glycol.
3) chlorite: identified by the presence of a series of basal
orders, at d_ = 14A, 7A, 3.5A, 2.8A, with the line at 7A the
strongest of the group. The 14A line is heat stable but upon
heating above 500°C the 14A line becomes more intense than the
7A line. This is diagnostic behavior for chlorite.
4) kaolinite: This component, if present, is masked by the
presence of chlorite. The- (003) line of kaolinite at 2.4A can
be diagnostic since it has significant intensity, while the
(006) of chlorite at the same position does not usually have
significant intensity. The presence of kaolinite is reported
where a line at 2.4A appears. Kaolinite in any case does not
appear to be a significant component of this material.
Vermiculite and interstratified materials, although certainly present
in small amounts here, have been neglected in the present study. Inter-
stratified material is present but always seems to be minor in its
diffraction effects. The clay species listed above give sharp intense
diffraction maxima (except for kaolinite). Vermiculite is obscured
also by chlorite, but the heating experiments are consistent with an
interpretation of the major expandable type as a smectite mineral. We
have therefore assumed for the estimation of amounts that most samples
are smectite, chlorite, and mica, sometimes with kaolinite. The esti-
mation of the amounts of each of these types is done by the following
procedure:
193
-------
1) The diffractometer scans on glycolated samples, 2" 20 per minute,
0.1° detector slit, Cu K-alpha radiation are used,
2} Peak intensities are measured and background subtracted from this.
For smectite the line at 17A is used, for chlorite the line at
7A is used, for mica the line at 10A is used, and for kaolinite
the line at 2.4A is used,
3) An estimation of the different relative intensities of the lines
listed above were made from examining standard samples of illite,
kaolinite smectite, and chlorite,
4) The equations used to derive the amounts of each component make
use of the factors alluded to in (3) and are designed so that
the sum of all clay components will equal 100 - sum of percen-
tages of primary minerals (Calcite+dolomite+feldspars+quartz).
These equations and the factors used are:
s[1.5(Ichl) + (1.0 I illite) + 0.5 (I smectite) + 10 dkaolinite)] =
100 - sum of primary mineral
percentages
% Chlorite = s x 1.5 x Icni
% Illite = s x 1.0 x Iinite
% Smectite = s x 0.5 x Ismectite
% Kaolinite = s x 10 x I, n.
kaolinite
s_ is a scale factor which scales the sum of the modified intensities
to the residual percentage. No real claim to high accuracy for the
percentage of individual clay types can be made on the basis of the
above procedure. The validity of the absolute percentages that are
reported (Table 2) depends on the validity of the scaling factors for
smectite, chlorite, mica and kaolinite (0.5, 1.5, 1.0, 10) and these
are estimates only. They are made on the basis of standard samples,
but we have no way of knowing how closely the standards correspond to
the actual minerals in the red clay material. But the relative amounts
will be of greater validity since the same procedures are followed for
all of the samples listed in Table 2, and it appears that the types of
minerals in the Red Clay do not vary in all of the samples that we have
so far examined. To say it another way, the clay percentages will be
internally consistent, but one cannot easily compare these results
with those from another clay occurrence in another locality.
With regard to the validity of the percentages reported in Table
2 they can be ranked in order of merit as follows: 1) quartz, 2) cal-
cite and dolomite, 3) orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar, 4) clay
minerals.
In future investigations it may be possible to determine potassium
contents on a few of the <0.2y fractions, which contain essentially no
potassium feldspar. A good absolute value for clay mica can be ob-
tained from this and this will aid in deriving more accurate scaling factors.
194
-------
Or further, a complete chemical analysis wi.th a subsequent alloca-
tion of the elements present will provide better estimates of the
amounts of chlorite-smectite-mica and so provide a better tie on the
sizes of the scaling factors to be used.
RESULTS
Variation in the Red Clay Material
Clay Contents; The data of Table 2 is a summary of size distribu-
tions and mineralogies for the samples selected. If the sandy samples
at Pearson Creek and at the bottom of the Little Balsam drill hole are
excluded the <2y clay content averages 64.4%. The standard deviation
within this group of samples is 11.5% so that most samples will be
within about 10% of the mean. Note however that there seem to be
regional and stratigraphic differences. The group of samples from the
Lakeshore excluding Pearson Creek are higher in clay content (around
70%) than the mean. The samples at the Little Balsam site are lower
than the mean (around 50%) down to a depth of approximately thirty-
seven feet. Below this depth they are near to or higher than the mean.
Some real variation is probably present and further work is needed to
map out on a regional basis what these variations are and whether they
correlate with regional slope stability observations.
Fine to Coarse Clay Ratios: Although the total amounts of clay may
vary widely from the sandy samples such as those at Pearson Creek to
the clay rich types such as the Middle River sample there is relatively
little variation in the ratio of coarse to fine clay (Figure 8). In the
lakeshore samples, and this includes the Pearson Creek examples, the
ratio, coarse/fine clay, is 1.11 with a standard deviation of only .105.
In the Little Balsam Creek samples the ratio is about the same, 0.99,
with a somewhat higher standard deviation of 0.29. This indicates that
the clay material tends to be internally relatively homogenous from
place to place. The clay may be mixed with varying amounts of sand
plus silt but it remains its basic character in the samples we have so
far examined. This uniformity is further brought out by the mineralogic
characteristics as will be discussed in what follows.
Silt and Sand Contents: The total sand plus silt shows of course
a complementary relationship to the clay content. One notes however
from Figure 9 that the sand contents are a more variable component than
the silt. The average silt content for all fifteen samples is 29.5
and the median is 29. Standard deviation is 11.1 about the same for
the clay but is a larger proportion of the mean. The average sand
content excluding the Pearson Creek samples and the bottom sample at
Little Balsam Creek is 4.2%. The standard deviation for this sample
group is 2,4. If one compares the silt/sand ratios for all 15 samples
the average is 11.19 and the standard deviation of these ratios is 21.8,
larger than the mean itself. The large variability is due to the
195
-------
variable sand content which varies more widely than does the silt. Sand
ranges in these fifteen samples from 0,5% to 52..8%. The types of
minerals present in the sands and silts in all fifteen samples are
generally similar, although there are some differences in mineral amounts
from place to place. For example the average quartz content in the
medium silt (20-5y) is 43% and the standard deviation is 8.0%. There
do seem to be some regional differences here. If we exclude the quartz
values for the medium silt in the Little Balsam hole from 20-40' the
average quartz value is 46.6% and the standard deviation is 5.9%. The
four samples from the 20-40' depth interval at the Little Balsam site
have an average quartz content in medium silt of 33% with a standard
deviation of 1.2%.
The calcite and dolomite quantities in the silt fractions vary more
widely than do the quartz and feldspar amounts. The carbonates occur
principally in the silt sizes, although the occurrence of dolomite in the
coarse clay certainly emphasizes that the Red Clay material is a mostly
unweathered glacial rock flour. Average total carbonate is 10.3% and
the standard deviation is 7.5%, a large deviation compared to the value
of the mean. Total values as can be seen in Table 2 range from 1% to
25%. The highest carbonate contents are found in the 20-40' interval
of the Little Balsam core where silt contents are also unusually high
(>40%). This high carbonate in the silt is correlated with low quartz
contents.
It may seem at first anomalous that significant carbonate should
be present in the Red Clay material since the rocks of the Lake Superior
region are predominantly igneous and metamorphic rocks poor in carbonate.
However there are abundant carbonates in the area around Hudson's Bay
and glacial movement has been such as to transport material from this
region.
REFERENCES
Aguilera, N.V., and Jackson, M.L. (1953), Iron Oxide Removal from Soils
and Clays, Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 17:359-364.
Azaroff, Leonid V. (1968), Elements of X-ray Crystallography, McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Farrand, W.R. (1969), The Quaternary history of Lake Superior: Proc.
12th Conf. Great Lakes Res., pp. (81-197), Internat. Assoc. Great
Lakes Res.
Jackson, M.L. (1956), Soil Chemical Analysis, Advanced Course, Published
by the Author, Madison, Wisconsin.
Volk, Robert L. (1974), Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill,
Austin, Texas.
196
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^T-I • -< - •
i ~
:.4
- X- j , y ? jj—l^1 -'
n^-U-V>.!; . • • l--'4 7 /<~=U.r~•<*.•*£,-^S- -o- * ja-kf——: .- • , ,
" H-1 \r^' \i\-\ i '-^7^ J>-1~ ^ T}" 'L?4 y / - ..•: f^-^- --• * ^ j-v. ^ •'_"., '-,
iESEffi
__ i mm - —-
_!_ (^=i_ Jt--.
18— =Borehofe Location
Figure I-Location of Area of Investigation
197
-------
Depth beneath upland surface in ft.
31
(O
c
I
O
M
vo
00
O
V>
C
CD
\
D
o>
o
o'
(A
o
v>
01
o
*
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0>
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-------
ro
50
X
lil
?30-
20-
10-
0-
Low
Plasticity
Intermediate
Plasticity
High
Plasticity
CH
MH
10 20 30 40 50
Liquid Limit (%)
60 70
80 90
F.IGURE 5.-ilNiFim .Sou. CLASSIFICATION
-------
90*
80-
•
70-
60.
30-
,40-
'30-
20-
IOJ
OJ
•
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Weight Percent Montmori llonite In Totol Sample
Rgure4 - Montmorillonite in Total Spl./Liquid Limit
200
-------
90
80
70
60
SO
£40
o
20-
JO-
' /
'/
0 -'0 20 30 40 50 60 70
Weight Percent Montmorillonite in Total Sample
FlSJRI 5 — MONTMORILLONITE IN TOTAL SPL/PLASTICITY INDlEX
201
-------
Average Penetrometer Strength (TSF)
I 2 3
5 •
10
o
a.
S 15
c
0
ffi
S 20
25
30
Rgure 6 -Strength / Depth Relationship
Average of 9 holes in red clay area
202
-------
4
CO
^*
.c
»3 •
CO • .
* 2H L • •
* •j ^9 •
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O i . ,
* %•. ' •*
-'-•«•-• en
o
CM
• v • *9 ^««
• • • *•
fO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Moisture Content 09 Percent Dry Weight
Figure 7 -Penetrometer Strength / Moisture
-------
Kj
o
PERCENT BY WEIGHT
•^ cn CT)
o o o
^J
o
OO
o
tO
o
o
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Figure 9
80-
70^
eon
50-
LLJ
2
>-
40-
UJ
o
cc
30-
20-
10
SAND AND SILT
DC1 DC2 AR MR PC PC1 LBC1 LBC2 LBC3 LBC4 LBC5 LBC6 LBC7 LBC8 LBC9
Sand DC = Dutchmans Creek
AR = Amnicon River
MR = Middle River
PC = Pearsons Creek
LB = Little Balsam
I J
-------
TABLE 2
Mineral Content of Whole Sample
Sample
Dutchman's Creek
S-i (4Z7H
Dutchman's
Creek S-2
Amnicon
River (4281)
Middle River
(4282)
Pearson Creek
(4283)
Pearson Creek
(4284) S-l
Little Bilsam
Creek (19.5-22')
g4236
<* Little Balsam
Creek (24.5-27.0')
4236
Little Balsam
Creek (29.5-32.0'
Little Balsam
Creek (34.5-37.0'
Little Balsam
Creek (39.5-42.0'
Little Balsam
Creek (44.5-46.5'
Little Balsam
Creek (49.5-51.5'
Little Balsam
Creek (54.5-56.5'
Little Balsam
Creek (59.5-61.5'
lartz
18
18
22
16
60
32
20
clase
9
8
9
7
16
13
10
feldspar
5
4
5
4
10
6
3
Calcite
7
4
4
7
-
6
9
Dolomite Mica
4
5
4
6
1
6
16
20
16
15
21
3
14
11
Chlorite
24
21
19
23
4
15
11
Smectite
18
23
20
21
2
10
16
Kaolinite Sand
3.9
5.7
9.8
1 6.0
1 52.8
17.7
5 2.2
Silt
23
24
20
14
33
30
46
.2
.2
.7
.9
.9
.1
.6
Clay
71.6
66.7
65.3
76.0
13.5
48.9
50.3
15
18
10
14
18
13
19
14
24
18
7.0 29.4 59.1
0.5 43.8 60.0
) 19
) 14
) 21
) 23
) 20
) 48
6
5
10
10
10
8
2
3
7
4
4
8
3
5
3
2
2
1
17
-
2
3
2
2
10
19
13
13
22
9
15
31
28
27
21
8
18
25
19
12
17
S
5
2
-
-
4
4
4.0
2.5
6.4
2.9
4.1
40.4
49.3
9.8
27.9
30.0
24.5
34.6
48.3
86.3
68.4
60
76.3
21.9
-------
EFFECTS OF RED CLAY TURBIDITY ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
by
W. A. Swenson,* L. T. Brooke and P. W. DeVore**
ABSTRACT
Red clay erosion in the western Lake Superior drainage has reduced
the value of the water resource for recreation, navigation and municipal
water use. Studies on the effects of turbidity on aquatic life in the
lake and the Nemadji River system indicate that fish and benthic inver-
tebrate communities are influenced and exhibit direct behavioral re-
sponses to turbidity. Research completed on the lake community shows
red clay turbidity results in changes in nutrient levels, quality and
depth of light penetration and zooplankton and fish distribution. Changes
in distribution alter predator-prey interactions. Major differences in
community structure were identified between clear and turbid waters.
Preliminary results from an ongoing study of the effects of erosion
and erosion control practices in the Nemadji River system suggest exist-
ing turbidity and related clay sedimentation have no significant nega-
tive effects on macroinvertebrate standing crops or species diversity.
The only major changes in species composition are the addition of bur-
rowing mayflies (e.g. Hexagenia sp., Caenis sp.) when the bottom type is
composed primarily of silts and clays. A heavy sand bed-load resulting
from erosion and sedimentation results in a generally unstable bottom
and extremely low invertebrate production.
No relationship has been identified in the streams between turbid-
ity and fish biomass, but there appears to be a relationship between
turbidity and species composition. Clear, cold water tributaries are
dominated by Salmonidae in contrast to members of the family Cyprinidae
which dominate the turbid, warm water reaches. The fry of rainbow smelt
(Osmerus mordax), white suckers (Catastomus commersoni) and longnose
suckers (Catastomus catastomus) were found to be numerous in spring
drift samples, indicating that high spring turbidity levels in the
Nemadji River have little effect on the reproductive success of these
species. Although adult game fish were identified in the Nemadji River,
no drifting fry were recovered.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Biology and Center for Lake Superior
Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Superior, Superior, Wis-
consin 54880.
**Visiting Specialists, Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies,
University of Wisconsin-Superior, Superior, Wisconsin 54880.
Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies Periodic Contribution
#21, University of Wisconsin-Superior, Superior, WI 54880
207
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INTRODUCTION
Lake Superior is the largest and one of the purest large bodies of
fresh water in the world. Turbidity occurring in the extreme southwest-
ern portion represents the only major exception to this characterization.
The turbidity results from erosion of glacial-lacustrine red clay depos-
its laid down by Glacial Lake Duluth which occur in a continuous zone
along 75 km of shoreline from Superior to Port Wing, Wisconsin and cov-
er an area approximating 3,600 km2 (1). Erosion of clay from shoreline
bluffs, river basins and resuspension from the lake bottom is associated
with periods of onshore wind, spring runoff and precipitation. Clay
plumes may extend from a few hundred meters to several kilometers into
the lake.
Employing Earth Resources Technological Satellites (ERTS) images,
settling rates and lake and stream sampling, Sydor (2) estimated approx-
imately 2.3 x 10^ metric tons of soil is eroded from the Douglas County
shoreline. Total erosion from the Wisconsin shoreline was estimated
from measurements made by Hess (3i using aerial photographs, at 8 x 10
metric tons annually. Sydor (2) estimated that approximately 1,6 x 10°
metric tons of sediment is resuspended from the lake bottom annually in
the zone from 0 to 21 meters in depth. He estimates total stream erosion
for Douglas and Bayfield Counties approximates 5.9 x 10-* metric tons of
which 54% or 3.2 x 105 metric tons is carried into Lake Superior. Eighty-
nine percent of the stream erosion was contributed by the Nemadji River
system.
Influence of erosion related turbidity and sedimentation has been
under investigation at the University of Wisconsin-Superior since 1972.
Lake studies on water chemistry and fish populations, funded through EPA
Grants R-802455 and R-005169-01, and through institutional grants from
NOAA to the University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Program, have been complet-
ed or are in the final reporting stages. Investigations of the effects
of erosion and erosion control on aquatic life in the Nemadji River sys-
tem are in the data collection and preliminary analysis phases. The
stream studies represent one part of the Western Lake Superior Basin
Erosion-Sedimentation Control Program reported by Steven Andrews in this
symposium.
This report will briefly summarize the knowledge developed from
studies on Lake Superior which are published or scheduled for publica-
tion elsewhere. Preliminary findings of studies on the Nemadji River
system are considered in greater detail. By defining effects of the
problem on water quality and the aquatic communities of Lake Superior
and the Nemadji River System, the paper should suggest any benefits or
costs of erosion control to these communities. Usefulness of data ob-
tained from studies on these systems in defining effects on other lake
or stream systems influenced by similar non-point source pollution can
also be inferred.
INFLUENCE OF TURBIDITY ON WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR
Physical-Chemical Effects
Although extensive field sampling demonstrates red clay turbidity
208
-------
seldom exceeds 50 FTU (29 ppm) outside the wave-wash zone (4, 5), Balcer
and Swenson (6) showed concentrations as low as 4 FTU (2 ppm) signifi-
cantly reduced light penetration. The study showed that 17% of incident
light penetrated to 4 m in clear water (<0,5 ppm turbidity) in contrast
to 0.4% incident light at 6 FTU (3 ppm) red clay turbidity. Turbidity
selectively adsorbed energy at the blue end of the spectrum which is the
light most significant to photosynthesis.
Bahnick (7) used estimated erosion rates, suspension time and labo-
ratory estimates of chemical exchanges between Lake Superior water and
red clay to define contributions of nutrients, heavy metals and minerals
to Lake Superior resulting from red clay erosion. His estimates suggest
approximately 240 metric tons of orthophosphates are contributed to the
lake waters as a result of shoreline erosion. An additional 62 metric
tons are contributed from stream erosion. Red clay contributes 207,000
metric tons of dissolved solids, 197,000 metric tons of alkalinity,
14,400 metric tons of silica, 3,500 metric tons of potassium and smaller
quantities of various metals including iron (64 metric tons), aluminum
(76 metric tons), zinc (<8 metric tons) and copper (3 metric tons) (5).
Most of the contributions resulted from shoreline rather than stream
eroded sediments. Estimated phosphate loading resulting from red clay
erosion appeared small when compared with estimated annual inputs from
municipal sewers, industry and harbor activities of 8,130 metric tons
(8). However, extensive progress is being made to reduce loading from
the point sources resulting in higher significance of the contribution
of non-point source red clay erosion.
Effects on Aquatic Life
Comparison of zooplankton densities from clear water Northshore and
Apostle Island stations with estimates from areas characterized by peri-
odic red clay turbidity suggested turbidity may increase biological pro-
duction (6). Zooplankton densities were higher in turbid water and con-
centrated near the surface. Greater zooplankton densities may reflect
higher production of phytoplankton resulting from nutrient and silica
enrichment of water at these sites. Swenson and Matson (9) showed lar-
vae of lake herring (Coregonus artedii) distributed closer to the sur-
face of test chambers at turbidity levels characteristic of southwestern
Lake Superior. Turbidity levels covering the range normally encountered
in the zone did not influence survival or growth of lake herring fry 3-
62 days after hatching, the life stage considered to be the most sensi-
tive.
Swenson and Matson (9) suggest red clay may have had a positive
effect on larval herring survival and stock size by acting to concen-
trate larval herring and zooplankton, their food, in Lake Superior near
surface waters. This hypothesis is supported by the traditionally high
abundance and commercial catches of lake herring from the zone influ-
enced by erosion. Wisconsin waters produced large catches of lake her-
ring until the early 1960's when the population underwent a major de-
cline. Anderson and Smith (10) showed lake herring decline was associ-
ated with increased abundance of smelt (Osmerus mordax), Recent studies
suggest smelt respond to turbidity by migrating toward the surface. Lo-
cation away from the bottom resulted in increased percentages of zoo-
plankton and larval fish in smelt diets (4). These studies showed that
209
-------
although turbidity appears to result in greater herring survival in the
absence of smelt, turbidity indirectly caused lower survival of larval
herring and population decline through its influence on smelt distribu-
tion and food habits.
Distribution of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) in western
Lake Superior and in laboratory turbidity gradients was positively re-
lated to turbidity level whereas lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) avoid-
ed turbid water (4).
NEMADJI BASIN STUDY AREA
General Characteristics
The Nemadji River Basin includes 740 km2 (460 mi2) in Carlton and
Pine Counties, Minnesota and Douglas County, Wisconsin. The basin is
essentially a level plain representing a portion of the abandoned lake
bed of glacial Lake Duluth. Lake deposits of clay, silt and sand com-
prise the central portion of the Nemadji watershed. The Nemadji is a
young river meandering through a level plain of highly erodable lake
sediments. Land use is 90% second growth forest. The area was clear-
cut in the early 1900's and is now predominantly regrowth of aspen,
birch and some pine (11).
Two tributaries to the Nemadji River were selected for implementa-
tion of erosion control measures. These are the Skunk Creek Basin in
Minnesota, a relatively high sediment-producing watershed covering 17.2
km2 (10.7 mi2), and Little Balsam Creek in Wisconsin, a moderate sedi-
ment-producing basin covering 9.7 km2 (6 mi2). Skunk Creek remains rel-
atively turbid year-round. Stream discharge varied from 0.002-1.25 cms
(0.06-44 cfs) in April-mid August, 1976. The average gradient is 6.25
m km"1 (33 ft mi"1). Little Balsam Creek is a relatively clear trout
stream which maintains a more stable discharge [above 0,025 cms (0.88 cfs)
in April-August, 1976]. Average gradient is 20 m km"1 (105 ft mi~l).
Land use within both watersheds is of relatively low intensity. The
primary sediment producing problems are stream bank and roadside erosion.
Study Sites
Sampling sites in the basin were selected to represent the turbid-
ity and sediment types which typify the Nemadji River and tributaries,
and to provide information on the immediate effect of erosion control on
the aquatic community. Thirteen sites were selected on the Nemadji Ri-
ver, Balsam, Little Balsam, Empire, Skunk and Elim Creeks (Figure 1) .
Sites were selected as follows:
Site 1; The Nemadji River 0.8 km (0.5 mi) upstream from its mouth
where channel is broad (46 m), deep (2.5 m) and of uniform shape. There
is no definable gradient and current and direction of water flow over
the sand substrate is related to Lake Superior seiches.
Site 2: The Nemadji River approximately 8 km (5 mi) above the
mouth. The river is narrower (22 m), deep (2.5 m average) and slow-
moving. Currents and water levels are influenced by Lake Superior
seiches. The stream bed is bordered by clay banks resulting in some
210
-------
200
20
40 60
Distance from Lake Superior (km)
80
Figure 1. Gradient Map of the Nemadji River and Tributaries With Sampling Stations.
-------
erosion, and the substrate Is composed of clay, sand and some gravel.
Site 3: Approximately 30 km (18 mi) above the mouth where the riv-
er is shallow (<1 m) with a gradient 0.66 m km"1 (3,5 ft mi"1), Erosion
of the banks in this region result in a predominantly unstable sand sub-
strate.
Site 4; Nemadji River 35 km (22 mi) above the mouth is physically
similar to Site 3.
Site 5; Nemadji River 47 km (29 mi) above the mouth where the
character changes to a pool-riffle pattern with rubble and gravel more
prevalent in the stream bed. Soils in this location are predominantly
silts and clays reducing the sand bedload. The gradient is approximate-
ly 1.7 m km"1 (9 ft mi"1).
Site 6; North Branch of the Nemadji River 80 km (50 mi) from the
mouth where the river has a typical pool-riffle configuration with rub-
ble and boulders prevalent in the substrate.
