r/EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
EPA-454/R-99-003
June 1999
Air
VISIBILITY
MONITORING
GUIDANCE
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VISIBILITY MONITORING GUIDANCE DOCUMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Emissions Monitoring and Analysis Division
Monitoring and Quality Assurance Group
MD-14
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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PREFACE
This EPA Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document was prepared to provide assistance to
those organizations responsible for collecting visibility and particulate matter data for regulatory and
planning purposes. This document contains EPA policy and, therefore, does not establish or affect
legal rights or obligations. It does not establish a binding norm and is not finally determinative of the
issues addressed. In applying this policy in any particular case, the EPA will consider its applicability
to the specific facts of that case, the underlying validity of the interpretations set forth in this
document, and any other relevant considerations, including any that may be required under applicable
law and regulations.
EPA has cited examples of and references to existing instruments and protocols that are
currently being used in operational visibility monitoring programs in this document. These examples
and references to specific instrument models or manufacturers are not intended to constitute an EPA
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Draft Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document was originally compiled by Air Resource
Specialists, Inc. for the Environmental Protection Agency - Air Quality Strategies and Standards
Division (Order No. 6D0418NASA). Many individuals were involved in the preparation and review
of this final document including:
Rich Damberg
Joe Delwiche
Dave Dietrich
Bob Eldred
Dan Ely
Neil Frank
Tom Moore
Marc Pitchford
Bruce Polkowsky
Kristie Savig
Marc Scruggs
IMPROVE Steering Committee Members
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Preface I
Acknowledgments ii
Table of Contents iii
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Purpose 1-1
1.2 Document Organization 1 -2
1.3 Background 1-3
1.4 Statutory and Regulatory Requirements 1-4
1.4.1 1970 Clean Air Act 1-4
1.4.2 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments: Section 169A 1-4
1.4.3 1980 EPA Regulations 1-12
1.4.4 State and Federal Implementation Plans 1-12
1.4.5 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments 1-13
1.4.6 EPA Regional Haze Regulation 1-14
2.0 MONITORING PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS 2-1
2.1 Visibility Definitions and Theory 2-1
2.1.1 Characterizing Visibility Impairment 2-5
2.1.2 Relationship Between Light Extinction and Aerosol
Concentrations 2-6
2.1.3 Importance of Relative Humidity on Light Scattering 2-7
2.2 Visibility Goals and Monitoring Objectives 2-9
2.2.1 Visibility Goals 2-9
2.2.2 Monitoring Objectives 2-13
2.2.2.1 Ensure that High Quality Comparable Data are
Collected by All Monitoring Organizations Through
Adoption of Standard Monitoring Protocols 2-13
2.2.2.2 Establish Current Visual Air Quality Conditions 2-14
2.2.2.3 Identify Sources of Impairment 2-15
2.2.2.4 Document Long-Term Trends 2-16
2.2.2.5 Provide Data for the New Source Review and Prevention of
Significant Deterioration Permitting Programs 2-16
in
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Section Page
2.3 Vi sibility Data Quality Obj ectives 2-17
2.3.1 Primary Parameters 2-18
2.3.1.1 Aerosol 2-18
2.3.1.2 Optical 2-19
2.3.1.3 Scene 2-19
2.3.2 Network Design 2-19
2.3.3 Quality Assurance 2-21
2.4 Monitoring Methods 2-23
2.4.1 Aerosol Monitoring 2-26
2.4.2 Optical Monitoring 2-27
2.4.3 Scene Monitoring 2-28
2.4.4 Standard Units 2-28
2.5 Data Archive and Data Applications 2-30
2.5.1 National Visibility Archive 2-30
2.5.2 Data Uses 2-30
2.6 Network Design 2-34
2.6.1 Assessment Criteria 2-35
2.6.1.1 Spatial Considerations 2-37
2.6.1.2 Temporal Considerations 2-41
2.6.1.3 Historical and Existing Monitoring Program
Considerations 2-43
2.6.1.4 Monitoring Parameter Considerations 2-43
2.6.1.5 Capital and Operational Considerations 2-52
2.6.2 Example Network Configurations 2-53
2.6.2.1 Routine Monitoring Network 2-53
2.6.2.2 Special Study Monitoring Site (Network) 2-54
2.6.2.3 Non-Class I (Urban or Sensitive Area) Monitoring Site 2-56
3.0 AEROSOL MONITORING 3-1
3.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation 3-1
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Section Page
3.2 Siting Criteria 3-8
3.3 Installation and Site Documentation 3-9
3.4 System Performance and Maintenance 3-10
3.4.1 Routine Servicing 3-10
3.4.2 Instrument Calibration and Maintenance 3-10
3.5 Sample Handling and Data Collection 3-11
3.5.1 Procurement and Pretesting of IMPROVE Aerosol Filters 3-11
3.5.2 Processing of Clean Aerosol Filters 3-12
3.5.3 On-Site Filter Handling 3-14
3.5.4 Processing Exposed Filters and Preparation for Filter Analysis 3-14
3.6 Filter Analyses and Data Reduction and Validation 3-15
3.6.1 Gravimetric Mass 3-15
3.6.2 Absorption (babs) 3-15
3.6.3 Analysis of Aerosol Species 3-15
3.6.4 Data Reduction and Validation of Laboratory Analyses 3-18
3.7 Data Reporting and Archive 3-21
3.7.1 Data Reporting 3-21
3.7.2 Data Archive 3-22
3.8 Supplemental Analysis Including Composite Variables 3-27
3.9 Quality Assurance 3-30
3.9.1 Instrument Audits 3-30
3.9.2 Concentration and Precision of Measured Variables 3-31
3.9.3 Concentration and Precision of Composite Variables 3-35
3.10 Data Analysis and Interpretation 3-38
3.10.1 Calculating Reconstructed Aerosol Extinction 3-38
3.10.2 Source-Type Tracer Analysis 3-40
3.11 Aerosol Monitoring Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions 3-42
4.0 OPTICAL MONITORING 4-1
4.1 Transmissometer 4-1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Section Page
4.1.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation 4-1
4.1.2 Siting Criteria 4-5
4.1.3 Installation and Site Documentation 4-6
4.1.4 System Performance and Maintenance 4-7
4.1.4.1 Routine Servicing 4-7
4.1.4.2 Annual Site Visits 4-8
4.1.4.3 Instrument Calibration 4-8
4.1.4.4 Annual Servicing 4-10
4.1.5 Data Collection 4-11
4.1.6 Data Reduction and Validation 4-11
4.1.6.1 Data Reduction 4-11
4.1.6.2 Data Validation 4-12
4.1.7 Data Reporting and Archive 4-14
4.1.7.1 Data Reporting 4-14
4.1.7.2 Data Archive 4-20
4.1.8 Quality Assurance 4-20
4.1.8.1 Instrument Precision and Accuracy 4-20
4.1.8.2 Measurement Uncertainties 4-22
4.1.8.3 Instrument Audits 4-28
4.1.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation 4-29
4.1.10 Transmissometer Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions 4-31
4.2 Nephelometer 4-33
4.2.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation 4-33
4.2.2 Siting Criteria 4-36
4.2.3 Installation and Site Documentation 4-37
4.2.4 System Performance and Maintenance 4-38
4.2.4.1 Routing Servicing 4-38
4.2.4.2 Annual site Visits 4-38
4.2.4.3 Instrument Calibration 4-39
4.2.4.4 Annual Servicing 4-39
4.2.5 Data Collection 4-40
4.2.6 Data Reduction and Validation 4-40
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
Section Page
4.2.6.1 Data Reduction 4-40
4.2.6.2 Data Validation 4-41
4.2.7 Data Reporting and Archive 4-43
4.2.7.1 Data Reporting 4-43
4.2.7.2 Data Archive 4-48
4.2.8 Quality Assurance 4-48
4.2.8.1 Instrument Precision 4-48
4.2.8.2 Instrument Audits 4-51
4.2.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation 4-52
4.2.10 Nephelometer Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions 4-52
5.0 SCENE MONITORING 5-1
5.135 mm Slide Photography 5-1
5.1.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation 5-1
5.1.2 Siting Criteria 5-4
5.1.3 Installation and Site Documentation 5-4
5.1.4 System Performance and Maintenance 5-5
5.1.4.1 Routine Servicing 5-5
5.1.4.2 Biannual Laboratory Servicing 5-6
5.1.5 Data Collection 5-7
5.1.6 Data Reduction and Validation 5-7
5.1.6.1 Data Reduction 5-7
5.1.6.2 Data Validation 5-8
5.1.7 Data Reporting and Archive 5-10
5.1.7.1 Data Reporting 5-10
5.1.7.2 Data Archive 5-11
5.1.8 Quality Assurance 5-12
5.1.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation 5-12
5.1.10 Scene Monitoring Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions 5-12
5.2 Time-Lapse Photography 5-13
vn
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Section
5.2.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation
5.2.2 Siting Criteria
5.2.3 Installation and Site Documentation
5.2.4 System Performance and Maintenance
5.2.5 Data Collection
5.2.6 Data Reduction and Validation
5.2.6.1 Data Reduction 5-18
5.2.6.2 Data Validation 5-18
5.2.7 Data Reporting and Archive 5-20
5.2.7.1 Data Reporting 5-20
5.2.7.2 Data Archive 5-21
5.2.8 Quality Assurance 5-21
5.2.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation 5-21
5.2.10 8 mm Time-Lapse Scene Monitoring Systems Standard
Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions 5-21
6.0 REFERENCES 6-1
7.0 VISIBILITY MONITORING-RELATED GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS 7-1
Vlll
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Properties of the Atmosphere that affect the Transmission of
Light from a Scenic Feature to a Human Observer 2-2
2-2 Size Distribution and Sources of Atmospheric Particles 2-3
2-3 The Relationship between the Scattering Efficiency of Ammonium Sulfate
Aerosols and Relative Humidity (Malm, et al., 1996) 2-8
2-4 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Aerosol Visibility Data 2-32
2-5 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Transmissometer
Visibility Data 2-33
2-6 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Integrating Nephelometer
Visibility Data 2-34
3-1 Diagram of the IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler 3-2
3-2a Schematic of the IMPROVE PM 2.5 Module used before 1999 3-3
3-2b Schematic of the IMPROVE PM 2-5 Module used after 1999 3-4
3-2c Schematic of the IMPROVE PM-10 Module used after 1999 3-5
3-2d Schematic of the IMPROVE Controller Module used after 1999 3-6
3-3 Flow Diagram of Aerosol Filter Handling Procedures Before and
During Collection 3-13
3-4a Quarterly Data Report: Site Specific Elements 3-23
3-4b Quarterly Data Report: Site Specific Mass and Major Components 3-24
3-4c Quarterly Data Report: Site Specific Means and Distributions 3-25
3-5 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Aerosol Data 3-26
3-6 The Relationship Between Scattering Efficiency and Relative Humidity 3-40
4-1 Transmissometer Receiver and Transmitter Components 4-4
4-2 Example Seasonal Transmissometer Data Summary 4-17
4-3 Example Annual Transmissometer Data Summary 4-18
4-4 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol
Transmissometer Visibility Data 4-21
4-5 Entire Nephelometer System Set on a Tower 4-34
4-6 Close-Up of a Nephelometer and Cross-View of Its Internal Components 4-35
IX
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4-7 Example Seasonal Nephelometer Data Summary 4-45
4-8 Example Annual Nephelometer Data Summary 4-46
4-9 Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol
Integrating Nephelometer Visibility Data 4-49
5-1 Automatic Camera System in a Remote Location 5-3
5-2 Station Components 5-3
5-3 Time-Lapse Video Recording Module (Time-Lapse Recorder,
Monitor, and Power Systems 5-15
5-4 Weatherproof Vi deo C amera Encl osure 5-15
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-1 List of Mandatory Class I Areas as of August 7, 1977 1-5
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
2-1 Visibility Goals and Monitoring Objectives 2-11
2-2 A Summary of Appropriate Site Configurations for Common
Monitoring Objectives 2-23
2-3 IMPROVE Visibility Monitoring Protocols Instrument-Specific
Monitoring Considerations 2-26
2-4 Recognized Visibility-Related Indexes and Standard Units 2-30
2-5 Assessment Criteria Related to Designing a Visibility Monitoring Program 2-37
2-6 IMPROVE and IMPROVE Protocol Sites According to
Region (Sisler, et al., 1996) 2-41
2-7 Monitoring Parameter Considerations 2-46
2-8 Example Particle Samplers (Chow, 1995) 2-49
3-1 Summary of IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Data Collection Parameters 3-2
3-2 Carbon Components as a Function of Temperature and Added Oxygen 3-17
3-3 Commonly Reported Measured Variables 3-19
3-4 Commonly Reported Composite Variables 3-20
3-5 Relative Precision of Key Measured Variables Ratio of Mean Precision
Divided by Mean Concentration 3-33
3-6 Minimum Detectable Limits of Elements in ng/m3 3-34
3-7 Fraction of Cases with Statistically Significant Concentrations 3-34
3-8 Common Source Types of Measured Trace Elements (Chow, 1995) 3-41
4-1 IMPROVE Protocol Monitoring Optical Instrument Specifications 4-2
5-1 Example Slide Condition Code Key 5-9
5-2 Example Tape/Film Condition Code Key 5-19
XI
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE
The purpose of this Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document is to provide a written
reference for organizations conducting monitoring of visibility and particulate matter for
regulatory, planning, or research purposes. Possible users include the government sector
(Federal, State, regional, local, and Tribal air quality agencies), industry, consulting firms,
academia, or nonprofit organizations. The information in this document includes:
! Background on the visibility protection requirements of the Clean Air Act and related
regulations.
! A summary of visibility monitoring goals and objectives set forth in the Clean Air Act
and related EPA regulations.
! Considerations and recommendations for developing effective visibility monitoring
sites and networks, particularly for implementation of the monitoring requirements for
the PM-2.5 and regional haze regulatory programs. These considerations and
recommendations address visibility definitions and theory, monitoring goals and
objectives, data quality objectives, monitoring methods, data archive and data
applications, and network design.
i
Descriptions of current visibility measurement methods and monitoring protocols,
particularly those used under the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) program1.
It is assumed that the reader of this document is generally familiar with aerometric
monitoring principles and has the responsibility to design and operate a monitoring program to
characterize visibility and/or particulate matter. This document is not meant to dictate EPA
monitoring requirements or to define policy, standards, or data interpretation methods, but to
provide a strategic framework that can be used by those with a need to monitor visibility for
planning or regulatory purposes. The guidance is intended to assist monitoring organizations in
developing effective, consistent, visibility monitoring sites and networks that use state-of-the-art
methods to best meet individually defined objectives. The document does not address specific
research monitoring requirements, and it does not address methods to evaluate the human
perception of visual air quality.
This document focuses on instruments and analytical methods that are currently in use and
are considered by EPA and the IMPROVE Program to be best suited for use at this time. Like
any monitoring approach, visibility monitoring instrumentation and analytical methods are
continually evolving in order to minimize uncertainty and improve quality assurance.
The IMPROVE Committee consists of representatives from the six cooperating federal agencies: National Park Service
(NFS), EPA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States Forest Service (USFS), Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), and United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS); and four state consortiums: State
and Ferritorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and the Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
(SFAPPA/ALAPCO, Western States Air Resources Council (WESFAR), Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use
Management (NESCAUM) and Mid-Atlantic Regional Air Management Association (MARAMA).
1-1
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References made to specific instrument models or manufacturers are not intended to constitute an
EPA endorsement. It should be recognized that this document may be updated periodically to
reflect new and improved instruments and monitoring methods as they become available and are
proven reliable.
1.2 DOCUMENT ORGANIZATION
This Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document is comprised of seven primary sections.
Each section is described below:
Section 1.0 Introduction
Presents the purpose of the document, the document organization, and a
summary of legislative and regulatory requirements that provide the basis
for visibility protection and visibility monitoring.
Section 2.0 Monitoring Program Considerations and Requirements
Presents visibility definitions and theory, outlines visibility protection goals
and monitoring objectives, how to design a site or network, and how to
select and apply appropriate monitoring, data handling, and analytical
methods.
Section 3.0 Aerosol Monitoring
Provides detailed examples of standard operating procedures for aerosol
monitoring, including monitoring of PM-10 and PM-2.5 (including
chemical composition analysis for sulfates, nitrates, organic and elemental
carbon, and primary PM).
Section 4.0 Optical Monitoring
Provides detailed examples of optical monitoring protocols, including
transmissometer and nephelometer monitoring systems.
Section 5.0 Scene Monitoring
Provides detailed examples of scene monitoring protocols, including 35mm
and time-lapse camera monitoring systems.
Section 6.0 References
Section 7.0 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
1-2
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1.3 BACKGROUND
Visibility impairment is probably the most easily recognizable effect of air pollution in the
atmosphere. It is caused by the scattering and absorption of light by particles and gases in the air.
Under the Clean Air Act (Act), Congress recognized that good visibility is a resource to be valued
and preserved, now and for future generations. In section 169 A of the Act, Congress set forth a
national goal that calls for "the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing,
impairment of visibility in mandatory class I Federal areas2 which impairment results from
manmade air pollution." EPA is responsible for establishing regulations ensuring that "reasonable
progress" toward the national goal is achieved in the 156 mandatory class I Federal areas
(primarily national parks and wilderness areas) identified under the Act.
Visibility is also protected under section 109 (relating to the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards, or NAAQS) and section 165 (requirements for new or reconstructed sources) of the
Act. Section 109 calls for EPA to establish primary and secondary NAAQS in order to protect
the public health and public welfare, respectively. For many years, visibility has been recognized
as a "welfare effect" of paniculate matter. In July 1997, EPA established new air quality
standards for PM-2.5. The annual PM-2.5 standard, to be averaged over a period of 3 years, is
15 micrograms per cubic meter. The 24-hour standard is 65 micrograms per cubic meter. In this
action, EPA also set secondary standards for PM-2.5, equivalent to the suite of primary standards.
In addition, EPA noted that promulgation of a regional haze program under section 169A would
address the welfare effects of paniculate matter in class I areas.
The PM-2.5 monitoring regulations at 40 CFR Part 58 recognize the importance of
monitoring for protection of secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards and also allow
the use of the IMPROVE protocol for the purpose of characterizing background or transported
levels of PM-2.5. The PM-2.5 and IMPROVE programs are closely related through this
provision. It will be important to understand the regional nature of PM-2.5 levels in order to
improve the accuracy of regional PM models and ultimately to develop effective control
strategies. Monitoring of visibility in non-class I areas (such as urban and suburban areas) can
also provide important information for State or local governments in developing a local visibility
standard (such as exists in Denver), as well as useful data for future EPA reviews of the
secondary standards for particulate matter.
Section 165 of the Act provides for preconstruction review of the air quality impacts
associated with new or modified major sources. The prevention of significant deterioration (PSD)
program protects class I areas by allowing only a small increment of air quality deterioration in
these areas and by providing for assessment of the potential impacts on the air quality related
values (AQRVs) of class I areas. AQRV's include visibility and other fundamental purposes for
which these lands have been established.
A number of federal, state, tribal, and local visibility monitoring sites and monitoring
programs have been established to date, some dating back to the 1970's. In order to support
implementation of the PM2.5 standards and the regional haze program, EPA is providing for a
significant expansion of the IMPROVE visibility monitoring network in 1999. EPA recognizes
the need to provide visibility monitoring guidance to ensure that the methodologies used to collect
2 See Table 1-1 for the list of mandatory Class I Federal areas.
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and analyze aerosol and visibility data are consistent and applicable for tracking progress toward
visibility goals in the future.
1.4 STATUTORY AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
1.4.1 1970 Clean Air Act
The 1970 Clean Air Act was the first national legislation to address air quality throughout
the United States. The Act included requirements for protecting visibility from adverse effects of
air pollution. Visibility was identified as a welfare effect of concern for EPA to consider in setting
primary and secondary national ambient air quality standards. The total suspended particulate
(TSP) standard established by the EPA in 1971 provided a minimal amount of visibility
protection, since visibility impairment is predominantly caused by fine particulate matter.
1.4.2 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments: Section 169A
The Clean Air Act was amended in August 1977, and included a new section 169A for the
protection of visibility in areas of great scenic importance, such as national parks and wilderness
areas. Congress adopted these provisions to protect the "intrinsic beauty and historical and
archaeological treasures" of certain federal lands, noting that "areas such as the Grand Canyon
and Yellowstone Park are areas of breathtaking panorama; millions of tourists each year are
attracted to enjoy the scenic vistas."3 In section 169A, Congress established the following
national goal for visibility protection:
"the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility
in mandatory Class I Federal areas which impairment results from man-made air
pollution."
Mandatory Class I federal areas are national parks greater than 6,000 acres in size,
wilderness areas greater than 5,000 acres in size, and international parks that were in existence on
August 7, 1977. The list of 156 mandatory Class I areas is provided in Table 1-1. Section 169A
required the EPA to promulgate regulations requiring states to adopt measures into their State
Implementation Plans (SIPs) that would protect visibility in these areas. EPA promulgated the
first of these regulations on December 2, 1980.4 These regulations addressed visibility impairment
that is "reasonably attributable" to a source or group of sources.
3 H.R. Rep. No. 294, 95th Congress, 1st Session, 203-204 (1977).
4 See 45 Federal Register 80084 (December 2, 1980) and 40 CFR 51.300-307.
1-4
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Table 1-1
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August?, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name
Alabama
Sipsey Wild.
Alaska
Bering Sea Wild.
Mount McKinley NP
Simeonof Wild.
Tuxedni Wild.
Arizona
Chiricahua National Monument Wild.
Chiricahua Wild.
Galiuro Wild.
Grand Canyon NP
Mazatzal Wild.
Mount Baldy Wild.
Petrified Forest NP
Pine Mountain Wild.
Saguaro Wild.
Sierra Ancha Wild.
Superstition Wild.
Sycamore Canyon Wild.
Arkansas
Caney Creek Wild.
Upper Buffalo Wild.
California
Agua Tibia Wild.
Caribou Wild.
Cucamonga Wild.
Desolation Wild.
Dome Land Wild.
Emigrant Wild.
Hoover Wild.
John Muir Wild.
Joshua Tree Wild.
Kaiser Wild.
Kings Canyon NP
Lassen Volcanic NP
Acreage | Public Law Establishing
12,646 93-622
41,113 91-622
1,949,493 64-353
25,141 94-557
6,402 91-504
9,440 94-567
18,000 88-577
52,717 88-577
1,176,913 65-277
205,137 88-577
6,975 91-504
93,493 85-358
20,061 92-230
71,400 94-567
20,850 88-577
124,117 88-577
47,757 92-241
14,344 93-622
9,912 93-622
15,934 93-632
19,080 88-577
9,022 88-577
63,469 91-82
62,206 88-577
104,311 93-632
47,916 88-577
484,673 8-577
429,690 94-567
22,500 94-577
459,994 76-424
105,800 64-184
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDI-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
1-5
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August?, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name
California (cont.)
Lava Beds Wild.
Marble Mountain Wild.
Minarets Wild.
Mokelumme Wild.
Pinnacles Wild.
Point Reyes Wild.
Redwood NP
San Gabriel Wild.
San Gorgonio Wild.
San Jacinto Wild.
San Rafael Wild.
Sequoia NP
South Warner Wild.
Thousand Lakes Wild.
Ventana Wild.
Yolla-Bolly-Middle-Eel Wild.
Yo Semite NP
Colorado
Black Canyon of the Gunnison Wild.
Eagles Nest Wild.
Flat Tops Wild.
Great Sand Dunes Wild.
La Garita Wild.
Maroon Bells-Snowmass Wild.
Mesa Verde NP
Mount Zirkel Wild.
Rawah Wild.
Rocky Mountain NP
Weminuche Wild.
West Elk Wild.
Florida
Chassahowitzka Wild.
Everglades NP
St. Marks Wild.
Acreage | Public Law Establishing
28,640 92-493
213,743 88-577
109,484 88-577
50,400 88-577
12,952 94-567
25,370 94-544, 94-567
27,792 90-545
36,137 90-318
34,644 88-577
20,564 88-577
142,722 90-271
386,642 26 Stat. 478 (51st Cong.)
68,507 88-577
15,695 88-577
95,152 91-58
109,091 88-577
759,172 58-49
11,180 94-567
133,910 94-352
235,230 94-146
33,450 94-567
48,486 88-577
71,060 88-577
51,488 59-353
72,472 88-577
26,674 88-577
263,138 63-238
400,907 93-632
61,412 88-577
23,360 94-557
1,397,429 73-267
17,745 93-632
Federal Land Manager
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
1-6
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August 7, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name Acn
Georgia
2age Public Law Establishing
CohottaWild. 33,776 93-622
Okefenokee Wild. 343
850 93-429
Wolf Island Wild. 5,126 93-632
Hawaii
Haleakala NP 27,208 87-744
Hawaii Volcanoes 217
Idaho
029 64-171
Craters of the Moon Wild. 43,243 91-504
Hells Canyon Wild. 83,800 94-199
Hells Canyon Wilderness, 192,700 acres overall,
of which 108,900 acres are in Oregon and
83,800 acres are in Idaho.
Sawtooth Wild. 216
Selway-Bitterroot Wild. 988
Selway Bitterroot Wilderness, 1,240,700 acres
overall, of which 988,700 acres are in Idaho and
251,930 acres are in Montana.
383 92-400
770 88-577
Yellowstone NP 31,488 17 Stat. 32 (42nd Cong.)
Yellowstone National Park, 2,219,737 acres
overall, of which 2,020,625 acres are in
Wyoming, 167,624 acres are in Montana, and
31,488 acres are in Idaho.
Kentucky
Mammoth Cave NP 51,303 69-283
Louisiana
Breton Wild. 5,000+ 93-632
Maine
Acadia NP 37,503 65-278
Moosehorn Wild. 7,501
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
(Edmunds Unit) (2,782) 91-504
(Baring Unit) (4,719) 93-632
Michigan
Isle Royale NP 542
Seney Wild. 25,
428 71-835
150 91-504
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
1-7
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August?, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name
Minnesota
Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wild.
Voyageurs NP
Missouri
Hercules-Glades Wild.
Mingo Wild.
Montana
Anaconda-Pintlar Wild.
Bob Marshall Wild.
Cabinet Mountains Wild.
Gates of the Mtn. Wild.
Glacier NP
Medicine Lake Wild.
Mission Mountain Wild.
Red Rock Lakes Wild.
Scapegoat Wild.
Selway-Bitterroot Wild.
Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, 1,240,700 acres
overall, of which 988,770 acres are in Idaho and
251,930 acres are in Montana.
U. L. Bend Wild.
Yellowstone NP
Yellowstone National Park, 2,219,737 acres
overall, of which 2,020,625 acres are in
Wyoming, 167,624 acres are in Montana, and
31,488 acres are in Idaho.
Nevada
Jarbidge Wild.
New Hampshire
Great Gulf Wild.
Presidential Range-Dry River Wild.
New Jersey
Brigantine Wild.
New Mexico
Bandelier Wild.
Bosque del Apache Wild.
Carlsbad Caverns NP
Acreage | Public Law Establishing
747,840 99-577
114,964 99-261
12,315 94-557
8,000 94-557
157,803 88-577
950,000 88-577
94,272 88-577
28,562 88-577
1,012,599 61-171
11,366 94-557
73,877 93-632
32,350 94-557
239,295 92-395
251,930 88-577
20,890 94-557
167,624 17 Stat. 32 (42nd Cong.)
64,667 88-577
5,552 88-577
20,000 93-622
6,603 93-632
23,267 94-567
80,850 93-632
46,435 71-216
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
-------
Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August 7, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name Acn
New Mexico (cont.)
Gila Wild. 433
Pecos Wild. 167
2age Public Law Establishing
690 88-577
416 88-577
Salt Creek Wild. 8,500 91-504
San Pedro Parks Wild. 4 1 ,
132 88-577
Wheeler Peak Wild. 6,027 88-577
White Mountain Wild. 3 1 ,
North Carolina
Great Smoky Mountains NP 273
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 514,758
acres overall, of which 273,551 acres are in
North Carolina, and 241,207 acres are in
Tennessee.
171 88-577
551 69-268
Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wild. 10,201 93-622
Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness, 14,033 acres
overall, of which 10,201 acres are in North
Carolina, and 3,832 acres are in Tennessee.
Linville Gorge Wild. 7,575 88-577
Shining Rock Wild. 13,350 88-577
Swanquarter Wild. 9,000 94-557
North Dakota
Lostwood Wild. 5,557 93-632
Theodore Roosevelt NP 69,675 80-38
Oklahoma
Wichita Mountains Wild. 8,900 91-504
Oregon
Crater Lake NP 160
290 57-121
Diamond Peak Wild. 36,637 88-577
Eagle Cap Wild. 293
476 88-577
Gearhart Mountain Wild. 18,709 88-577
Hells Canyon Wild. 108
Hells Canyon Wilderness, 192,700 acres overall,
of which 108,900 acres are in Oregon, and
83,800 acres are in Idaho.
900 94-199
Kalmiopsis Wild. 76,900 88-577
Mountain Lakes Wild. 23,071 88-577
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-FWS
USDA-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
1-9
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August 7, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name Acn
Oregon (cont.)
Mount Hood Wild. 14,
Mount Jefferson Wild. 100
Mount Washington Wild. 46,
2age Public Law Establishing
160 88-577
208 90-548
116 88-577
Strawberry Mountain Wild. 33,003 88-577
Three Sisters Wild. 199
South Carolina
902 88-577
Cape Remain Wild. 28,000 93-632
South Dakota
Badlands Wild. 64,250 94-567
Wind Cave NP 28,
Tennessee
Great Smoky Mountains NP 241
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 514,758
acres overall, of which 273,551 acres are in
North Carolina, and 241,207 acres are in
Tennessee.
060 57-16
207 69-268
Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wild. 3,832 93-622
Joyce Kilmer Slickrock Wilderness, 14,033 acres
overall, of which 10,201 acres are in North
Carolina, and 3,832 acres are in Tennessee.
Texas
Big Bend NP 708
118 74-157
Guadalupe Mountains NP 76,292 89-667
Utah
Arches NP 65,098 92-155
Bryce Canyon NP 35,832 68-277
Canyonlands NP 337
Capitol Reef NP 221
Zion NP 142
Vermont
570 88-590
896 92-507
462 68-83
Lye Brook Wild. 12,430 93-622
Virgin Islands
Virgin Islands NP 12,295 84-925
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-FWS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
1-10
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
List of Mandatory Class I Areas
as of August 7, 1977
(Source: 44 CFR 69124, November 30, 1979)
Area Name Acn
Virginia
2age Public Law Establishing
James River Face Wild. 8,703 93-622
ShenandoahNP 190
Washington
Alpine Lakes Wild. 303
Glacier Peak Wild. 464
535 69-268
508 94-357
258 88-577
Goat Rocks Wild. 82,680 88-577
Mount Adams Wild. 32,356 88-577
Mount Rainer NP 235
North Cascades NP 503
Olympic NP 892
Pasayten Wild. 505
West Virginia
239 30 Stat. 993 (55th Cong.)
277 90-554
578 75-778
524 90-544
Dolly Sods Wild. 10,215 93-622
Otter Creek Wild. 20,000 93-622
Wyoming
BridgerWild. 392
Fitzpatrick Wild. 191
Grand Teton NP 305
North Absaroka Wild. 351
Teton Wild. 557
Washakie Wild. 686
160 88-577
103 94-567
504 81-787
104 88-577
311 88-577
584 92-476
Yellowstone NP 2,020,625 17 Stat. 32 (42nd Cong.)
Yellowstone National Park, 2,219,737 acres
overall, of which 2,020,625 acres are in
Wyoming, 167,624 acres are in Montana, and
31,488 acres are in Idaho.
Federal Land Manager
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDA-FS
USDI-NPS
1-11
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1.4.3 1980 EPA Regulations
The 1980 visibility regulations were designed to address impairment that is "reasonably
attributable" to a single source or small group of sources. EPA deferred action addressing
"regional haze" until improvements were made in monitoring techniques, in regional scale
modeling, and in our understanding of the relationships between specific pollutants and visibility
impairment. Regional haze is caused by a multitude of sources, located across a broad geographic
area, which emit fine particles and their precursors into the atmosphere. The 1980 regulations
consisted of a number of requirements to be addressed by the States, including:
! A long-term strategy to make reasonable progress toward the national visibility goal,
with progress reviews every 3 years and SIP revisions as necessary.
! The review of certain existing major sources and the determination of best available
retrofit technology (BART) for any such source that emits any air pollutant which may
reasonably be anticipated to cause or contribute to visibility impairment in any class I
area where that impairment is reasonably attributable to that source.
! Requirements to perform preconstruction review of the potential visibility impacts due
to new or modified sources, and procedures for federal land manager notification and
consultation.
! A monitoring plan to assess visibility in Class I areas and to track trends over time.
1.4.4 State and Federal Implementation Plans
The 1980 EPA regulations required certain states covered by the regulations to revise its
SIP to address visibility. Only seven SIPs with visibility provisions were approved between 1980
and 1985.
In 1985, the settlement of a lawsuit brought by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF)
against the EPA required the EPA to establish Federal Implementation Plans (FIPs) for the
remaining states without approved visibility provisions in their SIPS. As part of the FIPs, EPA
regulations called for the establishment of a cooperative visibility monitoring effort between the
EPA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and primary federal land
management agencies: the National Park Service (NPS), the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS), the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and the United States Forest Service
(USFS). This cooperative visibility monitoring effort became a reality in the mid-1980s and was
named IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments). In 1991, several
additional organizations joined the effort: State and Territorial Air Pollution Program
Administrators and the Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (STAPPA/ALAPCO),
Western States Air Resources Council (WESTAR), and Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use
Management (NESCAUM). The Mid-Atlantic Regional Air Management Association
(MARAMA) was added in 1998 for broader participation of State agencies. The IMPROVE
program has been collecting data since 1988, and continues to collect and analyze visibility data
from Class I area monitoring sites throughout the United States. The objectives of IMPROVE
are to provide data needed to assess the impacts of new emission sources, to identify existing
man-made visibility impairment, and to assess progress toward the national visibility goals that
define protection of 156 Class I areas.
1-12
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1.4.5 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments
As part of the development of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Congress
reviewed EPA's progress in protecting visibility in Class I areas. Recognizing that greater
emphasis was needed on the role of regional transport of pollutants responsible for visibility
impairment, Congress established a new section 169B. Section 169B provides for the following:
1) Expanded research on air quality monitoring, modeling, atmospheric chemistry and
physics, and sources of impairment and factors leading to good visibility, including the
concept of clean air corridors.
2) A Report to Congress by EPA on visibility improvement that is expected from the
implementation of the 1990 Amendments, and periodic reviews every 5 years on actual
progress made in class I areas.
3) Establishment of interstate visibility transport commissions for class I areas
experiencing visibility impairment. Section 169B required the establishment of the Grand
Canyon Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC).5 EPA can establish commissions on
its own initiative, or by a petition from two or more States. Any visibility transport
commission is to assess the nature of adverse impacts on visibility due to potential or
projected growth of emissions, and to provide recommendations to EPA within 4 years.
These recommendations must address measures to remedy such adverse impacts, including
the promulgation of regulations under section 169 A.
4) Within 18 months of receiving recommendations from any visibility transport
commission, the EPA is required to "carry out the Administrator's regulatory
responsibilities under section 169A, including criteria for measuring "reasonable progress"
toward the national goal."6
5) Section 169B also requires States to revise their visibility SIPs under section 110 of the
Act to include emission limits, schedules of compliance, and other measures as may be
necessary to carry out the new EPA regional haze regulations.
The Commission as created focused on 16 Class I areas of the Colorado Plateau, including: Grand
Canyon, Bryce Canyon, Zion, Canyonlands, Mesa Verde, Capitol Reef, Arches, and Petrified Forest National Parks.
The GCVTC was comprised of the Governors of eight western States (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New
Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming), the leaders of five Indian tribes (Navajo, Hopi, Hualapai, Acoma Pueblo, and
the Columbia River Intertribal Fish Commission), and non-voting federal representatives, including EPA and several
land management agencies. The GCVTC submitted to EPA its Recommendations for Improving Western Vistas in
June 1996. The Commission's work involved more than four years of technical assessment and discussion, and it
included participation by a wide range of stakeholders.
See Clean Air Act, section 169B(e)(l).
1-13
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1.4.6 EPA Regional Haze Regulation
In July 1997, EPA proposed revisions to the existing 1980 visibility regulations. These
revisions would require States to revise their SIPs to address visibility impairment in the form of
regional haze. The regional haze regulations would also serve as a vital component of EPA's
overall approach to protect the public welfare from visibility impairment effects associated with
particulate matter. The regional haze regulation includes requirements for establishing baseline
and current conditions based on monitoring data, and for tracking visibility changes over time.
States also are required to submit a monitoring strategy within the time frame specified in the
regional haze rule.
To support implementation of the regional haze rule, EPA has funded the deployment of
the PM-2.5 monitoring network and the expansion of the IMPROVE network. During 1999,
approximately 78 new IMPROVE aerosol monitors will be sited in the vicinity of Class I areas.
EPA is working closely with the States and Federal land managers through the IMPROVE
Steering Committee on implementing this expansion during FY99. The new PM2 5 network will
also include IMPROVE samplers which may be used at background or transport sites required
under the PM2 5 monitoring regulations. This network has a variety of monitors useful for
visibility assessments. These include nephelometers and other continuous analyzers as well as
aerosol samplers capable of assessing chemical speciation of particulate matter.
1-14
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2.0 MONITORING PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 VISIBILITY DEFINITIONS AND THEORY
A simple definition of visibility is "the appearance of scenic features when viewed from a
distance." The most popular term to characterize visibility is observer visual range which is the
greatest distance at which a large black object can just be seen against the horizon sky. Most in
the technical community prefer to use the term extinction coefficient (bext), which is the loss of
image-forming light per unit distance due to scattering and absorption by particles and gases in the
atmosphere. The extinction coefficient is the sum of the scattering coefficient (bscat) and
absorption coefficient (baba), which are similarly defined as the loss of light per unit distance by
scattering and absorption mechanisms respectively.
The extinction coefficient can be represented mathematically as:
b = b + b + b + b = b + b , (2-]}
ext sg ag sp ap scat abs \ /
where s, a, g, and p refer to scattering and absorption by gases and p_articles, respectively.
Figure 2-1 illustrates how these properties affect the transmission of light from a scenic feature to
an observer. A pristine, particle free atmosphere where the only affect on light transmission is
caused by the scattering of light by atmospheric gases is called a Rayleigh atmosphere. The only
gas normally found in the atmosphere that absorbs light is nitrogen dioxide. The extinction
coefficient increases as particles and gases are added to the atmosphere. Therefore, visibility is
reduced due to increased particle scattering and absorption.
Figure 2-2 illustrates the size ranges of atmospheric particles that affect visibility. Particle
sizes are generally separated into three modes:
! Nuclei mode - 0.005 //m to 0.1 //m
! Accumulation mode -0.1 //m to 1 - 3 //m
! Coarse mode - 1 - 3 //m to 50 - 100 //m
Fine particles less than 2.5 //m affect light scattering more than particles greater than 2.5 //m. The
most efficient light scattering particles are within the size range of the wavelength of visible light;
0.4 /j,m to 0.7 //m.
A simple model allows the observer visual range to be estimated from the extinction
coefficient by dividing a constant by the extinction coefficient. The magnitude of the constant
depends on the units used and assumptions concerning the minimal contrast detectable by the
observer. Visual range (Vr) is the common name given to the resulting estimate. To compare
visibility data from different sites, visual range estimates can be normalized to a Rayleigh
scattering coefficient of 10 Mm"1 (particle-free atmosphere conditions at an altitude of 1.524 km
or 5000 feet). This normalized estimate is called the standard visual range (SVR) and can be
expressed as:
SVR = 3912 / (bea - Ray + 10) (2-2)
2-1
-------
where the units for SVR are kilometers (km), bext is the extinction coefficient expressed in inverse
megameters (Mm"1), Ray is the site specific Rayleigh value (elevation dependent) in inverse
megameters (Mm"1), 10 is the Rayleigh coefficient used to normalize visual range, and 3912 is a
constant derived assuming a 2% contrast detection threshold.
Visual air quality is a term which describes the air pollution aspects of visibility. Visual air
quality is what must be monitored and preserved, not the overall visibility which is influenced by
non-pollution factors (i.e., clouds, snow cover, sun angle, etc.). The atmospheric extinction
coefficient and parameters derived from the extinction coefficient describe visual air quality.
The distribution and extent of pollutants in the atmosphere relative to the observer's sight
path has a large effect on the appearance of visibility impairment. If the pollutants are uniformly
distributed both horizontally and vertically from the ground to a height well above the highest
terrain, it is known as a uniform haze. If the top edge of the pollution layer is visible, as is often
light from clouds
scattered Into
tight path
Image-forming /
light scattered f
out of ftgnt path
Sunlight X
scattered
light reflected
from ground
scattered Into
sight path
Image-forming
light absorbed
Figure 2-1. Properties of the Atmosphere that Affect the Transmission of Light from a Scenic
Feature to a Human Observer.
2-2
-------
Caseous Vapor
I
Condense
JL
1
Nucleate
Coagulate
v
Chain
Aggregates
Accumulation
Mode
0,001
Wind Blown Dust
Emissions,
Sea Spray,
Volcanoes,
Plant-Emitted
Particles
100.0
Figure 2-2. Size Distribution and Sources of Atmospheric Particles.
the case when a pollution layer is trapped below an inversion, then it is called a surface layer. A
pollution distribution that is not in contact with the ground is an elevated layer. Plumes can be
thought of as a special case of an elevated layer, though from many vantage points it may not be
possible to distinguish a plume from an elevated layer. It is possible to have combinations of
pollutant distributions such as multiple elevated layers superimposed upon a uniform haze.
Uniform haze and surface layered haze can be monitored by a variety of methods on the
ground. Elevated layers must be either remotely monitored from the ground or by instruments
carried aloft.
2-3
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Visibility-related measurements can be partitioned into three (3) groups that describe and
define the visual characteristics of the air.
Aerosol The physical properties of the ambient atmospheric particles (particle
origin, size, shape, chemical composition, concentration, temporal and
spatial distribution, and other physical properties) through which a scene is
viewed.
Optical The ability of the atmosphere to scatter or absorb light passing through it.
The physical properties of the atmosphere are described by extinction,
scattering, and absorption coefficients, plus an angular dependence of the
scattering known as the normalized scattering phase function. Optical
characteristics integrate the effects of atmospheric aerosols and gases.
Scene The appearance of a scene viewed through the atmosphere. Scene
characteristics are more nearly in line with the simple definition of visibility
than aerosol or optical characteristics. Scene characteristics include
observer visual range, scene contrast, color, texture, clarity, and other
descriptive terms. Scene characteristics change with illumination and
atmospheric composition.
Aerosol and optical characteristics depend only on the properties of the atmosphere
through which light passes and therefore can be used to describe visual air quality. However,
scene characteristics are also dependent on scene and lighting conditions.
2-4
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2.1.1 Characterizing Visibility Impairment
Visibility has historically been characterized either by visual range or by the light
extinction coefficient. These two measures of visibility are inversely related; visual range
decreases as the extinction coefficient increases. Visual range is presented in common units such
as miles or kilometers and is commonly used in military operations and transportation safety by
providing information to determine the minimum distance required to land an aircraft, the distance
to the first appearance of a military target or an enemy aircraft or ship, and safe maneuvering
distances under impaired visibility conditions. Because of the use of familiar distance units, the
simple definition, and the ability of any sighted person to characterize visual conditions with this
parameter without instruments, visual range is likely to remain a popular method of describing
atmospheric visibility. However, extreme caution must be applied when interpreting visual range
data from historical sources where human observations were the source of the data (e.g., airport
observations). The varying methods and procedures used by observers, the quality of the
observer measurements, and the availability of adequate visibility targets all can have a dramatic
effect on historical, observer-based data.
Extinction coefficient is used most by scientists concerned with the causes of reduced
visibility. Direct relationships between concentrations of atmospheric constituents and their
contribution to the extinction coefficient exist. Apportioning the extinction coefficient to
atmospheric constituents provides a method to estimate the change in visibility caused by a
change in constituent concentrations. This methodology, known as extinction budget analysis, is
important for assessing the visibility consequences of proposed pollutant emission sources, or for
determining the extent of pollution control required to meet a desired visibility condition. Interest
in the causes of visibility impairment is expected to continue and the extinction coefficient will
remain important in visibility research and assessment.
Neither visual range nor extinction coefficient measurements are linear with respect to the
human perception of visual scene changes caused by uniform haze. For example, a given change
in visual range or extinction coefficient can result in a scene change that is either unnoticeably
small or very apparent depending on the baseline visibility conditions. Presentation of visibility
measurement data or model results in terms of visual range or extinction coefficient can lead to
misinterpretation by those who are not aware of the nonlinear relationship.
To rigorously determine the perceived visual effect of a change in extinction coefficient
requires the use of radiative transfer modeling and psychophysical modeling. Radiative transfer
modeling is used to determine the changes in light transmission from the field of view arriving at
the observer location. Psychophysical modeling is used to determine the response to the light by
the eye-brain system. Results are dependent not only on the baseline and changes to atmospheric
optical conditions, but also on the characteristics of the scene and its lighting. The complexity of
employing such a procedure and the dependence of the results on non-atmospheric factors
complicate its widespread use to characterize perceived visibility changes resulting from changes
in air quality.
2-5
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Parametric analysis methods have been used to suggest that a constant fractional change in
extinction coefficient or visual range produces a similar perceptual change for a scene regardless
of baseline conditions. Simplifying assumptions eliminates the need to consider the visibility
effects of scene and lighting conditions. Using the relationship of a constant fractional change in
extinction coefficient to perceived visual change, a new visibility index called deciview (dv) was
developed, and is defined as:
dv = 10 ln(bea /\QMm~1) (2-3)
where extinction coefficient is expressed in Mm"1 (Pitchford and Malm, 1993). One (1) dv change
is approximately a 10% change in extinction coefficient, which is a small, but perceptible scenic
change under many circumstances. The deciview scale is near zero (0) for a pristine atmosphere
(dv = 0 for a Rayleigh condition at about 1.5 km elevation) and increases as visibility is degraded.
Like the decibel scale for sound, equal changes in deciview are equally perceptible. Because the
deciview metric expresses visual scene changes that are linear with respect to human perception,
EPA supports the use of the deciview metric in characterizing visibility changes for regulatory
purposes.
2.1.2 Relationship Between Light Extinction and Aerosol Concentrations
The light extinction coefficient (bext) is the sum of the light scattering coefficient (bscat) and
the light absorption coefficient (babs). Light scattering is the sum of the scattering caused by gases
(bsg) and the scattering caused by suspended particles (bsp) in the atmosphere (aerosols).
However, natural Rayleigh scatter (bRay) from air molecules (which causes the sky to appear blue)
dominates the gas scattering component. Particle scatter (bsp) can be caused by natural aerosol
(e.g., wind-blown dust and fog) or by man-made aerosols (e.g., sulfates, nitrates, organics, and
other fine and coarse particles). Light absorption results from gases (bag) and particles (bap).
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the only major light absorbing gas in the lower atmosphere; its strong
wavelength-dependent scatter causes yellow-brown discoloration if present in sufficient quantities.
Soot (elemental carbon) is the dominant light absorbing particle in the atmosphere. Thus, the
total light extinction is the sum of its components:
b = b + b = b + b + b + b (2-4}
ext scat abs Ray sp ag ap V /
Suspended particles in the atmosphere (i.e., collectively known as aerosols) usually
account for the dominant part of light extinction except under extremely clean conditions, when
natural Rayleigh gas scattering predominates. Thus, understanding visibility requires
understanding the basic concepts of aerosol air quality.
The first concept concerns the origins of atmospheric particles. Particle origins can be
either anthropogenic (man-made) or natural. Another origin classification is primary versus
secondary. Primary particles are those that are directly emitted into the atmosphere as particles,
such as organic and soot particles in smoke plumes or soil dust particles. Secondary particles are
those that are formed from gas-to-particle conversion in the atmosphere, such as sulfates (from
SO2), nitrates (from NOX), and secondary organics (from gaseous hydrocarbons).
Two other aerosol concepts with respect to visibility are size distribution and chemical
composition. For visibility purposes, it is critical to distinguish fine particles (< 2.5 //m) from
coarse particles (> 2.5 //m), because fine particles are much more efficient at scattering light than
2-6
-------
larger particles. The major constituents of ambient fine particulate matter consist of five species
(and their compounds): sulfates, nitrates, organic carbon, elemental carbon, and soil dust. In
addition to these chemical species, the effect of water associated with sulfate, nitrate, and some
organics needs to be considered for assessment of visual air quality(see Section 2.1.3 below).
Significant differences exist among each of these species, in sources, atmospheric behavior, size
distributions, and visibility effects. The coarse fraction of PM10 (particles with diameters between
2.5 //m and 10 //m) and other suspended particles (those with diameters greater than 10 //m) can
be considered separately and are generally not subdivided into separate species.
The relationship between atmospheric aerosols and the light extinction coefficient can
usually be approximated as the sum of the products of the concentrations of individual species and
their respective light extinction efficiencies, better known as reconstructed light extinction.
Reconstructed extinction is expressed as:
b = b + S3C (2-5}
ext Ray ^i i \^ J)
where p; is the light extinction efficiency (m2/g) of species i, Q is the atmospheric concentration of
species i (|ig/m3), and the summation is over all light-interacting species (i.e., sulfate, nitrate,
organic carbon, elemental carbon, other fine particles, coarse particles, other suspended particles,
and NO2). The above units, when multiplied, yield units for bext of 10"6 m"1 or (106 m)"1, or as
typically labeled, inverse megameters (Mm"1).
An equation used by the IMPROVE program to estimate reconstructed aerosol extinction
is:
bext = bray + (3MRH) [Sulfate] + (3)/(RH) [Nitrate] +
(4) [Organic Mass Carbon] + (1) [Soil] + (2-6)
(0.6) [Coarse Mass] + babs
Alternatively, babs can be replaced by 10 times elemental carbon mass. Sisler and Malm (1999)
discuss this issue. In the above formula, all the terms in square brackets refer to the mass
associated with those entities.
Note that this aerosol/light extinction relationship is derived from externally mixed particles and
does not account for all of the complex interactions possible in the atmosphere. However, the
relationship is a good approximation.
2.1.3 Importance of Relative Humidity on Light Scattering
Because some aerosols including sulfates, nitrates, and some organics are hygroscopic
(have an affinity for water), their scattering properties can change as a function of relative
humidity (RH). As the relative humidity increases these hygroscopic aerosols can grow to
become more efficient light scatterers. The aerosol growth curve is particularly significant for
relative humidities greater than 70%. Figure 2-3 illustrates the relationship between RH and
scattering efficiency for ammonium sulfate aerosols
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7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Ammonium Sulfate
Relative Humidity Growth Curve
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Relative Humidity %
80
90
100
Figure 2-3. The Relationship between the Scattering Efficiency of
Ammonium Sulfate Aerosols and Relative Humidity
(Malmetal., 1996).
with a mass mean diameter of 0.3 //m and a geometric size distribution of 1.5 //m (Malm et al
1996). The function of RH,/(RH), illustrated in Figure 2-3 is:
f(W) = bsca (RH)
(2-7)
where bscat (0%) and bscat (RH) are the dry and wet scattering, respectively. This function
describes the scattering efficiencies for ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate.
Various functions for the humidity-related scattering efficiencies of organics have been
proposed. These functions must consider the solubility of individual organic species and fractions
of various organic species in the atmosphere. The types and concentrations of organics can vary
geographically and the associated RH functions can change. White (1990) discusses this issue.
