300R95010
TOURISM
Technical Support Document
International Training Workshop
Principles of Environmental Enforcement
WWF
SEDESOL
SECRET ARIA DE DESARROLLO SOCIAL
Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning,
and the Environment
(VROM) The Netherlands
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TOURISM SUPPORT PACKAGE
June 1995
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document is one of five Technical Support Documents that have been developed to
accompany international training workshops on the Principles of Environmental Enforcement.
They were developed as resource documents for government officials and others who are
motivated to try to reduce the adverse environmental impacts from activities described in the case
studies used for the course. The five case study areas include:
o Mining (Metallic ores and Minerals),
o Petroleum Refining and Petrochemicals,
o Residential and Industrial (Solid) Waste Disposal
o Tourism, and
o Deforestation.
The documents provide an overview of the environmental impacts, pollution prevention and
control opportunities, range of institutional mechanisms to control adverse impacts, and an
annotated bibliography of selected reference materials. They do not address institutional and
program development issues surrounding regulatory and enforcement programs. These topics, as
well as country specific program examples are developed in the Proceedings of the International
Conferences on environmental compliance and enforcement, UNEP institution-building workshop
materials and new capacity building documents under development for the Fourth International
Conference scheduled to be held in April, 1996 in Thailand.
International workshops on the Principles of Environmental Enforcement provide an opportunity
for governmental and non-governmental officials to discover and apply the definitions, frameworks
and principles to develop a successful management approach, compliance strategy and
enforcement program for any environmental problem in any cultural or legal setting and to
explore negotiated resolution of enforcement problems. The Principles of Environmental
Enforcement text and training was developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
collaboration with the government of Poland and in cooperation with the government of the
Netherlands. It was adopted as a basis for international exchange after having been successfully
presented with this purpose in mind at the Second International Conference on Environmental
Enforcement held in Budapest, Hungary, September 1992.
This document was produced under a Cooperative Agreement between the World Wildlife Fund
and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in cooperation with the Netherlands Ministry of
Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, The United Nations Environment Program IE,
and SEDESOL the Mexican Social Development Ministry. The topic is one of five identified by
an international Executive Planning Committee for new case studies and stand-alone technical
support materials to be used in workshops on the Principles of Environmental Enforcement
launched at the Third International Conference on Environmental Enforcement held in Oaxaca,
Mexico, April 25-28, 1994. Partial funding was also provided by the United States Agency for
International Development.
Dr. Ken Rubin, President and Mr. Robert Dietz staff of Apogee Research Inc., were principal
authors of the document, under the technical direction of Ms. Cheryl Wasserman in U.S. EPA's
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. A special note of appreciation to Ms. Louise
Wise and Mr. Robert Goo of U.S. EPA's Office of Water and to Mr. Jeffrey Benoit, Director and
Ms. Nathalie Peter of the Coastal Zone Management Agency for their helpful comment and to
Mr. William Eichbaum, International Vice President of the World Wildlife Fund for his support.
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This Technical Support Document is intended to accompany the Principles of Environmental
Enforcement Text, U.S. EPA, which describes the basic elements and approaches for establishing
effective compliance strategies and enforcement programs. As a supplement to international
efforts to advance effective environmental compliance and enforcement programs, the readers are
referred as well to the UNEP IE training manual on Institution Building for Industrial
Compliance and Proceedings of the series of International Conferences on Environmental
Compliance and Enforcement for further discussion of these programs.
Requests for copies and comments on this document can be directed to:
TO:
Ms. Cheryl Wasserman
Associate Director for Policy Analysis
Office of Federal Activities
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
401 M Street, MC 2251
Washington, D.C. 20460
FAX 1-202-260-0129
PHONE 1-202-260-4486
or
Mr. Jo Gerardu
The Netherlands Ministry of Housing,
Spatial Planning, and the Environment
IPC681
P.O. Box 30945
2500 GX DEN HAAG
The Netherlands
FAX 31-70-339-1300
PHONE 31-70-339-2536
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1
1.1 PURPOSE AND OVER VIEW OF THE TOURISM SUPPORT PACKAGE 1
1.2 TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1
1.3 POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL OPTIONS 2
1.4 ECOTOURISM 2
2. PROFILE OF THE GLOBAL TOURISM INDUSTRY 4
2.1 CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 4
2.2 CATEGORIES OF TOURISM 4
3. PRINCIPAL TOURISM-RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, AND ASSOCIATED
POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL OPTIONS 5
3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND CONTROL OPTIONS FOR COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM 9
3.1.1 Development of Hotels and Resorts 9
3.1.2 Marina Development 10
3.1.3 Boating and Use of Cruise Ships. 11
3.1.4 Sightseeing/Wildlife Watching 11
3.1.5 Sport Fishing 11
3.1.6 Diving/Wading/Souvenir Shop Sales 12
3.1.7 Off-Road Vehicle Use 12
3.1.8 Overburdening of Infrastructure 13
3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND CONTROL OPTIONS FOR ALPINE TOURISM 13
3.2.1 Ski Resort Development and Operation 13
3.2.2 Roadway and Parking Lot Construction 14
3.2.3 Hiking, Camping, Climbing, and Snowmobiling 15
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND CONTROL OPTIONS FOR INLAND/NATURAL AREA TOURISM 15
3.3.1 Hiking and Camping 75
3.3.2 Automotive Touring 16
3.3.3 Boating and Use of Inland Waters 16
3.3.4 Trail Riding (Off-Road Vehicles, Bikes, and Horses) 17
3.3.5 Safaris 17
4. PLANNING, MONITORING, ENFORCEMENT AND COMPLIANCE APPROACHES 19
4.1 LAND USE PLANS 19
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS 19
4.3 LEGISLATIVE, REGULATORY, AND ENFORCEMENT MEASURES 20
4.4 TRAINING AND EDUCATION 20
4.5 RESEARCH AND MONITORING 20
4.6 LOCAL PARTICIPATION 20
5. APPENDICES 21
5.1 APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE LAWS AND REGULATIONS 21
5.1.1 Sample Outline of an Environmental Assessment Report. 21
5.1.2 Sample U.S. Laws Covering Specific Environmental Media 22
5.2 APPENDIX 2: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 23
5.2.7 Texts, Books, & Reports 23
5.2.2 Journals and Publications 27
5.2.3 Articles and Papers 28
5.2.4 Information Centers 30
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1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Tourism is a growing worldwide industry, currently accounting for approximately 12 percent
of the world's economy. Tourists take more than 300 million trips every year, and often play an
important, sometimes principal, role in the economies of developed and developing countries. At the
same time, tourism can result in a host of environmental problems ranging from physical destruction of
the natural environment associated with tourism-related development, to impairment of the function or
value of ecosystems because of pollution and wastes from seasonal influxes of tourist population.
Government policy makers increasingly are taking steps to avoid or minimize these impacts through the
use of prevention and control options such as land use plans; environmental impact assessments;
legislative, regulatory, and enforcement measures; training and education; research and monitoring; and
local participation.
1.1 Purpose and Overview of the Tourism Support Package
This support package is a general resource for government agencies and non-governmental
organizations investigating the design and enforcement of approaches to manage environmental effects
of tourism. It provides an overview of tourism-related environmental problems and presents a number
of control options to minimize the environmental impacts of tourism-related operations. The support
package surveys tourism's environmental impacts in a variety of countries and discusses several
organizations and laws that are used to regulate the industry.
This text covers tourism activities in three types of ecosystems found in most regions of the
world coastal, alpine, and inland. The support package is intended as an initial reference, providing
basic information for the most widespread tourism-related environmental problems. More detailed
sources of information are listed in the annotated bibliography at the end of this document.
1.2 Tourism and the Environment
Tourism can result in four basic types of environmental damage:
Restructuring and elimination of the natural environment and land and water resources
due to tourism-related development, such as dredging and filling of wetlands,
particularly mangrove forests.
Generation of waste and pollution from tourism activities, such as large increases in
untreated and treated sewage, or increased solid waste (garbage disposal problems),
which, in turn, can pollute surface and groundwater.
Direct environmental harm caused by tourists' activities, often within fragile
ecosystems. Examples include damage caused by walking on coral reefs or using off-
road vehicles in deserts.
Seasonal increases in population density caused by tourism that intensify problems of
the first three types mentioned above and increase the burden on existing local
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infrastructure, systems, and practices (e.g. water supply, food production, and cultural
practices). When these systems fail or deliver reduced services, serious threats to
public health safety, and the environment can occur.
Tourism-related environmental damage can be extremely serious, not only because of the
environmental and human health risks it imposes, but also because of the economic importance to
many countries of the environment-dependent tourism trade. Tourism that is poorly managed can
damage the resources that attract tourists, so the tourism industry must be sensitive to changes in
environmental quality. The biological concept of carrying capacity suggests that areas can absorb only
a limited amount of tourism activity without significant deterioration of the environment. Strategic
planning, and cautious development and implementation of environmental controls, are required to
achieve environmentally sustainable tourism and economic growth.