Site 7; Balsam Creek is classified as trout water by the Wisconsin
DNR, but the reaches sampled are turbid throughout the year, The sub-
strate has large quantities of rubble with heavy silt in the pools.
Site 8: Little Balsam Creek below proposed erosion control sites
where the substrate is gravel and rubble in riffles and sand in pools.
There is some clay sediment but the stream remains clear aside from
spring floods. The gradient is 20 m km"1 (105 ft mi"1).
Site 9: Upper reaches of Little Balsam Creek well above the area
planned for bank stabilization. Rubble and sand make up the substrate.
Discharge is lower than in the previous station,
Site 10: Empire Creek which occupies an adjacent drainage basin
to the Little Balsam with stream length, watershed size, water quality
and substrate very similar to the Little Balsam. This undisturbed water-
shed was selected to allow more meaningful interpretations of changes in
Little Balsam Creek associated with erosion control.
Site 11: Skunk Creek above the influx of Elim Creek where a flood
water retaining structure is being constructed and above most of the
bank stabilization and channelization planned for Skunk Creek. The sub-
strate is about 35% rubble with silt and clay in the pools.
Site 12: Mouth of Elim Creek which is an intermittent stream that
is monitored when a stream flow exists to assess the effects of the
proposed sediment retaining structure. The substrate is largely rubble
and gravel.
Site 13; Skunk Creek below the proposed construction area, an area
physically similar to Site 11, although there is more silt and clay and
less rubble. The gradient is about 6 m km"1 (33 ft mi" ).
212
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METHODS
Chemical and Physical Characteristics
Estimates of average stream width and depth were made at each sam-
pling site. Qualitative estimates of stream bank erosion, vegetative
cover and water color were made at all sampling sites, The substrate of
the streams was classified by visual appraisal according to the soil
particle size classification described in "Biological Field and Labora-
tory Methods for Measuring the Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents"
(12).
Dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity and temperature were
measured each time a sampling site was visited. In addition, nitrite-
nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, dissolved orthophosphates and total phos-
phates were measured every 2-3 weeks beginning August 3, 1976 in Skunk,
Elim, Little Balsam and Empire Creeks. Water temperature was measured
with a thermister temperature probe. Turbidity was measured in Formazin
Turbidity Units (FTU) with a Ecologic Model 102 Turbidimeter. Measure-
ments were converted to parts per million (ppm) using the relationship
defined in Figure 2, Dissolved oxygen (DO) was measured with a Yellow
Springs Instrument Model 54 DO meter, conductivity with a Yellow Springs
Instrument Model 33 conductivity meter, nitrite and nitrate-nitrogen by
the cadmium reduction method (13), orthophosphate-phosphorus by the
stannous chloride method (13) and total phosphorus by the persulfate di-
gestion method (13).
*
100
80
5 60
tJ
2
4
-------
taken in three sampling periods during the Autumn of 1975. A Surber
sampler (0.093 m2) was used except at Site 1 where water depth necessi-
tated the use of a Ponar dredge. Hester-Dendy type artificial substrate
samplers (0.110 m2 surface) were used at all stations to collect macro-
invertebrates. Two pairs of samplers were used at each station (one
pair in a pool, the other in a riffle where possible). Samplers were
collected after allowing six weeks for colonization by careful removal
over a sieve to prevent loss of insects.
All samples were preserved in the field and returned to the labora-
tory for sorting. Insects were separated by washing through a U. S.
Standard No. 35 sieve (32 meshes 2.54 cm"1) and hand picked. Identified
to genus was made using keys by Hilsenhoff, Usinger and Pennak (14, 15,
16).
Fish Population Assessments
Fish populations were sampled monthly (May-November) at all sites
during Autumn 1975 and at nine sampling sites during 1976. Sites 1 and
2 were sampled with trapnets (0.9 x 1,8 m pot, 15.2 x 0.9 m lead of 2.54
cm bar mesh) in 1975. Two nets were set at each site and fish were re-
moved every twenty-four hours, identified, measured and weighed. Site
1 was sampled in 1976 only during May and June. Trapnets were used be-
cause water depth exceeded that at which available electrofishing gear
is efficient.
The remaining sites were electrofished with either a 300 watt or a
1250 watt DC current portable generator, a 1000 watt DC current stream
shocker with variable voltage and pulse rate or two 350 watt backpack
AC-DC current shockers. The unit used was dependent upon water depth
and volume.
Sampling sites in the four tributary creeks were premeasured in
three 61 m lengths. One length was fished each month. Longer stretches
were sampled in the Nemadji River with the length of the three premea-
sured sections equal to ten times the average stream width. The lengths
chosen were long enough to include both pools and riffles where they
occurred. Fish captured with the electrofishing units were identified,
weighed, measured and returned to the stream at the completion of fishing
a section. Representative scale samples were collected from major
species populations.
Spawning success in the Nemadji River was estimated from samples
of larval fish collected by two drift nets (30.5 x 14.0 cm with 571y
mesh) placed in the river near the Douglas County Highway C bridge. The
nets were placed in the water at the surface and 0.5 m beneath the sur-
face daily for 15 min. Sampling began on 8 May and continued until no
larval fish were captured. Current velocity was measured at the mouth
of each net using a Pygmy Gurley current meter to determine the volume
of sampled water. Larval fish captured were preserved for later identi-
fication and counting in the laboratory. Larvae were identified using
the taxonomic keys of Fish and Norden (17, 18).
Egg Survival Studies
A constant flow, temperature and turbidity controlled apparatus was
214
-------
constructed for incubating fish eggs, The apparatus was essentially a
gravity flow system utilizing dechlorinated City of Superior water.
Temperature modifications were made in a common water reservoir» One
half of the water supply was increased in turbidity to 50 FTU using
equipment described by Swenson and Matson (9) and clay from Site 8. The
other half remained clear (1 FTU). Proportionate mixing of the turbid
water with the clear water resulted in the intermediate turbidity values
of 10 and 25 FTU. Mean turbidity values for the four treatments for the
14 day duration of the study were 1.3, 9.2, 23.2 and 48.5 FTU. Water
temperatures were maintained near 10 C. Mean temperatures were 9.9,
10.0, 10.0 and 10,1 C for the respective nominal turbidities of 1, 10,
25 and 50 FTU. The systematic increase in water temperature with tur-
bidity was due to recycling of half the water over the clay source to
increase turbidity.
The incubation chambers were constructed to simulate stream sub-
strate and current conditions. Four channels were used for each tur-
bidity level with each channel subdivided into four chambers by 530y
mesh opening stainless steel screen. This allowed for two replicate
samples of eggs for two fish species per channel. Each channel was 19.0
cm long, 3.0 cm wide and 2.5 cm deep. Two of the channels were filled
to a depth of 2.0 cm with washed sand (<0,7 mm) and the other two were
filled to the same depth with gravel (<20 mm but ^10 nan) . Each of these
paired substrates differed in current velocity by a factor of approxi-
mately two.
Eggs of rainbow smelt were obtained from adults taken in Allouez
Bay of the Duluth-Superior Harbor on April 29, 1976, The adults were
transported alive to the laboratory at the bay water temperature (10.6
C). Eggs from 5 females were fertilized with sperm from 8 males and
hardened for 30 minutes in petri dishes at 10.0 C. Random samples were
then withdrawn and placed in the incubation chambers. Egg counts were
made at the completion of the incubation period (14th day). Numbers of
eggs per incubation chamber ranged from 134 to 749 with a mean of 374.9.
At the onset of first hatch the remaining eggs were sorted from the sand
and gravel, identified as alive or dead (dead eggs were opaque) and
counted.
RESULTS
Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Sampling Sites
Water temperature generally increase in the Nemadji River system
from its headwaters to the mouth with the exception of Site 1 which was
influenced by Lake Superior seiches. The highest temperature recorded
was 26.7 C at sampling site 5 on 14 July 1976. Temperatures were higher
in the turbid water tributaries than clear tributaries (Table 1).
Dissolved oxygen under normal conditions, ranged from 54 to 119% of
saturation during the ice-free sampling season. There was no relation-
ship between turbidity and DO levels. The low value was measured at
sampling Site 1 on 29 April 1975 e.nd the high at sampling Site 5 on 11
September 1975. A point source pollution problem decreased the dis-
solved oxygen to <5% of saturation at sampling Site 1 during June and
July 1976.
215
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Table 1. Distance from Lake Superior, Substrate Composition, Mean Stream Width, Mean Stream Depth, Mean An-
nual Water Temperature and Mean Annual Turbidity of Nine Sampling Sites in the Nemadji River System.
Nemadji River
Sampling Site Number
Kilometers From Lake Superior
Substrate Composition
Mean Stream Width (m)
Mean Stream Depth (m)
Mean Annual Water Temp. (C)a
Mean Annual Turbidity (FTU)a
1
0.8
Clay
39.6
2.6
14.6
34.1
4
36.2
Sand
15.2
0.3
12.5
33.4
5
46.7
Sand
18.6
0.6
13.9
32.6
Empire
Creek
10
48.4
Sand
1.8
0.2
9.5
6.6
Little
Balsam Creek
8
49.9
Gravel
3.7
0.2
10.6
8.9
9
52,3
Rubble
1.5
0.2
9.9
4.8
Elim
Creek
12
78,2
Gravel
1.8
0.1
11.4
42.6
Skunk
13
77.2
Clay
6.7
0.7
10.9
49.8
=========
Creek
11
78.9
Gravel
2.4
0.5
10.7
38.8
vD
,-H
CM
a Values based upon data from ice-free months.
-------
Conductivity reached maximum values during late summer and decreased
until the occurrence of ice cover, Dilution by snow melt runoff in the
spring further decreased the conductivity of the water. The range of
values measured in the Nemadji River system was 30 to 280 ymhos cm~l.
Conductivity values were lowest in the clear tributaries and increased
downstream to sampling Site 4. Lake seiches often diluted the river wa-
ter at sampling Site 1 and reduced conductivity,
Turbidity in the Nemadji River was quite uniform between sampling
sites and relatively low during late summer and autumn. Heavy rains
just before freeze-up in 1975 and snow melt runoff during the Spring
1976 increased the turbidity to its maximum values. The range of mea-
sured values for all sampling sites was from 1 to 260 FTU. The lowest
values were measured in Empire and Little Balsam Creeks and the highest
in Skunk Creek (Table 1).
Measurement of major nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) was begun
in August of 1976 in four of the Nemadji River tributaries, Lack of
rain and related low runoff and low stream flows have resulted in low
values at all sampling sites. Nitrite-nitrogen was nearly nonexistent
in all streams (Table 2). The maximum value was 43.9 ppb in Skunk Creek.
However, nitrate-nitrogen was measured in higher concentrations and
ranged from 0 to 671 ppb. Empire and Little Balsam Creeks, characterized
by the lowest turbidity, had the highest values. The maximum soluble
orthophosphate level was 39 ppb. Orthophosphate was below detectable
levels in the low turbidity tributaries. Total phosphorus values were
higher in the low turbidity tributaries (Table 2).
Table 2. Range and Mean (In Parenthesis) of Values for Nitrite-N,
Nitrate-N, Ortho and Total Phosphorus for Water From Four
Tributaries of the Nemadji River From August Through
October 1976.
b
PPb
Skunk
Creek
0.0-43.9
(14.5)
0.0-604.0
(166.5)
0.0-39.0
(3.6)
9.7-186.0
(51.0)
Elim
Creek
0.0-0.0
(0.0)
0.0-136.7
(63.1)
0.0-25.0
(6.2)
0.0-223.0
(68.9)
Little Balsam
Creek
0.0-24.1
(12.1)
36.5-671.0
(342.8)
0.0-0.0
(0.0)
0.0-525.0
(120.5)
Empire
Creek
0.0-4.2
(2.1)
8.9-589.0
(243.5)
0.0-0.0
(0.0)
0.0-129.0
(69.5)
Nitrite-N ppb
Nitrate-N ppb
Orthophosphate ppb
Total Phosphorus ppb
Macroinvertebrates
Diversity of macroinvertebrates and total number per 0.092 m2 (1
ft2) were defined for benthic samples at all sites. Diversity was cal-
culated using the Shannon Weaver Index (EPA manual) (12). Diversity was
not correlated with mean annual turbidity (Figure 3), but increased in
217
-------
4.0
3.0
I
1.0
Artificial Substrate
Pool + Riffle
Riffle
—•— Turbidity
o
JC.
V)
4.0
3.0
2.0
io la
Benthic
6 8
Station N-umber
-i r
10
i
12
40
3
20 ~
TJ
° I
"B
40
20
Figure 3. Shannon Weaver Diversity Index for Benthic and
Artificial Substrate Samples in Riffles and Pools +
Riffles and Mean Annual Turbidity (FTU) in the
Nemadji River and Tributaries, Autumn 1975.
218
-------
the upstream direction in the Nemadji River (Sites 1-6). Clear-water
tributaries (Sites 8, 9 and 10) had lower diversity values than the more
turbid Skunk Creek (Sites 11 and 13). No benthic samples were collected
in Elim Creek (Site 12) which was dry throughout the autumn sampling pe-
riod.
Trends which appeared in diversity of the benthic samples were not
evident for Hester-Dendy samples (Figure 3). Again there was no cor-
relation with mean annual turbidity. Diversity calculated from benthic
and artificial substrate samples appeared to be negatively correlated
(r=-0.39), but the relationship was not significant.
f\
The number of organisms per 0.092 mz was calculated independently
for erosional (riffle) and depositional (pool) habitats (Figure 4) and
showed no correlation with turbidity. Variation in numbers of organisms
was most closely associated with changes in substrate being higher in
riffles (which did not occur in Sites 1-4) and silted pools than in the
unstable sand substrate characterizing Sites 3 and 4.
Number of organisms on the artificial substrate samplers showed no
consistent changes with turbidity (Figure 5) . The larger number of or-
ganisms at Sites 11 and 13 (turbid water) were composed primarily of
Chironomidae (midge larvae), which inhabited the heavy silt layers de-
posited on the samplers.
The most dramatic effect of erosion is in the reaches of the river
where large quantities of sand are contributed to the bed-load (Sites
3 and 4). This broad and shallow area lacks a stable substrate prevent-
ing the formation of a step-like continuum of riffles and pools. The
lowest benthic populations occur in these areas with only the biting
midges, Ceratopogonidae, seemingly adapted to the shifting sand. Both
pools and riffles occur in all of the more upstream sites where the bed
load is not great enough to cover the riffle areas. The pools have a
fairly stable substrate of sand in the clear water stations (Sites 8-10)
and silts and clays in the turbid sites (11 and 13).
The turbid tributaries support as large a benthic population as do
those streams with minimal erosion and high water clarity. The lowest
populations, in fact, occur at Site 10 which has one of the lowest mean
annual turbidities. This site has low populations in both the erosional
and depositional habitats. Small gravel predominates in the riffle areas
as opposed to rubble and large gravel at all other sites. The data sug-
gest lack of the larger substrates is a major factor in reducing benthic
populations,
The positive effects of a stable substrate and detritus trap can be
demonstrated by a comparison of the organisms in the unstable sand sub-
strate of Site 3 with a substrate sample at the same station where de-
tritus was trapped and with the Hester Dendy samples (Table 3), Mid-
channel samples presented a severe environment, lacking both food and a
stable substrate, resulting in a low number of organisms and genera.
The sample with detritus provided abundant food and protection. Insect
biomass was high as many of the organisms were the large stonefly,
Pteronarcys dorsata. The stable substrate of the Hester-Dendy samples
recruited a large number of genera,
219
-------
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4J C 03
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JUIZ60V
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al
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a)
-------
Table 3. Average Number of Organisms and Genera in a
Surber Sample in Detritus, Ten Sand Substrate
Mid-Channel Surber Samples, and Artificial
Substrate Samplers, Autumn 1975,
Sample Type
Detritus
Mid-Channel
Hester-Dendy
No, of
Genera
17.0
4,3
26.0
No. of
Organisms
115.0
18.5
87,5
All genera that appeared at the clear-water stations (Sites 8, 9
and 10) were found in the turbid tributary (Sites 11 and 13). The ad-
dition of some genera of mayflies (Hexagenia sp., Ephemera sp, and
Caenis sp.) indicate the preference of these burrowing forms for more
silt-laden substrates than are found in the sandy pools characteristic
of the clear streams.
Consideration of the benthic communities by functional groups il-
lustrate absence of differences attributed to levels of clay turbidity
or clay sedimentation encountered thus far in this study. Genera were
considered individually as carnivores or herbivores (including grazers,
filter feeders and shredders) and the relative numbers were compared be-
tween Little Balsam (clear water) and Skunk (turbid water) Creeks, Re-
markable similarity existed between the two, with carnivores(.092 m^)~l,
herbivores (.092 ur)~^-, and the herbivore to carnivore ratios nearly
identical (Table 4).
Table 4. Average Number of Carnivores and Primary Consumers per .092
m2 in Little Balsam and Skunk Creeks, Fall 1975.
Little Balsam Creek
Functional Group
Carnivores
Primary Consumers
Primary Consumers/Carnivores
Number
of Taxa
13
31
2.38
Number of
Organisms
24.4
365.9
14.99
Skunk Creek
Number
of Taxa
16
38
2.38
==£===:=:===;
Number of
Organisms
23.6
359.2
15.22
Distribution and Diversity of Fishes
The combined catch from nine sampling sites from August 1975 through
October 1976 was 12,487 fish representing 37 species (Table 5). Cata-
stomidae and Cyprinidae increased in abundance from the river mouth to
headwaters of the turbid tributaries (Table 6). Salmonidae dominated
221
-------
the fish populations in the clear tributaries but were conspicuously
absent elsewhere.
Table 5, Species of Fish Captured in the
Nemadji River and Four Tributaries
From August 1975 Through October
1976.
Brook Trout
Brown Trout
Rainbow Trout
Northern Pike
Muskellunge
Walleye
Yellow Perch
Logperch
Johnny Darter
Rainbow Smelt
Burbot
Brook Stickleback
Troutperch
Mottled Sculpin
White Sucker
Longnose Sucker
Silver Redhorse
Shorthead Redhorse
Central Mudminnow
Black Bullhead
Tadpole Madtom
Stonecat Madtom
Rock Bass
Black Crappie
Carp
Creek Chub
Hornyhead Chub
Lake Chub
Longnose Dace
Blacknose Dace
Pearl Dace
Brassy Minnow
Fathead Minnow
Common Shiner
Blackchin Shiner
Blacknose Shiner
Emerald Shiner
Salvelinus fontinalis
Salmo trutta
Salmo gairdneri
Esox lucius
Esox masquinongy
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
Etheostoma nigrum
Osmerus mordax
Lota lota
Culaea inconstans
Percopis omiscomaycus
Cottus bairdi
Catostomus commersoni
Catostomus catastomus
Moxostoma anisurum
Moxostoma macrolepidotum
Umbra limi
Ictalurus melas
Noturus gyrinus
Noturus flavus
Ambloplites rupestris
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Cyprinus carpio
Semotilus atromaculatus
Nocomis biguttatus
Couesius plumbeus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Rhinichthys atratulus
Semotilus margarita
Hybognathus hankinsoni
Pimephales promelas
Notropis cornutus
Notropis heterodon
Notropis heterolepis
Notropis atherinoides
Spring (April and May) samples produced greater numbers and biomass
of fish in the Nemadji River sampling sites (1-5) than are encountered
during the remainder of the sampling season, This was especially evident
at Site 5 which has a gravel substrate. This area appears to be suitable
spawning habitat for rainbow smelt, longnose suckers, white suckers,
silver redhorse (Moxostoma anisurum) and shorthead redhorse (Moxostoma
macrolepidotum). A single ripe female walleye was also captured.
222
-------
Table 6. Mean Values of Fish Numbers (# Hectare"1), Biomass (Kg Hec-
tare-1) and Fish From the Nemadji River and Four Tributaries
for the 1976 Sampling Season.
:=====
Sam-
ple
Site
4
5
8
9
10
11
12
13
Salmonidae
#
0
0
1141
5249
10923
0
0
13
wt.
0
0
31.44
113.64
169.55
0
0
5.23
Catastomidae
*
90
162
559
58
0
2077
777
172
wt
1.
5.
3.
6.
112.
11.
2.
81
36
79
53
0
38
92
61
Cyprinidae
#
326
256
5073
0
97
9250
10780
2265
wt,
2.55
4.09
21.00
0
1.16
106.63
144.54
19.57
Other
#
108
288
5535
2915
2623
3133
2913
981
' H
Wt.
0.99
2.35
12.14
8.98
16.27
7.50
10.39
1.99
Total Diver-
iomass sity
(Kg) Indexa
5.4
11.8
68.4
129.1
187.0
226.5
166.9
29.4
1.01
0.97
0.70
0.40
0.32
0.81
0.68
0.84
a Shannon-Wiener Index
Diversity indices were computed for each sampling site from 1976 col-
lections (Table 6). Numbers and biomass data associated with large lake
runs of spawning fish was not included in the analyses to characterize
the various sampling sites. Generally diversity increased with stream
size and decreased with an increase in Cyprinidae populations. Diver-
sity was lowest in the trout streams (stations 8, 9 and 10) and within the
trout streams diversity decreased towards the headwaters where trout
abundance increased.
Larval Fish Production
The Nemadji River contains high population densities of larval fish
during the month of May. Sampling was begun on 8 May and continued un-
til 23 May when the fry density approached zero. Larval fish drift
downstream upon hatching into the Superior-Duluth Harbor and Lake Supe-
rior. Rainbow smelt were the first group of larval fish to appear.
Smelt were first noted on 10 May, increased in density until 14 May,
then declined until 23 May (Figure 6). Distribution of fry was uniform
through the water column.
The second group of larval fish captured drifting downstream was
composed of suckers (white suckers, longnose suckers, shorthead red-
horse and silver redhorse have been found as spawning adults). Sucker
fry did not appear in any numbers until 21 May. The fry were almost
entirely restricted to the upper 5-10 cm of the water column and stopped
drifting on 23 May (Figure 7).
Rainbow Smelt Egg Incubation
Survival of rainbow smelt eggs incubated at different flow veloci-
ties, turbidities and on two substrates did not vary as a result of test
conditions. The eggs of rainbow smelt hatch in 15 days at 10.0 C (per-
sonal communication with J. Howard McCormick, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota) which necessitated terminating the study
223
-------
0.07
0.013
0.011
0.009
0.007
v>
0.005-
0.003-
0.001-
Figure 6. Number of Rainbow Smelt Fry/m3
Captured at Douglas County Road
C on the Nemadji River.
0.06
0.04^
•k
£• 0.03-
u.
fc
Jf
V)
0.02-
0.01-
Surfoce ° c
Midwater » o
V
-'"0^-~o c--o-Jo o
8 10 12
14 16
May
IS
20 22
Figure 7. Number of Sucker Fry/in^ Captured at Douglas
County Road C on the Nemadj ± River.
-------
on the 14th day of incubation due to the ability of fry to pass through
the 530p mesh openings used as barriers between replicate samples, Sur-
vival ranged from 30.2 to 74.0% for individual replicates (Table 7) with
the mean of paired replicates ranging from 33.1 to 60.4%.
DISCUSSION
The effects of turbidity and sedimentation on aquatic life have
generally been studied in situations where there are massive movements
of soils (e.g. logging operations, poor agricultural practices over
large areas) or a source of inorganic sediments (sand pit washing, clay
wastes, etc.). The burden of sediment which is discharged into a stream
under these conditions has offered excellent opportunities to assess the
effects of extremely high levels of stream sedimentation on aquatic life
(19, 20, 21). Few studies, however, have been involved with the effects
of erosion and the resultant turbidity and sedimentation which occur
naturally in a young river system flowing through highly erodable bed
materials as is the situation in the glacial lake deposits characteriz-
ing the Nemadji River Basin.
Macroinvertebrates
The effect of heavy sedimentation on stream macroinvertebrates has
been shown by some authors to affect numbers and biomass of organisms
with very little associated change in species composition (20, 21).