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To perform reconstructed particle scattering estimates, the scattering efficiencies (in m2/g)
of atmospheric species as a function of relative humidity and the concentration of the species must
be considered. Malm et al. (1996) explores the analytical consideration required to reconstruct
particle scattering using the Grand Canyon as an example. Ideally, relative humidity would be
measured continuously at each site in order to better understand its effect on day-to-day
variations and annual changes in visual air quality. If on-site meteorological data are not
available, however, humidity can be estimated from climatological databases for appropriate
nearby locations to represent the humidity characteristics of the Class I area. In either case,
analysis of visibility trends in accordance with the tracking requirements of the regional haze rule
should utilize long-term average /(RH) factors which are representative of best and worst
visibility conditions. This approach will provide measures of visual air quality which are more
directly related to the changes in the pollutants that cause visibility impairment, and are less
affected by day-to-day or year-to-year changes in humidity.
2.2 VISIBILITY GOALS AND MONITORING OBJECTIVES
The purpose of visibility monitoring is to collect high quality, consistent data that can be
used in analyses to assess whether progress is being made toward meeting visibility goals, and to
understand the types of emissions sources contributing to visibility impairment. The Clean Air
Act and related EPA regulations define the nation's visibility protection goals. Monitoring
objectives outline the types of monitoring required for specific analyses or actions needed to make
progress toward these goals. These visibility goals and monitoring objectives are outlined in
Table 2-1 and discussed in the following subsections.
2.2.1 Visibility Goals
The primary visibility-related goals found in the Act and EPA regulations are summarized
below and in Table 2-1:
Section 169A of the Clean Air Act provides two primary goals:
! "...the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment of
visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas which impairment results from man-made
air pollution."
! State implementation plans must ensure "reasonable progress" toward the national
visibility goal.
Section 109 of the Act:
! Any national secondary NAAQS should specify a level of air quality that is requisite to
protect the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects associated
with the presence of the pollutant in the ambient air.
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Section 172 of the Act (re: NAAQS):
! The attainment of any primary NAAQS should be achieved as expeditiously as
practicable, but no later than 5 years after nonattainment designation. Areas with
more severe problems can be considered for an additional 5-year extension.
! The attainment of any secondary NAAQS should be achieved "as expeditiously as
practicable."
Section 165(d)(2) of the Clean Air Act charged federal land managers (FLM) with the
following visibility-related goal:
! FLMs have an affirmative responsibility to "protect the air quality related values
(AQRVs) of any mandatory Class I federal area."
The visibility regulations in 40 CFR 51.300-309
! States are required to "assess the impacts of existing and proposed new sources of Class
I area visibility impairment." Specifically, this requirement includes provisions related to
new source review in 307, to BART in 302 and 308, and to progress goals in 308.
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Table 2-1
Visibility Goals and Monitoring Objectives
Visibility Goals
1
2
3
4
9
National Visibility Goal - "...the prevention
of any future, and the remedying of any
existing, impairment of visibility in
mandatory Class I Federal areas which
impairment results from man-made air
pollution...." Ensure reasonable progress
toward the National Goal.
NAAQS: The protection of public health and
welfare through attainment of NAAQS as
expeditiously as practicable.
The FLM has an affirmative responsibility
to "protect the air quality related values
(AQRVs) of any mandatory Class I federal
area."
The FLM has the responsibility to "assess
existing and proposed sources of Class I
area visibility impairment."
Measuring reasonable progress as specified
in the Regional Haze Rule
5 Ensure that SIPs contain: 1) a long-term
strategy, BART, and other measures necessary
to make "reasonable progress" toward the
national visibility goal, 2) visibility analysis in
preconstruction review process, 3) monitoring
program.
Visibility Monitoring Objectives
Adopt monitoring protocols to ensure that high
quality, nationally consistent, comparable data
are collected by all monitoring organizations.
4 Document long-term trends and track progress
toward visibility improvement goals.
2 Establish current visual air quality conditions
that for each site are representative of a fairly
broad geographic region, based on
! Aerosol characteristics, and when possible
for
! Optical characteristics
! Surface and elevated haze characteristics
5 Provide data for the new source review
permitting process.
Identify sources through source attribution
analysis that are "reasonably anticipated to
cause or contribute" to visibility impairment in
anv class I area.
6 Provide data for the prevention of significant
deterioration permitting process.
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EPA's 1980 visibility regulations address reasonably attributable visibility impairment. The
primary regulatory agency and FLM goals presented in these regulations are to:
! Ensure that SIPs contain a long-term strategy, measures addressing best available retrofit
technology for certain sources, and other measures as necessary to make "reasonable
progress" toward the national visibility goal ("the prevention of any future, and the
remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas
which impairment results from man-made air pollution").
! Establish programs providing for preconstruction visibility impact analyses by new source
permit applicants and appropriate review by States and Federal land managers
! Establish a monitoring program to assess current conditions, track progress toward the
national goal, and identify the sources contributing to visibility impairment.
When a number of states failed develop SIPs, the Environmental Defense Fund sued the EPA
to enforce the 1980 regulations. The lawsuit settlement required the EPA to develop new source
review and visibility monitoring provisions for those states in the form of Federal Implementation
Plans (FIPs).
! As part of the FIPs, EPA regulations called for the establishment of a cooperative
visibility monitoring effort between the EPA, principle federal land management agencies,
the states, and state organizations. The first formal cooperative visibility monitoring
effort became a reality in the mid-1980s and was named IMPROVE (Interagency
Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments).
The 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act included a new section 169B emphasizing
regional visibility impairment issues. Section 169B outlines four specific goals for future visibility
protection:
! To expand scientific knowledge and technical tools on visibility.
! To assess how implementation of various CAA programs may result in improvement in
visibility in Class I areas; and
! To provide for establishment of the Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission and
to allow for the establishment of other Visibility Transport Commissions.
! To require EPA to develop regional haze regulations, including "criteria for measuring
reasonable progress toward the national goal."
As part of the IMPROVE monitoring program, the EPA, federal land managers, state
agencies, and local governments have developed individual goals and objectives in response to
visibility regulations set forth in the CAA and EPA regulations. Primary objectives, seen by the EPA
as essential when establishing a visibility-related monitoring network, follow in Section 2.2.2,
Monitoring Purpose and Objectives. Additional programs and applications which benefit from the
information obtained by visibility monitoring are defined in Section 2.4.2, Data Uses.
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2.2.2 Monitoring Objectives
The purpose of visibility monitoring is to collect high quality data that can be used in analyses
to assess whether or not progress is being made toward meeting the visibility goals. Without
measurements there is no quantifiable method of tracking progress. The monitoring objectives listed
in Table 2-1 and discussed below outline the types of data required to perform goal oriented analyses.
The monitoring objectives address the visibility protection regulations for mandatory Class
I areas and other areas of concern. The mandatory Class I areas were designated by Congress and
are listed in Table 1-1 of this document. Othernatural areas of concern include non-mandatory Class
I areas and Class II areas of particular interest to the land management agency, state, tribe, or other
responsible organization. For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service may define its affirmative
responsibility to protect visibility to include selected resource areas, or a state may decide to protect
a region of special interest. These non-mandatory areas do not fall under EPA's jurisdiction but could
be included in the monitoring objectives of responsible agencies.
The principle objectives for visibility monitoring are as follows:
1) Ensure that high quality, nationally consistent, comparable data are collected by all
monitoring organizations through adoption of standard monitoring protocols.
2) Establish present visual air quality conditions.
3) Identify sources of existing man-made visibility impairment.
4) Document long-term spatial and temporal trends to track progress towards meeting the
long-term goal of no man-made impairment of protected areas.
5) Provide data for New Source Review (NSR) analyses.
6) Provide data for Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) analyses.
2.2.2.1 Ensure that High Quality, Comparable Data are Collected by All Monitoring
Organizations Through Adoption of Standard Monitoring Protocols.
It is essential that data be collected in a technically sound, quality-assured manner by all
monitoring organizations. It also must be regionally and nationally comparable, consistent over time
and capable of supporting the visibility goals of the Act and EPA regulations. In order to satisfy the
visibility monitoring objectives described above, the regional haze rule does not specify a Federal
reference method for visibility monitoring. Instead, this document constitutes official EPA guidance
on visibility monitoring. The protocols contained herein generally follow those established under the
IMPROVE Program, have been peer-reviewed and are widely accepted.
These IMPROVE protocols include Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and Technical
Instructions (TIs) that define the monitoring methods, laboratory methods, data reduction and
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validation procedures, quality assurance requirements, and archive formats for aerosol, optical and
scenic monitoring. Federal land management agencies and a number of state and municipal
organizations have adopted these protocols. These protocols are more fully described in Sections
3.0 through 5.0 of this document.
The guideline protocols may be implemented by individual organizations or cooperative
monitoring programs. A county or state agency, an industrial source, a federal land manager, Indian
tribe, or a combination of public and private organizations can design and implement a monitoring
site or network.
Cooperative monitoring programs have advantages that include: reducing duplication of
effort, sharing resources allowing economy of scale, involving more participants, and providing a
consistent, comprehensive database. Most cooperative programs are based on a memorandum of
understanding between cooperators that clearly defines the program's goals and objectives. The
activities of most cooperative programs are defined by a steering committee, composed of
representatives from the cooperating organizations, and generally functions like aboard of directors.
The steering committee generally designates an operating agent (most often one of the committee
members agencies) to manage the day-to-day monitoring functions including fiscal and contract
management.
The primary example of a long-term, effective cooperative effort to monitor visibility for
regulatory, planning, and research purposes is the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) Program. IMPROVE is a cooperative visibility monitoring effort among
the EPA, NOAA, FLMs (NFS, USFS, USFWS), and state air agencies (STAPPA/ALAPCO,
WESTAR, NESCAUM and MARAMA). Established in 1985, IMPROVE supports routine visibility
monitoring in Class I areas nationwide and also conducts research on visibility issues. The broad
spatial scale of the IMPROVE Program allows for regional and national scale assessment of visibility.
The IMPROVE Program has also established operational visibility monitoring protocols that are used
by many other projects.
Other cooperative efforts have been formulated to address specific visibility issues. Examples
of public and private partnerships to assess specific visibility impacts on Class I areas include Project
MOHAVE (Measurement Of Haze And Visual Effects) and the Mount Zirkel reasonable Attribution
Study. An example of recent research programs that included visibility components are SEAVS
(Sknith Eastern Aerosol and Visibility £tudy) and NFRAQS (Northern Front Range Air Quality
Study).
Because visibility issues generally include an important regional component, cooperative
efforts that cross protected area and state boundaries are an effective way to design and implement
visibility monitoring programs.
2.2.2.2 Establish Current Visual Air Quality Conditions
This objective is necessary for two reasons:
1) Visibility levels monitored in or near a specific Class I area, when compared to
surrounding area visibility or area estimates of natural levels, may be sufficient to indicate
man-made impairment.
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2) Knowledge of existing visibility conditions is required to model the anticipated visibility
effects of proposed emission sources, or of proposed emissions reductions.
3) A baseline level of visibility impairment is needed in order to judge reasonable progress
in accordance with the requirements of the Regional Haze rule.
Establishing present visibility levels requires routine monitoring that documents the frequency,
duration, and intensity of both surface and elevated hazes. Aerosol, optical, and scene monitoring
methods are appropriate for surface haze monitoring, while scene monitoring is the only practical way
to routinely monitor elevated layers.
Visibility varies with time. Diurnal, weekly, seasonal, and inter-annual variations occur. In
accordance with the Regional haze rule, five years of data should be used in establishing a baseline
of seasonal and annual average conditions to reduce the normal year-to-year fluctuations due to
meteorology.
The magnitude of visible effects from a modeled increment of additional air pollution depends
on the aerosols already in the atmosphere. For example, 1 microgram per cubic meter of additional
fine particles is visible when added to ambient concentrations of 5 micrograms per cubic meter, but
may not be perceptible when added to 30 micrograms per cubic meter. Without adequate knowledge
of existing visibility levels, the potential impact of new source emissions on the protected resource
will be difficult to determine.
2.2.2.3 Identify Sources of Impairment
In order to make progress toward the national goal of no manmade impairment in mandatory
Class I areas, as called for by Congress, the States and EPA need to conduct monitoring to identify
the sources responsible for the impairment. Regional haze attribution refers to the identification of
average contributions by different aerosol species, source categories, or specific sources.
Distinguishing man-made from natural impairment, which is fundamental to the congressional goals,
requires information derived from monitoring data. Regional haze characterization identifies the time
distribution of visibility levels (e.g., diurnal patterns, frequency, intensity, and duration). Monitoring
is the principle means of gathering information needed to identify the contribution by emission sources
to overall impairment levels and to time distributions of impairment as well.
Scene and aerosol monitoring methods are primarily used to identify emission sources.
Photography of a plume emanating from a source and impacting a Class I area is sufficient to indicate
impairment. A series of photographs can be evaluated to characterize the intensity, frequency, and
duration of the visible plume. Unfortunately, most visibility impairment does not lend itself to this
simple type of source attribution. Sources are often not visible from the Class I area, or their plumes
disperse and are transformed into a uniform haze before reaching the area. In addition, visibility
impacts are often caused by secondary aerosols formed over time from gaseous pollutants.
Understanding the characteristics of the aerosols in a haze can help identify the type of sources that
contributed to the haze. It is possible to statistically estimate what portion of a haze is caused by each
aerosol type. This approach, known as an extinction budget analysis, can narrow the list of possible
sources responsible for visibility impacts. For example, if sulfate is shown to be responsible for 75%
of the extinction coefficient, the major sources responsible for the haze must emit sulfur dioxide.
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Another related approach for source identification using aerosol data is known as receptor
modeling. Instead of using only the major aerosol components that are directly responsible for the
impairment, receptor models use relative concentrations of trace components which can more
specifically identify the influence of individual sources (or source types). For example, the presence
of arsenic may be a good indicator of copper smelter emissions.
2.2.2.4 Document Long-Term Trends
With the establishment of a long-term goal of no man-made visibility impairment in protected
areas, Congress imposed the responsibility to show progress towards meeting that goal. Long-term
consistent monitoring and trends analysis is an ideal approach for tracking the visibility conditions of
Class I and other areas of concern.
The same monitoring methods used to establish present visibility levels will provide the data
required to determine long-term visibility trends. To determine the individual effectiveness of several
concurrent emission reduction programs, it will be necessary to conduct aerosol monitoring to
support extinction budget analysis as described above.
Determining the specific visibility strategy for any area of concern requires an understanding
of the effect that man-made aerosols have on the existing conditions, and proj ecting what the visibility
would be like if the man-made aerosols were changed. This type of analysis can range from simple
to complex for specific areas. In areas where man-made aerosols exist, the long-term goal is to
improve upon existing conditions. The concept of continual improvement toward no man-made
impairment is significant. It is not enough to maintain existing conditions in areas where man-made
pollution exists when improvement is the goal. The EPA and/or regulatory agencies must define what
continual improvement means, but monitoring of ambient air quality will likely be a principle method
for tracking and verifying whether improvement occurs.
2.2.2.5 Provide Data for the New Source Review and Prevention of Significant Deterioration
Permitting Programs
The New Source Review (NSR) permitting program applies to new major stationary sources
and major modifications locating in areas designated as nonattainment for the NAAQS. The
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permitting program applies to new major stationary
sources and major modifications locating in areas designated as attainment or unclassifiable for the
NAAQS.
These programs generally require the permit applicant to conduct a source impact analysis.
For the NSR program, the impact analysis must demonstrate that the new or modified source will not
cause or contribute to a violation of state or national air quality standards (NAAQS) or cause an
adverse impact to visibility in any Federal class I area.7
7 Section 51.307 of EPA's visibility regulations requires any new or modified source locating
within a nonattainment, attainment, or unclassifiable area for a NAAQS to evaluate the potential
adverse impact of the proposed source on visibility in the relevant Class I area(s).
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The PSD program, in addition to providing protection of the NAAQS, is generally designed
to provide a more comprehensive source impact analysis than the NSR program. Included in this
impact analysis is the protection of Federal lands (national parks, wilderness areas, etc.) which have
been designated as Class I areas for PSD purposes. A special feature of the protection of air quality
in Class I areas is the responsibility to assure that air pollution will not adversely affect air quality
related values (including visibility) that have been identified for these areas.
The company or other entity proposing to build a new stationary source or maj or modification
may be required to apply air quality models to carry out the source impact analysis. The air quality
data used to provide existing conditions for these models most often come from routine monitoring
sites. State and/or national monitoring networks (e.g., IMPROVE) generally provide the aerosol,
optical, and/or scene information necessary to understand existing visibility conditions in Class I
areas, represented as the annual frequency distribution of the extinction coefficient and/or standard
visual range. Understanding the existing conditions is important in determining whether a new or
modified source's emissions may have an adverse impact on visibility. If a potential for visibility
impairment exists, the source emissions are generally mitigated (or offset) during the permit process
to significantly lower the probability of impacts.
In some cases, if visibility-related monitoring does not exist which represents a Class I area
or other area of concern, the implementation plan must define a method to determine how
representative data from existing monitoring sites can be used to evaluate potential impacts to Class
I areas. To evaluate whether an existing monitoring site is representative of other sensitive areas
requires an analysis which must consider several factors, including the geography, topography,
meteorological patterns, and potentially contributing sources.
Using monitoring to help evaluate representativeness may only require that a selected
methodology, such as a single filter aerosol monitor (e.g., mass and elements only) or an optical
monitor (e.g., nephelometer), be placed at the area of interest for comparison to a nearby primary site.
Additional considerations to determine local and/or regional representative conditions are described
in Section 2.6.1.1.
Under some circumstances, when the uncertainty of modeled results is high, a permit may
require pre- and/or post-construction monitoring to better define local existing conditions (if nearby
monitoring data are not available) and to verify that no impacts occur. The type of monitoring
required is generally defined in the permit and may be limited to a few critical parameters. Most
resulting monitoring efforts are local to the proposed source. The basis for visibility monitoring under
a permit requirement is often a negotiated process among the state, federal land management agency,
and the source. The monitoring techniques applied in this type of program for specific visibility
parameters will generally parallel those required for routine monitoring, however, the temporal
frequency or local spatial distributions may be enhanced as compared to the more regional monitoring
networks so that more information can be gathered over a shorter time period to support timely
mitigation decisions.
2.3 VISIBILITY DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES
To meet the established objectives of a visibility monitoring program, data quality objectives
must be adopted or established by the monitoring organization. These data quality objectives must
be an integral part of the monitoring program and address: primary parameters, network design, and
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quality assurance. Recommendations and considerations for defining data quality objectives are
outlined below and further discussed throughout this document.
2.3.1 Primary Parameters
Monitoring of the primary visibility parameters canbe separated into three categories: aerosol,
optical, and scene. The data quality recommendations in each category are summarized below.
Detailed descriptions and examples of each monitoring method are provided in Section 2.4.
2.3.1.1 Aerosol
Aerosol monitoring obtains concentration and composition measurements of atmospheric
constituents that contribute to visibility impairment. Recommended aerosol monitoring quality
objectives are:
! Collect 24-hour filter samples of PM25 and PM10 particulates at least every third day.
! Determine the 24-hour average PM2 5 (fine), PM10 and PM10 minus PM2 5 (coarse) mass
concentration of the filter samples with an overall accuracy of 10%.
! Analyze PM2 5 filters to determine 24-hour mass concentrations (with an overall accuracy
of 10%) of the following individual visibility impairing parti culate constituents that either
contribute to visibility impairment or serve as indicators of the sources of PM2 5 particles:
- Major contributors to visibility impairment (large contributors to mass and
important for reconstructed extinction)
Sulfates
Nitrates
Organic carbon
Elemental carbon (light absorbing carbon)
Chlorides
Earth crustal elements
Light absorption (optical parameter from filter light transmission
measurement)
- Elements and compounds that further serve as indicators of sources of visibility-
related particles
Trace elements
Ions
! Derive the liquid water associated with hygroscopic species from associated RH
measurements and species growth curves.
! Determine additional particulate characteristics that may be useful in source attribution
analysis. For example, certain trace elements may be used in Chemical Mass Balance
(CMB) to estimate specific source contributions of interest (e.g., vanadium and nickel as
indicators of oil refining).
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2.3.1.2 Optical
Optical monitoring measures the light scattering and absorbing properties of the atmosphere,
independent of physical scene characteristics or illumination conditions. Optical monitoring
recommendations are the following:
! Determine the hourly average ambient atmospheric light extinction coefficient with an
overall accuracy of 10%. The total extinction can be measured directly or derived from
measurements of the light scattering and absorbing components of extinction.
! Air temperature and relative humidity measurements should be collected simultaneously
with optical measurements. These readings provide the information required to assess
weather interferences and humidity related visibility affects. The overall accuracy of
temperature and relative humidity measurements should be ± 0.5°C and ± 2% RH
respectively. The meteorological parameters should be measured in accordance with EPA
guidance.
2.3.1.3 Scene
Scene monitoring refers to the use of still and/or time-lapse photography (including digital
imagery) to provide a qualitative representation of visual air quality. Scene monitoring data quality
objective recommendations are to document the appearance of scenes of interest under a variety of
air quality and illumination conditions at different times of day and different seasons. The quality
(resolution) of the data collection media is important. Photographs should be obtained using 35 mm
color slide film. Color video or digital images should be S-VHS format or better.
2.3.2 Network Design
A visibility monitoring program to characterize a Class I area or other area of concern could
consist of one site or a network of sites. Detailed site and network design considerations and
example network configurations are provided in Section 2.6. However, the principle considerations
in network design are the following:
! Each site must be selected to represent visual air quality within the air mass of interest.
For example, the visual air quality of a Class I area should be monitored at an elevation
typical of the Class I area, and within the area or as close as possible to the Class I area
boundary.
! The spatial and temporal aspects of a monitoring network must be designed to meet the
monitoring goals and obj ectives of the network. For example, long-term trend monitoring
of a remote area may only require one well placed site that will operate in perpetuity. A
specific source attribution study may require a network of many sites placed upwind and
downwind of a suspected source region, but may only operate for a short period of time
(several months to a year or more).
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! "Representative" sites should be determined on a case-by-case basis. Important
considerations should include common elevation, common source region of emissions,
and similar location relative to major topographic features. (See additional discussion in
section 2.6.)
! Year-round monitoring may not be practical at certain mandatory class I sites due certain
geographic or safety limitations, such as the extremely remote location of a class I area.
The IMPROVE Steering Committee and relevant States should address such situations
on a case-by-case basis.
! Visibility site and network designs may vary due to cost, logistical, or historical data
considerations, but an ideal site design would include the full complement of aerosol,
optical, and scene monitoring. The relevant monitoring organization should fully
document the reasons for any site or network monitoring design decisions.
General visibility network design guidelines are the following:
! Aerosol, optical, and scene information is desired for each site.
! At a minimum, aerosols should be monitored at one or more sites representative of an
area of concern. These measurements should include PM2 5 mass, PM10 mass, and the
mass concentrations of aerosol species that include sulfates, nitrates, organic carbon,
inorganic carbon, earth crustal components, ions, and other major and trace elements.
Without aerosol monitoring the causes of visibility impairment can not be quantified.
Initially, all aerosol constituents must be addressed. An individual constituent may be
eliminated if historical data indicate the constituent is minor or below detection limits.
However, this decision should be revisited periodically to ascertain if underlying
conditions have changes. In situations where optical monitoring is not possible due to
cost considerations, aerosol monitoring alone can be used to calculate reconstructed light
extinction using known or assumed extinction efficiencies for principal aerosol
components.
! Continuous optical monitoring is recommended at all sites. Continuous optical
monitoring by nephelometer or transmissometer (hourly averages) provides an
understanding of the temporal dynamics of visibility. When an optical monitor is
collocated with an aerosol sampler, the optical data provides a valuable cross-check for
reconstructed extinction analyses.
! Scene monitoring (35 mm photography, time-lapse video) documents the visual
appearance of uniform haze, ground-based layered haze, elevated layered haze, and the
overall characteristics of the scene. Scene monitoring is the only ground-based way to
observe and characterize elevated layers or plumes. Scene monitoring at long-term sites
can often be reduced after an extended period of time (i.e., five years) if a sufficient
photographic record that covers the broad range of expected conditions has been
established.
! The configurations of monitoring sites need to be periodically evaluated to determine if
changes are warranted. For example, changes in area-wide emissions may warrant
changes in the monitoring strategy applied at a site. Or, a network site could be
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eliminated or its configuration simplified if it correlates well with another network site
that could be considered representative.
! New monitoring and analysis technologies need to be evaluated and implemented where
appropriate to enhance the information gained at monitoring sites.
Site and network designs vary depending on monitoring objectives, logistic considerations,
and cost considerations. Table 2-2 summarizes appropriate configuration sites designed to meet a
number of common monitoring objectives, including: 1) Sites to determine existing conditions, track
long-term trends, and source attribution; 2) Monitoring for PSD and NSR where only total light
extinction measurements or visual range are required; and 3) Short-term pilot study options for initial
evaluations or spatial representativeness tests.
The table highlights several approaches for each common objective. For example, to
determine existing conditions, the most scientifically sound configuration would include a
comprehensive configuration of aerosol, optical, and scene parameters where a transmissometer
would measure bext. If a transmissometer installation were not possible due to logistic limitations, a
nephelometer-based installation would be a viable alternative. If no optical monitoring were possible
due to cost limitations, an aerosol-based approach could be used. In fact, if the primary objective
is to establish a multi-year baseline, then aerosol monitoring is sufficient to evaluate visual air quality.
For an aerosol-based configuration, light extinction would have to be reconstructed from known or
assumed bext/aerosol relationships. Such relationships are already well-established for certain regions
of the country. Table 2-2 highlights similar configuration considerations for other objectives. The
ultimate site and network design must address both scientific and practical issues.
2.3.3 Quality Assurance
All monitoring programs must operate in accordance with documented quality control and
quality assurance procedures that address:
! Standard operating procedures and technical instructions for calibration, monitoring, data
collection, data processing, reporting, archive, and audit procedures.
! Data recovery and quality goals. Recommended values are:
Data recovery better than 90% (including all weather influences).
- Precision and accuracy better than 10%.
- Detection limits for all aerosol species based on the specific analytical technique
must be defined and measurements must be evaluated against the detection limits.
! Standard scientifically accepted methods to determine, calculate, and report
measurements:
Standard visibility variables and units:
bext, bscat, babs, (inverse megameters)
deciview index (in dv)
visual range (in km)
Standard aerosol mass concentrations units:
Mg/m3
2-21
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- Weather influences on visual air quality. These must be addressed in data
analyses.
Specific precision, accuracy, and /or detection limit references. These should be
associated with data values.
- Validity flags and weather effects flags. These should be associated with data
values.
Quality assurance, sampling methods, and standard unit considerations are addressed further
in Section 2.4.
2-22
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Table 2-2
A Summary of Appropriate Site Configurations for
Common Monitoring Objectives
Common
Applications
(to meet
monitoring
nl-ijpr-tivpQ1!
Determine existing
conditions, track
long-term trends,
and source
attribution
PSD or NSR when
only extinction
measurements are
required
Short-term pilot
study options for
initial evaluations or
spatial
representativeness
tests
Monitoring
Approach
Most scientifically
sound - Aerosol,
Optical
(transmissometer), and
Scene
Aerosol, Optical
(nephelometer), and
Scene
No optical possible,
Aerosol-Based
(reconstructed
extinction)
Most scientifically
sound - Optical
(transmissometer-
based)
Optical (nephelometer-
based)
No optical possible -
Aerosol-Based
(reconstructed
extinction)
Scene only (elevated
layer characterization
or visible plume
attribution)
Aerosol-Based
Optical -
(nephelometer-based)
Scene-Based
Aerosol
PM25
Mass
/
/
/
/
/
Elements
/
/
/
/
/
Ions 1 b^
/
/
/
/
S
s
s
s
s
s
PM10
Mass
/
/
/
Elements
AN
AN
AN
bt
N02Gas
AN
AN
AN
AN
AN
Optical
Trans
bex,
/
/
Neph
bscal
/
/
/
Scene
Still-Frame
Instantaneous
/
/
/
/
j
Time- Lapse
Dynamic
AN
AN
Meteorology
Comments
AT/RH
S \ Scene monitoring can be
: terminated after approx. 5 years
: if a sufficient visual record is
: compiled
-------
2.4 MONITORING METHODS
Adequate monitoring is an essential element for assessing whether the visibility goals adopted as part
of the CAA and EPA regulations are being met. Visibility monitoring consists of three distinct monitoring
components that describe and define the visual characteristics of the air: aerosol monitoring, optical
monitoring, and scene monitoring.
Aerosol monitoring is used to obtain concentration measurements of atmospheric constituents that
contribute to visibility impairment. Primary techniques include filter-based aerosol samplers that collect
samples on various substrates in two size ranges, aerodynamic diameters <2.5 //m (PM2 5) and aerodynamic
diameters < 10 //m (PM10). To identify and track the relative visibility impacts caused by various pollution
species, a complete aerosol characterization is recommended. This would include PM25 compositional
analysis for all of the major components responsible for visibility impacts, including sulfates, nitrates, organic
carbon species, inorganic carbon, earth crustal components, and the chemical constituents of other fine mass.
Where wind erosion may be a concern, the coarse particle mass concentration (particle diameter from 2.5 //m
to 10 //m) should also be characterized. An understanding of the liquid water associated with hygroscopic
particle components is also important. With present technology, the liquid water particle component cannot
be directly measured, nor is it possible to determine liquid water content from subsequent analysis of particle
samples. Relative humidity data can be used to infer the visibility impacts associated with liquid water. Due
to the significance of this component for visibility effects for assessment of daily visibility levels, continuous
relative humidity monitoring is a desirable supplement to aerosol monitoring. However, aerosol data together
with climatological meteorological parameters can be used to estimate extinction.
Optical monitoring is used to measure the light scattering and absorption properties of the
atmosphere, independent of physical scene characteristics or illumination conditions. It requires accurate and
precise measurements of the ambient optical properties of the atmosphere. The primary optical parameter
is the ambient extinction coefficient (bext), defined as the fraction of light lost per unit distance as light
traverses the atmosphere. It is the sum of scattering and absorption coefficients (bscat and babs) of atmospheric
gases and aerosols. Optical monitoring can be performed using a transmissometer to obtain ambient
extinction measurements. Where practical considerations limit the use of a transmissometer, direct
measurements of scattering (using a nephelometer) can be combined with collocated aerosol measurements
of absorption to estimate extinction. Similar to aerosol monitoring, an understanding of the liquid water
associated with the observed bext measurement is important. Relative humidity data can be used to clarify
observed visibility impacts that are associated with liquid water. Due to the significance of this component,
continuous relative humidity monitoring should also be a part of optical monitoring.
Scene monitoring refers to still and/or time-lapse photography (including digital imagery) that is used
to provide a qualitative representation of the visual air quality in the area of interest. The photographic
record documents the appearance of a scene. Scene characteristics include color, texture, contrast, clarity,
and observer visual range. Photography is uniquely suited for identifying ground-based or elevated layers
or plumes that may impact Class I or protected areas, as well as documenting conditions for interpreting
aerosol and optical data.
Since its formation in 1985, researching the most effective and efficient means of monitoring visibility
and applying these methods in a national monitoring program have been primary objectives of the IMPROVE
Program. IMPROVE protocol defines that, where possible, aerosol, optical, and scene monitoring should
be conducted at each site.
2-24
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Instrumentation used to fulfill IMPROVE protocols include:
! Aerosol - IMPROVE modular aerosol sampler
! Optical - transmissometer or nephelometer (collocated with an air temperature/ relative humidity
sensor)
! Scene - automatic camera systems
IMPROVE sampling and instrumentation protocols serve as the basis for NPS, USFS, USFWS, and a number
of state and local visibility monitoring programs today.
By implementing full IMPROVE protocols, precise and reliable measurements of bext, bscat, and babs
can be obtained to characterize the parameters of the atmosphere and allow for the determination of effects
due to specific pollution species. Table 2-3 summarizes standard IMPROVE monitoring instrumentation and
sampling protocols. Although IMPROVE protocols support a full site configuration of aerosol, optical, and
scene monitoring, some visibility related objectives can be met with a subset of the monitoring components.
Sites without aerosol monitoring but with optical and scene monitoring can still meet the objectives required
for baseline models that require an extinction estimate and for surface haze characterization.
2-25
-------
Table 2-3
IMPROVE Visibility Monitoring Protocols
Instrument-Specific Monitoring Considerations
Monitoring
Component1
Aerosol
Optical
Scene
Meteorology
Instrument
IMPROVE Aerosol Filter
Sampler:
Module Filter
A: PM25, 25mm Teflon
B: PM2 5, 25mm Nylon
C: PM25, 25mm Quartz
D: PM10, 25mm Teflon
Transmissometer
Nephelometer
35 mm Camera
Time-Lapse Video Camera
(Super 8 mm camera)
Air Temperature and
Relative Humidity
Monitoring Method/
Measured Parameter
Point measurement of aerosol mass
and aerosol species as noted below:
PM2 5 mass, elements (H, Na-Pb),
coefficient of absorption
PM2 5 nitrate, sulfate, and chloride
ions
PM2 5 organic and elemental carbon
PM10 mass
Path measurement
Calculated measure of extinction
(be*)
Point measurement
Calculated measure of scattering
(bscal)
Qualitative representation of a
scene, haze characterization
Qualitative representation of a
scene, haze characterization, and
documentation of air flow and
visibility /meteorological related
dynamics in relation to the scene
Point measurement (aspirated
AT/RH sensor)
Sampling
Frequency
(Reporting Interval)
Integrated (24-hour samples)
IMPROVE protocols state
samples are taken every third
day.
Special studies or short-term
monitoring may require
alternate sampling
schedule(s)
Continuous
(hourly-average)
Continuous
(hourly average)
3 times per day
Continuous during daylight
hours
Continuous
(hourly average)
System
Accuracy
! Filter mass accuracy as
measured by
electromicrobalance that is
calibrated to traceable weight
standards
! Sampler flow accuracy
calibrated to traceable flow
standards
! No absolute calibration standard
! Accuracy inferred from
comparison to measured bscal +
babs and to reconstructed bej[t
from aerosol measurements
! Calculated from regular (usually
weekly) zero/span calibrations.
Generally ±10% of true value
for air near Rayleigh and using
two minutes of integration
(longer integrations will
increase the accuracy i.e., 10
minutes of integration will
increase accuracy to ±4.5%)
N/A
N/A
Temperature ±0.3 °C
Relative Humidity ±1 .5% RH from
(0 to 100%)
Instrument
Uncertainty
(Precision)
! Collocated samplers required to determine
system precision. Normally one set of
collocated samplers per study (region)
! Measured in terms of a minimum
detectable limit (MDL) for the species
! Uncertainty in a measured concentration is
the square root of the sum of the squares of
the uncertainties of measured mass (M),
volume of air sampled (V), and artificial
mass (A)
! Elemental dependant precisions are
provided in Section 3.0, Aerosol
Monitoring
Path dependent: ±0.003 km'1
10 km working path and 0.010 nominal
extinction value or ±3% transmission
Collocated samplers required to determine
precision tests indicate precision
approximately ±5%
N/A
N/A
Precision determined by collocated samplers
Repeatability: Temperature ±0.1 °C
RelativeHumidity ±0.3% RH
1. Goals and objectives addressed by each monitoring type are provided in Table 2-1
-------
Sites without optical monitoring but with aerosol and scene monitoring can be used to determine
long-term trends of man-made impairment and surface haze attribution, given a periodic re-evaluation
of bext to aerosol relationships. Scene monitoring by itself can lead to the identification and
characterization of elevated layers. (Pitchford, IMPROVE Committee "Discussion of Issues for
Monitoring of Visibility-Protected Class I Areas," September 1993.)
The deployment of instrumentation and initiation of operational monitoring often depends on
the availability of funds. The financial resources (total budget) and financial tradeoffs (e.g., more sites
or fewer sites with more instruments) are real considerations. Site logistics may also restrict the
operation of certain instruments at some sites.
Additional monitoring techniques exist and more will be developed that are applicable to
visibility monitoring. Listed below are several currently available techniques that are sometimes used
to collect visibility-related data for regulatory and planning purposes.
! NO2 analyzer - bag (light absorption by NO2 gas)
! Aethalometer - continuous particle absorption
! Enhanced filter analysis techniques
- enhanced resolution on organic measurements
- enhanced tracer techniques and relationships
! Multi-wavelength optical instruments (transmissometer and nephelometer)
These techniques may be appropriate for research monitoring, may have value at specific sites, and
may be recommended in the future.
The following subsections describe each visibility monitoring method and the current
instrumentation that are considered by the EPA and IMPROVE Committee to be best suited for use.
References made to specific instruments or manufacturers are not intended to constitute endorsement
or recommendations for use. New or improved instruments and monitoring methods may become
available at any time.
2.4.1 Aerosol Monitoring
Aerosol monitoring data are used to determine the gravimetric mass and chemical composition
of size differentiated particles. Practical considerations (i.e., budget and logistics) often limit
filter-based data collection to a selected number of 24-hour samples per week. The IMPROVE
Program has historically collected two 24-hour samples per week (Wednesday and Saturday).
Starting in December 1999, the sampling protocol changes to once every third day for increased
sample collection and consistency with the PM25 program. IMPROVE protocols for aerosol
monitoring employ four (4) independent sampling modules at each site. As described below, three
of the four samplers collect fine particles with aerodynamic diameters <2.5 //m:
! A Teflon filter is used to measure fine mass, sulfur, soil elements, organic mass,
absorption, and trace elements (H and those elements with atomic weights from Na to
Pb).
! A nylon filter is used to measure nitrate, sulfate, and chloride ions.
2-27
-------
! A quartz filter is used to measure organic and elemental carbon.
Fine particles with diameters less than 2.5 microns are especially efficient at scattering light.
The fourth sampler collects PM10 particles with aerodynamic diameters up to 10 //m, using
a Teflon filter. Particles >2.5 //m are less efficient light scatterers than PM2 5 particles. By subtracting
collocated PM25 from PM10 mass concentrations, an estimate of coarse particles (2.5 //m <10 //m)
can be made.
Analysis of IMPROVE filters for mass concentrations of separate aerosol species is a key to
aerosol-based reconstructed extinction (bext) techniques. The measured mass concentration of the
species that contribute to visibility degradation multiplied by their extinction efficiencies can yield an
estimate of the extinction coefficient. The relationship of relative humidity and hygroscopic aerosols
is also an important component in this analysis; therefore, it is strongly recommended that
temperature and relative humidity sensors be collocated with aerosol monitors when the data are used
to assess current, short-term visibility conditions.
Using the IMPROVE monitoring protocols as the example, a complete description of aerosol
monitoring criteria, instrumentation, installation and site documentation, system performance and
maintenance, sample handling and data collection, filter analysis and data reduction, validation,
reporting, and archive, supplemental analysis including composite variables, quality assurance, and
analysis and interpretation are provided in Section 3.0 of this Visibility Monitoring Guidance
Document.
2.4.2 Optical Monitoring
Optical monitoring provides a quantitative measure of ambient light extinction (light
attenuation per unit distance) or its components to represent visibility conditions. IMPROVE
protocols provide continuous measures of bext and/or bscat using ambient long-path transmissometers
and/or nephelometers respectively. Water vapor in the air can affect the growth of hygroscopic
aerosols and thus affect visibility; therefore, it is strongly recommended that temperature and relative
humidity sensors be collocated with the chosen optical instrument.
Transmissometers measure the amount of light transmitted through the atmosphere over a
known distance (generally between 0.5 km and 10.0 km) between a light source of known intensity
(transmitter) and a light measurement device (receiver). The transmission measurements are
electronically converted to hourly averaged light extinction (bext). If practical constraints make it
impossible to operate a transmissometer at a particular area, ambient scattering (bscat) can be measured
with an ambient-temperature nephelometer. Ambient nephelometers draw air into a chamber and
measure the scattering component of light extinction. On days when aerosol samples are taken, the
determined scattering coefficient can be combined with the absorption coefficient, estimated from
aerosol monitoring filters, to estimate the average total light extinction (bext) for the period.
Using the IMPROVE Program as the example, a complete description of optical monitoring
criteria, instrumentation, installation and site documentation, routine operations, data collect on, data
reduction and reporting, quality assurance, and analysis and interpretation are provided in Section 4.0
of this Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document.
2-28
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2.4.3 Scene Monitoring
Scene monitoring documents the visual condition observed at a monitoring site.
IMPROVE protocols recommend that color photographs (i.e., 3 5 mm slides or digital images)
be taken several times a day. The data collection schedule can be tailored to capture the periods
when visibility impairment is most likely at specific sites. For example, photographs during stable
periods may yield more information in areas susceptible to ground-based or elevated layered hazes.
Time-lapse movies (generally time-lapse video or super 8 mm film) have also been used at selected
monitoring sites and during special studies to document the visual dynamics of a scene or source.
To the extent possible, the selected scene should be collocated with or include the aerosol and optical
monitoring equipment, so that conditions documented by photography can aid in the presentation of
these data.
Using the IMPROVE Program as an example, a complete description of scene monitoring
criteria, instrumentation, installation and site documentation, system performance and maintenance,
data collection, reduction, validation, and reporting, and quality assurance procedures are provided
in Section 5.0 of this Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document.
2.4.4 Standard Units
As indicated in the previous sections, visibility monitoring is not well defined by one single
method. In turn, many of the indices for characterizing visibility are not directly measurable, but must
be calculated from measurements using various assumptions (Section 2.1). Visibility related indexes
can also be separated into three groups: aerosol, optical, and scene. Table 2-4 includes some of the
most useful indexes for each group. Monitoring methods can similarly be subdivided based upon
these measured indexes (Section 2.6.1.4).
Table 2-4 provides the recommended standard reporting units. Tracking, reporting, archive,
and database formats should be consistent to promote comparable visibility data nationwide.
One source of confusion concerning visibility related measurements and standard units has
been the common practice of converting measurement data to a different index. Such conversions
usually require models with assumptions that are not always met. (Known conversions are noted in
Sections 2.1, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0). Direct measurement of the indexes of interest avoids these concerns
and is recommended.
2-29
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Table 2-4
Recognized
Visibility-Related Indexes
and Standard Units1
Index
Mass concentration of particles for
size ranges based on aerodynamic
diameters
Particle composition
Physical characteristics
Extinction coefficient (bext)
Scattering coefficient (bscat)
Absorption coefficient (babs)
Scattering phase function
Rayleigh scattering coefficient (bRay)
Visual range (VR)
Deciview
Contrast
Apparent radiance of scenic elements
Color
Detail
Example
Total suspended paniculate
matter, paniculate matter
less than 10 /j,m,
paniculate matter less than
2.5 /j.m
Elemental and ion
concentrations
Shape, structure, and index
of refraction
Total loss of light due to
absorption and scattering
The portion of light loss
due to scattering by
particles and gases
The portion of light loss
due absorption by particles
and gases
Angular distribution of
scattered light
The portion of light loss
due to natural atmospheric
molecules
Furthest distance that a
suitable object can be seen
An index representing the
loss of light (bext) with a
constant fractional change
in relation to visual range
Contrast between two
points, most often the
horizon and sky
Photograph or video
Chromaticity or color
contrast
Scene modulation
Standard
Unit
Mg/ni3
Mg/m3
Mm'1
Mm'1
Mm'1
Mm'1
km
dv
Unitless
ratio
Secondary Unit/Comments
ng/m3
ng/m3
Varies with atmospheric
pressure, altitude. Standard
Rayleigh scattering at 5,000 feet
is 10 Mm'1
Standard Visual Range
(SVR km), standardized to a
Rayleigh atmosphere at
5,000 feet
One dv is approximately a 10%
change in extinction
Adapted from Table 24-4 of the NAPAP Report.
2-30
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2.5 DATA ARCHIVE AND DATA APPLICATIONS
2.5.1 National Visibility Archive
The need for a national archive of collected visibility data continues to increase. Numerous
monitoring programs, special studies, and research efforts have been conducted since the Clean Air
Act was enacted. In order to adequately protect all Class I areas and address other resource issues,
FLMs, states, tribes, and other monitoring entities must share information and evaluate the
representativeness of available visibility data. A centrally located database will be coordinated by the
EPA for all historical and future aerosol, optical, and scene visibility monitoring information and
visibility data. Uniform tracking, reporting, and archive formats will be established to assure that
data collected today can be used in future applications and future new source review models. Data
exchange will be available in standard ASCII format by FTP or Internet access. Standard file formats
currently used for IMPROVE protocol data are presented in Figures 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6. All data will
be archived in the standard units noted in Table 2-4. These file formats will be used as the standard
for the future National Visibility Archive.
2.5.2 Data Uses
Visibility data are collected and used by air resource managers, scientists, and private
organizations to address the visibility goals set forth in Section 169A and Section 169B (See Section
2.2 herein). Environmental policy and actions, as well as organizational goals and objectives, are
often a result of or a catalyst to visibility monitoring programs.
Primary considerations when evaluating the representativeness or adequacy of collected data
for meeting defined monitoring objectives include: 1) the monitoring location, 2) the type of data,
3) the quality of the data, and 4) the time period of the data. Visibility monitoring information must
be generated in a manner consistent with promulgated regulations and this EPA Visibility Monitoring
Guidance Document to be acceptable as a primary source of visibility data for mandatory Class I
areas, or any area of concern. For example, human observer-based visibility such as airport or fire
lookout observations should not be used as a surrogate for measured extinction values (see Section
2.1.1).
Visibility monitoring data are used to address existing and potential data requirements set
forth in each of the following applications:
! Visibility Protection Program - Data are used to identify existing conditions and determine
long-term trends. Program data are also used to assess progress towards existing national
goals.
! PSD Program Requirements - Visibility data that describes existing conditions can be used
as input for new source review (NSR) models and to assess a proposed source's potential
impact on a particular PSD area. (Ref. EPA CFR 40, Parts 51 & 52) (Ref EPA-450/4-
87-007)
2-31
-------
ACAD1
ACAD1
ACAD1
ACAD1
03/20/93
03/20/93
03/20/93
03/20/93
0000
0000
0000
0000
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.0 BS04
0.0 CL-
0.0 N02-
0.0 N03-
2070.50
65.10
-24.00
2444.50
79.00
163.40
0.90
104.70
47.10
326.20
0.30
22.40
NM
NM
NM
NM
Records of the data files are written in the following format:
Field Description
1 Site Code
2 Sample Date
3 Start Time
4 Duration
5 Flow Rate
6 Species
7 Amount
8 Error
9 Minimum Detectable Limit
10 Species Status
If the Amount, Error, and Minimum Detectable Limit are all zero there is not valid measurement for that species.
All species amounts, errors, and minimum detectable limits are in values nanograms per cubic meter except for 'BABS.' 'BABS' values are in
10**(-8) inverse meters.
Start times are in military hours.
Sample durations are in decimal hours.
Flow rate is in liters per minute (ambient).
SPECIES STATUS CODES:
NM = Normal
QU = Questionable; Undetermined
QD = Questionable Data
AA = Organic Artifact Corrected
AP = Possible Organic Artifact (No correction performed)
'' = No Analysis Available for this Species
NOTE: From 9/90 through 2/92 we received some Teflon filters with an organic contamination. This artifact influenced only the Hydrogen and
Fine Mass measurements in less than 7% of the samples (marked AA). All other measurements of Hydrogen and Fine Mass during this period are
marked with a status AP.
SPECIES CODES:
MF = Fine Mass (UCD)
MT = PM-10 Mass (UCD)
BABS = Optical Absorption (UCD)
H = Hydrogen (UCD)
BSO4 = Sulfate on Nylon (RTI, GGC)
NO2- = Nitrite (RTI, GGC)
N03- = Nitrate (RTI, GGC)
CL- = Chloride (RTI, GGC)
SO2 = Sulfur Dioxide (DRI)
Ol = Organic carbon, < 120 °C (DRI)
O2 = Organic carbon, 120 °C - 250 °C (DRI)
O3 = Organic carbon, 250 °C - 450 °C (DRI)
O4 = Organic carbon, 450 °C - 550 °C (DRI)
OP = Pyrolized organic, 550 °C, 2% O2, reflectance < initial (DRI)
El = Elemental carbon+ pyrolized organic, 550 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
E2 = Elemental carbon, 550 °C- 700 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
E3 = Elemental carbon, 700 °C- 800 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
All other species are elemental values from UCD Elemental Analysis.
Figure 2-4. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Aerosol Visibility Data.
2-32
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Field Number
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
12 140 18 10 300 0 17 1
-99 -99 04 18 10 300 4H -99 -99
Field Description
1 Site abbreviation
2 Date in year/month/day format
3 Julian Date
4 Time using a 24-hour clock in hour/minute format
5 bext (Mm-<)
6 bext uncertainty (Mm )
7 Number of readings in average
8 Number of readings not in average due to weather
9 Uncertainty threshold (Mm"1)
10 A threshold (Mm'1)
11 Maximum threshold (Mm"1)
12 bext validity code 1
13 Temperature (°C)
14 Temperature uncertainty (°C)
15 Temperature validity code 2
16 Relative humidity (%)
17 Relative humidity uncertainty (%)
18 Relative humidity validity code 2
19 Haziness (dv x 10)
1 bext validity codes:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from alternate logger
4x = Weather: a letter code representing specific conditions as noted below:
Condition Letter Code
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
RH>90% xxxx xxx x
bext > maximum threshold xx xx xx xx
bext uncertainty > threshold xxxx xxxx
A bext > delta threshold xxxxxxxx
Z Weather observation between 2 other
weather observations.
Threshold values may be different for each site. See Appendix A.
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
9 = Invalid: bexj below Rayleigh
A = Invalid: Mis-alignment
L = Invalid: Defective Lamp
S = Invalid: Suspect Data
W = Invalid: Unclean optics
2 Meteorology validity codes:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from alternate logger
5 = Invalid: Data > maximum or < minimum
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
A -99 in any data field indicates missing or invalid data.
Figure 2-5. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Transmissometer Visibility Data.
2-33
-------
SITE YYMMDD JD HHMM INS BSCAT PREC
LOPE 931130 334 1900 014
LOPE 931130 334 2000 014
LOPE 931130 334 2100 014
LOPE 931130 334 2200 014
LOPE 931130 334 2300 014
VA RAW-M RAW-SD # N/A SD/M DEL
57 0.000 XL 122.68 25.49 12 -99
80 0.000 V 151.25 8.71 12 -99
87 0.000 V 160.71 8.58 12 -99
72 0.000 XD 143.10 22.18 12 -99
70 0.000 XD 142.32 21.74 12 -99
RH RH-SD # RH-PR N/A
Data
Site Abbreviation
Year
Month
Day
Julian Day
Hour
Minute
Nephelometer Serial Number
bg.at (Mm-1)
bgeat Estimated Precision (%/lQO)
bgcat Validity/Interference Code ^^^^^^^^^_^^^^^^^^^_
Raw Nephelometer Hourly Average (Counts)
Standard Deviation of Raw Nephelometer Average (Counts
Number of Data Points in Hourly Nephelometer Average
(Not Used)
Standard Deviation/Mean Interference Threshold
bgcat Rate of Change Interference Threshold
Maximum bgeat Interference Threshold
Relative Humidity Interference Threshold
Composite Nephelometer Code Summary
V = Valid
I = Invalid
< = bgeat less than Rayleigh scattering
XZ = Data point immediately preceded and followed by interference
;rference of type ?
Y-intercept of Calibration Line Used to Calculate bg.