1.3 Pollution Prevention and Control Options
There are a number of pollution prevention and control options to mitigate or eliminate the
impacts of tourism. The most cost-effective approaches generally focus on pollution prevention, since
it is less costly to ensure environmentally safe tourism through planning than to repair damage caused
by uncontrolled tourism after it occurs Most prevention and control options fall into the following
categories:
Education - educating tourists, developers, planners, tourist industries, and others
about environmentally sound practices;
Capacity Management - limiting the number of tourists, or promoting off-season
tourism;
Siting - siting tourist facilities in environmentally appropriate locations and restricting
development of, and access to, sensitive areas; and
Improvement of Infrastructure - upgrading water, wastewater, solid waste, and other
environmental services to handle the peak population during tourist season.
Specific options for pollution prevention and control depend on the particular type of tourism
involved. For more detail, see Section 3, Principal Tourism-Related Environmental Problems and
Associated Pollution Prevention and Control Options.
1.4 Ecotourism
Increasingly, tourist operators and national tourist agencies are promoting "ecotourism"
because they believe it has fewer impacts than some more traditional tourist activities. Ecotourism is
defined by Hector Ceballos-Lascurain (see Boo, 1990, p. xiv) as follows:
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traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective
of studying, admiring, and enjoying scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any
existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas...
Other definitions specifically include the idea of ecological sustainability. Ecotourism has been hailed
as a way to develop profitable tourism that minimizes the "footprint" left on natural areas by tourists
and developers. When properly planned, ecotourism can, indeed, attain these goals. Australia, for
example, recently adopted and has begun to implement a National Ecotourism Strategy. This planning
initiative is designed to improve the environmental successes of ecotourism practices. The strategy
coordinates public and private efforts to achieve positive economic, environmental, social, and cultural
impacts from tourism.
Not all ecotourism efforts are as well designed, however. As in other sectors of tourism, lack
of planning and foresight, even in well meaning ecotourism projects, can cause serious negative
impacts. Most observers agree that ecotourism is not necessarily more environmentally meritorious
than other types of tourism. All types of tourism require adequate measures to protect the
environment.
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2. PROFILE OF THE GLOBAL TOURISM INDUSTRY
Tourism contributes significantly to the global economy. Worldwide tourism revenues in 1987
totaled almost $159 billion (U.S.). Within the next decade, The World Bank estimates that tourism
will be the single largest industry worldwide. Although European and North American nations
continue to receive the most income from tourism, income from tourism in other areas is growing
considerably. Combined, Africa, Central and South America, the Caribbean, East Asia and Southern
Asia account for approximately 25 percent of the world's tourism revenues. In addition, strong growth
is expected in two recently defined sectors of tourism that include significant educational components
and must be carefully managed for long-term sustainability. Ecotourism is expected to grow at 25 to
30% per year worldwide throughout the 1990s. Culture-based tourism, centered around cultural
characteristics of a destination, such as its history, customs, festivals, food, and folklore, is predicted to
grow at 10 to 15% per year for the decade.
2.1 Categories of People Involved in the Tourism Industry
The major groups or stakeholders involved in tourism are tourists, local populations (people
who live at tourist destinations), tourist service providers (e.g. travel agents, tour operators, hotel
companies, and transport companies) and the governments at tourism destinations. Effective
interaction among all of these groups is necessary for successful, environmentally sound tourism. In
the past, local populations often have been excluded from tourism activities, and problems have
resulted. This issue will be discussed further in Section 4.6 on local participation.
2.2 Categories of Tourism
Tourists take many different types of trips. These trips can be classified into four categories
based on the environmental characteristics of tourism destinations. Descriptions of these categories are
listed below:
coastal and marine tourism - all tourism to beaches, islands, estuarine areas, coral reefs, and
oceans, including boating and diving;
alpine tourism - visits to mountains and mountain resorts, including hiking and snow skiing;
inland, natural area tourism - non-coastal, non-alpine dispersed tourism directed toward
enjoying wildlife or other natural features;
urban cultural tourism - travel to cities for sightseeing, museum visiting, and historical touring.
Urban cultural tourism will not be discussed in this support package, because the
environmental problems caused by urban tourism are hard to distinguish from those caused by the
larger urban setting. Each of the other categories of tourism, however, creates different environmental
problems (although there are overlaps), and each requires specific responses.
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3. PRINCIPAL TOURISM-RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, AND
ASSOCIATED POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL OPTIONS
The three categories of tourism activities considered here can cause a variety of human health
and environmental problems. Coastal and marine tourism, for example, may involve seasonal visits of
large numbers of people often in fragile environments. Common problems include coastal and
groundwater pollution, potable water overuse and shortages, dune erosion, sediment deposition, and
destruction of coral reefs and mangrove ecosystems (both of which are important for marine and
coastal wildlife, as well as sport and commercial fishing). Figure 1 summarizes some of the activities,
problems, and control methods associated with coastal tourism.
Alpine tourism also places large numbers of people in very fragile environments. Problems
include trampling or removal of vegetation, excessive withdrawal of water from alpine streams,
destruction of wildlife habitat, creation of barriers to wildlife migration, and littering. Figure 2
summarizes some of the activities, problems, and control methods associated with alpine tourism.
Tourism in inland, natural areas can cause destruction of plants and wildlife habitat, interference
with wildlife habits, forest fires, damages from roads and cars, and infringement on local populations.
Figure 3 summarizes some of the activities, problems, and control methods associated with inland
natural area tourism.
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Coastal &
Marine Tourism
ACTIVITIES
Development of Hotels
and Resorts
Marina Development
Boating and Use of
Cruise Ships
Sightseeing and
Wildlife Watching
Sport Fishing
Wading, Diving and
Souvenir Collecting
Off-Road Vehicle Riding
PROBLEMS
Raw and treated sewage is discharged
CONTROLS
Swamp drainage/mangrove clearance/habitat loss
Saltwater intrusion and depletion of groundwater
Increases in runoff and erosion from construction
Solid waste, noise, and visual impacts
JUse zoning and setbacks to protect sensitive areas; i
i Conduct resource surveys; Upgrade infrastructure; Take j
-j erosion and runoff control measures; Use proper sewage i
J treatment; Enforce proper garbage collection and j
j disposal; limit pumping of aquifers & require alternative i
-jwater acquisition methods; Promote environmentally i
_j sound hotel and resort design Encourage small-scale j
i tourist facilities; Use permits for coastal development. i
-j Control floodplain development; Take turbidity reduction i
J measures; Require pump-out, fish waste, and other waste j
! disposal facilities; Site marinas in robust areas; Designate!
-j areas for depositing dredge material; Limit the number of!
Antifouling agents and other chemicals accumulate i slips; Design docks to limit spills; Use vapor catchers; j
Designate areas for boat maintenance. !
Oil seepage harms water quality and marine life *
Water levels can be altered
Dredging and boating can increase
Various wastes are deposited in the water
Exhaust fumes harm air quality
Boat anchors and wakes cause direct damage
Coral and shorelines are damaged
j adjacent to reef areas; Dispense maps and educational j
: material on anchoring; Penalize those who disobey i
-j boating rules; Limit the number of marinas, boats, and j
J cruises in sensitive areas; Require boats to have waste j
Raw sewage, plastics, and other wastes are dumped i holding tanks and use marina facilities.
Litter accumulates in natural areas
-j Establish fines for littering; Restrict access and designate j
Trampling causes dune erosion and vegetative loss i specific areas for hiking; Ban disposable plastics in the i
. . , , : marine environment; Develop management plans for i
Human-started fires destroy natural resources j heavily used areas and species; SEE FIGURE 3, under the j
Animal species are disturbed j activity labeled CAMPING/HIKING for more j
~i information.
Overharvesting causes depletion of species
Fishing equipment is deposited in waters
Fishing from boats increases boating problems ! reiease programs.
i Establish permit program for sport fishing with license
-i fees that are sufficient to reduce the number of fishermen
i and pay for enforcement staff; Establish gear limitations;
j Limit catches and deep-sea charters; Develop catch &
Coral and other wildlife are harmed
Dunes are eroded
i Prohibit or restrict collection and/or sale of coral, shells, i
| & wildlife, with penalties for violations and incentives for j
i reporting violations; Prohibit touching of coral by divers; i
i Educate tour operators and the public on how to keep from i
~i harming wildlife; Train souvenir store operators to use j
i non-threatened materials; Involve local people in i
i conservation management; Develop management plans j
ifor heavily used areas; Develop ranger and volunteer j
i programs. i
Vegetation and wildlife are damaged
: Restrict access to heartier areas that can endure off-road
-i riding. SEE FIGURE 3, under the activity labeled
i TRAIL RIDING for more information.
Overuse of infrastructure
-(Promote off-season tourism & de-emphasize peak-season j
Airports and other developments cause damage
Traffic causes air quality and congestion problems jtourism: Limit cruise ship arrivals and weekend cruise I
Developments cause noise and light pollution I08"8: Set overall capacity limits; Use peak season tourist j
Roads cause runoff and combined sewer overflows
-taxes to finance infrastructure improvements.