Herbert et_ al. (21) found the bottom fauna to be 3.3 times more numerous
where heavy clay sediment was not polluting the stream. No changes in
species composition were noted. Turbidity levels of the polluted stream
varied from 900-7500 ppm, which is a minimum of 10 times the levels found
in the Nemadji Basin. Other authors, including studies cited by Cordone
and Kelly (22) and Chutter (23), found significant changes in the bottom
fauna with increased siltation.
The effect of sedimentation on the benthic fauna seems to be mani-
fested primarily through changes in the character of the stream substrate.
Complete inundation of pools and riffles by silt and sand, as has occurred
in several studies^ would have obvious effects on composition through the
formation of a monotypic environment. It is also a very unstable envir-
onment, unsuitable for trapping detritus and prone to be flushed away
during floods. When the stream substrate is not completely covered, re-
duction in benthic populations may occur through the elimination of in-
terstitial space. The preference (or greater population size) of in-
sects has been found to be large rubble > medium rubble > gravel > bed-
rock > sand (24, 25, 26). Generally, the more interstitial space, the
higher the preference for the substrate.
Diversity of the benthic samples increased in an upstream direction
on the Nemadji River (Sites 1-6), indicative of the gradation of sub-
strates from sand to gravel to rubble. Diversity was slightly higher in
the turbid tributaries (Sites 7, 11 and 13) than in the clear streams
reflecting the increase in the burrowing or silt-loving forms. The
slight negative correlation of diversity indices between the benthic and
artificial substrate samples show a distinct substrate selection. Di-
versity indices for the artificial substrates have the highest and low-
est values at Sites 3, 4 6 and 10 (Figure 3). Consideration of the
225
-------
Table 7. Percentage Survivals of Rainbow Smelt Embryos Incubated at Different Values of Turbidity and
Current Velocity on Sand and Gravel. (Values in Parenthesis are the Means of the Replicate
Samples.)
Relative
Sub- Flow
strate Velocity
Nominal Turbidity Values
1 FTU
10 FTU
25 FTU
50 FTU
Sand
Gravel
Low 41.0 41.4 (41.2)
High 32.4 38.6 (35.5)
Low 57.2 32.3 (44.8)
High 50.7 32.2 (41.4)
56.8 41.9 (49.4)
44.1 45.5 (44.8)
38.8 41.5 (40.2)
30.2 44.6 (37.4)
47.2 48.1 (47.6)
33.0 33.2 (33.1)
40.1 44.1 (42.1)
49.9 42.9 (46.4)
46.9 74.0 (60.4)
44.7 44.3 (44.5)
36.3 38.4 (37.4)
39.6 37.5 (38.6)
vO
CM
CM
-------
types of substrate available at these sites shows a high selection for
the stable artificial substrates where the poorer sandy substrates exist
(Sites 3, 4 and 10), and rejection of the artificial substrate where
rubble prevails and diversity is naturally quite high (Site 6). Again
the populations are dependent more on substrate characteristics than
siltation. Erosion and related turbidity which does not affect the qual-
ity of the rocky substrate does not appear to alter the benthic fauna.
Fish
Cyprinidae dominated the turbid water tributaries of the Nemadji
River system where species diversity was highest, Troutperch, a species
characteristic of lakes and some turbid streams (27), was found only in
the turbid tributaries of the Nemadji River system. Although walleye
concentrated in turbid areas of Lake Superior, abundance in the Nemadji
River was low. High species diversity and biomass of fish in turbid
tributaries of the Nemadji River indicate that red clay turbidity is con-
ducive to production of many small non-predatory fish. Cover provided
by turbid water may increase survival of these species by reducing pre-
dation.
Lake Superior studies showed lake trout avoided turbid water. Dis-
tribution of stream trout and brook sticklebacks was restricted to clear
water tributaries of the Nemadji River system. Availability of physical
objectives such as riffle areas, undercut banks and large debris which
serve as cover, have been found by other investigators to be primary
factors regulating stream trout populations (28). These features were
characteristic of clear water tributaries in the Nemadji River system
but were rare in turbid tributaries and in the Nemadji River proper
where nature of the soils prevents development of undercut banks, sedi-
mentation limits riffle areas and high spring runoff combined with a
mobile substrate removes debris from the channel.
Unstable sand substrate reduced macroinvertebrate production, a
principle food of stream fish. Low food supply may explain the low
densities of walleye found in turbid Nemadji River waters in contrast
to the turbid Superior-Duluth Harbor and turbid water zone of western
Lake Superior.
Fish reproduction in the Nemadji River appears to be limited to
those species which do not bury their eggs in redds. Smelt embryos sur-
vived turbidity to 50 FTU in laboratory streams. Large concentrations
of smelt and sucker fry observed in the river demonstrated suitable
spawning sites are available for these species. Sedimentation has been
shown to adversely affect trout embryo survival in redds (29, 30). Lack
of suitable spawning sites may be partially responsible for the low num-
bers of trout or walleye in spring runs.
The individual responses of Lake Superior and Nemadji River system
aquatic populations to physical-chemical changes resulting from red clay
erosion should be predictable in other aquatic systems influenced by
similar non-point source pollution. Lake Superior studies demonstrated
that responses of individual populations to turbidity may influence
species interrelationships and through this secondary effect may alter
community structure. Because each population response to chemical-
physical environmental change could potentially bring about several
227
-------
changes in species interrelationships, it would be extremely difficult to
predict the occurrence of these community level responses from one system
to another even with an improved data base. There is an almost complete
lack of information on the effects of any form of pollution on species
interrelationships. These secondary effects must be addressed by addi-
tional research if the influence of pollution on aquatic life is to be
fully understood.
Information presented in this report on the Nemadji River system was
based on data collected over a short time and conclusions must be ac-
cepted as preliminary, Additional work recently initiated or scheduled
as part of our investigations on the Nemadji River system will help to
define effects of low light penetration on primary production, behavioral
responses of stream animals to turbidity and response of the system to
erosion control practices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the EPA Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth,
Minnesota, which provided research space, equipment and technical assis-
tance on several aspects of the research. We are also indebted to Mary
Balcer, Catherine Moriarity, Carol Nordgren, Glenn Warren and Steven H.
Poirier who assisted with field collections and laboratory analyses.
REFERENCES
1. Red Clay Inter-Agency Committee. 1972. Erosion and sedimentation
in the Lake Superior Basin. 79 pp.
2. Sydor, M. 1976. Red clay turbidity in western Lake Superior.
Univ. of Minn.-Duluth, Final Rep. EPA Grant #R005175. 150 pp.
unpublished.
3. Hess, C.S. 1973. Study of shoreline erosion on the western arm of
Lake'superior. Geography Dept. Univ, of Wis,-Madison. 51 pp. un-
published.
4. Swenson, W.A. 1973. Influence of turbidity on fish abundance in
western Lake Superior, Progr. Rep. EPA Grant //R-802455. 51 pp.
unpublished.
5. Bahnick, D.A. 1975. Chemical effects of red clays on western Lake
Superior. Univ. of Wis.-Superior, Final Rep. EPA Grant #4-005169.
124 pp. unpublished.
6. Balcer, M.D. and W.A. Swenson. (Due Press). Zooplankton abundance,
zooplankton distribution and light penetration in turbid and clear
water of western Lake Superior. Manuscript submitted to J. Great
Lakes Res.
7. Bahnick, D.A. (In Press). The contribution of red clay erosion to
orthophosphate loading into southwestern Lake Superior. J. Environ.
Qual.
228
-------
8. McElroy, A. and S.Y. Chiu. 1974. Water pollution investigation:
Duluth-Superior area. Midwest Res. Inst. Final Rep. #EPA 905/9-74-
014. 99 pp, unpublished,
9. Swenson, W.A. and M,L. Matson, 1976. Influence of turbidity on
survival, growth and distribution of larval lake herring (Coregonus
artedii). Trans. Am. Fish, Soc. 105:541-545.
10. Anderson, E.D. and L.L. Smith, Jr, 1971 . Factors affecting abun-
dance of lake herring (Coregonus artedii Lesueur) in western Lake
Superior. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 100:691-707.
11. Andrews, S.C., R.G. Christensen, and C.D, Wilson, 1976. Impact of
non-point pollution control on Western Lake Superior. U.S. EPA
Publication 905/9-76-002. 146 pp.
12. Weber, C.I. 1973. Biological field and laboratory methods for
measuring the quality of surface waters and effluents, EPA Publ,
670/4-73-001, Nat. Env. Res. Center, Cincinnati.
13. American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard methods for the
examination of water and wastewater, 13th ed. APHA, New York.
14. Hilsenhoff, W.C. 1975. Adult insects of Wisconsin. Wis. Dept, of
Nat. Res., Tech. Bull. No, 89, 52 pp,
15. Usinger, Robert (Ed.). 1956. Aquatic insects of California. U.
of Calif..Press, Berkeley, Calif., 508 p.
16. Pennak, R.W. 1953, Freshwater invertebrates of the United States.
Ronald Press, N.Y., 769 pp.
17. Fish, M.P. 1932. Contributions to the early life histories of
sixty-two species of fish from Lake Erie and its tributary waters.
U.S. Bureau of Fish. Bull,, 10:293-398.
18. Norden, C. Key to the larval fishes of the Great Lakes. 8 pp, un-
published.
19. Tebo, L.B. Jr. 1955. Effects of siltation, resulting from improper
logging, on the bottom fauna of a small trout stream in the southern
Appalachians. Prog. Fish-Cult., 17:64-70.
20. Hamilton, J.D. 1961. The effect of sand-pit washings on a stream
fauna. Vehr. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 14:435-439.
21. Herbert, D.W.M., J.S. Alabaster, M.C. Dart, and R. Lloyd. 1961.
The effect of china-clay wastes on trout streams. Int. J. Air Wat.
Poll. 5(1):56-74.
22. Cordone, A.J. and D.W. Kelley. 1961. The influences of inorganic
sediment on the aquatic life of streams. Calif. Fish and Game,
47:189-228.
229
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23. Chutter, F.M. 1969. The effects of silt and sand on the inverte-
brate fauna of streams and rivers. Hydrobiologia 34:57-72.
24. Wene, G. and E.L, Wickliff. 1940. Modification of a stream bottom
and its effect on insect fauna. Can. Ent., 72:131-135,
25. Bell, H.C, 1969. Effect of substrate types on aquatic insect dis-
tribution. J. Minn, Acad. Sci., 35:79-81,
26. Brusven, M.A. and K.V. Prather. 1974. Influence of stream sedi-
ments on distribution of macrobenthos. J, Ent. Soc. British Colum-
bia, 71:25-32.
27. Scott, W.B. and E.J. Grossman. 1973. Freshwater fishes of Canada,
Fish. Res. Board Can, Bull. 184, 966 pp,
28. Lewis, S.L, 1969. Physical factors influencing fish populations
in pools of a trout stream, Trans, Am. Fish. Soc. 98:14-19,
29. Hobbs, Derisley F. 1937. Natural reproduction of quinnat salmon,
brown and rainbow trout in certain New Zealand waters. New Zealand
Mar. Dept., Fish. Bull. 6, 104 pp,
30. Hausle, Donald A. and Daniel W. Coble. 1976. Influence of sand in
redds on survival and emergence of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinal-
is). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 105:57-63,
230
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Non-point Source Modeling for Section 208 Planning
Walter M. Sanders, III
Environmental Research Laboratory
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
College Station Road
Athens, Georgia 30601
In early 1975, the staff of EPA's Athens Environmental Research
Laboratory was requested to assist the developing Areawide 208 program
by providing techniques for assessing and/or predicting water quality
and non-point source problems. Our first step was to visit several
Areawide 208 organizations, EPA Regional 208 staffs, and major
consulting firms to evaluate needs, levels of technical sophistication,
and computational equipment capabilities.
During these initial contacts, it became painfully clear that there
are still many decision-makers, both inside and outside of EPA, who do
not understand, accept, or, in some cases, condone the use of non-point
source models or water quality models. To me, this is a harsh
indictment; not so much of those who are overly cautious, but of those
of us who should be able to adequately present and explain to
environmental managers the necessity and utility of applying the most
powerful tools available.
231
-------
Some Areawide 208 organizations have a major problem in adequately
communicating the results of environmental assessments and plans to the
various elected bodies within their designated 208 jurisdictions. Thus,
in anticipating that others might be facing similar problems, the first
part of my presentation will consider the question "Why Use Models?" and
the latter portion will briefly describe the current state-of-the-art
modeling tools available in the public domain for non-point source
loading and water quality management.
Why Use Models?
Everyone has his own definition of "models." My definition, for
non-technical people, is: Models are representations of reality having
specific goals or objectives. When applied to problems of environmental
assessment, models or "mathematical descriptions" may be developed for
the movement of a pollutant mass through a given river basin or air shed
to gain insight into benefits derived from reducing the inputs through
treatment or control. For other situations, models may be used to gain
understanding of the growth responses of specific organisms such as
bacteria, algae, or fish when temperature, light, or nutrients are
varied through prescribed ranges. In any case, the modeler or manager
must have clearly stated objectives.
It must be pointed out early in our discussion that models are only
"partial truths" because our ability to "represent reality" is limited
by our inability to accurately perceive, measure, or mathematically
describe real places, systems, things, or events. This problem becomes
very evident when we attempt to describe forests, lakes, or streams that
232
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are being polluted and we realize how little we actually know about the
structure of the food web or the flow of materials and energy among the
various compartments of the ecosystem. In spite of this lack of
knowledge, the step-by-step, systematic approach required for the
development of mathematical models offers the most rational method of
making management decisions relative to complex environmental issues.
In the broad sense, man has been using models to represent reality
since he became a thinking being; our recorded history is full of
examples. The paintings left by early cave men and the dances of the
aboriginal indians depict the glories of the hunt and encounters with
the most savage beasts. The Egyptians recorded their impressions of
reality with pictures and symbols; and the Aztecs and Incas developed
calendars to model and predict the annual progression of the seasons.
Ancient Chinese and Babalonians recorded their observations of the
planets from which astrological charts were developed and the possible
fates of important men were predicted. The need for better methods for
quantification led to the development of mathematics and systems of
measurements. Navigators produced charts and maps that modeled their
travels and enabled others to follow. Engineers learned to arrange
their data in tables and nomographs for easy analysis and to aid in the
design of equipment and structures for specific purposes. In our own
time, the mathematical representation of competing physical and
biological processes enabled Streeter and Phelps to model their
understanding of the oxygen dynamics within a reach of the Ohio River.
And now the advent of the high speed computer has enabled us to extend
233
-------
this early work and to assemble and analyze thousands of bits of
information, represent many interacting processes, and evaluate
unlimited alternative schemes for decision making.
Under this broad definition of models, each of us develops and
utilizes models for every decision that we make. The model may only be
in our minds, yet it involves assembly and assessment of pertinent
information, weighing of alternatives, and prediction of the outcome of
the alternative decisions. In some endeavors, an expert is an
individual who is adept at perceiving reality through his experiences,
whose decision models are good enough to enable him to make right
decisions more often than not, and who is also able to describe or
communicate his decision models to others well enough to gain their
confidence.
Unfortunately, for those of us in the field of environmental
protection, the required data bases are so large and there are so many
interacting factors that a single individual can seldom track the
decision process to a successful conclusion without the aid of
sophisticated external tools. It is a simple and logical progression,
therefore, for environmental managers to advance from the simple mental
decision process to complex decision processes that utilize the best
modeling tools available.
Major advantages to the environmental manager are that modeling:
« Provides better problem definition.
In the process of developing or selecting models for specific
objectives, the manager is required to carefully analyze the
234
-------
problem at hand and to list all of the known major contributing
factors. This analysis more nearly focuses on the true cause-
effect relationships that might exist and reduces the chance of
treating symptoms rather than the disease.
Provides a guide for data collection.
When a model is developed during the initial analysis of a
problem it serves as a basis for optimum data collection.
Because the data are used to calibrate the model, there is
usually a large dollar savings and the persistent problem of
having the wrong data collected at the wrong place and at the
wrong time is prevented.
Provides a framework for assessing data.
A well-designed model automatically provides the format for
data analysis. Just as the form of the model dictates what
data are required, models can also provide automated procedures
for extracting rate coefficients, maxima and minima values, and
other information from raw data.
Provides ability to handle complex interactions.
Today's environmental management problems often require
tracking the transport of a pollutant through the environment
in order to establish a procedure or to select a management
scheme that maximizes several factors while minimizing others.
Such problems may involve the interactions of so many competing
processes occurring at different times and at different rates
235
-------
that it is practically impossible to reach a judicious solution
without using the modeling process.
Provides an ability to predict.
Rational models that couple mathematical descriptions of the
various interacting physical, chemical, and biological
processes or socio-economic factors provide the capability of
predicting responses to combinations of factors that fall
outside of the range of historical data used for the initial
model calibration. Once developed, these process models
provide quick, inexpensive ways (sensitivity analysis) to
determine the importance of interacting processes or factors by
running the model while varying each input parameter through a
real or projected maximum and minimum. The relative magnitudes
of the resulting changes in the model outputs can then be used
as guides for determining both the quantity and accuracy of the
data required for calibration and validation. (Parameters that
have little effect on the outcome of the simulated problem
require less attention and resources.) Similarly, the greatest
benefits to be derived by environmental managers from using
simulation models result from the ability to test any number of
hypothetical situations by varying combinations of input
conditions through projected extreme values. Again, these
extreme conditions may represent actual measured values or they
may be generated by mathematical and statistical techniques
(i.e., stochastic methods). The resulting range of model
236
-------
output values can readily be used by managers in selecting
optimum solutions from the alternatives proposed. Thus, better
decisions can be made even when the models are imperfect
representations of reality and the data bases are less than
desired.
• Allows examination of decision processes.
Because the development of simulation models requires that all
of the assumptions, data bases, and outputs be recorded, the
entire decision process can be examined by all interested
parties. This factor can be of great assistance when properly
presented to various decision and/or interest groups whose
support is vital to good environmental management.
In concluding my remarks about the utility of applying modeling
techniques to solve environmental problems, I should point out that the
optimum procedure requires the development of a specific model for each
problem encountered. Of course, the complexity of the model depends
upon the complexity of the problems. In reality, however, time and
resource limitations force the direct use or modification of models that
have been developed by others. Thus, the task becomes one of selecting
the simplest and most economical model format that will best encompass
all of the stated conditions of the particular problem.
State-of-the-Art Models
Universities, private industries, and government agencies have
probably developed as many different water quality models during the
past 10 years as the automobile industry has produced different model
237
-------
automobiles. Like the new model cars though, most of these simulation
models represent minor modifications of a few very basic conceptual
structures. Thus, to simplify this overview, I will discuss the
differences in the basic model structures available in the public
domain.
When one views the movement of pollutants through a watershed from
source to undesirable impact, the significant environmental processes
divide into three logical groups for modeling purposes (Figure 1).
• "Loading" models represent the inputs and movement of materials
from origin to watercourses and may be developed for point or
non-point sources on the land. These models interface with
water quality models and provide input concentrations and
rates.
• "Water quality" models simulate the movement of materials
through streams, rivers, impoundments, lakes, estuaries, or
entire basin systems. They generate estimates of the
concentration and distribution of pollutants within aquatic
systems and thus provide the vital management link between
source and "level of exposure."
• "Receptor" models should interface with water quality models
and simulate the uptake and dose response of humans, livestock,
wildlife, aquatic life, ecosystem functions, etc. to various
pollutants. These models should include chronic and acute
toxicity responses to individual species and prolonged
238
-------
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Point Sources
Other NPS
N5
U>
VO
-4
I
Loads
SIMULATION MODELS
General NPS
NPS Silviculture
1
NPS Non-Irrigated
Agriculture
I II III
Probabilistic
Deterministic
Components I II
St
Ri
Im
La
Es
Ba
ream
ver
poundment. *
ke *
tuary *
sin *
III
*
*
T Wildlife
1 Aquatic Life
~~* 1
.^ I Human
1? ,
1
j j
Water Quality
Receptors
-------
ecosystem impacts such as damage to food webs, effects of
primary production, and rates of decomposition.
Taken together, these models give managers better tools to estimate
the long-term effectiveness of control strategies by coupling the
management alternatives directly to the degree of risk or safety.
Unfortunately, the receptor models are not as well developed as the
loading and water quality models, and the tasks of providing computer-
compatible software interfacing are just beginning. For example,
researchers are still looking for adequate ways to project the degree of
adaptation or selection that organisms and systems experience when
subjected to low-level chronic concentrations of pollutants. Thus, it
will be several years before the receptor models will become available
for general use.
The staff at the Athens Environmental Research Laboratory has
further subdivided the loading and water quality models into three
groups according to geographic scale: basin scale, 200 square miles and
greater; area-wide, 200 square miles and smaller; hydrologic unit, small
watershed or field. This grouping is convenient because geographic
scale also limits the complexity of the models. Although technically
feasible, high data acquisition and computer costs currently prohibit
the general use of very complicated models for large area simulations.
Basin Scale
Basin scale models are generally used for large area problem
assessment or load reconnaissance. Only gross resolution is possible,
and the on-land or in-stream processes are generally limited to
240
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hydraulic transport and first order decay. Values from the Midwest
Research Institute handbook (1) are used for non-point source loads and
the coupled loading and water transport models can be used to identify
areas having potential water quality problems based on the mass of
pollutants within the system. These models should not be used for
management decisions other than identifying locations within a basin
where more sophisticated tools should be applied.
Although individual non-point source and stream water quality
models have been available for large area application, the coupling or
interfacing of separate models into a basin scale package has only been
attempted recently. In fact, until this year there was no computer-
compatible water quality model that could simulate the continuous
transport of BOD wastes from a point source, through a small stream,
through a river, through an impoundment or reservoir, and into an
estuary.
To fill this need, the Athens Environmental Research Laboratory
contracted with Tetra Tech Corporation to develop a basin scale
reconnaissance model that will interface non-point source loading
functions from the Midwest Research Institute handbook (1) with a
simplified Qual. II water quality model (2) and a simplified Water
Resources Engineers (WRE) reservoir model (3). The contractor has
already produced a desk top, hand calculation version of this basin
assessment scheme and will have a computer package with users manual
available for general use by July 1977. To accompany this package,
Midwest Research Institute has also contracted to provide a computer-
241
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compatible calculator and data file for the non-point source loading
information now available in the MRI handbook. This automatic data file
and users manual should also be available in July 1977. The non-point
source calculator is designed so users can enter their own loading data,
if available, or use the already published information for the general
area. The weaknesses of basin scale assessment package are:
• The loading factors are based on annual average yield values
derived from the Universal Soil Loss Equation.
• The mass routing through reservoirs provide only crude
estimates.
Area Wide
The intermediate scale or area wide models are of greatest interest
to the designated 208 organizations, their consultants, and state and
Federal agencies. The needs range from reconnaissance or problem
assessment schemes to sophisticated non-point source loading-water
quality management models.
For problem assessment, the same model availability situation
exists as described for the basin scale category. Although a number of
individual non-point source and stream water quality models are
available, they have not been interfaced to provide a comprehensive
computer-compatible system. Thus, the MRI-Qual-II-WRE reconnaissance
package can also be useful at this level. This package was designed so
that the more complicated versions of the Qual. II and WRE reservoir
models can be applied if higher degrees of resolution are required.
242
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To assist a 208 agency in determining whether a non-point source
problem exists within its jurisdiction, Mr. Lee Mulkey of the Athens
Laboratory, developed a desk top area wide assessment procedure and
presented it at several EPA Regional seminars during the past year.
This assessment procedure, which will be published in part in EPA's Area
Wide Assessment Procedures Manual (4), was designed to lead non-
technical staff through a step-by-step analysis of their non-point
source inputs. The procedure uses locally available records and
information from the National Weather Service, the Soil Conservation
Service, the Geological Survey, state and local water agencies, or other
sources, as well as data from the MRI handbook and the EPA-USBA report
entitled Control of_ Water Pollution from Cropland, Vol. !_._ Again, this
-• '^"ST**" -
procedure was not planned as a problem solving tool, but solely to help
208 agencies identify potential problems that should be addressed in
greater detail by their technical staffs or consultants.