Slope of Calibration Line Used to Calculate bgeat
Average Ambient Temperature (°C)
Standard Deviation of Hourly AT Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly AT Average
Estimated Precision of Ambient Temperature
Average Nephelometer Chamber Temperature (°C)
Standard Deviation of Hourly CT Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly CT Average
Estimated Precision of Chamber Temperature
Average Relative Humidity (%)
Standard Deviation of Hourly RH Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly RH Average
Estimated Precision of Relative Humidity
(Not Used)
RH > max. threshold
bgcat > max. threshold
St. Dev./Mean>threshold
bg=at rate of change > threshold
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
Number of missing data points
Number of power failure codes
Number of manual QA invalidation codes
Number of Level-0 invalidated data points
Number of times non-serial data were used
Figure 2-6. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Integrating Nephelometer Visibility Data.
-------
! State Implementation Plans (SIPsX Federal Implementation Plans (FIPsX and Tribal
Implementation Plans (TIPs) - Visibility data can be used to quantify existing conditions,
support trend analysis, and support impairment designation policies in SIPs, FIPs, and
TIPs. Monitoring programs in turn, enable the enforcement of emission limitations and
other air quality related control measures.
! Federal Documents, (e.g. regional assessments, management plans. Environmental Impact
Statements, etc.) - Visibility data that describe existing conditions are often referenced
in federal documents to denote resource conditions (i.e., AQRVs) prior to land
management changes. Data presentations can also be used in political forums to aid in
the understanding of existing conditions and need for future air quality related policy
and/or regulations.
! Acid Rain Program - The links between acid rain and visibility degradation, although
indirect are quite strong. Of particular importance is the relationship of visibility to the
air pollutants associated with acid deposition - i.e., the relationship of visibility to nitrogen
dioxide, nitrate aerosols, and (especially) sulfate aerosols.
! Fire Emissions Inventories - Natural and prescribed fire emissions often impact visibility
in Class I and other protected natural areas. With the development of increased fire
programs, existing and future visibility data can be used to evaluate the visibility impacts
of fire emissions.
! Fine Particulate Standards - Existing visibility-related PM2 5 and PM10 data may be used
to supplement Federal Reference Method measurements (e.g. to estimate regional
background concentrations) in association with new fine particulate standards.
! Other Uses for Non-Class I Area Management - Document the frequency, dynamics,
intensity, and causes of urban hazes, establish visual air quality acceptance criteria and
evaluate daily air quality indexes.
2.6 NETWORK DESIGN
To address the visibility protection provisions of the CAA and EPA regulations, states and
appropriate federal agencies must have access to high quality visibility data representative of the Class
I or other areas of concern. Ideally, long-term routine monitoring would be conducted in every area
of concern and every site would have a full aerosol, optical, and scene configuration. In some of the
larger Class I areas or areas with dramatic differences in elevation, monitoring should be conducted
at more than one location. State, urban, and tribal monitoring is often designed in association with
existing ambient (i.e., SLAMS, NAMS) air quality monitoring programs. Funding and logistic
realities, however, often limit the number of visibility monitoring sites and the configuration of the
sites used to define a network.
Visibility monitoring obj ectives mustbe clearly defined prior to the design and implementation
of any visibility monitoring network or individual site. Background information from historical and
existing aerometric monitoring programs, climatological summaries, and local geographical resources
need to be obtained. Visibility protection goals, monitoring objectives, EPA regulations, background
information, data quality objectives, spatial, temporal, logistic, and economic considerations mustbe
evaluated by all supporting proponents. A thorough review will ensure the design of an effective
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monitoring program that meets common objectives, and that data collected can be interpreted and
applied, in accordance with the law, for regulatory and planning purposes.
Visibility monitoring information generated in a manner consistent with this EPA Visibility
Monitoring Guidance Document will be acceptable as a primary source of visibility data for
mandatory Class I areas, or any area of concern. IMPROVE Program monitoring sites that measure
aerosol, optical, and scene components and those following IMPROVE protocol configurations are
consistent with the methods described in this guideline. Data from individual IMPROVE sites can
be used to represent the visual air quality of nearby Class I areas if the nearby areas are generally
affected by the same air mass (Section 2.6.1.1). Collecting a single aerosol or optical parameter at
these nearby sites can provide a quantitative link to the IMPROVE data from a fully configured site.
Documenting the scenic qualities at these nearby sites can provide an additional qualitative link to the
quantitative IMPROVE data.
Design of a special visibility study network is often more locally oriented and more intensive
than routine network designs. Special studies include site-specific pre- and post-operation monitoring
related to a proposed PSD source, pollution attribution analyses to define the causes of existing
impairment, or other research programs. Pre- and post-operation monitoring for a PSD source can
often be coordinated with and even funded by the proposed source. Visibility monitoring using
routine monitoring techniques in conjunction with standard ambient PSD measurements can define
and help to mitigate the specific impacts of a PSD source. As provided for under the 1980 EPA
visibility regulations, an attribution analysis may be required for a Class I area where one or more
pollution emission sources are thought to contribute substantially to visibility impairment. Often,
routine data will not be sufficient for attribution analysis. In such circumstances, special studies may
be required to supplement the routine monitoring information. Monitoring and other sources of
information (e.g., emissions characterization, model outputs, etc.) must allow the identification of
substantial visibility impairment source(s) and the assessment of the frequency, duration, and intensity
of impairment from the identified sources(s). Other research programs could include studies of
aerosol conversion, aerosol growth, optical parameters, scenic parameters, instrument trials, and
other research topics. These studies are usually designed to address scientific theses and include
traditional and research instrumentation and analytical techniques.
2.6.1 Assessment Criteria
Based on established overall program monitoring objectives a series of spatial, temporal,
logistical, legal, and economic issues must be assessed prior to the implementation of a visibility
monitoring site or network. Table 2-5 identifies a series of criteria that are considered in the network
design phase of visibility monitoring. Each set of criteria parameters are independent, however they
should be evaluated in association with other selected criteria. The following subsections further
define these considerations and summarize the benefits and tradeoffs of each.
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Table 2-5
Assessment Criteria
Related to Designing a Visibility Monitoring Program
Criteria to Consider
Identify:
Purpose of
Data Collection
Define:
the Spatial Extent of
the Program
Define:
the Temporal Extent
of the Program
Determine:
How Data from
Existing Monitoring
Programs Could be
Integrated
Determine:
Parameters to be
Monitored
Develop:
Cost Guideline and
Budgeting Limits
Identify:
Possible Data Ap-
plications
Assessment Consideration(s)
What is the network
or site-specific
objective(s)?
What is the
physical extent of
land that needs to be
monitored to meet
the objective?
How often and how
long must monitoring
continue to obtain an
accurate assessment of
visibility conditions
for the objective?
Does any additional
monitoring need to
occur?
What data/information
will be necessary to
form conclusions or
support hypothesis (ob-
jectives)?
What are the economical
and logistical tradeoffs
that will need to be
considered prior to
implementation?
Are there
associated
programs or
research efforts
that could benefit
from the data
collected
Assessment Criteria
1. Reasonably
attributed impair-
ment
2. Existing
conditions,
document for
future protection.
Trend analysis
3. New source
review, pre- and
post- construction
monitoring
4. Regional haze
assessment
5. Research
1. Local
2. Regional
3. National
4. International
5. Site-specific
objectives
6. Network-specific
objectives
1. Long-term -
decades of routine
monitoring
2. Short-term -
several years of
specialized
monitoring
3. Special study
- simple
- complex
1. Representativeness
2. Historical review of
ambient AQ trends
3. Cooperative
monitoring efforts
4. Meteorological
records
5. Other programs -
PM10, NAMS,
SLAMS, other
studies
1. Aerosol point
measure
- PM25, PM10
2. Optical -bext path
measurement - bext
point measurement
3. Scene
- 35 mm still
- time-lapse film or
video
1. Capital costs
2. Operational costs
3. Access, personnel,
logistics
1. PSD
2. New Source
Review (NSR)
3. Attributable
impairment
4. Regional
Assessments
(AQRVs)
5. Acid Rain,
Fire Emission
Inventories
Other Considerations
Consider scenic
sensitivity
Consider anticipated
visibility changes
-------
2.6.1.1 Spatial Considerations
Spatial considerations consist of a set of general criteria that identify candidate monitoring
locations in terms of the physical characteristics which most closely match a specific monitoring
objective or set of objectives. The goal is to correctly match the spatial scale represented by the
visibility monitoring data collected with the spatial scale most appropriate for the given monitoring
objective(s). The spatial scale of representativeness is described in terms of the physical dimensions
of the regional or local air mass in which pollutant concentrations and visibility are expected to be
reasonably similar.
The scales of representativeness of most interest for visibility monitoring are:
Definition
Local/Urban
This scale defines conditions within an area
that has relatively uniform land use and
common geographical and climate features.
The dimensions of a local or urban area can
range from 4 to 50 kilometers square.
Broader ranges will usually require more
than one site for definition.
Regional
This usually defines a rural area of
reasonably homogeneous geography and air
quality and extends from tens to hundreds of
kilometers square. Care must be taken to
ensure that both vertical and horizontal air
quality characteristics are considered at this
scale.
National and Global
These measurement scales represent
concentrations characterizing the nation
and/or global conditions as a whole.
Example Monitoring Objectives
Existing conditions, source attribution, daily
index
Existing conditions, long-term trends
National data for policy analyses/trends
and for reporting to the public
Unlike site-specific objectives, which can be met at isolated individual locations without
reference to measurements made elsewhere, network-specific objectives often require simultaneous
monitoring at several sites. In other words, these objectives require comparison among different
sites. Class I and non-Class I local and regional representative considerations are described below.
Temporal resolution, data sources, and data comparability issues associated with meeting network-
specific data objectives are described in the following subsections.
Local Representative Considerations
To demonstrate that data collected at one location are representative of one or more nearby
Class I area(s) requires an analysis of existing conditions that includes consideration of common
meteorology, a similar degree and frequency of exposure to visibility influencing pollution sources,
and similar terrain. Representative Class I areas should share the same air basin or geographic
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province (e.g., not be on opposite sides of a major mountain range). They should be closer to each
other than the average distance to any major stationary point source of visibility reducing emissions.
They should roughly share the same average elevation (e.g., mountain tops are not representative of
valley floors). Representative analyses should be shared with and approved by state agencies, the
EPA, and cooperating federal land managers.
To evaluate the adequacy of individual network monitoring sites, it is necessary to examine
individual site objectives and determine each site's spatial scale of representativeness. This will do
more than ensure compatibility of stations with the same purpose. It will also provide a physical basis
for the interpretation and application of the data.
Several criteria should be considered when selecting a monitoring site among several Class
I areas that are likely to be mutually representative:
! If a proposed emission source or any other development is anticipated that could change
the visibility impacts in the candidate areas, then the area with the greatest estimated
change in visibility should be chosen.
! Similarly, higher priority should be given to areas with more visually sensitive vistas (e.g.,
longer views).
! If existing impairment from man-made sources is known to impact one of the areas more
often or with greater intensity than the others, then the area of greater impact should be
chosen for a monitoring location.
If none of the above criteria are applicable, then the most desirable location would be the one
that best represents the group of Class I areas. This could be the one nearest the center of a group
of visibility protected areas.
Practical considerations such as the availability of power, security, year-round access, and on-
site personnel should also be considered when selecting the location of a monitoring site. Such
considerations, however, should be treated as secondary unless it can be demonstrated that practical
constraints would substantially jeopardize the data quality or data recovery. Ideally, a pilot study
could be conducted that would include some level of monitoring, for at least a short period of time,
at all of the Class I areas within a "representative area." A pilot study could provide specific data to
evaluate representative monitoring decisions. Pilot studies are encouraged; however, budget, time,
and logistic considerations often restrict their application.
Representative considerations for non-Class I areas of scenic importance generally parallel
those of Class I areas. Representative areas should share common meteorology, geographic features,
and exposure to visibility influencing pollution sources. Monitoring objectives and monitoring data
collected must be compatible to provide a common basis for the interpretation and application of the
data.
Regional Representative Conditions
Regional areas can cover a broad geographic area. Generally, a number of sites will be
required to effectively characterize a regional area. The Colorado Plateau would be an example of
a regional area that includes the "Golden Circle" of national parks. The climate patterns throughout
the region are similar and, therefore, the air mass influences throughout the region are similar.
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Monitoring visibility in only one Class I area in the region may provide a qualitative understanding
of the existing conditions, dynamics, and trends that could generally affect the region, but the
quantitative data collected at one site may not be representative of another site in the region. For
example, one site in the region may record a significant visibility event at noon and a site further
downwind may record the same event but with less magnitude later in the day. The same air mass
influenced both regional sites, the visibility reducing species were the same, but the magnitude and
timing of the event were different. One site was not purely representative of the next, but data from
both can lead to a better understanding of how an air mass from the same source area influences a
geographic region.
The methods used to define regions can vary, but generally each method used differentiates
one region from another in a similar fashion. The parameters used to characterize and define regions
include:
! Weather and climate
! Elevation
! Terrain
! Vegetation and dominant ecosystem types
! Dominant land use
! Geology
! Air pollution source types
! Air pollution chemistry
As an example, the IMPROVE Program has defined twenty-one regions by which to
summarize spatial distribution data in their historical summary reports (Sisler, et al., 1996). A list of
these regions is provided as Table 2-6. Sites should be located to document the range of conditions
that occur in the region. All data collected in the region should be analyzed and compared to identify
regional patterns and trends. These patterns and trends can then be compared to other regions.
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Table 2-6
IMPROVE and IMPROVE Protocol Sites According to Region (Sisler, et al., 1996)
Alaska (AKA)
! Denali NP (DENA)
Appalachian Mountains (APP)
! Great Smoky Mountains NP (GRSM)
! Shenandoah NP (SHEN)
! Dolly Sods WA (DOSO)
Boundary Waters (BWA)
! Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BOWA)
Cascade Mountains (CAS)
! Mount Rainier NP (MORA)
Central Rocky Mountains (CRK)
! BridgerWA(BRID)
! Great Sand Dunes NM (GRSA)
! Rocky Mountain NP (ROMO)
! Weminuche WA (WEMI)
! Yellowstone NP (YELL)
Coastal Mountains (CST)
! Pinnacles NM (FINN)
! Point Reyes NS (PORE)
! Redwood NP (REDW)
Colorado Plateau (CPL)
! BandelierNM(BAND)
! Bryce Canyon NP (BRCA)
! Canyonlands NP (CANY)
! Grand Canyon NP (GRCA)
! Mesa Verde NP (MEVE)
! Petrified Forest NP (PEFO)
Florida (FLA)
! Chassahowitzka NWR (CHAS)
! Okefenokee NWR (OKEF)
Great Basin (GBA)
! Jarbidge WA (JARB)
! Great Basin NP (GRBA)
Lake Tahoe (LTA)
! D.L. Bliss State Park (BLISS)
! South Lake Tahoe (SOLA)
Mid Atlantic (MAT)
! Edmond B. Forsythe NWR (EBFO)
Mid South (MDS)
! Upper Buffalo WA (UPBU)
! Sipsey WA (SIPS)
! Mammoth Cave NP (MACA)
Northeast (NEA)
! AcadiaNP(ACAD)
! Lye Brook WA (LYBR)
Northern Great Plains (NGP)
! Badlands NM (BADL)
Northern Rocky Mountains (NRK)
! Glacier NP (GLAC)
Sierra Nevada (SRA)
! Yosemite NP (YOSE)
Sierra-Humboldt (SRH)
! Crater Lake NP (CRLA)
! Lassen Volcanoes NP (LAVO)
Sonoran Desert (SON)
! ChiricahuaNM(CHIR)
! Tonto NM (TONT)
Southern California (SCA)
! San Gorgonio WA (SAGO)
Washington, D.C. (WDC)
! Washington, D.C. (WASH)
West Texas (WTX)
! Big Bend NP (BIBE)
! Guadalupe Mountains NP (GUMP)
NP = National Park
NM = National Monument
WA = Wilderness Area
NWR = National Wildlife Refuge
NS = National Seashore
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The IMPROVE network expansion from 30 to 108 sites during 1999 and 2000 is an example
of how a regional scale network with specific goals can be planned. The goal of the expansion is to
provide data needed to represent regional haze conditions for all 156 visibility-protected Class I areas
where monitoring is feasible. The IMPROVE Steering Committee devised a plan for the expansion
that involved several stages. In a scoping stage, two criteria were applied to assess the feasibility of
individual monitoring platforms to be applicable to more than one Class I area. The criteria required
that monitoring must be within 100km of the protected area and that the monitoring site elevation
be within 100 feet or 10% of the elevation range of the protected area. These criteria were first
applied to the 30 then current IMPROVE monitoring sites to identify other Class I areas that would
be covered by these criteria. Then the criteria were used to identify the locations and elevations that
would be required for the smallest number of monitoring sites that could represent the remaining
protected Class I areas. Wherever the location requirements by these criteria could be met by an
existing IMPROVE protocol site (i.e. a site using IMPROVE methods but not operated by the
Steering Committee) it was identified as a possible candidate site.
The names and location of existing and required additional monitoring sites generated in the
scoping stage of the planning were displayed on a map and in a table. These were widely circulated
for review including to the federal land manager, EPA staff, and State and local air quality agencies
to ask for comments. The Steering Committee asked for suggested changes that reflected more
detailed knowledge of additional regional siting criteria such as nearness to large sources or source
areas, local meteorology, and topography. Reviewers were also asked to comment on the feasibility
of monitoring at any of the sites. One of the Class I areas (Bering Sea, an island over 200km off the
coast of Alaska) was indicated as infeasible due to its remoteness, lack of power and an operator.
Comments received by the Steering Committee were incorporated as modifications to the tables and
maps that indicated where additional monitoring was needed. The final stage in the network design
involves visiting potential sites to determine their suitability for siting the monitoring equipment.
Again all organizations with an interest in the monitoring were invited to participate in the final site
selection visits.
2.6.1.2 Temporal Considerations
Temporal considerations consist of a set of criteria that specify the type, frequency, and
duration of data required to accurately assess visibility conditions.
Monitoring Period Criteria/Duration
Long-term monitoring sites provide valuable information about the existing conditions and
long-term trends of visibility. Data from long-term sites can be used to track progress toward the
national visibility goals, to support permit applications, and to support a range of resource-related
research projects. It is recommended that long-term sites established and supported to evaluate
trends or track progress should continue taking data for decades. Periodic evaluation of long-term
sites is necessary to ensure their benefit (historical or future) to overall network goals and obj ectives.
A network monitoring plan should define the frequency of periodic reviews. In cooperation with
state agencies and the EPA, data from long-term trend sites can be adopted as regionally
representative of a series of nearby Class I areas for permit review purposes.
Short-term monitoring sites are established to address specific visibility concerns. Examples
of short-term monitoring include pre- and post-construction source-specific monitoring sites, source
attribution study sites, and/or specialized research. Short-term sites can also be established as a
precursor to long-term sites. Collected data are often evaluated in association with the nearby long-
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term monitoring sites to determine the representativeness of the monitored region. Sites may also
be classified "short-term" due to abbreviated/seasonal monitoring periods. Many Class I area
monitoring sites are in remote locations and at certain sites monitoring is limited to the warm season
(e.g., June through September) due to weather, accessibility, and/or available servicing personnel.
Short-term sites will generally operate from a single season to several years.
Special studies, unlike routine monitoring, often do not lend themselves to standard design
recommendations. The design is tailored to:
! The nature of the impairment (e.g., ground-based or elevated, short-term intermittent or
long-term frequent, etc.).
! The characteristics of the source(s) (e.g., continuous or intermittent, point or area,
primary particle or gas, or precursor gas for secondary particle, etc.).
I
Existing information deficiencies.
Special studies range from simple to sophisticated. In the case of a plume or layer from a
large nearby point source of primary particles, deployment of additional cameras to document the
impairment may suffice (time-lapse photography may be particularly appropriate). To document the
contribution of a more distant source of gaseous precursors for secondary particles, a substantial
effort may be required which could include a supplemental monitoring network, instrumented aircraft,
and stack release and ambient monitoring of unique tracer materials.
To increase the likelihood of the success of a special study, it should be designed in
conjunction with those who are responsible for conducting the attribution analysis and with the
involved industry. In some circumstances, a special study may be better accomplished in several
phases, where data from the earlier phase(s) are used to help design the later phases.
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Data Collection Criteria
Instrument or parameter-specific temporal resolution criteria include instrument limitations,
instrument detection limits, and data reporting methods. Continuous data collection should be
summarized hourly to be consistent with other aerometric monitoring methods. Filter-based data
generally require collection periods from several hours to 24 hours depending on the ambient
concentrations and analyses techniques. Most particulate samples in long-term programs are
generally taken for 24 hours (midnight to midnight). This approach is also consistent with filter
monitoring by SLAMS. IMPROVE protocol sites collect 24-hour filter samples twice per week. In
remote areas tested by IMPROVE, no statistical difference in seasonal averages were observed in
aerosol data collected daily versus bi-weekly. Filter data collected in urban areas may or may not
yield similar statistical results.
Similar to spatial representativeness, site objectives and temporal parameters must be shown
to be representative of nearby monitoring areas to ensure network compatibility and provide a
physical basis for the interpretation and application of the data.
Temporal considerations must be evaluated repeatedly throughoutthe design, implementation,
and analysis phase of visibility monitoring. Meteorological conditions, fire emissions, regional haze,
and industrial processes can vary substantially from day to day and year to year. The selected period
of data collection must be qualified as representative of average visibility conditions for the site. This
requires an assessment of historical climate and visibility conditions and comparison of historical
conditions with the conditions for the period of data collection.
2.6.1.3 Historical and Existing Monitoring Program Considerations
Program considerations involve taking a closer look at past and present visibility monitoring
programs and other monitoring data that can be used to support defined obj ectives and proposed data
applications. It is possible that one or more representative sites' data could satisfy the majority of
objectives defined.
A review should be conducted of historical and existing data from all visibility,
meteorological, ambient, and PM monitoring sites within the representative boundaries of the site to
be monitored. Do the data provide a record of average aerometric conditions that represent the
spatial and temporal objectives defined above? Given the data are representative of the proposed
monitoring location, existing monitoring data can often be used to define existing meteorology and/or
visibility conditions, support trend analysis, or support regional haze assessment research.
Many economic and logistic benefits can be obtained by establishing cooperative monitoring
efforts between representative air monitoring sites and programs. Capital equipment, land use fees,
and routine monitoring site operator resources can be shared between associated FLMs and state
agencies. Data collected can also be used to support other monitoring programs, research, or future
trend analysis.
2.6.1.4 Monitoring Parameter Considerations
In the process of network design, what visibility parameters will be necessary to base
conclusions, support hypotheses (objectives), or address defined legal standards? What parameter
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considerations regarding measurement accuracy and precision, temporal resolution, spatial resolution,
and comparability need to be evaluated given site-specific or network-specific objectives? A number
of these monitoring issues were addressed by Marc Pitchford for the IMPROVE Network
(September 1993). Excerpts of his recommendations to IMPROVE Committee members are
provided in the following subsections. Table 2-7 provides a tabular listing of the data sources,
associated temporal resolution and spatial representativeness, and data comparability for each
visibility monitoring parameter. Example parameter and instrument specifications based on the
IMPROVE Program are provided in Sections 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0. These monitoring methods and
instruments are currently considered by the EPA and IMPROVE Committee to be best suited for use
(field tested, known precision and accuracy, widely used). References made to manufacturers or
trade names are not intended to constitute endorsement or recommendations for use. New or
improved instruments, instrument upgrades, and methods of monitoring are being developed each
year. This guidance document will be revised over time to reflect the ongoing changes of the science
and monitoring instruments most appropriate (researched, tested, and recommended) for use.
Aerosol Parameter Considerations
The primary obj ective of visibility-related aerosol monitoring is to gather information required
to establish the relative contributions of various species to visibility impairment. The most popular
approach for particle monitoring uses any of a variety of samplers which size selectively separate the
particles from the gases by filtration, inertial impaction, and denuding. The size selective particle
samples are subsequently analyzed for mass and elemental composition.
This combination of particle sizing with elemental composition analyses is important for
visibility monitoring because:
! Scattering is highly dependent on particle size. Collecting particles in visibility-sensitive
size ranges allows aerosol concentrations to be better correlated to extinction.
! Elemental composition provides information about the chemical and physical properties
of aerosols and about probable sources and source types. For example, identifying a
sulfate aerosol would indicate a hygroscopic aerosol that can grow in high relative
humidities to be an efficient light scatterer and that the probable source of the aerosol is
sulfur rich fossil fuel combustion. Specific elements may also be used as source
indicators. For example, the presence of arsenic may be a good indicator of copper
smelter emissions.
! Particle sizing provides further information about sources or source types. For example,
a given element from separate sources may be differentiated by particle size.
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Table 2-7
Monitoring Parameter Considerations
Parameter
Spatial
Representativeness
Data Sources
Temporal
Resolution
Data Comparability
Aerosol
Aerosol
components:
PM2 5 Fine Mass
Elemental Analysis
(H, Na-Pb)
Coefficient of
absorption (babs)
Nitrate, Sulfate,
and Chloride ions
Organic and
elemental carbon
PM10
Point Measurement
Multiple filter*
system
Commonly
24-hour samples
at least twice per
week
Best available method for
source attribution.
Temporal sampling
limitations minimize
analysis comparisons to at
best seasonal averages. In
the absence of optical data,
aerosol data can be used to
estimate visibility levels by
using generally accepted
models. (MIE scattering
theory or literature values
for extinction efficiencies to
determine reconstructed
extinction).
Optical
Light Extinction
(bext)
Light Extinction
Components:
Scattering (bscat)
Particle Absorption
(bap)
Path Measurement
Point Measurement
Point Measurement
Transmissometry*
Nephelometry*
Filter-based
particle absorption
measurements
Continuous
sampling,
commonly
summarized as
1-hour, 4-hour,
or 24-hour
averages
Continuous
sampling,
commonly
summarized as
1-hour, 4-hour,
or 24-hour
averages
Continuous
sampling (e.g.,
aethalometer)
Intermittent
sampling (e.g.,
integrating plate,
integrating
sphere analysis
method)
Most direct measure of
absorption and scattering
properties. Does not define
the source of impairment.
Data can be combined with
collocated absorption (babs)
measurements to estimate
total light extinction (bext).
Does not define the source
of impairment.
Data can be combined with
collocated scattering (bscat)
measurements to estimate
total light extinction (bext).
Does not define the source
of impairment.
Data can be combined with
collocated scattering (bscat)
measurements to estimate
total light extinction (bext).
Does not define the source
of impairment.
* Monitoring methods and instruments considered by the EPA and IMPROVE Committee to be well suited
tested, high precision and accuracy, widely used) for use.
(field
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Table 2-7 (Continued)
Monitoring Parameter Considerations
Parameter
Spatial
Representativeness
Data Sources
Temporal
Resolution
Data Comparability
Optical (Cont.)
Gas Absorption
(bag)
Air Temperature
and Relative
Humidity
Point Measurement
Point Measurement
NO2 gas analyzer
Aspirated AT/RH
sensor*
Continuous
sampling
commonly
summarized as
1 -hour averages
Continuous
sampling
commonly
summarized as
1-hour, 4-hour,
or 24-hour
averages
NO2 is the only common
atmospheric gas that is
important to light
absorption.
Used to screen weather
effects from optical data.
Used to determine
humidity-related
hygroscopic aerosol growth
functions applicable to
reconstructed extinction
estimates.
Scene
Haze
Characterization
Visual Dynamics
Qualitative
representation of a
scene
Qualitative
representation of a
scene
Still photography*
Time-lapse or
video photography
Commonly 3
photographs or
more per day
(e.g., 0900,
1200, 1500)
Commonly set to
photograph in 1-
minute or less
intervals during
daylight hours
Often used to document
source impacts for public
presentation or to aid in the
interpretation or
quantitative data.
Often used to document the
visual dynamics of a scene
in relation to source
impacts and local
meteorology.
* Monitoring methods and instruments considered by the EPA and IMPROVE Committee to be well suited (field
tested, high precision and accuracy, widely used) for use.
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Aerosol samplers used in visibility monitoring programs most commonly collect aerodynamic
diameters in two size ranges; PM2 5 and PM10. Numerous sampler designs exist (Chow, 1995). As
examples, several of these samplers are included in Table 2-8 along with their general specifications.
Table 2-8 is not intended to be a comprehensive list.
Both monitoring and analytical considerations need to be evaluated when establishing an
aerosol monitoring site. The sample frequency, particle size, filter substrate, flow rate, and analytical
methods are all important considerations when measuring major aerosol components and trace
element constituents.
Aerosol monitoring for visibility should include at a minimum PM2 5 mass concentration and
elemental analyses at least twice a week. However, in order to identify and track visibility impacts
caused by various pollutant species, a more complete aerosol characterization is strongly
recommended. This more complete approach should include both PM2 5 and PM10 sampling. PM2 5
filter samples should generally be analyzed for mass, optical absorption, elements, sulfates, nitrates,
chlorides, organic carbon, and elemental carbon. PM10 filters should be analyzed for mass and
elements. With this information it is possible to use analytical techniques to estimate the extinction
coefficient from these aerosol constituents. This method of reconstructing extinction from aerosol
species is an important evaluation and quality assurance tool. Knowing the relative contribution of
visibility reducing aerosol species allows an agency to focus on the source types responsible for
impairment and to develop mitigation strategies.
Samplers such as the IMPROVE Modular Aerosol Sampler provide the flexibility to collect
all or part of the recommended samples. Each module uses an appropriate filter substrate to support
specific laboratory analyses. As an example, IMPROVE aerosol monitoring methods are further
discussed in Section 3.0 of this document. Other samplers would also be applicable as long as the
entire system including the selected sampler, sizing devices, flow rate, filter substrate, and analytical
techniques were all integrated to meet the visibility-related size selection, mass, and speciation
recommendations.
Optical Parameter Considerations
The primary objective of optical monitoring is to measure the atmospheric extinction
coefficient (bext) and/or the absorption and/or scattering components of bext independent of physical
scene characteristics or illumination conditions. Optical measurements, however, do not define the
source of impairment.
Light Extinction
Transmissometers measure the combined effects of light absorption and scattering over a
known site path (babs + bscat = bext). The useful measurement range for a transmissometer is related
to its precision and the path length over which it is operated. Longer path lengths are required for
accurate measurements in cleaner air (e.g., 10 km paths in remote western locations of the United
States), while shorter paths are used in more polluted situations (e.g., paths of approximately one
kilometer in eastern regions). Short-path transmissometers (on the order of several hundred meters)
have been used for years at many airports. These have a useful range of measurements only up to a
few kilometers visual range. Though useful for airport safety in fog or other severe conditions, such
measurements are of little value for routine visibility monitoring. Long-path transmissometers are
required for visibility monitoring.
2-48
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Table 2-8
Example Particle Samplers (Chow, 1995)
Filter-based Research Particle Sampling Systems
Sampling System
Western Region
Air Quality Study
(WRAQS)
Sampler
Size Classifying
Isokinetic
Sequential
Aerosol (SCISAS)
Sampler
Southern
California Air
Quality Study
(SCAQS) Sampler
Sequential Filter
Sampler (SFS)
California Acid
Deposition
Monitoring
Program
(CADMP) Dry
Deposition
Sampler
Particle
Size
Om)
PM15
PM2.5
PM15
PM2.5
PM10
PM2.5
PM10
PM2.5
PM10
PM25
Sizing Device
Aluminum high-
volume impactor
Steel medium-
volume cyclone
Aluminum high-
volume impactor
Steel medium-
volume cyclone
Aluminum
medium-volume
impactor
Bendix 240
cyclone
Aluminum
medium-volume
impactor
Aluminum
medium-volume
cyclone
Aluminum
medium-volume
impactor
Teflon-coated
steel medium-
volume cyclone
Flow Rate
(L/min)
113 out of
1,130
113
113 out of
1,130
113 out of
1,130
35 out of 113
35 out of 113
20 out of 1 13
20 out of 1 13
20 of 113
20 of 113
Sampling
Surfaces
Aluminum and
copper
Aluminum and
copper
Aluminum and
polyvinyl
chloride
Stainless steel
and aluminum
Stainless steel
and aluminum
Teflon-coated
aluminum
Teflon
Aluminum
Teflon-coated
aluminum
Aluminum
PFA Teflon-
coated aluminum
Filter Holders
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
in-line
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
in-line
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Gelman
stainless steel
in-line
Gelman
stainless steel
in-line
Savillex PFA
Teflon in-line
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Savillex open-
face
Savillex PFA
Teflon open-
face
Filter Media
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm impregnated
quartz-fiber
47 mm nylon-
membrane
47 mm etched poly-
carbonate
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm nylon-
membrane
47 mm impregnated
cellulose-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm impregnated
cellulose-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm nylon-
membrane
Features
Sequential
sampling.
Option to add 20
cm length flow
homogenizer.
Option to add 20
cm length flow
homogenizer.
Option to add nitric
acid denuders in
the sampling
stream. Sequential
sampling.
Includes nitric acid
denuders.
Sequential
sampling.
2-49
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Table 2-8 (cont.)
Example Particle Sampling Systems (Chow, 1995)
Filter-based Research Particle Sampling Systems
Sampling System
Versatile Ambient
Pollutant Sampler
(VAPS)
California
Institute of
Technology
Sampler
Interagency
Monitoring of
Protected Visual
Environments
(IMPROVE)
Sampler
Stacked Filter
Unit (SFU)
BYU Organic
Sampling System
(BOSS)
BYU Organic
Sampling System
(BOSS)
Harvard/EPA
Annular Denuder
System (HEADS)
Particle
Size
(jj,m)
PM10,
PM25
PM10
PM25
PM10
PM25
PM2.5
PM25
PM2.5,
PM08,
PM0.4
PM25
Sizing Device
Teflon-coated
aluminum low-
volume elutriator
and Teflon-
coated aluminum
low-volume
virtual impactor
Aluminum low-
volume impactor
Aluminum low-
volume cyclone
Aluminum low-
volume cyclone
Aluminum low-
volume cyclone
Large-pore
etched
polycarbonate
filters
Teflon-coated
aluminum
medium-volume
cyclone
Aluminum high-
volume virtual
impactor
Teflon-coated
low-volume glass
impactor
Flow Rate
(L/min)
33
16.7
22
19
22.7
10
140 L/min
through inlet
and 3 5 L/min
per channel
1,130 L/min
through inlet,
with 11,60,
93, and 200
L/min per
channel
10
Sampling
Surfaces
Teflon-coated
aluminum
Stainless steel
and aluminum
Teflon-coated
aluminum and
glass
Aluminum
Aluminum
Polycarbonate
Teflon-coated
stainless steel
Teflon-coated
stainless steel
Glass
Filter Holders
University
Research
Glassware glass
filter pack
(Model 2000-
30F)
Gelman
stainless steel
in-line
Gelman
stainless steel
in-line
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
University
Research
Glassware glass
filter pack
(Model 2000-
30F)
University
Research
Glassware glass
filter pack
(Model 2000-
30F)
Graseby-
Andersen open-
face ring
Filter Media
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm etched
polycarbonate
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz fiber
47 mm nylon-
membrane
25 mm Teflon-
membrane
25 mm Teflon-
membrane
25 mm quartz fiber
25 mm nylon-
membrane
25 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm activated-
charcoal impregnated
filter (CIF)
47 mm quartz-fiber
47 mm activated-
charcoal impregnated
filter (CIF)
compounds
37 mm Teflon-
membrane
37 mm impregnated
quartz-fiber etched
polycarbonate
membrane
Features
Includes annular
denuders to capture
nitric acid, nitrous
acid, and sulfur
dioxide: and
polyurethane foam
(PUF) to collect
organic
compounds.
Uses Wedding Beta
Gauge PM10 inlet.
Nitric acid
denuders ahead of
nylon filter.
Uses large-pore
etched
polycarbonate filter
as PM2 5 sizing
device.
A multichannel
diffusion denuder
sampler to
determine semi-
volatile organic
compounds.
A multichannel
diffusion denuder
sampler to
determine semi-
volatile organic
compounds.
Includes sodium
carbonate coated
denuders to collect
acidic gases (e.g.,
nitric acid, nitrous
acid, sulfur dioxide
organic acids) and
citric acid coated
denuders to collect
ammonia.
2-50
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Table 2-8 (cont.)
Example Particle Sampling Systems (Chow, 1995)
Filter-based Research Particle Sampling Systems
Sampling System
New York
University
Medical
Center/Sequential
Acid Aerosol
Sampling System
(NYUMC/SAASS
)
Minivol Portable
Survey Sampler
Particle
Size
(jj,m)
PM25
PM10!
PM2.5
Sizing Device
Teflon-coated
glass low- volume
impactor
Nylon low-
volume impactor
Filter-based Systems Desk;
Sampling System
Wedding &
Associates PM10
Critical Flow
High- Volume
Sampler
Sierra- Anders en
(SA) or General
Metal Works
(GMW) Model
1200 PM10 High-
Volume Air
Sampler System
Sierra- Anders en
(SA) or General
Metal Works
(GMW) Model
321 B PM10 High-
Volume Air
Sampler System
Sierra- Anders en
(SA) or General
Metal Works
(GMW) Model
321 C PM10 High-
Volume Air
Sampler System
Oregon DEQ
Medium- Volume
Sequential Filter
Sampler for PM,n
Particle
Size
(jjia)
PM10
PM10
PM10
PM10
PM10
Sizing Device
Cyclone-type
inlet
Impaction-type
size-selective
inlet
(SA or GMW-
1200)
Impaction-type
size-selective
inlet
(SAorGMW-
321 B)
Impaction-type
size-selective
inlet
(SA or GMW-
321 C)
SA254
impaction-type
inlet
Flow Rate
(L/min)
4
5
mated by U.S
Flow Rate
(L/min)
1,130
1,130
1,130
1,130
Sampling
Surfaces
Teflon-coated
glass
Polycarbonate
Filter Holders
Graseby
Andersen open-
face ring
Nuclepore
polycarbonate
open-face
Filter Media
37 mm Teflon-
membrane
37 mm nylon
membrane
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm quartz-fiber
Features
Sequential
sampling.
Battery-powered
sampler weighs 18
pounds.
. EPA as Reference or Equivalent Methods for PM10
Filter Media
20.3 cm x 25.4
cm filters
20.3 cm x 25.4
cm filters
20.3 cm x 25.4
cm filters
20.3 cm x 25.4
cm filters
47 mm Teflon-
membrane
47 mm Quartz-
fiber
Reference/Equivalent Method
Designation Number)
Reference method
(RFPS-1087-062)
Reference method
(RFPS-1287-063)
Reference method
(RFPS-1287-064)
Reference method
(RFPS-1287-065)
Reference method
(RFPS-0389-071)
Federal Register
Citation
(Notice Date)
Vol. 52, 37366
(10/06/87)
Vol. 52, 45684
(12/01/87)
Vol. 53, 1062
(01/15/88)
Vol. 52, 45684
(12/01/87)
Vol. 53, 1062
(01/15/88)
Vol. 52, 45684
(12/01/87)
Vol. 53, 1062
(01/15/88)
Vol. 54, 12273
(03/24/89)
2-51
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Table 2-8 (cont.)
Example Particle Sampling Systems (Chow, 1995)
Filter-based Systems Designated by U.S. EPA as Reference or Equivalent Methods for PM10
Sampling System
Sierra- Anders en
Models S A 241
and SA 241M, or
General Metal
Works Models G
241 and GA
241M PM10 Low
Volume
Dichotomous
Samplers
Andersen
Instruments
Model FH621-N
PM10 Beta
Attenuation
Monitor
Rupprecht &
Patashnik TEOM
Series 1400 and
1400aPM10
Monitor
Wedding &
Associates PM10
Beta Gauge
Automated
Particle Sampler
Rupprecht &
Patashnik Partisol
Model 2000 Air
Sampler
Particle
Size
Om)
PM10!
PM2.5
PM10
PM10
PM10
PM10
Sizing Device
SA 246 B or G
246 impaction-
type inlet,
2.5 um virtual
impactor
assembly
SA 246 B
impaction-type
inlet
Impaction-type
inlet
Cyclone-type
inlet
Impaction-type
inlet
Flow Rate
(L/min)
Total:
16.7 for PM10
Coarse:
1.67
Fine:
15.03 for
PM2 5 and less
16.7
3.00 out of
16.7
18.9
16.7
Filter Media
37 mm PM2 5
37 mm coarse
[PM10 minus
PM2.5]
40 mm filter tape
12.7mm
diameter filter
32 mm filter tape
47 mm diameter
filter
Reference/Equivalent Method
Designation Number)
Reference method
(RFPS-0389-073)
Equivalent method
(EQPM-0990-076)
Equivalent method
(EQPM- 1090-079)
Equivalent method
(EQPM-0391-081)
Equivalent method
(EQPM-0694-098)
Federal Register
Citation
(Notice Date)
Vol. 54,31247
(07/27/89)
Vol. 55, 38387
(09/18/90)
Vol. 55, 43406
(10/29/90)
Vol. 56, 9216
(03/05/91)
Vol. 59, 35338
(07/1 1/94)
2-52
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Light Extinction Components
A number of instruments measure light scattering (bscat) by particles and gases. These
instruments are called nephelometers and are classified according to the scattering angle that is
measured: forward scattering, back scattering, integrating, and polar. Forward and back scattering
instruments have been evaluated and used on limited basis for transportation safety purposes. Since
only a portion of the scattered light is measured, however, and since absorption is completely
unaccounted for, these instruments will mis-measure visibility under atypical aerosol conditions.
Integrating nephelometers measure scattering over nearly the entire range of angles from 0° to 180°.
The integrating nephelometer has been a popular instrument for monitoring the variations of particle
concentrations in air pollution studies. Integrating nephelometer measurements can be directly related
to the scattering coefficient (bscat). The polar nephelometer measures the light scattered from any
chosen angle. While helpful in predicting the effects of aerosols on the appearance of a scene, the
polar nephelometer is not easily adapted to routine monitoring and has not been used except in
laboratory situations. Since a nephelometer makes a point measurement, direct comparisons to
collocated aerosol measurements are practical. In addition, the system can be absolutely calibrated
using clean (Rayleigh) air and various dense gases with a known multiple of Rayleigh scattering.
Optical absorption (babs) has traditionally been measured by evaluating the light absorption
characteristics of particles collected on a filter media. This type of analysis can be performed in the
laboratory on collected filters. For example, the IMPROVE Program applies a combination of Laser
Integrating Plate and Laser Integrating Sphere Methods (LIPM and LISM, respectively) to estimate
babs from Teflon filters. An aethalometer is one instrument that continuously measures particle light
absorption on a filter media. Other experimental methods have also been developed. Absorption
methods used to estimate the absorption coefficient can be combined with nephelometer scattering
measurements to estimate extinction.
Scene Parameter Considerations
The primary objective of scene monitoring is to provide a qualitative representation of the
scenic appearance of visual air quality. Commonly used monitoring methods include documentation
of the scene by photography, human observations of visual range, and contrast measurements. Scene
monitoring data are often converted to optical indexes because of the usefulness of information in that
form. Specifically, visual range observations and target contrast data are converted to extinction
coefficient values (bext). Concerns associated with these data transformations, however, have limited
their usefulness. One key assumption often violated is that the inherent contrast is known. Target
inherent contrast changes as a function of the sun position in the sky (i.e., time of day and day of the
year), cloud cover, and target cover. Another source of error is associated with cloud shading of the
sight path but not the target. These non-uniform lighting conditions will cause the extinction
coefficientto be significantly underestimated. Since the development of alternative optical monitoring
instrumentation, IMPROVE protocols use scene monitoring data for qualitative purposes only.
2.6.1.5 Capital and Operational Considerations
Economical and logistical tradeoffs also must be considered prior to establishing a visibility
monitoring site or network. Long-term and short-term objectives also must be reviewed with respect
to available funding. Capital outlay for instrumentation and installation can often be reduced when
cooperative monitoring programs are established between state, federal, tribal, and private
2-53
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participants. As program budgets are enhanced or trimmed, site and network-specific obj ectives must
be further evaluated.
Practical considerations such as the availability of power, security, year-round access, and on-
site personnel should also be considered when selecting the location of a monitoring site. Such
considerations, however, should be treated as secondary to spatial and temporal criteria, unless it can
be demonstrated that practical constraints would substantially jeopardize data quality or data
recovery.
2.6.2 Example Network Configurations
Visibility monitoring information must be generated in a manner consistent with CAA, EPA
regulations, and this EPA Visibility Monitoring Guidance Document to be acceptable as a primary
source of visibility data for regulatory or planning purposes. IMPROVE Protocols, adopted by the
IMPROVE Program in 1988, are consistent with these requirements and are reviewed on an ongoing
basis by IMPROVE Committee participants. Although additional monitoring protocols are or may
be developed that meet CAA and EPA regulations, the remaining sections of this document will focus
on IMPROVE Visibility Monitoring Protocols. Examples of three types of monitoring configurations
are described below. Each example addresses one or more network-specific/site-specific objectives
for Class I or Non-Class I areas.
2.6.2.1 Routine Monitoring Network
IMPROVE is a cooperative visibility monitoring effort between the EPA, federal land
management agencies, and state air agencies. Network-specific obj ectives of the IMPROVE Program
are:
i
To establish existing visibility conditions in Class I areas.
! To identify chemical species and emission sources responsible for existing man-made
visibility impairment.
I
To document long-term trends.
The IMPROVE Visibility Monitoring Program was established in 1985. Due to resource and
funding limitations it was not practical to place monitoring stations at all 156 mandatory Class I areas
where visibility is an important attribute. Instead, the IMPROVE Committee selected a set of sites
that were representative of the Class I areas. Thirty-six (3 6) full-IMPROVE and IMPROVE Protocol
sites were originally selected to represent the distribution of visibility and aerosol concentrations over
the United States. In 1998, thirty (30) IMPROVE Program sites have various configurations of
optical and aerosol monitoring equipment. Additional Class I area monitoring sites that have adopted
IMPROVE protocols, but are not part of the IMPROVE Program network, are often called
IMPROVE Protocol Sites.
2-54
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Aerosol monitoring is conducted at all IMPROVE Program sites and is accomplished by a
combination of particle sampling and sample analysis. At most sites, the 4-module IMPROVE
sampler used has been programmed to collect two 24-hour duration samples per week. Starting in
December of 1999, the sampling will be conducted once every three days. The sampler collects four
simultaneous samples: three PM2 5 samples (Modules A, B, and C) and one PM10 sample (module D).
Module A uses a Teflon filter that is analyzed for PM2 5 mass, elements, and light absorption. Module
B uses a nylon filter that is analyzed for sulfates, nitrates, and chloride ions. Module C uses a quartz
filter that is analyzed for organic and elemental carbon. Module D uses a Teflon filter to determine
total PM10 mass. Additional specifications regarding the IMPROVE aerosol sampler are provided
in Section 3.0.
Transmissometers are currently employed to measure the optical light-extinction coefficient
(bext) at selected IMPROVE Program sites. Nephelometers are employed at other sites to measure
the optical light scattering coefficient (bscat). Absorption measurements (babs) are made using
combined laser integrating plate and laser integrating sphere laboratory methods on the IMPROVE
Module A filter. Both a transmissometer and nephelometer are located at Grand Canyon to research
existing and future visibility monitoring methods. Relative humidity is measured continuously in
association with all optical monitoring sites (transmissometer and nephelometer).
Scene monitoring using 35 mm automatic cameras was initially conducted at all IMPROVE
Program sites in association with aerosol and optical monitoring. Most sites, however, discontinue
scene monitoring after 5 years of data collection because a sufficient visual record of the range of
visibility conditions has been collected. In some cases scene monitoring continues to provide a
qualitative record of the appearance of the scene for further interpretation of aerosol and optical data.
The IMPROVE monitoring program objective of documenting long-term trends will require
monitoring in perpetuity. IMPROVE encourages FLMs, states, and others that have IMPROVE
protocol sites in Class I areas to also make a long-term commitment to monitoring. The IMPROVE
Program has also been a leader in visibility research and in the development of visibility monitoring
instrumentation. The commitment to these efforts continues.
2.6.2.2 Special Study Monitoring Site (Network)
A series of monitoring studies were conducted in 1987 and 1990 to determine emission
impacts and haze sources at Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. Based on these studies, EPA
proposed regulations that would require substantial reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions from the
Navajo Generating Station (NGS). While the NGS has been linked to a portion of the haze at Grand
Canyon National Park, it is generally recognized that a number of other area and point sources also
contribute to the haze. In response to a 1991 congressional mandate to further determine the sources
of visibility impairment, the EPA established a short-term special study titled Project MOHAVE
(Measurement of Haze and Visual Effects). The primary goal of Proj ect MOHAVE was to determine
the contribution of the Mohave Power Project (MPP), a 1580 Megawatt, coal-fired steam electric
power plant, to haze at Grand Canyon and other mandatory Class I areas where visibility is an
important air quality related value (attribution analysis). Additional goals included:
! Determining the improvement in visibility that would result from the control of MPP
emissions.
2-55
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! Identifying other sources that contribute to haze in Grand Canyon National Park,
including those sources that are regionally transported.
The Project MOHAVE study plan was developed and evaluated by the Project MOHAVE
Steering Committee (composed of government and industry scientists), members of the Haze in
National Parks and Wilderness Areas Committee of the National Research Council, National
Academy of Sciences participants, and various other individuals. Study plan considerations included
an overview of the MPP and Grand Canyon National Park geography, regional transport regimes,
regional meteorological conditions, and historical study findings.
The field measurement portion of the study was scheduled to last one year, from September
1991 through August 1992. Intensive monitoring and tracer release periods were scheduled for
January 4-31, 1992, and July 15-August 25, 1992. During the intensive periods a tracer was emitted
from the MPP stack, and tracer and particulate data were collected continuously at more than 30
sites. Different artificial tracers were released from the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley
during the summer intensive to gain insight into the transport of emissions from these large source
areas. Each site was equipped with a programmable Brookhaven atmospheric tracer sampler. During
the non-intensive periods when a tracer was not released, no tracer sampling was conducted, the
number of parti culate monitoring sites was scaled back considerably, and samples were collected only
two days per week. Meteorological, optical, and scene monitoring was conducted continuously
throughout the study.
Four classes of sites were established for the MOHAVE study:
! Receptor Sites - Four (4) sites were selected within or in very close proximity to Grand
Canyon National Park. Most of these sites had some degree of existing or planned
monitoring prior to Project MOHAVE. All sites operated during the entire study period.
Instrumentation included a full IMPROVE aerosol sampler, transmissometer,
nephelometer, 35 mm camera, and surface meteorology at three of the four sites. The
fourth site had a DRUM sampler for particle monitoring and a nephelometer.
! Other Class I Sites - Six (6) existing Class I sites were selected to represent areas that
could be impacted by MPP and/or serve as background sites. Class I sites operated
during the entire study period. Instrumentation consisted primarily of full IMPROVE
aerosol samplers and cameras. Three of the six sites had additional optical measurements
with a transmissometer. Surface meteorological data were collected at two of the
transmissometer sites.
! Background Sites - Twenty-one (21) background sites were selected to characterize high
elevation and low elevation transport into the study area and to show detailed
concentration patterns within the study area. Module A of the IMPROVE aerosol
sampler and a filter pack for SO2 were used to collect 24-hour samples (aerosol and
tracer) during each day of the intensive periods. No background data were collected
during non-intensive periods.
! Scene Sites - Camera monitoring sites with broad views and panoramas were selected
throughout the study domain. Both 35 mm still-frame and 8 mm time-lapse photography
were taken to document the visual air quality throughout the study.
Site selection considerations included the proximity to Grand Canyon National Park, location
in respect to possible pollution transport corridors and "clean" (no emissions) corridors, and location
with respect to regional air flow, as well as the availability of power and accessibility.