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ACTIVITIES
PROBLEMS
CONTROLS
Ski Resort Development
i Construct or upgrade sewage treatment plants for i
Sewage from resorts pollutes rivers and streams ! on.site treatment; limit the number of skiers j
Water is taken from streams for resort supply j allowed to use particular areas; Require resorts to i
Trees, plants, and animals are removed or relocated j °PeT&te teT recycling programs; Limit the j
/-. ru -ij- j * j i- » i. i_-* * ; number of trails in a ski resort; Maintain summer :
Construction of buildings destroys delicate habitats : . .... , _ :
1 vegetative cover and limit tree removal; Enact |
i zoning laws that prohibit development in fragile j
i areas; SEE FIGURE 1 under the activity labeled j
j DEVELOPMENT OF HOTELS AND RESORTS j
j for more information.
Alpine
Tourism
Roadway and Barking
Lot Construction
Animal migration between life zones is interrupted
Construction causes sedimentation
Fragile habitats are disturbed
Watersheds and aquifers can be altered
i Create and protect animal passageways and i
i crossing zones (use elevated or tunneled roadway); i
i Locate roadway to prevent erosion; Revegetate j
i areas where roads have been constructed; Use j
; landscaping, mulching, and hydroseeding i
-i techniques to prevent erosion; Promote public i
J transportation and limit access and parking for i
! autos so that fewer roads need to be constructed; i
i Design proper drainage and culvert systems to i
i limit impacts of road construction on watersheds i
i and aquifers; Use permeable surfaces for paiking j
i lots. I
Hiking, Camping, Climbing
and Snowmobiling
Litter accumulates on trails
Erosion and landslides are increased
Wildlife and habitats are disrupted
Tundra is compacted
j Provide trash disposal and collection services or
i force hikers to pack and dispose of their own trash;
j Establish fines for littering; limit the number of i
! mountaineers by using licensing and reservation i
1 programs with fees; Restrict snowmobile riding j
~i and other types of harsh use to trails and robust i
j areas; SEE FIGURE 3 under the activity labeled j
! CAMPING/HIKING for more information. i
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ACTIVITIES
Hiking and Camping
Automotive Touring
Inland, Natural |
Area Tourism
Boating and Use of
Inland Water
Trail Riding (Off-Road
Vehicles, Bikes, & Horses)
Safaris
PROBLEMS
Trampling removes ground cover & causes erosion
Campfires increase the risk of forest fires
Campers who build fires deplete wood resources
Foreign weeds and fungi can be introduced
Human waste and litter accumulate in natural areas
Automotive exhaust fumes harm air quality
Animals are run over on roads
Harmful substances drain from roads
Traffic congestion causes visual & noise pollution
Human and boating waste are improperly disposed
Submerged aquatic vegetation is damaged
Shorelines are eroded
Vegetation and wetlands are harmed
Soil is eroded, causing sedimentation
Wildlife is disturbed (especially from noise)
Horse manure can introduce bacteria into water
Hunting and poaching can occur
Safari vehicles destroy soil and vegetation
Hordes of viewers disrupt the habits of animals
CONTROLS
Require backcountry campers to obtain permits
which include information on park rules; Place
signs that communicate park rules; Provide waste
bins and trash collection where appropriate;
Construct trails; Place physical barriers on side
trails or around fragile areas; Ban or restrict
campfires and levy penalties for violations; Build
hut systems along trails and charge user fees;
Restrict camping to certain areas; Sterilize
building materials or use local materials for trail
and amenity construction; Teach campers to be
ecologically sensitive.
Provide and promote public transportation;
Grant exclusive rights to drive on certain roads
in parks to one or a few tour operators and ban
private autos from the roads; Prevent bus and
auto idling; Limit park entry by setting limits on
autos allowed in the park, raising entrance fees,
and limiting park accommodations; Limit the use
of road salts; Lower speed limits; Strategically
place warning signs along roads that are crossed
by animals; Set up barriers and crossing zones
for animals.
Enforce proper boat operation to protect
shorelines and submerged aquatic vegetation.
SEE FIGURE 1, under BOATING AND USE
OF CRUISE SHIPS, MARINA DEVELOP-
MENT, SPORT FISHING, AND DEVELOP-
MENT OF HOTELS AND RESORTS for more
information.
Designate different areas for different types of
use, so that off-road vehicles and other modes of
trail-riding are used in the least sensitive areas;
Ban trail-riding where necessary; Require
permits and fees for different types of trail
riding; Outfit horses with manure catching bags
or force owners to clean up horse droppings and
operate a sanitary disposal program.
Set aside areas as national parks or wildlife
preserves; Ban hunting; Ban trade of wildlife
products such as ivory; Limit the number of
visitors to parks by using entrance fees and other
methods; Build roads on which safari vehicles
must travel; Set minimum altitudes for airplanes,
helicopters, and balloons that are used for viewing
wildlife.
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3.1 Environmental Problems and Control Options for Coastal and Marine Tourism
3.1.1 Development of Hotels and Resorts
Associated Environmental Problems:
Coastal construction can remove stabilizing beach vegetation and change the coastal structure
and along-shore wave movement, causing undesirable erosion and deposition patterns.
Hotels often dump raw or under-treated sewage into receiving water or use septic tanks in
unsuitable soils near the shore, resulting in deposition of untreated sewage into the ocean or
bay. Hotels also can dump large quantities of treated sewage. These actions can increase
levels of pathogens and nutrients in the water, creating human health hazards and algal blooms,
and eliminating desirable marine plants and animals.
Land developers that clear mangrove forests or drain swamps to create suitable sites for hotels
and resorts destroy habitat for commercially important or threatened species of plants and
animals.
Hotels and resorts can cause depletion of underground water supplies due to excessive
pumping of fresh water for operations in coastal areas, which are frequently short of other fresh
water sources.
Developments can cause saltwater intrusion due to lowered water tables or depleted freshwater
lenses.
Resort developments create large amounts of solid waste, which can create health hazards and
contaminate underground water supplies.
Large developments can cause visual and noise impacts that discourage wildlife and disrupt the
natural characteristics of tourist areas.
Resort development can cut off local people's access to coasts and beaches.
Development of hotels and resorts is accompanied by development of access accommodations
such as roads and bridges, which can cause additional environmental problems.
Control Methods and Examples:
Enact legislation to control land use types, densities and the conditions under which
development will be permitted and to set aside specific areas for conservation, managed
resource use, and development. Land use controls can establish maximum densities for
buildings and minimum setback distances for construction from mangroves, coastal rivers, or
coastlines. In Fiji, the Mangrove Management Plan has successfully analyzed mangrove
ecosystems and set aside various use categories for these ecosystems.
Conduct natural resource surveys and inventories to identify environmentally sensitive sites,
and to direct developers to build on sites where the least ecological damage will be caused.
Extend, upgrade, and maintain the capacity of public infrastructure such as sewers, stormwater
controls, roads, and water supplies and delivery systems to accommodate the increased needs
of tourists. Funding for such activities may be raised as a condition of development (impact
fees) or from increased taxes on tourism operations.
Require developers to take soil erosion and runoff control measures during construction to
reduce erosion and sedimentation.
Require large resort developers to connect to or construct a centralized sewage treatment
plant, and small developers to use adequately maintained septic tank systems, or other on-site
facilities. In Mauritius, the government requires hotels with more than 75 rooms to install
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water and sewage treatment plants. Hotels with fewer than 75 rooms are allowed to use septic
tanks that have been approved by the Ministry of Health.
For solid waste, require each development to provide proper garbage containers and collection,
and require each development to make arrangements to dispose of wastes at environmentally
sound facilities approved by national or local authorities.
Place restrictions on the amount of water that developers can pump from aquifers, and require
them to install water recycling and/or rainwater catchment systems. In extreme cases of water
depletion, require developers to construct facilities to provide adequate fresh water for the
tourists they attract. In the Virgin Islands, some developers must construct desalinization
plants to provide fresh water.
Require developers to provide beach and coastal access to local residents.
Promote and encourage environmentally sound hotel and resort buildings and areas.
Environmental design measures, such as use of permeable surfaces where possible, should be
incorporated in development projects.
Encourage small scale facilities such as guesthouses.
Establish a permitting process to track and regulate coastal development projects. Follow up
permitting activities with adequate monitoring and inspections.
3.1.2 Marina Development
Associated Environmental Problems:
Marina development is often accompanied by dredging, filling, breakwaters, and increased
boating which increase turbidity in the water and can be detrimental to marine life.
Dredging and filling also can result in local flooding or restricted access to water.
Various wastes that are abundant at marinas, such as fish wastes, solid waste, sewage, and fuel
wastes, are deposited in the water.
Anti-fouling and other chemicals containing metals and toxic compounds can accumulate in
local waters, harming shellfish and other marine life.
Control Methods and Examples:
Establish restrictions on floodplain development to minimize fluctuations in water levels.
Require turbidity-reduction measures, such as hopper dredging, or silt fences when dredging to
prevent sediment loading on reefs and other habitats.
Site and design marinas to promote flushing of local waters.
Designate proper areas where dredge materials can be deposited.
Require marinas to install pump-out facilities for both human waste and oil, and install other
on-site facilities to handle fish wastes and sewage (e.g. restrooms).
Use ecological studies and sound construction techniques to ensure that each marina is
developed at sites that minimize impacts on coastal erosion. In the Maldives, boat piers are
designed on pilings, to minimize beach erosion and deposition.