The Areawide Assessment Procedures Manual also provides a gross
problem assessment scheme for designated 208 agencies and covers methods
for identifying and estimating the magnitude of urban and non-urban
waste sources and ranking them according to their impact on receiving
water quality. The Manual also describes more refined procedures for
assessing waste loads from urban and non-urban areas as well as detailed
discussions of water quality management models.
Higher resolution, non-point source loading models for area wide
applications are characterized by two major differences in the model
construction:
243
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1. Models are designed to simulate either continuous or single
runoff events.
2. The models either assume all pollutants to be associated and
transported with sediments or simulate the transport of
pollutants in both the dissolved phase and in association with
the sediments.
The most coranonly used urban runoff models, SWMM (5) and STORM (6)
both handle pollutants as associated with particulate materials. The
initial version of SWMM is a single runoff event model and is more
complicated to set up; however, it provides a number of hydraulic
options that are useful in simulating complex urban situations.
Recently, a simplified version of SWMM that provides for continuous
simulation has become available. STORM provides for continuous
simulation and is simpler to operate; however, it handles only surface
runoff and is thus more limited in its application.
For non-urban agricultural areas, the most commonly used non-point
source models are NFS (7) and ARM (8). NFS was designed for continuous
simulation of runoff from five different land use categories (including
urban); however, it can only handle pollutants that are associated with
sediment transport. ARM, on the other hand, was designed initially to
simulate the continuous runoff of pesticides from row crop agricultural
areas and can represent the transport of pollutants in the dissolved
phase as well as those sorted onto sediments. The ARM model is
currently being modified to include nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic
244
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carbon as BOD from field and animal wastes. The modified version should
be available for general use by July 1977.
A major weakness in the application of area wide management model
packages has been the incompatibility of the loading models with the in-
stream water quality models. A basic hypotheses for developing the non-
point source loading models is that the pollutants originating from
urban and agricultural areas move into watercourses with storm waters
either during or just after rainfall events. As stated earlier, these
pollutants are transported either in the dissolved phase or attached to
sediment particles and all but one of the comnonly used loading models
represent only the sediment associated materials.
Contrarily, the most prevalent water quality models were designed
to represent constant point source inputs to steady state average low
flow, stream conditions. Because of their limited mass balance
assumptions, these models only simulate pollutants in the dissolved
state or those conservative materials that move with the bulk water
without change. They are also highly structured to simulate the oxygen
dynamics within the receiving waters. Thus, it is obvious that the
original objectives for developing the two types of models were
completely different, that the structures of the models are generally
incompatible, and that in those situations where in-stream sediment
transport (sedimentation, scour, bank erosion, sorption, and desorption)
are thought to be important, Qual I (9), Qual II (2), Auto Qual (10-11),
and DOSAG (12) water quality models will provide poor simulation results
if coupled with STORM, SWMM, ARM, or NFS.
245
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The major exceptions to this somewhat gloomy situation is the
recent application of the EXPLOR (13) and LINSED-CHNSED (14-15) series
models. These models apply the principal of momentum as well as mass
balance and simulate the movement of volumes of water flowing
downstream. This basic structure permits easier simulation of sediment
dynamics as well as other processes that take place along the wetted
perimeter of streams.
To further improve modeling compatibility, Athens Environmental
Research Laboratory is currently negotiating a contract to modify the
structure of Qual II to permit pollutant-sediment interactions and
dynamics to be simulated with the mass balance model structure.
Lake and reservoir models for the area wide category also divide
into two general groups according to their capability to simulate
hydrodynamics or the chemical-biological properties of the water bodies.
The Battelle Deep Reservoir Model (16) and the WRE Reservoir Model (3)
exemplify models providing relatively good hydrodynamic simulations with
less well developed chemical-biological properties. Conversely, the IBP
Eastern Dediduous Forest Biome Model series CLEAN-CLEANER (17-18)
provides very detailed food web, organism growth, predi tor-prey,
production-decomposition, and nutrient uptake-regeneration simulation
capabilities for a water column within a lake. These ecosystem dynamics
models do not have adequate hydrodynamics programs to move the water
masses between water columns to simulate the flow and mixing patterns
within entire impoundment reservoirs or lakes. None of the models are
246
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capable of adequately representing non-point source inputs directly into
the water bodies.
Further development activities are currently improving the
chemical-biological processes in the hydrodynamic models, and the Athens
Laboratory has negotiated a contract to improve the hydrodynamics
subroutines within the lake ecosystem models.
Hydrologic Unit or Field Scale
The hydrologic unit category of models includes the complex process
models that are being developed to simulate the application,
volatilization, sorption-desorption transport, transformation,
degradation, etc. of specific pollutants within a small portion of a
watershed. These models include both on-land and in-stream processes,
and calibration data are required for both the specific pollutants
considered and for the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems being
polluted. The ARM pesticide model was developed initially for small
watershed application, and there are a number of separate in-stream fate
and transport models under development for various organic and inorganic
substances. At this time, the integration of the hydrologic unit-
loading models with the in-stream process models is still in the
research stage and, although such couplings have been made, the model
packages have not been generally applied and tested. One such
interfacing was accomplished last year by Dr. James Falco and Mr. Lee
Mulkey of the Athens Environmental Research Laboratory when they coupled
an ARM model calibrated for the organophosphorus pesticide malathion
with an in-stream process model covering microbial and chemical
247
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degradation with a fish (bluegill) receptor subroutine. The aquatic
portion of the model agreed reasonably well with test results obtained
in the Laboratory's Aquatic Ecosystem Simulator and the entire package
demonstrated the feasibility of interfacing these complex models . and
developing realistic environmental management alternatives.
The hydrologic unit models are very complex and require relatively
large amounts of calibration data and computational time. Once
developed, however, these detailed process models will simplify
interfacing problems and provide optimum environmental management tools
for state area wide 208 agencies.
In conclusion, it is obvious that a large number of individual non-
point source and water quality models representing wide ranges of
complexities and possible applications are available. Greater progress,
however, must be made in interfacing these models into environmental
management packages. At present, however, compatible packages can be
assembled to represent or simulate many local problems. And, even
though these model packages are known to have deficiencies in certain
areas, the judicious application of these models for simulating
management alternatives using high-low and average conditions offers the
best available assistance for the decision-making process.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the staff of the Technology Development and
Applications Branch, Athens Environmental Research Laboratory, for their
watershed management research activities and their support in the
preparation of this paper.
248
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References
1. McElroy, A. D., S. Y. Chiu, J. W. Nebgen, A. Aleti, and F. W. Bennett.
Loading Functions for Assessment of Water Pollution from Non-Point
Sources. Midwest Research Institute. Prepared for U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Athens, GA. Publication No. EPA-600/2-76-151. 1976.
445 pp.
2. Roesner, L. A., J. R. Monser, and D. E. Evenson. Computer Program
Documentation for the Stream Quality Model QUAL-II. Water Resources
Engineers, Inc., Walnut Creek, CA. Prepared for U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC. May 1973.
3. Water Quality for River-Reservoir Systems. Hydrologic Engineering
Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, CA. 1975. 210 pp.
4. ,Areawide Assessment Procedure Manual, Volume I. U. S. Environmental
"Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Publication No. EPA-600/9-76-014.
1976. 89 pp.
5. Storm Water Management Model (4 volumes). Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.,
University of Florida, and Water Resources Engineers, Inc. Prepared
for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Publica-
tion No. 11024DOC07/71 to 11024DOC10. 1971.
6. Urban Storm Water Runoff: STORM. Hydrologic Engineering Center,
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, CA. Generalized Computer Program
723-S8-L2520. October 1974.
7. Donigian, A. S., Jr. and N. H. Crawford. Modeling Non-Point Pollution
from the Land Surface. Hydrocomp, Palo Alto, CA. Prepared for U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA. Publication No. EPA-600/
3-76-083. 1976. 280 pp.
8. Donigian, A. S., Jr., and N. H. Crawford. Modeling Pesticides and
Nutrients on Agricultural Lands. Hydrocomp, Palo Alto, CA. Prepared
for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA. Publication
No. EPA-600/2-76-043. 1975. 263 pp.
9. Simulation of Water Quality in Streams and Canals: Theory and
Description of the QUAL-I Mathematical Modeling System. Frank D.
Masch and Assoc. and Texas Water Development Board. Report No. 128.
May 1971.
10. Crim, R. L. and N. L. Lovelace. Auto-Qual Modelling System. U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Publication No.
EPA-440/9-73-003. 1973. 301 pp.
249
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11. Lovelace, N. Auto-Qual Modelling System: Modification for Non-Point
Source Loadings, Supplement I. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC. Publication No. EPA-440/9-73-004. 1973. 110 pp.
12. Simulation of Water Quality in Streams and Canals: Program Documentation
and User's Manual. Texas Water Development Board. September 1970.
13. Baca, R. G., W. W. Waddel, C. R. Cole, A. Brandstetter, and D. B. Cearlock.
Explore-I: A River Basin Water Quality Model. Battelle Pacific North-
west Laboratories, Richland, WA. Report No. 211B0057. 1973. 121 pp.
14. Fields, D. E. LINSED: A One Dimensional Multireach Sediment Transport
Model. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. Publication No.
ORNL/CSD-15. 1976. 84 pp.
15. Fields, D. E. CHNSED: Simulation of Sediment and Trace Contaminant
Transport with Sediment/Contaminant Interactions. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. Publication No. ORNL/NSF/EATC-19. 1976.
204 pp.
16. Baca, R. G., M. W. Lorenzen, R. D. Mudd, and L. V. Kimmel. A Generalized
Water Quality Model for Eutrophic Lakes and Reservoirs. Battelle Pacific
Northwest Laboratories, Richland, WA. Report No. 211B01602. 1974. 140 pp.
17. Park, R. A., et al. A Generalized Model for Simulating Lake Ecosystems.
Simulation. 23(2):33-50, 1974.
18. Scavia, D. and R. A. Park. A Users' Manual for the Aquatic Model
CLEANER. Freshwater Institute, Troy, NY. Report 75-16. 1975. 142 pp.
250
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TILE DRAIN SIMULATION MODEL
by
A. B. Bottcher*
A computerized simulation model is being developed at Purdue
University to provide a predictive tool for the determination of
sediment losses from tile effluent. The model will provide a flow
hydrograph with associated sediment loading as a function of the
input variables (rainfall, and initial soil moisture content). The
model will have the capability of being modified to represent dif-
ferent tile system designs and soil types.
The need for concern of tile drainage influence on water quality
is shown by the significant contribution it has to stream flow.
Approximately 50% of the Black Creek Watershed is drained by sub-
surface tile systems. A tile system can contribute anywhere from 10
to 100% (typically 30%) of the total runoff of a drained area. This
indicates that approximately 15% of the runoff per year from Black
Creek is tile effluent. During non-storm periods tile effluent is
the major source for stream flow in agricultural areas. The influence
of tile flow on stream flow may vary greatly depending on the annual
rainfall distribution.
An estimate of the sediment, phosphorous and nitrogen going into
the Maumee River from Black Creek tile effluent is approximately 100,
3 and 9 kilograms per hectare per year, respectively. Note that a
kilogram per hectare is approximately equal to a pound per acre. This
is based on the previous flow assumption and tile effluent data col-
lected on about 266 tile outlets in the Black Creek Watershed. The
loading rates of localized areas can be much larger as shown by G. 0.
Schwab (1). He measured annual sediment losses from tiles as high as
5400 kg/hect/year. His results indicate that in some critical areas
the tile effluent may be the dominant effect on stream water quality.
BACKGROUND
Glacial tilled soils of the Midwest seem to be very susceptible
to erosion losses through tiles. The soils drained by tiles generally
have high silt and clay contents. These fine particles are able to
be detached and transported within the soil profile by forces exerted
on them by flowing water. The actual detachment and transport mechan-
isms within a soil profile are not well understood. Many studies have
been done in closely related areas such as piping effects and force
balance relationships within soils.
*Graduate Instructor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
251
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A model by D. Zaslavsky (2) describes the force balance of
particles in cohesive soils. This model also shows the implied
inter-relationship of flow gradients to the fine particle movement.
Particularly it indicates that for a given particle size a threshold
flow level must be reached before particle movement will occur. The
effect of the flow channel size on the threshold flow is also provided.
Zaslavsky's model uses these relationships to obtain an expression
which relates the critical (threshold) flow for particle movement to
a given particle size assuming a mean pore channel size. To extend
the use of Zaslavsky's model for an erosion yield model it becomes
necessary to attach a probabilistic detachment model to the basic force
balance relationships. Thus a probability is associated with the
critical flow and has a functional relationship to flow above the
critical flow. So for a given particle size and flow rate it is possi-
ble to show a distribution of detachment potential for a particle size
distribution. The probabilistic approach used by H. A. Einstein (3)
provided excellent results for particle detachment and transport in
open channels.
The particle detachment model described above requires knowledge
of the water flux distribution within the soil profile. Several tile
flow models (4) are available, but none are uniquely suited for a tile
erosion model. Therefore a two-dimensional porous medium flow model
will be developed to provide the necessary water flux distribution with-
in the soil profile. The flow in the unsaturated profile region will
be determined by Darcy's Law which is the tension-conductivity method.
The flow at the tile will be tentatively determined by Toksoz and
Kirkham's formula (5) using the watertable height above the tile. This
tile flow formula was developed for a constant infiltration rate passing
through an unsaturated layer into a saturated layer. This indicates
continuity at the watertable which is required to effectively model
across this transition layer. Continuity is expressed as:
Change in water storage = Inflow - Outflow
Now using the assumption that a known geometric flow pattern exist near
the tile, the magnitude of water movement near the tile can be generated
as a function of R and 6 (radial distance and angular direction from
tile, respectively). Flow nets are available for several different
soil profiles above tiles (6). The water flux is then used to determine
the relative volume of soil which is experiencing a certain erosion
potantial and then these volumes are summed for all erosion potentials
for given particles sizes to determine total erosion potential. As
indicated the sediment loss is determined as a distribution shape and
therefore absolute magnitudes are not directly provided by this approach.
Field data will be needed to quantify the sediment loss distribution.
THEORETICAL MODEL FOR PARTICLE DETACHMENT
The forces acting on a soil particle can be summarized as:
Fg - gravitation force
Fc - cohesive force (attraction between particles)
Fft - hydraulic forces (caused by water movement)
Fp - point forces (caused by physical contact with other particles)
252
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It is intuitively clear that to get particle movement, the hydraulic
forces Fjj must exceed the sum of all the other forces, that is,
Fh > Fg + Fp + Fe
Gravitation Force
The effective gravitation force is the submerged weight of a
particle.
Fg = V(G - 1) YW
The variables in above expression are described as follows: V is the
volume of the particle, G is its specific gravity and YW is tne unit
weight of water. It is of course possible for the gravitation force
to be in any direction with respect to the detachment force F^. However
direction will be taken care of, because all forces are represented as
vector quantities.
Cohesive Forces
Cohesive forces are the result of electrostatic-interactions of
very small particles. These forces are not well understood, but they
can be related to the overall tensile strength (ease of pulling apart)
of a soil. Cohesion is normally determined by the amount of stress to
cause a failure in shear for a zero load on samples. The overall
cohesive force per unit area, which can be measured as above, can be
represented as the sum of all the individual cohesive forces for each
particle in the layer of shear.
Cohesive Force .
T = a = a A a + a A a + +aAa
A 111222 nnn
or
Aa = Aa / f(D)dD
therefore, .^
(Di + AD)
FC(DI) = ^_ • / f(WdD
c fi n (Dj_ - AD)
The variables in above expressions are described as follows: A is area
of test sample, a is failure stress of test sample, a-^ is a geometric
factor for the ith particle shape, AI is the area of the ith particle
area which is influenced by the shear-stress, a± is the stress of the
ith particle, n is the number of particles in the test layer, D is a
particle size, f^ is the fraction of particles in the ith particle
interval which has a 2AD width. The density function f~(D~) should be
proportional to the square inverse of the particle size and directly
proportional to the particle distribution.
Hydraulic Forces
A particle experiences drag and lift forces when flowing water passes
over the given particle. The sum of these forces is equal to the overall
hydraulic force, that is,
Fh * Flift + Fdrag
253 .
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Drag forces are given by Stokes Law:
Parameters are described as follows: Ap is the effective area factor
(accounts for particle size exposed to the stream flow Vs, Re is Reynold's
Number, and p is the density of water.
The lift force on a particle is developed when the water flows
faster over one side of the particle than the other. The lift force
for an attached particle can be expressed as a function of its ex-
posed surface and the velocity of water across its surface Vi_.
\ ' CL Ki °2 " T
Parameters not previously described are as follows: CL is lift coef-
ficient and KI is exposed surface factor.
Ratio of Non -Point Forces
For particle detachment the hydraulic force must exceed the sum
of the cohesive and gravitational forces or expressed as a ratio.
If the ratio R is less than unity then the potential for erosion
exist. However the above expression assumes that all particles of
the same size experience the same cohesive force. This is not the
case, so a normal distribution will be assumed such that a probability
with exist for particle detachment for R's slightly greater than one.
This serves to smooth out the computer summation of the erosion potentials.
Point Forces
The point forces are impossible to describe for any one particle.
The magnitude of these forces can be very large, but intuitively one
can reason that only the particles near a free surface will have any
possibility of small or no point forces. Within a soil profile only
the smaller particles (clay and silt) will see free surfaces in the
pore cavities and channels. A probability p for detachment must be
associated with each particle size D to account for the point forces.
Now the probability of detachment is the probability that the point
force Fp is less than all the other forces, that is,
Prob [F < F, (1-R)] = p(D,R)
P «
This functional relationship of p will vary by soil type and depth
in profile. Laboratory experiments are needed to determine this rela-
tionship. Present plans are to fully investigate the Hoytville silty
clay soil type (most common in Black Creek) before extending the
laboratory experiments to other soil types.
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Discussion
Several of the relationships presented are not easily determined
experimentally. Therefore, some assumed relationships will be used
initially until reliable laboratory data is avilable. The accuracy
of the model to predict actual erosion losses will serve to validate
or disprove assumed relationships. It should be noted that all forces
are vector quantities and therefore the numeric analysis of the erosion
model will be more complex than indicated in this paper.
The time dependence of the detachment mechanism is represented
by the probabilistic relationships of the point forces and hydraulic
forces. In order to change the erosion potential of a particle either
the flow must change or another particle near it must move. So over
time the loss of surface particles increases the probability of de-
tachment of particles beneath the surface layer. Armoring will occur
over time, but for this model it is assumed that natural soil weather-
ing will periodically recharge the smaller particles in the pore
cavities and channels.
To use the particle detachment model, it is convenient to combine
the probabilistic and force balance relationships into one erosion
potential expression for a tile system. The detachment model will
provide a fraction of particles detached per unit area per unit time
fi for the particle distribution interval [Di+AD,Di~AD] at a given
water flux. Define erosion potential as the ratio of erosion rate
at tile flow TQ to the erosion rate at maximum tile flow TQmax- It is
now possible to compute the erosion potential at a TQ by making the
assumptions of a geometric flow net and the same soil texture through-
out the profile. The computation requires an integration over the
entire soil profile for each particle size interval used and these
results added together. For Zaslvasky's relationship and a radial
flow assumption the erosion potential is given as:
- 1
rr>f\
Kjmax
Qcri
The parameter Q is the critical flow for a given particle size D..
COMPUTER MODEL
The tile model is programmed in the GASP IV Simulation Language.
GASP IV was selected because of its advanced time stepping and
differential equation solving techniques. The computer model breaks
the soil profile above the tile into N layers (see Figure 1). Hydraulic
conductivity for each layer can be provided separately. This gives
tremendous latitude in the types of soil profiles which can be
analyzed. Flow between each layer is determined for each time step
255
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SOIL SURFACE
TILE DEPTH
WATERTABLE
n
IAYERS
(spacing)
MPERMEA BLE LAYER y
Figure 1. Tile System Layout
by use of Darcy's Law.
q = k[8(T+Z)/9Z]At
Continuity at the watertable is determined by comparison of the flow
into the layer in which the watertable is located and the flow out
the tile as determined by Toksoz and Kirkham's method.
TQ (tile flow) =
KH
SF+H
Parameters described above are as follows: q is vertical water flux,
K is hydraulic conductivity, T is tension head, Z is elevation head,
t is time, H is height of watertable above tile center, S is tile
spacing and F is geometry coefficient for the tile system layout.
Initial attempts will use Zaslavsky's piping relation, Qcr = ftn (D),
and associated erosion potential. The probabilistic model will be
added when fully developed.
The computer model solves the above relationships for any rainfall
distribution provided. The output of the model is a plot and table of
tile outflow and sediment loading rate as a function of time. Also
at any time during the simulation a moisture plot can be obtained for
the soil profile above tile.
256
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Discussion
A similar problem exists for the hydraulic model as in the detach-
ment model, that is, some of the parameters are not readily available
and when available are in a graphic form. Graphs are empirically hard
to represent in a computer program if they do not have a nice functional
relationship (equation) which will represent them. This is the problem
with many of the required parameters for the tile erosion model. The
relationship of tension and hydraulic conductivity exhibit hysteresis
which further complicates exact determination. Because of these
determination problems it allows linear assumptions to be made for some
of the relationships. Linearization will be done so that the parameters
representation will be within obtainable experimental error. Lineariza-
tion also greatly increases the efficiency of the computer program.
MODEL CALIBRATION USING TILE SAMPLER DATA
The need for field data to calibrate and verify the computer model
is essential. As indicated the sediment loss potential as determined
by the model does not provide absolute magnitudes of the sediment loss
directly. To calibrate this potential distribution at least one water
quality sample is needed during a significant flow period. This in
itself does not assure that the computed shape of the potential dis-
tribution is correct. Therefore, it is necessary to have water quality
data for as many flow conditions as possible in order to compare the
distribution shapes of both the actual and simulated sediment loss
curves. To obtain this data base an automatic pumping tile sampler
was installed on a tile line draining forty-three acres of a typical
soil type (Hoytville) of the Black Creek Watershed.
Automatic Tile Sampler
An automatic tile sampler has been operational since March, 1976.
Only one tile event has occurred since its installation. The peak flow
periods for tiles are during the winter and spring months, so adequate
data for calibration and verification of the tile model should be
available by late spring of 1977. This pump sampler data will also be
analyzed to provide loading rates directly for the determination of
the tile effluents effect on water quality. The fertilizer nutrients
will also be looked at closely to find their loss rate through the
tile system.
The operation of the tile sampling station is somewhat unique in
that discrete water quality samples are collected proportionally to
the tile outflow, which is continuously monitored and recorded. The
time at which a sample is collected is also recorded on the flow
hydrograph chart. The sampler has the capability of collecting 72-500
ml water samples. The sampling rate is approximately 1 sample per
30 minutes at maximum flow. Another feature of the tile sampling
station is the prevention of the tile outlet from becoming inundated.
This is necessary to provide reliable data during storm events in
which the ditch water level is above the tile outlet. Two 200 GPM
pumps used in conjunction with a sump will maintain a free water fall
over the flow calibrated weir. Pump "on" times are also recorded to
provide a check for the water volume passing through the station.
See Figure 2 for more detail of the tile monitoring station.
257
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PUMP
OUTLET
STAGE-SAMPLE
RECORDER
V
TILE MAIN
"FROM FIELD
FLOW BAFFLES
PUMP FLOAT SWITCHES
(2) 200 GPM PUMPS
Figure 2. Automatic Tile Sampling Station
258
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Data collected for the single event on April 26-30 shows a
sediment loss of approximately 6 kg/hectare. The peak concentration
of suspended solids was 279 PPM. Tile outflow peaked at .0036 cubic
meters/sec (~ 60 gal/min). Tile flow was caused by a 4.1 centimeters
rain storm. The above data is in good agreement with data collected
for several tile systems draining Hoytville soils in the Black Creek
Watershed.