2-56
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Tracer monitoring data were used to identify the general transport patterns for the MPP plume
and to help identify the interaction between MPP and southern California emissions. Tracer data also
served as a "check" for transport model predictions. Air quality (particle and optical) data served as
input for hybrid and receptor models, to document the regional distribution of particulate and SO2,
and to identify boundary conditions for other pollutants transported into the study area. Camera
(scene) monitoring provided documentation of the visual impairment of specific unique vistas under
various air quality conditions. Meteorological monitoring characterized the speed, direction, and
depth of transport into the region. Upper air and surface data were also used for model initiation and
validation.
2.6.2.3 Non-Class I (Urban or Sensitive Area) Monitoring Site
The Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA) established a visibility monitoring program in
the Lake Tahoe Basin in December 1988. The Lake Tahoe Basin, with its nearly pristine lake
surrounded by the Sierra Nevada Mountains, is a nationally recognized area of scenic beauty. The
basin's visibility has been acknowledged as one of its finest attributes.
Based on data collected during an initial short-term 1981-82 visual air quality study, the
Tahoe Regional Planning Agency established regional and sub-regional environmental threshold-
carrying capacities for the Tahoe Basin. Regional visibility is defined as the overall prevailing
visibility in the Tahoe Basin. Sub-regional visibility is characterized by the layered haze (regional
haze with a defined boundary) in the Lake Tahoe urbanized areas. Thresholds were established to
achieve visual ranges of given kilometers (miles), as estimated from measured particulate
concentrations. Both regional and sub-regional goals also included the desire to reduce wood smoke
emissions by 15% from 1981 base values. The TRPA monitoring program was established to confirm
standard attainment or non-attainment with the established thresholds and to further understand the
causes of visibility degradation in the Basin.
Two monitoring sites were selected for the Lake Tahoe study. The primary site was located
on Lake Tahoe Boulevard adjacent to California Air Resource Board (CARB) criteria pollutant and
PM10 monitors. A full IMPROVE aerosol sampler, integrating (ambient) nephelometer, and an
automatic camera system were installed in December 1988 to monitor sub-regional visibility from this
location. The camera system viewed across Lake Tahoe to the north. A second monitoring station
was established at Bliss State Park to monitor regional air within the Lake Tahoe Basin. A full
IMPROVE aerosol sampler, integrating (ambient) nephelometer, and transmissometer were installed
in November 1990. The 13.3 km transmissometer sight path extended from the Zephyr Point Fire
Tower to the Bliss State Park monitoring location. Meteorological measurements, temperature,
relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction are also continuously measured at both primary
monitoring locations. As of this publication all these instruments are still operating. Two additional
camera-only monitoring locations were initially proposed for viewing the south shore of Lake Tahoe
and north of the Lake Tahoe Basin, but as of this publication, they have not been installed.
Collected data are reviewed annually by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency and compared
to established visibility thresholds. Monitoring is scheduled to continue.
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3.0 AEROSOL MONITORING
As an example of an existing visibility-related aerosol monitoring program, this section describes
IMPROVE aerosol monitoring and data management techniques. References made to
manufacturers or trade names are not intended to constitute EPA endorsement or
recommendations for use. New or improved instruments, instrument upgrades, and methods of
monitoring are continually being developed.
Aerosol monitoring is used to identify chemical species and obtain concentration
measurements of atmospheric constituents that contribute to visibility impairment. Primary
techniques include filter-based aerosol samplers that collect samples on various substrates in two
size ranges, aerodynamic diameters < 2.5 jim (PM2.5) and aerodynamic diameters < 10 jim
(PMio). The paniculate monitoring portion of the IMPROVE program measures the
concentration of PM2.5 particles for mass, optical absorption, major and trace elements, organic
and elemental carbon, and sulfate, nitrate, and chloride ions, and the concentration of PMio
particles for mass.
An understanding of the liquid water associated with hygroscopic particles is also critical.
With present technology, the liquid water particle component cannot be directly measured, nor is
it possible to determine liquid water content from subsequent analysis of particle samples.
Relative humidity data can be used to infer the visibility impacts associated with liquid water.
Due to the significance of this component for visibility effects, continuous relative humidity
monitoring is a desirable supplement to aerosol monitoring.
The following subsections describe the monitoring criteria, instrumentation, installation
and site documentation, system performance and maintenance, data collection, filter analysis, data
reduction, validation, reporting, and archive, supplemental analysis, quality assurance, and analysis
and interpretation recommended for aerosol monitoring. Operation manuals and manufacturers
specifications are provided in Appendix B.
3.1 MEASUREMENT CRITERIA AND INSTRUMENTATION
Both monitoring and analytical considerations need to be evaluated when establishing an
aerosol monitoring site. The sample frequency, particle size, filter substrate, flow rate, and
analytical methods are all important considerations when measuring major aerosol components
and trace element constituents. For good monitoring statistics, a high recovery rate is essential.
The factors here are sampler reliability and the ability to service the sampler (change filters) in all
weather conditions.
The standard IMPROVE aerosol sampler, shown in Figure 3-1, consists of one
module with Teflon filters, and three PM2 5 modules, one with Teflon, one with nylon, and one
with quartz filters. Not shown is the separate controller module. The power for the pumps is
through a switched outlet with a signal from the controller. Each module is optimized for a
specific purpose and matched to its analytical protocols as shown in Table 3-1. The use of this
standard setup of four modules is strongly recommended in order to maintain the quality
assurance of redundant measurements. All IMPROVE sites the IMPROVE network use this
standard setup. Approximately 10% of the sites in mandatory Class I areas have an additional
PM2.s module with Teflon filters for quality assurance. The samplers were designed by Crocker
Nuclear Laboratory (CNL) at the University of California, Davis
3-1
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Module A
PM2.5
(Teflon)
mass,
elements
absorption
a-
^lrbonate
enuder
Module B
PM2.5
(nylon)
sulfate,
nitrate
ions
electrical to
controller
i i
i i
a-
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PM2.5
(quartz)
organic,
elemental
carbon
electrical to
controller
i i
i i
Module
PM-io
(Teflon)
mass
electrical to
controller
' '
D
electrical to
controller
j__
_i_
_j
1 *
Figure 3-1. Diagram of the IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler.
Table 3-1 Summary of IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Data Collection Parameters
Module Particle Size Filter Type
Analytical Method
(Variables)
A 0.0-2.5 (am Teflon8
B 0.0-2.5
C
0.0-2.5
Nylon
Quartz
D 0.0-10.0 (am Teflon8
Gravimetric Analysis (PM2.5 mass)
Hybrid Integrating Plate/Sphere Method
(coefficient of optical absorption)
Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (elements Na-Mn)
X-Ray Fluorescence (elements Fe-Pb)
Proton Elastic Scattering Analysis (H)
Ion Chromatography
(sulfates [SO4=], nitrates [NO3~], nitrites [NO2~], & chloride
[Cl-])
Thermal Optical Reflectance Carbon Combustion Analysis
(carbon in eight temperature fractions)
Gravimetric Analysis (PMio mass)
3-2
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Each module has an independent air stream with a sizing device, a flow controller, and a pump,
plus solenoid valves for exposing two or three filters between weekly sample changes. Figure 3-2
shows schematics for PM2.s modules used before and after 1999, for the PMi0 module used after
1999 and for the controller module used after 1999. The primary change in the IMROVE sampler
in 1999 is the controller module. In the version used from 1998 to 1999, programmable clock
controlled the pump and solenoid valve switching for each filter module. A new version of the
sampler, installed in 1999, uses a microprocessor to (1) control the pumps and solenoid valves,
(2) read and record the flow rate pressure transducers, (3) read and record the temperature at the
filter during and after sampling, and (4) optionally read and record the relative humidity. The
microprocessor will permit sampling on a l-day-in-3 schedule. The collection data will be stored
on a removable magnetic card that is sent between the central laboratory and the site in the box
with the filters. The magnetic card will also have the sampler programs and the site-specific flow
rate calibration equations. The operator will read all collection data on the microprocessor
screen. With the microprocessor, the readable pressure gauges and elapsed timers in the earlier
version of the sampler are unnecessary. The pumps are housed separately.
stack
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Figure 3-2a. Schematic of the IMPROVE PM2.5 module used before 1999.
3-3
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solenoid valve (4)
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leadscrew
10 handwheel
11 timing pulleys for motor
12 gear motor
13 electronics enclosure
14 critical orifice valve
15 Teflon hose with stainless steel
braid
16 enclosure box (outdoor
sampler)
17 belt guard
18 sampler retainer pin
Figure 3-2b. Schematic of the IMPROVE PM2.5 module used after 1999.
3-4
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PM10 Filter Module
1 stack compression sleeve
2 inlet stack
3 sampler retainer pin
4 PMio cassette manifold
5 cartridge with 4 filter cassettes
6 solenoid value assembly
7 solenoid valve (4)
8 manifold nut drive
9 leadscrew
10 handwheel
11 timing pulleys for motor
12 gear motor
13 electronics enclosure
14 critical orifice valve
15 Teflon hose with stainless steel
braid
16 enclosure box (outdoor sampler)
17 belt guard
18 funnel extension
Figure 3-2c. Schematic of the IMPROVE PMio module used after 1999.
3-5
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01/22/99 15:50:21
Temp 20°C 61%RH
A B C D
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receptacles for connectors to modules
•display screen
keyboard
solenoid relays (4)
-microprocessor board
-electronics board
Figure 3-2d. Schematic of the IMPROVE controller module used after 1999.
3-6
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The particle sizing for PM2.s particles is accomplished with a cyclone operating with an
ambient flow rate of 22.8 L/min. Flow control is maintained by a critical orifice between the filter
and pump. The flow rate is measured both in front of and behind the filter. The flow rate in front
of the filter is determined from the pressure drop across the cyclone, while the flow rate behind
the filter is determined from the pressure at the front of the critical orifice. The dual
measurements provide a quality assurance check for every sample and shows the operator that the
cassettes are properly seated prior to sample collection. The standard deviation of flow rates over
a year is typically 2%-3%. Precision tests using collocated samplers typically indicate that the
flow rate precision is 3%.
The particle sizing for PMio particles is accomplished with a commercial PMio inlet. Inlets
of the Wedding design operate at 19 L/min. Inlets of the Sierra-Anderson design operate at 16.7
L/min. Flow control is also maintained by a critical orifice. The flow rate is measured only
behind the filter, using the pressure at the front of the critical orifice.
The filters are transported to the site and loaded into the samplers using a system of
cassettes and cartridges. A cartridge is a circular disk holding four cassettes. Clean filters are
loaded into two or three cassettes at a central laboratory. Each cartridge is labeled for the desired
module and change date, and also identified by color. The cartridges are mailed directly to the
site in sealed, insulated shipping containers. During the weekly site visits, the cartridge of clean
filters in each module is exchanged for a cartridge of exposed filters. For l-day-in-3 sampling, the
samplers will be operating on the day of sample change once every third week. The cartridge for
this change will have only three cassettes and one hole. The operator will suspend sampling,
move a specially marked cassette from the exposed cartridge and place it in the hole in the clean
cartridge. The operator will resume sampling after the clean cartridges are all in place. The
cartridges of exposed filters are returned to the laboratory for processing. The PM2.s Teflon filter
deposits are analyzed for the concentrations of deposit mass, hydrogen, elements with atomic
weights from sodium to lead, and for an optical parameter, the coefficient of absorption. The
nylon filters are analyzed for the concentrations of nitrate, sulfate, and chloride ions, the quartz
filters for the concentrations of organic and elemental carbon, and the PMio Teflon filters for the
concentration of deposit mass.
There are two factors concerning whether it is better to have samplers in shelters or
completely outdoors. The first factor is temperature during sampling and between the end of
sampling and the removal of the filters. During sampling it is important to maintain an
approximately constant temperature of the air stream to avoid changing the relative humidity and
the gas-particle equilibrium. (Changes in relative humidity would effect the particle size of sulfate
particles. If the particle diameter is in the region of 2.5 jim, the change would effect the passage
through the particle sizing device.) After sampling is completed, it is important to avoid
volatilizing particles by excessively heating the sample. The sampler must not be in a shelter that
overheats nor in direct sunlight. The second factor in whether to use shelters is protecting the
integrity of the samples during sample change and allowing the operator to be able to perform the
change in extreme weather conditions. In regions of extreme winter cold and during periods of
heavy precipitation and or high winds, it may not be possible to obtain valid samples with an
outdoor sampler.
Therefore, in the IMPROVE network, samplers are normally inside a well-ventilated
shelter that shades the sampler from direct sunlight and protects the integrity of the sample during
sample changing in inclement weather. In regions of high summer temperature and mild winters,
the wall opposite the samplers may have only a screen. The shelter in this case protects against
3-7
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direct sunlight, rain, and high wind. One consequence with using a shelter is that the stacks must
be longer than in an outdoor site, in order to have aim clearance above the shelter roof. The
standard height of inlet stack for IMPROVE samplers is 2 m (when used in a shelter, the height of
the inlet can be more than 2 m above the ground). The temperature at the filter is monitored
during sampling and between sampling periods. The shelters are not heated or air-conditioned.
The IMPROVE particle sampler has been in use since 1988. In 1998, over 70 IMPROVE
sampler sites were operating in various visual air quality monitoring programs in North America,
from highly-polluted urban areas to pristine wilderness environments. Of those, approximately
25% of the sites operate with a single PM2.5 module. By the end of 1999, over 100 IMPROVE
sites will be operating throughout the U.S. Detailed and updated information regarding
IMPROVE particle sampler instrumentation or operation can be found IMPROVE Particulate
Monitoring Network Standard Operating, Air Quality Group, Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,
University of California, Davis). This is available as a pdf file on a National Park Service Web
site, http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html. The Sampler Operations Manual is
included as a Technical Instruction, T1201A IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Operations Manual.
3.2 SITING CRITERIA
IMPROVE aerosol samplers are generally sited in conjunction with other IMPROVE
protocol optical and/or scene monitoring equipment. Therefore aerosol sampler protocols closely
resemble siting protocols for transmissometer, nephelometer, and scene monitoring equipment,
described in Sections 4.1.2, 4.2.2, and 5.2 respectively.
The primary siting criterion is to ensure that the air mass monitored is representative of the
area or region of interest. To assure consistent quality data, aerosol sampling sites are selected to
meet most if not all of the following criteria:
• For a mandatory Class I area, it must be within 100 km and have an elevation that is
between the minimum and maximum elevations. A given sampling site may represent
multiple mandatory Class I areas.
• Have good ventilation. (That is, not be in a valley with meteorological inversions.)
• Be removed from local sources such as diesel, wood smoke, automobile, road dust,
construction, etc.
• Be located in an area free from large obstructions, such as trees or buildings, that
would hinder sampling of representative aerosols. (Sampler inlets must be located
between 2 and 15 meters above the ground.)
• Be representative of the same air mass measured by other optical or scene monitoring.
• Have adequate AC power (a 20 Amp circuit of 110 V, 60 Hz line power for a
standard configuration). The primary power should not be provided by electric
generators.
• Be secure from potential vandalism.
3-8
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• Be located in a region with available servicing personnel (operator).
• Be accessible during all months of the year.
3.3 INSTALLATION AND SITE DOCUMENTATION
The standard samplers are installed in a well-ventilated shelter with the inlet stacks and
cyclones mounted vertically. Mounting structures must be stable to avoid vibration or shifting,
and strong enough to support the weights of all installed samplers. Each IMPROVE module and
controller weighs approximately 40 pounds.
After the sampler hardware is installed, the critical orifice in each module is adjusted to
give the desired nominal flow rate. The flow rate calibration equations for each sampler are
determined by the audit procedures described further in Section 3.4 (System Performance and
Maintenance). (The flow rate calibration is audited every six months by either site operators or
field technicians from the central laboratory. If necessary the critical orifice is adjusted at these
times.)
When the flow rate calibration is complete, cartridges of test filters are placed in the
sampler and the operation of the sampler is tested using the system diagnostics magnetic card.
After the system is verified, the installing technician will train all operators, back-up
operators, and any other involved or interested on-site personnel. This includes reviewing the
sampler manual (Crocker Nuclear Laboratory Technical Instruction TI201A IMPROVE Aerosol
Sampler Operations Manual). Hard copies of this manual are left with the on-site personnel.
Additional copies are obtained as a pdf file on http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html.
The manual provides documentation on sampler operation, repair, and audits, and
troubleshooting.
Finally, the installing technician will complete the following:
• A site visit trip report
• Photographic documentation (including photographs of the shelters, all components,
shelter supports, local surroundings, sight path, power supply, etc.)
• Instrument and site configuration documentation, including site map and site
specifications (latitude, longitude, instrument elevations, elevation angle, sight path
distance, etc.)
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3.4 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND MAINTENANCE
System performance and maintenance includes routine servicing, and instrument
calibration and maintenance.
3.4.1 Routine Servicing
Routine servicing is primarily the responsibility of the site operator, although any
deviations from expected behavior are reported to and solved in conjunction with the lab manager
or field specialist. Repairs are performed by the site operator under the supervision of a field
specialist. Similarly, biannual audits are performed by the site operator under the supervision of a
field specialist.
During the weekly sample changes, the site operator shall review the field log sheet and
verify that the sample collection parameters are within the acceptable ranges specified in the
IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Manual. The microprocessor program will make internal checks and
note discrepancies on the viewing screen. The site operator should contact the central laboratory
when problems occur. The site operator should also inspect the equipment and the shelter to
verify cleanliness and identify possible problems. Weekly procedures are further detailed in
TI201AIMPRO VE Aerosol Sampler Manual.
Additional routine servicing, to be performed monthly includes emptying the water bottle
on the Module D PMio inlet for sites with Sierra-Anderson inlets, and verifying the integrity of the
mounting platform and filter mounting ports.
The purpose of the denuder in Module B (nylon filter) is to remove HNOs from the air
stream before it reaches the filter. Since 1988, the denuders have been changed annually. Tests
indicate that with respect to SO2, the denuders will saturate during this time at most IMPROVE
sites. However, test with old and new denuders indicate that there is no decrease in the efficiency
to collect HNO3 over this period. Tests will be continued to monitor this. If necessary, the
frequency of changing the denuders will be increased to quarterly.
For quality control purposes, roughly 2% of the IMPROVE sampler filters are field
blanks. Field blanks are collected to determine the amount of material (artifact), picked up by the
filter cassettes during the shipping, installation, removal, and laboratory processing procedures.
No extra steps are required of the site operators for handling field blanks. All cartridges have four
cassettes; normally one or two will have no filters.
3.4.2 Instrument Calibration and Maintenance
Flow rate audits are performed whenever the sampler gauges indicate a potential error in
the flow rate and biannually at randomly selected sites. If an audit indicates the calculated flow
rates in any module are off more than 5%, a complete four point audit is performed. Flow rate
audit devices are delivered through the mail, and the audit is performed by the site operator.
Biannual audit procedures consist of nominal flow checks for two clean, newly installed filter
cassettes, for two consecutive sampling periods. If the biannual audit indicates the calculated
flow rates in any module are off by more than 3%, the sampling module in error must be re-
calibrated. Calibration and flow rate audit procedures are described further in the Crocker
3-10
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Nuclear Laboratory SOP 176, Calibration, Programming, and Site Documentation and TI201A
IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Operations Manual.
Annual site visits are performed by field specialists. Annual maintenance includes:
• Pre-maintenance inspections and site inventory.
Cleaning individual cyclones, stacks, and inlets.
Checking module components and electronics.
• Auditing each module and recording updated annual calibrations.
• Post-calibration verification checks.
Site operator training.
3.5 SAMPLE HANDLING AND DATA COLLECTION
Sample handling includes pretesting (preliminary validation) of aerosol filters prior to use,
processing the clean filters and shipment to the site, routine field procedures used by site
operators, and processing the exposed filters in preparation for ionic, carbon, or elemental
analysis.
The standard operating procedures used in the handling of IMPROVE aerosol filters are
summarized in Figure 3-3.
3.5.1 Procurement and Pretesting of IMPROVE Aerosol Filters
The central laboratory is responsible for:
• Purchasing Teflon and nylon filters from commercial vendors.
• Acceptance testing of the filters.
• Preparing filter collection masks.
The carbon analysis laboratory is responsible for:
• Purchasing quartz filters from commercial vendors.
• Acceptance testing of the filters.
• Prefiring all filters.
Procedures for purchasing, acceptance testing, preparing, and assembling filters and
cassettes for the field are fully described in Crocker Nuclear Laboratory SOP 101, Procurement
and Acceptance Testing and its associated Technical Instructions.
3-11
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3.5.2 Processing of Clean Aerosol Filters
The standard operating procedures for processing the clean aerosol filters include:
• Measuring the tare masses of the Teflon filters.
• Loading clean filters into cassettes and the cassettes into cartridges.
• Attaching identification tags to the cassettes and color codes and identification tags to
the cartridges.
• Leak testing cassettes.
Sending the cartridges/cassettes with clean filters to the sites in specially designed
shipping containers.
Approximately 1500 field blanks are collected each year in the IMPROVE network.
These are used to determine the amount of material (artifact), picked up by the filter cassettes
during the shipping, installation, removal, and laboratory processing procedures. The
determination of when to include a field blank is determined by the sample handling software at
the time of loading the clean filters. Normally one or two of the four cassettes in each cartridge
will have no filters. When instructed, the laboratory technician will add a field blank in the
cassette in position four. This will be processed in the same manner as a normal filter except no
air is drawn through. No extra steps are required of the site operators for handling field blanks.
Procedures for processing filters and gravimetric analysis are fully described in Crocker Nuclear
Laboratory SOP 251 Sample Handling.
3-12
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A B C D
PM2.5 Teflon PM2.5 nylon PM2.5 quartz PM10 Teflon
acceptance
test
premeasure
mass
I
acceptance
test
premeasure
mass
I
load clean filters into cassettes and attach ID labels
leak-test all cassettes
U.S. Mail
store box in clean area at site
I
load cassettes into sampler and measure flow rate
collect sample
measure flow rate and remove cassettes
^
U.S. Mail
/
receive cassettes with exposed filters from site
review field log sheet, enter readings into database
transfer fillters and identification tags to Petri dishes
1
measure
mass
mount in
slides
1
measure
absorption
XRF
PIXE/PESA
send to
ions
contractor
store in
freezer
send to
carbon
contractor
measure
mass
mount in
slides
archive in
slide
trays
central
laboratory
T
site
central
laboratory
A B C D
PM2.5 Teflon PM2.5 nylon PM2.5 quartz PM10 Teflon
Figure 3.3. Flow diagram of filter handling procedures before, during, and after sample
collection. U.C. Davis has been the central laboratory for IMPROVE since 1988.
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3.5.3 On-Site Filter Handling
Aerosol filter cassettes are changed weekly by the site operator every Tuesday. The filters
are loaded into the samplers using a system of cassettes and cartridges. A cartridge is a circular
disk holding four cassettes. Clean filters are loaded into two or three cassettes at a central
laboratory. Each cartridge is labeled for the desired module and change date. The desired
module is also identified by color. The cartridges are mailed directly to the site in sealed,
insulated shipping containers.
During the weekly site visits, the operator first activates the check flow rate program on
the microprocessor. For l-day-in-3 sampling, the samplers will be operating on the day of sample
change once every third week. This step will suspend sampling during the sample change. The
operator records the information of the screen on the provided log sheet. Next, the operator
removes the cartridge of exposed filters in each module and inserts the cartridge of clean filters.
If this is a day with current sampling, the cartridge for this change will have only three cassettes
and one hole. The operator will move the partially exposed filter from the exposed cartridge and
place it in the hole in the clean cartridge. This cassette is clearly labeled by color. The operator
will then activate the program to check the initial flow rates of the new filters and record the
information from the screen to the log sheet. The microprocessor includes programs to check that
the flow rates are within specifications. The operator will be alerted if their are problems. If this
is a sampling day, the microprocessor will resume sampling. During this process, the operator
never directly touches the filters.
The operator returns the exposed filter cassettes, log sheets, and memory card to the
central laboratory by mail. The purpose of the log sheet is to maintain a record of collection data
even if the memory card were to be lost or damaged in transit.
3.5.4 Processing Exposed Filters and Preparation for Filter Analysis
Filter cassettes returned from the field are processed and prepared for analysis as follows:
The data on the memory card are downloaded. The dates are compared to those on
the field log. If there is a match, the data are transferred to the tracking/analysis
database.
All log sheet information and written notes are entered into the tracking/analysis
database.
Site operators are contacted if any errors or equipment malfunctions are noted.
The nylon and quartz filters (Modules B and C) and identification tags are transferred
to Petri dishes.
The Teflon filters (Modules A and D) are weighed and the filters are loaded into slide
frames for further analysis. The identification numbers are written of the slide frames.
All gravimetric mass measurements are entered into the tracking/analysis database.
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3.6 FILTER ANALYSES AND DATA REDUCTION AND VALIDATION
The laboratory analysis of the PM2.s Teflon filters (Module A) are performed at the central
laboratory. The analysis of the nylon filters (Module B) and quartz filters (Module C) are done by
two outside laboratories on separate contracts. The analytical results from these outside
laboratories are returned to the central laboratory as mass per filter without artifact correction or
sample volumes. At the central laboratory, the laboratory analysis of the Teflon filters, except for
gravimetric analysis, is performed quarterly, following the standard season for IMPROVE. The
data processing and validation are also done quarterly. The specific procedures are summarized
in the following subsections.
3.6.1 Gravimetric Mass
Gravimetric analysis of Module A and Module D IMPROVE Teflon_filters uses the
difference method to determine the mass of the collected aerosol. The pre-weight of each filter is
measured prior to loading the filter into a cassette. Once exposed and returned to the laboratory,
the filter is removed from the cassette, and the post-weight of the filter is measured. Level-1
validation includes determination of the mass of the aerosol by calculating the difference between
the pre- and post-weights.
3.6.2 Absorption (bah*)
The coefficient of light absorption for fine particles, babs, is determined from the Module A
Teflon filters using a Hybrid Integrating Plate and Sphere (HIPS) method. This involves direct
measurement of the absorption of a laser beam by a sample, over the area of the sample, to obtain
an ambient babs value. With the HIPS method, it is not necessary to analyze the clean filter before
collection. Currently, the method is being re-evaluated to determine its accuracy in determining
the coefficient of absorption in the atmosphere. Until, this evaluation is completed, the coefficient
is not being reported.
3.6.3 Analysis of Aerosol Species
Starting December 1999, the standard IMPROVE protocol is to collect 24-hour aerosol
data samples once every third day. Prior to December 1999, two samples were collected each
week, on Wednesday and Saturday. All major fine aerosol components plus PMio mass are
measured, including several redundant measurements for quality assurance.
The IMPROVE aerosol sampler has four (4) separate modules. Three (3) modules
(denoted A, B, and C) are fine particle samplers with cyclone systems that operate at a nominal
flow rate of 22.8 liters per minute and collect particles up to 2.5 jam in diameter. The fourth
module (D) is a PMio sampler operated at nominal flow rates of 19.1 liters per minute (Wedding
inlet) and 16.7 liters per minute (Sierra-Anderson inlet) and collect particles up to 10 jim. The
measurement and data reduction protocols associated with each module are described below.
3-15
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Module A
The Module A Teflon filters are analyzed for elements with atomic weights from sodium
to manganese by Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), from iron to lead by X-ray
fluorescence (XRF), and simultaneously for hydrogen by Proton Elastic Scattering Analysis
(PESA). Both PIXE and PESA subject the collected aerosol sample to a beam of 4.5 MeV
protons, in vacuum, at the laboratory cyclotron. In PIXE, each element present in the sample is
induced by the proton beam to emit X-rays whose energy is characteristic of the element, and
whose number is proportional to the mass of the element. In PESA, the protons in the cyclotron
beam, which are elastically scattered through a given angle (30°) by the hydrogen atoms in the
sample, are also easily discriminated and counted, to give an accurate measure of the amount of
hydrogen. XRF analysis employs a grounded anode diffraction type X-ray tube with a
molybdenum anode. The X-rays produced by the tube are collimated and directed onto an
aerosol sample. The sample deposit absorbs the Mo X-ray energy and re-emits the energy as
X-rays characteristic to the elements present on the sample. The X-rays are detected by
high-resolution SiLi detectors with pulsed optical feedback to provide high count rate capabilities.
Module B
The Module B nylon filters are analyzed by Ion Chromatography (1C) for sulfate, nitrate,
and chloride ions, from which the sulfate and nitrate compounds are estimated. A sample is
prepared for 1C analysis by desorption of the collected material in 15 mL water. This solution is
applied to strips of filter paper and allowed to dry, and the various ion species are separated in the
standard way according to their solubilities, by suspending the strips over a solvent and allowing it
to pass up through the paper by capillary action. Ambient gaseous nitric acid (HNO3) is subject
to adsorption by the nylon filter and subsequent transformation to the solid nitrate form, which
would bias measurements of the latter. Therefore, a gas denuder, consisting of a set of concentric
cylindrical aluminum sheets coated with potassium carbonate (K2CO3), is placed in the Module B
inlet to remove HNOs before collection.
Module C
The Module C quartz filters are analyzed by Thermal Optical Reflectance (TOR) for
organic and elemental carbon. A second quartz filter behind the first is used to estimate the
artifact due to adsorption of organic gases. TOR involves:
• Heating a sample through a series of temperature increases or steps in a pure helium
atmosphere. Oxygen is added in the later stages to enable the volatilization of
elemental carbon.
Converting the carbon evolved at each step into CO2 using an oxidizer (MnO2 at
912°C).
• Reducing the CO2 to methane which is then quantified by passage through a flame
ionization detector. Over the mid-range of the TOR heating (between about 130°C
and 550°C), charring of the sample occurs due to pyrolysis of organic particles; this is
monitored as a decrease in the reflectance from the sample surface. When the
reflectance reaches a minimum, 2% oxygen is added to the atmosphere. This allows
the elemental carbon in the sample, including the char produced by pyrolysis of
organic matter, to oxidize. The reflectance of the sample increases as the char is
3-16
-------
removed. All carbon measured up to the point where the reflectance reattains its initial
value is interpreted as organic carbon. Carbon evolved beyond this point is reported
as elemental carbon. Table 3-2 outlines the eight carbon fractions reported as a
function of temperature and added oxygen. OP is the portion of elemental carbon
before the reflectance returns to the initial value. The total organic carbon (OC) is the
sum of the four organic fractions plus the pyrolytic fraction:
total organic carbon = OC = OC1 + OC2 + OC3 + OC4 - OP
(3-1)
The total elemental carbon, also known as light-absorbing carbon (LAC), is the sum of the three
elemental carbon fraction minus the pyrolytic fraction
total elemental carbon = EC= LAC = EC1 + EC2 + EC3 - OP
(3-2)
Module D
The gravimetric mass of all sampled particles up to 10 jim (PMio) is measured as the
difference between the weight of the primary Teflon filter before and after sampling, using an
electromicrobalance. Coarse mass is estimated by subtracting fine mass PM2.s from total aerosol
mass PMio. Except under special circumstances, no further chemical analysis is performed on
individual Module D filters. It is assumed that coarse mass consists primarily of insoluble airborne
soil particles.
Table 3-2. Carbon Components as a Function of Temperature and Added Oxygen
Fraction
OC1
OC2
OC3
OC4
EC1
EC2
EC3
Pyrolized
Fraction
OP
Temperature
Range
Ambient to 120°C
120°C-250°C
250°C-450°C
450°C-550°C
Remains at 550°C
550°C - 700°C
700°C - 800°C
Atmosphere
100% He
98% He
2% O2
Reflectance
vs. Initial
At Initial
Under Initial
Over Initial
IMPROVE sample analysis procedures are fully documented Crocker Nuclear Laboratory
SOP 276, Optical Absorption Analysis; SOP 301, X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis; and SOP 326,
PIXE andPESA Analysis.
3-17
-------
3.6.4 Data Reduction and Validation of Laboratory Analyses
All aerosol data, both measured and calculated, are entered into the project database and
validated according to IMPROVE protocols. Procedures for processing and validation of the
laboratory analysis data include:
Calculating concentrations and uncertainties of the measured variables. These
calculations use standard IMPROVE equations for determining volume, mass, optical
absorption, and concentrations from XRF, PIXE/PESA, 1C, and TOR analysis results.
Table 3-3 lists the commonly reported measured variables. In addition to these
measured variables, composite variables can be derived from the measured variables by
applying reasonable assumptions. These composite variables are included in Table 3-4
and discussed in more detail in Section 3.8.
• Entering the measured and composite variables data into the Concentration Database
and checking for internal consistency
• Validating the data to identify anomalous variations with time using the following
techniques:
A. Correlation plots between:
1) SiandFe
2) 3[S] (Teflon, PIXE) and SO4= (Nylon, 1C)
3) Organic mass from carbon and organic mass from hydrogen
4) Mass and reconstructed mass
B. Timeline plots of major variables
C. Statistical comparisons
D. Examination of individual anomalies and errors transcribing data
Concentration uncertainty and precision estimates are presented in Section 3.8.
IMPROVE data processing and validation procedures are fully documented in Crocker Nuclear
Laboratory SOP 351, Data Processing and Quality Assurance.
3-18
-------
Table 3-3. Commonly Reported Measured Variables
MEASURED VARIABLES
Abbreviation
MASS
H
Na
Mg
Al
Si
S
Cl
K
Ca
Ti
V
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
As
Se
Br
Pb
NO3"
MV
SO4=
cr
OC1
OC2
OC3
OC4
EC1
EC2
ECS
PMio
Atomic
No.
N/A
1
11
12
13
14
16
17
19
20
22
23
25
26
27
28
29
30
33
34
35
82
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
N/A
Component
PM2.5 Fine Mass
Hydrogen
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Sulfur
Chlorine
Potassium
Calcium
Titanium
Vanadium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Lead
Nitrate Ion
Nitrite Ion
Sulfate Ion
Chloride Ion
Low Temperature Organic Carbon
High Temperature Organic Carbon
High Temperature Organic Carbon
High Temperature Organic Carbon
Low Temperature Elemental Carbon
High Temperature Elemental Carbon
High Temperature Elemental Carbon
PMio Mass
Module
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
D
Analytical
Method
Gravimetric
PESA
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
PIXE
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
XRF
1C
1C
1C
1C
TOR
TOR
TOR
TOR
TOR
TOR
TOR
Gravimetric
Reporting
Units
ng/m
ng/m3
ng/m
ng/m3
ng/m
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
ng/m3
General Reporting
Category
Fine Mass
Major Element
Marine
Soil Elements
Soil Elements
Soil Elements
Major Element
Marine
Soil Elements
Soil Elements
Soil Elements
Metallic Tracer
Soil Elements
Soil Elements
Multiple
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Metallic Tracer
Major Ion
Major Ion
Major Ion
Marine
Organic Carbon
Organic Carbon
Organic Carbon
Organic Carbon
Elemental Carbon
Elemental Carbon
Elemental Carbon
PMio Mass
Note: For consistency across all parameters, theJMPROVE data for PM25 Fine Mass and
PMio Mass total mass is generally reported in ng/m . Conversion to (ig/ m is accomplished by
multiplying by 1000.
3-19
-------
Table 3-4. Commonly Reported Composite Variables
COMPOSITE VARIABLES FOR FINE PARTICLES
(Brackets [ 1 indicate the mass concentration of aerosol species or elements)
Abbreviation
KNON
NHSO
SOIL
OMH
NHNO
OC
CMC
LAC
TC
RCMC
CM
RCFM
Component
Nonsoil Potassium
Ammonium Sulfate
[(NH4)2S04]
Soil (fine soil)
Organic Mass by Hydrogen
(assumes all sulfur is ammonium
sulfate and there is no hydrogen
from nitrate)
Ammonium Nitrate
[(NH4)N03]
Total Organic Carbon
Organic Mass by Carbon
Light Absorbing Carbon
Total Carbon
Reconstructed without Nitrate
Coarse Mass
Reconstructed Fine Mass with
Nitrate
Module
A
A
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
A&C
A&D
AtoC
Composite Equation
[K] - 0.6[Fe];
a qualitative smoke tracer
4.125[S];
a standard form of sulfate
2.20[A1] + 2.49[Si] + 1.63[Ca] +
2.42[Fe] + 1.94[Ti]
13.75([H] - [S]/4)
1.29[NO3"];
a standard form of nitrate
[OC1] + [OC2] + [OC3] + [OC4] +
[OP]
1.4[OC]
[EC1] + [EC2] + [ECS] - [OP]
[OC1] + [OC2] + [OC3] + [OC4] +
[EC1] + [EC2] + [ECS]
[NHSO] + [SOIL] + [OMC] + [LAC] +
1.4[KNON]+2.5[Na]
PM10 - PM25
[NHSO] + [NHNO] + [LAC] + [OMC]
+ [SOIL]
3-20
-------
3.7 DATA REPORTING AND ARCHIVE
3.7.1 Data Reporting
Aerosol data reports are prepared quarterly and annually. A separate data report is
prepared for each instrument type; aerosol data reports contain only IMPROVE sampler data.
Reporting consists of various text discussions and graphics presentations concerning the
instrumentation and collected data. Specific contents of the reports are defined by the contracting
agency.
Quarterly reports are normally completed within three months after the end of a
monitoring season. Standard meteorological monitoring seasons are defined as:
Spring (March, April, and May)
Summer (June, July, and August)
Fall (September, October, and November)
Winter (December, January, and February)
Annual data reports are provided for each year, beginning with samples collected in
March. The annual reports should contain the following major sections:
• Introduction
• Data Collection and Reduction
Site Configuration
Seasonal and Annual Data Summaries
• Summary
• References
The introduction should contain a conceptual overview of the purpose of the monitoring
program and a description of the monitoring network(s). The data collection and reduction
section should include data collection methods, data file review, data validation, application of
validity codes, processing through various validation levels and discussion of file formats, and
identification of meteorological and optical interferences that may affect the calculation of
reconstructed bext from IMPROVE sampling measurements.
The site configuration section should contain a brief discussion of instrumentation at each
aerosol monitoring site, basic principles of operation, measurement principles, and data collection
specifications, including:
• A map depicting the location of all monitoring network sites.
• A Monitoring History Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site the name, type
of instrumentation, and period of operation for each instrument type.
• A Site Specifications Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site the site name,
abbreviation, latitude, longitude, and elevation of the IMPROVE sampler, the weekly
sampling schedule, and the operating period during the season.
3-21
-------
Data summaries are prepared for each site that operated during the reporting period.
Summaries should include concentrations and distributions of major and trace elements as well as
fine mass and its components, including determined composite variables. An example Seasonal
Aerosol Data Summary is presented as Figure 3-4. Sample recovery rates which describe the
percent of possible samples validated for each reported network site, by year, are reported as
required.
A summary section that provides a synopsis of the aerosol monitoring network, including
any changes in operation or analysis techniques and a general conclusion of the monitoring period
in review, is included in the reports. A reference section should include technical references
(documents cited in the report), and related reports and publications (including all prior reports
pertaining to the monitoring program).
3.7.2 Data Archive
The digital tracking/analysis database is archived on a monthly basis. All raw and
processed data for a given season, constants, calibration, and data processing files are archived on
a seasonal basis after data have been finalized and reported. All data are archived in ASCII
format. Files are stored in their original formats (Level-1, Level-2) on magnetic tape and on CD-
ROM. At least two copies of each media are created; one copy is stored at the data processing
location and the other off-site.
Filter media, supporting documentation, and reports are archived on a continual basis.
Archives include site specifications, monitoring timelines, data coordinator/site operator
correspondence, site operator log sheets, trip reports, summary plots, instrument calibration and
maintenance logs, and file audit reports. All validated data are available in an FTP Internet site
maintained by the central laboratory. For instructions on obtaining data, e-mail
. Supplemental quality assurance information is also on the
site. The standard file format currently used for IMPROVE protocol aerosol data are shown in
Figure 3-5.
3-22
-------
SMOKY MOUNTAINS N.P.
26-OCT-98
MAR 01,1998 - MAY 31,1998
IMPROVE PARTICULATE NETWORK
Major elements, tracer elements and SC>2
24-hour concentrations in nanograms/cubic meter
Soil elements
DATE
03/04/98
03/07/98
03/11/98
03/14/98
03/18/98
03/21/98
03/25/98
03/28/98
04/01/98
04/04/98
04/08/98
04/11/98
04/15/98
04/18/98
04/22/98
04/25/98
04/29/98
05/02/98
05/06/98
05/09/98
05/13/98
05/16/98
05/20/98
05/23/98
05/27/98
05/30/98
HOUR
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
H
513.
226.
293.
581.
217 .
184 .
485.
536.
194 .
537 .
969.
300.
791.
483.
262.
1004 .
615.
522.
897 .
1227 .
1298.
2270 .
1855.
1601.
1038.
1057 .
. 6
.3
. 7
. 9
. 7
. 7
. 7
.3
. 6
. 9
.3
. 4
.5
. 9
. 6
. 4
. 7
. 7
. 0
.3
. 9
. 6
. 4
. 4
. 8
. 7
S
1286.
401.
774 .
1173.
400.
420.
1295.
1468 .
312.
1598.
2801.
690.
2455.
1198.
674 .
2978.
1581.
1411.
2610.
3956.
3238.
4455.
3924 .
3685.
2088.
2595.
. 8
. 7
.1
. 0
.3
. 7
.3
. 9
. 9
.3
.3
. 8
. 8
. 0
. 6
.3
.5
. 4
.5
.3
. 9
. 7
. 8
CA
9. 9
4 .2
Marine
^=minimum detectable limit
(2 x uncertainty) #= MASS>PM10; diff
-------
GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS N.P.
26-OCT-98 IMPROVE PARTICULATE NETWORK
Fine mass and its major components.
24-hour concentrations in micrograms/cubic meter
MAR 01,1998 - MAY 31,1998
DATE
03/04/98
03/07/98
03/11/98
03/14/98
03/18/98
03/21/98
03/25/98
03/28/98
04/01/98
04/04/98
04/08/98
04/11/98
04/15/98
04/18/98
04/22/98
04/25/98
04/29/98
05/02/98
05/06/98
05/09/98
05/13/98
05/16/98
05/20/98
05/23/98
05/27/98
05/30/98
2 4
DATE
03/04/98
03/07/98
03/11/98
03/14/98
03/18/98
03/21/98
03/25/98
03/28/98
04/01/98
04/04/98
04/08/98
04/11/98
04/15/98
04/18/98
04/22/98
04/25/98
04/29/98
05/02/98
05/06/98
05/09/98
05/13/98
05/16/98
05/20/98
05/23/98
05/27/98
05/30/98
HOUR
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
hour cc
HOUR
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
PM10
9.79
8.12
9.24
#11. 41
9. 07
11.70
18. 67
6.61
11. 99
22. 43
14 .27
21.20
15.20
10.56
20. 67
22. 90
11. 83
19.09
29. 64
28.32
56. 61
41.57
41.11
22. 44
30.18
!)ncsnt JT3
MASS
8.19
6.13
5.16
#11. 49
3.24
3.14
10.30
12. 03
4 .20
8.82
16.25
7 . 45
16.49
9.75
4 .23
17 .32
14.66
11.71
15.34
23. 09
21. 81
44 . 96
31.10
29. 97
18.25
26.19
MASS
8.19
6.13
5.16
#11. 49
3.24
3.14
10.30
12. 03
4 .20
8.82
16.25
7 . 45
16.49
9.75
4 .23
17 .32
14.66
11.71
15.34
23. 09
21. 81
44 . 96
31.10
29. 97
18.25
26.19
Fine
RCMC:
gg:
6 6:
94:
87'
106:
85:
87'
98:
110:
106:
107-
gg:
95:
85:
101-
96:
79-
76:
gg:
8 6:
93:
79-
8 8 :
8 6:
8 6:
63:
Fine mass and its major components
ions in micrograms/cubic meter and
RCMA% NHSO% NHNO% SOIL%
110% 65% 7% 3%
68% 27% 1% 2%
4%
31%
4%
4%
4%
4%
4%
of fi
OMH%
40%
19%
ne mass.
LACN%
4%
5%
6%
5%
7%
4%
26^
21%
25%
26%
16%
21%
15%
19%
11%
4%
31%
18%
^=minimum detectable limit
(2 x uncertainty) #= MASS>PM10; diff
-------
GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS N.P.
26-OCT-98
MAR 01,1998 - MAY 31,1998
IMPROVE PARTICULATE NETWORK
Distribution of Concentrations in nanograms/cubic meter
% of cases Arithmeti
Cases Significant Me
H
S
SO2
SI
K
CA
TI
MN
FE
KNON
NA
CL-
V
NI
CU
ZN
AS
SE
BR
PB
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
19
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
69%
42%
100%
100%
30%
15%
26%
11%
96%
100%
76%
88%
100%
100%
768.
1903.
2089.
166.
8 2
46.
6 .
2 .
47 .
53.
75.
-3.
2 .
0.
0.
7
0.
1.
3.
2 ,
2an
. 07
. 02
.53
. 65
. 01
.21
. 62
.53?
. 42
.56
. 66?
. 96?
777
.18?
. 96
.39
.57
.13
.50
.34
184.75
312.88
344.10
24.68
11.50
3.35
1.39
0. 85
2.33
10.10
11.13
-78.20
1.49
0.12
0.17
1. 83
0. 06
0. 08
0.54
0. 65
Distribution of Concentrations in micrograms/cubic meter
occurs
05/16/98
05/16/98
05/16/98
04/11/98
05/16/98
04/11/98
05/16/98
05/16/98
04/11/98
05/16/98
03/28/98
05/23/98
04/08/98
05/23/98
05/06/98
05/16/98
04/29/98
05/16/98
03/28/98
05/16/98
% of cases Arithmetic
Significant Mean
100% 20.18
100%
100%
100%
100%
94%
100%
100%
100%
100%
Median
15.20
11. 87
10. 81
10. 96
0.71
Distribution of Concentrations in micrograms/cubic meter and percent of fine mass
% of cases Arithmetic
Significant Mean
11%
14%
Median
11. 87
91%
98%
51%
2%
4%
25%
26%
4%
Maximum
44 . 96
110%
125%
75%
12%
31%
43%
50%
7%
occurs
05/16/98
04/01/98
03/18/98
04/04/98
04/11/98
04/01/98
04/01/98
03/18/98
03/18/98
Figure 3-4c. Quarterly Data Report: Site Specific Means and Distributions
3-25
-------
SITE SAMDAT JULIAN STRTIM
ACADI 0
ACADI 0
ACADI 0
ACADI 0
ACADI 0
ETA FLOWA
ETB FLOWB
ETC FLOWC
ETD FLOWD
MF ERR MF MDL MF STAT MT
MT ERR MT MDL MT STA
A value of-99.00 indicates an invalid value.
All species amounts, errors, and minimum detectable limits are in nanograms per cubic meter.
Start times are in military hours.
Sample durations are in decimal hours.
Flow rate is in liters per minute (ambient).
SPECIES STATUS CODES:
NM
QU
QD
AA
AP
NA
Normal
Questionable; Undetermined
Questionable Data
Organic Artifact Corrected
Possible Organic Artifact (No correction performed)
No Analysis Available for this Species
NOTE: From 9/90 through 2/92 we received some Teflon filters with an organic contamination. This artifact influenced only the Hydrogen and
Fine Mass measurements in less than 7% of the samples (marked AA). All other measurements of Hydrogen and Fine Mass during this period are
marked with a status AP.
SPECIES CODES:
MF = Fine Mass (UCD)
MT = PM-10 Mass (UCD)
H = Hydrogen (UCD)
BSO4 = Sulfate on Nylon (RTI, GGC)
NO2- = Nitrite (RTI, GGC)
N03- = Nitrate (RTI, GGC)
CLr = Chloride (RTI, GGC)
SO2 = Sulfur Dioxide (DRI)
Ol = Organic carbon, <120 °C (DRI)
02 = Organic carbon, 120 °C - 250 °C (DRI)
O3 = Organic carbon, 250 °C - 450 °C (DRI)
O4 = Organic carbon, 450 °C - 550 °C (DRI)
OP = Pyrolized organic, 550 °C, 2% O2, reflectance < initial (DRI)
El = Elemental carbon + pyrolized organic, 550 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
E2 = Elemental carbon, 550 °C - 700 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
E3 = Elemental carbon, 700 °C - 800 °C, 2% O2 (DRI)
All other species are elemental values from UCD Elemental Analysis.
Figure 3-5. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Aerosol Data.
3-26
-------
3.8 SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSIS INCLUDING COMPOSITE VARIABLES
At most continental sites, fine aerosol species are classified into five major types: sulfates,
nitrates, organic mass, elemental and light-absorbing carbon, and soil. Methods for
apportionment of measured mass to the various aerosol species are detailed in Malm et al. (1994).
Major aerosol types are composites of the elements and ions measured by IMPROVE samplers.
Concentrations or masses are calculated from the masses of the measured elements and ions
according to their presumed or probable composition as summarized below and in Table 3-3 and
Table 3-4. The convention used to denote the mass concentration of a measured element, ion, or
species is enclosing its symbol in brackets ([ ]).
Sulfates
In the West, most sulfur is in the form of ammonium sulfate. In the East, or other
environments where ammonia can be limited, acidic species, such as ammonium bisulfate and
sulfuric acid, are common. However, for a first approximation, all elemental sulfur and sulfate ion
is interpreted as being in the form of ammonium sulfate, and ammonium sulfate concentrations are
estimated by multiplying elemental sulfur concentrations by 4.125, or sulfate ion concentration by
1.375. For simplicity, ammonium sulfate is referred to as sulfate.
At sites where NH4+, NO3-, and SO4= are measured, but not H+, it is possible to calculate
the dry weight of sulfate, even is it not fully neutralized. The assumption is that there is an ionic
balance between H+,NH4+, NO3-, and SO4=. The concentration for actual sulfate is given by:
[sulfate] = 1.021 [SO4=] + 0.944 [NH4+] - 0.274 [NO3-] (3-3)
Ammonium ion measurements have been made at three IMPROVE sites in the Appalachian
mountains, Shenandoah National Park, Dolly Sods Wilderness, and Great Smoky Mountains
National Park. These sites have the highest sulfur concentrations in the IMPROVE network and
probably have the most acidic aerosol in the network. For one year of measurements starting in
June 1997 at these three sites, the actual sulfate calculated by Equation 3-3 averages 10% less
than the calculation assuming ammonium sulfate. For the average site, the ammonium sulfate
assumption will probably be only slightly larger than the actual sulfate.
Nitrates
Paniculate nitrate is assumed to be present as fully neutralized ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3). (HNO3 is a gas.) The concentration of ammonium nitrate is 1.29 times the
concentration of nitrate ion and is referred to as nitrate.
Organic Mass
Organic mass (by carbon) concentrations (organics, OMC) is estimated by:
[OMC] = 1.4[OC] (3-4)
where OC is the total organic carbon defined by equation 3-1. The factor 1.4 assumes that
organic mass contains a constant 71% carbon by weight (Watson et al., 1988). The actual factor
depends on the compounds present. Organic carbon from industrial emissions may well have a
different factor than organic carbon from biomass combustion.
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Organic mass can also be estimated from hydrogen by:
[OMH] = 13.75 ( [H] - [S]/4) (3-5)
assuming all sulfur is ammonium sulfate and there is no hydrogen from nitrate. The factor of
13.75 gives excellent agreement when the organic mass is primarily from wood smoke. At sites in
the eastern United States, a factor that is 20% lower (11) gives a better fit with organic carbon
(assuming a carbon factor of 1.4).
A more accurate calculation that accounts for acidity is possible if NH4+, NOs-, and SC>4= are all
measured. However, since nitrate volatilizes from Teflon during sampling, the equation cannot
account for the hydrogen in (NH4)NO3.