Limit the total number of slips and moorings in an area, so that the number of boats does not
exceed the environmental carrying capacity.
Design docks to keep gasoline spillage to a minimum.
Require gasoline vendors to install vapor-catching devices on their pumps.
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Restrict boat maintenance to approved areas and ban harmful anti-fouling paints.
3.1.3 Boating and Use of Cruise Ships
Associated Environmental Problems:
Oil seeps into the ocean or bay.
Exhaust fumes harm air quality.
Anchors are often dropped or dragged on coral, sea grass beds, or other fragile habitats.
Wakes from boats can cause shoreline erosion.
Sediment disturbance and settling from larger boats can harm coral and other marine life.
Raw sewage, plastics, and other wastes are discharged directly into oceans or bays.
Control Methods and Examples;
Designate "no anchoring" areas in fragile habitat areas, and require large boats (especially
cruise ships) to stay out of shallow areas to prevent sediment disturbance. Bonnaire, a
Caribbean island with scenic reefs, has developed an underwater park to prevent damage from
boats and allow low-impact visitation. The park charges divers an annual fee.
Require tourism operators to place stable mooring buoys in reef/lagoon areas, so that reefs will
not be harmed by anchors. Saba, an island of the Netherlands Antilles, employs such a
mooring buoy system.
Print and distribute maps and educational materials on proper anchoring and mooring of boats.
Impose penalties for violating boating and anchoring rules.
Limit the number of marinas, boats, and cruises in the tourism area.
Require boats to have waste holding tanks and use marina pump-out and trash disposal
facilities on a regular schedule.
3.1.4 Sightseeing/Wildlife Watching
Associated Environmental Problems:
Litter.
Hiking through fragile habitats can cause loss of vegetation and dune erosion.
Fires started by campers can cause large vegetative and habitat losses.
Sightseers can disrupt the natural habits of wildlife.
Control Methods and Examples:
Restrict access and designate specific areas for hiking.
Ban the use of disposable plastics in the marine environment.
Develop management plans for both heavily used, biologically sensitive areas and species.
See camping/hiking in the section below, titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options
for Inland/Natural Area Tourism" for other examples.
3.1.5 Sport Fishing
Associated Environmental Problems:
Excessive recreational fishing can deplete fisheries.
Fishing equipment often is deposited in waters. Some of this equipment, such as lead sinkers
and tangled line, can be harmful to wildlife.
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See Boating above for other problems and controls related to fishing.
Control Methods and Examples:
Design a permit/license program for sport fishermen. The number of licenses can be limited to
sustainable harvest levels or license fees could be set high enough to reduce the number of
fishermen and pay for enforcement and fisheries enhancement programs.
Set catch restrictions based on fish size, number, species, or season.
Enact gear restrictions that limit the types of fishing tackle that can be used. For example,
require the use of barbless hooks, which allow more fish to escape than do barbed hooks.
Limit the number of deep-sea fishing charter operators or boats.
Develop a "catch and release" program for some fishing operations.
3.1.6 Diving/Wading/Souvenir Shop Sales
Associated Environmental Problems:
Wading on reefs at low tide severely damages coral.
Divers can damage coral by touching or brushing it with equipment.
Divers take coral souvenirs or disrupt the activities of marine life.
The tourism industry and souvenir shops create an incentive for divers and local entrepreneurs
to take coral and other marine "valuables" for resale.
Control Methods and Examples:
Prohibit coral, shell, and wildlife collecting and sales, or limit collection to sustainable levels,
with stiff penalties for violations and incentives for reporting violations. For example, in the
Maldives, the display and sale of stuffed turtles and tortoises is prohibited in stores. Also, in
the Philippines, the sale and export of coral and shell has been banned since the 1980s.
Prohibit the touching of coral by divers and snorkelers.
Educate tour operators and tourists on how to observe, but not harm, wildlife.
Educate operators of souvenir stores (especially locals) to sell non-threatened items. Involve
local people in the management of conservation and ecologically sensitive areas.
Develop management plans for both heavily used, biologically sensitive areas and species.
Develop community-based ranger and volunteer programs.
3.1.7 Off-Road Vehicle Use
Associated Environmental Problems:
Vehicle use on beaches and dunes can destroy stabilizing vegetation and cause erosion.
Vehicle use in wildlife habitats can destroy both plants and animals.
Control Methods and Examples:
Restrict access to areas that can sustain off-road use with minimal environmental harm.
See trail use in the section below, titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options for
Inland/Natural Area Tourism" for other examples.
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3.1.8 Overburdening of Infrastructure
Associated Environmental Problems:
Construction of airports and other infrastructure to accommodate tourists can cause many of
the same problems as resort development.
High-volume traffic can cause air quality problems, damage roads and bridges, and increase
maintenance costs.
Increases in the levels of noise and light pollution arise from development, airplanes, and tourist
facilities.
Roadways and other impervious surfaces can generate runoff and combined stormwater-sewer
overflow problems.
Control Methods and Examples:
Promote off-season tourism and de-emphasize peak-season tourism through restrictions on the
number of hotel rooms or peak-season tourist taxes.
Limit cruise ship arrivals and weekend cruise calls.
Set overall capacity limits for tourists, vehicles, and development.
Use peak season tourist taxes to finance infrastructure improvements.
3.2 Environmental Problems and Control Options for Alpine Tourism
3.2.1 Ski Resort Development and Operation
Associated Environmental Problems:
Construction and development of resorts can cause impacts similar to those caused by
development in the coastal zone. See development of hotels and resorts in the section above,
titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options for Coastal and Marine Tourism" for
more examples.
Sewage from resorts can pollute rivers and streams, injuring fish and wildlife and creating
health hazards.
Water removed from streams to accommodate resort visitors to make snow for skiing can
reduce fish and wildlife habitat.
Construction of ski trails destroy vegetation, reduce wildlife habitat, and force animals to
relocate.
Building structures, roads, and parking lots in fragile alpine environments depletes rare habitats
and degrades aesthetic scenery.
Control Methods and Examples:
Construct or upgrade sewage treatment plants for on-site treatment. Such treatment plants can
remove pathogens and wildlife-disturbing chemicals from wastewater and restore water quality.
In the Rio Hondo Watershed of New Mexico, USA, upgrades to a sewage treatment plant at a
ski resort resulted in reduced nutrient loading and improved biological conditions in the Rio
Hondo.
Limit the number of skiers allowed to use a particular ski area by using a reservation system. If
the number of skiers is fixed below the carrying capacity of the infrastructure, then no large-
scale pollution/sewage problems should occur.
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Enact zoning laws that prohibit development in fragile ecosystems. In Cortina d'Ampezzo, an
Italian ski resort area, the town adopted legislation to prevent construction at an altitude above
1,600 meters. This law helps to protect delicate areas and preserves the beauty of the area.
Require resorts to use water recycling techniques. In many ski resorts of the western USA,
gray water (all wastewater except toilet water), is recycled into toilets, toilet water is collected,
treated, mixed, and diluted with snowmelt in a basin, and the dilute treated water is then used
to make snow, which disperses and further dilutes the treated water.
See development of hotels and resorts in the section above, titled "Environmental Problems
and Control Options for Coastal and Marine Tourism" for other examples.
3.2.2 Roadway and Parking Lot Construction
Associated Environmental Problems:
Animal migration between "alpine life zones" is interrupted by roads, traffic and parking lots.
The term "life zones" refers to small alpine areas that are marked by distinct micro-climate
conditions. These small areas are very susceptible to harm because they are contained within
geographically narrow altitude ranges of several hundred meters. Animals must migrate to
other life zones or other areas of the same life zone when resources are low in their current
area.
Road and parking lot construction can cause sediment to run off into streams, damaging water
quality.
Construction can destroy or degrade fragile habitats and wildlife.
Road construction can reduce or restrict the flow and use of surface and groundwater.
Construction of roads and parking lots can attract higher volumes of traffic. See automotive
touring in the section below, titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options for
Inland/Natural Area Tourism" for more information.
Control Methods and Examples:
Build and maintain animal passageways and crossing zones. Passageways, including elevated
roads and tunnels, should be included in initial road design.
Design and locate roads to minimize erosion.
Revegetate areas adjacent to roads.
Use landscaping, mulching, and hydroseeding to prevent soil erosion and sedimentation.
Establish frequent public transportation and limit access and parking to reduce construction of
roads and parking lots. Sun Valley, Idaho, USA has no parking at ski areas, and Sun
Mountain, Alberta, Canada has no private auto access up the mountain to the ski area.
Design proper drainage and culvert systems to limit the impacts of road construction on
watersheds and aquifers.
Use permeable surfaces for parking lots to promote groundwater recharge and reduce erosion
and downstream sedimentation.
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3.2.3 Hiking, Camping, Climbing, and Snowmobi ling
Associated Environmental Problems (for hiking and camping problems that are not specific to alpine
tourism, see Hiking and Camping in the section below, titled "Environmental Problems and Control
Options for Inland/Natural Area Tourism":
Trails of litter can accumulate along mountaineering routes.
Hiking and rock climbing can increased erosion and cause landslides.