SUMMARY
The tile erosion model with associated hydrologic model should be
operational by August 1977. The laboratory determination of required
relationships will begin in January, 1977. The hydrologic model is
working for the linear assumptions presented in this paper. The tile
sampling station is functioning and should be collecting water quality
samples for the next year to determine tile effluents effect on stream
water quality and provide a means to calibrate the drain tile erosion
model.
259
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REFERENCES
1. Schwab, G. 0. and E. 0. McLean. 1973. Chemical and Sediment
Movement from Agricultural Land into Lake Erie, Ohio Water
Resources Center. Ohio State University. Report No. 390X.
2. Zaslavsky, D. and G. Kassiff. 1965. Theoretical Formulation of
Piping Mechanism in Cohesive Soils. Geotechnique Vol. 15. No. 3.
Institution of Civil Engineers. Haifa, Israel.
3. Einstein, H. A. 1950. The Bed-Load Function for Sediment Trans-
portation in Open Channel Flow. U.S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull.
No. 1026.
4. Luthin, J. N. 1966. Drainage Engineering. John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.
5. Toksoz, S. and D. Kirkham. 1961. Graphical Solution and Inter-
pretation of a New Drain-spacing Formula. J. Geophys. Res. 66:
509-516.
6. Luthin, J. N. 1957. Drainage of Agricultural Lands. Published
by Am. Soc. Agro. Madison, Wise.
260
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR URBAN STORM AND
COMBINED SEWER POLLUTION CONTROL
A CASE STUDY
Cornelius B. Murphy, Jr.
Best Management Practices Seminar
For Non Point Source Pollution Control
Rosemont, Illinois
November 17, 1976
O'Brien & Gere Engineers, Inc.
Syracuse, New York
261
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The 1972 Council of Environmental Quality Third Annual
Report indicated that in Q0% of the urban areas studied,
downstream water quality was not controlled by point sources.
The urban contribution to these water quality contraventions
is in the form of stormwater and combined sewer overflow
discharges.
The extent of the problem contributed by combined sewer
overflows and stormwater discharges is put in proper per-
spective if one realizes that one fifth of the nation's
population is served by combined sewer systems. Furthermore,
ten (10) of the nation's fourteen (lU) largest cities are
served by a combined system in whole or in part.
In light of the very significant capital and operating
costs associated with the application of capital intensive
storage/treatment alternatives, the application of Best Manage-
ment Practices (BMP) offers itself as a very attractive
alternative to the solution of wet weather induced water
quality impairment. A BMP program has been developed as a
first phase solution to the combined sewer overflow problem
presented by the Rochester, New York combined sewer system.
The following is a summary of the configured program, thep
methodology of approach required to develop the program, and
the cost/effectiveness of the BMP solution.
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
A rational and cost/effective solution to the abatement
of both stormwater and combined sewer overflow involves the
application of the concept of Best Management Practices (BMP).
A BMP program focuses on the sources of pollutants and their
means of conveyance. Integral to a total BMP program is
source and collection system management. A breakdown of the
various elements of a BMP program is shown in Figure 1.
Source management involves the application of measures
to reduce or prevent pollutant loading before surface runoff
enters the conveyance system. Typical source management
abatement measures include the application of surface flow
attenuation, use of porous pavement, erosion control, re-
strictions on chemical usage, land use planning, and improved
sanitation practices including trash removal and street
cleaning.
Collection system management involves the application of
all abatement alternatives which pertain to the collection
system. Collection system management alternatives therefore
involye all those abatement alternatives applicable after the
1. "Best Management Practices - Urban Runoff Sources of Water
Pollution," EPA Draft Publication, February, 12 (1976).
262
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runoff enters the collection system. Typical solutions fall
into two basic categories, structural intensive and minimal
structural. The collection system management alternatives
which are of interest in a BMP program involve those requiring
the expenditure of minimal resources. Relevant collection
system management practices involve inflow/infiltration con-
trol, improved system regulation, optimized system control,
polymer addition for friction reduction, and minimal improve-
ments to make the collection system self consistent (elimina-
tion of conveyance systems throttling constraints).
METHODOLOGY OF APPROACH
There are a number of very detailed and complex steps
that must be undertaken prior to the selection of a combined
sewer overflow abatement program. These steps are required
regardless of whether one is configuring a BMP program or a
conventional structurally intensive program:
- Definition of Existing Conveyance and Treatment
Systems
- Definition of Catchment Area Characteristics
- Review of Meteorological Data Base
- Selection of a Detailed Network Model
- Initiation of an Overflow and Meteorological
Monitoring Program
- Establishment of Relevant Abatement Alternatives
- Use of Simplified Model to Evaluate the Existing
System - Long Term Simulation
- Initial Evaluation of Storage/Treatment Structural
Alternatives Using Simplified Model
- Calibration and Verification of the Detailed
Network Model
- Application of the Detailed Network Model to the
Preliminary Evaluation of the Non-Structural
Alternatives
- Selection and Verification of the Wet Weather
Water Quality Predictive Models
- Process Evaluations of Applicable Treatment
Processes - Central vs On-Site
- Detailed Analysis of the Prime Structural
Intensive Alternatives
263
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- Determination of the Proper Balance Between
Structural and Non-Structural Intensive
Abatement Alternatives and Establish
Implementation Schedule
Any combined sewer overflow study must involve the full
development of each of the above outlined steps in order to
arrive at a cost/effective abatement program.
APPLICATION OF THE VARIOUS MODELING TOOLS
The basic modeling tools, input data requirements,
model interrelationships and program output are presented in
Figure 2. Mathematical models such as those presented can
be very helpful to both the planner and the design engineer
in conducting the cost-effectiveness evaluations for abating
pollution resulting from combined sewage overflows. The five
basic models utilized in the Rochester, New York evaluations
include the Simplified Stormwater Management Model (SSM)
originally developed by Metcalf & Eddy, the EPA SWMM Version
II, the various Process Cost Benefit models, an alternative
Cost Optimization model as well as the receiving stream
water quality model.^
In order to minimize the abatement program manpower and
computer costs, it has been shown that the use of a sim-
plified stormwater model is desirable in the early stages of
an abatement program. The use of a simplified model such as
STORM or the SSM is ideal in the initial phase of a combined
sewer study. In addition to minimizing costs, the early use
of a simplified model promotes total system consciousness
on the part of the user, facilitates a quick fix of abatement
measures, and enhances the orientation toward attaining out-
lined program objectives.3
The SSM appears to offer the greatest number of
advantages as a scanning or preliminary modeling tool. The
model requires only four drainage area and collection-conveyance
parameters for input information: the area of the defined
catchment basin, the percent imperviousness, and the sewerage
network configuration and capacity as well as an extensive
rainfall record. The program requires only a minimum amount
2. "Alternative Analysis Studies" and Network and Water
Quality Modeling Studies" Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement
Program Draft Final Report, EPA Grant No. Y0051^1, November
(1976).
3. C.B. Murphy, et.al., "Network Model Comparison - SWMM,
Dorsch Consult, and Simplified SWMM - Rochester, New York"
Presented at SWMM Users Group Meeting, Toronto, Canada (1976)
264
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of computer storage and computational capacity (5K) and is
well suited to handle terminal interaction.
Upon the initial screening of abatement alternatives,
a more complex model is required to obtain a more refined
mix of the alternative requirements and subsequent effective-
ness. SWMM Version II with the WRE transport block was
utilized to conduct the second level of abatement alternative
analysis. The WRE transport block can be utilized to define
the effectiveness of various source management techniques as
well as to define areas of flooding by means of backwater
and surcharge analyses .
Input data sets required for the application of SWMM in
addition to that utilized by SSM include domestic and industrial
flows as well as infiltration and inflow (I/I) data. A
more detailed definition of land use as well as a more finely
defined network is also required for the optimum use of SWMM.
Several process cost benefit models are proposed to be
utilized to evaluate the treatment alternatives. Required
input information includes the treatment train definition,
development of area specific weighting factors and critical
CSO wastewater characterization information. The storage
and treatment cost benefit models are then meshed with a
cost optimization model to yield the optimized alternative
configuration.
The network model output taken together with the process
cost benefit is then meshed with the output from the water
quality model to establish the program cost effectiveness.
The output of the modeling effort assists in the selection
of an optimum solution or series of solutions to eliminate
the discharge of untreated wastewaters. The modeling effort
as configured will allow the evaluation of the effectiveness
of structural intensive, minimal structural and non-structural
alternatives.
BMP IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS-ROCHESTER, N.Y.
As a result of the extensive network modeling, water
quality modeling and treatment process cost/benefit analysis,
a BMP program has been developed as a first phase of an
overall combined sewer overflow abatement program. The
following elements serve as the heart of the BMP program:
- Interceptor Improvements
- Blockage of High Impacting Overflows
- Overflow Weir Height Adjustments
- Regulator Modifications
265
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- Addition of Control Structures
- Preparation and Implementation of Control System
- Program of Improved System Maintenance
- Preparation and Implementation of Source Control
Regulations
As source control measures, it is proposed that a more
intensive effort be extended in the area of sewer main-
tenance. It has been shown that the level of conveyance
system maintenance significantly reduces the impact of com-
bined sewer overflows. System maintenance not only helps to
eliminate or minimize the first-flush phenomenon but also
alleviates surface flooding problems.
It has also been recommended that the extent and
effectiveness of street sweeping be increased for certain
catchment areas. This is an effective method to reduce the
surface accumulation of pollutants. Control over street
cleaning frequency and efficiency can be an effective method
for reducing the solids, toxicants, and oxygen demanding
constituents discharged to the receiving waters by both the
combined sewer overflows and stormwater discharges.
Other recommended source control measures include the
implementation of planning concepts to minimize percent
imperviousness in future growth areas, the application of
porous pavement in selected catchment areas, and the implemen-
tation of erosion control measures.
As collection system measures, it is proposed that
modest improvements be made to the main conveyance inter-
ceptor to the treatment facility (St. Paul Boulevard
Interceptor), that modifications be made to those regulators
located at the point of confluence of the trunk sewers and the
main conveyance interceptor, and that the selective blockage
and weir elevation increases be made to high impacting over-
flows. The proposed improvements to the main interceptor
involve the increase in conveyance capacity of approximately
five selected sections of the interceptor. This will make
the interceptor self consistent with regard to conveyance
capacity.
Figures 3 and h show the effect of implementing the
BMP program on the reduction in combined sewer overflow on
an average annual basis and from the two year design storm,
as well as the reduction of annual average and two year design
storm TKN, TSS and BOD5 loadings. Figures 5 and 6 show the
reduction in potential dissolved oxygen contravention of the
Genesee River and the reduction in potential Ontario Beach closing
days predicted upon implementation of the various abatement measures
266
-------
It is projected that the abatement measures outlined
under the BMP program upon implementation will reduce the
annual discharge of combined sewer overflows to the Genesee
River by approximately 85 percent. Under the application
of the 2 year-2 hour design storm it is projected that the
combined sewer overflow discharge to the Genesee River will
be reduced by about 25 percent. The BMP abatement measures
are projected to reduce the average annual potential days of
dissolved oxygen contravention from approximately ten per year
to approximately one per year. The corresponding reduction
in potential annual average beach closing days are projected
to decrease from three per year to approximately one per year.
CONCLUSIONS
The application of a Best Management Practices approach
to combined sewer overflow abatement has a number of very
significant advantages over the application of structurally
intensive solutions. The most significant advantages of the
BMP approach are outlined as follows:
- Addresses Pollutant Reduction at the Source
- Provides for More Cost/Effective Solution
- Insures Greater Reliability
- Involves Less Intensive Allocation of Resources
- Emphasizes Optimal Operation of Existing System
- Lea,ds to a Quickly Facilitated Solution
- Secondary Problems are Less Likely to Develop
A Best Management Practice program has been developed
for the Rochester, New York combined sewer system. The BMP
program for the City of Rochester is expected to involve
a,n expenditure of approximately twelve (12) million dollars
compared to the structurally intensive tunnel storage/high
rate treatment system which is anticipated to involve an
expenditure of nearly two hundred (200) million dollars.
The application of the BMP program for the City of
Rochester is projected to reduce the average annual volume
of combined sewer overflow discharged to the Genesee River
by approximately 85-90$. This compares to the structurally
intensive solution (based on the two year design storm) which
is projected to reduce the annual average of CSO by approximately
As a result of our studies on the Rochester combined
sewer system, it is recommended that a phased abatement pro-
gram be developed as a solution for combined sewer overflow
267
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and stormwater systems. Through the application of a BMP
program as a first phased solution, a more defined and optimally
designed structurally intensive solution can be developed.
By working with existing facilities and making them as effective
as possible, the likelyhood of over or under design of second
phase facilities would be minimized. The BMP program can also
be readily implemented and as a result, receiving stream
water quality improvement should be quickly realized for a
relatively minor investment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (Grant No. Y0051^l) and the
Monroe County Division of Pure Waters (Rochester, New York)
for their support of the research described herein. Special
appreciation is extended to Mr. Ralph C. Christensen, Mr.
Richard Field, Mr. Anthony Tafuri and Mr. Lawrence Moriarty
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for their continued
interest and support. Mr. Frank J. Drehwing, Vice President
of the Research Division of O'Brien & Gere Engineers, Inc.
is acknowledged for his foresight and technical assistance.
Mr. David J. Carleo and Mr. Thomas A. Jordan, Research Engineers
with O'Brien & Gere Engineers, Inc. are acknowledged for their
assistance in network modeling and evaluation of alternatives.
268
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FIGURE I
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW AND STORMWATER
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMP)
SOURCE MANAGEMENT
I
BEFORE RMNOFF ENTERS
SEWER SYSTEM
D SURFACE FLOW ATTENUATION
COLLECTION SYSTEM
MANAGEMENT
AFTER RUNOFF ENTERS
SEWER SYSTEM
O WFLOW/INFILTRATION CONTROL
USE OF POROUS PAVEMENT
D IMPROVED REGULATION
O EROSION CONTROL
O OPTIMIZED SYSTEM CONTROL
CHEMICAL USE RESTRICTIONS
Q POLYMER ADDITION FOR FRICTION REDUCTION
IMPROVED SANITATION PRACTICES
MINIMAL IMPROVEMENTS TO MAKE SYSTEM
SELF CONSISTENT
FIGURE 2
DIAGRAM FOR MODEL UTILIZATION
PROGRAM
'COST EFFECTIVENESS
ANALYSIS
269
-------
ro
•~J
O
a
iS
533
TOTAL SYSTEM OVERFLOW REDUCTION
RESPONSE TO IMPLEMENTATION OF ABATEMENT MEASURES
ZYr. DESIGN STORM
R B 0 Program
Facilities Plan!
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W//////y/\ WStollotion of Control Syv,-,n
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Tanks ond Regulators
Construction Activity on Exsisting
Tunnel System
V////////A Evaluation of System
W///////A Performance
Milestone Evaluations
Storage Capacity
1977
1978
1979
1980
DATE
1981
1982
1983
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ANNUAL AVERAGE POTENTIAL
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BlocKage of High Impacting Overflows v
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Control Regulations
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Facilities of Van Lore
Addition ot Control Structures and
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r Locolhed System Flooding and
Using Small Capacity Stormwoter Retention
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Augmentation with
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1983
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SIMULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY
by
D. B. Beasley*
Increasing emphasis is being placed on the quality of the water in
the streams, rivers, and lakes of our nation. Until recently, most of
the effort to improve or maintain natural water quality has been in the
area of point source pollution. There are several good reasons for this
approach. First, and probably foremost, the source can be easily identi-
fied and monitored. Second, discharge rates are usually uniform and the
effluent, in most cases, is of consistent make up. Finally, the effects
of point sources of pollution on a stream system can be and are being
simulated on a routine basis.
The water quality picture, though, is not complete if only point
sources are identified, monitored, and controlled. A very large portion
of our national water quality problems can be traced to such pollutants
as sediment, nitrates, and phosphates. These pollutants, and others,
are present in the runoff from soil surfaces, tile drainage systems, and
streets and yards. Because the runoff from land surfaces generally does
not enter the stream or river at one point (or even at the same time),
it is termed non-point source pollution. Since it would not be technically
or economically feasible to install enough monitoring equipment along a
stream to monitor all incoming non-point source pollution, the next best
(and only feasible) method of determining the impact of this runoff is
to simulate the processes involved with a computer. Not only does this
approach lend itself to the research phase of non-point source pollution
studies, but it also is a very powerful tool that can be used in the
planning and economic analysis phases of these same studies.
At the present time, there are two basic schools of thought or
approaches to modeling hydrologic processes and the resulting runoff.
The more widely used and publicized concept is the "lumped parameter"
approach to modeling. The newer and more complex concept is the "dis-
tributed parameter" approach.
In the "lumped parameter" approach, the watershed is treated as a
unit. The varying hydrologic responses of the different areas within
the watershed are "lumped" into several parameters which describe the
watershed response as a whole. Such widely known models as the Stanford
Watershed Model(s) and the USDAHL-74 are examples of the "lumped para-
meter" approach (1,2). This type of model has several strengths.
*Graduate Research Instructor, Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906
274
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It is a much cheaper model to run and can simulate long, continuous records
(when calibrated and verified correctly). It is also somewhat easier to
set up the descriptive data file for the simulation runs. The "lumped
parameter" approach has several weaknesses, though. In order to simulate
even small changes in land use within the watershed, the parameters de-
scribing the watershed characteristics must be totally recalculated. The
output of the model usually can only be collected at a specific point
(generally a gaging station, etc.). Due to the "lumped" nature of the
hydrologic parameters, very little physical significance exists in the
simulation, and, as a result, sediment production, deposition, and trans-
port can only be handled on a statistical or stochastic basis. Finally,
a rather extensive data base is required in order to calibrate and verify
the model.
The "distributed parameter" approach involves dividing the watershed
into areas small enough to be considered uniform (soil type, slope, crop,
etc.). The small areas or elements are modeled separately (using flow from
upstream or uphill elements as inputs along with rainfall) and the outputs
are routed through the watershed. The strengths of this approach are
several. The actual processes occurring at a specific point in the water-
shed are being simulated. The output from the model can be collected at
any point or many points in the watershed. Thirdly, although the data file
necessary for simulation is rather complex, it is easily and quickly changed
to reflect management or cropping changes. Finally, the sedimentation
process can be described much more precisely. Two weaknesses are inherent
in this model. First, it requires very large amounts or processor time and
computer core to run. It is not capable of simulating long periods of re-
cord economically (thus it is limited to event or single storm simulations).
Secondly, it requires more data for its descriptive data file (watershed
description).
This paper will discuss the steps involved in organizing and implemen-
ting a computerized model of an agricultural watershed for the purpose of
studying the effects of land use and management on water quality. The
concepts behind the model and the major operational equations are presented
in a concise form.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF THE MODEL
The need for a computer model of agricultural runoff for use in pre-
diction and management practice optimization was realized at the outset of
the Black Creek Study (3). However, certain portions of the modeling
philosophy have changed as the project investigators have become more
familiar with the processes that govern runoff, drainage, and sedimenta-
tion. In order to accurately describe the processes involved in agricultural
runoff, one must be able to select an area that is small enough so that
most of the factors influencing the processes of water and sediment move-
ment, infiltration, and nutrient movement can be considered to be uniform.
For this reason, a distributed parameter modeling approach was chosen for
this study.
There are several levels of descriptive parameters within the model.
First, there are watershed-level descriptive parameters. These include the
interception parameters, channel descriptions, antecedent moisture condi-
tions, and control depth for infiltration. Next, there are elemental
descriptive parameters. They include the element's location within the
275
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watershed, the magnitude and direction of slope, the element's soil type,
the crop being grown, the current management practices, whether or not the
element is a stream element, and whether or not the element is tile drained.
Finally, there are descriptive parameters based on combinations of the above
parameters. The infiltration, soil roughness, and sedimentation parameters
are based on combinations of the soil type, crop, and management practice
within an element.
The element used in this model is a square-shaped area that is 330 feet
on a side. This means that the element is exactly 2.5 acres or approximately
1 hectare in size. The topographic information (direction and magnitude of
steepest slope) is obtained from USGS 7.5 minute quadrangles that have been
photographically enlarged to a scale of 16 inches to the mile (1:3960) and
then have been partitioned off using a 1 inch grid pattern. Likewise, the
field boundaries and soil types are taken from aerial photographs that have
been similarily enlarged and divided into the same grid pattern. The model
then divides the flow off of an element into its horizontal and vertical
components (with respect to the map) and sends this output to the receiving
element(s). No flow is routed to diagonally located elements.
The inputs to an element can consist of rainfall, overland flow from
uphill elements, channel flow from upstream elements, and subsurface
drainage or tile flow (channel elements only). The outputs from an element
consist of a depth of flow (either channel or overland), a subsurface
drainage rate, and a rate of sediment movement (the lesser of total detach-
ment or transport).
In order to accomplish the complex task of routing the overland,
channel, and subsurface drainage flows and to set up the elemental data
files, a separate program was written in order to set up all of the data
files necessary for the simulation. This was also necessitated due to the
fact that the combination of an initialization and simulation program took
up more computer core than the Purdue Computer Center would allocate for
a single program.
The simulation program uses the data file (common blocks) set up by
the initialization program and stored for this purpose. The simulation
consists of adding the rainfall for a specified (GASP IV dependent) period
of time and routing the resulting runoff and subsurface flow throughout the
watershed in a sequential manner (upper left to lower right). The rainfall
intensity and overland flow rates are used to determine the amount of de-
tachment and transport of sediment within each element. The washload from
the watershed is considered to be totally transported by the stream flow.
Subsurface drainage uses the same routing as surface drainage for simplicity.
The normal output of the model describes the flow and sediment concentra-
tion with respect to time that occurs at the watershed's outlet element.
However, as stated earlier, the output from any element(s) can be collected.
OPERATIONAL EQUATIONS
There are two controlling equations behind this particular distributed
parameter modeling approach. Their simultaneous solution yields the depth
of overland flow and thus, the surface runoff rate.
276
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The first controlling equation is the Continuity Equation,
f-l-O (1)
where : S = storage (area times depth) .
t = time,
I = inflow rate to an element,
0 = outflow rate from an element.
When both sides of eq. (1) are divided by the element's area, eq. (1) becomes,
dy = (I - 0)
dt area (2)
where : y = average depth of water in the element.
The second primary equation is the well known Manning's equation,
q = V.A = -R -667 -a -5 .A (3)
where : Q = flow rate,
V = velocity of flow,
A = flow area,
n = Manning's coefficient of roughness,
R = hydraulic radius (A/wetted perimeter) ,
s = slope.
For wide flow areas, R is approximately equal to the depth of flow, y,
and A is equal to y times the width of the element. Thus, eq. (3) can
be rewritten,
r, XT A 1.486 1.667 .5 _v ,..
Q = V'A = - .y .s .DX (4)
where : DX = width of the element.
The Q in eq. (4) is equal to 0 in eqs. (1) and (2). Thus, by combining
eqs. (2) and (4) and integrating the combination, the depth of flow, y, can
be found.
In addition to eqns. (2) and (4), a modified form of H. N. Holtan's
infiltration equation is used to account for the water infiltrated during
an event and the water that eventually drains to the water table (4,5).
The difference in this approach and most others is that Holtan's form uses
the water content of the soil (not time) as the independent variable in
determining the infiltration rate of a soil layer. The modified equation is,
fc . „ , (5)
where : f = the infiltration capacity (rate),
fc = steady state infiltration rate,
A = maximum potential infiltration rate
(above fc),
S = storage potential of a soil within the control zone
277
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F = total volume of water infiltrated,
Tp = total porosity of the control zone layer,
P = a coefficient.
The drainage of water out of the control zone (the water going toward
the water table) is determined by the following equation,
DR -fc
where : DR = drainage rate out of the control zone to
either the water table or to tile drainage,
PIV = unsaturated pore volume,
GWC = maximum volume of gravitational water,
C = a drainage exponent.
This equation is used to determine the tile drainage rates from elements
that have been identified as being tile drained.