Elemental Carbon/Light Absorbing Carbon
The total elemental carbon is given by Equation 3-2.
Soil
Soil mass concentration is estimated by summing the elements predominantly associated
with soil, plus oxygen for the normal oxides (A12O3, SiC>2, CaO, K2O, FeO, Fe2Os, TiC^), plus a
correction for other compounds such as MgO, Na2O, water, and carbonate. There are two
weaknesses in this methodology. (1) Some of these elements, such as Fe, may be associated with
industrial emissions rather than suspended soil. This problem is more important in urban sampling
than in remote sampling. It can be important in some remote sites, if there are nearby iron
smelters. (2) For both urban and rural sites, K may be associated with smoke as well as soil. The
particle diameters of this smoke K is always must less than 2.5 jim. One possible approach is to
estimate the fraction of K as smoke and subtract this from the soil estimate. In the nomenclature
of the IMPROVE network, this nonsoil potassium is called KNON. The approach is to determine
the K to Fe ratio for typical soils and use this factor in calculating the PM2.s soil concentration.
Based on measurements made at mostly western sites between 1979 and 1986 with the stacked
filter sampler (which collects particles greater than 2.5 jam on a separate filter), the K/Fe ratio for
coarse particles averages 0.6. A final equation for fine soil is:
[SOIL] = 2.2[A1] + 2.49[Si] + 1.63[Ca] + 2.42[Fe]+ 1.94[Ti] (3-6)
The equation for nonsoil potassium is:
[KNON] = [K] - 0.6 * [Fe] (3-7)
Components of these factors were confirmed in comparisons of local resuspended soils and
ambient aerosols in the western United States (Cahill, et al., 1981; Pitchford et al., 1981).
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Na (Marine)
Sodium is an important factor in the PM2.5 mass only at marine sites. If this is assumed to
be NaCl, the total mass is 2.5 times the Na concentration. An alternative calculation would be to
use 1.6 times the Cl elemental or ionic concentration. In a highly reactive atmosphere some of the
Cl may be lost before reaching the sampler or during sampling.
Reconstructed Fine Mass
The sum of the above seven composite variables should provide a reasonable estimate of
the ambient dry PM2 5 mass concentration in the atmosphere. The inclusion of nitrate in the
calculation is optional. If the concern is the reconstructed dry mass concentration in the
atmosphere, then nitrate should be included. However, if the concern is comparison with the
gravimetric mass on the Teflon filter, then it is recommended excluding nitrate. The reason is that
a variable fraction of nitrate will volatilize from the Teflon filters during sampling. If all of the
water on the particles were to be removed before gravimetric analysis, the gravimetric mass
would be between the two calculations. The equations for reconstructed without nitrate (RCMC)
and with nitrate (RCFM) are:
[RCMC] = 4.125 [S] + 1.4 [OC] + [EC] + [SOIL] + 1.4 [KNON] + 2.5 [Na] (3-8)
[RCFM] = [RCMC] + 1.29 [NO3-] (3-9)
Note that the sum of [SOIL] and 1.4 [KNON] includes the measured K as K2O independent of
the validity of the assumed K/Fe ratio. At most sites in the IMPROVE network, nitrate is a small
component of the fine mass. Therefore, the RCFM is only slightly larger than RCMC.
Coarse Mass
Coarse mass (CM) is estimated gravimetrically by subtracting fine mass (PM2.5)
concentration from total aerosol mass (PMio) concentration:
[CM] = [PM10] - [PM2.5] (3-10)
In the IMPROVE Program, additional chemical analysis is not carried out on the coarse fraction.
However, it is known that in rural or remote areas of the country the primary constituent of
coarse mass is naturally occurring wind-blown dust along the some vegetative material (Noll,
1991).
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3.9 QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance of aerosol monitoring data consists of comparing operational flow rates
during annual field audits and Level-1 validation, and determining the concentration and precision
of measured variables during Level-2 validation.
3.9.1 Instrument Audits
Quality assurance field audits are performed annually by field specialists and include the
determination of system flow rate measurement error and verification of the performance of the
aerosol sampler and routine filter sampling schedules.
Flow Rate Audit Procedures
All flow rates and air volumes in IMPROVE are based on local conditions and are not
corrected for standard temperature and pressure. At a flow rate of 22.8 1pm, the IMPROVE
cyclone has a 50% efficiency for 2.5 jim aerodynamic diameter particles. At a flow rate of 25 1pm
(+10%) the cut point is 1.74 |im. At a flow rate of 20.5 1pm (-10%) the cut point is 3.26 |im.
Operational flow rates are calculated from the sampler's pressure transducers, as well as
the temperature of the air and the elevation of the site. The PM2.s modules have are two
transducers, one measuring the pressure drop across the cyclone and the other measuring the
pressure in front of the critical orifice. The PMio module has only the transducer in front of the
critical orifice. Each transducer has a specific calibration equation determined by the audit
procedures. Audit flow rates are determined by inserting a calibrated orifice in the inlet stack and
measuring the pressure drop using an audit transducer. The audit device is calibrated at the
central laboratory using an NIST-traceable spirometer.
Flow audits may be conducted by personnel from the central laboratory or by the site
operator. This is normally performed during one of the non-sampling days. Equipment needed
for a flow audit includes:
• a removable magnetic card with appropriate programs and site-specific
information,
• four filter cartridges, with each cartridge having four filters with different
pressure drops,
• one calibrated audit device for PM2.s modules and one for the PMio module,
• a log sheet and an instruction sheet
The initial step is to remove all existing filter cartridges and replace the normal removable
magnetic card with the audit magnetic card. The appropriate cartridge is installed in the module
and the pressure values of both system transducers for each of the four filters are read. These are
recorded on the magnetic card and on the log sheet. The audit device is inserted in the inlet and
the pressure values for the audit transducer is similarly recorded. The program then calculates the
calibration equations, checks for consistency , and compares with the previous equations. If the
nominal flow rate differs from the desired nominal flow rate, the critical orifice needs adjustment.
The operator will make the necessary adjustment, with assistance by the processor. The flow
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audit will then be repeated for this module. The entire process will be repeated for the remaining
modules.
The normal filter cartridges will then be returned to the sampler and the standard magnetic
card installed. The program will be instructed to use the revised calibration equations. After
audits performed by the site operator, the equipment will be returned to the central laboratory.
When received by the central laboratory, the calibration of the audit device using the spirometer
will be repeated.
Annual calibration and flow rate audit procedures are described further in the-Crocker
Nuclear Laboratory SOP 176, Calibration, Programming, and Site Documentation and TI201A
IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Operations Manual.
3.9.2 Concentration and Precision of Measured Variables
The self consistency and overall quality of the aerosol measurements are assured by
redundancy and intercomparisons between independently measured species. A detailed
description of validation and quality assurance procedures are available (Malm et al., 1994; Sisler
et al., 1993; and Eldred et al., 1988). In the most general sense, validation is a matter of
comparing chemically-related species that have been measured by different module filters.
Fortunately, the design of the IMPROVE sampler allows for redundancy between certain Module
A measurements and Module B and C measurements of the ions and carbons enabling quality
control checks (Sisler, et al., 1996). IMPROVE network quality assurance includes comparisons
of the following:
• PIXE and XRF measurements
Sulfur by PIXE on Teflon and Sulfate by Ion Chromatography on nylon
Organic mass from carbon (OMC) and organic mass from hydrogen (OMH)
• Light-absorbing carbon (LAC) and babs
• Fine mass with reconstructed mass (from Module A) and fine mass with reconstructed
mass (from Module A plus C)
IMPROVE procedures for evaluating the precision of measured species follow.
The general equation for the concentration of a given variable is
A - B
V (3-H)
c =
where A is the measured mass of the variable (i.e. chemical species), B is the artifact mass
determined from field blanks or secondary filters, and V is the volume determined from the
average flow rate and the sample duration. Artifact B may be produced by contamination in the
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filter material, in handling and analysis, and by adsorption of gas during collection. The artifact is
negligible for all Teflon measurements. It is determined from designated field blanks for ions and
from secondary filters for carbon.
Precision in each concentration is included in the database. Overall precision is a
quadratic sum of four components of precision. These are:
1. Fractional volume precision,/,, primarily from the flow rate measurement. A value of
3% is used based on third-party audits.
2. Fractional analytical precision associated with calibration or other factors,/. This is
zero for gravimetric analysis. The values for all other methods are determined from
replicate analyses. Most variables have a fractional analytical precision of around 4%
so that the combined volume and analytical precision is around 5%.
For the eight carbon fractions, the primary source of fractional uncertainty is the
separation into temperature fractions. This may be associated with temperature
regulation, but it may also be from inherent variability of the species involved. The
fractional uncertainty of the sum of all carbon species is around 3% to 4%. The
fractional uncertainty for the fractions range from 1 1% to 40%, averaging 22%. Thus
for sums of fractions, such as total organics, the uncertainties are less than would be
estimated from the individual fractions. This will be discussed in the section on carbon
composites.
3. Constant mass per filter precision, oa, from either the analysis or artifact subtraction.
These are determined from the standard deviations in the designated field blanks,
secondary filters, or system control filters. For large concentrations, this is small
compared to the fractional terms. This is zero for X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), PIXE,
and PESA.
4. Statistical precision based on the number of counts in the spectrum, ostat. This is used
for XRF, PIXE, and PESA. For large concentrations, this is small compared to the
fractional terms.
The equation for the total precision is:
[-1? r 12 r 12
nir )1 \ f r\ + \ f r\ +
' /J L v J L a \
Oa
_v _
~ostat~
_ V _
(3-12)
The relative precision depends on the concentrations. For large concentrations, only
the fractional terms (1 and 2) are important so the relative precision is around 5%. For small
concentrations, the constant analysis/artifact term (3) or the statistical term (4) is important. At
the minimum detectable limits (mdl), the precision increases to 50%.
Table 3-5 separates the relative precisions of key measured variables into three groups.
The relative precision is defined as the ratio of the mean precision from all sources divided by the
mean concentration. Most variables are in the most precise group, 4% to 7%.
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Table 3-5 Relative Precision of Key Measured Variables,
Ratio of Mean Precision Divided by Mean Concentration
Range
4% to 7%
8% to 15%
>15%
Before 6/1/92
PM25, PM10, H, S, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Zn,
SO4=, NO3 , SO2
Na, Al, Ti, Cu, Br, Pb
V, Mn, Se, As, Sr, all carbon fractions
After 6/1/92
PM25, PM10, S, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn, SO4=,
NO3 , SO2
H, Na, Ti, Se, As, Br, Sr, Pb, O4, El
V, Mn, Ol, O2, O3, OP, E2, E3
The average minimum detectable limits (mdl) are provided with each concentration in the
database. A concentration is assumed to be statistically significant only if it is larger than the mdl.
For ion chromatography and carbon, the mdl corresponds to twice the precision of the field blanks
or secondary filters. For mass and absorption, the minimum detectable limit corresponds to twice
the analytical precision determined by controls. For PIXE, XRF, and PESA, the minimum
detectable limit is based on the background under the peaks in the spectrum and is calculated
separately for each case. The assumption for all elements except arsenic is that there is no
interference from other elements. Because the measurement for arsenic requires subtracting the
value for lead, the mdl for arsenic depends on the lead concentration and is generally larger than
the value estimated from the background. When calculating averages, if the value is below the
minimum detectable limit, one-half of the minimum detectable limit is used as the concentration
and the precision in the concentration. In all cases, the relative precisions are around 50% at the
mdl.
The minimum detectable limits of trace elements heavier than iron changed in June 1992
with the addition of a high-sensitivity XRF system The minimum detection limits for iron through
lead decreased by a factor of 10. The minimum detectable limits of standard network samples for
elements measured by PIXE and XRF are given in Table 3-6. Arsenic is not included because the
mdl depends on the lead concentration. Also important is the fraction of cases with statistically
significant concentrations (above the mdl). This depends on the relationship between the mdl and
the ambient concentrations. Table 3-7 separates these into four ranges. A significant change for
aluminum occurred with samples beginning February 1993. Because of detector problems,
aluminum, which is on the shoulder of the spike, was often not detected. Before this date,
aluminum was observed on 65% of all samples; afterward it was found on almost every sample.
Sodium, chlorine, and chloride ion were observed in significant amounts only at sites with marine
influences.
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Table 3-6
Minimum Detectable Limits of Elements in ng/m3
Dates
before 5/92
after 6/92
before 5/92
after 5/92
Na
8.70
13.00
Fe
0.34
0.11
Mg
2.90
4.80
Ni
0.24
0.05
Al
1.80
3.00
Cu
0.24
0.05
Si
1.40
2.20
Zn
0.21
0.05
P
1.30
1.90
Ga
0.20
0.03
S
1.20
1.90
Se
0.22
0.03
Cl
1.30
2.00
Br
0.25
0.03
K
0.83
1.20
Rb
0.37
0.06
Ca
0.64
0.90
Sr
0.42
0.07
Ti
0.57
0.81
Zr
0.65
0.11
V
0.50
0.69
Pb
0.57
0.06
Cr
0.41
0.57
Mn
0.39
0.52
Table 3-7. Fraction of Cases with Statistically Significant Concentrations
Range
90% to 100%
70% to 90%
60% to 70%
<40%
Before 6/1/92
PM25, PMio, H, S, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Fe,
Zn, Br, SO4=, NO3 , SO2, OP, El
Cu, Pb, O2, O3, O4, E2
Mn
P, V, Ni, Se, As, Rb, Sr, Zr, Ol, E3
After 6/1/92
PM25, PMio, H, S, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn,
Br, Pb, SO4=, NO3 , SO2, O4, OP, El
Ti, Se, Sr, O2, O3, E2
Mn, As, Rb
P,V,Ni, Zr, O1,E3
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3.9.3 Concentration and Precision of Composite Variables
The composite variables listed in Table 3-4 can be derived from the measured variables
based on reasonable assumptions.
The uncertainty in all composites except for the four involving the quartz measurements is
calculated by quadratically adding the uncertainties of the constituent terms times the appropriate
multiplicative constant. For example, the uncertainty for soil would be:
[a(SOIL)]2 = [2.20 a(Al)]2+ [2.49 a(Si)]2 + [j.63 a(Ca)]2 + [2.42 a(Fe)]2 + [l.94 a(Ti)]2 ^_13^
Because temperature separation plays a much larger role for carbon fractions than for
composites, and because the fractions are not independent, the above calculation method cannot
be followed for OC, OMC, LAC, and TC. For these fractions the following equations for
24-hour samples are recommended:
a(OC) = (120)2 + (0.05 *OC)2
a(OMC) = -j(168)2 + (0.05* OMC)2
o(LAC) = *J(34)2 + (0.07* LAC)2
o(TC) = ^(133)2 + (0.05 *TCf (3.14)
The constant terms (120, 168, 34, 133) are appropriate for volumes near 32.4 m3, which is
typical for 24-hour samples. For other volumes they should be multiplied by (32.4/V). For
typical 12-hour samples, the constant terms should be multiplied by two.
Ammonium Sulfate (NHSCD
The sulfur on the Teflon filter is always present as sulfate. In most cases the sulfate is
fully neutralized ammonium sulfate, which is 4.125 times the sulfur concentration. The sulfate at
eastern sites during the summer is not always fully neutralized, but overall the occurrences are
rare. If 100% of the sulfur were sulfuric acid, the correct sulfate mass would be 74% of the
calculated NHSO. The uncertainty in NHSO is 1.4 times the uncertainty in S. To calculate
sulfate ion from sulfur multiply by 3.0.
Ammonium Nitrate (NHNO)
As with sulfate, the nitrate is expected to be fully neutralized ammonium nitrate. This is
1.29 times the nitrate ion concentration. The uncertainty in NHNO is 2.9 times the uncertainty in
NO3".
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Total Organic Carbon (OC) and Organic Mass by Carbon (OMC)
The total organic carbon concentration is assumed to be the sum of the four organic
fractions plus the pyrolized fraction, OP. To obtain organic mass, multiplying the total carbon by
1.4, which assumes that carbon accounts for 71% of the organic mass, is recommended. The
ratios for various typical compounds range from 1.2 to 1.8.
Organic Mass by Hydrogen (OMH)
The hydrogen on the Teflon filter is associated with sulfate, organics, nitrate, and water.
Since the analysis is done in vacuum, all water will volatilize. It is also assumed that no significant
hydrogen from nitrate remains. If one assumes that the sulfate is fully neutralized ammonium
sulfate, one can estimate the organic concentration by subtracting the hydrogen from sulfate and
multiplying the difference by a constant representing the fraction of hydrogen. (A constant of
13.75 is suggested. This gives the best comparison with OMC for the network samples.
However, a value near 10 is suggested by various typical organic compounds.) The OMH
variable is defined only when both H and S are valid measurements.
The OMH calculation is invalid when (1) there is high nitrate relative to sulfate, and (2)
the sulfur is not present as ammonium sulfate. This latter includes sites with marine sulfur and
sites in the eastern United States with unneutralized sulfate. For the summer of 1996 at 30 sites in
the western United States (excluding 6 with elevated nitrate or marine influences), the correlation
coefficient (r2) between OMH and OMC was 0.96 and the slope of the best fitting line was 0.98.
The main advantage of using OMH at these sites is that its precision is better than that for OMC
during periods of low organics as winter in the west. At sites in the east, OMH is often low
because of unneutralized sulfate and imprecise because of the high sulfate relative to organics.
The relationship under acidic conditions is considerably improved when ammonium ion is also
available. However, there is still a problem with precision.
An organic artifact was found on a batch of Teflon filters used between September 1990
and November 1991. Approximately 7% of the samples had OMH significantly larger than OMC.
The artifact was apparently completely organic (there was no elevated sulfur) and appeared
during collection. For these samples, both H and fine mass were invalidated. These variables
were not invalidated on the remaining 93% but flagged as less reliable than normal. No other
variables were invalidated. The test for this effect is included in the acceptance procedures. The
condition has not recurred.
Elemental or Light-Absorbing Carbon from Module C (LAC)
This is the sum of elemental carbon fractions. The pyrolized fraction is subtracted.
Preliminary analyses indicate that some of the OC4 fraction may absorb light and that OP may
overestimate the pyrolytic mass.
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Soil (SOIL)
This is a sum of the soil derived elements (Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, Fe) along with their normal
oxides. The variable does not depend on the type of soil, such as sediment, sandstone, or
limestone. One fine element, K, however, may partly derive from smoke as well as soil. This has
been eliminated from the calculation and Fe has been substituted as a surrogate. This is discussed
in nonsoil potassium below.
Nonsoil Potassium (KNON)
Fine potassium has two major sources, soil and smoke, with the smoke potassium in much
smaller particles than the soil potassium. The potassium in coarse particles will be solely
produced from soil. The soil potassium is estimated from the measured concentration of Fe and
the ration of K/Fe of 0.6 measured on coarse samples (2.5 jam to 15 jam) collected between 1982
and 1986. This ratio depends on the soil composition and varies slightly from site to site. If the
ratio were slightly smaller (i.e., 0.5 jam), the KNON values will be negative when there is no
smoke influence. The residual potassium, K - 0.6 * Fe, is then assumed to be produced by smoke.
The burning of most organic fuels will produce potassium vapor. During transport, this vapor
will transform into fine particles. The KNON parameter is not a quantitative measure of the total
smoke mass, since the ratio of nonsoil potassium to total smoke mass will vary widely, depending
on the fuel type and the transport time. However, the KNON parameter can be used as an
indicator of a nonsoil contribution for samples with large KNON. In some situations there may be
some fine Fe from industrial sources which could cause occasional smoke episodes to be lost.
Reconstructed Mass (RCMO
The reconstructed mass is the sum of sulfate (assuming ammonium sulfate), soil, and
sodium from the Teflon filter (Module A) and organic and elemental carbon from the quartz filter
(Module C). The nitrate from the nylon filter (module B) is not included. The reason is the
RCMC is generally used as a comparison with the gravimetric mass measured on the Teflon filter.
Because the Teflon filter loses a large fraction of the paniculate nitrate by volatilization during
sampling, it would be preferred not to include the nitrate from the nylon filter in the
reconstruction. At most sites, the nitrate mass is a few percent of the reconstructed mass.
Precision
The precisions of the composite variables are estimated by quadratically adding the
precisions of the components. This assumes that the precisions are independent. Since this is not
quite valid, the calculated precisions for composites formed by adding (SOIL, OMC, LAC,
RCMC, RCMA) are slightly smaller than they should be. For example, the average calculated
precision for SOIL of 4% should probably be closer to 5%. The composite formed by subtraction
(OMH) may have a slightly smaller precision than reported.
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3.10 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Aerosol data can be used to describe the spatial and temporal variation of visibility as
measured by the chemical composition of the visibility-degrading aerosol. Data can also be used
for source apportionment and as background information for New Source Review and PSD
modeling applications. Aerosol data are also used to further explore the relationship between
optical extinction (absorption and scattering) and various aerosol species. In-turn, reconstructed
extinction data can be used to depict visibility changes for NSR and PSD modeling applications.
Several application examples and analysis considerations are presented in the following
subsections.
3.10.1 Calculating Reconstructed Aerosol Extinction
Atmospheric extinction can be estimated from the mass of various particulate species
collected with the IMPROVE samplers if the scattering cross section of each species is known,
and if the hourly ambient relative humidity during sampling is also known. The equations used to
determine reconstructed aerosol extinction follow IMPROVE Program protocol and are outlined
below.
Species that contribute to atmospheric extinction are classified as:
Sulfates
• Nitrates
Organics
• Soil
Coarse Mass
• Particle Absorption (babs)
• Atmospheric Rayleigh Scattering (bRay)
In general, the higher the relative humidity (RH) the greater the scattering of soluble aerosols.
The relationship between RH and scattering efficiency for ammonium sulfate aerosols with a mass
mean diameter of 0.3 |j,m and a geometric size distribution of 1.5 is shown in Figure 3-6. This
function, referred to as/(RH), is given by:
f(PH) = bscat(RH)/bsc
where bscat(0%) and bscat(RH) are the dry and wet scattering, respectively. Ammonium sulfate and
ammonium nitrate mass are associated with this function.
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An equation used by the IMPROVE Program to estimate reconstruct aerosol extinction is:
be* = (3)f(RH) [Sulfate]
+ (3) f(RH) [Nitrate]
+ (4) [OMC, Organic Mass Carbon]
+ (1) [Soil] (3'16)
+ (0.6) [CM, Coarse Mass]
+ babs
where the first 5 components represent the light scattering by aerosol species, babs represents the
coefficient of light absorption for fine particles, and bRay represents the light scattered by
molecules of gas in the natural atmosphere which varies with atmospheric pressure and is a
site-specific measurement based on altitude. Brackets indicate the mass concentration of the
aerosol species or element. Three (3) m2/g is the dry scattering efficiency of sulfates and nitrates,
four (4) m2/g is the dry scattering efficiency of organics, and one (1) m2/g and 0.6 m2/g are the
respective scattering efficiencies for soil and coarse mass (Sisler, 1996).
Caution should be taken when comparing reconstructed extinction with measured
extinction from optical transmissometer measurements (Section 4.1). Reconstructed extinction is
typically 70% - 80% of the measured extinction. The following differences/similarities are
considered:
• Data collection. Reconstructed extinction measurements represent 24-hour samples
collected twice per week. Transmissometer extinction estimates represent continuous
measurements summarized as hourly means, 24 hours per day, 7 days per week.
• Point versus path measurements. Reconstructed extinction represents an indirect
measure of extinction at one point. The transmissometer directly measures the
irradiance of light (which calculated gives a direct measure of extinction) over a finite
atmospheric path.
• Relative humidity (RH) cutoff. Daily average reconstructed measurements are flagged
as invalid when the daily average RH is greater than 98%. Hourly average
transmissometer measurements are flagged invalid when the hourly average RH is
greater than 90%. These flagging methods often result in data sets that do not reflect
the same period of time, or do not properly interpret short-term meteorological
conditions.
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7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Ammonium Sulfate
Relative Humidity Growth Curve
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Relative Humidity %
80
90
100
Figure 3-6. The Relationship Between Scattering Efficiency and Relative Humidity
3.10.2 Source-Type Tracer Analysis
Tracer analysis is another analysis approach that uses aerosol data to identify source types
or individual sources. For example, the presence of arsenic is a good indicator of copper smelter
emissions. Table 3-7 summarizes the common source types of a number of measured trace
elements by abundances in percent mass (Chow, 1995). Tracer analysis can also be used to
estimate source contributions and to identify general transport patterns.
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Table 3-8
Common Source Types of Measured Trace Elements (Chow, 1995)
Source Type
Paved Road Dust
Unpaved Road Dust
Construction
Agriculture Soil
Natural Soil
Lake Bed
Motor Vehicle
Vegetative Burning
Residual Oil Combustion
Incinerator
Coal-Fired Boiler
Oil Fired Power Plant
Smelter Fine
Antimony Roaster
Marine
Dominant
Particle Size
Coarse
(2.5 to 10 nm)
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Fine
(0 to 2.5 urn)
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine and
Coarse
Chemical Abundances in Percent Mass
<0.1% 0.1 to 1% 1 to 10% >10%
Cr, Sr, Pb, Zr
N03 ', NH/, P,
Zn, Sr, Ba
Cr, Mn, Zn, Sr, Ba
N03", NH44, Cr, Zn, Sr
Cr, Mn, Sr, Zn, Ba
Mn, Sr, Ba
Cr, Ni, Y, Sr, Ba
Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn,
Br, Rb, Pb
K4, OC, Cl, Ti,
Cr, Co, Ga, Se
V, Mn, Cu,
Ag, Sn
Cl, Cr, Mn, Ga, As,
Se, Br, Rb, Zr
V, Ni, Se, As, Br, Ba
V, Mn, Sb, Cr, Ti
V, Cl, Ni, Mn
Ti, V, Ni, Sr, Zr, Pd,
Ag.Sn, Sb, Pb
SO/, Na4, K*, P,
S, Cl, Mn, Zn, Ba, Ti
SO/, Na4, K4, P, S,
Cl, Mn, Ba.Ti
SO/, K4, S, Ti
SO/, Na4, K4, S,
Cl, Mn, Ba, Ti
Cr, Na4, EC, P,
S, Cl.Ti
K4. Ti
Si, Cl, Al, Si, P, Ca,
Mn, Fe, Zn, Br, Pb
NCV, SO/, NH/,
Na+, S
NH/, Na4, Zn,
Fe, Si
K4, Al, Ti,
Zn, Hg
NH/, P, K, Ti, V, Ni,
Zn, Sr, Ba, Pb
Al, SI. P, K, Zn
Cd, Zn, Mg, Na,
Ca, K, Se
SO/, Sb, Pb
Al, Si, K, Ca, Fe,
Cu, Zn, Ba, La
Elemental Carbon (EC),
Al, K, Ca, Fe
OC, Al, K, Ca, Fe
OC, Al, K, Ca, Fe
OC, Al, K, Ca, Fe
OC.AI, Mg, K,
Ca, Fe
SO/, Na4, OC, Al,
S, Cl, K, Ca, Fe
cr, N03- ,
SO/, NH/, S
cr, K4, ci, K
V, OC, EC, Ni
NO3, Na4, EC, Si,
S, Ca, Fe, Br, La, Pb
SO/, OC, EC. Al,
S, Ca, Fe
NH/, OC, EC, Na,
Ca, Pb
Fe, Cu, As, Pb
S
N03 , SO/. OC, EC
Organic Carbon
(OC), Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
OC, EC
OC, EC
S, SO/
SO/, NH/, OC, Cl
Si
S, SO/
S
None reported
Cr, Na4, Na, Cl
5-41
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3.11 AEROSOL MONITORING STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AND
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS
The Crocker Nuclear Laboratory document entitled IMPROVE Paniculate Monitoring
Network Standard Operating Procedures is available as a pdf file on
http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html. This includes the following aerosol-related
Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions:
Document Number
SOP 101
TI101A
TI101B
TI101C
SOP 126
SOP 151
TI151A
SOP 176
TI 176 A
TI 176B
TI176C
SOP 201
TI201A
TI201B
SOP 226
TI 226A
SOP 251
SOP 276
SOP 301
SOP 326
SOP 351
SOP 376
Title
Procurement and Acceptance Testing
Filter Procurement and Acceptance Testing
Sampler Construction and Testing
Filter Cassette Construction
Site Selection
Installation of Samplers
Installation of Controller Module
Calibration, Programming, and Site Documentation
Calibration of Audit Devices Using Spirometer
Final Flow Rate Audit Calculations
Flow Rate Audits and Adjustment
Sampler Maintenance by Site Operators
IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Operations Manual
Forms for Flow Audits by Site Operators
Annual Site Maintenance
Sampler Wiring Diagrams
Sample Handling
Optical Absorption Analysis
X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis
PIXE and PESA Analysis
Data Processing and Quality Assurance
Data Archiving and Reporting
3-42
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4.0 OPTICAL MONITORING
As an example of an existing visibility-related optical monitoring program, this section
describes IMPROVE optical monitoring and data management techniques. References made to
manufacturers or trade names are not intended to constitute EPA endorsement or recommendations
for use. New or improved instruments, instrument upgrades, and methods of monitoring are
continually being developed.
Optical monitoring provides a quantitative measure of ambient light extinction (light
attenuation per unit distance) or its components to represent visibility conditions. IMPROVE
protocols collect continuous measures of bext and/or bscat using ambient long-path transmissometers
and/or nephelometers respectively. A tabular summary of optical instrument specifications are
provided in Table 4-1. Water vapor in the air can affect visibility, therefore IMPROVE protocols
state that temperature and relative humidity sensors must be collocated with the chosen optical
instrument.
Sections 4.1 and 4.2 describe the measurement criteria, instrumentation, installation and site
documentation, routine operations, data collection, reduction and validation, reporting and archive,
quality assurance, and analysis and interpretation required for transmissometer and nephelometer
monitoring respectively. Operation manuals and manufacturer's specifications are provided in
Appendix B.
4.1 TRANSMISSOMETER
4.1.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation
Transmissometers directly measure the irradiance of a light source after the light has traveled
over a finite atmospheric path. The transmittance of the path is calculated by dividing the measured
irradiance at the end of the path with the calibrated initial intensity of the light source. Using
Bouger's law, the average extinction of the path is calculated from the transmittance and length of
the path. It is attributed to the average concentration of all atmospheric gases and ambient aerosols
along the path. Transmissometers make a completely ambient measurement of bext without perturbing
or selectively sampling atmospheric aerosols or gases.
Several measurement criteria cautions should be considered. Transmissometers require path
lengths of a few kilometers to achieve the necessary sensitivity to resolve extinctions near the
Rayleigh limit. In areas with non-uniform distribution of aerosols, comparison of measured extinction
and reconstructed extinction from concurrent particulate samples can often be misleading. Extinction
measurements from transmissometers also are affected by any meteorological or optical interferences
present along the path which are independent from the ambient aerosol. An additional concern for
transmissometers is the lack of an absolute calibration standard. Uncertainty measurements
associated with these measurement cautions are presented in Section 4.1.8.
4-1
-------
Table 4-1
IMPROVE Protocol Monitoring
Optical Instrument Specifications
Parameter
Atmospheric
Extinction
Coefficient
bext
(at 550 nm)
Ambient
Scattering
Coefficient
bscat
(at 550 nm)
Instrument
Optec LPV-2 Long
Range
Transmissometer
Optec NGN- 2
Open Air
Integrating
Nephelometer
Sample Frequency
a. 10-minute average of
1 -minute, integrated
samples taken once
an hour between 3
and 1 3 minutes after
the hour.
b. Hourly average of
1 -minute integrated
samples.
a. 2-minute integrated
sample every 5
minutes reduced to
hourly averages.
Reporting
Interval
Hourly
Hourly
System Accuracy
! No absolute calibration
standard
! Accuracy inferred from
comparison to
(bscat + babs) and
reconstructed be]!t from
aerosol measurements
±10% of true value for air
near Rayleigh and using two
minutes of integration
(longer integrations will
increase the accuracy
i.e., 10 minutes of
integration will increase
accuracy to ±4.5%)
System Precision
Path dependent:
±0.003 km'1 for
10 km working
path and 0.010
nominal extinction
value or ±3%
transmission
! Calculated from
regular (usually
weekly)
zero/span
calibrations
! Generally less
than 10%
Resolution
0.001 km'1
±1 count,
(Serial Output)
(one Rayleigh is
—12 counts)
±2.44 mv
(Analog Channel
lor 2)
(one Rayleigh is
~12.0mv)
Range
0.001 km'1 to
1.0km-1
0 to 32,768 count
(Serial Output)
(typically equal to
0.01 km'1 to
24.00 km-1 after
post processing)
0 volts to
10. 00 volts (Analog
Channel 1 or 2)
(typically equal to
0.01 km'1 to
7.00 km-1 after post
processing)
Sensor Specifications
! 550 nm ±2 nm center wavelength and 1 0 nm
±1 nm bandwidth
! Output analog
-bext;0 Vto 10 V, 0.01 V = 0.001 km'1
-VR;0 V to 10 V, 0.01 V=lkm
- raw counts; 0 V to 10 V
- Std. Dev. (N- 1 samples) of 1 -minute
integrated samples
! Output serial (RS232) 8 bits, 1 stop bit, no parity,
9600 baud default
! Power required 12V DC
! 2 components include a transmitter & receiver
separated by ~1 km to 10 km based on average
visual air quality
! Operating temperature range -20°C to ±45°C
nominal
! 550 nm center wavelength, 1 00 nm bandwidth
photopic response
! 2 analog channels, 0 V to 10.000 volt, 0.00244
volt steps or 0 V to 5.000 volt, 0.00122 volt steps,
jumper selected, 2 Q output impedance, current
limited
Channel 1: NORMALIZED SCATTERED
LIGHT
Channel 2: STATUS value
! Output serial
RS-232, RX, TX, GND
8 data bits, 1 stop bit, no parity,
televideo 920 emulation, FULL-DUPLEX mode,
9600 baud default, others selectable
STATUS, Raw SCATTERED LIGHT Count,
Raw LAMP BRIGHTNESS Count,
NORMALIZED SCATTERED LIGHT Count,
INTEGRATION TIME in Minutes,
TEMPERATURE, DATE inyear:month:day,
TIME inhourminutes
! Power required: 13.8 volt ±0.3 volt DC,
4.5 amps, regulated required
! Operating temperature range
-20 ° C to ±45 ° C nominal
Traceability
N/A
(see system
accuracy
statement)
N/A
Probe Placement
! 1km to 10 km
separation between
transmitter and
receiver depending
on average visual air
quality
! Ends placed near
terrain drop offs to
avoid surface
heating-based
optical interferences
! Secure optical
mounting
platforms/mounts
required
Normally at 3 m to
5 m above ground at
probe height of
collocated parti culate
samplers
Calibration
! No absolute
calibration
! System with
operational and
reference lamps
calibrated at 300 m
path distance
! Calibrations
performed
annually, prior to
field installation,
and immediately
after field removal
! Calibrations
compared with
collocated
reference
transmissometer
during annual site
visit
zero:
particle free Rayleigh
air provided internally
with filters at 6 -hour
intervals
span:
upscale span usually
performed weekly
using SUVA 134a
refrigerant gas with a
known scattering
coefficient
zero and span
calibrations are also
performed during
installation, removal,
and laboratory testing
-------
The Optec, Inc. LPV-2 long-path transmissometer has been in use since 1986. Over 30
instruments are currently operating in various visual air quality monitoring programs in North
America, from highly-polluted urban areas to pristine wilderness environments. The system consists
of a constant output light source transmitter and a computer-controlled photometer receiver. Other
specific transmissometer system components include transmitter and receiver alti-azimuth bases, a
terminal strip, an air temperature/relative humidity sensor, a DCP and antenna, and a strip chart
recorder. A general diagram of the standard transmissometer system components is provided in
Figure 4-1. Detailed information regarding transmissometer instrumentation or operation can be
found in Model LPV Long Path Visibility Transmissometer Technical Manual for Theory of
Operation and Operating Procedures (Optec, Inc., 1991) and Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions for Transmissometer Systems (Air Resource Specialists, Inc., 1993-1996).
The transmitter emits a uniform, chopped, incandescent light beam of constant intensity at
regular intervals for a programmed duration. It has two components: an electronic control box, and
a light source or transmitter. Transmitter optics concentrate light from a 15 watt tungsten filament
lamp into a narrow, well-defined uniform cone, magnifying the beam to the equivalent of a bare 1500
watt lamp, allowing the operator to precisely aim the light beam at the receiver. Although a 1 ° cone
of light is emitted from the transmitter, only the center 0.17° portion is used for routine monitoring.
Field and laboratory measurements of beam isotropy have indicated that the central 0.17° cone has
less than 1% variation.
Light intensity emitted from the transmitter is precisely controlled by an optical feedback
system, that continuously samples the center 0.17° portion of the outgoing beam and performs fine
adjustments to keep the light output constant. Light emitted from the transmitter is "chopped" at 78
pulses a second by a mechanical spinning disk in front of the lamp. This allows the receiver computer
to differentiate the lamp signal from background or ambient lighting. An eyepiece lets the operator
precisely aim the light beam.
The receiver gathers light from the transmitter, converts it to an electrical signal, isolates and
measures the received transmitter light, and calculates and outputs visibility results in the desired
form. The receiver has three components: a long focal-length telescope, a photodetector eyepiece
assembly, and a low power computer.
The telescope gathers the transmitter light, which includes both background illumination and
the transmitter signal, focuses it through a narrow band 550 nm interference filter, and focuses it on
a photodiode that converts it to an electrical signal. The receiver computer "locks-on" to the
transmitter light's chopped frequency and separates the transmitter light from ambient lighting. The
computer compares the measured transmitter light with the known (calibrated) transmitter light to
calculate the transmission of the intervening atmosphere.
Effects of atmospheric turbulence are minimized by using 6,250 samples of the signal to
calculate a one-minute average reading. The resultant reading is held in the computer and is available
to a datalogger (DCP) until the next value is calculated. Like the transmitter, the receiver is equipped
with an eyepiece to precisely aim the detector, and an interval timer to control the interval and
duration of measurements.
4-3
-------
Receiver Station
(6'x 6'x 8')
Strip Chart Recorder
Receiver Computer
Detector Head
Receiver Telescope
T~\ Alti-Azimuth
I Base
/ I Terminal Strip
£
HandarDCP
I
,,
Power Supply
Rubber Boot
Window
Assembly
Sand Filled
Post
Air Temp./Rel.
Humidity Sensor
DCP Antenna
Receive Light (.07°
Detector Cone)
Hood
NOTE: Not shown are:
Servicing supplies, shipping case,
surge protector, trickle charger,
A.C. power.
Shelter Supports
Post Isolated from
Shelter Vibration
Transmitter Station
(3'x3'x4'6")
Hood
Light Output (1" Beam)
NOTE: Not shown are:
Lamp case, servicing supplies,
solar panels, solar panel regulator.
Shelter Supports
(if needed)
Roof Hinges
To Side
Figure 4-1. Transmissometer Receiver and Transmitter Components.
4-4
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4.1.2 Siting Criteria
The fundamental requirement for operation of the LPV-2 transmissometer is a clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight (sight path) between the transmitter and receiver. To reduce the effects
of thermal turbulence, the sight path should be elevated as far above the terrain surface as practical.
In rural applications, the transmitter and receiver are typically located near terrain drop-offs; in urban
applications, the sight path can be from one building to another. If possible, locating the sight path
over a body of water should be avoided due to the increased frequency of temperature inversions,
fog, etc.
The primary consideration in determining whether a path length is acceptable, is the expected
range of visual air quality in that area. Generally, remote areas in the western United States require
path lengths from 4-8 km, while eastern sites require 1-4 km lengths. If the mean visual range for the
area is known, a usable path distance can be calculated as follows:
Sight Path Length = Mean Visual Range x 0.033 (4-1)
Unless otherwise specified in the monitoring objectives for a transmissometer site, the sight
path should be as level as possible. If siting constraints result in a significant (>1.0°) sight path
vertical angle, orientation of the receiver telescope to lighting conditions throughout the year should
be thoroughly considered (e.g., a receiver telescope viewing approximately south at an upward angle
could be susceptible to periods of receiver detector saturation, especially with low winter sun angles).
It is generally preferable in such situations to configure the site with the receiver at the higher point
and viewing downward toward the transmitter.
The primary siting criterion is to ensure that the air mass along the entire sight path between
the receiver and transmitter is representative of the larger air mass to be monitored. Selected
transmissometer sites should have most of the following characteristics:
! Be located in an area representative of the air mass to be monitored
! Have a clear, unobstructed sight path between the receiver and transmitter
! Have adequate sight path length and height for representative monitoring of the air mass
! Be representative of the same air mass measured by other aerosol or optical monitoring
! Have AC power or adequate solar exposure for continuous year-round operation
! Be oriented so that lighting conditions do not affect measurements
! Be removed from local pollution influences (e.g., vehicle exhaust,wood smoke, road dust,
etc.)
! Be secure from vandalism
! Have available servicing personnel (operator)
! Be reasonably accessible during all months of the year
4-5
-------
Various siting criteria to be considered as they apply to the actual transmitter and receiver
station locations are:
! Stability of ground surface — frost-heaving, downslope soil movement, soil saturation,
and other earth movements will affect instrument alignment.
! Lightning exposure — sites that are susceptible to lightning strikes should be avoided.
! Local land manager or land owner cooperation — establish whether the local land manager
or land owner will be cooperative in allowing installation of the sites and continuous
access to the sites for the duration of the study.
! Vegetation growth — growth of vegetation into the sight path must be taken into account.
! Data collection platform (DCP) transmission clearance — verify that DCP transmissions
will not be blocked by vegetation, geographical features, or structures.
! Isolation from radio interference — instrument circuitry is sensitive to strong radio signals.
Avoid siting close to broadcast antennas or repeaters.
! Snow accumulation — the effects of significant snowfall accumulations on instrument,
DCP, and solar panel operation should be considered.
! Avoidance of lighting interference — sunlight reflecting from solar panels, large windows,
or other large reflective surfaces near the transmitter can saturate the receiver detector
and affect readings.
4.1.3 Installation and Site Documentation
Transmissometer installation requires stable mounting posts, adequate sheltering, and a
reliable power supply. Continuous, correct transmitter and receiver telescope alignment is critical for
proper transmissometer operation. The transmitter and receiver mounting posts must be installed in
such a manner that any movement due to earth movement, temperature fluctuations, vibration, etc.
is minimized. Mounting posts can be attached to pre-existing rock or concrete surface, to a concrete
pier in the soil, or to a concrete pad. Alti-azimuth instrument bases allow precise alignment of the
transmitter and receiver telescopes. Sheltering must be waterproof, but heating or cooling are not
recommended.
Transmissometer installations may be powered by line power (AC) or solar power (DC). A
standard receiver station solar panel array is comprised of two large solar panels which charge four
deep-cycle batteries. A third, smaller solar panel provides power to a data collection platform (DCP).
A standard transmitter station solar panel array is comprised of three large solar panels which charge
four deep-cycle batteries.
After component installation, a distance measurement must be made from the front of the
receiver telescope tube to the front of the transmitter telescope tube. Transmissometer calibration
numbers using this accurate distance value are then recalculated and dialed in on the receiver
computer.
4-6
-------
System operation is verified after the instrument settings and system timing have been set at
the transmitter and receiver. Upon completing the installation and verifying system operation, all
operators, back-up operators, and any other involved or interested on-site personnel should be
trained, including reviewing a site operator's manual. The manual contains standard operating
procedures and technical instructions for operator maintenance, troubleshooting, system diagrams,
replacing and shipping components, annual site visit procedures, field audit procedures, and
manufacturer's manuals (ARS, Inc. SOP 4110, TI4110-3100, TI4110-3300, TI4110-3350, TI 4110-
3375, SOP 4115, TI 4115-3000, SOP 4710, Technical Manual for Theory of Operation and
Operating Procedures (Optec, Inc.), and Instruction Manual for Primeline 6723 (Soltec
Distribution, Inc.). A copy of the manual should be left at the transmitter site, the receiver site, and
at the office of on-site personnel. Other on-site documentation includes the completion of a site visit
trip report, photographic documentation (including photographs of the shelters, all components,
shelter supports, sight path, power supply, etc.), and documentation of any miscellaneous information
necessary to make a complete site description, including site map and site specifications (latitude,
longitude, instrument elevations, elevation angle, sight path distance, etc.).
4.1.4 System Performance and Maintenance
System performance and maintenance includes routine servicing, annual site visits, instrument
calibration, and annual servicing.
4.1.4.1 Routine Servicing
Site operators should perform routine servicing by visiting both the receiver and transmitter
shelters at 7 to 10 day intervals. Routine servicing involves documenting the initial condition and
operation of the components, inspecting and correcting alignment of both the transmitter and
receiver, cleaning optics of the system (including shelter windows, telescope lenses, and solar panels),
recording the lamp voltage and battery voltages, and recording receiver display readings and switch
settings. Timing should be checked and corrected if necessary. The transmissometer system should
follow the following timing sequence:
HR:MI:SEC Action
XX:00:00 Transmitter lamp turns on
XX:03:00 Receiver begins 10-min. average reading (cannot be observed)
XX: 13:20 Receiver finishes reading, updates display, and changes toggle state
XX: 16:00 Transmitter lamp turns off
XX:00:00 Sequence repeats hourly
Additional routine servicing, to be performed monthly or at a two-month interval, includes
checking the transmitter lamp status (changing the lamp every two months), inspecting the physical
condition of solar panels, batteries, battery fluid levels, DCP antenna, and strip chart recorder
operation.
4-7
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4.1.4.2 Annual Site Visits
Annual site visits are performed to exchange the existing transmissometer system for a newly
serviced system, and to train site operators in servicing and maintaining the monitoring system
components. Primary tasks for a typical annual site visit include:
! Documenting initial conditions of the components
! Verifying instrument operation
! Conducting site inventory
! Performing site servicing
! Conducting an annual field audit
! Performing a post-audit verification check
Site operator training should be performed to discuss the purpose of the monitoring program
and theory of transmissometer system operation.
4.1.4.3 Instrument Calibration
Calibration of the LPV-2 transmissometer involves determining the irradiance from the
transmitter lamp that would be measured by the receiver if the optical sight path between the two
units allowed 100% transmission. All components of the LPV-2 transmissometer must be calibrated
as a unit. Each transmissometer lamp has its own calibration number for use at a specific site with
a specific transmissometer system. Receiver computers are individually calibrated during annual
servicing and may be interchanged for emergency maintenance or for use with the audit instrument.
Recalibration of an instrument with a receiver computer other than the one used at calibration does
not require instrument recalibration, but only recalculation of calibration numbers. No other system
component, including lamps, may be interchanged with another transmissometer without
recalibration.
All calibrations are currently performed at the Fort Collins Transmissometer Calibration and
Test Facility, located at Colorado State University's Christman Field. The facility includes sheltering
and all support equipment required to conduct operational transmissometer calibrations. The
calibration path (the distance between transmitter and receiver during calibration) is 0.3 km. At this
distance, the atmospheric transmission can be estimated with a high degree of accuracy for use in
calculating the calibration number. Because lamp brightness is dependent on lamp voltage, the lamp
voltage is measured in the laboratory prior to calibration, at the test facility during calibrations, and
again in the laboratory following calibration. A shift in lamp voltage may indicate damage to the lamp
or a malfunction of the lamp control circuitry.
To ensure that the detector alignment is valid over a longer path, a detector uniformity test
is performed at the test facility as the first step in performing any calibration.
Calibrations should be performed annually, prior to field installation, and immediately after
field removal. Pre-field calibration includes the following procedures:
4-8
-------
! Burn-in of transmissometer lamps
! Measurement of pre-calibration lamp voltages
! Setup of instrumentation at the test facility
! Measurement of receiver detector uniformity
! Preliminary calibration of 4 lamps
! Final calibration of 10 lamps
! Documentation of calibration configuration, weather and visibility conditions, and lamp
voltage measurements on the calibration form
! Measurement of pre-field lamp voltages
! Quality assurance review of calibration data
! Entry of calibration data into the calibration database
! Calculation of site-specific pre-field calibration numbers for each lamp
All transmissometer lamps require a 72-hour burn-in cycle prior to being assigned to an
operational instrument. The burn-in cycle should be performed in the laboratory to stabilize the
filament position and reduce the incidence of premature lamp failure in the operational network.
A standardized calibration number is used in calculating lamp brightening and varies from
instrument to instrument. The standardized calibration number is calculated using the following
equation:
Calibration No. = (CP/WPf * (WG/CG) * (WA/CA)Z * (I/FT) * WT * (1/7) * CR (4-2)
where:
CP = calibration path length, 0.300 km
WP = working path length, 0.500 to 10.000 km
(5.000 km for standardized calibration number)
CG = calibration gain, nominal values are 100, 300, 500, 700, or 900
WG = working gain, nominal values are 100, 300, 500, 700, or 900
(500 for standardized calibration number)
CA = calibration aperture, 101.51 mm
WA = working aperture, approximately 110.00 mm
(110.00 for standardized calibration number)
FT = calibration filter (NDF) transmittance, 2.74% or 0.0274
WT = total window transmittance for the operational system (typically 80% or 0.800)
(1.000 for standardized calibration number)
4-9
-------
T = estimated atmospheric transmittance for the calibration path (x=e-bext*cp)
CR = normalized average of 10-12 readings over the calibration path
Post-field calibration should be performed prior to any cleaning or servicing of the instrument
and includes: a receiver detector uniformity check, calibration of all operational lamps, and calculating
a lamp brightening factor for each post-calibrated lamp.
The transmitted light intensity of transmissometer lamps increases (brightens) with increased
hours of lamp use. On a lamp-by-lamp basis, this brightening factor is calculated by comparing the
pre-field and post-field calibration numbers and applying this change over the total number of lamp
hours accumulated during field operation. Calculating a lamp brightening factor in this manner
assumes a linear increase in lamp brightness. A lamp brightening database has been developed, which
includes the shift in lamp brightness (based on a comparison of pre-field and post-field calibration
numbers) as a function of lamp-use hours. All post-calibrated lamp data are added to this database.
Lamp brightening statistics are then analyzed (using a set of lamps with specific lamp factors such as
operating voltage or lamp manufacturer). A lamp brightening curve is defined for these lamps and
a lamp drift correction factor applied to the operational transmissometer data.
Calibration of a shelter window for use in a transmissometer network requires measurement
of light loss as transmitted light passes through the window. Initial measurements of window
transmittance should be performed at the test facility and follow the basic measurement procedures
described for other calibrations. Individual and combined transmittance should be measured for the
transmitter and receiver windows. The transmittance is determined by measuring the light received
at the receiver with the window(s) in place and the window(s) removed. The ratio of the average
readings with the windows in to the average readings with the windows out, is the window
transmittance.
4.1.4.4 Annual Servicing
Each transmissometer returned from a field site for annual laboratory maintenance should be
inspected and tested prior to initiating any servicing procedures that could invalidate the instrument
calibration. Annual servicing includes a post-field instrument inspection, functional test, and
calibration. Maintenance also performed includes:
! Disassembly and cleaning
! Optics alignment checks and realignment
! Chopper motor replacement
! Instrument timing checks
! Receiver computer gain measurements and calibration checks
! Internal batteries replacement
! Operational lamps replacement
! Instrument upgrades and modifications (as required)
! Pre-field calibration
4-10
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4.1.5 Data Collection
Transmissometers operate in a cycled mode, collecting a 10-minute average of the transmitter
irradiance at the start of each hour of the day. The receiver is programmed to begin sampling three
minutes after the transmitter lamp turns on. Over the next 10 minutes, the receiver collects and stores
10 one-minute averages. The receiver then uses the 10 one-minute averages to calculate and output
an analog 10-minute average value for the received lamp irradiance.