Snowmobiling and other outdoor activities cause compaction of tundra and can disturb wildlife
habitat.
Control Methods and Examples:
Require hikers to pack and dispose of their own garbage; establish fines for littering.
Limit the number of mountaineers by using licensing, reservation programs, and fees for using
mountain routes; use fees to finance trail maintenance.
See hiking and camping in the section below, titled "Environmental Problems and Control
Options for Inland/Natural Area Tourism" for other examples.
3.3 Environmental Problems and Control Options for Inland/Natural Area Tourism
3.3.1 Hiking and Camping
Associated Environmental Problems:
Off-trail trampling can cause erosion, eliminate ground cover, and thereby stress wildlife.
Hikers and campers often discard litter.
Human wastes can add pathogens to the soil and water.
Campfires built by campers increase the risk of forest fires and deplete wood resources.
Weeds and foreign plant species can be introduced into ecosystems by man-made hiking trails.
Control Methods and Examples:
Require wilderness campers to obtain permits and learn park rules. In Shenandoah National
Park in Virginia (USA), campers must obtain a permit (which comes with a list of park rules) in
order to camp. The National Park Service fines people camping without a permit. The permit
is currently free, but a fee could be charged to limit the number of campers if necessary.
Provide well-marked trash disposal bins, along with collection services so that mountaineers
have a place to discard trash.
Place signs that communicate park rules. Along stretches of the Appalachian Trail in the
eastern United States, signs warn against making fires.
Construct trails, so that hiking is concentrated along one route. Forcing hikers to stay on trails
prevents trampling of vegetation and localizes damage. Paved trails can be constructed in areas
that are burdened with large numbers of hikers.
Place physical barriers around fragile areas to limit access and prevent damage.
Ban firewood collection and campfires, and assess penalties for violations.
Build hut systems along trails and charge fees for hikers to stay in the huts. In the White
Mountains of New England (USA), such a hut system is used to localize damage caused by
hiking and camping.
Restrict camping to certain areas.
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Use sterilized building materials such as gravel for trail and amenity construction. Sterilization
ensures that no foreign plants will overtake natural vegetation.
3.3.2 Automotive Touring
Associated Environmental Problems:
Automotive exhaust degrades air quality.
Vehicles often strike and injure or kill animals on roads.
Sediment, oil residues, road salts, and other harmful substances that wash from roads into
streams and rivers can degrade water quality and threaten fish and other aquatic resources.
Traffic congestion causes visual and noise pollution, which can be detrimental to the natural
habitat, and the tourist experience.
Control Methods and Examples:
Provide and promote public transportation, so that fewer vehicles use park roads. Denali
National Park, Alaska, USA, limits access to buses in most areas of the park.
Grant or auction off rights to drive on certain roads in parks to one or a few tour operators and
ban private autos from the roads. In Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona (USA), West
Rim Drive, which is the only viewing road along a scenic portion of the canyon, is closed to
private vehicles in the summer.
Prevent bus and auto idling in scenic areas. Mexico has a law that prohibits bus idling.
Limit park entry by setting maximum numbers of vehicles allowed into parks, raising park entry
fees, and limiting parking accommodations.
Limit the use of road salts.
Reduce speed limits and enforce them with fines.
Strategically place signs that warn of animal crossings.
Set up barriers and crossing zones for animals.
3.3.3 Boating and Use of Inland Waters
Associated Environmental Problems:
Boating and anchoring can damage submerged aquatic vegetation and underwater habitats.
Human and boating wastes can reduce water quality.
Shoreline development and boating can cause shoreline erosion.
See boating and use of cruise ships, marina development, sport fishing, and development of
hotels and resorts in the section above, titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options
for Coastal and Marine Tourism" for other examples.
Control Methods and Examples:
Require boaters to take a class on proper boating operation to protect habitats and submerged
aquatic vegetation.
See boating and use of cruise ships, marina development, sport fishing, and development of
hotels and resorts in the section above, titled "Environmental Problems and Control Options
for Coastal and Marine Tourism" for additional controls.
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3.3.4 Trail Riding (Off-Road Vehicles, Bikes, and Horses)
Associated Environmental Problems:
Vehicles and horses can destroy vegetation and wetlands.
Heavy, intensive use of trails can result in soil erosion and, subsequently, sedimentation of
streams.
Noise, trampling, and other activities disturb wildlife.
Horse manure can introduce bacteria and other harmful elements into water courses.
Control Methods and Examples:
Designate uses suitable to the environment; e.g., permit off-road vehicles only in the least
sensitive areas.
Ban trail riding where necessary, for example, to protect an endangered species.
Require permits and fees for trail riding to limit the number of riders.
Require owners to clean up by using bags and dispose of horse droppings.
3.3.5 Safaris
Associated Environmental Problems:
Hunting and poaching depletes wildlife and reduces the attractiveness to tourists.
Vehicles that roam around safari lands can destroy soils and vegetation.
Noise and commotion from tourists chasing animals in trucks and aircraft interfere with
animals' habits and routines. Some animals, such as cheetahs in Kenya, have become so
disturbed at times that they do not feed, mate, or raise their young.
Large numbers of people have recently chosen safaris for vacations, causing sizable increases in
demand on tourist facilities and development of new facilities, encroaching on and threatening
the very wildlife that attracts tourists and sustains local inhabitants.
Protected animals from safari parks interfere with the lives of local people. Park animals roam
on private lands, competing for food and water with people and domestic animals, which
causes locals to build fences and shoot wildlife.
Control Methods and Examples:
Establish national parks or wildlife conservation areas that are designed to protect natural
beauty and wildlife. Different areas can be set aside for special purposes. For instance, in
Kenya, eight percent of the territory has been protected at 52 national parks and preserves;
some parks allow concentrated animal viewing with mini-bus tours, some charge high fees to
camp in isolated areas, and some are off-limits to tourists.
Make national parks partially responsible for their own income and expenditures. Parks should
establish fees and use revenues to hire well-trained and equipped personnel to enforce
environmentally sound park regulations. Tourist revenues also can pay for wilderness (non-
tourist) area management.
Charge high entrance fees to keep parks from being overcrowded, and charge higher rates for
foreigners than for locals. This practice allows local people to enjoy their natural heritage and
may support a sense of local pride that increases park and wildlife protection.
Involve local people in the management of parks and tourist facilities, and allow them to
receive a fair share of tourism revenues.
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Educate tour operators and tourists to be respectful of local customs and well-mannered in
dealings with local people.
When overcrowding is occurring in parks, ban development of additional tourist
accommodations and expansions of existing ones.
Ban the trade of endangered wildlife products such as ivory.
Set minimum flight altitudes for aircraft that are used to view animals and landscapes
(airplanes, hot air balloons, etc.) to avoid interference with animals.
Carefully place roads for viewing in vehicle-oriented parks. Although building roads can
damage the natural environment, often it is less damaging than allowing vehicles to roam freely.
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4. PLANNING, MONITORING, ENFORCEMENT AND COMPLIANCE
APPROACHES
Careful planning is required to ensure that tourism is sustainable and does not exceed
the carrying capacity of its environment or deplete natural tourist attractions. Planning is
particularly important in countries where tourism is a new phenomenon, and the environment
is still relatively undisturbed. In such cases planning and cautious tourism development can
prevent costly mistakes. Planning for environmentally sustainable tourism can occur at the
international, national, regional, and local levels. The major components of integrated
tourism planning at any level include:
Land use plans.
Environmental impact assessments.
Legislative, regulatory, and enforcement measures.
Research and monitoring.
Training and education
Local participation
4.1 Land Use Plans
Land use planning and regulation is used to concentrate development and use in appropriate
locations and preserve high-valued or unique ecosystems such as wetlands or coastal regions. Land
use planning involves establishing desired goals; evaluating the land's potential; identifying alternatives
for achieving goals based on this potential; and controlling the amount, type, and timing of
development based on environmental and economic characteristics of the land. Land use restrictions
can be used to regulate indirectly the number of tourists by limiting facilities.
4.2 Environmental Impact Assessments
Environmental impact assessments identify potential impacts of development and propose
actions that avoid, reduce, or mitigate them. Environmental impact assessments can help policy
makers and land use planners judge the suitability of tourism development projects before they begin.
Because environmental impact assessments are performed before projects are begun, they can be used
to suggest changes in project design to prevent costly environmental degradation.
Typically, environmental impact assessments include three main sequential analytical functions:
identification, prediction, and evaluation. Identification involves describing the pre-project
environmental status (geology, hydrology, habitat, etc.), as well as the parts of the project that may
affect different environmental media (air, soil, water, wildlife, etc.). Prediction involves estimating
(quantifying) the impacts of the proposed development. Evaluation involves measuring the
consequences for people who will be influenced by the development, and assessing the need for
alternative actions or remedial measures. A thorough environmental impact assessment should provide
decision makers with enough information to make a decision as to whether a tourism project should be
initiated in its proposed format, balancing environmental considerations with the economic and social
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benefits of the project, or whether certain restrictions or design changes could reduce environmental
impacts without unreasonable changes in tourism benefits.