Equations (2), (4), (5), and (6) were the basis of a distributed
parameter, hydrologic runoff model developed by L. F. Huggins in 1966 (5).
That model used a fixed time step and finite differences approach for
solving for the overland flow from each element.
The present model is designed to simulate the hydrologic processes that
the original model did as well as those of tile drainage, channel or stream
flow, and sedimentation. There is, however, a fundamental difference in the
operation of the original model and the present model. The present model is
written in the GASP IV Simulation Language format. GASP IV is a Fortran IV
based, discrete-continuous simulation vehicle. It uses a Runge-Kutta-England
integration algorithm with a variable time step for solving differential
equations (6).
The tile drainage rates are calculated using eq. (6), when an element
has been defined as having tile drainage. Otherwise, no subsurface drainage
is assumed to occur.
Some of the elements within a watershed contain channel elements. These
elements, then, have overland and channel flow within them. It is necessary,
therefore, to be able to describe both the overland and channel flow charac-
teristics of these elements. Also, if there are any tile outlets, this
additional inflow must be considered when calculating the element's outflow.
Sediment production and transport are handled in a three-part manner.
The equations are adaptations of the Foster-Meyer equations (7), which were
modified by Curtis (8).
First, the amount of sediment produced by rainfall impact during a
particular time interval is determined by the following equation,
GR = CDR • KDR • I2 ' Area • Cl (7)
where : GR = rate of sediment detachment by rainfall
impact within an element,
CDR = cropping and management factor (USLE) for
rainfall impact for a particular soil,
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KDR = erosivity index (USLE) of a particular
soil due to rainfall impact,
Area = area of element,
Cl = constant.
Next, the sediment produced by overland flow is determined for the same
time interval,
GF = CDF • KDF • S ' Q ' DX • C2 (8)
where : GF = rate of sediment detachment by overland
flow within an element,
CDF= Cropping and management factor (USLE) for
overland flow on a particular soil,
KDF= erosivity index (USLE) of a particular soil
due to overland flow,
S = slope,
Q = outflow from element,
DX = width of the element,
C2 = constant.
Finally, the sediment transport rate due to flow (rainfall splash transport
is neglected) is computed from the following equation,
TF = CTF • KTF • S1'667 • (^r)1'667 - DX • C3 (90
\JJA/
where : TF = sediment transport rate for an element,
CTF = management factor relating to transport,
KTF = transport factor related to particle size
distribution and soil condition,
C3 = constant.
The constants Cl, C2, and C3 are determined from a regression analysis of
constants used to produce simulation output that adequately described
rainulator runs in the Black Creek Study area for the soils and other
factors in the target watersheds.
PRESENT STATUS OF THE MODEL
The model is presently being used in a slightly modified form to pre-
dict the runoff and sediment production on a plot basis for the various
rainulator runs on the Black Creek soils. When the output of these simula-
tions is sufficiently close to the observed data, the coefficients Cl, C2,
and C3, that were used in the sedimentation portion, are saved. When
simulations of all of the major soil types are complete, the coefficients
will be averaged and assumed uniform from then on for all soils.
The descriptive data files for both of the target sub-watersheds in
the Black Creek watershed have been completed. The cropping information
and management factors will be those employed in 1976, since there is much
more information for this year. However, should problems arise from this
approach, there is sufficient data from previous years to generate a fairly
complete data file for either 1974 or 1975.
The model has the capability of accepting input data in either English
or Metric units. Likewise, the output of the simulation can be specified
in either English or Metric units. Both tabular and graphical outputs are
provided.
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REFERENCES
1. Crawford, N. H. and R. K. Linsley. 1966. Digital Simulation in
Hydrology: Stanford Watershed Model IV. Technical Report 39,
Stanford University, Department of Civil Engineering.
2. Holtan, H. N., G. J. Stiltner, W. H. Benson and N. C. Lopez. 1975.
USDAHL-74 Revised Model of Watershed Hydrology. Technical Bulletin
No. 1518, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.Department of Agriculture.
3. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Environmental Impact of
Land Use on Water Quality (A Work Plan). EPA-G005102. U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency.
4. Holtan, H. N. 1961. A Concept for Infiltration Estimates in Watershed
Engineering. ARS 41-51. Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
5. Huggins, L. F. and E. J. Monke. 1966. The Mathematical Simulation of
the Hydrology of Small Watersheds. Technical Report No. 1, Purdue
University Water Resources Research Center.
6. Pritsker, A. A. B. 1974. The GASP IV Simulation Language. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York.
7. Foster, G. R. and L. D. Meyer. 1972. "A Closed-Form Soil Erosion
Equation for Upland Areas," in Sedimentation (Einstein), Chapter 12,
H. W. Shen, Editor and Publisher, Colorado State University.
8. Curtis, D. C. 1976. "A Deterministic Urban Storm Water and Sediment
Discharge Model," in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Urban
Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Sediment Control, College of Engineering,
University of Kentucky.
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SUMMARY
by
Carl D. Wilson
A summary of all the papers presented at the seminar on
"Best Management Practices for Nonpoint Source Pollution
Control" is here compiled as a brief overview of the two
day conference. The meeting was held November 16 and
17, 1976 at the Ramada-0'Kara Inn in Rosemont, Illinois.
Thirty five presentations were given.
The major objective of this seminar was to present data
and information collected from four Section 108
demonstration projects on nonpoint source activities to
Section 208 planners and implementing agencies.
The following summaries were extracted from the papers
presented.
CALL TO ORDER Ralph G. Christensen
Under P.L. 92-500, Section 108 (a) provides for grants
to support any State, political subdivision, interstate
agency, or other public agency, or combination thereof,
to carry out one or more projects to demonstrate new
methods and techniques and to develop preliminary plans
for the elimination or control of pollution within all
or any part of the watersheds of the Great Lakes. Such
projects shall demonstrate the engineering and economic
feasibility and practicality of removal of pollutants
and prevention of any polluting matter from entering
into the Great Lakes in the future and other reduction
and remedial techniques which will contribute
substantially to effective and practical methods of
water pollution prevention, reduction, or elimination.
This program requires a grantee to provide a minimum of
a 25% matching contribution to the total cost to the
proj ec t.
Congress authorized to be appropriated $20,000,000 to
carry out the provisions of this program. To date,
there have been nine grants awarded under this section
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of the Act, four of which address the non-point source
pollution problem.
WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION George R. Alexander, Jr,
We, in the Environmental Protection Agency, hope to
share some practical, social, and technical information
derived from demonstration projects funded from Section
108 of Public Law 92-500.
The agenda for this conference provides an overview of
the nonpoint source pollution control mandate given to
the U.S. EPA through Public Law 92-500. Among several
sections of P.L. 92-500 which address the subject of
nonpoint source pollution are sections 208, 303, 304,
and 305. In addition to these sections of the Act,
Sections 108, 104 and 105 provide for research and
demonstration grants which can also address the nonpoint
pollution problems.
Nonpoint source pollution is recognized internationally
as a problem and is being addressed in the Great Lakes
under the U.S. - Canada Great Lakes Water Quality
Ag reement.
As a result of State and local interest, three
demonstration projects have been implemented under
Section 108 of P.L. 92-500. These projects will be
reported on today by either the grantee project
directors and/or their principal investigators.
U.S. EPA OVERVIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
Joseph A. Krivak
There is a message that EPA needs to tell. To let the
planners and the decision makers know what is expected
before the process is completed not after the plan is
delivered. Frankly, I harbor a skepticism about
planning — one born from experience. And also
reaffirmed within the last week by a review of the first
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two 208 plans which have been completed. We have
received preliminary reports, two of the initial
fourteen. The brief review made, strengthened my belief
about the kind of message EPA should put forward to
State and Area 208 at this point in the planing process.
It is not one of technical data collection and analysis
-- by and large, I think that is being done. If
anything it may be that we are spending too much time
and money on that part of our task. My message instead
focuses on our need to get tangible results from the 208
planning process.
The first principle I would like to share my thoughts on
is: "Don't spend too much time concerning yourself
about how planning is conducted, but worry a great deal
about whether it works."
The second principle is to plan sufficiently to produce
specific targets, then quit.
The third principle is: insist that the plans result in
a commitment to specificed outputs for accomplishment.
The final principle I would set forth is not for the
planners but for the decision makers, (the people who
hired the planners to get the job done) you have a major
responsibility in seeing that the proper goals and
objectives are set. In a nutshell, that's the simple
basic management guidance that EPA offers you.
NACD View of Section 208 William J. Horvath
National Association of Conservation Districts has seven
concerns for the 208 planning process. 1) That the
plan have local involvement in its development including
conservation districts. 2) That the plan be
implementable — NACD feels this requires the practical
approach we have utilized in the district movement. 3)
That a vigorous educational program be undertaken with
landowners and others to gain acceptance by those who
must implement the plan and those landowners affected.
4) That cost-sharing be available for application of
BMP's. 5) That adequate funding be made available for
securing the necessary technical assistance for applying
BMP's. 6) That a continuing research program be
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undertaken to provide the necessary information to
determine the effects of BMP's on water quality. 7)
That conservation districts have a major responsibility
as a designated agency for plan implementation, and that
state soil conservation agencies provide the necessary
coordination of that effort.
EXTENSION SERVICE VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
E. P. Christmas
The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 was the third of three major
Public Laws which brought about the development of the
Land-Grant College with its agricultural research and
extension education activities in the United States.
This act provided for the formation and support of the
agricultural extension services at the land grant
institutions across the country for the purpose of
disseminating useful and practical information in
agriculture and home economics.
In summary, the key to the success of Extension has been
its unique structure as a partnership of the Land-Grant
Universities, Federal, State and County governments,
with strong guidance from those it serves in the
establishment of program priorities. The system has
survived because of its objectivity and ability to use
research based facts and logical relationships to solve
clientele problems.
The role of the Cooperative Extension Service in the 208
Planning Process involves two areas of activity; first,
an educational program to inform the agricultural
community of the 208 Planning process and secondly, to
acquaint agricultural procedures with alternative "best
management practices" and their application.
USDA - SCS VIEWS ON 208 PLANNING Cletus J. Gillman
USDA and SCS both can be classed as strong and willing
advocates of the objectives of the Federal Water
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Pollution Control Act, particularly the control of
nonpoint source pollution under section 208.
To summarize, we believe that improvements in rural
water quality will come about primarily from control of
nonpoint sources of pollution. This is part of our
agency's established mission -- it is our basic work.
We have all the authorities necessary -- though short on
people and money — to carry out this essential work.
We strongly support a cooperative effort to get the job
done. I'm confident that we will change our operations
to the degree needed to respond to present and future
needs. We in USDA and in SCS stand ready to assist.
A STATE VIEW OF STATE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING
Rex E Jones
To accomplish control of nonpoint sources of water
pollution we must insert a high degree of common sense
and reasonableness into the program. This leads into
the utilization of best management practices in the
solution of our problems. Best management practices
will be determined by technical experts in their
respective fields. For agriculture, the Soil
Conservation Service is a likely candidate to be heavily
involved in the determination of potential best
management practices to be used in different parts of
the country. We must look to best management practices
being applied on a case-by-case basis depending upon the
individual farm management practices and geographical
and hydrologic conditions.
To produce and maintain an effective and meaningful
water quality management plan on a statewide basis we
must get the program close to the Governor's office.
A very important requirement of this plan is that it be
implementable. To me that means acceptable by the
people. The easiest way to make sure the people accept
the plan is to have the people deeply involved in the
development of it. This water quality management plan
is not some agency's plan, but it is the people's plan.
If we want an acceptable nonpoint source control plan it
will be necessary to make technical assistance available
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to the landowner. This involves the cooperative
approach I spoke of earlier. Another important aspect
is the financial feasibility and assistance that must be
provided to the landowner. The farmer does not have
direct control of the price of his product. There must
be some financial assistance on best management
practices if we want an acceptable program by the
"agricultural community." If you have a knowledge of
agriculture, I believe you would think this a
r easonable.
It is my opinion that the State's role should be one of
strong leadership. Our objective in the Planning
Section is to develop and maintain water pollution
abatement programs that are effective and meaningful to
the people of our State. To accomplish this the State
must do certain things. We must provide equity on a
statewide basis. The programs must be fair and equal to
all parts of our State. The State must also provide
consistency between designated agencies and entire
planning process. The State should provide guidance to
the designated agencies to provide for consistency and
equity. A fourth area of responsibility for the State
is one of stimulating cooperation between local,
regional, state, and Federal agencies. We are all
working toward the same goal, hopefully, let's not fight
each other. Each level of government has its
responsibilities, these should be delineated and agreed
upon by all parties involved. The State should lend
support to educational programs to tell the story of
what we are trying to accomplish and why. It is the
responsibility of the State to integrate the designated
and non-designated portions of the State to form the
Statewide Water Quality Management Plan by November 1,
1978. Another important factor in this planning process
is the continuous planning provision which makes the
plan much more workable for future application.
I would say one of the keys to making the program
successful will be the involvement of the people in the
process before the alternatives are developed and the
decisions are made. The people of each State must
decide what kind of program they want and then support
that program as a team. We must be a team.
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A COUNTY VIEW OF SECTION 208 PLANNING Reuben Schmahl
There is today a good segment of our people that have a
firm determination to clean up our air and water and
strive to halt, to a greater degree, abuse of our lands
and to preserve our many natural resources. They have a
conviction that we have not moved fast enough in dealing
with those problem areas that affect our environment
which include erosion prevention and pollution controls.
Their great concern is whether existing programs need to
be reviewed, amended and refined to improve their degree
of effectiveness in reduction of environmental damages.
This sudden explosion of interest on the part of our
public has brought about the creation of our
Environmental Protection Agency which was established to
deal with almost every conceivable aspect of the control
and regulation of water pollution and improvement of
water quality. Our nation has embarked seemingly on
somewhat of a crash campaign against air and water
pollut ion.
As soil stewards, we have a tremendous task confronting
us to overcome individual and group resistance to any
regulartory or even suggestive measures to correct water
pollution and to implement good soil practices. The
very vocal and organized resistance to our highway
improvement programs can be an example. SWCD boards
have authority and a responsibility to conduct programs
to control erosion of lands and sedimentation of our
waters. Conservation districts have good organization
and utilize effectively an extensive network of
cooperative arrangements with federal and state agencies
in planning, research, education, cost sharing and
technical assistance. This arrangement has provided a
very workable method for cooperatively establishing
conservation practices on our land and has been used for
about the past forty years.
SOUTH EAST WISCONSIN REGIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION (SEWRPC) VIEW OF
SECTION 208 PLANNING Lyman F. Wible
Our agency was designated as the area wide water quality
planning agency in December of 1974 and accordingly we
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will conclude our 208 project period in December of
1977. The Regional Planning Commission itself is
composed of three representatives from each of the seven
counties in and around the Milwaukee metropolitan area.
It was organized in I960 as a result of wide-ranging
public discussions and debate initiated in 1948. It is
especially interesting today to note the twelve years
required to sucessfully determine the appropriate
planning boundries for the Southeastern Wisconsin
Region,as compared to the time available for designation
of 208 agencies.
In summary, the Commission views 208 as an element of
the comprehensive physical plan for this Region; as a
complementing program update, refine, and extend our
previous water resources planning efforts, as a
challenge to be met in integrating diverse planning
programs; as dangerously brief in its plan development
and implementation emphasis; and as an exciting
experience in analyzing all of the factors affecting
water quality and in developing the public support
necessary to abate pollution.
It can be stated, by misquoting an old saying that, "The
208 Program offers incredible opportunities to a
regional planning commission — but they come in
disguise as insoluble problems." In solving those
problems we feel that highly useful information can be
developed for sound water quality management decisions
in southeastern Wisconsin.
CONGRESS PERCEPTION OF SECTION 208 PLANNING
Congressman J. Edward Roush
The legislative history of Section 208 is discussed as
an atempt to resolve concerns over area planning and
unique water quality problems for diverse areas within
the United States. Concern is expressed that
implementation of Section 208 planning has moved slower
than envisioned by the congress with the adoption of
Public Law 92-500. It is predicted that pollution from
non-point sources can overwhelm progress made under the
municipal construction grants and the pollution
elimination discharge permit system. Confidence is
expressed that the approach of Section 208, involving
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federal, state and local cooperation has a good chance
of success.
THE WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT - AN OVERVIEW T. C. Daniel
The primary objective of the Washington County Project
is to demonstrate the effectiveness of land treatment
measures in improving water quality, and to devise the
necessary institutional arrangements required for the
preparation, acceptance and implementation of a sediment
control ordinance or other management program applicable
to incorporated and unincorporated areas on a county-
wide basis.
The conceptualization of the project, the participation
and involvement of appropriate interest groups and the
development of project objectives is reviewed. Each
objective is discussed with emphasis on strategies for
implementation and accomplishments to date.
Development of the Washington County Project began in
April of 1973 as a result of the Governor's Conference
on Sediment and Erosion Control held at Madison,
Wisconsin.
EROSION-SEDIMENT CONTROL PROJECT WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN
Stephen C. Andrews
The Red Clay Project is a research and demonstration
project funded by the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency under Section 108 of the 1972 Amendments to the
Federal Water Quality Act (PL 92-500). Section 108
provides funds for projects in the Great Lakes Basin for
the collection of data to be used as a basis for
planning and implementing non-point source pollution
control programs to help improve water quality.
Ashland County was selected to demonstrate shoreline
protective devices including rip-raping and selected
configurations of longard tubes.
Early surveys of four potential sites indicated that the
Indian Cemetery site on Madeline Island would be an
appropriate location for rip-raping. In addition to
providing demonstration capability, it also will protect
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a valuable archeological resource. Madlgn beach, about
15 miles east of the City of Ashland was chosen for the
longard tub research and demonstration area. This beach
has many high erodible clay bluffs which need
stabilization. The primary problem is one of waves
eating out the tow of these slopes. It is felt that
Longard tubes in seawall and grain configurations may be
useful in stabilizing the bluffs.
At the time of this report, permits have been secured
from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources and
the Army Corps of Engineers. It is expected that
construction will commence early in the spring of 1977.
BLACK CREEK PROJECT-OVERVIEW Ellis McFadden
The Black Creek Sediment Control Study, an Evironmental
Protection Agency funded project to determine the
environmental impact of land use on water quality is
finishing its fourth year of activities. The project,
which is directed by the Allen County Soil and Water
Conservation District, is an attempt to determine the
role that agricultural pollutants play in the
degredation of water quality in the Maumee River Basin
and ultimately in Lake Erie.
The Black Creek prject was designed and developed by a
consortium of the Environmental Protection Agency, the
Soil Conservation Service of the United States
Department of Agriculture, Purdue University, and the
Allen County District. It is a response to allegations,
first brought to the attention of Allen County residents
at a conference on the future of the Maumee River
sponsored by Representative J. Edward Roush in January
of 1972.
At the conference, sediments and related pollutants were
named as major contributors to the degredation of water
quality in Lake Erie. It was further suggested that
agricultural operations significantly increased the
amount of sediment and sediment related pollutants.
The Black Creek Sediment Study, funded by a grant of
nearly two million dollars is an attempt to discover the
role that agricultural operations play in the pollution
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of the Maumee River and how that role can be diminished
through the application of significant land treatment
practices.
The project represents a multi-agency, multi-discipline
approach to the total problem of non-point source
pollution. It involves demonstration, through a problem
of accelerated land treatment with the assistance of the
Soil Conservation Service, applied research by Purdue
University, administration by the Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District, and cooperation from a
variety of state, federal and local agencies, as well as
the private landowners in the study area.
CHALLENGE OF SECTION 208 PLANNING James Morrison
Awareness of the problem of non-point source pollution
is seen as a traditional process of environmental
consciousness raising. Agricultural pollution is seen
as different from other types of pollution because
control involves not only economics but the availability
of a basic resource. Combinations of impacts on both
the profitability of agricultural operations and the
productivity of agricultural land are discussed. It is
noted that Congress inserted the words "to the extent
feasible" in its adoption cf Section 208 concerning
agricultural pollution. A definition of "feasible" is
cited as a major challenge to Section 208 planners.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN LAND USE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
F. W. Madison
The goal of the Washington County Project is to develop
and institutionalize a sediment control mechanism for
Washington County, Wisconsin. To accomplish this,
technical information generated by physical scientists
from an extensive monitoring network as well as legal
and institutional alternatives developed by social
scientists must be transferred to citizens and local
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decision makers to create an awareness of and support
for those legal and institutional changes needed to
control nonpoint source pollution. It should be made
clear that the Washington County Project is operating at
two levels: one, of course, involves the development of
a specific sediment control mechanism or mechanisms for
Washington County while the other involves the
development of methodologies, strategies for
implementation or whatever that can be generalized and
utilized in other parts of Wisconsin, of the Great Lakes
Basin and perhaps of the entire country.
Strategies for information dissemination and public
participation in the Washington County Project were
identified by project staff working with local citizens
and county personnel. Initially, they involved two
important assumptions. First, it was agreed that the
general level of understanding and awareness of nonpoint
source pollution was limited and thus, that early
informational effort would have to be directed toward
simply pointing out the problem and explaining some of
the more basic—and technically well understood—
processes and problems. Secondly, it was recognized
that nonpoint source pollution is basically a people
problem. Much of the problem can—and probably will--be
solved if people are made aware of the causes and
dimensions of the problem and of the fact that many of
the things they do in everyday life can affect the
problem. In urban areas, fertilizers and pesticides
improperly applied to lawns and gardens are a problem as
are grass clippings and leaves dumped in gutters. On
farms, cattle watering in streams and manure spread on
steep, frozen ground are significant nonpoint source
pollution problems.
LAND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN FOR WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES
Carlisle P.Runge
The problem of nonpoint source water pollution control
is at once a problem of the interface of land use and
water quality problems and a problem of federalism —
the carrying out of policy in the intergovernmental
framework. The purpose of this paper is to present the
issue of nonpoint source pollution control in its
historical/institutional contexts and to suggest
principles of institutional design which respond to this
context and which build on it, with emphasis on
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institutional patterns in Wisconsin and the experience
of the Washington County Project.
The set of nonpoint source problems should be seen,
institutionally, as the combination of developments in
water resources policy and land management. These two
issues have developed along separate "tracks" through
the history of the United States. Each requires
examination in terms of institutions and authority at
federal, state and local levels in order to establish a
framework for approaching the problems of land related
pollution control.
In conclusion these general principles of institutional
design and observations suggest a substantial local role
in program implementation based on state guidelines and
standards, which, in turn, carry out federal policy; all
should be seen as an institutional arrangement which is
conditioned by the historical experience of the separate
approaches to water resources and land management in the
United States. They are consistant with Constitutional
precepts and legal history which limit the federal role
in private land management in favor of authority
reserved for the states and conducted locally in most
instances. They also recognize the degree of federal
influence in water resources matters which is a policy
of long standing. The administrative experience of
numerous institutions at the several levels of
government is incorporated into such possible approach.
These observations include an appreciation of the social
traditions and values which are associated with the
holders of land in America. Finally, these
considerations have a bearing on the degree of public
management of private lands, the levels of government
and the issues of private-public cooperation,
responsibility and allocation of costs and expected
benefit s.
PLANNING DIFFUSE POLLUTION CONTROL Robert Schneider
A framework was developed formalizing the evaluation of
costs and benefits of nonpoint pollution control and
making explicit the informational requirements necessary
to the analysis. Its usefulness in designing
discriminating legislation was considered. Such a
scheme should prove useful in (a) developing a system
of classification useful foi efficient nonpoint
pollution control, and (b) determining areas of major
research priority to aid in the development of nonpoint
pollutant control.
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BEST MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY
Gregory L. Woods
In evaluating a farm, each field or farming unit is
analyzed for basic soil loss using the universal soil
loss equation. The equation, our only tool for
estimating soil loss is shown as:
A = RKLSPC, where
A = is the computed average annual
soil loss per unit area
R = rainfall factor
K = soil erodibility factor
L = slope steepness factor
S = slope steepness factor
C = cropping management factor
P = is the erosion control practice
factor
It is readily seen that of the
can be significantly changed or
Rainfall, soil erodibility,
remains static.
six factors only three
altered by man.
and slope steepness always
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IMPLEMENTING AND MONITORING CONSERVATION PLANS Thomas D. McCain
Reviewing land treatment accomplishments in the Black
Creek Sediment Study Project as we complete this fourth
construction season, reflects interesting changes in
attitudes of technicians, planners and the people of the
watershed. The current emphasis on major management
objectives has been a modification of original ideas.