Data are logged on data collection platforms (DCPs) and are processed by several entities
before being available for downloading via modem. Monitoring stations with DCPs undergo the
following data downloading sequence:
! The DCP logs transmissometer data at pre-programmed intervals.
! At three-hour intervals, the DCP transmits the past three hours' data (three 10-minute
averages) and its internal battery voltage to the GOES (Geostationary Orbiting Earth
Satellite).
! The GOES satellite retransmits the data to a downlink facility.
! The data are made available via the dissemination facility.
! The data are downloaded via telephone modem.
Data can be automatically collected from the DCP via computer software through telephone
modem. For periods when data are lost due to failure of on-site dataloggers, strip charts from the
backup recorders can be mailed and reviewed to retrieve as much useful data as possible. Air
temperature and relative humidity data should also be collected with transmissometer data.
4.1.6 Data Reduction and Validation
4.1.6.1 Data Reduction
Transmissometer data should be compiled into site-specific Level-A files. These files include
hourly data (one 10-minute average) and should be reviewed daily by data analysts to determine the
operational characteristics of each site. Any apparent problem should result in a telephone call to the
site operator in an attempt to resolve the inconsistencies.
Raw data plots may be generated bi-monthly from raw data files. Data from operator log
sheets should be checked against data collected via data collection platform (DCP) to identify
inconsistencies and errors.
Level-A transmissometer data should be plotted bi-monthly and reviewed monthly.
Inconsistent or suspicious data can then be identified and troubleshooting procedures initiated. As
completed log sheets from transmissometer sites are received, the pertinent information (visibility
conditions, alignment, system timing, instrument problems, etc.) should be manually transferred to
the bi-monthly plots. This procedure helps to identify the exact time of lamp changes, alignment
corrections, and other actions done by the site operator affecting instrument operation. This
information is used to update the lamp and code files for Level-A validation.
4-11
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4.1.6.2 Data Validation
Transmissometer data should undergo three validation levels: Level-A, Level-0, and Level-1.
All three levels of validation include hourly average data. Level-A validation includes visual review
and examination of the raw data and error files. Level-0 validation includes searching for
questionable or physically unrealizable data. Level-1 validation includes calculating uncertainty values
and identifying values affected by weather or optical interferences.
Level-A data files should be compiled into seasonal data files for each site. Standard
meteorological seasons are defined as:
Winter December, January, and February
Spring March, April, and May
Summer June, July, and August
Fall September, October, and November
Site-specific code files should be updated to include the most current information available
regarding calibration parameters, instrument and support equipment operation, operator notes, and
validity codes. The seasonal Level-A files should be checked for inconsistencies with a screening
program that verifies data integrity and assigns validity codes. Level-A validity codes should include:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from an alternate logger
6 = Valid: bext data exceeds maximum (overrange)
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
9 = Valid: bext data below Rayleigh (underrange)
A = Invalid: Misalignment
L = Invalid: Defective lamp
S = Invalid: Suspect data
W = Invalid: Unclean optics
Level-0 data files should be generated from the Level-A data with a separate but redundant
data screening program. At Level-0, transmissometer data are corrected for lamp brightening and
converted to bext using site-specific calibration information. The lamp brightening correction is based
on the calculated average drift of a number of lamps. The algorithm for calculating the drift-related
offset applied to each 6ext value is:
Let ft = 16; number of minutes per hour the lamp is on.
t2 = 60; number of minutes in an hour.
t3 = number of lamp-on hours for current lamp.
L = number of hours the lamp resides in the transmitter.
r = path length.
The lamp-on time (t3) for the current lamp is:
£s = L * £A (4-3)
4-12
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The lamp drift correction factor (Fdrift) is a function of the lamp-on hours (t3) defined by the following
curve for Olympus lamps operating at a nominal voltage of 5.9 VDC:
. 0.4405
(4-4)
The lamp drift corrected transmittance (rcorr) is:
T = [1- (f. ,/100)]*r
corr L x drift /J
(4-5)
where T is the measured transmittance. The drift corrected bejfi is:
(4-6)
where r = path distance.
Level-1 data should be generated from the Level-0 files with a third data and validity code
screening and the addition of:
! Calculation of uncertainty values for all hourly data, and
! Identification of hourly valid bext data that may be affected by meteorological or optical
interferences.
Level-1 validity codes are:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from an alternate logger
4x = Weather: A letter code representing specific conditions as noted below:
Condition
RH > 90%
bext > maximum threshold
bext uncertainty > threshold
Abext > Delta threshold
Letter Code
ABCDEFGHIJ KLMNO
x x
X X
X X
X X
X X X
X X
X X
XX XXX
X X
X X
X X X X
X X
A A A A A A A A
Z Weather observation between two other weather observations
4-13
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Threshold values are different for each site.
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
9 = Invalid: bext data below Rayleigh (underrange)
A = Invalid: Misalignment
L = Invalid: Defective lamp
S = Invalid: Suspect data
W = Invalid: Unclean optics
Validity codes for meteorological data include:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from an alternate logger
5 = Invalid: Data > maximum or < minimum
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
A -99 in any data field indicates missing or invalid data.
See Section 4.1.8, Quality Assurance, for a detailed discussion regarding uncertainty
measurements.
A screening program should be used to again check all data and validity codes for
inconsistencies. The data should then be reduced to four-hour average values of extinction (bext),
standard visual range (SVR), and haziness (dv). The time periods of the four-hour average values
are:
0300 0000 - 0359 hours
0700 0400 - 0759 hours
1100 0800-1159 hours
1500 1200-1559 hours
1900 1600 - 1959 hours
2300 2000 - 2359 hours
Seasonal data plots can then generated and reviewed to identify data reduction and validation
errors, instrument operation problems, and calibration inconsistencies. Any identified problems
should be immediately investigated and resolved by following the procedures detailed in standard
operating procedures and technical instructions.
4.1.7 Data Reporting and Archive
4.1.7.1 Data Reporting
Data reports should be prepared in a format that generally conforms to the Guidelines for
Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division (AH Technical Services, 1987). A separate data
report should be prepared for each instrument type; transmissometer data reports should contain only
transmissometer data. Reporting consists of various text discussions and graphics presentations
concerning the instrumentation and collected data. Specific contents of the reports are defined by the
contracting agencies' COTR.
4-14
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Seasonal transmissometer reporting should be completed within three months after the end
of a monitoring season, and annual reporting within three months after the end of the last reported
season. Standard meteorological monitoring seasons are defined as:
Winter (December, January, and February)
Spring (March, April, and May)
Summer (June, July, and August)
Fall (September, October, and November)
Reports should contain the following major sections:
! Introduction
! Data Collection and Reduction
! Site Configuration
! Data Summary Description
! Transmissometer Data Summaries
! Summary
! References
The introduction should contain a conceptual overview of the purpose of the monitoring
program and a description of the monitoring networks. The data collection and reduction section
should include data collection methods, data file review, data validation, application of validity codes,
processing through various validation levels, and discussion of file formats, theoretical concepts of
uncertainty measurements, and identification of meteorological and optical interferences that affect
the calculation of bext from transmissometer measurements. Various units of measurement, including
haziness (dv), extinction (bext), and standard visual range (SVR) should be discussed.
The site configuration section should contain a brief discussion of instrumentation at each
transmissometer site, basic principles of operation, measurement principles, and data collection
specifications, including:
I
A map depicting the location of all monitoring network sites.
! A Monitoring Flistory Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site the name, type of
instrumentation, and period of operation for each instrument type.
! A Site Specifications Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site complete site
specifications. Site specifications include site name and abbreviation, latitude and
longitude of both the receiver and transmitter, elevation of both the receiver and
transmitter, the sight path distance between the two components, azimuth, and elevation
angle (receiver to transmitter) of the sight path. The table should also include the number
of readings taken each day, and the operating period during the season.
4-15
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A data summary description section describes seasonal and annual data summaries. Annual
data summaries should be prepared for each site that operated during the reporting period, and should
be based on a calendar year instead of season. An example Seasonal Transmissometer Data Summary
is presented as Figure 4-2 and an example Annual Transmissometer Data Summary is presented as
Figure 4-3. The following is a detailed explanation of the contents of the data summaries in each
report.
Seasonal Transmissometer Data Summaries include the following five data presentations:
! 4-Hour Average Variation in Visual Air Quality (Excluding Weather-Affected Data) -
Plot of four-hour averaged bext, S VR, and dv geometric mean values (without weather-
influenced observations) for each day of the reporting season. A mean value is calculated
for each four-hour period from the valid transmissions for that day. Gaps in the plot
indicate that data were missing, weather-influenced, or failed edit procedures. For
example, values are not calculated if the transmissometer was misaligned. The left axis
of the graph is labeled as haziness (dv) and the right axis as bext and SVR.
! Relative Humidity - Timeline of four-hour averaged relative humidity measurements. This
allows rapid determination of the effect of increasing relative humidity on measured bext
and SVR. Long periods of relative humidity near 100% usually result in corresponding
periods of high bext (low SVR), and are likely associated with precipitation events. This
assumption can only be verified by reviewing simultaneous photographic data.
! Frequency of Occurrence: Hourly Data - This plot is a frequency distribution of hourly
average bext, SVR, and haziness values, both with and without weather-influenced data.
The 10% to 90% values are plotted in 10% increments. The 10%, 50%, and 90%
cumulative frequency values for bext are listed to the right of the plot and haziness to the
left of the plot. SVR values are listed in the corresponding cumulative frequency
summary table. Note that SVR and bext are inversely related; for example, as the air
becomes cleaner, bext values decrease and SVR values increase.
For deciview, the 10%, 50%, and 90% values are linear with respect to bext changes. A
one dv change is approximately a 10% change in bext. Clean days are characterized by low
haziness values (small dv) and dirty days are characterized by high haziness values (large
dv).
4-16
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GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK (SOUTH RIM), ARIZONA
Transmissometer Data Summary
Summer Season: June 1, 1993 - August 31, 1993
b»»t SVR
4-HOUR AVERAGE VARIATION IN VISUAL AIR QUALITY (EXCLUDING WEATHER-AFFECTED DATA) (km'1) (km)
24 -
22 -
20 -
18 -
16 -
? 14 -
1 12 -
1 10 -
8 -
6 -
4 -
2 -
_ _
--A-'"l fl 1
Jfi- i- •' t\ \(
In }\ LJl '
W\ UpftiU
I u ^ T ^
M
1
1 10 20
JUNE
i f\ A __^_
iuu —
80 -
g 60-
E 40 -
20 -
-
- | - -
\uh [
Iwi
11
Ill
-1 ,j 1 •![-!-
W ] U H Alt L i
" i"ik ""rH H Tl"
1WJVJ-» i
- '• ft • "ffl • •• ^f i,
30 10 20 31 10
,1
W
ii
..T.
1
1 1
' j
F
1
~i
20
]
I
'.
I)
1
- .110 35
- .090 45
- .080
60
- .060
L .050 80
il
M
I
- -040 100
- .030 130
- .020 190
250
350
Min
31
JULY AUGUST
W%A^ : VW ¥- : : ':
0 ~
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE: HOURLY DATA CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SUMMARY
24 -
22 -
20 -
18 -
1 f
lo —
I 14 -
i 12 -
1 10 -
8 -
6 -
4 -
2 -
o -1
X
0
TC
6 ^
» 5 *
B
B
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
IjAUlUUlIlg
~ -110 Weather [o]
uiu iuumg
Weather [x]
- .090 % dv bext SVR
nOA
.UOU
- .070 10 5.9 .018 210
- .060 20 6.9 .020 189
nso 30 7.9 .022 173
- 40 8.8 .024 159
- .040 "g 50 9.2 .025 153
&. 60 9.9 .027 141
- .030 | 70 10.6 .029 132
•° 80 11.3 .031 124
90 12.8 .036 107
dv
5.9
6.9
7.9
8.8
9.6
9.9
11.0
11.9
13.6
bext SVR
.018 210
.020 189
.022 173
.024 159
.026 147
.027 141
.030 128
.033 116
.039 99
VISIBILITY METRIC (EXCLUDING WEATHER)
- .010 Mean of cleanest 20%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Mean of all data
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (%) Meatl °f dirtiest 20%
TRANSMISSOMETER DATA RECOVERY
dv
5.8
9.3
13.1
bext SVR
.018 213
.026 155
.037 105
NUM %
Total Possible Hourly Averages In The Time Period
Valid Hourly Averages Including Weather-Affected Data
Valid Hourly Averages Excluding Weather-Affected Data
2208
2137
1962
Percent Of All Valid Hourly Averages Not Affected By Weather
L:01/25/96 7:01/23/96 W:08/22/94 l:37p P:02/06/96
100
97
89
92
V1.8:5/4/9S
Figure 4-2. Example Seasonal Transmissometer Data Summary.
4-17
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GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK (SOUTH RIM), ARIZONA
Annual Transmissometer Data Summary
All Data: January 1, 1994 - December 31, 1994
MONTHLY MEDIAN VISUAL AIR QUALITY
bext SVR
(km-1) (km)
350
JAN
FEB MAR APR MAY
EXCLUDING WEATHER
JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV
INCLUDING WEATHER
DEC
MONTHLY CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SUMMARIES
MONTH YEAR
JAN 1994
FEB 1994
MAR 1994
APR 1994
MAY 1994
JUN 1994
JUL 1994
AUG 1994
SEP 1994
OCT 1994
NOV 1994
DEC 1994
ALL DATA
EXCLUDING WEATHER
10%
bext dv
0.012 1.8
0.014 3.4
0.018 5.9
0.018 5.9
0.022 7.9
0.018 5.9
0.014 3.4
0.015 4.1
0.015 4.1
0.016 4.7
0.014 3.4
0.015 4.1
0.015 4.1
50%
bext dv
0.015 4.1
0.017 5.3
0.022 7.9
0.028 10.3
0.027 9.9
0.025 9.2
0.023 8.3
0.019 6.4
0.020 6.9
0.020 6.9
0.019 6.4
0018 5.9
0.021 7.4
90%
bext dv
0.022 7.9
0.021 7.4
0.030 11.0
0.040 13.9
0.036 12.8
0.036 12.8
0.033 11.9
0.028 10.3
0.027 9.9
0.03 1 11 .3
0.027 9.9
0.026 9.6
0.032 11.6
INCLUDING WEATHER
10%
bext dv
0.012 1.8
0.014 3.4
0.018 5.9
0.018 5.9
0.022 7.9
0.018 5.9
0.014 3.4
0.015 4.1
0.015 4.1
0.016 4.7
0.015 4.1
0.015 4.1
0.015 4.1
50%
bext dv
0.015 4.1
0.018 5.9
0.023 8.3
0.030 11.0
0.028 10.3
0.025 9.2
0.024 8.8
0.020 6.9
0.021 7.4
0.021 7.4
0.020 6.9
0.019 6.4
0.022 7.9
90%
bext dv
0.044 14.8
0.675 42.1
0.082 21.0
0.246 32.0
DATA RECOVERY STATISTICS
POSS.
HUM
744
672
744
720
0.038 13.4 744
0.036 12.8
0.043 14 6
0.031 11.3
0.039 13.6
0.037 13.1
0.107 23.7
0.675 42.1
0.058 17.6
720
744
744
720
744
720
744
8760
COLLECTED
NUM %
744 100
657 98
735 99
717 100
744 100
714 99
742 100
744 100
709 98
727 98
714 99
744 100
8691 99
VALID:IN. WX.
NUM %
743 100
657 98
735 99
717 100
744 100
555 77
499 67
536 72
679 94
722 97
714 99
744 100
8045 92
VALID:EX. WX.
NUM %
637 86
446 66
603 81
554 77
680 91
534 74
426 57
460 62
545 76
629 85
566 79
531 71
6611 75
A
24 -
22 -
20 -
18 -
>' 1«-|
& 14-
I 12-
1 10
8 -
6 -
4 -
2 -
VNUAL FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE: HOURLY DATA A
X
x 0
X O
X °
. « 5 °
. »
- .110
- .090
- .080
- .070
- .060
- .050,,
- .040 'g
- .030 J
- .020
II 1 1 1 1 1 I -ulu
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (%)
0:10/03/95 2:52 p P:02/20/96
NNUAL CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SUMMARY
Excluding Including
Weather [o] Weather [x]
% dv bext SVR dv bext SVR
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
4.1 .015 250
4.7 .016 235
5.9 .018 210
6.4 .019 199
7.4 .021 181
7.9 .022 173
9.2 .025 153
10.3 .028 137
11.6 .032 120
4.1 .015 250
5.3 .017 222
5.9 .018 210
6.9 .020 189
7.9 .022 173
8.8 .024 159
10.3 .028 137
11.9 .033 116
17.6 .058 67
FOR A GIVEN % OF THE TIME THE
HAZINESS IS LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO
THE CORRESPONDING dv VALUE.
V1.03:09/06/94
Figure 4-3. Example Annual Transmissometer Data Summary.
4-18
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! Visibility Metric (Excluding Weather) - This table presents mean values excluding
weather for dv, bext, and SVR. The best, worst, and average conditions using the
arithmetic means of the 20th percentile least impaired visibility, the 20th percentile most
impaired visibility, and for all data for the season are presented.
! Data Recovery Statistics
Total Possible Hourly Averages in the Time Period - The total possible category is
calculated by subtracting the number of hourly averages included in periods when the
instrument was removed due to conditions unrelated to system performance
(construction, site relocation, etc.) from the theoretical maximum number of hourly
average periods possible during a season.
Valid Hourly Averages Including Weather-Affected Data - The number of all valid hourly
averages collected during a season. The percentage represents the number of valid hourly
averages compared to the total possible hourly averages.
Valid Hourly Averages Excluding Weather-Affected Data - The number of valid hourly
averages (excluding any data affected by weather) collected during a season. The
percentage represents the number of valid hourly averages compared to the total possible
hourly averages.
Percent of All Valid Hourly Averages Not Affected by Weather - This percentage
collection efficiency represents the number of valid hourly averages (excluding any data
affected by weather) compared to the number of all valid hourly averages.
Annual Transmissometer Data Summaries include three data presentations:
! Monthly Median Visual Air Quality - Plot of median monthly bext, SVR, and dv values
both with and without weather-affected data. The left axis of the graph is labeled as
haziness (dv) and the right axis as bext and SVR. Note that SVR and §xi are inversely
related.
! Monthly Cumulative Frequency Summaries: All Data - Table of cumulative frequency
distribution average bext and dv values both with and without weather-influenced data.
The 10% to 90% values are presented in 10% increments. Also included are data
recovery statistics (total possible readings, number of collected readings, and number of
valid (both with and without weather-affected data).
! Annual Frequency of Occurrence: Hourly Data - This plot is a frequency distribution of
hourly average bext, SVR, and haziness values, both with and without weather-influenced
data. The 10% to 90% values are plotted in 10% increments.
Transmissometer data summaries should follow their description. Summaries should be
prepared for each site that operated during the reporting period. A brief discussion of events and
circumstances that influence data recovery should follow the data summaries. Operational status
throughout the reporting period should be presented for each site in an operation summary table,
listing for each site, site name and abbreviation, the actual time period during the season that each site
collected data, data collection losses or problem description, and problem resolutions. An analysis
summary table should also be prepared (for all data and for all data excluding weather events) based
on actual monitoring periods. The table lists for each site, site name and abbreviation, the number
4-19
-------
of seasonal hourly averages possible, the number and percentage of hourly averages usable, and the
cumulative frequency distribution (10%, 50%, and 90% dv, bext, and SVR values).
Finally, a summary section should be included in reports, and provide a synopsis of the
transmissometer network, including changes in operational techniques, and a general conclusion of
the monitoring period in review. A reference section should include technical references (documents
cited in the report), and related reports and publications (including all prior reports pertaining to the
monitoring program).
4.1.7.2 Data Archive
Archiving of raw digital data should be performed on a monthly basis. Archiving of all raw
and processed digital data for a given season, and constants, calibration, and data processing files
should be performed on a seasonal basis, after data have been finalized and reported. All files should
be in ASCII format. Files should be stored in their original formats (raw, Level-A, Level-0, and
Level-1) on magnetic tape and CD-ROM. At least two copies of each media should be created; one
copy should be stored at the data processing location and the other off-site.
Hard copies of supporting documentation and reports should be duplicated and archived on
a continual basis, and include site specifications, monitoring timelines, data coordinator/site operator
correspondence, site operator log sheets, trip reports, bi-monthly and seasonal summary plots,
instrument calibration records, instrument maintenance logs, and field audit reports. All validated
Level-1 data should be delivered as ASCII files (on PC-compatible diskettes and/or CD-ROM) to the
COTR with the quarterly and annual reports. The standard file format currently used for IMPROVE
protocol transmissometer data is presented in Figure 4-4.
Transmissometer data and accompanying site and calibration information should also be kept
current on a database. The database should contain both raw and Level-1 validated data.
4.1.8 Quality Assurance
Quality assurance of transmissometer data is performed during Level-1 validation, and
includes precision and accuracy of the instrument, and various uncertainty measurements. Annual
field audits are also a component of quality assurance.
4.1.8.1 Instrument Precision and Accuracy
Precision of extinction estimates from transmittance measurements should be determined. The
average extinction (6ext) of the transmissometer optical path (r) is calculated from the transmittance
measurement (T) by:
bea = ~ ln(7)/r (4-7)
Since the path length r is measured to an extremely high precision, the precision in 6ext can be
^ = ±UT/T (4-8)
approximated from propagation of error analysis as:
4-20
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1
GRCA
GRCA
Field Number
2 345678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
900702 183 700 12 1 4 0 18 10 300 0 17 1 0 38 3
900702 183 800 -99 -99 0 4 18 10 300 4H -99 -99 0 -99 -99 0
Field Description
1 Site abbreviation
2 Date in year/month/day format
3 Julian Date
4 Time using a 24-hour clock in hour/minute format
5 bext (Mm'1)
6 bext uncertainly (Mm )
7 Number of readings in average
8 Number of readings not in average due to weather
9 Uncertainty threshold (Mm-1)
10 A threshold (Mm'1)
1 1 Maximum threshold (Mm"1)
1 2 bext validity code *
13 Temperature (°C)
1 4 Temperature uncertainly ( ° C)
1 5 Temperature validity code 2
1 6 Relative humidity (%)
1 7 Relative humidity uncertainly (%)
1 8 Relative humidity validity code 2
19 Haziness (dvx 10)
1 bext validity codes:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from alternate logger
4x = Weather: A letter code representing specific conditions as noted below:
Condition Letter Code
ABCDEFGHIJKL
RH>90% x x x x xx
bext > maximum threshold x x x x x x
bext uncertainly > threshold x x x x x
A bext > delta threshold x x x x x
Z Weather observation between 2 other
weather observations.
Threshold values may be different for each site.
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
9 = Invalid: bext below Rayleigh
A = Invalid: Mis-alignment
L = Invalid: Defective Lamp
S = Invalid: Suspect Data
W = Invalid: Unclean optics
2 Meteorology validity codes:
0 = Valid
1 = Invalid: Site operator error
2 = Invalid: System malfunction or removed
3 = Valid: Data reduced from alternate logger
5 = Invalid: Data > maximum or < minimum
8 = Missing: Data acquisition error
A -99 in any data field indicates missing or invalid data.
0 134
-99
M N O
x x
X X
XXX
XXX
Figure 4-4. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Transmissometer Visibility Data.
4-21
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The relative uncertainty in transmittance leads to an additive uncertainty in extinction that
depends on the path length of the transmittance measurement.
Bias in extinction calculations should also be determined. The calibration equation assumes
clean glass surfaces of constant transmittance. Any change in the window transmittance results in a
bias to the calculated extinction. If the window transmittance decreases the calculated extinction will
increase. If the window transmittance increases the calculated extinction will decrease. As with the
precision, the bias is a function of the relative change in window transmittance and path distance:
Bias = (relative change in window transmittance)/r (4-9)
The possibility exists for errors to arise from changes in the transmittance of the windows due
to:
! Pitting of the windows by wind blown dirt.
! Staining of the windows by pollution.
! Dirt collecting on the window surface due to dust, rain, or snow.
! Fogging of the windows at high humidities.
! Improper servicing resulting in smudging of the windows.
! Removal of the windows due to breakage.
4.1.8.2 Measurement Uncertainties
Measurement uncertainties are considered during Level-1 validation. Uncertainties include
transmittance uncertainties, meteorological data uncertainties, and optical interferences uncertainties.
Transmittance uncertainties are based on various parameters. Operationally the basic equation
used to calculate path transmittance is:
T = I /(F * / .) (4-10)
r v lamp caV V /
where:
T = Transmittance of atmosphere of path r
Ir = Intensity of light measured at r
F\amP = Variability function of lamp output
7cai = Calibration value of transmissometer
The relative uncertainty (t/x) of any measured parameter* is defined as:
U = 5 /F
(4-11)
where:
x = arithmetic mean of all x measurements
5X = precision of measurements x defined as
4-22
-------
5 =
-1,=1
(4-12)
Using propagation of error analysis the relative uncertainty of the path transmittance can be
calculated from the relative uncertainties of the measured variables as:
U = (I/.2 + U2 + U2 )1/2 (4-13)
T ' h leal lamp' \ •*
where:
C/T = relative uncertainty of T
Ulr = relative uncertainty of 7r
f^icai = relative uncertainty of 7ca,
= relative uncertainty of Flamp
Understanding the uncertainty of a transmittance measurement requires a thorough
investigation of the precision of each of the following:
! Precision in calibration to determine 7ca,
! Precision in the measurement of 7
r
! Precision in the measurement of F|amp
Relative Uncertainty of /cal - The precision in calibration value 7ca| can be determined by investigating
the calibration equation. 7ca, is the value that would be measured by the transmissometer detector if
the atmospheric path was a vacuum. 7ca, incorporates the path distance r, transmittance of all
windows in the path, and size of working aperture used. 7ca, is determined from:
= (CP/WP)2 x (WG/CG) x (WA/CA)2 x WT x (I/FT) x (1/7) x (4-14)
Using propagation of uncertainty analysis the relative uncertainty in 7ca, can be shown to be:
Path distances are measured using a laser range finder. Calibration apertures are measured
with a precision micrometer. Gain settings are measured with a precision voltmeter. Window and
neutral density filter (NDF) transmittances are measured with a reference transmissometer by
differencing techniques, thus they do not require absolute calibration. The standard deviation of the
raw readings (CR) are calculated at each calibration. The typical working values, measurement
precision, and relative uncertainties of these values are:
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Parameter
CP Calibration Path
WP Working Path
CG Calibration Gain
WG Working Gain
CA Calibration Aperture
WA Working Aperture
WT Window Transmittance
FT NDF Transmittance
T CP Transmittance
CR Raw Readings
Value
0.3km
5.0km
100
500
100mm
110mm
0.810
0.274
0.975
900
Precision
xlO-6km
xlO-6km
xlO'2
xlO'2
x 10"2mm
x 10"2mm
0.001
-0.001
0.003
2.0
Relative
Uncertainty
3.3xlO-6
2.0 xlO'7
l.OxlO-4
2.0 xlO'5
l.OxlO-4
9.1xlO-5
1.2 xlO'3
3.6xlO-3
3.1xlO-3
2.2 xlO'3
Combining the above values into the uncertainty equation leads to a typical relative
uncertainty for Ical: Ulcal = 0.005.
Relative Uncertainty of 7r - Under ambient operating conditions the irradiance measured by the
transmissometer receiver will fluctuate due to:
! Atmospheric optical turbulence causing scintillation.
! Atmospheric optical aberrations causing beam wander.
! Varying meteorological conditions along the path: rain, snow, fog.
! Insect swarms causing beam interference.
The precision of each 10-minute irradiance measurement is calculated by the receiver
computer as the standard deviation of the ten one-minute average irradiance measurements. The
measured standard deviation is a direct estimation of atmospheric optical interference. Typical values
of 7r and various operational precision estimates that have been observed in the monitoring network
are listed below.
Ambient
Extinction
(km'1)
0.010
0.020
0.030
0.050
0.100
0.500
Value
200
190
180
163
127
17
No Optical Interferences
n . . Relative
Precision TT , . ,
Uncertainty
1 0.0050
1 0.0053
1 0.0056
1 0.0061
1 0.0079
1 0.0580
Optical Interference
n . . Relative
Precision TT , . ,
Uncertainty
20 0.100
20 0.105
20 0.111
20 0.123
20 0.158
20 1.117
Working Path = 5.0 km, 7cal = 210
As can be seen the relative uncertainty of the measured intensity is a function of the extinction
of the path. For typical extinction measurements free from optical interference in the network, the
average relative uncertainty in 7r is approximately: Ulr = 0.0055.
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Relative Uncertainty ofFl3mp - The major source of uncertainty in the transmissometer data
is lamp drift correction. The transmitter employs an optical feedback loop designed to maintain
constant irradiance within the 10 nm bandwidth of the receiver filter/detector module. However,
comparison of pre and post lamp calibrations show that the transmitter lamp output increases
(brightens) with increased hours of lamp use. Tests have shown that the brightening is definitely a
function of the lamp rather than the feedback circuit or filter. It is important to note that a 1%
increase in irradiance over a path length of approximately five kilometers (the Grand Canyon sight
path for example) results in the apparent extinction being decreased by 0.002 km"1 (20% of
Rayleigh!!); i.e., the instrument measurement indicates the air to be cleaner than it actually is.
Lamp brightening percentages and lamp "on" hours for all systems and lamps post-calibrated
at the Fort Collins, Colorado transmissometer calibration facility are entered into a lamp brightening
database. The data in this database are used to create statistics on lamp brightening. Lamp
brightening percentages for post-calibrated lamps are sorted into time bins based on lamp operational
hours. The mean and standard deviation of operational hours and percent lamp brightening were
calculated for each bin. Power law functions are fitted to these data to define a statistically based
mean lamp brightening and the one sigma upper and lower bounds. Applying the mean function to
the raw transmissometer irradiance readings corrects for lamp brightening. The precision of the
correction is calculated from the upper and lower bounds for the number of hours on the lamp at the
time of the reading.
If, upon post-calibration, a system exhibits abnormally high or low lamp brightening,
previously reported extinction data are flagged for further review. The lamp brightening database is
continually updated as additional lamps are post-calibrated. Periodically, the lamp brightening
statistics are reanalyzed to provide a more accurate description of the lamp drift correction and the
precision associated with this correction.
Variations in lamp brightening characteristics for a given lamp design may occur due to
variations in manufacturing processes between manufacturers. All lamps used with the LPV-2
transmissometer are purchased from the transmissometer manufacturer, Optec, Inc.
The equation for calculating lamp brightening using this curve is:
Lamp Brightening(%) = a *t '
(4-16)
where:
t = accumulated lamp "on" time (hours)
a0 = 0.2700
at = 0.4405
From the above analysis, the relative uncertainty in path transmittance can be calculated for
each 10-minute transmittance measurement by the transmissometer. The typical values are:
Condition
No Optical Interference
Optical Interference
Relative Uncertainty
(UT)
0.02
0.20
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Meteorological data uncertainties and limits are obtained from the manufacturer's literature.
The values used are listed below:
u = i°r
utemp L ^
URH =2% (RotronicsMPl OOF Sensor)
Maximum temperature = 60 °C
Minimum temperature = -50°C
Maximum relative humidity = 100%
Minimum relative humidity = 0%
Optical interferences uncertainties must also be considered. The transmissometer directly
measures the irradiance of a light source after the light has traveled over a finite atmospheric path.
The average extinction coefficient of the sight path is calculated from this measurement and is
attributed to the average concentration of atmospheric gases and ambient aerosols along the sight
path. The intensity of the light, however, can be modified not only by intervening gases and aerosols,
but also by:
! The presence of condensed water vapor in the form of fog, clouds, and precipitation along
the sight path.
! Condensation, frost, snow, or ice on the shelter windows.
! Reduction in light intensity by insects, birds, animals, or vegetation along the sight path,
or on the optical surfaces of the instrumentation or shelter windows.
! Fluctuations in light intensity both positive and negative due to optical turbulence, beam
wander, atmospheric lensing, and miraging caused by variations in the atmospheric optical
index of refraction along the sight path.
An algorithm has been developed to identify transmissometer extinction data that may be
affected by the interferences described above. This algorithm contains five major tests:
1) Relative Humidity
2) Maximum Extinction
3) Uncertainty Threshold
4) Rate of Change of Extinction
5) Isolated Data Points
Due to the large volume of extinction data collected by transmissometers as compared to
aerosol monitors, the algorithm has been designed to be a conservative filter on the extinction data.
That is, if an hourly extinction measurement indicates the slightest possibility of meteorological or
optical interference by failing any one of the above tests, it is flagged with identifier codes in the
Level-1 data file. The following describes each of the five tests:
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Relative Humidity - When the relative humidity measured at the transmissometer receiver is greater
than 90%, the corresponding transmissometer measurement is flagged as having a possible
interference. The 90% level has been chosen due to the following considerations:
! The relative humidity is only measured at the receiver location and not at any other
position along the sight path.
! A 1.5°C change in dew point temperature results in a 10% change in relative humidity.
! The atmosphere is continuously undergoing both systematic and random variations in its
spatial and temporal properties.
i
The typical precision of relative humidity measurements is ±2%.
The above considerations all indicate that inferring a precise knowledge of the meteorological
conditions along a sight path at high relative humidity from a single point measurement is very
difficult. When the relative humidity is above 90% at one end of the path, small random temperature
or absolute humidity fluctuations along the path can lead to condensation of water vapor causing
meteorological interferences. Thus, in accordance with the conservative philosophy expressed above,
the 90% relative humidity limit was selected for this test.
Maximum Extinction. For every transmissometer sight path, a maximum bext can be calculated
that corresponds to a 5% transmittance for the path. All sight paths were selected, such that based
on historical visibility data, this maximum bext occurs less than 1% of the time. When the measured
bext is greater than this threshold value, it is assumed that meteorological or optical interferences, not
ambient aerosols, are causing the high extinction. All measurements greater than the calculated site-
specific maximum threshold are flagged in the data file.
Uncertainty Threshold. The normal operating procedure for the transmissometer is to take
10 one-minute measurements of transmitter irradiance each hour, and report the average and standard
deviation of the ten values. A mean hourly extinction and associated uncertainty is then calculated
from these measurements. In remote, rural areas, the ambient aerosol concentration typically varies
quite slowly with time constants on the order of a few hours rather than minutes. This leads to the
expectation of relatively constant extinction during the 10 minutes of receiver measurements and a
low standard deviation of measured transmitter irradiance. If only one of the ten irradiance values
varies more than 20% from the mean, the uncertainty in bext will increase dramatically. The presence
of any meteorological or optical interferences along the sight path will lead to large standard
deviations in lamp irradiance, thus large uncertainties in bext. With the conservative assumption of
constant bext during any ten minute measurement period, any increase in the uncertainty of bext above
a selected threshold flags the measurement as affected by one of these interferences. The uncertainty
threshold is determined for each sight path and is included in each Level-1 data file for reference.
Rate of Change of Extinction (Delta Threshold). Transmissometer data collected before
September 1, 1990, did not include standard deviation of measured irradiance values. For data
collected before this date, another test was developed to identify periods of interferences associated
with rapidly fluctuating irradiance measurements. This test consists of comparing the hourly average
extinction to the preceding and following hours, and calculating a rate of change in each direction.
If the absolute value of this rate of change is greater than some assigned Delta threshold, the hourly
bext value is flagged as being affected by interferences. Delta thresholds have been determined for
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each sight path by analyzing extinction data collected after September 1990, which have
corresponding uncertainty thresholds to determine appropriate Delta thresholds for the sight path.
The Delta threshold is typically not as low as the uncertainty threshold, due to the possibility of larger
hourly variations in bext as compared to variations during ten minutes of measurements. Each sight
path has its own Delta threshold and it is listed in the Level-1 data file for reference.
Isolated Data Points. This test is performed after the above four thresholds are applied to the
hourly extinction data. It is used to identify data points that have passed the above thresholds, but
are located between hourly bext data that have failed the above thresholds. The conservative
assumption is, if data before and after the isolated hour indicates interferences, the hour in question
probably is also affected by interferences. These data are also flagged as weather-affected.
4.1.8.3 Instrument Audits
The transmissometer field audit verifies accurate on-site and replacement transmissometer
measurements by comparing measurements made with the audit reference transmissometer. The
reference transmissometer should be calibrated at the test facility before and after each field audit to
ensure that the accuracy of the measurements has not been affected by handling and/or transport of
the instrument. To reduce the amount of equipment shipped to and from a transmissometer site, the
audit transmissometer system should be operated with the replacement transmissometer computer
during the audit. Gain measurements should be made on all instruments during instrument servicing.
These gain measurements should then be incorporated into the calculation of calibration numbers
generated for the audit transmissometer.
To ensure a quality audit, it is important that the audit be performed during a period of good
weather and stable conditions. If the weather and/or conditions are not suitable, the audit should be
rescheduled. The audit should be comprised of a defined series of 10-minute readings with various
lamps calibrated with the on-site, audit, and replacement transmissometer units (2 lamps on-site, 2
lamps audit, and 3 lamps replacement). The sequence of instruments and lamps should be configured
to provide the best possible intercomparison between individual lamps calibrated with a
transmissometer system and also between respective transmissometer systems.
The transmissometer field audit also includes a window transmittance test, which verifies the
combined transmittance of the transmitter and receiver station windows. This test is typically
incorporated into the end of the audit, which is performed on site, but can also be performed
separately if necessary. The window transmittance test should include three 10-minute reading
segments with the first operational lamp of the replacement transmissometer. The first and last
segments should be with the receiver and transmitter windows installed. The middle segment should
be performed with both windows removed. This allows determination of window transmittance and
provides an indication of the stability of ambient conditions.
The audit results verify the operational integrity of the on-site and replacement instruments.
Audit results statistics should be used to define error limits for comparison of path transmittance
measurements obtained with an instrument being audited or path transmittance measurements
obtained with an audit instrument.
Lamps used operationally with transmissometers being removed from the field (on-site
instruments) typically have accumulated 400 to 600 hours of "on" time. This accumulated operating
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time results in a shift in lamp brightness. Audit data for lamps used in the field should be corrected
for lamp brightening. Three sets of audit results statistics should be created as follows:
! One set of audit result statistics should be generated for audit instrument and on-site
instrument comparisons applying the standard lamp brightening correction factor. This
data set should be used only as an early indicator of the quality of the data collected
during the operational period for the on-site transmissometer.
! Operational instruments should be post-calibrated after removal from a site. On-site
instrument audit data should be corrected using post-calibration lamp brightening factors.
The second set of audit results statistics should be generated using these data. This data
set should be incorporated into ongoing analyses of lamp brightening effects on data
quality.
! The third set of audit results statistics should be based on measurement comparisons
between the replacement transmissometer and the audit transmissometer. Because
replacement instrument lamps should be calibrated prior to installing the instrument at a
field site, the lamps should not have accumulated any "on" time prior to the audit and
lamp brightening should not be a factor. These statistics should be used to define error
limits for acceptance of replacement instrument audits.
4.1.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Transmissometer data are a complete, continuous measure of atmospheric extinction. Data
are typically presented in three units: extinction, standard visual range, and deciview.
Extinction is expressed in inverse megameters (Mm"1). These units are directly stored in the
data files.
Standard visual range (SVR) can be interpreted as the farthest distance that a large, black
feature can be seen on the horizon. It is a useful visibility index that allows for comparison of data
taken at various locations.
3912
SVR - - A 1
(b -b + lOMnT1)
v eKt ray '
SVR is calculated to normalize all visual ranges to a Rayleigh scattering coefficient of 10 Mm"
1 or an altitude of 1.524 km (5000 ft.). The Rayleigh scattering coefficient, bray, for the mean sight
path altitude is subtracted from the calculated extinction coefficient, bext, and the standard Rayleigh
scattering coefficient of 10 Mm ~l is added back. The value 3912 is the constant derived from
assuming a 2% contrast detection threshold. The theoretical maximum SVR is 391 km.
An easily understood visibility index uniformly describes visibility impairment. The scale of
this visibility index, expressed in deciview (dv), is linear with respect to perceived visual changes over
its entire range, analogous to the decibel scale for sound. A one dv change is about a 10% change
in extinction coefficient, which is a small but perceptible scenic change under many circumstances.
Since the deciview scale is near zero for a pristine atmosphere (dv=0 for Rayleigh conditions at about
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1.8 km elevation) and increases as visibility is degraded, it measures perceived haziness. Expressed
in terms of extinction coefficient (bext) and visual range (vr):
L • /JA mi/ *- x in 1 /391in\ (4-18)
haziness(dv) = 10 ln( ) = 10 ln( ) v '
\QMrn ~l vr
Ideally, a just noticeable change (JNC) in scene visibility should be approximately a one or
two dv change in the deciview scale (i.e., a 10% to 20% fractional change in extinction coefficient)
regardless of the baseline visibility level. Similarly, a change of any specific number of dv should
appear to have approximately the same magnitude of visual change on any scene.
The dv scale provides a convenient, numerical method for presentation of visibility values.
Any visibility monitoring data that are available in visual range or extinction coefficient are easily
converted to the new visibility index expressed in deciview.
Use of the dv scale is an appropriate way to compare and combine data from different
visibility perception and valuation studies. When results from multiple studies are presented in terms
of a common perception index, the effects of survey approach and other factors influential to the
results can be evaluated.
Transmissometer data provide a quantitative measure of real time visibility conditions. Data
can be used to provide the basis for background conditions and trend analysis; however, data must
be combined with associated meteorological and aerosol concentrations to understand the source
and/or composition of the impairment observed.
Caution should be taken, however, when comparing reconstructed extinction with measured
extinction. Reconstructed extinction is typically 70% - 80% of the measured extinction. The
following differences/similarities should be considered:
! Data collection. Reconstructed extinction measurements represent 24-hour samples
collected twice per week. Transmissometer extinction estimates represent continuous
measurements summarized as hourly means, 24 hours per day, seven days per week.
! Point versus path measurements. Reconstructed extinction represents an indirect measure
of extinction at one point source. The transmissometer directly measures the irradiance
of light (which calculated gives a direct measure of extinction) over a finite atmospheric
path.
! Relative humidity (RH) cutoff. Daily average reconstructed measurements are flagged
as invalid when the daily average RH is greater than 98%. Hourly average
transmissometer measurements are flagged invalid when the hourly average RH is greater
than 90%. These flagging methods often result in data sets that do not reflect the same
period of time, or properly interpret short-term meteorological conditions.
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4.1.10 Transmissometer Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions
The Air Resource Specialists, Inc. document entitled Air Resource Specialists, Inc. Standard
Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for Transmissometer Systems, includes the
following transmissometer Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions:
SOP 4050 Site Selection for Optical Monitoring Equipment (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4050-3010 Site Selection for Optec LPV-2 Transmissometer Systems
SOP 4070 Installation and Site Documentation for Optical Monitoring Equipment
TI 4070-3010 Installation and Site Documentation for Optec LPV-2 Transmissometer Systems
(IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4110 Transmissometer Maintenance (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4110-3100 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for LPV-2 Transmissometer
Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4110-3300 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for Optec LPV-2
Transmissometer Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4110-3350 Transmissometer Monitoring System Diagrams and Component Descriptions
TI 4110-3375 Replacing and Shipping Transmissometer Components
TI 4110-3400 Annual Laboratory Maintenance Procedures for LPV-2 Transmissometer Systems
(IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4115 Annual Site Visits for Optical Monitoring Instrumentation (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4115-3000 Annual Site Visit Procedures for Optec LPV-2 Transmissometer Systems
(IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4200 Calibration of Optical Monitoring Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4200-2100 Calibration of Optec LPV-2 Transmissometers (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4200-2110 Transmissometer Lamp Preparation (Burn-in) Procedures
SOP 4250 Servicing and Calibration of Optical Monitoring Dataloggers
TI 4250-2000 Servicing and Calibration of Campbell Scientific 21XL Dataloggers
TI 4250-2010 Servicing and Calibration of the Handar 540/570 DCP
TI 4250-2020 Servicing and Calibration of Primeline 6723 Strip Chart Recorders
SOP 4300 Collection of Optical Monitoring Data (IMPROVE Protocol)
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TI 4300-4000 Data Collection via DCP (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI4300-4023 Transmissometer Daily Compilation and Review of DCP-Collected Data
(IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4300-4025 Transmissometer Data Collection via Strip Chart Recorder, January 1994
SOP 4400 Optical Monitoring Data Reduction and Validation
TI 4400-5000 Transmissometer Data Reduction and Validation (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4500 Optical Monitoring Data Reporting
TI 4500-5100 Transmissometer Data Reporting (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4600 Optical Monitoring Data Archives
TI 4600-5010 Transmissometer Data Archives (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4710 Transmissometer Field Audit Procedures
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4.2 NEPHELOMETER
4.2.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation
The total light scattered out of a path is the same as the reduction of light along a path due
to scattering. An ideal integrating nephelometer would collect all the light scattered by aerosols and
gases from 0° to 180° in an enclosed sample volume through a defined band of visible wavelengths
to yield a direct measurement of bscat. Since a nephelometer makes a point measurement, direct
comparisons to collocated aerosol measurements are practical. In addition, the system can be
absolutely calibrated using clean (Rayleigh) air and various dense gases with a known multiple of
Rayleigh scattering.
The Optec NGN-2 ambient nephelometer has been developed to minimize modification of
ambient aerosols and address problems associated with Belfort nephelometers: sizing by the inlet,
large truncation error, poorly-defined optical response, and outdated, unstable electronics. The
system incorporates sensors, signal detection techniques, and electronics developed for the Optec
transmissometer previously discussed. As shown in Figure 4-5, the ambient nephelometer features
low-power (45-watt) operation, solid compact design, and digital electronics resulting in a stable
linear performance over a wide temperature range. The complete system is contained in a single unit
and is separated into three (3) chambers: optical, pump, and electronics. A cross sectional view of
the Optec NGN-2 is represented in Figure 4-6. The optical chamber features a single large door that
opens a complete side of the chamber to unrestricted ambient air flow. A stainless-steel, 24-mesh
screen covers the inlet opening to prevent insects, leaves, or other large masses from entering the
scattering chamber. The chamber is completely sealed by a double wall from the rest of the system
to prevent either heat or air from modifying the ambient aerosol as it passes through the scattering
volume. Separate and sealed from the electronics chamber, the pump chamber houses the exhaust
fan, exhaust port door, lamp cooling heat sink, clean air pump, and span gas solenoid activated inlet
valve. The exhaust air from the optical chamber passes across the finned heat sink as it exits,
removing heat from the system. The electronics chamber contains the projector lamp, chopper motor,
scattered light detector/electrometer, computer, interface board, and door motor. A thick metal
shield around the lamp absorbs and conducts most of the waste heat from the bulb, infrared heat
filter, and electronics into the heat sink located in the pump chamber. The internal CMOS computer
controls all operating functions and outputs data and system parameters in digital and analog format.
The optical design of the detector field of view, illumination cone, and scattering volume
allows for integration of scattered light from 5° to 175°. A low-voltage (13.8 VDC), quartz halogen
projector bulb with dichroic reflector illuminates an opal glass diffuser. In the light path between the
diffuser and bulb, a heat-absorbing filter blocks all radiation longer than 700 nm in wavelength and
a mechanical chopper modulates the beam at 10 Hz. A telescope with a precisely defined field of
view, collects the light from a cylindrical pencil (6 mm x 260 mm) of air slightly above the diffuser.
The opposite end of the path terminates in a light trap. A small lens behind the field stop images the
entrance pupil (objective lens) of the telescope onto the active area of a photodiode detector. This
detector measures light scattered by the gases and aerosols in the scattering volume plus light
reflected from the surfaces and stop edges in the optical chamber. This wall component of the
measured light is constant and corrected for by zero and span calibrations.
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Figure 4-5. Entire Nephelometer System Set on a Tower.
4-34
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K/buntinQ Bolts
sCteanAirfilter \ Light Trap
Figure 4-6. Close-Up of a Nephelometer and Cross-View of Its Internal Components.
4-35
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Within the optical chamber, directly in front of the diffuser, is an identical photodiode
detector. This detector directly measures the intensity of the lamp. Using the output of this detector
to normalize the scattered light signal compensates for lamp brightness changes due to power supply
fluctuations, lamp aging, and dust on the optical surfaces.
The single board computer controls all operating functions of the NGN-2 which include:
scattered light measurement, clean-air zero calibration, span gas calibration, moisture detection to
close the optical chamber door during rain or snow conditions, optical chamber temperature
measurement, initial data reduction, various error detection schemes, and diagnostic tests.
Integrating nephelometers estimate the atmospheric scattering coefficient (bscat) by directly
measuring the light scattered by aerosols and gases in the sampled air volume. Scattered radiation
from an illumination source is integrated over a large range of scattering angles, in a defined band of
visible wavelengths. Because the total light scattered out of a path is the same as the reduction of
light along a path due to scattering, the integrating nephelometer gives a direct estimate of bscat.
The Optec, Inc. NGN-2 (Next Generation Nephelometer) uses a unique integrating open-air
design that allows accurate measurement of the scattering extinction coefficient of ambient air.
Because of the open-air design, relative humidity and temperature of the air sample are essentially
unchanged, thus the aerosol is negligibly modified when brought into the optical measuring chamber.
Extinction due to scatter can accurately be measured from Rayleigh to 100% saturated fog
conditions.
The National Park Service instituted the use of ambient nephelometers in 1993. This new
technology enhanced other methods of visibility monitoring and increased the accuracy with which
ambient optical data are measured. The nephelometer has proven to be an effective method of
collecting scattering data over a wide range of environmental conditions.
Detailed information regarding nephelometer instrumentation or operation can be found in
Model NGN-2 Open-air Integrating Nephelometer, Technical Manual for Theory of Operation and
Operating Procedures (Optec, 1993) and Standard Operating Procedures and Technical
Instructions for Nephelometer Systems (Air Resource Specialists, Inc., 1993-1996).
4.2.2 Siting Criteria
The primary siting criteria involves selecting a location that represents the air mass of interest.
A nephelometer can be easily collocated with other monitoring instrumentation such as a fine
particulate sampler, camera system, meteorological instrumentation, or a criteria pollutant monitoring
station. Because the nephelometer operates under ambient conditions, climate-controlled sheltering
is not necessary, but a precipitation/solar radiation shield is suggested.
An external power supply, calibration span gas supply, and datalogging system are required.
The low power requirements of the system accommodate line power or solar power installations.
Selected nephelometer sites should have most of the following characteristics:
! Be located in an area representative of the air mass to be monitored
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! Be removed from local pollution sources and away from obstructions that could affect the
air flow in the area of the instrument
! Have AC power and telephone lines available
! Allow for orientation of the nephelometer sample inlet towards true north
! Be representative of the same air mass measured by associated aerosol (particle monitors)
and scene (camera) instrumentation
! Meet the same criteria used to site particle samplers, including:
Have a distance from the instrument to the nearest obstruction greater than 2.5 times
the difference in heights of the instrument and the obstruction
Be representative of regional (not local) visibility
Be removed from local pollution influences (e.g., vehicle exhaust, wood smoke, road
dust, etc.)
! Be secure from vandalism
! Have available servicing personnel (operator)
! Be reasonably accessible during all months of the year
4.2.3 Installation and Site Documentation
Nephelometer system components are typically mounted on a 4 meter (14 foot)
meteorological tower. The tower must be installed with one face oriented to true north. The
nephelometer will be mounted on this northward face. The tower may be placed in sand or loose soil,
or rock, and is secured with guy wires. The nephelometer is mounted, along with a solar radiation
and precipitation shield, a precipitation hood, a datalogging and control subsystem, an AT/RH sensor,
a force-aspirated shield, and a span gas calibration system. The system is generally AC powered and
a telephone line is generally required.