4.3 Legislative, Regulatory, and Enforcement Measures
Tourism is rarely singled out in legislation. Environmental management measures relevant to
tourism are usually found in laws and regulations that are aimed at reducing environmental damage
caused by all forms of development. Such environmental legislation, regulation, and enforcement
should typically address the problems associated with tourism, such as water quality, sewage treatment,
wildlife protection, and pollution prevention.
Lawmakers, regulators, and enforcement agents can use several different methods to
encourage developers, citizens, and tourists to observe sound environmental practices. Some of these
methods include performance standards, deadlines for compliance with standards, penalties for
environmental damage, and economic instruments (i.e. fee systems, subsidies, deposit-refund systems,
and market simulations). In applying these methods to control environmental damage, lawmakers,
regulators, and enforcement agents generally prefer to keep regulations, permit systems, and penalty
procedures as simple as possible to facilitate enforcement actions.
4.4 Training and Education
All stakeholders involved with tourism can benefit from either formal training or some
education on the environmental and social effects of tourism. Training allows suppliers and users of
tourist services to implement environmentally sound tourism practices. Suppliers of tourist services
can sensitize tourists and the public to environmental problems by educating them with, for example, a
code of environmentally appropriate conduct, or advertising materials.
4.5 Research and Monitoring
Research often is useful to survey natural resources and to determine both the carrying capacity
and desired rate of tourism growth for a tourism destination. Monitoring should identify environmental
damage and lead to changes when a project is not meeting environmental standards. Regular data
collection can identify trends in environmental improvement and deterioration.
4.6 Local Participation
Local input and involvement are essential for the long-term economic and environmental
stability of tourism. Informed residents can foster environmentally compatible tourism practices. In
addition, residents employed in the tourism industry have a stake in ensuring that tourism is sustainable.
Local participation can be especially important in rural natural areas. In such areas, local populations
often depend on the land for economic sustenance. Many people in such areas make their living from
farming, logging, or hunting. If these areas evolve into tourist destinations and the resource base
receives a "protected" status, then the livelihoods of local populations may be jeopardized. If however
local populations consent to and are a part of tourist operations and accrue benefits from tourism, then
the goals of the locals, tourism operators, and conservationists can be met.
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5. APPENDICES
5.1 APPENDIX 1: Sample Laws and Regulations
5.1.1 Sample Outline of an Environmental Assessment Report
An environmental assessment report is the final product of an environmental impact assessment. Such
reports are usually concise, limited to significant environmental issues, and aimed at project designers and project
decision-makers. The level of detail corresponds to the degree of potential impacts. The report often includes the
following sections:
1. Executive summary. A summary of significant findings and recommended actions.
2. Environmental regulations: The policy, legal, and administrative framework related to the project. This
is especially important in the case of co-financed projects when the requirements of many organizations
must be accommodated.
3. Project description: A detailed description of the project, including its technical, geographic, ecological,
economic, and social context. The description includes any off-site investments required as part of the
project, for example, pipelines, roads, power plants, water supply, housing, and storage facilities.
4. Baseline data: The study area's dimensions and a description of relevant physical, biological, and socio-
economic conditions, including any changes anticipated before the project commences.
5. Analysis of alternatives: Alternatives to the proposed project, including the "no action" option. This
section examines the potential environmental impacts, capital and recurrent costs, institutional capacities,
training, and monitoring requirements for all design, site, technology, and operational alternatives.
6. Environmental impacts: The positive and negative impacts likely to result from the proposed project, and
comparison with alternatives. This section reviews the extent and quality of available data, identifies key
gaps in data, estimates uncertainties associated with predictions, and specifies topics that do not require
further attention.
7. Mitigation plan: Feasible, cost-effective mitigation measures that may reduce adverse impacts on the
environment to acceptable levels. The plan can consider compensatory measures if mitigation cannot be
implemented effectively.
8. Monitoring plan: This section recommends a monitoring plan, including implementation by a designated
monitoring agency or individual, cost estimates and other pertinent information such as training.
9. Appendices:
Personnel and organizations involved in the environmental assessment.
Persons and organizations contacted, including addresses and telephone numbers.
References to all written materials used in study preparation. This is especially important given
the large amount of unpublished documentation often used.
Record of interagency/forum meetings. This includes lists of both those invited and those that
actually attended, as well as a summary of the discussions.
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5.1.2 Sample U. S. Laws Covering Specific Environmental Media
Because tourism encompasses such a wide range of activities, nations generally do not have laws that deal
directly with tourism-caused environmental damage. While some countries have enacted laws and regulations
related to specific tourism activities, such as building ski resorts (see examples presented in Section 3, Principal
Tourism-Related Environmental Problems, And Associated Pollution Prevention and Control Options in the text
above), comprehensive environmental tourism laws are not commonly enacted. Instead, nations use laws that are
specific to environmental media to regulate environmental degradation that can be caused by tourism or other
activities. Examples of such U.S. laws are presented below:
National Environmental Policy Act
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was passed to encourage harmony between people and
the environment, promote efforts to prevent environmental damage, enrich national understanding of ecological
systems and natural resources, and establish a Council on Environmental Quality. The law requires that an
environmental impact statement be completed for every federal action that affects the environment.
Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act was passed to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity
of the nation's waters. The act established the following goals: 1. eliminate the discharge of pollutants into
navigable waters, 2. maintain water quality that protects fish and wildlife and allows for recreation, 3. prohibit the
discharge of large quantities of toxic substances, 4. construct public waste treatment facilities with federal financial
assistance, 5. establish waste treatment management plans within each state, 6. establish technology to eliminate
the discharge of pollutants, and 7. implement programs for the control of nonpoint sources of pollution. The Clean
Water Act directs the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set effluent limits, and also mandates the issue of
permits for activities that may result in pollution discharges into water sources.
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act was passed to regulate the dumping of all types of
materials into oceans and to designate certain areas of the ocean waters as sanctuaries (conservation areas). The
act requires EPA to issue permits for the dumping of materials into the ocean. EPA must consider criteria such as
the need for dumping, the human health effects, the ecological effects, the staying-power of the dumped materials,
alternatives to dumping, etc. before issuing a permit. In addition, the Secretary of the Army is responsible for the
transportation and disposal of dredged material in ocean waters.
Coastal Zone Manasement Act
The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was passed to balance preservation and development
activities in the coastal zone. The act establishes a voluntary state/federal partnership dedicated to comprehensive
management of the nation's coastal resources. In order to receive federal approval and funding, states are required
to develop coastal zone management (CZM) programs based upon state authorities that are in accordance with the
guidelines articulated in the CZMA. Development and implementation of the state CZM programs is supported
with state and federal matching funds. Approved CZM programs establish coastal zone boundaries, permissible
land and water uses, areas of particular concern, a planning process for public access to the shoreline, and control
of shoreline erosion impacts. The CZM programs are currently developing coastal nonpoint pollution control
programs.
Endangered Species A ct
The Endangered Species Act was passed to conserve endangered and threatened species. The act requires
the Fish and Wildlife Service to compose a list of endangered and threatened species and designate critical habitats
for those species. In addition, the act directs federal agencies to protect such habitats from activities that may have
adverse effects on the endangered species.
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5.2 APPENDIX 2: Annotated Bibliography
5.2.7 Texts, Books, & Reports
Ambiguous Alternative: Tourism in Small Developing Countries, ed. Stephen Britton and William C. Clarke, The
University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji: 1987.
This book contains documents that use case studies to illustrate the problems associated with tourism in
small developing countries. Some of the case studies are appropriate for inspecting environmental
problems, while others focus on different aspects of tourism.
Larry W. Canter and Robert C. Knox, Septic Tank System Effects on Ground Water Quality, Lewis Publishers,
Inc., 121 South Main Street, Chelsea, MI 48118 USA: 1986.
This text summarizes the types and mechanisms of groundwater pollution from septic tank systems, and
provides information of methods for evaluating the potential of groundwater pollution from such systems.
Chapter 2 describes engineering design, placement, operations, and maintenance for septic tank systems.
Chapter 3 discusses pollutants and mechanisms of groundwater contamination. Chapter 4 evaluates the
effects of septic tank systems on groundwater quality.
Centre for Tourism Policy and Research, Simon Fraser University, Tourism, Technology and the Environment.
This brief book presents information about the influence that technology associated with tourism
development has on the environment. It covers the topics of technology's importance in areas such as
land use planning, landscaping, regional development, environmental analysis, and direct tourism
planning. Canadian and Asian-Pacific perspectives are used as examples.
Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Case Studies of Coastal Management: Experience from the
United States, 1991.
This book provides examples of how to manage the impacts of a wide range activities that humans
undertake in the coastal zone. Specific U.S. case studies present information on the results of various
management approaches.
Joseph D. Fridgen, Dimensions of Tourism, The Educational Institute, East Lansing, MI, USA: 1991.
Chapter 7 of this book provides brief, summary-level information about the environmental dimensions of
tourism. The book also contains information on tourism planning, but does not list specific
environmental planning methods.
Rao V. Kolluru, Environmental Strategies Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA: 1994.
This text is a general guide to methods of environmental protection. It includes summaries of
environmental legislation and implementation of legislation in the United States.
Rein Laak, Wastewater Engineering Design for Unsewered Areas, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., 851 New
Holland Avenue, Box 3535, Lancaster, PA 17604 USA: 1986.