When the initial work plan was assembled four (4) years
ago there was conserted effort by the Allen SWCD, SCS
and Purdue University people to accumulate, analyze and
evaluate all the resource data available for Black
Creek. Even looking back to the initial review of the
Maumee Basin we set out to find a difficult situation
where some type of "demonstrational" applied land
treatment program could accomplish the desired
objectives. Black Creek was selected as the most
typical mini-basin.
AN INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH TO IMPLEMENTING BEST MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES James E. Lake
The Black Creek Study, one of three section 108 projects
funded by Region V of the United States Environmental
Protection Agency is presently finishing its fourth year
of activity. The project is scheduled to study is
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Wa ter Quali ty,
however, it is more commonly referred to as the "Black
Creek Study." The Allen County Soil and Water
Conservation District, Allen County Indiana, accepted
the 1.8 million dollar grant from EPA in October of
1972.
The main purpose of the study is to attempt to determine
the role that agricultural pollutants play in the
degredation of water quality in the Maumee River Basin
and ultimately Lake Erie.
The project was designed and developed by a consortium
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service, Purdue Univeristy, the office
of U.S. Congressman J. Edward Roush, Allen County Soil
and Water Conservation District, and Allen County
Surveyor's Office.
First, I think it Is significant that we were able to
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sign cooperative agreements with 95% of the landowners
in the watershed. A cooperative agreement simply means
that the landowners we contacted were interested enough
in knowing what was available through the project that
we are able to sign cooperative agreements with 95% of
the landowners in the watershed. A cooperative
agreement simply means that the landowners we contacted
were interested enough in knowing what was available
through the project that they signed an agreement asking
for the technical assistance to survey and design
measures that could be applied on their land. Only 5%
of the landowners in the watershed were unwilling to
venture this far. Over 80% of the landowners in the
watershed have signed a legal contract with the district
for the application of land treatment practices on their
farms. The contracts simply state that the landowners
will install the needed erosion control practices as
outlined on their contract and that the district will
supply the cost-share incentives and technical
assistance as stipulated on the contract. Cost-share
incentives on the practices averaged 70% for all the
practices applied. At the end of four years of
application a little over 57% of the watershed has been
adequately treated with erosion control measures. The
district has spent approximately four hundred and forty-
four thousand dollars as of September 30, 1976 for
payment to landowners applying practices.
In evaluating the 31 practices our district can only
justify the expenditures on less than ten practices
relative to the goals of erosion control and improved
wa te r q uali ty.
From our experience on the project to date, of the
thirty-one practices originally outlined in the work
plan the district would recommend these best management
practices: The first best management practice which is
very significant to Black Creek and many areas of the
country is Conse rva t ion Tillage and within conservation
tillage you gain proper crop residue management. The
second would be Pa rallei Tile Outlet Terraces. In order
for terraces to be installed other practices must be
incorporated in the terrace plan and are really required
by the terrace system; these would be conservation
cropping system (crop rotation), title drainage and
contour farming. The third practice is Pas tur e and
Hayland Planting. Some areas are critical enough that
they need to be removed from crop land and placed in
permanent pasture. Another "BMP" would be Animal Wa s t e
HoIding Ponds and Tanks. Included in this practice area
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would be any management facility which would control
runoff of animal waste into public waterways. Other
best management practices would include: Gr ade
Stabilization St rue tur es, Grass Wa terways, and Sediment
Gont rol Bas ins wh ere needed. The last category of best
management practice would be those practices related to
the stream, which are: S t r eambank Protection,
S treamchannel S tabiliza tion, and Field Borde r
establishment. The other practices listed in the
original work plan can be considered on a complete
conservation plan for a land unit but we feel should not
be assited with public dollars because there are not
sufficient public benefits to justify public funding.
It is not feasible to select best management practices
at any level higher than the local SWCD, simply because
the practices vary with location.
In all reality, however, the application of best
management practices to the level necessary for waste
quality improvement will not be accomplished on a
totally voluntary program. Enforcement will be needed
on a small percentage of the landowners. In order to be
sure that best management practices are installed
properly and at the amount necessary for erosion control
in the county it will be necessary for the state agency
to provide enforcement when requested by the district.
It would be the district's obligation however to submit
a written request to the state agency for its assistance
in seeing that enforcement is properly carried out when
needed. This, however, would not be direct enforcement
but would come about as the result of the district
informing the landowner that if he does not cooperate
with the district and install the needed practices the
state will come down on him with enforcement measures
such as fines, etc. Using this approach there will
probably be very few cases where the district will be
unable to obtain cooperation for proper application of
practices. However, I would estimate that there are
approximately five percent of the landowners who will
not react to anything less than enforcement.
If all of this is to come about, and in reality be a
implementable program, the first thing that must be
recognized is the Soil and Water Conservation Districts
do need to hire professional district representatives to
assist them with management. By this I mean the local
soil and water conservation district supervisors must
have an executive secretary who is a professional,
qualified to manage their programs. This needs to be
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someone who is in the district office day by day and
knows what is happening and can inform the supervisors
of the local needs and problems.
Soil and Water Conservation Districts throughout the
country want to be part of planning for non-point
pollution control. Anyone involved in 208 programs
should definitely consider getting the local SWCD
involved if they have not already done so. The project
also points out that soil and water conservation
districts are going to need to make some changes to meet
the challenges of non-point pollution control in the
future.
SOCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PARTICIPATION IN SOIL
CONSERVATION: BLACK CREEK PROJECT David L. Taylor
William L. Miller
One of the most important tasks that faces any program
designed to influence or alter the social behavior of a
group of people is how to attain the cooperation and
participation of those people. This is absolutely
necessary if the project is going to achieve its goals
without coercion and/or creating in unfavorable image
amoung those persons.
In the Black Creek Project, farmers are being encouraged
to adopt agricultural management practices on their
farms which benefit society by reducing the runoff of
sediment and nutrients which pollute streams and lakes.
To achieve this objective economic incentives have been
combined with information designed to encourage the
farmer to adopt management practices to reduce runoff.
To personnel involved with this project who have worked
with the farmers, it has been apparent that the adoption
of a particular management practice varies between
farmers and groups of farmers in the project area.
The objective or this research is to determine which
factors are most important for adoption of the
management practices. In addition, it will determine at
what stage in the decision making process these factors
exert their major influence on the behavior of farmers.
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CONSERVATION TILLAGE TRIALS IN PROGRESS
IN THE BLACK WATERSHED Donald R. Griffith
Gary W. Carlisle
Simulated rainfall studies have shown that conservation
tillage techniques are quite effective in reducing water
runoff, soil loss, and pollutants associated with soil
loss. Previous research in Indiana and other Corn Belt
states, however, indicated that the various conservation
tillage systems are not uniformly adapted in all soil-
climate situations.
Factors shown to have major influence on the success of
conservation tillage systems are soil drainage, previous
crop length of growing season, and soil physical
pr ope rt ies.
The first three years of the project fall chiseling with
limited secondary tillage in the spring, appeared to be
successful with a wide range of soil types and weather
condi tions.
Specific objectives of the tillage trials, listed below,
are aimed at reducing soil erosion in the watershed.
1. To determine which conservation tillage systems
are adapted on the primary soil types in the
watershed. Adapted, in this case, means that the
system can be used by farmers of average
managerial ability without risk of significant
yield reduction.
2. To have conservation tillage techniques in use by
a high percentage of farmers in the watershed.
Weeds not controlled with no-plow were primarily species
resistant to herbicides used. These included field
bindweed, morning glory and Canadian thistle. The pre-
emergency herbicides used were an Aatrex-Bladex-
Lasso_Paraquat combination on corn and a Lorox-Lasso-
Paraquat combination on soybeans.
Another interesting observation during the growing
season is the development of phytophthora root rot
disease of soybeans in the Nappanee silt loam trial. It
became much more severe in no-till and disk plots than
in deep tilled plots, and yialds were reduced by 75%.
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AH three of the conservation tillage demonstrations
appear to be successful. The sod-planted corn showed no
drouth stress during an early season dry period, while
other corn in the same field was showing drouth
symptoms. Moisture conserved with no-till sod planting
is a prime advantage for this system on well drained
soils .
CROP SEQUENCE AND FALL TILLAGE J. V. Mannering
C. B . Johnson
The Black Creek Watershed, a 4,850 ha sub-watershed of
the Maumee River Basin is an area of intensive farming
with an estimated 60% of the area devoted to row crop
(corn and soybean) culture. The dominant cultural
practices used in corn and soybean production within the
watershed consists of fall turn plowing, secondary
tillage for seedbed preparation in the spring and
cultivation for weed control. Although this method of
crop production is agronomically sound (except of highly
erosive soils), it does leave a large percent of the
watershed unprotected and subject to erosion during a
large part of the year. Conservation tillage systems
have been shown to effectively reduce soil erosion at
several locations in the Cornbelt where erosion is a
problem. It is important, then, to determine the
effectiveness of these conservation tillage systems in
reducing the soil erosion and resultant sedimentation
problems in the Black Creek Watershed.
These results are still considered to be a preliminary
nature and further analyses might alter them slightly.
However, several conclusions can be made at this time.
This include:
a) Tillage systems performed in the fall have
significant effects on the amount of crop residue
remaining on the surface in the spring. Surface
cover averaged over four locations amounted to
21, 11, 10, and 2% respectively, for the check,
disk, chisel and plow treatments following
soybeans. Following corn these values were 64,
65, 37, and 4%.
b) There is a strong interaction between crop
sequence and tillage system as to their effect on
surface cover. When averaged over the four
locations surface residue cover in the spring
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after fall tillage following soybeans was 33, 18,
and 33% respectively, of that after from the
check, disk and chisel treatments.
c) Soil losses in the spring are much greater
following a crop of soybeans than following a
crop of corn. Averaged over four location, land
following soybeans was found to be 5.2, 7.1, 2.7
and 1.4 times more erosive than land following
corn from the check, disk, chisel and plow
treatments, respectively. This relationship did
not appear to be greatly different on the nearly
level lake plain soils or the sloping glacial
till soils. It should be mentioned, however,
that soil losses across all treatments were much
lower on the neraly level sites than on the
sloping sites. Another point should be made
about thes data. They represent only the most
erosive part of the fallow and crop residue
periods, not the entire season.
d) Soil losses are inversely related to percent
surface cover. Generally, the greater the
surface cover, the less the erosion regardless of
the crop involved. However, some crops produce
more total residue than others and the residue
produced decomposes slowly because of high
carbon-nitrogen ratios. A good example is corn
versus soybeans.
e) Those tillage systems that leave large amounts of
crop residues on the surface are effective in
significantly reducing soil erosion in the Black
Creek Watershed. Particularly effective are
check (no till) and disk treatments following
corn since large amounts of surface residue still
remain in the spring. Fall chiseling following
corn although not as effective as the two
treatments mentioned above, significantly reduces
erosion, compared to plowing. The degree of
erosion control is dependent upon the amount of
surface cover remaining as well as the roughness
of the surface. None of the conservation
treatments are as effective following soybeans as
following corn because of reduced surface cover.
Chiseled soybean land can be particularly erosive
following a poor crop and when chisel marks run
up and down slopes.
f) Gross field erosion is 3 or more times greater
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from the sloping soils in the watershed than from
the nearly level portions. For this reason, it
is still more important to concentrate
conservation tillage and other conservation
practices in the more erosive areas.
SEDIMENT YIELD FROM AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED INTO
THE MAUMEE RIVER E. J. Monke
The annual sediment yield from the Maumee River into
Lake Erie averages around 500 kg/ha from the entire
Maumee Basin. This sediment, consisting almost entirely
of suspended load, may be contributing to the
eutrophication process in Lake Erie by acting as the
transporting agent for chemicals notably phosphorus.
During 1975, the sediment production from the Black
Creek Watershed into the Maumee River averaged about
3900 kg/ha. This rate was substantially higher than the
estimated 1000 kg/ha for 1974 and was caused by greater
than average rainfall. Also several large storms
occurred during May when around 50 percent of the land
surface had been just recently tilled. Total phosphorus
and nitrogen runoff were 9 and 78 kg/ha, respectively.
Two subwatersheds were studied in particular: One
contained 26 percent mostly level and 74-percent rolling
topography and was 40-percent in row crops, and the
other contained 71-percent mostly level and 29-percent
rolling topography and was 63-percent in row crops. The
first subwatershed had a sediment yield of 5400 kg/ha as
compared to 3500 kg/ha for the latter. Phosphorus
yields were about the same for both watersheds even
though the sediment yields were substantially different.
Higher fertility levels were maintained in the more
level subwatershed, however. The nitrogen yield was 67
kg/ha for the first subwatershed as compared to 89 kg/ha
for the other. Again the more level subwatershed had
higher fertilzer application rates. It is also
extensively tile drained. The difference in sediment
yield from the two subwatersbeds suggests that the more
rolling land contributed a large share of the total
yield even though the soil surface was better protected
(40 vs 63-percent in row crops). The major portion of
the soil loss from the more level lands occurred only
during the large storm events.
The best management practices for reducing soil erosion
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in the watershed seem to be those practices which
protect the most soil surface over the longest period of
time. Any form of minimized tillage and better residue
management would fall into this category. A best
management practice for substantially reducing the off-
site effects of erosion is the temporary storage of
runoff. Parallel, tile-outlet terraces (also reduces
field soil loss) and small detention reservoirs located
near the outlets of tributary drains are examples where
the temporary slow-down and storage of runoff waters may
allow 90-percent more of the sediments to drop out.
For 1975, the sediment yield from the Black Creek
Watershed into the Maumee River was 3900 kg/ha. Major
storm events during late May and early June caused about
one-half of the total sediment load. Since many drains
were overtopped from one particularly intense storm,
severe scouring on the nearly level portions of the
watershed contributed a normally disproportionate share
of the total sediment yield. Even so, the sediment
yield from the nearly level portion of the watershed was
estimated at only 2400 kg/ha as compared to 6500 kg/ha
from the gently rolling portion. Best management
practices put into the upper one-third of the watershed
on the gently rolling glacial till soils should prove to
be the most beneficial of any location in the Black
Creek Watershed.
NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MAUMEE RIVER D. W. Nelson
L . E . S omme r s
A. D. Bottcher
Total amounts of water, sediment, and nutrients
discharged from two subwatersheds of the Black Creek
study area during 1975 were determined. In excess of
5000 kg of sediment/ha was transported past the two
sampling sites during the year. Quantities of most
nutrient forms were similar to those observed in other
watershed studies except that the amounts of nitrate N
discharged were high (25-34 kg/ha). Most of the total P
transported was sediment-bound P, whereas a substantial
proportion of the total N in stream water was nitrate.
Partitioning the total amounts of sediment and nutrients
transported by type of flow indicated that small
hydrological events were responsible for most transport,
however, large events transported a higher proportion of
sediment and sediment nutrients in relation to flow.
Amounts of suspended and soluble constituents
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transported in base flow was low. Surface runoff was
the major source of sediment, sediment-bound nutrients,
ammonium N, and soluble organic N and transported in the
subwatersheds. Significant proportions of nitrate N
originated in tile drainage and subsurface drainage
water. A substantial proportion of soluble inorganic P
was derived from septic tank effluent in one
subwatershed containing a large number of houses.
Calculation of proportions of N and P added as
fertilizer and manure which were recovered as soluble
inorganic nutrients in streams indicate that significant
losses of added N are occurring in the watershed. Very
low losses of added P were observed.
The following conclusions may be drawn from the data
presented in this discussion:
1. Sediment and nutrient losses in watershed are not
large with the exception of high NO,-N losses.
2. Greater than 90% of total P transported in
watershed is sediment P; only 50-60% of total N
transported is sediment N. N movement is more
difficult to model than P transport.
3. Transport of sediment and nutrients in the
watershed is associated with storm events; less
than 10% is transported during base flow. Storms
must be well monitored.
4. Sediment content and sediment nutrient
concentrations increase markedly during storm
events. Concentrations of soluble nutrients
usually decrease during large storm events.
5. Surface runoff is the major source of sediment,
sediment—bound nutrients, soluble P compounds,
and ammonium. Subsurface drainage water is the
major source of nitrate. In heavily populated
parts of the watershed septic tanks may be a
major contributor of inorganic P.
6. Approximately 45% of the N added as fertilizer
and manure is recovered in drainage water from
the watershed. Only 0.5% of the added P is
recovered in drainage water.
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SEDIMENT REDUCTION BY STREAMBAN R. Z. Wheaton and
MODIFICATION AND SEDIMENT TRAPS R. E. Land
Considerable work has gone into the Black Creek
watershed in stabilizing channel banks and slopes
throughout the area. As reported at the 1975 Seminar
the structural and tlie hank stabilizing practices have
generally been very successful. However, continued
observations throughout the study has suggested that in
some reaches of the channel the bottoms may be
continuing to degrade. Also, soil mechanics studies
identified several locations where the channel bottoms
were potentially unstable. This study showed that the
most likely reason for instability was excess channel
slope and often a less resistant soil material in the
profile near the channel bottom. It is evident that if
a channel bottom degrades that eventually even stable
banks must become unstable.
The Sediment Pond: on the Virgil Hirsch farm was
constructed in the fall of 1973 and filled to
overflowing in November of the year. It serves a
drainage area of 185 ha (460 acres). The soil types are
Hoytville and Nappanee. The land slopes are generally
less than one-half percent. With the water level at the
crest of the mechanical spillway the water surface area
of the pond is just over 2.4 ha (6 acres). The flood
storage is 14,000 cu meters (11 acre ft.) with a
detention time at flood design of 4-1/2 hours and as
estimated flow-through time for one hour.
On May 18,1976 with the assistance of the Soil
Conservation Service state geologist cross sectional
profiles were run over 30.4 meters (100 ft.). Depth of
accumulated sediment was determined across each base
line or station. These depths were determined by the
use of a recording fathometer and by probing. Sediment
deposits were examined for determination of particle
size. Sediment samples for laboratory analysis were
collected at a later date.
Sediment deposits were found to be very uniform in depth
throughout the pond area with an average accumulation of
6 cm (0.2 ft.). Likewise particles size appeared to be
very uniform, being primarly in the clay and silt
fractions with possibly as small amount of fine sand.
Laboratory analysis of the samples confirmed that the
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sediment is a silty clay texture. The range of the
sample analysis were as follows:
silt 52.1 — 63.9%
clay 31.9--42.0Z
sand 4.2 5.9%
From the depth of the sediment accumulation calculations
indicate that in the nearly three year period since
constructioa the sediment pond has accumulated
approximately 1880 cu m (2400 cu yd.) of sediment.
Assuming a dry weight of 857 kgm per cu meter (55 pounds
per cubic foot) this amount to an average of 2.8 tonnes
per ha per year (1.2 tons of sediment per acre per year)
for each of the three years of the nearly three year
period from construction until the survey. However,
this figure should not be considered anything more than
the averge accumulation for the years 1973-1976.
The Desilting Basin; on the main stem of the Black
Creek was constructed in September of 1974 and was first
surveyed on July 30, 1975. A second survey was
conducted July 7, 1976. Sediment samples have also been
collected from this basin for particle size
determination.
The first survey covering a period of approximately nine
months showed an accumulation of 770 cubic meters (980
cubic yards) of material. The second survey shows an
additional accumulation of 416 cu meters (530 cubic
yards in approximately a one year additional time.
Sediment sample analysis are shown in Table I. This
table shows only the percent sand by size fraction and
does not include the finer silt and clay fractions. It
is only at stations 460 and 461 where less than one-half
of the sediment accumlated was in the sand size
fraction.
This would indicate that much of the material being
trapped by this desilting basin is bed-load. To date no
evidence has been seen of additional scour of the
channel immediately below the desilting basin. The
first 50 meters (150 ft.) of this basin is nearly full
of sediment, Figure 5. There is considerable
accumulation throughout the basin. If it continues to
trap material at the present rate it will have to be
cleaned out in a year or two to remain effective.
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ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ACQUISTION AND REAL-TIME
COMPUTERS L. F. Huggins
S. J. Mahler
The on-line computer on the Purdue campus is a
minicomputer running a general purpose time-sharing
operating system. The Black Creek installation is seen
by the computer as simply one of several simultaneous
users active on the system. The operating program which
controls communication with the Black Creek station has
four primary responsibilities: (1) assembling the
incoming data into suitable files and permanent storage
of these files on magnetic disk and/or tape, (2)
maintenance of a dynamic file of the instantaneous level
of all variables being monitored in the watershed and
the operational status of all transducers, (3) providing
a preliminary analysis of water stage data in order to
issue feedback control commands to operate the water
sampling equipment, and (4) detection of storm
conditions in the watershed that indicate the need to
activate a complete real-time simulation of the
hydrologic behavior of the catchment. During a runoff
producing storm, a simulation model is activated which
combines historical data files describing physical
characteristics of the catchment with real-time,
dynamically changing data conerning rainfall intensity
distribution and stream stage to estimate height and
times of peak flows at all points in the drainage
network. If the geographical local warrented such
action, the computer could be programmed to
automatically ALERT responsible authorities in the event
of impending dangerous flood levels.
The collection of comprehensive environmental data is an
essential requirement for rational planning of non-point
pollution control measures and for subsequent
enforcement and post-planning evaluation activities.
Several examples of such activities underway in the
Black Creek Study Area have been described. The
dramatic impact of utilizing real-time computers to
collect environmental data has been outlined. Proper
transducer selection and data network configuration
allow existing time-sharing computer systems to serve as
real-time systems for most environmental data
requirements with no additional hardware of system level
software changes. This approach provides the benefit of
an on-line computer with no capital outlay beyond those
associated with a data logging system of greatly reduced
capability. While operating costs will be slightly
higher for the real-time system, these extra costs are
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primarily proportional to the degree of utilization of
the on-line features of the system and are therefore
subject to cost/benefit consideration and administrative
control. Furthermore, many of these associated benefits
are sufficient to significantly influence the economic
justification of the network of field transducers
required for any degree of automation of data collection
pr ocedures.
DETERMINANTS OF WATER QUALITY IN THE BLACK CREEK
WATERSHED James R. Karr
Daniel R. Dudley
A series of 120 sample locations have been selected
within the Black Creek watershed to sample areas of
different stream morphology, land use, vegetation cover,
and other factors with the objective of a detailed
analysis of relationships between these factors and
water quality. The short time since initiation of our
expanded effort precludes a detailed analysis. Three
major stream conditions are identified during a
prolonged dry period in the summer of 1976. These three
regions are: 1) base flow area maintained by
groundwater, 2) intermittent flow zone downstream from
Harlan, and 3) dry stream channels with stagnant pools.
Groundwater flow had significantly lower turbidity,
phosphorus, and ammonia than downstream stations
indicating these materials are accumulated from the
Black Creek channel rather than being picked up by
surface runoff.
Four major regions of stream were selected for
comparisons of water quality throughout the watershed.
In general, Driesbach Drain carried the largest volumes
of sediment and nutrients while Wertz and Smith-Fry
Drains contained the lowest concentrations. The main
Black Creek channel below Brush College Road was
intermediate. Harlan was a major source of nutrients
and suspended solids in the watershed. Considerable
find scale variation is evident throughout the watershed
and detailed analysis of that variation will be
presented in a future report.
A number of channel and tile flow sites were selected
for monitoring organic pollution levels in the
watershed. In general, highest bacterial counts are
associated with Harlan and lowest counts occur in the
tributaries such as Wertz and Smith-Fry Drains.
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Bacterial counts decline downstream in Black Creek.
Counts in the nearby Wann Ditch are below those in Black
Creek. A number of surface and tile samples throughout
the watershed indicate contamination from domestic
sources. Fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratios
indicate that most contamination is from human wastes.