System operation is verified and calibration is performed after all components are installed.
Upon completing the installation and verifying system operation, all operators, back-up operators,
and any other involved or interested on-site personnel should be trained, including reviewing a site
operator's manual. The manual contains technical instructions for operator maintenance,
troubleshooting, system diagrams, replacing and shipping components, and a manufacturer's manual
(ARS, Inc., TI 4100-3100, TI 4100-3350, TI 4100-3375, and Mo del NGN-2 Open-Air Integrating
Nephelometer Technical Manual for Theory of Operation and Operating Procedures (Optec, Inc.).
Other site documentation includes completion of a site visit trip report, photographic
documentation (including photographs of vistas in all directions from the tower, telephone and AC
wiring, local sources or obstructions to air flow to the station, landmarks used to locate the site, the
station itself, and other detailed close-ups), and documentation of any miscellaneous information
necessary to make a complete site description, including site map and site specifications (latitude,
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longitude, instrument elevation, etc.)., dominating pollutant influences, (listing the source and
pollutant), type of land use within 1/2 km of the site, collocated equipment, and general climate.
4.2.4 System Performance and Maintenance
System performance and maintenance includes routine servicing, annual site visits, instrument
calibration, and annual servicing.
4.2.4.1 Routine Servicing
Routine site operator maintenance for a nephelometer should be performed weekly and
includes the following general tasks:
! Inspecting the condition of all structural hardware, nephelometer components, support
system components, and meteorological sensors.
! Verifying power system status.
! Checking system timing.
! Initiating a zero and upscale/span calibration check.
! Observing the Power-On Self Test (POST)
! Exchanging the data storage module.
! Documenting system readings.
The majority of nephelometer problems are due to moisture in the nephelometer, lamp
malfunction, electrical power outages or surges, and lightning induced voltage spikes.
4.2.4.2 Annual Site Visits
Annual site visits are performed to exchange the existing nephelometer for a newly serviced
instrument, and to train site operators in servicing and maintaining the monitoring components.
Primary tasks for a typical annual site visit include:
! Documenting initial conditions of the components.
! Verifying existing system operation and calibration (pre-removal).
! Performing clean air (zero) and upscale span calibration of the existing system.
! Conducting site inventory.
! Replacing the nephelometer, datalogging and control subsystem, and AT/RH sensor.
4-38
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! Verifying replacement system operation and calibration (post-installation).
! Performing clean air (zero) and upscale span calibrations of the replacement system.
Site operator training should be performed to discuss the purpose of the monitoring program
and theory of nephelometer system operation.
4.2.4.3 Instrument Calibration
Two methods of calibrating nephelometers are the simple calibration and the complete
calibration. Simple calibrations are initiated weekly by site operators and occasionally by field
specialists to check the operation of the nephelometer system. Simple calibration includes:
! A span check consisting often (10) minutes of gas introduction, then an average often
(10) 1-minute readings of a span gas with known scattering properties, usually SUVA-
134a.
! A clean air zero check consisting of five (5) minutes of internal air filtering, then an
average of ten (10) 1-minute readings of particle-free air, using the nephelometer's
internal air filtering system.
Complete calibrations are performed by the field specialist or instrument technician during
installations, removals, and laboratory testing. Complete calibrations are performed upon acceptance
testing of a new instrument, installation or removal at a field site, during laboratory maintenance, or
during annual or audit site visits. Complete calibration includes:
! Nephelometer Power-On Self Test (POST) information.
! Twenty 1-minute clean air zero readings.
! Twenty 1-minute span readings.
4.2.4.4 Annual Servicing
Nephelometers are precision instruments that require careful cleaning and inspection to ensure
optimum measurement accuracy. This level of servicing must be performed in a laboratory
environment using specialized electronic and optical test equipment. Nephelometers operating in the
IMPROVE network are replaced in the field and serviced on an annual basis.
Each instrument must be fully serviced before it is reinstalled at a field site. Servicing includes
the following major tasks:
! Visual inspection
! Post-field calibration
! Cleaning
4-39
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! Hardware upgrade/modifications
! Component functional tests
! Pre-field calibration
4.2.5 Data Collection
The nephelometer outputs a two-minute integrated average value for measured ambient
scattering, along with the associated status code at five-minute intervals. The on-site datalogger
collects nephelometer data, along with instantaneous measurements of air temperature and relative
humidity at five-minute intervals. At sites with telephone lines, the on-site datalogger is interrogated
daily via telephone modem. At sites where telephone access is unavailable, preliminary data from the
on-site datalogger are transmitted daily via GOES satellite and Handar data collection platforms
(DCPs).
4.2.6 Data Reduction and Validation
4.2.6.1 Data Reduction
Nephelometer data should be compiled into site-specific Level-A files. Data processing
includes processing each daily file into:
! 5-minute nephelometer, ambient temperature, and relative humidity data.
! Hourly average wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and relative humidity data.
! Hourly nephelometer status code and support system status code summaries. Data should
be reviewed daily by data analysts to determine the operational characteristics of each site.
Any apparent problem should result in a telephone call to the site operator in an attempt
to resolve the inconsistencies.
Weekly plots are generated from raw data files. Information from operator log sheets should
be checked against data collected to identify inconsistencies and errors. Inconsistent or suspicious
data can then be identified and troubleshooting procedures initiated. As completed log sheets from
nephelometer sites are received, the pertinent information (visibility conditions, instrument problems,
etc.) should be manually transferred to the weekly plots. This procedure helps to identify the exact
time of calibrations and other actions done by the site operator affecting instrument operation.
4-40
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4.2.6.2 Data Validation
Nephelometer data should undergo three validation levels: Level-A, Level-0, and Level-1.
Level-A includes visual review and examination of the raw data and extracting codes, Level-0
includes searching for questionable or invalid data, and Level-1 includes computing hourly averages
and extracting data having meteorological influences.
Level-A data files should be compiled into seasonal data files for each site. Standard
meteorological seasons are defined as:
Winter December, January, and February
Spring March, April, and May
Summer June, July, and August
Fall September, October, and November.
Level-A validation begins immediately after collection. Parameters are extracted from the raw
data file and appended to site-specific seasonal data files. Automatic clean air zero calibrations and
operator-initiated clean air zero and span calibrations are extracted from the raw data file and
appended to nephelometer-specific quality assurance calibration files. The three validity codes
extracted from the raw data and assigned to the Level-A data file are:
! The power code, generated by the datalogger, is an hourly summary of any AC or DC
power problems that occurred during the previous hour.
! The nephelometer status code, is generated by the nephelometer to indicate the type of
measurement (ambient, clean air zero or span calibration), or problem (rain, lamp out,
chopper motor failure).
! The type code, indicates the source of nephelometer data (serial, analog, DCP).
Level-0 validation begins with updating the quality assurance database and calibration files.
The QA database files are site-specific files containing data validation codes and comments detailing
the history of the site's nephelometer. The QA calibration files contain all zero and span calibrations
performed on a nephelometer during a specific time period, including the initial zero and span
performed during installation. Uncertainly estimates generated with the QA calibration plots are
entered manually in the QA database files. The uncertainly estimates appear in the Level-1 data file
for reference. Level-0 validation of nephelometer and meteorological data is performed seasonally
and serves as an intermediate data reduction step. Level-A data are reviewed to identify periods of
invalid nephelometer data caused by the following:
! Burned out lamp
! Power failures
! Water contamination
! Sensor failures
! Other problems
4-41
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Level-1 validation is performed seasonally and includes the following tasks:
! Computation of hourly averages from Level-0 data
! Automatic validation of QA calibration file entries
! Conversion of hourly average data to engineering units
! Overrange/underrange checks
! Identification of nephelometer bscat data affected by meteorological interference
! Estimation of precision
Hourly averages are computed from Level-0 data. The zero calibration information in the QA
calibration files is used to calculate a calibration line for each data point. The nephelometer scattering
coefficient of total extinction is calculated by determining a calibration line for each raw nephelometer
scattering data point as follows:
! The zero is determined by interpolating (in time) between the valid clean air calibrations
prior to, and following the data point.
! The initial span is determined from the initial calibration of the instrument upon
installation.
(4-19)
'nitial span - Initial upscale span gas calibration - Initial clean air calibratioi
\ The Rayleigh coefficient is the site-specific altitude-dependent scattering of particle-free
air.
! The designated span is determined by the span gas used during the initial calibration, and
the Rayleigh coefficient. The span gas SUVA (HFC-134a) (Dupont) has been shown to
scatter 7.1 times that of particle-free (Rayleigh) air.
Designated span = 7.1 x Rayleigh (4-20)
! The slope and intercept of the calibration line are:
Slope = (designated span - Ray) / Initial span ... _...
Intercept = (Ray - slope x zero)
\ Nephelometer data and calibrations are in unitless counts. If the units for the Rayleigh
coefficient are km"1, the units for bscat will also be in krfr . Nephelometer scattering is
calculated from the calibration line as follows:
b = (slope x Raw Neph Value) + Intercept (4-22)
4-42
-------
The following additional validation checks are performed to complete the Level-1 validation
process:
! Data invalid at Level-0 are invalid at Level-1.
! Calculated bscat data less than Rayleigh scattering are invalid.
! Meteorological data are not validated beyond Level-0.
Data are filtered to identify periods likely affected by meteorological interference. The
following filter criteria are used to identify these periods:
! Rate of change: If the rate of change between hourly bscat data exceeds 50 Mm"1, the bscat
value is coded as filtered.
! Maximum: If the bscat data exceeds 5000 Mm"1, the bscat value is coded as filtered.
! Relative humidity: If the RH corresponding to the bscat value exceeds 95%, the bscat value
is coded as filtered.
! 5/|i: If the standard deviation of the hourly raw nephelometer data divided by the mean
of the hourly raw data exceeds 10%, the value is coded as filtered.
Data identified as affected by meteorological interference are still considered valid.
Seasonal data plots can then be generated and reviewed to identify data reduction and
validation errors, instrument operation problems, and calibration inconsistencies. Any identified
problems should be immediately investigated and resolved by following the procedures detailed in
standard operating procedures and technical instructions.
4.2.7 Data Reporting and Archive
4.2.7.1 Data Reporting
Data reports should be prepared in a format that generally conforms to the Guidelines for
Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division (AH Technical Services, 1987). A separate data
report should be prepared for each instrument type; nephelometer data reports should contain only
nephelometer data. Reporting consists of various text discussions and graphics presentations
concerning the instrumentation and collected data. Specific contents of the reports are defined by the
contracting agencies' COTR.
Seasonal nephelometer reporting should be completed within three months after the end of
a monitoring season, and annual reporting within three months after the end of the last reported
season. Standard meteorological monitoring seasons are defined as:
Winter (December, January, and February)
Spring (March, April, and May)
Summer (June, July, and August)
Fall (September, October, and November)
4-43
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Reports should contain the following major sections:
! Introduction
! Data Collection and Reduction
! Site Configuration
! Data Summary Description
! Nephelometer Data Summaries
! Summary
! References
The introduction should contain a conceptual overview of the purpose of the monitoring
program and a description of the monitoring networks. The data collection and reduction section
should include data collection methods, data file review, data validation, application of validity codes,
processing through various validation levels and discussion of file formats, and identification of
meteorological and optical interferences that affect the calculation of bscat from nephelometer
measurements.
The site configuration section should contain a brief discussion of instrumentation at each
nephelometer site, basic principles of operation, measurement principles, and data collection
specifications, including:
I
A map depicting the location of all monitoring network sites.
! A Monitoring History Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site the name, type of
instrumentation, and period of operation for each instrument type.
! A Site Specifications Summary Table, listing for each monitoring site the site name,
abbreviation, latitude, longitude, and elevation of the nephelometer, the number of
readings taken each day, and the operating period during the season.
A data summary description section describes seasonal and annual data summaries. Annual
data summaries should be prepared for each site that operated during the reporting period, and should
be based on a calendar year instead of season. An example Seasonal Nephelometer Data Summary
is presented as Figure 4-7 and an example Annual Nephelometer Data Summary is presented as
Figure 4-8. The following is a detailed explanation of the contents of the data summaries in each
report.
Seasonal Nephelometer Data Summaries include the following five data presentations:
! 4-Hour Average Variation in Visual Air Quality (Filtered Data) - Plot of four-hour
averaged bscat values (without interference-influenced observations) for each day of the
reporting season. Gaps in the plot indicate that data were missing, interference-
influenced, or failed validation procedures.
4-44
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JARBIDGE WILDERNESS, NEVADA
IMPROVE Nephelotneter Data Summary
Fall Season: September 1,1994 - November 30, 1994
4-HOUR AVERAGE VARIATION IN VISUAL AIR QUALITY (FILTERED DATA)
£.800-
6 .600 -
.500 -
.400 -
.300 -
.200 -
|.100 -
J
.050 -
.030 -
.020 -
§
- - - - - -
fc«
-- — - - - - -
Communication and data storage
malfunction 11/21-1 1/27!
i
Hwv^yi,
__\.
J/ J \
Jl lif Uj
.U1U III 1 1 1
1 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER
80 -
g 60-
Sj 40 -
20 -
FR1
fi .800 -t
3 .600 -
.500
.300 -
.200 -
* .050 -
.030 -
.020 -
tJfVW"^
3QUENCY OF OCCURRENCE: HOURLY DATA CUMULATIVE FRE
--.---- - 600 Datafx]
--:--• - .500 % bscat
— L - 400
- --'••- - .300 10 0.013
20 0.015
: -• - -200 30 0.017
i i ~ 40 0,018
B 50 0.020
r " -100 S 60 0.022
§ 70 0.025
nsn *° 80 °'031
"~"~:" X "-05° 90 0.043
0
ff -*:
QUENCY SUMMAB
Filtered
Data [o]
bscat
- .600
- .500
- .400
- .300
- .200
.100 ,3,
j
- .050
- .030
- .020
010
.Y
0.013
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.023
0.028
0.038
i i : I" 8 — -030
- i -J-- - ' § i— ?- i - .020 VISIBILITY METRIC (FILTERED DATA)
a " | bscat
* ! i
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Mean of all data
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (%) Mean of dirtiest 20%
NEPHELOMETER DATA RECOVERY
Total Possible Hourly Averages In The Time Period
Valid Hourly Averages (Filtered and Unfiltered)
Valid Hourly Averages (Filtered)
Filtered Data Percent Of Filtered and Unfiltered Hourly Averages
0.013
0.023
0.042
NUM %
2184 100
1920 88
1665 76
87
Nll:02/08/95 11:43 a P:03/23/9S[-99]
V3.0:12/14/94
Figure 4-7. Example Seasonal Nephelometer Data Summary.
4-45
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.010
MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK, WASHINGTON
Annual Nephelometer Data Summary
All Data: January 1, 1992 - December 31, 1992
MONTHLY MEDIAN VISUAL AIR QUALITY
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY
FILTERED DATA
JUN JUL
AUG SEP
ALL DATA
OCT NOV
DEC
MONTHLY CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SUMMARIES
MONTH YEAR
JAN 1992
FEB 1992
MAR 1992
APR 1992
MAY 1992
JUN 1992
JUL 1992
AUG 1992
SEP 1992
OCT 1992
NOV 1992
DEC 1992
ALL DATA
El
10%
0027
0.015
0.017
0.019
0.019
0.019
0.017
0.021
0.025
0.025
0.024
0.022
0.019
1TERED-DATA
50%
0.048
0.018
0.022
0.023
0.024
0.023
0.021
0.026
0.028
0.031
0.030
0.035
0.026
90%
Krtit
0.069
0.031
0.027
0.029
0,030
0.029
0.028
0.033
0.035
0.039
0.038
0.059
0.037
ALL DATA DATA RFrnVFHV STATISTICS
10%
0.029
0.015
0.017
0.019
0.020
0.019
0.017
0.022
0.025
0.025
0.024
0.023
0.019
50%
0.059
0023
0.022
0.024
0.025
0.024
0.022
0.026
0.028
0032
0.030
0.043
0.027
90%
POSS.
NUM
0.608 744
0.076 ! 696
0.031 : 744
0.030 720
0.033 744
0.033 , 720
0.030 744
0.037
0.036
0.041
0.044
0.169
0.062
744
720
744
720
744
8784
COLLECTED
NUM %
741 100
693 100
741 100
720 100
744 100
719 100
742 100
738 99
708 98
735 99
717 100
738 99
8736 99
ALL
NUM %
739 99
692 99
740 99
720 100
744 100
718 100
741 100
720 97
707 98
735 99
717 100
735 99
8708 99
FILTERED
NUM %
135 18
371 53
555 75
655 91
554 74
595 83
654 88
674 91
685 95
683 92
623 87
506 68
6690 76
ANNUAL FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE: HOURLY DATA
ANNUAL CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY SUMMARY
.110
.090
.080
.070
.060
.050
.040 -
.030 -
.020 -
.010
- .110
.090
- .080
- .070
- .060
- .050
- .040
- .030
.020
.010
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (%)
0:01/20/94 1:48 p P:03/20/95
Filtered
Data [o]
bscat
All
Data [x]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
.019
.021
.023
.024
.026
.027
.029
.031
.037
.019
.022
.023
.025
.027
.029
.032
.038
.062
Figure 4-8. Example Annual Nephelometer Data Summary.
4-46
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! Relative Humidity - Timeline of hourly average relative humidity measurements. This
allows for a comparison of the effect of increasing relative humidity on measured bscat.
! Frequency of Occurrence: Hourly Data - This plot is a frequency distribution of hourly
average bscat values, both unfiltered and filtered for meteorological interference. The 10%
to 90% values are plotted in 10% increments and are summarized in the table to the right
of the plot.
! Visibility Metric (Filtered Data) - This table presents mean values of filtered bscat data
affected by meteorological interference. The best, worst, and average conditions using
the arithmetic means of the 20th percentile least impaired visibility, the 20th percentile
most impaired visibility, and for all data for the season are presented.
! Data Recovery Statistics
Total Possible Hourly Averages in the Time Period - The total possible category is
calculated by subtracting the number of hourly averages included in periods when the
instrument was removed due to conditions unrelated to system performance (installation,
construction, site relocation, etc.) from the theoretical maximum number of hourly
average periods possible during a season.
Valid Hourly Averages (Filtered and Unfiltered) - the number of valid hourly averages
collected during a season. The percentage data recovery represents the number of valid
hourly averages compared to the total possible hourly averages.
Valid Hourly Averages (Filtered) - The number of valid hourly averages (excluding any
data indicating meteorological interference) collected during a season. The percentage
represents the number of valid hourly averages compared to the total possible hourly
averages.
Filtered Data Percent of Filtered and Unfiltered Hourly Averages - This percentage
collection efficiency represents the number of filtered hourly averages compared to the
number of all valid hourly averages.
Annual Nephelometer Data Summaries include three data presentations:
! Monthly Median Visual Air Quality - Plot of median monthly bscat for all data and for
filtered data only. As the visual air quality improves, bscat values decrease. A Rayleigh
atmosphere is defined by a bscat of approximately 10 Mm"1.
! Monthly cumulative Frequency Summaries - Table of cumulative frequency distribution
average bscat values for all data and for filtered data only. The 10%, 50%, and 90% values
are presented. Also included are data recovery statistics (total possible readings, number
and percent of collected readings, and number and percent of valid readings (both all data
and filtered data only)).
! Annual Frequency of Occurrence: Hourly Data - This plot is a frequency distribution of
hourly average bscat values for all data and for filtered data only. The 10% to 90% values
are plotted in 10% increments. Numerical values are presented in the adjacent cumulative
frequency summary table.
4-47
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Nephelometer data summaries should follow their description. Summaries should be prepared
for each site that operated during the reporting period. A brief discussion of events and
circumstances that influence data recovery should follow the data summaries. Operational status
throughout the reporting period should be presented for each site in an operation summary table,
listing for each site, site name and abbreviation, the number of seasonal hourly averages possible, the
number and percentage of valid hourly averages for all data and for filtered data only, and the
cumulative frequency distribution (10%, 50%, and 90% bscat values) for all data and filtered data only.
Finally, a summary section should be included in reports, and provide a synopsis of the
nephelometer network, including changes in operation techniques, and a general conclusion of the
monitoring period in review. A reference section should include technical references (documents
cited in the report), and related reports and publications (including all prior reports pertaining to the
monitoring program).
4.2.7.2 Data Archive
Archiving of raw digital data should be performed on a monthly basis. Archiving of all raw
and processed digital data for a given season, and constants, calibration, and data processing files
should be performed on a seasonal basis, after data have been finalized and reported. All files are in
ASCII format. Files should be stored in their original formats (raw, Level-A, Level-0, and Level-1)
on magnetic tape CD-ROM. At least two copies of each media should be created; one copy should
be stored at the data processing location and the other off-site.
Hard copies of supporting documentation and reports should be duplicated and archived on
a continual basis, and include site specifications, monitoring timelines, data coordinator/site operator
correspondence, site operator log sheets, trip reports, weekly, seasonal, and annual summary plots,
instrument calibration and maintenance logs, and file audit reports. All validated Level-1 data should
be delivered as ASCII files (on PC-compatible diskettes and/or CD-ROM) to the COTR with the
quarterly and annual reports. The standard file format currently used for IMPROVE protocol
nephelometer data is presented in Figure 4-9.
4.2.8 Quality Assurance
Quality assurance of nephelometer data is performed during Level-1 validation, and includes
precision of the instrument, and annual field audits.
4.2.8.1 Instrument Precision
Precision of scattering measurements should be determined. The precision of meteorological
data are defined by the factory-specified precision for the sensors. The estimated precision of
nephelometer data for a given time period is based on calibrations performed during that time period.
The precision estimates are recorded in the site-specific quality assurance files and placed in the
Level-1 data files. The relative error (uncertainly) in scattering due to drift of the slope of the
calibration line is evaluated based on the instrument-specific zero and span checks performed. The
following statistical analysis was applied to calculate potential uncertainty:
4-48
-------
SITE YYMMDD JD HHMM INS
LOPE 931130 334 1900 014
LOPE 931130 334 2000 014
LOPE 931130 334 2100 014
LOPE 931130 334 2200 014
LOPE 931130 334 2300 014
N/A SD/M DEL
MAX RH 0123456789MPMOT YINTER SLOPE AT
.00 -99 OCOOOOOOOOOOOOO -0.0450 0.00083 -0.97
.00 -99 OCOOOOOOOOOOOOO -0.0457 0.00083 -1.47
.00 -99 OCOOOOOOOOOOOOO -0.0465 0.00083 -1.78
.00 -99 OCOOOOOOOOOOOOO -0.0472 0.00083 -2.65
.00 -99 OCOOOOOOOOOOOOO -0.0479 0.00083 -3.17
Column Number
Column
1-4
6-7
8-9
10-11
13-15
17-18
19-20
22-24
26-32
34-40
42-43
45-51
53-59
61-62
64-68
70-74
76-81
83-88
90-92
94-108
110-116
118-124
126-131
133-138
140-141
143-148
150-155
157-162
164-165
167-172
174-179
181-186
188-189
191-196
197-200
Data
Site Abbreviation
Year
Month
Day
Julian Day
Hour
Minute
Nephelometer Serial Number
b,ca, (Mm1)
b,c,, Estimated Precision (%/100)
bscat Validity/Interference Code ^^^^^_^^^^^_
Raw Nephelometer Hourly Average (Counts)
Standard Deviation of Raw Nephelometer Average (Counts)
Number of Data Points in Hourly Nephelometer Average
(Not Used)
Standard Deviation/Mean Interference Threshold
bscat Rate of Change Interference Threshold
Maximum bscat Interference Threshold
Relative Humidity Interference Threshold
Composite Nephelometer Code Summary ^^_^^_
Y-intercept of Calibration Line Used to Calculate bscat
Slope of Calibration Line Used to Calculate bscat
Average Ambient Temperature (°C)
Standard Deviation of Hourly AT Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly AT Average
Estimated Precision of Ambient Temperature
Average Nephelometer Chamber Temperature (°C)
Standard Deviation of Hourly CT Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly CT Average
Estimated Precision of Chamber Temperature
Average Relative Humidity (%)
Standard Deviation of Hourly RH Average
Number of Data Points in Hourly RH Average
Estimated Precision of Relative Humidity
(Not Used)
V = Valid
I = Invalid
< = bscat less than Rayleigh scattering
XZ = Data point immediately preceded and followed by interference
X? = Interference of type ?
Type (?) of Interference
RH > max. threshold
bscat > max. threshold
St. Dev./Mean>threshold
bscat rate of change > threshold
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
xxxxxxxx
XX XX XX XX
XXX XXXX
xxxxxxxx
94-103 Nephelometer diagnostic code (internal use)
104 Number of missing data points
105 Number of power failure codes
dumber of manual QA invalidation codes
107 Number of Level-0 invalidated data points
108 Number of times non-serial data were used
Note: The first 10 lines are for data reduction information.
Figure 4-9. Standard ASCII File Format IMPROVE Protocol Integrating Nephelometer Visibility Data.
-------
V(t) = Normalized nephelometer reading at time t
V0(t) = Normalized clean air reading at time t
Vs(t) = Normalized SUVA 134a reading at time t
bscat,o = Scattering coefficient for clean air
bscat,s = Scattering coefficient for SUVA 134a
V0 = Average normalized clean air reading
Vf = Average normalized SUVA 134a reading
bscat(t) = Theoretical scattering coefficient tat time t
m = Slope of the calibration line used to calculate
the theoretical scattering coefficient bscat(t)
(b - b )
- IMM xat'° (4-23)
(7(0 - 7(0)
Given a normalized nephelometer reading V(t), the theoretical bscat at time t is:
UO = b~, + "TO - FO(£» (4-24)
assuming that V0(t) and V(t) are known without error.
The slope of the calibration line is not constant as defined above, but changes (drifts) with time. The
actual slope of the calibration line at time t is:
- v^ (4-25)
The actual bscat (denoted b'scat), given a nephelometer reading V(t), is:
b'Jf> = b~, + "<'> (m ~ VS^ (4-26)
The relative error between the theoretical bscat and actual b'scat is:
relative error = (b^t) - V JtiVbJti (4-27)
•elative error = ((m - m(t)) (V(t) - 7(0)) / (b Q + m(V(t) ~ V(t))]
= (m ~ m(t))/(b^o/(V(t) ~ 7(0) + m) (4.28)
(m ~ m(t))/(bso/(V(t) ~ 7(0)
4-50
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The magnitude of the relative error is:
relative
(b (t) ~ b' (£)) / b (t) (4-29}
^ icatv ' icatv '' icatv ' \* Z'5/
The magnitude of the relative error is bounded by the slopes such that:
| relative error | <. | (m - m(t)) /m | (4-30)
Assuming that the calculated slopes, m(t), of the calibration lines are normally distributed about the
average slope m with a standard deviation s, then for a probability (confidence level) of 95%:
| m ~ m(t) | < 2s (4-31)
so that
I (b (t) - b' (t))/b (t) I < I 2s / m (4-32}
1 V icatv ' icatv '' icatv ' ' ' \* J ^ )
Assuming that s is estimated by sm with k degrees of freedom, based on k+1 sample values of m(t),
and using the two-tailed t distribution, the relative error at a 95% confidence level (which for a two
tailed t distribution is read from the 97.5 column of the t table) is:
relative error < t s * s^ / m (4.33)
4.2.8.2 Instrument Audits
The nephelometer field audit verifies accurate on-site nephelometer calibrations by comparing
calibrations made with an audit calibration system. The audit results assess the validity of operator-
performed calibrations, and how the instrument has changed since installation, by comparing the audit
calibration to the installation calibration.
Nephelometers are typically audited at least once a year, but can be audited at any time. A
standard audit begins with a pre-inspection audit calibration (checking the physical condition of the
instrument, performing a calibration using the station calibration system, then a calibration using an
audit calibration system). The nephelometer is then inspected to verify that the instrument is capable
of making an ambient reading and that the instrument's components are not contaminated. The
inspection includes checking the inlet screen, fan outlet, light trap, and clean air filter. Finally, a post-
inspection is performed. The post-inspection audit calibration represents the state of the instrument
after the audit is complete. The calibration is identical to the pre-inspection audit calibration.
Following the audit, the nephelometer components are verified that they are in their
operational configuration and that the nephelometer is in ambient mode.
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4.2.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Nephelometer data are a measure of the scattering component of atmospheric extinction.
Data are typically presented in scattering units, expressed in kilometers (km"1). These units are
directly stored in the data files.
Nephelometer data provide a quantitative measure of visibility conditions. Data can be used
to provide the basis for background conditions and trend analysis; however, data must be combined
with associated meteorological and aerosol concentrations to understand the source and/or
composition of the impairment observed. They must also be combined with absorption data to get
values of total extinction.
4.2.10 Nephelometer Standard Operating Proccedures and Technical Instructions
The Air Resource Specialists, Inc. document entitled Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions for Nephelometer Systems, includes the following nephelometer-related
Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions:
SOP 4050 Site Selection for Optical Monitoring Equipment (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4050-3000 Site Selection for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer Systems
SOP 4070 Installation and Site Documentation for Optical Monitoring Equipment
TI 4070-3000 Installation of Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4070-3001 Site Documentation for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer Systems
SOP 4100 Nephelometer Maintenance (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4100-3100 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer
Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4100-3101 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer
Systems (IMPROVE Protocol) Zirkel Special Study
TI 4100-3150 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer
Systems (CASTNet Installations)
TI 4100-3350 NGN-2 Nephelometer Monitoring System Diagrams and Component Descriptions
TI 4100-3375 Replacing and shipping Nephelometer System Components
TI 4100-3400 Nephelometer Annual Laboratory Maintenance (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4115 Annual Site Visits for Optical Monitoring Instrumentation (IMPROVE Protocol)
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TI4115-3005 Annual Site Visit Procedures for Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer Systems
(IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4200 Calibration of Optical Monitoring Systems (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4200-2000 Calibration of Optec NGN-2 Nephelometers (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4250 Servicing and Calibration of Optical Monitoring Dataloggers
TI 4250-2000 Servicing and Calibration of Campbell 21X Dataloggers
TI 4250-2010 Servicing and Calibration of the Handar 540A/570A DCP
SOP 4300 Collection of Optical Monitoring Data (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4300-4000 Data Collection Via DCP (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4300-4002 Nephelometer Data Collection Via Telephone Modem (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4300-4004 Nephelometer Data Compilation and Review of DCP-Collected Data (IMPROVE
Protocol)
TI 4300-4006 Nephelometer Data Collection Via Campbell Scientific Data Storage Module
(IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4400 Optical Monitoring Data Reduction and Validation
TI 4400-5010 Nephelometer Data Reduction and Validation (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4500 Optical Monitoring Data Reporting
TI 4500-5000 Nephelometer Data Reporting (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4600 Optical Monitoring Data Archives
TI 4600-5000 Nephelometer Data Archives (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4700 Optec NGN-2 Nephelometer Audit Procedures (IMPROVE Protocol)
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5.0 SCENE MONITORING
As an example of an existing visibility-related scene monitoring program, this section
describes IMPROVE scene monitoring and data management techniques. References made to
manufacturers or trade names are not intended to constitute EPA endorsement or recommendations
for use. New or improved instruments, instrument upgrades, and methods of monitoring are
continually being developed.
Scene monitoring provides a qualitative representation of the visual air quality in the area of
interest. The photographic record documents the appearance of a scene. Scene characteristics
include color, texture, contrast, clarity, observer visual range, and other descriptive terms.
Photography is uniquely suited for identifying ground-based or elevated layers or plumes that may
impact Class I or protected areas, as well as documenting conditions for interpreting aerosol and
optical data.
IMPROVE protocols recommend that color photographs (35 mm slides) be taken several
times a day. The data collection schedule can be tailored to capture periods when visibility
impairment is most likely at specific sites. For example, photographs during stable periods may yield
more information in areas susceptible to ground-based or elevated layered hazes. Time-lapse movies
(generally time-lapse video or super 8 mm film) have also been used at selected monitoring sites and
during special studies to document the visual dynamics of a scene or source. To the extent possible,
the selected scene should be collocated with or include aerosol and optical monitoring equipment,
so that conditions documented by photography can aid in the presentation of these data.
Sections 5.1 and 5.2 describe the monitoring criteria, instrumentation, installation and site
documentation, system performance and maintenance, data collection, reduction, validation,
reporting, and archive, quality assurance, and data analysis and interpretation required for 35 mm
slide and time-lapse photography, respectively. Example users' manuals and manufacturers'
specifications are provided in Appendix B.
5.1 35 mm SLIDE PHOTOGRAPHY
5.1.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation
Automatic 35 mm camera systems take color photographs of selected vistas at user-selected
times. Day-to-day variations in visual air quality captured on 35 mm color slides can be used to:
! Document how vistas appear under various visual air quality, meteorological, and
seasonal conditions. Scene characteristics include observer visual range, scene contrast,
color, texture, and clarity.
! Record the frequency that various visual air quality conditions occur (e.g., incidence of
uniform haze, layered haze, or weather events).
! Provide a quality assurance reference for collocated measurements.
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! Determine the visual sensitivity of individual areas or views to variations in ambient air
quality.
! Identify areas of potential impairment.
! Estimate the optical properties of the atmosphere under certain conditions.
! Provide quality media for visually presenting program goals, objectives, and results to
decision-makers and the public.
! Support computer image modeling of potential impairment.
! Support color and human perception research.
Photographic slides, however, do not provide quantitative information about the cause of
visibility impairment. Aerosol and optical properties of the atmosphere must be independently
monitored where cause and effect relationships are required.
Automatic camera systems should meet the following requirements:
! Have a rugged, reliable 35 mm camera body with automatic film winder. The camera's
exposure meter must be designed so it is on only the actual time of exposure and not
continuously operating.
! Have an appropriate size lens to capture the full extent of a scenic vista (usually a 135 mm
or 50 mm lens).
! Have a databack that will imprint on the film the day and time the exposure was taken.
! Have a battery-powered, programmable timer that will trigger the camera at least three
times daily, or on selected days of the week.
! Be able to operate within an ambient temperature range of 0°F to 120°F. (To achieve
the specification of 0°F, a heated and insulated shelter requiring 110V line power is
recommended).
! Be housed in a stand-alone, lockable, weatherproof environmental enclosure.
! Be able to operate unattended for at least 10 days or a maximum of 30 days.
Figure 5-1 is a photograph of the automatic camera station in a remote mountain location.
Figure 5-2 shows the components of a station, including a weatherproof shelter and mounting post,
cameras, automatic timers, and batteries. The station can be outfitted with a variety of camera
configurations.
Detailed information regarding camera instrumentation or operation can be found in Standard
Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for Automatic Camera Systems (Air Resource
Specialists, Inc., 1993-1996).
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Figure 5-1. Automatic Camera System in a Remote Location.
Figure 5-2. Station Components.
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5.1.2 Siting Criteria
Stations are normally located so that the camera views a recognizable, important vista that
highlights the character of the area being monitored. When selecting a site, servicing, installation
logistics, aesthetics, and security should also be considered. At many locations, the camera is located
with other monitoring equipment such as a transmissometer, a nephelometer, an aerosol sampler or
other monitoring systems that support comprehensive air quality evaluations.
To assure consistent, quality data and minimize data loss, selected camera sites should have
most or all of the following characteristics:
! Be located to photograph a highly-visited scenic vista or important scenic features of the
visibility sensitive area being monitored
! View north or away from direct sun angles to minimize lens flare and overexposure
! Include a vista encompassing the same air mass monitored by associated aerosol (particle
monitors) and/or optical instrumentation
! Be removed from local pollution sources (e.g., vehicle exhaust, wood smoke, road dust,
etc.)
! Be representative of regional (not local) visibility
! Be secure from vandalism
! Have available servicing personnel (operator)
! Be reasonably accessible during all months of the year
! Be located considering environmental factors (e.g., snow depth, temperature extremes,
precipitation type and amount, relative humidity, etc.) that could affect camera operations
or site accessibility
! Be located free from viewing obstructions or interferences
! Have local land manager or land owner cooperation
5.1.3 Installation and Site Documentation
Before the automatic camera system can be installed, a mounting post should be appropriately
aligned on the selected monitoring vista (target). Mounting post installation procedures depend on
the type of installation and surface material to which the post is mounted. The posts may be attached
to pre-existing concrete or rock, in soil, in a wood platform, or to a new concrete pad. Enclosure
installation involves three processes: mounting the sunshield, the enclosure, and the camera
equipment.
Following the completion of the camera system installation and configuration, operator
training should be performed. Site operators should be trained on camera system requirements and
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routine maintenance procedures. A Site Operator's Manual for Automatic Visibility Monitoring
Camera Systems should be provided. This manual contains standard operating procedures and
technical instructions applicable to the specific camera monitoring equipment located at the site.
Additional manufacturer's instruction booklets and pertinent maintenance documentation forms
should also be provided.
Site documentation for the automatic camera system visibility monitoring station includes
completion of the Visibility Monitoring Photographic Site and Target Specifications Form, which
includes: site name; focal length; number of observations per day; elevation, latitude, and longitude
of the camera location; map reference; site abbreviation; installation date and name of the installer;
site contacts and mailing/shipping address; vista name, distance, elevation, bearing, and elevation
angle; and site path elevation; vista cover type; and photographic reference.
5.1.4 System Performance and Maintenance
System performance and maintenance of 35 mm automatic camera systems includes routine
servicing and biannual laboratory servicing. Both of these servicing types are discussed in the
following subsections.
5.1.4.1 Routine Servicing
Site operator maintenance for an automatic camera system should be performed on a routine
basis. Routine servicing schedules are based on the number of photographs taken each day. A
common monitoring schedule includes taking three photographs a day at 0900, 1200, and 1500.
Assuming this schedule, site operators service the camera approximately every 10 days to change
film, check the performance of the camera(s), clean the system components, and perform scheduled
preventive maintenance. Identifying and troubleshooting system malfunctions are carried out as
required.
Regular servicing and the identification and documentation of film rolls are essential. During
each routine site visit, the operator should thoroughly document all pertinent data collection
information, any maintenance performed, and any equipment or monitoring inconsistencies. If further
action is necessary, immediate corrective action should be taken.
Regular maintenance performed at each film change includes:
! Inspecting the overall system and cleaning the shelter window.
! Verifying that the film has advanced in the camera and that camera settings are correct.
! Rewinding and removing the film, and completing a film canister label.
! Loading new film and completing a film canister label.
! Inspecting and cleaning the camera lens.
! Checking system batteries.
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! Checking databack settings.
! Checking timer settings.
! Photographing the film documentation board.
! Aligning the camera.
! Verifying system operation.
! Completing documentation:
Documenting any equipment or monitoring discrepancies found.
Documenting all servicing or maintenance actions performed.
Describing weather conditions.
Describing visibility conditions.
! Closing and locking the camera enclosure.
! Mailing the film and a copy of the documentation.
Scheduled maintenance performed as required includes:
! Changing 35 mm databack batteries annually.
! Changing 35 mm camera batteries every 6 months.
! Changing 35 mm batteries every 6 months.
5.1.4.2 Biannual Laboratory Servicing
Servicing all cameras and support systems is performed by mailing replacement parts and/or
systems to the site operators and repairing those components returned. Operational camera systems
are biannually cycled out of a monitoring network. Shelters remain in place and the cameras and
timers are cycled for laboratory maintenance.
Automatic camera system maintenance is normally provided by local factory-authorized repair
facilities capable of performing the following:
! Cleaning, lubricating, and adjusting of all 35 mm camera components
! Automatic exposure calibration checks
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! Ambient/cold testing of:
Current draw
Shutter speed and curtain travel time
Automatic exposure meter readout
Film transport
! Lens focus checks
! Battery and camera cabling integrity checks and necessary repair
! Timer circuitry checks
5.1.5 Data Collection
Collection procedures include site servicing visits to perform film changes at the required
interval, and the mailing of exposed film rolls and accompanying documentation.
Kodachrome ASA-64 color slide film (36-exposure rolls) should be used. The film possesses
fine grain and excellent color reproduction qualities. Enough film (from a single emulsion number)
should be purchased from a Kodalux direct distributor to cover several months of a monitoring
program. Film should be refrigerated or frozen until used.
When servicing a site, the operator should complete a film canister label and attach it to each
new film roll loaded into the camera. A photograph of a photo documentation board should be taken
as the first exposure of each roll. The board should contain monitoring site identification, date, time,
and film roll number. Each camera should also be equipped with a databack that records the date and
time that the photograph was taken on the lower right corner of each photograph. When the operator
returns to remove the film, he or she should complete the information on the label, place the film in
a padded envelope, and mail it along with a status/assessment sheet via first class mail for processing.
All film should be sent by courier to a Kodalux processing laboratory. Roll and film
processing mailer numbers should be documented so all shipments can be tracked and traced if
necessary, by the mailer number. Receipt of the developed film from Kodalux should be recorded.
Film rolls should be stored chronologically in a pollutant-free controlled environment.
5.1.6 Data Reduction and Validation
5.1.6.1 Data Reduction
Processed 35 mm slides should be first checked for extraneous photographs. Only slides that
represent the standard date and time sequence of the correct vista or were taken purposely for
documentation or as a supplemental visibility document should be kept. Any blank slides preceding
or following the normal date/time sequence should be discarded.
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Extraneous 35 mm slides should be removed and documentation and target photographs
should be arranged in polyethylene protector sheets by date and time. Following verification of slide
arrangement, each slide should be numbered sequentially and stamped with a four-letter site code.
The slide set should be placed in a manila folder along with a completed slide log and the associated
status/assessment sheet.
Slides should also be reviewed to verify that the vista alignment is correct, the slides are in
proper focus, the databack date and time is recorded on the film, the slides are arranged in proper
order, and that no exposure inconsistencies exist. Any discrepancies should be documented by site
and roll number and corrective action should be initiated.
5.1.6.2 Data Validation
Not all 35 mm slides undergo a qualitative coding process. Slides are only coded if summaries
of observed slide conditions are required by the contracting agency. Each photographic slide
designated for coding should be visually reviewed, chronologically numbered, and assigned a two-,
four-, or client-specified-digit slide condition code. These codes document the visual conditions
present on each slide, including sky conditions, observed hazes, plumes, weather conditions, unusable
or missing observations, anomalies, or client-specified areas of interest.
Qualitative slide coding is normally performed at the end of a season on all slides collected
during the season. Standard meteorological seasons are:
Winter December, January, and February
Spring March, April, and May
Summer June, July, and August
Fall September, October, and November
To begin the coding process, each valid slide should be viewed on a light table with the naked
eye and an eight-power, hand-held lens. Codes should be marked directly on the slides (slide frames)
and later entered into site-specific digital files. An example code key sheet is presented as Table 5-1.
Codes may be tailored to the contracting agency's needs. For example, codes may be developed that
define amount of urban or industrial activity in the view, or that define observed conditions in Class
I and non-Class I areas of the view. Digital files are created after all slides from a season are coded
and are then used to prepare qualitative summaries of observed haze types. Digital files can be
searched in a variety of ways to fulfill specific data reports.
All photographs should be considered valid except for:
! Supplemental visibility photographs.
! Out-of-alignment photographs (e.g., the target is not in the picture).
! Blank photographs.
! Extremely under- or overexposed photographs.
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Table 5-1
Example Slide Condition Code Key
Sky Conditions Code Description
0 No clouds No clouds visible anywhere in the sky.
1 Scattered clouds < half of Less than one-half of the sky has clouds present.
sky
2 Overcast > half of sky More than one-half of the sky has clouds present.
5 Weather concealing scene Clouds or precipitation are such that determination of the
sky value is impossible.
9 No observation or cannot To be used with target code of 9 or if sky value cannot be
be determined determined due to reasons other than weather.
Layered Haze Code Description
0 No layered haze No layered haze boundary (intensity of coloration edge) is
perceptible.
1 Ground-based layered Only a single-layered haze boundary is perceptible with the
haze only haze layer extending to the surface.
2 Elevated layered haze only An elevated layered haze with two boundaries is perceptible;
e.g., horizontal plume.
3 Multiple haze layers More than a single ground-based or elevated layered haze is
perceptible. This can be multiple ground-based layers or a
combination of both.
5 Weather concealing scene Cloud or precipitation are such that determination of the
presence of layered hazes is impossible.
9 No observation or cannot To be used with target code of 9 or if a layered haze value
be determined cannot be determined due to reasons other than weather.
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! Out-of-focus photographs.
! Photographs taken through a fogged or icy shelter window.
An IBM PC-compatible computer and specific software are used to create digital files. Files
are named by site and season and contain site abbreviation, slide number, date, time, and slide
condition codes. Digital files are used to prepare qualitative summaries of observed haze types.
5.1.7 Data Reporting and Archive
5.1.7.1 Data Reporting
Data reports should be prepared in a format that generally conforms to the Guidelines for
Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division (AH Technical Services, 1987). A separate data
report should be prepared for each instrument type; photographic data reports should contain only
photographic data. Reporting consists of various text discussions and graphics presentations
concerning the instrumentation and collected data. Specific contents of the reports are defined by the
contracting agency.
Seasonal photographic reporting should be completed within three months after the end of
a monitoring season, and annual reporting within three months after the end of the last reported
season. Standard meteorological monitoring seasons are defined as:
Winter (December, January, and February)
Spring (March, April, and May)
Summer (June, July, and August)
Fall (September, October, and November)
Reports should contain the following major sections:
! Introduction
! Data Collection and Reduction
! Photographic Data Summaries
! References
The introduction should contain a conceptual overview of the purpose of the monitoring
program and specific objectives and tasks of the program.
The data collection and reduction section includes discussions of site configuration, camera
system components, and basic system operation. Also included should be a map of the United States
depicting the location of each monitoring site, and a monitoring history summary table, describing
each monitoring site, the type of instrumentation installed, and the historical periods of operation for
each instrument. The section briefly describes the slide review and coding process, as well as the
compilation of the summary tables, and the quality control and quality assurance procedures applied
during the data collection and reduction process.
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Photographic data may be presented in various forms depending on contracting agency
requirements. Each type of data summary should be accompanied by an explanation. Each report
contains a Site and Target Specifications Summary Table listing complete target and site
specifications for each scene monitoring site operational during the period, (including site name and
abbreviation, latitude, longitude, and elevation of the camera monitoring site; target name, elevation,
distance, azimuth, and elevation angle of the site path; number of observations taken per day; and
operating period during the reported period). A Qualitative Slide Analysis Summary Table provides
a site-by-site accounting of observed haze and target-concealed conditions for each site that operated
during the reporting period.
The section also includes a brief discussion of slide and digital file archive, a discussion of the
events and circumstances that influenced data recovery, operational summaries for each site including:
site name and abbreviation, data collection period, number of total possible observations, collection
efficiency (number and percent), a description of the cause or causes of data loss or problem
description, and resolutions and/or recommendations relating to the noted operational problems.
The reference section includes technical references (documents that are cited in the report),
and related reports and publications (all prior reports pertaining to the monitoring program).
Supplemental data products that may accompany data reports include:
! Slide duplicates or digital images representative of good, medium, and poor visibility
conditions for each season that sufficient data are available for qualitative review.
! PC-compatible diskettes of seasonal slide condition code files.
! Optical (nephelometer/transmissometer) data summaries for collocated optical monitoring
equipment.
5.1.7.2 Data Archive
All original slides should be stored in non-gassing, polyethylene protector sheets and filed by
site, season, and date (roll). All files should be kept alphabetically in standard file cabinets. Even
under the most ideal storage conditions, film emulsions will slowly degrade over time.
Supporting hard copy documentation, including status/assessment sheets, slide coding sheets,
film tracking logs, and correspondence should be filed in standard file cabinets, in chronological order
by site.
Digital data produced from 35 mm photographic slides (containing qualitative condition
codes) should be archived on a seasonal basis. ASCII files should be stored in the original format
(non-compressed) on diskette. Two copies of each archive should be created.
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5.1.8 Quality Assurance
Internal quality assurance of automatic camera equipment is based primarily on visual review
of developed visibility monitoring film. Alignment, exposure, and data collection efficiency can all
be assessed from developed film. Any noted problems should initiate corrective action. Ongoing
review of film and site operator identified problems often initiates corrective actions.
5.1.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Photographic data analysis can be qualitative only. Only conditions visually seen in the 35 mm
slides can be compiled and interpreted. A more thorough analysis would be to use the slides in
conjunction with other forms of data, such as optical or aerosol data. Quantitative analysis of slides
has been used in the past, but has been determined to not be an accurate method of air quality or
visibility analysis.
5.1.10 Scene Monitoring Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions
The Air Resource Specialists, Inc. document entitled Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions for 35 mm Scene Monitoring Systems, includes the following scene monitoring
Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions:
SOP 4005 Procurement and Acceptance Testing Procedures for Scene Monitoring
Equipment
TI 4005-1000 Procurement and Acceptance Testing Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
Systems
SOP 4055 Site Selection for Scene Monitoring Equipment
SOP 4075 Installation and Site Documentation for Scene Monitoring Equipment
SOP 4120 Automatic Camera System Maintenance (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4120-3100 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
System - Canon EOS 630
TI 4120-3110 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
System - Contax 167MT
TI 4120-3120 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
System - Contax 137 MA
TI 4120-3130 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
System - Olympus OM2N
TI 4120-3140 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
System - Pentax PZ-20
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TI 4120-3300 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic
Camera System - Canon EOS 630
TI 4120-3310 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic
Camera System - Contax 167MT
TI 4120-3320 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic
Camera System - Contax 137 MA
TI 4120-3330 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic
Camera System - Olympus OM2N
TI 4120-3340 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic
Camera System - Pentax PZ-20
TI 4120-3500 Biannual Laboratory Maintenance Procedures for 35 mm Automatic Camera
Systems
SOP 4305 Collection of Scene Monitoring Photographs and Film (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4305-4000 Collection, Processing, and Handling of 35 mm Slide Film
SOP 4420 Scene Monitoring Qualitative Data Reduction
TI 4420-5000 Qualitative Scene Coding and Data Reduction of 35 mm Color Slides
SOP 4520 Scene Monitoring Data Reporting
TI 4520-5000 Scene Monitoring Reporting of 35 mm Slides (IMPROVE Protocol)
SOP 4610 Scene Monitoring Archives
TI 4610-5000 35 mm Photographic Slide Archives
TI 4610-5020 Slide Spectrum Archives, (In process)
TI 4610-5030 Photographic-Based Teleradiometric Data Archives
5.2 TIME-LAPSE PHOTOGRAPHY
5.2.1 Measurement Criteria and Instrumentation
Time-lapse images have always been a valuable and convenient tool to document, view, and
interpret actual dynamic events in reduced time. Time-lapse images have been used to support
scientific studies, document project activities, support legal enforcement, and present important
findings to decision-makers and the public.
Today, high resolution video systems are replacing film for recording time-lapse images.
Advancing video technology provides a wide range of imaging options, and systems can be easily
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installed and operated. Time-lapse imaging reduces the viewing time of long term dynamic events
to practical levels. The understanding and interpretation of certain dynamic patterns can actually be
enhanced through the use of time-lapse images. The ability to review high resolution video images
at a variety of speeds enhances the interpretive power of the media. Reverse and stop frame functions
further aid the interpretive process.
Time-lapse monitoring can be accomplished by 8 mm film or by videotape. The major
advantages of videotape over film are that the videotape images are immediately available for viewing
(you do not have to wait to develop film) and reproduction costs are minimal as compared to film
products. Also, 8 mm cameras and film are becoming obsolete in the camera industry.