This text outlines engineering steps for low-cost on-site wastewater disposal systems. The book includes
chapters on site investigation, characteristics and quantity of wastewater, pretreatment methods,
subsurface soil systems, septage disposal, and design examples.
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John Lea, Tourism and Development in the Third World, Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc., 29 West 35th Street,
New York, NY 10001 USA: 1988.
Chapter 5 of this book contains information about the environmental impacts of tourism in developing
countries. It lists general problems that arise from tourism, relationships between tourism activities and
the environment, and presents brief case study on Amboseli National Park in Kenya. The book also
contains sections about other tourism issues.
Alister Mathieson and Geoffrey Wall, Tourism: Economic, Physical, and Social Impacts, Longman Scientific and
Technical, Singapore: 1988.
Chapter 4, Physical Impacts, provides information on tourism's relationship to both the natural and the
built environment. Other topics in the book include economic and social impacts of tourism.
Zbigniew Mieczkowski, World Trends in Tourism and Recreation, Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York, NY,
USA: 1990.
This book is a summary of the logistics involved with the tourism industry. Topics include terminology,
history, prerequisites for modern tourism, transportation, demand, and supply. The chapter on supply
contains information about environmental systems (such as the seashore and alpine systems) and aspects
of national parks.
Mohan Munasinghe, Water Supply and Environmental Management: Developing World Applications, Westview
Press, Inc., 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80301-2877 USA: 1992.
Chapter 13 of this book presents information on the management of groundwater depletion and saline
intrusion, using the Philippines as a case study. The chapter points out policy options, technical
measures, and controls and regulations.
National Park Service, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design, Denver, Colorado USA: September 1993.
This book introduces the concept of sustainability and describes applications of sustainable design.
Major topics include natural resources, cultural resources, site design, building design, energy
management, water supply, and waste prevention.
Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment, ed. Tensie Whelan, Island Press, Suite 300, 1718 Connecticut
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20009 USA: 1991.
This book is a collection of papers on planning for and management of areas that experience nature-
oriented tourism. Chapter 2 discusses management practices in Kenya's wildlife reserves, chapter 3
addresses ecotourism in Costa Rica, chapter 4 presents information on management practices in and
around Yellowstone National Park in the United States, and chapter 9 is a nature tourism guide which
offers specific planning and development advice to make ecotourism sustainable.
Organization of American States, Reference Guidelines for Enhancing the Positive Socio-Cultural and
Environmental Impacts of Tourism, vol. 5, Enhancing the Positive Impact of Tourism on the Built and
Natural Environment, International Trade and Tourism Division, Department of Economic Affairs,
Executive Secretariat for Economic and Social Affairs, Washington, DC, USA: 1984.
The Organization of American States published a series of guides about tourism in the Caribbean, and its
effects on socio-cultural and environmental conditions. The guides are designed to be used by policy
makers and tourism planners. Volume 5 deals with environmental impacts and management options for
problems specific to Caribbean island nations.
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Proceedings of the 1990 Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism: A Symposium and Workshop on Balancing
Conservation and Economic Development, ed. Marc L. Miller and Jan Auyong, National Coastal
Resources Research and Development Institute, Hatfield Marine Science Center, 2030 S. Marine Science
Drive, Newport, OR 97365 USA: 1990; telephone (503) 867-0131.
This source is a comprehensive two-volume set of documents from a conference on balancing
development and environmental aspects of coastal tourism. The numerous documents are arranged into
23 subject categories and present all sorts of information on various environmental problems and
solutions related to coastal tourism.
Sven-Olof Ryding, Environmental Management Handbook, Lewis Publishers, Inc., 2000 Corporate Blvd., NW,
Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA: 1992.
This text is a general guide to managing environmental issues. It includes information about both
remedial and planning actions that can be taken to protect the natural environment.
S.C. Shah, Planning and Management of Natural and Human Resources in the Mountains, Yatan Publications
278, Defence Colony, New Delhi, India: 1986.
This book discusses the depletion of natural resources in the Himalayas and presents methodologies for
striking a balance between human population and natural resources. Nine chapters in the book cover
topics such as biotic pressure, natural resource planning, problems and management in forests, water
resources, and others.
United Nations, The Water Resources of Latin America and the Caribbean- Planning, Hazards and Pollution,
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile: 1990.
This source is divided into three major sections: 1. The formulation of water resource management
plans, 2. Water-related natural hazards, and 3. Water pollution. Within each section, the text provides
details, figures, and examples of water resource planning from Latin American and Caribbean nations.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Guidance Specifying Management Measures for Sources of
Nonpomt Pollution in Coastal Waters, EPA/840-B-92-002, Office of Water, Washington, DC 20460 USA:
January 1993.
This source provides guidance on how to implement the requirements of the United States legislation, the
Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990. It includes information on marinas, shoreline
protection, and urban runoff control strategies.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Protecting Coastal and Wetlands Resources: A Guide for Local
Governments, Office of Water, Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds and Office of Policy, Planning
and Evaluation, Washington, DC 20460 USA: October 1992.
This report suggests steps that local governments can take to protect wetlands and coastal areas. Topics
covered include the use of zoning and other regulatory measures, acquisition of wetlands and coastal
areas, and the use of financial and economic tools for protection of coastal resources.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Saving Bays and Estuaries: A Primer for Establishing and
Managing Estuary Projects, Office of Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington, DC 20460 USA:
August 1989.
This source provides information on the National Estuary Program in the United States. It focuses on
controlling pollution in coastal areas and managing coastal resources, such as bays and estuaries.
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United States Environmental Protection Agency, Septage Treatment and Disposal, EPA/625/6-84/009, Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory, Center for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, OH
45268 USA: October 1984.
This report reviews design performance, operation, cost, energy information, and environmental effects
pertaining to receiving, treating, and disposing ofseptage (the liquid and solid material pumped from a
septic tank when it is cleaned).
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking
Water Treatment Facilities, EPA/625/4-89/023, Office of Drinking Water, Center for Environmental
Research Information, Cincinnati, OH 45268 USA: March 1990.
This report discusses drinking water treatment technologies and contamination. It contains chapters on
selecting and evaluating treatment processes, pre-filtration treatment elements, filtration technologies,
disinfection and disinfection by-products, treatments of organic contaminants, treatments of inorganic
contaminants, current and emerging research, and references. Case studies are also presented in
appendices.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Wellhead Protection: A Guide for Small Communities,
EPA/625/R93/002, Office of Research and Development, Office of Water, Washington, DC 20460 USA:
February 1993.
This report discusses techniques of wellhead protection, the management of a land area around a
groundwater source to prevent contamination. The text includes chapters on groundwater fundamentals,
groundwater contamination, the five-step process for wellhead protection, case studies, and resources for
additional information.
Wendy Whitlock, Kevin Van Romer, and Robert H. Becker, Nature Based Tourism: An Annotated
Bibliography, Regional Development Group of the Strom Thurmond Institute, USA: 1991.
This annotated bibliography contains 313 references on nature-based tourism, which is defined as all
forms of tourism that rely on the natural environment.
Stephen F. Witt, Michael Z. Brooke, and Peter J. Buckley, The Management of International Tourism, Unwin
Hyman Ltd., London: 1991.
The first chapter of this book provides statistics on tourism destinations and receipts for countries around
the world.
World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, Guidelines: Development of National
Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism" Madrid, Spain: 1992.
This book presents practical working guidelines for use by those concerned with management of national
parks and other protected areas. The book emphasizes costs and benefits of tourism in protected areas,
selection of areas for national parks, carrying capacity, tourism planning, tourist facilities, hunting, and
provision of educational programs.
World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, Industry and Environment:
"Development of National Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism," 1992.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommends this text as a source of information on the use of
parks to manage areas of interest to tourists.
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World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, Workshop on Environmental Tourism,
Madrid, Spain: 1983, reprinted 1988.
This report provides a comprehensive overview of the impacts of tourism on various types of
environments, including coastal, alpine, island, inland, and wilderness zones. The text discusses many
types of problems and explains a broad methodology for sustainable tourism planning. In addition, a
case study on tourism in Sri Lanka is included.
World Travel and Tourism Review: Indicators, Trends and Issues, J.R. Brent Ritchie and Donald E. Hawkins, ed.,
CAB International, vol. 3, 1993.
This report provides statistics on the global tourism industry, including tourist arrivals to various regions
and nations of the world. The report also provides forecasts of growth in the tourism industry for the
decade of the 1990s.
5.2.2 Journals and Publications
Annals of Tourism Research, Pergammon Press, Inc., 660 White Plains Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591-5153.
This social sciences journal focuses on academic (both theoretical and applicable) perspectives of
tourism. It is multidisciplinary, and environmental topics are covered in some issues.
Enviro, Special Issue: Tourism and Environment, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, no. 17, June 1994.
Enviro is published semiannually by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to disseminate news
and views on transboundary pollution and other international environmental issues. The special issue on
tourism and environment focuses on ecotourism and sustainability in Sweden.
The Journal of Tourism Studies, The National Centre for Studies in Travel and Tourism, James Cook University,
Townsville, Queensland 4811 Australia; tel. (077) 81 4750.