Accumulation of organic pollutants in anaerobic
sediments suggests that the capacity of the biota to
assimilate these materials is being exceeded.
CULTURALLY INDUCED ACCELERATION OF MASS WASTAGE ON
RED CLAY SLOPES J. T. Mengel Jr
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK, DOUGLAS CO., WISCONSIN B. E. Brown
GEOLOGY
General Statement
The Little Balsam Creek drainage was selected for
investigation in the hope that it was representative,
within a limited area, of many of the geologic and
engineering conditions in the Nemadji River watershed
and other parts of the red clay plain which borders the
southwestern side of Lake Superior. Data in this report
proves that it is representative of the Douglas County
portion of the Superior plain and it is probable that
the conclusions reached here are applicable to much of
the remainder of the plain in Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesot a.
In Douglas County, Wisconsin the altitude of the
Superior plain ranges from about 625 feet above mean sea
level along the Lake to about 1100 feet along the South
Range, a sand covered highland with a lava bed rock core
which is the south boundary of the red clay area (Figure
1). The plain is underlain by glacially derived
materials consisting of a thick surface layer of red
brown and associated grayish clays and brown sands,
which rest on a vaguely stratified clay layer which
contains large but variable amounts of silt, sand,
gravel, and coarser material. These Quaternary age
sediments are underlain, inturn, by red sandstones or
black basaltic lava flows of Late Precambrian
(Keweenawan) age.
Toe undercutting triggers movement of the bank surface
which may extend far up slope and involve piecemeal
movement of the entire surface. The depth of the
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sliding mass rarely exceeds 5-7 feet and does not
involve the entire valley, wall, only its surface.
Movement is mainly translational downslope rather than
rotational into the slope. Small scale rotational slump
along shallow arcs is common especially at the toe and
the crest of the more active slopes.
Toe protection can probably still help reduce clay loss
from some slopes, but in most cases where recent stream
downcutting and toe undermining is already advances,
such measures will be of little help because such slopes
alread contain numerous factures which allow easy water
penetration and the slopes lack necessary toe support.
EFFECTS OF RED CLAY TURBIDITY ON THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENT
W .
L.
P.
A.
T.
W.
Swenson
Brooke
DeVo re
Lake Superior is the largest and one of the purest large
bodies of fresh water in the world. Turbidity occurring
in the extreme southwestern portion represents the only
major exception to this characterization. The turbidity
results from erosion of glacial-lacustrin red clay
deposits laid down by Glacial Lake Duluth which occur in
a continuous zone along 75 km of shoreline form Superior
to Port Wing, Wisconsin and cover an area approximating
3,600 km (1). Erosion of clay from shoreline bluffs,
river basins and resuspension from the lake bottom is
associated with periods of onshore wind, spring runoff
and precipitation. Clay plumes may extend from a few
hundred meters to several kilometers into the lake.
Red clay erosion in the western Lake Superior drainage
has reduced the value of the water resource for
reaction, navigation and municipal water use. Studies
on the effects of turbidity on aquatic life in the lake
and the Nemadji River system indicate that fish and
benthic invertebrate communities are influenced and
exhibit direct behavioral responses to turbidity.
Research completed on the lake commnity shows red clay
turbidity results in changes in nutrient levels, quality
and depth of light penetration and zooplankton and fish
distribution. Changes in distribution alter
predatorprey interactions. Major differences in
community structure were identified between clear and
turbid waters.
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Preliminary results from an ongoing study of the effects
of erosion and erosion control practices in the Nemadji
River system suggest existing turbidity and related clay
sedimentation have no significant negative effects on
macroinvertebrate standing crops on species diversity.
The only major changes in species composition are the
addition of burrowing mayflies (e.g. Hexagenia sp.,
Caenis sp.) when the bottom type is composed primarily
of silts and clays. A heavy sand bed-load resulting
from erosion and sedimentation results in a generally
unstable bottom and extremely low invertebrate
product ion.
No relationship has been identified in the streams
between turbidity and fish biomass, but there appears to
be a relationship between turbidity and species
composition. Clear, cold water tributaries are
dominated by Salmonidae in contrast to members of the
family Cyprinidae which dominate the turbid, warm water
reaches. The fry of rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax),
white suckers (Catastomus commersoni) and longnose
suckers (Catastomus catastomus) were found to be
numerous in spring drift samples, indicating that high
spring turbidity levels in the Nemadji River have litte
effect on the reproductive success of these species.
Although adult game fish were identified in the Nemadji
River, no drifting fry were recovered.
NON-POINT SOURCE MODELING FOR SECTION 208 PLANNING- Walter M. Sanders, III
Hydrologic unit models are very complex and require relatively large
amounts of calibration data and computational time. Once developed,
however, these detailed process models will simplify interfacing
problems and provide optimum environmental management tools for state
area-wide 208 agencies.
It is obvious that a large number of individual non-point source and
water quality models representing wide ranges of complexities and
possible applications are available. Greater progress, however, must
be made in interfacing these models into environmental management
packages. At present, however, compatible packages can be assembled
to represent or simulate many local problems. And, even though these
model packages are known to have deficiencies in certain areas, the
judicious application of these models for simulating management
alternatives using high-low and average conditions offers the best
available assistance for the decision-making process.
311
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TILE DRAIN SIMULATION MODEL A. B. Bottcher
A computerized simulation model is being developed at
Purdue University to provide a predictive tool for the
determination of sediment losses from tile effluent.
The model will provide a flow hydrograph with associated
sediment loading as a function of the input variables
(rainfall and initial soil moisture content). The model
will have the capability of being modified to represent
different tile system designs and soil types.
The need for concern of tile drainage influence on water
quality is shown by the significant contribution it has
to stream flow. Approximately 50% of the Black Creek
Wateshed is drained by subsurface tile systems. A tile
system can contribute anywhere from 10 to 100%
(typically 30%) of the total runoff of a drained area.
This indicates that approximately 15% of the runoff per
year from Black Creek is tile effluent. During non-
storm periods tile effluent is the maior source for
stream flow in agricultural areas. The influence of
tile flow on stream flow may vary greatly depending on
the annual rainfall distribution.
An estimate of the sediment, phosphorous and nitrogen
going into the Maumee River from Black Creek tile
effluent is approximately 100, 3 and 9 kilograms per
hectare per year, respectively. Note that a kilogram
per hectare is approximately equal to a pound per acre.
This is based on the previous flow assumption and tile
effluent data collected on about 266 tile outlets in the
Black Creek Watershed. The loading rates of localized
areas can be much larger as shown by G. 0. Schwab (1)
He measured annual sediment losses from tiles as high as
5400 kg/hect/year. His results indicate that in some
critical areas the tile effluent may be the dominant
effect on stream water quality.
Data collected for the single event on April 26-30 shows
a sediment loss of approximately 6 kg/hectare. The peak
concentration of suspended solids was 279 PPM. Tile
outflow peaked at .0036 cubic meters/sec (~60 gal/min).
Tile flow was caused by a 4.1 centimeters rain storm.
The above data is in good agreement with data collected
for several tile systems draining Hoytville soils in the
Black Creek Watershed.
The tile erosion model with associated hydrologic model
should be operational by August 1977. The laboratory
determination of required relationships will begin in
January, 1977. The hydrologic model is working for the
linear assumptions presented in this paper. The tile
sampling station is functioning and should be collecting
water quality samples for the next year to determine
tile effluents effect on stream water quality and
provide a means to calibrate the drain tile erosion
model. 212
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR URBAN STORM AND
COMBINED SEWER POLLUTION CONTROL
A CASE STUDY Cornelius B. Murphy, Jr,
The application of source and collection system
management concepts serve as the basis for the
application of a Best Management Practice (BMP) program
relative to the abatement of urban storm and combined
sewer pollution. These concepts have been evaluated for
application to the Rochester, New York combined sewer
system. The BMP program developed for Rochester will
result in the development of a very cost/effective first
phase solution for the Rochester combined sewer overflow
abatement program. By working with the existing system
and optimizing its operation, a better defined and
optimally designed structural intensive second phase
solution can be developed.
SIMULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL D. B. Beasley
IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY
This paper will discuss the steps involved in organizing
and implementing a computerized model of an agricultural
watershed for the purpose of studying the effects of
land use and management on water quality. The concepts
behind the model and the major operational equations are
presented in a concise form.
The "distributed parameter" approach involves dividing
and watershed into areas small enough to be considered
uniform (soil type, slope, crop, etc.). The small areas
or elements are modeled separately (using flow from
upstream or uphill elements as inputs along with
rainfall) and the outputs are routed through the
watershed. The strengths of this approach are several.
The actual processes occurring at a specific point in
the watershed are being simulated. The output from the
model can be collected at any point or many points in
the watershed. Thirdly, although the data file
necessary for simulation is rather complex, it is easily
and quickly changed to reflect management or cropping
changes. Finally, the sedimentation process can be
described much more precisely. Two weaknesses are
inherent in this model. First, it requires very large
amounts or processor time and computer core to run. It
is not capable of simulating long periods of record
economically (thus it is limited to event or single
storm simulations). Secondly, it requires more data for
its descriptive data file (watershed description).
313
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The element used in this model is a square-shaped area
that is 330 feet on a side. This means that the element
is exactly 2.5 acres or approximately 1 hectare in size.
The topographic information (direction and magnitude of
steepest slope) is obtained from USGS 7.5 minute
quadrangles that have been photographically enlarged to
a scale of 16 inches to the mile (1:3960) and then have
been partitioned off using a 1 inch grid pattern.
Likewise, the field boundaries and soil types are taken
from aerial photographs that have been similarily
enlarged and divided into the same grid pattern. The
model then divides the flow off of an element into its
horizontal and vertical components (with respect to the
map) and sends this output to the receiving element (s).
No flow is routed to diagonally located elements.
The present model is designed to simulate the hydrologic
processes that the original model did as well as these
of tile drainage, channel or stream flow, and
sedimentation. There is, however, a fundamental
differences in the operation of the original model and
the present model. The present model is written in the
GASP IV Simulation Language format. GASP IV is a
Fortran IV based, discrete-continuous simulation
vehicle. It uses a Runge-Kutta-England integratio
algorithm with a variable time step for solving
differential equations.
Finally, the sediment transport rate due to flow
(rainfall splash transport is neglected) is computed
from the following equation,
TF = CTF - RTF - Sl.667 ( 1>66? _
(DX) DX - C3 (90
where : TF = sediment transport rate for an element.
CTF = management factor relating to transport,
KTF = transport factor related to particle size
distribution and soil condition,
C3 = constant .
The constants Cl, C2, and C3 are determined
from a regression analysis of constants used
to produce simulation output that adequately
described rainulator runs in the Black Creek
Study area for the soils and other factors in
the target watersheds.
314
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We hope this two day seminar session has been of some
benefit to you. We are anxious to provide to you any
and all data we have to help you meet the Section 208
mandate to have implementable plans for point and non-
point source pollution control. Thank you for your
interest and attendance at the seminar.
315
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SEMINAR ATTENDEES
George R. Alexander, Jr.
Regional Administrator
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Stephen C. Andrews
Douglas County Red Clay Project
Superior, Wisconsin
Paul L. Angermeier
University of Illinois
Cathy L. Bagdonas
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Bruce Baker
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Robert G. Baker
A.I.S. & W.C.D.
Lerna, Illinois
Dan Banaszek
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Garth E. Bangay
Environment Canada
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Jim Baumann
Wis. Dept, Natural Resources
Madison, Wisconsin
David B. Beasley
Black Creek Project
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Roger Bedard
Indiana Heartland Coordinating
Committee
Indianapolis, Indiana
William Benjey
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Steven J. Berkowitz
Washington County Project
Madison, Wisconsin
Joseph Berta III
Illinois Dept. of Agriculture
Springfield, Illinois
Helen K. Bieker
A.A.U.W.
Munster, Indiana
L. N. Bieker
Save the Dunes Association
Munster, Indiana
Paul Bitter
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Robert H. Boecking
Soil Conservation Service
Midwest Technical Service Center
Lincoln, Nebraska
David Bonczyk
Central Upper Peninsula Planning
and Development Region
Gladstone, Michigan
A. B. Bottcher
Black Creek Project
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Wilbur Bowman
Assoc. of Illinois Soil & Water
Conservation Districts
Polo, Illinois
C. Brasher
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Jack E. Braun
Northwest Indiana Regional Planning
Commission
Highland, Indiana
Bruce E. Brown
Dept. Geological Sciences
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
Birute (Billy) Bulota
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Lloyd D. Burling
Illinois Fertilizer and Chemical
Association
316
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Jack R. Burney
Dept. of Agricultural Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Randolph Cano
Northwestern Indiana Regional
Planning Commission
Gordon Chesters
University of Wisconsin Water
Resources Center
Madison, Wisconsin
Ralph G. Christensen
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Ellsworth P. Christmas
Cooperation Extension
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
William E. Cloe
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Donald N. Collins
The Fertilizer Institute
Washington, D.C.
Roger K. Coppock
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Royal R. Cox
Ohio Dept. of Agriculture
Columbus, Ohio
Dennis L. Curran
Michigan Southcentral Michigan
Planning Council - 208
Nazareth, Michigan
Dr. M. Rupert Cutler
MSU Cooperative Extension Service
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
James A. Daley
Ohio Farm Bureau Federation
Columbus, Ohio
T. C. Daniel
University of Wisconsin - Soils
Madison, Wisconsin
William Davey
National Association of Conservation
Districts
McLean, Virginia
Philip DeVore
University of Wisconsin - Superior
Center for L. Superior Environmental
Studies
Al DiGennaro
Ohio EPA
Columbus, Ohio
Raymond M. Dost
St. Joseph County
Centreville, Michigan
Daniel R. Dudky
Allen County SWCD
Ft. Wayne, Indiana
Donna 0, Farley
Illinois Pollution Control Board
Chicago, Illinois
John E. Fisher
Lawson Fisher Association
South Bend, Indiana
Jim Frank
Illinois EPA
Springfield, Illinois
Victoria L. Gallagher
West Michigan Shoreline Regional
Development Commission
Muskegon, Michigan
Cletus J. Gillman
USDA - Soil Conservation Service
Indianapolis, Indiana
Robert Goltz
U.S.C.P.A.
Evanston, Illinois
Owen T. Gorman
Biological Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
317
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Arthur Greenberg
M.Y.A.P.O.
Billings, Montana
Elaine Greening
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Donald R. Griffith
Dept. of Agronomy, Life Science
Building
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Wesley Haer
American Farm Bureau
Park Ridge, Illinois
Ernest L. Hardin, Jr.
Illinois Institute for
Environmental Quality
Chicago, Illinois
Raymond L. Hartung
Nebraska Natural Resources
Commission
Lincoln, Nebraska
Joe B. Hays
J_ « IL* C* » (_* *
Indianapolis, Indiana
Clyde W. Hecox
Eastern Upper Peninsula
Planning
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
Lawrence L. Heffner
Extension Service, U.S.D.A.
Washington, D.C.
Ralph Heiden
State of Michigan Dept. of
Natural Resources
Lansing, Michigan
Philip J. Hermsen
Assoc. Milk Products, Inc.
Sleepy Hollow, Illinois
Gregory Hill
Dane County 208
Madison, Wisconsin
Robert Hoekstra
Southwestern Illinois Regional
Planning Commission
Collinsville, Illinois
Eric Hoist
Lake-Porter, S.W.C.D. 208
Valparaiso, Indiana
Bill Horvath
N.A.C.D.
Stevens Point, Wisconsin
John Houlihan
U.S. EPA, Region VII
Gladstone, Missouri
Donald Houtman
Red Clay Project
Superior, Wisconsin
Larry Huggins
Black Creek Project
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Ed Hustoles
S.E.M.C.O.G.
Detroit, Michigan
G, W. Isaacs
Agricultural Engineering Dept.
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Myron Iwanski
Water Resources Engineers
Jackson, Michigan
Owen C. Jansson
Huron River Watershed
Council
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Leonard C. Johnson
Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water
Conservations Districts
Madison, Wisconsin
Peggy Johnson
Southeast Michigan Council
of Governments
Detroit, Michigan
318
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Mikeal Jones
U.S.D.A. Forest Service
Shawnee National Forest and
Eastern Region
Harrisburg, Illinois
Rex Jones
Indiana State Board of Health
Indianapolis, Indiana
James R. Karr
Black Creek Project
Dept. Ecology, Ethology, and
Evolution
University of Illinois - Champaign
Mike Keefe
Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan
Regional Planning Commission
Collinsville, Illinois
Ken Kemp
Indiana State Board of Health
Indianapolis, Indiana
John A. Killam
Illinois Livestock Association
Jacksonville, Illinois
Glenn Kinderman
Wisconsin D.N.R.
Brooklyn, Wisconsin
John Korhonen
Eastern Upper Michigan Regional
Planning Commission
Soo, Michigan
Kristin Kothe
Indiana Heartland Coordinating
Commission
Indianapolis, Indiana
David C. Kraus
U.S. EPA
Buffalo, New York
Joseph Krivak
U.S. EPA
Washington, D.C.
Homer M, Kuder
Illinois EPA
St. Joseph, Illinois
Jim Lake
Allen County Soil and Water District
Ft, Wayne, Indiana
James H, Lee
W.C.I.E.D.D.
Terre Haute, Indiana
Thomas Lera
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Michigan Planning Section
Raymond Lett
U.S.D.A. - A.S.C.S.
Springfield, Illinois
William H. Luckmann
University of Illinois - I.N.H.S.
Urbana, Illinois
Dale Luecht
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Tom Lyons
Indiana Dept. Natural Resources
Division of Forestry
Indianapolis, Indiana
Orville Macomber
U.S. EPA
Cincinnati, Ohio
Fred Madison
Washington County Project
Lodi, Wisconsin
Thomas W. Maganini
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Jerry V. Mannering
Agronomy Dept., Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Daniel McCain
U.S.D.A. - S.C.S.
District Conservationist
Fort Wayne, Indiana
319
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Charles D. McCallion
Indiana State Board of Health
Indianapolis, Indiana
William D. McElwee
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional
Planning Commission
Waukesha, Wisconsin
Ellis McFadden
Allen County S.W.C.D,
Ft. Wayne, Indiana
Dr. R. G. Menzel
U.S.D.A. - A.R.S.
Durant, Oklahoma
William L. Miller
Dept. of Agricultural Economics
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Shirley Mitchell
U.S. EFA, Region V, Chicago
Roger C. Moe
Soil Conservation Service
Champaign, Illinois
E. J. Monke
Agricultural Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Carol L. Moorhead
University of Illinois Cooperative
Extension Service
Urbana, Illinois
Frank Moreno
Greater Egypt Regional Planning
and Development Commission
Carbondale, Illinois
James B. Morrison
Congressman J. Edward Roush, Office
Warren, Indiana
Leo F. Mulcahy
Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water
Conservation Districts
Madison, Wisconsin
James J, Muldoon
Southwestern Michigan Regional
Planning
Benton Harbor, Michigan
Cornelius B. Murphy
Managing Engineer, O'Brien & Gere
Consulting Engineers, Inc.
Syracuse, New York
Darrell W, Nelson
Black Creek Project
Agronomy Dept., Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Audrie Newton
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Ralph V. Nordstrom
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Dennis Oakes
Region II Planning Commission
Jackson, Michigan
Gary Oberts
Metro. Council of Twin Cities
St. Paul, Minnesota
Wayne Olson
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Chuck Orzehoskie
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Dennis Pescitelli
Illinois EPA, Div. of Water Pollution
Control
Springfield, Illinois
James R. Peterson
M.S.D.G.C.
Cicero, Illinois
Michael T. Phillips
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
John P. Piccininni
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Irwin Polls
Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago
320
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Chris Potos
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Glenn D, Pratt
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Fred E. Regnier
Agricultural Experiment Station
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Edd D. Rhoades
U.S.D.A. - A.R.S.
Chickasha, Oklahoma
R. Michael Robling
Indiana Heartland Coordinating
Commission
Indianapolis, Indiana
Roger Roeske
Porter County S.W.C.D.
Valparaiso, Indiana
Amos Roos
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
RoSeville, Minnesota
J, Edward Roush
U.S. House of Representatives
Fort Wayne, Indiana
Carlisle Runge
Washington County Project
Madison, Wisconsin
Harold Ryan
Washington County EPA Project
West Bend, Wisconsin
Walter M. Sanders
U.S. EPA, ERL, Athens, Georgia
Isaac Schlasser
University of Illinois
Champaign, Illinois
Reuben Schmahl
Washington County Board of
Supervisors
West Bend, Wisconsin
Karyl Schmidt
Region VI Planning & Development
Commission - 208
Munc ie, Indiana
Robert J. Schneider
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Great Lakes Coordinator
Robert R. Schneider
Washington County Project
Madison, Wisconsin
Frank H. Schoone
U.S.D.A. - A.S.C.S.
Springfield, Illinois
Sara J. Segal
U.S. EPA, Region V
R. Lennie Scott
Lawson Fisher Association
South Bend, Indiana
Wesley D. Seitz
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
Byron Shaw
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Stevens Point, Wisconsin
William Skimin
Great Lakes Basin Commission
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Peter E. Smith
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
L. E. Sommers
Agronomy Department
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
John B. Stall
Illinois State Water Survey
Urbana, Illinois
Jon-Eric T. Stenson
U.S. EPA, Region V.Chicago
321
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Fred 0. Sullivan
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
William A. Swenson
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Center for Lake Superior
Environmental Studies
Superior, Wisconsin
A. G. Taylor
Illinois EPA
Springfield, Illinois
Karen Theisen
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Owen Thompson
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Christopher M. Timm
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Director, S&W Division
John Paul ToIson
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, OCZM
Washington, D.C.
Francine Topping
Metropolitan Sanitary District
of Greater Chicago
Joseph R. Tynsky
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Don Urban
U.S.D.A. - Soil Conservation
Districts
Medina, Ohio
Lawrence G. Vance
Purdue Extension-Soil & Water
Conservation
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
W. A. Van Eck
U.S. EPA
Washington, D.C.
John M. Walker
EPA Wastewater Management Office
Dept. of Crop & Soil Science
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
Robert D. Walker
University of Illinois
Urban, Illinois
Rolland Z. Wheaton
Agricultural Engineering Dept.
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Lyman F. Wible
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional
Planning Commission
Waukesha, Wisconsin
Dan Wiersma
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Phyllis Willbach-Rose
Southeast Michigan Council of
Governments (SEMCOG)
Detroit, Michigan
Helen A. Willis
Michigan Soil Conservation
Districts, Inc.
Rochester, Michigan
Carl D. Wilson
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
Non-point Source Coordinator
Gregg L. Woods
U.S.D.A. - Soil Conservation Service
Rensselaer, Indiana
Donald Wydeven
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
322
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-76-005
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
"Best Management Practices for Non-Point Source
Pollution Control"
(Guidance for Section 208 Planners and Implementing
Aj
5. REPORT DATE
Der.gmher 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
Agpnri'ps)
. AXlTHORIS)"
compiled by:
Ralph G. Christensen & Carl D. Wilson
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BH645
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA-G005103, EPA-G005140
EPA-G005139, EPA-Y005141
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Progress - 1972-1976
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Compiled by Ralph G. Christensen, Chief, Section 108(a) Program
(P.L.. 9.2-500) and Carl D. Wilson, Nonpoint Source Coordinator, Region 5, Chicago,
This report is a collection of technical papers presented at the "Best Management
Practices for Non-point Source Pollution Control" - Seminar held at Ramada O'Hare
Inn, Rosemont, Illinois, on November 16 and 17, 1976. The principal investigators
of four Section 108(a) demonstration projects present their data and interpretation
thereof, that has been collected on their respective projects through September of
1976. These projects include sediment/erosion control, land management, and urban
runoff activities.
Federal, State and County officials give their agency views on Section 208 planning.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Gn
rroup
Water Quality
Sediment
Erosion
Socio-Economic
Land Use
Land Treatment
Nutrients
Institutional
!. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to the public
through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA 22151
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport/
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
323
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