This scholarly semiannual journal prints articles on various international tourism topics from the
following fields: economics, biological and physical sciences, commerce, and social sciences.
The Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th
Street, New York, NY 10017-2398 USA.
This bimonthly journal publishes papers that examine social, economic, environmental, and
administrative concerns relating to the use and conservation of water.
Tourism Management, Turpin Distribution Services Ltd., Blackhorse Road, Letchworth, Herts SG6 1 HN, UK;
telephone +44 (0) 462 672555.
This journal, published six times per year, prints documents on research, policies, and practices of
management in the tourism industry. Environmental topics are covered in some issues.
Tourism Recreation Research, Centre for Tourism Research and Development, A-965/6, Indira Nagar, Lucknow-
226016 India; telephone 91 (0522) 381586.
This semiannual journal publishes scholarly articles on a variety of tourism issues. Issues of this journal
are often devoted to one particular theme, such as nature-based tourism or alpine tourism.
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Travel and Tourism Analyst, The Economist Intelligence Unit, The Economist Building, 111 West 57th Street,
New York, NY 10019 USA; telephone (212) 554-0600.
This scholarly journal prints business-oriented tourism articles that can include discussions of
environmental issues.
UNEP Industry and Environment, United Nations Environment Programme, Industry and Environment
Programme Activity Centre (UNEP IE/PAC), Tour Mirabeau, 39-43 quai Andre Citroen, 75739 Paris
Cedex 15, France.
This journal released a special issue (vol. 15, no. 3-4, July-December 1992) that published case studies
with policy recommendations for sustainable tourism development.
5.2.3 A rtides and Papers
Robert Aukerman, "The Effectiveness of Signing, Pamphlets and Restoration in Reducing Off-Trampling,"
Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 35-38, 1985.
This article measures the effectiveness of a combination of signs, pamphlets, and trail restoration in
reducing off-trail trampling, and examines options for improving the effectiveness of regulating the
behavior of visitors to parks.
Ralf Buckley and John Pannell, "Environmental Impacts of Tourism and Recreation in National Parks and
Conservation Reserves," The Journal of Tourism Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 24-30, May 1990.
This article uses data collected from Australian national parks to summarize the negative environmental
impacts of tourism on the parks, and to briefly report on methods of successful management.
Robert S. Dilley, "Roads and Traffic in the English Lake District National Park: Problems and Planning Options,"
Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 33-37, 1993.
This article describes options to relieve traffic congestion in one of Britain's most popular national parks.
Joy E. Douglas, "Ecotourism: The Future for the Caribbean," UNEP Industry and Environment, vol. 15, no. 3-4,
July-December 1992.
This article reviews environmental impacts of tourism and considers policies for successful ecotourism in
Caribbean nations.
Jonathan R. Edwards, "The UK Heritage Coasts: An Assessment of the Ecological Impacts of Tourism," Annals of
Tourism Research, vol. 14, pp. 71-87, 1987.
This article presents a summary of an investigation into the nature and extent of ecological impacts of
tourism on the Heritage Coasts in England and Wales. The text also discusses management techniques
used to address these impacts.
Mel Gajraj, "A Regional Approach to Environmentally sound Tourism Development," Tourism Recreation
Research, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 5-9, 1988.
This article stresses the urgency and value of regional planning for tourism development in coastal areas.
It also points out the United Nations Environmental Programme as a source for finding practical
methods of environmentally sound coastal tourism development.
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Adriana Galvani, "Mountain Tourism in Cortina D'Ampezzo: Sustainability and Saturation," Tourism and
Recreation Research, vol 18, no. 1, pp. 27-32, 1993.
This article describes the successful, environmentally sound tourism development that has taken place in
an Italian winter sports area.
Jean S. Holder, "Pattern and Impact of Tourism on the Environment of the Caribbean," Tourism Management, pp.
120-127, June 1988.
This article presents research on both the positive and negative effects of tourism on the Caribbean
environment. The text also makes recommendations for long-term tourism policies, based on economic
benefits and environmental considerations.
Edward Inskeep, "Environmental Planning for Tourism," Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 14, pp. 118-135, 1987.
This article reviews the planning approach of conducting comprehensive environmental analysis. It
addresses determination of carrying capacities, regional strategies, basic planning principles for tourist
facilities, and monitoring.
Edward Inskeep, "Sustainable Tourism Development in the Maldives and Bhutan," UNEP Industry and
Environment, vol. 15, no. 3-4, July-December 1992.
This article presents case studies of sustainable tourism development approaches in two contrasting but
equally fragile environments.
R.M. Martinson, " Wastewater and Solid Waste Management in the National Parks of the Canadian Parks Service
Western Region," UNEP Industry and Environment, vol. 15, no. 3-4, July-December 1992.
This article outlines the great advancement of sewage treatment and solid waste disposal that has
occurred in the national parks of Western Canada.
Philip Ohta, "Development in Hawaii: Management of a Major Resort Development (Kaanapali)," Case studies of
Coastal Management: Experience from the United States, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode
Island, pp. 97-106, 1991.
This article discusses how passage of Hawaii's Coastal Zone Management Program has affected and the
development of a major resort. Both the Management Program and its environmental successes are
described.
Femi Olokesusi, "Assessment of the Yankari Game Reserve, Nigeria: Problems and Prospects," Tourism
Management, pp. 153-163, June 1990.
This article presents a case study that examines interrelationships between tourism and the environment,
including social factors. The text discusses waste management and wildlife and vegetation protection.
Sen Ramsamy, "Tourism development and the Environment at Island Destinations: The Example of Mauritius,"
UNEP Industry and Environment, vol. 15, no. 3-4, July-December 1992.
This article describes comprehensive planning techniques that are used in Mauritius to prevent
deterioration of the environment as well as the quality of the tourism product.
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Sylvia Rodriguez, "Impact of the Ski Industry on the Rio Hondo Watershed," Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 14,
pp. 88-103, 1987.
This article examines the impacts of ski resort development on river water quality and biota and on the
quantity of water downstream from development.
Caroline Rogers, "Efforts to Balance Marine-based Tourism with Protection of Reefs and Seagrass Beds in a
Caribbean Park," Case studies of Coastal Management: Experience from the United States, Coastal
Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, pp. 71-82, 1991.
This article presents information on the negative environmental impacts of tourism in coastal and marine
areas, including impacts of boating, snorkeling, diving, and fishing. Discussion centers on managing
these impacts within the Virgin Islands National Park, with special attention paid to reducing anchor
damage to reefs and seagrass beds.
Michael Romeril, "Tourism and the Environment- Accord or Discord?" Tourism Management, pp. 204-208,
September 1989.
This article presents general information on planning for sustainable tourism, and emphasizes
environmental impact assessments, nature tourism, and other policies to control the impacts of the
growing tourism industry.
Mahmuda Shafi, "Tourism Planning in Developing Economies," Tourism Recreation Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp.
99-101, 1986.
This short article outlines the importance of tourism planning for developing countries. Topics discussed
include planning needs, the scope of tourism planning, the stages of planning, and steps for planning.
Arianthe C. Stettner, "Community or Commodity? Sustainable Development in Mountain Resorts," Tourism and
Recreation Research, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 3-10, 1993.
This article defines the concepts of sustainable development, growth, commodity, and carrying capacity,
and discusses the criteria necessary for sustainable tourism development.
Nico Visser and Steven Njuguna, "Environmental Impacts of Tourism on the Kenya Coast," UNEP Industry and
Environment, vol. 15, no. 3-4 July-December 1992.
This article presents brief summaries of the increasing environmental impacts from Kenya's coastal
tourism trade, including overuse of resources, sewage and oil pollution, depletion of fresh water supplies,
solid waste pollution, deforestation, air pollution, and siltation. The text also provides summaries of both
affected ecosystems and management techniques.
5.2.4 Information Centers
World Tourism Organization, Capitan Haya, 42-28020- Madrid, Spain; telephone 34(1) 571 06 28.
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, A-965/6, Indira Nagar, Lucknow- 226016 India; telephone 91
(0522) 381586.
The National Centre for Studies in Travel and Tourism, The National Centre for Studies in Travel and Tourism,
James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811 Australia; telephone (077) 81 4750.
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United Nations Environment Programme, 2 U.N. Plaza, Room 803, New York, NY 10017 USA; telephone (212)
963-8139.
United Nations Environment Programme, Industry and Environment Programme Activity Centre, Tour Mirabeau,
39-43 quai Andre Citroen, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France; telephone 33(1) 40 58 88 50.
Centre for Tourism Policy and Research, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
International Institute of Tourism Studies, George Washington University, Washington, DC USA.
Centre for Tourism Research and Innovation, Bermuda College.
World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre, Oxford Brookes University.
National Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Hatsfield Marine Science Center, 2030 S.
Marine Science Drive, Newport, OR 97365 USA; telephone (503) 867-0131.
US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC USA; telephone (202) 260-2090.
US National Park Service, Washington, DC USA; telephone (202) 208-3100.
US Department of Commerce, Travel and Tourism Administration, 14th St. and Constitution Ave., Room 1860,
Washington, DC 20230 USA; telephone (202) 482-4904.
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