Applications of time-lapse monitoring include:
! Air Pollution - Urban and rural haze dynamics, and source-specific emission surveillance
(industrial plumes or emissions from hazardous waste remediation projects) can be
documented.
! Weather Observations - The day's weather can be documented to support academic
studies as well as daily television news summaries.
! Construction Projects - Monitoring may track progress of high-rise construction, as well
as monitoring activities and emissions of earth moving projects.
! Traffic Studies - The level of service at busy intersections, and a wide range of traffic
count-related applications may be monitored.
! Industrial Processes - Applied engineering practices or equipment performance may be
evaluated, and production may be tracked.
! Surveillance - The use of a recreational area may be tracked, or legal investigations may
be supported.
Time-lapse images do not provide quantitative information about the cause of visibility
impairment. Aerosol and optical properties of the atmosphere must be independently monitored
where cause and effect relationships are required.
Time-lapse video systems have two primary components, a camera and a recorder (see
Figures 5-3 and 5-4). Systems can be configured to meet a wide range of monitoring requirements.
In its simplest configuration, a camera can be positioned to view a selected scene with the recorder
programmed for daily on and off recording times. A range of time-lapse intervals can easily be
selected on the recorder. More advanced systems can employ options such as programmable,
motorized pan/tilt camera housings and zoom lenses that respond to a series of commands throughout
the day, each with a different viewing direction, inclination, field of view, and focus setting.
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Figure 5-3. Time-Lapse Video Recording Module (Time-Lapse Recorder,
Monitor, and Power Systems).
Figure 5-4. Weatherproof Video Camera Enclosure.
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The video camera and selected lens can be conveniently housed in a weatherproof, heated and
ventilated shelter that can be easily mounted to almost any structure. The recorder must be housed
in a clean, dry environment at or near room temperature. Custom heated and cooled shelters can be
fabricated for remote locations, but for many installations it is often convenient to use an existing
building. The camera and recorder units are connected with signal and power cables. Systems
require 115 volt AC service. A broad range of lenses are available for the camera with wide-angle,
telephoto, or zoom options. The recorder uses a high resolution S-VHS format that yields extremely
high quality images.
The 8 mm camera can be conveniently housed in a weatherproof shelter identical to, or in
conjunction with 35 mm cameras (see Figure 5-2).
Detailed information regarding video camera instrumentation or operation can be found in
Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for 8 mm Time-Lapse Scene Monitoring
Systems (Air Resource Specialists, Inc., 1993-1996).
5.2.2 Siting Criteria
Time-lapse monitoring stations are normally located so that the camera views a recognizable,
important vista that highlights the character of the area being monitored. When selecting a site,
servicing, installation logistics, aesthetics, and security should also be considered. At many locations,
the camera is located with other monitoring equipment such as a transmissometer, a nephelometer,
an aerosol sampler or other monitoring systems that support comprehensive air quality evaluations.
To assure consistent, quality data and minimize data loss, selected camera sites should have
most or all of the following characteristics:
! Be located to photograph a highly-visited scenic vista or important scenic features of the
visibility sensitive area being monitored
! View north or away from direct sun angles to minimize lens flare and overexposure
! Have AC power available (video systems only)
! Be secure from vandalism
! Have available servicing personnel (operator)
! Be reasonably accessible during all months of the year
! Be located considering environmental factors (e.g., snow depth, temperature extremes,
precipitation type and amount, relative humidity, etc.) that could affect camera operations
or site accessibility
! Be located free of viewing obstructions or interferences
! Have local land manager or land owner cooperation
5-16
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5.2.3 Installation and Site Documentation
Installation is site-specific, depending on the topography, project goals, and client's needs.
Time-lapse systems may be installed on a post, a tower, or attached to a building.
Following the completion of the time-lapse system installation and configuration, operator
training should be performed. Site operators should be trained on camera system requirements and
routine maintenance procedures. Additional manufacturer's instruction booklets and pertinent
maintenance documentation forms should also be provided.
Site documentation for a time-lapse system monitoring station includes completion of site
specifications (station name, number of observations per day, elevation, latitude, longitude, map
reference, site abbreviation, installation date and name of the installer, site contacts and
mailing/shipping address).
5.2.4 System Performance and Maintenance
Videotape and 8 mm time-lapse systems are easy to configure, install, and operate. Videotape
recorder programming is done on-screen similar to a home VCR. The recorder can be programmed
for record/playback speeds from real time (2 hours per videotape) to various time-lapse intervals up
to 480 hours per videotape. Depending on the user-selected record interval and programmed on and
off times, the recorder can collect from several days to several weeks of time-lapse images on a single
videotape. An operator can be easily trained to perform regular system servicing and tape exchanges.
A TV monitor is usually included on-site so that operators can verify system operation. Recorded
S-VHS tapes can be played back on the recorder unit or any S-VHS compatible VCR. Tapes can be
duplicated to VHS format for more widespread distribution and review on any VCR.
The 8 mm cameras may be programmed to photograph one frame per second to one frame
per minute. The film rolls may last several days to weeks, depending on the monitoring schedule.
Operators should perform site servicing visits once a week to once a month, depending on
the monitoring schedule. Servicing visits include changing the film or videotape, completing an
operations log, identifying film rolls or videotapes, and inspecting all system components for correct
operations during each film/tape change. Fresh film or tape is loaded into the cameras, lenses and
enclosure windows are cleaned, all batteries are checked, the camera and timer settings are checked,
the cameras are aligned, and film/tape and documentation logs are mailed.
5.2.5 Data Collection
Site operators should be trained and provided with an operator's kit that includes a supply of
videotape cassettes or film rolls, cassette or film mailers, status/assessment sheets, and system
operating instructions.
The time-lapse systems may be programmed to record a full day of tape (client-specified
on/off times). The videotape system records on S-VHS tape and is capable of operating unattended
for up to 30 days. Site operators) should service the site bi-monthly to inspect the system and clean
the camera optics.
5-17
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All videotapes and film should be mailed by the site operator(s) along with site
status/assessment sheets. Film rolls should be sent to Kodak for developing. When they arrive back,
or when the videotapes arrive, they should be initially reviewed to verify that the system was working
properly. Any noted inconsistencies should initiate immediate corrective action. All tapes and rolls
should be numbered. The location of each morning and afternoon period should be recorded from
the videotapes.
5.2.6 Data Reduction and Validation
5.2.6.1 Data Reduction
Videotapes and film rolls should be reviewed to document observed weather, activity,
emissions, visibility, and anomaly events. Tapes should be reviewed in S-VHS format on a high
resolution monitor. Qualitative 2-digit (or other) tape/film condition codes are assigned to each
morning and afternoon period of tape. The codes identify specific visibility conditions in the
following general categories:
! Sky conditions
! Urban activity
! Project-interest related industrial emissions
! Uniform haze intensity
! Layered haze occurrence
! Visual anomalies
Detailed descriptions of the criteria used for coding these categories are presented in Table 5-
2. Meteorological conditions are based on visual observations only.
The result of the qualitative coding process is a digital file for each site that contains a 2-digit
code for each half-day of tape or film. Final data summary tables and graphic plots can then be made.
It is important to note that videotapes or film can only be used to document the presence of observed
conditions. The cause of the condition generally must be obtained from supplemental data or from
interpretation of other conditions observed in the vista. For example, though videotape or film can
document that a white plume emanated from a stack, the chemical constituents of the plume cannot
be directly determined from the tape/film.
5.2.6.2 Data Validation
Videotapes/film should be reviewed in conjunction with site documentation and other data
if available. Two levels of validation are summarized below:
! Level I: Tapes/film are labeled by site, date, and time (loaded/removed). They are
initially reviewed for proper exposure, alignment, and correct operating
period.
5-18
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! Level II: Daily meteorological conditions and patterns are documented, as well as the
presence of any anomalies. Tapes/film are reviewed on a high-resolution
color monitor or projector. A tape/film condition code is assigned to each
morning and afternoon period. Codes for all periods are entered into a digital
ASCII file.
Table 5-2
Example Tape/Film Condition Code Key
Sky Conditions
Code Description
0 No clouds
1 Scattered clouds < half of
sky
2 Overcast > half of sky
5 Weather concealing scene
9 No observation or cannot
be determined
No clouds visible anywhere in the sky.
Less than one-half of the sky has clouds present.
More than one-half of the sky has clouds present.
Clouds or precipitation are such that determination of the
sky value is impossible.
To be used with target code of 9 or if sky value cannot be
determined due to reasons other than weather.
Layered Haze
Code Description
0 No layered haze
1 Ground-based layered
haze only
2 Elevated layered haze only
3 Multiple haze layers
5 Weather concealing scene
9 No observation or cannot
be determined
No layered haze boundary (intensity of coloration edge) is
perceptible.
Only a single-layered haze boundary is perceptible with the
haze layer extending to the surface.
An elevated layered haze with two boundaries is perceptible;
e.g., horizontal plume.
More than a single ground-based or elevated layered haze is
perceptible. This can be multiple ground-based layers or a
combination of both.
Cloud or precipitation are such that determination of the
presence of layered hazes is impossible.
To be used with target code of 9 or if a layered haze value
cannot be determined due to reasons other than weather.
5-19
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5.2.7 Data Reporting and Archive
5.2.7.1 Data Reporting
Data reports should be prepared in a format that generally conforms to the guidelines for
Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division (AH Technical Services, 1987). A separate data
report should be prepared for each instrument type; photographic data reports should contain only
photographic data. Reporting consists of various text discussions and graphics presentations
concerning the instrumentation and collected data. Specific contents of the reports are defined by the
contracting agency.
Seasonal photographic reporting should be completed within three months after the end of
a monitoring season, and annual reporting within three months after the end of the last reported
season. Standard meteorological monitoring seasons are defined as:
Winter (December, January, and February)
Spring (March, April, and May)
Summer (June, July, and August)
Fall (September, October, and November)
Reports should contain the following major sections:
! Introduction
! Data Collection and Reduction
! Photographic Data Summaries
! References
The introduction should contain a conceptual overview of the purpose of the monitoring
program and specific objectives and tasks of the program.
The data collection and reduction section includes discussions of site configuration, camera
system components, exposure schedule, and basic system operation. Also included should be a map
of the United States depicting the location of each monitoring site, and a monitoring history summary
table, describing each monitoring site, the type of instrumentation installed, and the historical periods
of operation for each instrument. The section briefly describes the videotape/film review and coding
process, as well as the compilation of the summary tables, and the quality control and quality
assurance procedures applied during the data collection and reduction process.
Time-lapse data may be presented in various forms depending on contracting agency
requirements. Each type of data summary should be accompanied by an explanation. Each report
contains a Site and Target Specifications Summary Table listing complete site specifications for each
monitoring site operational during the period, (including site name and abbreviation, latitude,
longitude, and elevation of the camera monitoring site; number of exposures taken per day; and
operating period during the reported period). A Qualitative Slide Analysis Summary Table provides
a site-by-site accounting of observed haze and target-concealed conditions for each site that operated
during the reporting period. Separate discussions detailing each observed anomaly may also be
prepared.
5-20
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The section also includes a brief discussion of videotape/film and digital file archive, a
discussion of the events and circumstances that influenced data recovery, operational summaries for
each site including: site name and abbreviation, data collection period, number of total possible
observations, collection efficiency (number and percent), a description of the cause or causes of data
loss or problem description, and resolutions and/or recommendations relating to the noted operational
problems.
The reference section includes technical references (documents that are cited in the report),
and related reports and publications (all prior reports pertaining to the monitoring program).
Supplemental data products that may accompany data reports include copies of the videotapes
or film.
5.2.7.2 Data Archive
Duplicates of the videotapes or film rolls should be stored in standard storage cabinets, filed
by site, season, and date. Supporting hard copy documentation, including operational notes and
correspondence, should be appropriately filed in chronological order by site.
5.2.8 Quality Assurance
Internal quality assurance of time-lapse camera equipment is based primarily on visual review
of developed visibility monitoring film. Alignment, exposure, and data collection efficiency can all
be assessed from videotape or developed film. Any noted problems should initiate corrective action.
Ongoing review of film and site operator identified problems often initiates corrective actions.
5.2.9 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Time-lapse data analysis can be qualitative only. Only conditions visually seen in the
videotapes/film can be compiled and interpreted. A more thorough analysis would be to use the
videotapes/film in conjunction with other forms of data, such as optical or aerosol data. All noted
anomalies should be evaluated. Any coding or comment inconsistencies should be resolved and the
digital code files updated if appropriate.
5.2.10 8 mm Time-Lapse Scene Monitoring Systems Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions
The Air Resource Specialists, Inc. document entitled Standard Operating Procedures and
Technical Instructions for 8 mm Time-Lapse Scene Monitoring Systems, includes the following 8 mm
time-lapse-related Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions:
SOP 4005 Procurement and Acceptance Testing Procedures for Scene Monitoring
Equipment
5-21
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TI 4005-1001 Procurement and Acceptance Testing Procedures for 8 mm Automatic Camera
Systems
SOP 4055 Site Selection for Scene Monitoring Equipment
SOP 4075 Installation and Site Documentation for Scene Monitoring Equipment
SOP 4120 Automatic Camera System Maintenance (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4120-3200 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 8 mm Automatic Camera
System - Minolta XL 401/601
TI 4120-3210 Routine Site Operator Maintenance Procedures for 8 mm Automatic Camera
System-Minolta D12
TI 4120-3400 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 8 mm Automatic
Camera System - Minolta XL 401/601
TI 4120-3410 Troubleshooting and Emergency Maintenance Procedures for 8 mm Automatic
Camera System - Minolta D12
TI 4120-3520 Biannual Laboratory Maintenance Procedures for 8 mm Automatic Time-Lapse
Camera Systems
SOP 4305 Collection of Scene Monitoring Photographs and Film (IMPROVE Protocol)
TI 4305-4003 Collection, Processing, and Handling of 8 mm Time-Lapse Movie Film
SOP 4420 Scene Monitoring Qualitative Data Reduction
TI 4420-5010 Qualitative 8 mm Time-Lapse Movie Film Review
SOP 4520 Scene Monitoring Data Reporting
TI 4520-5010 Scene Monitoring Reporting of 8 mm Time-Lapse Movie Film
SOP 4610 Scene Monitoring Archives
TI 4610-5010 8 mm Time-Lapse Film Archives
5-22
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6.0 REFERENCES
6.1 SECTION 2.0 REFERENCES
Aerosol and Visibility Subcommittee Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission, Grand Canyon
Visibility Transport Commission Methods for Measuring and Assessing Visibility. June 1993.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Tahoe Regional Planning Agency Visibility Monitoring Program Site
Selection Report. May 1988.
, Final Draft Lake Tahoe Visibility Monitoring Program. June 1988.
, Project MOHAVE Summer 1992 Intensive (7/1-9/3/92) and Interim Monitoring Period (3/1-
6/30/92) Data Transmittal Report for Nephelometer. Transmissometer. Tonto Plateau
Meteorology & Photography. Volume II Interim Monitoring Period. March 1993.
, Project MOHAVE Winter 1992 Intensive Data Transmittal Report for Nephelometer
Transmissometer Tonto Plateau Meteorology Photography. May 1992.
, National Park Service Visibility Monitoring Strategy. May 1993.
ANSI/ASQC, American National Standard - Specifications and Guidelines for Quality Systems for
Environmental Data Collection and Environmental Technology Programs. January 1995.
Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., SNA Policy and Practice Series - Air Pollution Control. Section
131, Washington, D.C.
Chow, J.C., Measurement Methods to Determine Compliance with Ambient Air Quality Standards
for Suspended Particles. Air and Waste Management Association, ISSN 1047-3289, May
1995.
Fox, D.G., Bernabo, J.C., and Hood, B., Visibility from Guidelines for Measuring the Physical.
Chemical, and Biological Condition of Wilderness Ecosystems - General Technical Report.
November 1987.
Haas, P.J., Technical Note - Visibility: Modeling. Monitoring and Regulation. March 1980.
IMPROVE-CIRA (Sisler, J.F., Huffman, D., and Latimer, D.A.), Spatial and Temporal Patterns and
the Chemical Composition of the Haze in the United States: An Analysis of Data from the
IMPROVE Network. 1988 - 1991 - Vol. I (ISSN No. 0737-5352-26), February 1993.
-------
IMPROVE-CIRA (Sisler, J.F., Huffman, D., and Latimer, D.A.), Spatial and Temporal Patterns and
the Chemical Composition of the Haze in the United States: An Analysis of Data from the
IMPROVE Network. 1988 -1991 - Appendices Vol. II (ISSNNo. 0737-5352-26), February
1993.
IMPROVE, Visibility Protection. August 1994.
Latimer, D.A., Final Report - Alternative Methods of Protecting Visibility in the Rocky Mountain
States. Phase II: Technical Considerations. August 1984.
Malm, W.C., J.V. Molenar, R.A. Eldred, and J.F. Sisler, - Examining the relationship among
atmospheric aerosols and light scattering and extinction in the Grand Canyon area. Journal
of Geophysical Research, Vol. 101, No. D12, pages 19,251-19,265, August 27, 1996.
Moyer, C.A. and M. A. Francis, Clean Air Act Handbook - A Practical Guide to Compliance. ISBN
0-87632-814-1, 1991.
National Park Service, National Park Service Visibility Reference Document. April 1983.
, IMPROVE Program Description. Appendix A taken from Rocky Mountain National Park
Visibility and Air Quality Data Summary. Date Unknown.
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (Principal Author: Trijonis, J.C.; Primary Co-
authors: Malm, W.C., Pitchford, M., White, W.H.; Contributing Authors: Charlson, R. and
Husar, R.), NAPAP Report 24. Visibility: Existing and Historical Conditions - Causes and
Effects. October 1990.
National Research Council: Committee on Haze in National Parks and Wilderness Areas; Board on
Environmental Studies and Toxicology; Commission on Geosciences, Environment and
Resources, Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas. January 1993.
Pitchford, M., Visibility Monitoring Plan for Class I Areas. Circa 1986.
, and Shaver, C.L., Federal Regional Haze Protection for Class I Areas: A Proposed Strategy
(91-50.3 AWMA), June 1991.
, EPA-EMSL. Visibility Monitoring Strategy Guidance. Circa 1991.
-, Visibility Research at Environmental Monitoring and Systems Laboratory - Las Vegas. Date
Unknown.
-, IMPROVE Committee, Discussion of Issues for Monitoring of Visibility - Protected Class I
Areas. September, 1993.
-------
Rhodes, R.C., Guideline on the Meaning and Use of Precision and Accuracy Data Required by 40
CRF Part 58 Appendices A and B. EPA-600/4-83/023, June 1983.
Sisler, J., and Malm, W., Interpretation of Trends of PM2.5 and Reconstructed Visibility from the
Improve Network. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 1999 (In Press).
Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Cooperative, The Southern Appalachian Assessment
Atmospheric Technical Report. Report 3 of 5. July 1996.
Tombach, I, Walther, E.G., Huang, A., and Ligh, D., Performance Criteria for Monitoring Visibility-
Related Variables (AV-FR-87/6351 November 1990.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Authors: Malm, W.C. and Walther, E.G.), A Review of
Instrument-Measuring Visibility-Related Variables (EPA-600/4-80-016), February 1980.
, Interim Guidance for Visibility Monitoring rEPA-450/2-80-082\ November 1980.
, Workbook for Estimating Visibility Impairment (EPA-450/4-80-031), November 1980.
, Ambient Monitoring Guidelines for Prevention of SignificantDeterioration (PSD) (EPA-450/4-
87-007), May 1987.
, Ambient Monitoring Guidelines for Prevention of SignificantDeterioration (PSD). EPA-450/4-
87-007.
, Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40 - Protection of the Environment Parts 51 and 52.
EPA-450/4-87-007.
, Guidance for the Data Quality Objectives Process. EPA QA/G-4, September 1994.
, List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods. Available from U.S. EPA, National
Exposure Research Laboratory, Quality Assurance Branch, MD-77B, Research Triangle
Park, NC.
, Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems: Volume I. A Field
Guide to Environmental Quality Assurance. EPA-600R-94/038a, April 1994.
, Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems: Volume II. Ambient Air
Specific Methods. EPA-600/4-77-027a, as revised.
White, W.H., Contributions to light scattering, in Acidic Deposition: State of Science and
Technology. Tech. Rep. 24, pages 85-102, Natl. Acid Precip. Assess. Program, Washington,
D.C., 1990.
Wooley, D.R., Clean Air Act Handbook - A Practical Guide to Compliance. Fifth Edition. ISBN 0-
87632-419-7, 1996.
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6.2 SECTION 3.0 REFERENCES
AeroVironment Inc., The Design and Operation of a Regional Visibility and Aerosol Monitoring
Network. August 1985.
AH Technical Services, Guidelines for Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division. 1987.
Beveridge, P., Gearhart, B., and Matsumura, R., Draft - IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler: Instructions
and Forms for Siting and Installation. August 1993.
Cahill, T.A., L.L. Ashbaugh, R.A. Eldred, P.J. Feeney, B.H. Kusko, and R.G. Flocchini,
Comparisons between Size-Segregated Resuspended Soil Samples and Ambient Aerosols in
the Western United States. Atmospheric Aerosol: Source/Air Quality Relationships, Am.
Chem. Soc. Symp. Sen, 167, edited by E. Macias, Washington, D.C., 1981.
Cahill, T.A., Eldred, R.A., Wilkinson, L.K., Perley, B.P., and Malm, W.C., Spatial and Temporal
Trends of Fine Particles at Remote US Sites (AWMA Annual Meeting & Exhibition). June
1990.
Campbell, D., Copeland, S., and Cahill, T., Measurement of Aerosol Absorption Coefficient from
Teflon Filters Using Integrating Plate and Integrating Sphere Techniques. Aerosol Science
& Technology 22:287-292, Unknown 1995.
Chow, J.C., Measurement Methods to Determine Compliance with Ambient Air Quality Standards
for Suspended Particles. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, ISSN 1047-
3289, May 1995.
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory, A Guide to Interpret Data. August 1995.
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory, IMPROVE Particulate Monitoring Network Standard Operating
Procedures, available as a pdf file on http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html.
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory, TI101-42 Construction and Testing of IMPROVE Aerosol Samplers.
available as a pdf file on http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html.
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory, TI201A IMPROVE Aerosol Sampler Operations Manual, available as
a pdf file on http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/vis/sop/index.html.
Eldred, R.A., T.A. Cahill, M. Pitchford, and W.C. Malm, IMPROVE - A New Remote Area
Particulate Monitoring System for Visibility Studies. Proc. APCA (Air Pollution Control
Assoc.) Ann. Mtg., 81, 1-16, 1988.
Eldred, R.A., and Cahill, T.A., Trends in Elemental Concentrations of Fine Particles at Remote Sites
in the United States. Atmospheric Environment 28-5:1009-1019, 1994.
-------
ENSR Consulting and Engineering, Quality Assurance Audits of the IMPROVE Aerosol Network.
January 1995.
Malm, W.C., J.V. Molenar, R.A. Eldred, and J.F. Sisler, - Examining the relationship among
atmospheric aerosols and light scattering and extinction in the Grand Canyon area. Journal
of Geophysical Research, Vol. 101, No. D12, pages 19,251-19,265, August 27, 1996.
Malm, W.C., Gebhart, K. A., Molenar, J., Cahill, T. A., Eldred, R.E., and Huffman, D., Examining the
Relationship Between Atmospheric Aerosols and Extinction at Mount Rainier National Park.
Atmospheric Environment Vol. 28, No. 2, 347-360, 1994.
Malm, W.C., J.F. Sisler, D. Huffman, R.A. Eldred, and T.A. Cahill, Spatial and Seasonal Trends in
Particle Concentration and Optical Extinction in the United States. J. Geo. Res., 99(D1),
1347-1370, 1994.
Malm, W.C., Mauch, L., Molenar, J.V., and Sisler, J.F., Assessing the Improvement in Visibility of
Various Sulfate Reduction Scenarios. "Visibility and Fine Particles," a Transactions of the
Air & Waste Management Association edited by C.V. Mathai, 1990.
National Park Service, Annual Report Aerosol Collection and Compositional Analysis for IMPROVE
July 1993 -June 1994. Date Unknown.
Noll, K.E., Collection and Characteristics of Atmospheric Coarse Particles. Final Report. Dept. of
Environmental Engineering. Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 1991.
Noll, K.E., A. Pontius, R. Frey, and M. Gould, Comparison of Atmospheric Coarse Particles at an
Urban and Non-Urban Site. Atmospheric Environment 19(11): 1931-1943, 1985.
Pitchford, M., R.G Flocchini, R.G. Draftz, T.A. Cahill, L.L. Ashbaugh, and R.A. Eldred, Silicon in
Submicron Particles in the Southwest. Atmospheric Environment, 15,321-333, 1981.
Sisler, J.F., D. Huffman, D.A. Latimer, W.C. Malm, and M.L. Pitchford, Spatial and Temporal
Patterns and the Chemical Composition of the Haze in the United States: An Analysis of Data
from the IMPROVE Network 1988-1991 -Vol. I (ISSNNo. 0737-5352-261 February 1993.
Sisler, J.F., D. Huffman, D.A. Latimer, W.C. Malm, and M.L. Pitchford, Spatial and Temporal
Patterns and the Chemical Composition of the Haze in the United States: An Analysis of Data
from the IMPROVE Network 1988-1991 - Appendices Vol. II. (ISSNNo. 0737-5352-26),
February 1993.
Sisler, J.F., with contributions from W.C. Malm, K.A. Gebhart, Principal Investigators W.C. Malm
and M.L. Pitchford, Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Long Term Variability of the
Composition of the Haze in the United State: An analysis of Data from the IMPROVE
Network. July 1996.
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U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter and Sulfur Oxides.
Volume III (EPA-600/8-82-029C). December 1982.
Watson, J.G., J.C. Chow, L.C. Pritchett, W.R. Pierson, C.A. Frazier, R.G. Purcell, I. Olmez, The
1987-88 Metro Denver Brown Cloud Study. Desert Research Institute, Doc.8810 1F2,
Desert Research Institute Reno, NV, 1988.
6.3 SECTION 4.0 REFERENCES
AH Technical Services, Guidelines for Preparing Reports for the NPS Air Quality Division. Product
NPS/AQD-87/001. Boulder, CO. September, 1987.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Status of IMPROVE and National Park Service IMPROVE Protocol
Optical Monitoring Networks. November 1988.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Operational Assessment of Optec NGN-2 Nephelometers. July 1994.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for
Transmissometer Systems. 1993-1996.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for
Nephelometer Systems. 1993-1996.
Campbell Scientific, Inc., Model 207 Temperature and Relative Humidity Probe Instruction Manual.
February 1990.
Optec, Inc., Model LPV Long Path Visibility Transmissometer Version 2 Technical Manual for
Theory of Operation and Operating Procedures Revision 2. April 1991.
Optec, Inc., Model NGN-1 Open-air Integrating Nephelometer, Technical Manual for Theory of
Operation and Operating Procedures. Lowell, MI, 1992.
Optec, Inc., Model NGN-2 Open-air Integrating Nephelometer, Technical Manual for Theory of
Operation and Operating Procedures. Lowell, MI, 1993.
Soltec Distribution, Instruction Manual Primeline 6723. Sun Valley, CA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, On-Site Meteorological Program Guidance for
Regulatory Modeling Applications (EPA-450/4-87-013X June 1987.
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6.4 SECTION 5 REFERENCES
AH Technical Services, , Guidelines for Preparing Reports for the NFS Air Quality Division.
Product NPS/AQD-87/001. Boulder, CO. 1987.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for 35 mm
Scene Monitoring Systems. 1993-1996.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Standard Operating Procedures and Technical Instructions for 8 mm
Time-Lapse Scene Monitoring Systems. 1993-1996.
Air Resource Specialists, Inc., Draft - Preliminary Analysis of Uncertainty Associated with Extinction
Estimates from 35mm Color Slide Densitometry of Natural Targets. July 1994.
Malm, W.C., Leiker, K.K., Molenar, J.V., Human Perception of Visual Air Quality. February 1980.
Malm, W., Molenar, J., and Chan L.L., Photographic Simulation Techniques for Visualizing the
Effect of Uniform Haze on a Scenic Resource. Date Unknown.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Western Regional Visibility Monitoring Teleradiometer and
Camera Network (TS-AMD-8035bX April 1983.
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7.0 VISIBILITY MONITORING-RELATED GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS
Abrasion mode
Absorption
Absorption
coefficient
Accumulation mode
Acid deposition
Acid rain (or acid
precipitation)
Adverse impact
Aerometric
Information
Retrieval System
(AIRS)
Aerosol
Aerosol extinction
Aethalometer
Agglomeration
Air light
Air pollutant
Air pollution
A size range of particles, typically larger than about 3 micrometers in
diameter, primarily generated by abrasion of solids.
Capture of incident light by particles or gases in the atmosphere.
Proportion of incident light absorbed per unit distance. Typical units are
inverse megameters (Mm"1).
A size range of particles, from about 0.1 to 3 micrometers, formed largely by
accumulation of gases and particles upon smaller particles. They are very
effective in scattering light.
Wet and/or dry deposition of acidic materials to water or land surfaces. The
chemicals found in acidic deposition include nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium.
The deposition of acid chemicals (incorporated into rain, snow, fog, or
mist) from the atmosphere to water or land surfaces. The pH of rain is
considered acid when it is below about 5.2 pH.
A determination that an air-quality related value is likely to be degraded within
a Class I area.
A computer-based repository of US air pollution information administered
by the EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
A suspension of microscopic solid or liquid particles in air. Atmospheric
aerosols govern variations in light extinction and, therefore, visibility
reduction.
See reconstructed light extinction.
An aerosol monitoring instrument that continuously measures particle light
absorption (aerosol black carbon) on a quartz fiber filter.
The process of collisions of particles that stick together to become larger
particles.
Light scattered by air (molecules or particles) toward an observer, reducing
the contrast of observed images.
An unwanted chemical or other material found in the air.
Degradation of air quality resulting from unwanted chemicals or other
materials occurring in the air.
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Air quality
Air quality
related values
(AQRVs)
AIRWeb
Albedo
Ambient air
Anion
Anthropogenic
Apparent contrast
Apportionment
Artifact
AT
Atomic absorption
spectroscopy
Atmospheric clarity
Attainment area
Audit
(In context of the national parks): The properties and degree of purity of air
to which people and natural and heritage resources are exposed.
Values including visibility, flora, fauna, cultural and historical resources,
odor, soil, water, and virtually all resources that are dependent upon and
affected by air quality. "These values include visibility and those scenic,
cultural, biological, and recreation resources of an area that are affected by air
quality" (43 Fed. Reg. 15016).
Air Resources Web, an air quality information retrieval system for US parks
and wildlife refuges developed by the Air Resources Division of the National
Park Service and the Air Quality Branch of the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Ratio of the light reflected by a surface to the incident light.
Air that is accessible to the public.
A negative ion, such as sulfate, nitrate, or chloride.
Caused by human activities (i.e., man-made).
Contrast at the observer of a target with respect to some background, usually
an element of horizon sky directly above the target.
The act of assessing the degree to which specific components contribute to
light extinction or aerosol mass.
Any component of a signal or measurement that is extraneous to the variable
represented by the signal or measurement.
Ambient Temperature
A method of chemical analysis based on the absorption of light of specific
wavelengths of light by disassociated atoms in a flame or high temperature
furnace. It is sensitive only to elements.
An optical property related to the visual quality of the landscape viewed from
a distance (see optical depth and turbidity).
A geographic area in which levels of a criteria air pollutant meet the health-
based National Ambient Air Quality Standard for that specific pollutant.
An investigation of the ability of a system of procedures and activities to
produce data of a specified quality.
Absorption coefficient. A measure of light absorption in the atmosphere by
particles and gases. Standard reporting units are inverse megameters (Mm"1).
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Extinction coefficient. Measured directly by a transmissometer. Can be
reconstructed from nephelometer and aerosol data. It is equal to the sum of
bscat and babs. Represents the proportion of radiation reduced by scattering and
absorption per unit distance. Standard reporting units are inverse megameters
(Mm'1).
Scattering coefficient. Measured directly by a nephelometer, the scattering
coefficient includes scattering due to particles and atmospheric gases
(Rayleigh scattering). Standard reporting units are inverse megameters (Mm"
BAPMON
BART
Best Available
Control Technology
(BACT)
Bias
Bimodal distribution
Biological effects
BLM
Brightness
Brightness contrast
CAA
Calibration
Camera
CARS
Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network
Best Available Retrofit Technology
A source emission limitation, based on the maximum degree of reduction
for each pollutant, that must be applied by sources subject to the Prevention
of Significant Deterioration program.
An unfair influence, inclination, or partiality of opinion.
A distribution containing much of its elements in two distinct ranges of values.
The size distributions of aerosols often show two peaks corresponding to
about 1 and 10 micrometers in diameter.
Ecological studies to determine the nature or extent of air pollution injury to
biological systems.
Bureau of Land Management
A measure of the light received from an object, adjusted for the wavelength
response of the human eye, so as to correspond to the subjective sensation of
brightness. For visually large objects, the brightness does not depend on the
distance from the observer.
The ratio of the difference in brightness between two objects to the brightness
of the brighter of the two. It varies from 0 to - 1 .
Clean Air Act (including all of its amendments).
The process of submitting samples of known value to an instrument, in order
to establish the relationship of value to instrumental output.
Device for recording visual range on film.
California Air Resources Board
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Cascade impactor An instrument that samples particles by impacting on solid surfaces via jets of
air. After passing the first surface, the air is accelerated toward the next
surface by a higher speed jet, in order to capture smaller particles than could
be captured by the previous one.
Charge A process of removing static electric charges. This is done to particle-
neutralization sampling filters in order to prevent electrostatic forces from distorting the
apparent weight of the sample.
CIE Commission International de 1'Eclairage
CIRA Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere
Clarity Relative distinctness or sharpness of perceived scene elements.
Class I areas National parks and wilderness areas managed by the National Park Service,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the USDA Forest Service and defined by
the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 as having "special protection" from
effects of air pollution. These federal lands have been defined as having "air-
quality related values" (AQRVs), such as water quality, native vegetation,
ecosystem integrity, and visibility, that need protection from air pollution.
National Parks larger than 6,000 acres, National Memorial Parks and National
Wilderness Areas larger than 5,000 acres, and International Parks.
Areas of the country protected under the Clean Air Act, but identified for
somewhat less stringent protection from air pollution damage than Class I,
except in specified cases.
Originally passed in 1963, the current national air pollution control program
is based on the 1970 version of the law. Substantial revisions were made by
the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.
Low-pollution fuels that can replace ordinary gasoline, including gasohol,
natural gas, and propane.
Chemical Mass Balance
A size range of particles between 2.5 microns and 10 microns. Coarse
particles are mostly composed of soils. The sum of the masses of coarse and
fine particles (all particles smaller than 10 microns) is called PM10.
Class II areas
Clean Air Act
Clean fuels
CMB
Coarse mode
Color
Color contrast or
difference
Colorimetric
analysis
A qualitative sensation described by hue, brightness, and saturation.
Contrast between two adjacent scene element colors. Any difference in color
hue, saturation, or brightness, between two perceived objects.
Chemical analysis based on the colors of dyes formed by the reaction of
the analyte with reagents.
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Condensation
counternuclei
Continuous
sampling device
Contrast
Contrast change
threshold
An instrument that counts nucleation mode particles by causing them
to grow in a humid atmosphere, and observing light reflections from the
individual enlarged particles.
An air analyzer that measures air quality components continuously. (See
also monitoring, integrated sampling device).
Relative difference in light coming from a target compared to the surrounding
background, usually the horizon sky. Any difference in the optical quality of
two adjacent images.
Minimum change in contrast perceptible to an observer.
Contrast threshold Minimum apparent contrast at which a target is just perceptible.
Contrast
transmittance
Current conditions
Datalogger
Deciview (dv)
Deliquescence
Dew point
Dichotomous
Discoloration
DMB
Ratio of apparent contrast to inherent contrast. The ability of an atmosphere
to transmit an image without loss of contrast. It varies from 0% to 100% and
depends on the length of the viewing path. When the object is darker than its
background, it has a value between 0 and -1. For objects brighter than their
background the value varies from 0 to infinity. When the contrast
transmittance is equal to 0, the object cannot be seen.
Contemporary, or modern, atmospheric conditions affected by human activity.
An electronic device for measuring analog or digital signals and recording the
results on a storage media. Many of them can record inputs on a number of
separate locations, reporting them as separate "channels."
A haziness index designed to be linear with respect to human perception of
visibility. A 1-2 dv change in haziness corresponds to a small, visibly
perceptible change in scene appearance. Higher deciview values indicate
more extinction and a corresponding decrease in visual range.
The process that occurs when the vapor pressure of the saturated aqueous
solution of a substance is less than the vapor pressure of water in the ambient
air. Water vapor is collected until the substance is dissolved and is in
equilibrium with its environment.
The temperature at which humidity in the air will condense upon a solid
surface.
Any particle sampler that separately collects coarse and fine particles
samplerfrom one atmosphere. Often refers to virtual impactor instruments.
Any change in the apparent color of an image. Often refers to the loss of blue
sky color due to air pollution.
Differential Mass Balance
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Dose-response
DRUM
Dry deposition
Edge sharpness
Electrical aerosol
Elevated layer
Emissions
EMSL
EOF
EPA
Equilibration
Externally mixed
Extinction
Extinction budget
Extinction
coefficient
Fine particles
FIPS
The relationship between the dose of a pollutant and its effect on a biological
system.
Davis Rotating-drum Universal-size-cut Monitor
Also known as dryfall, includes gases and particles deposited from the
atmosphere to water and land surfaces. This dryfall can include acidifying
compounds such as nitric acid vapor, nitrate and sulfate particles, and acidic
gases.
Describes a characteristic of landscape features. Landscape features with
sharp edges contain scenic features with abrupt changes in brightness.
A particle sampler that puts electrical charges on particles and sorts
analyzerthem by their different drift rates in an electric field.
A pollution distribution that is not in contact with the ground.
Release of pollutants into the air from a source.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
Empirical Orthogonal Function
United Stated Environmental Protection Agency
A balancing or counter balancing to create stability, often with a standard
measure or constant.
Particulate species that co-exist as separate particles without co-mingling or
combining.
Process of reducing radiation transfer by scattering and absorption.
Apportioning the extinction coefficient to atmospheric constituents to
analysisestimate the change in visibility caused by a change in constituent
concentrations.
Proportion of radiation reduced by scattering and absorption per unit
distance. Standard units are inverse megameters (Mm"1). The atmospheric
extinction coefficient, loosely referred to as "extinction," represents the ability
of the atmosphere to absorb and scatter light. It equals the sum of the
scattering and absorption coefficients.
Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less
(PM2 5). Fine particles are responsible for most atmospheric particle-induced
extinction. Ambient fine particulate matter consists basically of five species:
sulfates, ammonium nitrate, organics, elemental carbon, and soil dust.
Federal Implementation Plans
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FLM
FTP
FWS
GC
Hazardous air
pollutants
Haze (hazy)
High volume
(HI-VOL)
Hue
Humidity
Hydrophobic
Hygroscopic
Illumination
Impairment
IMPROVE
IN
INAA
Indirect effects
Federal Land Manager
File Transfer Protocol
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Gas Chromatography
Airborne chemicals that cause serious health and environmental effects.
(HAP)
A visual phenomenon resulting from scattering of light in a volume of
aerosols. Condition of the atmosphere in which particles obscure a significant
part of the vista.
A simple particle sampler consisting of a filter holder and a vacuum sampler
cleaner blower, in a simple rain shelter. Some units have flow measuring or
controlling features.
Attribute of color that determines whether it is red, yellow, green, blue, or
other color. It is most strongly related to wavelength of light.
Water in air, as a gas. Often measured as a percentage, compared to the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can contain at that temperature.
Lacking affinity for water, or failing to adsorb or absorb water.
Characteristic of substances (e.g., particles in the atmosphere) having the
property of absorbing water vapor from air. Also pertains to a substance
(e.g., aerosols) that have an affinity for water and whose physical
characteristics are appreciably altered by the effects of water.
Application of visible radiation to an object.
The degree to which a scenic view or distance of clear visibility is degraded
by man-made pollutants.
Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments, a collaborative
monitoring program established in the mid-1980's as a part of the Federal
Implementation Plans. IMPROVE objectives are to provide data needed to
assess the impacts of new emission sources, identify existing man-made
visibility impairment, and assess progress toward the national visibility goals
that define protection of 156 Class I areas.
Ice Nuclei
Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
Non-optical atmospheric effects of aerosols on cloud albedo and formation
(e.g., as condensation nuclei for cloud droplets).
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Inhalable particulate
matter
Inherent contrast
Integral vistas
Integrated sampling
Integrating
nephelometer
Internally mixed
Ion
Ion chromatography
IP
Just noticeable
Just noticeable
difference (JND)
Koschm eider
constant
Layered haze
Light extinction
LIPM
Particles smaller than about 12 micrometers in diameter, capable of being
drawn into the human bronchial system. Larger particles tend to be filtered
out in the upper respiratory tract.
Contrast of the target against the horizon sky background when viewed at the
target. Same as intrinsic contrast. The contrast that would be seen between
two adjacent scenic elements if there were no intervening atmosphere.
Scenic views which extend beyond Class I boundaries, that are critical to the
enjoyment of the area.
An air sampling device that allows estimation of air quality components device
over a period of time (e.g., 24 hours to two weeks) through laboratory
analysis of the sampler's medium.
Instrument that measures the light scattered from a light beam by an
enclosed air sample through scattering angles between 5° and 175°.
Refers to the situation where individual particles contain one or more species.
For example, water is internally mixed with its hygroscopic hosts.
A charged molecular group or atom.
A method of separating ions by their different speeds of passage through an
ion-exchange resin. The ions are usually detected by their conductivity.
Inhalable Particle network
A variation of just noticeable difference that relates directly to human change
(JNC) visual perception. A JNC corresponds to the amount of optical change
in the atmosphere required to evoke human recognition of a change in a given
landscape (scenic) appearance. The change in atmospheric optical properties
may be expressed as the number of JNC's between views of a given scene at
different intervals of time.
A measure of change in image appearance that affects image sharpness.
Counting the number of JND's (detectable changes) in scene appearance is
regarded as an alternative method of quantifying visibility reduction (light
extinction).
The constant in the reciprocal relationship between standard visual range
and the extinction coefficient (see standard visual range).
Haze that obscures a horizontal layer of a vista.
The absorption and scattering of light. The attenuation of light per unit
distance due to absorption and scattering by the gases and particles in the
atmosphere.
Laser Integrating Plate Method
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LOD
LQL
Magnehelic gauge
Major source
Matrix filter
MDL
Membrane filter
Mie scattering
Mixing layer
Mm'1
Mobile sources
MOHAVE
Monitoring
MPP
MTF
NAMS
NAS
Limit of Detection
Lower Quantifiable Limit
A differential pressure gauge suitable for measuring pressure differences as
small as 0.1 inches of water.
A stationary facility that emits a regulated pollutant in an amount exceeding
the threshold level (100 or 250 tons per year, depending on the type of
facility).
A filter that is formed of a mat or matrix of fibers. It is physically thick, and
particles are trapped deep in its structure.
Minimum Detectable Limit
A thin filter, usually made of a synthetic polymer, with microscopic holes in
it. Particles are collected only on the surface facing the air flow.
Scattering by particles whose size is comparable to the wavelength of
radiation. The attenuation of light in the atmosphere by scattering due to
particles of a size comparable to the wavelength of the incident light. This is
the phenomenon largely responsible for the reduction of atmospheric visibility.
Visible solar radiation falls into the range from 0.4 to 0.8 |im, roughly, with
a maximum intensity around 0.52 jim.
An unstable layer of air that has turbulent mixing, usually due to solar heating
of the ground. It is often capped by a stable layer of air.
Inverse megameter. A unit of extinction related to SVR and dv. Higher
extinction coefficients correspond to lower SVR values and higher deciview
values.
Moving objects that release regulated air pollutants, (e.g., cars, trucks, buses,
airplanes, trains, motorcycles, and gas-powered lawn mowers). See also
source; stationary source.
Measurement of Haze and Visual Effects
Measurement of air pollution and related atmospheric parameters. See also
continuous sampling device, integrated sampling device.
Mohave Power Project
Modulation Transfer Function
National Air Monitoring Stations
National Academy of Sciences
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National Acid
Precipitation
Assessment
(NAPAP)
National Ambient
Air Quality
Standards
(NAAQS)
National
Atmospheric
Program
Natural conditions
Nephelometer
NESCAUM
Neutron activation
NGS
NOAA
Nonattainment area
NFS
NSR
Nuclei mode
The 10-year (1980-1990) interagency research program designed to
investigate acid deposition and its effects nationwide. The products of
this program are the series of State of the Science and Technology Program
documents that summarize what we know about the severity of acid
deposition and the resources it affects.
Permissible levels of criteria air pollutants established to protect public
health and welfare. Established and maintained by EPA under authority
of the Clean Air Act.
A national network of about 200 sites where wet deposition is collected
weekly and sent to the Central Analytical Laboratory in Illinois for Deposition
chemical analysis. This network has operated since 1977 and is funded
(NADP) by seven federal agencies, and numerous cooperators in agencies,
universities, and industry. This network of predominately rural sites is
designed to represent broad, regional patterns of deposition.
Prehistoric and pristine atmospheric states (i.e., atmospheric conditions that
are not affected by human activities).
An optical instrument that measures the scattering coefficient (bscat) of ambient
air by directly measuring the light scattered by aerosols and gases in a sampled
air volume. See also integrating nephelometer.
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management
A method of chemical analysis in which the sample is bombarded with analysis
neutrons in a nuclear reactor. The nuclei of various elements in the sample are
modified to radioactive forms, and the concentrations of the elements are then
determined by the intensities and wavelengths of the radiation emitted.
Navajo Generating Station
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
A geographic area in which the level of a criteria air pollutant is higher than
the level allowed by the federal standards. For NAAQS, where the pattern of
"violations of standard" is sufficient to require remedial action; a boundary is
determined around the location of the violations, the area within that
boundary is designated to be in non-attainment of the particular NAAQS
standard and an enforceable plan is developed to prevent additional violations.
National Park Service
New Source Review
A size range of particles below about 0.1 micrometer in diameter. These
particles are the nuclei around which larger particles grow.
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OAQPS
Optical depth
Optical monitoring
Optical particle
Organic compounds
Orifice audit device
Origins
PESA
PIXE
Particle sampler
Particle scattering
coefficient
Particulate matter
Path function
Path radiance
Perceptible
Phase function
Photochemical
EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
The degree to which a cloud or haze prevents light from passing through it.
It is a function of physical composition, size distribution, and particle
concentration. Often used interchangeably with "turbidity."
Optical monitoring refers to directly measuring the behavior of light in the
ambient atmosphere.
An instrument which measures the size of individual particles by the
counteramount of reflected light from a microscopic illuminated volume.
Chemicals that contain the element carbon.
A device which measures air flow based on the known relationship of air flow
through and orifice to the pressure drop across it.
Particle origins can be anthropogenic (man-made) or natural. Another origin
classification is primary (particles that are emitted into the atmosphere as
particles, such as organic and soot particles in smoke plumes or soil dust
particles), and secondary (those formed from gas-to-particle conversion in the
atmosphere, such as sulfates, nitrates, and secondary organics).
Proton Elastic Scattering Analysis
Particle Induced X-ray Emission
An instrument to measure particulate matter in ambient air.
Proportion of incident light scattered by particles per unit distance (Mm"1).
Dust, soot, other tiny bits of solid materials that are released into and move
around in the air.
Radiance per unit path length from a specified point along the path radiated
towards the observer.
Radiance of path directed towards the observer. Or "airtight," is a radiometric
property of the air resulting from light scattering processes along the sight
line, or path, between a viewer and the object (target).
Capable of being seen.
Relationship of scattered to incident light as a function of scattering angle;
volume scattering function.
Any chemical reaction which is initiated by light. Such processes are
processimportant in the production of ozone and sulfates in smog.
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Photometry
Photopic
Plume
PM
PM
2.5
PM
10
Photometer Instrument for measuring photometric quantities such as luminance,
illuminance, luminous intensity, and luminous flux. An instrument for
measuring the brightness of an object. It has been suggested that this name
be reserved for those instruments which have been adjusted to match the
wavelength response of the human eye, but established usage is not yet this
consistent, and radiometers are sometimes called photometers.
Study of photometric quantities of light.
Vision or wavelength response of the cones of a normal eye when exposed to
a luminance of at least 3.4 candelas per square meter.
Airborne emissions from a specified source and the path through the
atmosphere of these emissions.
The acronym for airborne "particulate matter," an air quality parameter for
which standards are maintained within NAAQS.
The acronym for that portion of PM that has an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5
microns or less.
The acronym for that portion of PM that has an aerodynamic diameter of 10
microns or less.
A property of light. Light can be linearly polarized in any direction
perpendicular to the direction of travel, circularly polarized (clockwise or
counterclockwise), unpolarized, or mixtures of the above.
A substance or condition whose presence generally precedes the formation of
another, more notable, condition or substance.
A wildland fire whose progress has been controlled by a combination of
strategies, including: construction of artificial fire breaks, selection of natural
firebreaks and burnout of vulnerable fuels within the fire control line. A
wildfire may be declared a controlled burn if ignition occurs within an area for
which an approved burning plan exists and weather conditions fall within the
acceptable range. While a forest management burn is referred to as a
prescribed burn in the planning stage, the same project may be referred to as
a controlled burn in the implementation stage.
Prevention of A program established by the Clean Air Act that limits the amount of
Significant additional air pollution that is allowed in Class I and Class II areas.
Deterioration (PSD)
Primary particles Suspended in the atmosphere as particles from the time of emission (e.g., dust
and soot).
Polarization
Precursor
Prescribed burn
PSD
Prevention of Significant Deterioration
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Psychrometer
Pyanometer
QDM
Quality assurance
Quality control
(QC)
R-MAP
Radiometer
RAPS
RASS
Rayleigh scattering
Reconstructed light
extinction
Reflectance
Reflection
Regional haze
RH
Saturation
An instrument for measuring humidity based on the temperature drop of a
thermometer with a wet wick on the bulb.
An instrument that measures directly the loss of total solar radiance under
clear sky conditions.
Quadratic Detection Model
An overall plan undertaken to quantify, control, and perhaps improve the
quality of data acquired by a system.
Actions routinely taken to maintain a specified level of quality of acquired
data.
Resource Management Assessment Program.
A name for light-measuring instruments which do not match the wavelength
response of the human eye.
Regional Air Pollution Study
Radio Acoustic Sounding Systems
Scattering by gas molecules, whose size is small compared to the wavelength
of radiation. Light scattering (principally blue light) by atmospheric gases.
Perfectly clean air (100 percent Rayleigh scattering) would correspond to an
SVR of 391 km at an elevation of 5,000 feet, which is the theoretical
maximum for an SVR. Rayleigh scattering also corresponds to
bext =10 Mm"1, and is defined as 0 deciview.
The relationship between atmospheric aerosols and the light extinction
coefficient. Can usually be approximated as the sum of the products of the
concentrations of individual species and their respective light extinction
efficiencies.
Ratio of reflected to incident light.
Return of radiation by a surface without a change of frequency.
A cloud of aerosols extending up to hundreds of miles across a region and
promoting noticeably hazy conditions. Condition of the atmosphere in which
uniformly distributed aerosol obscures the entire vista irrespective of direction
or point of observation. Is not easily traced visually to a single source.
Relative Humidity
One part of the description of color, it qualitatively corresponds to the purity
of color: the lack of mixed black or white.
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Scattering
Scattering
coefficient
Changing the direction of radiation at collisions with particles and gas
molecules. The diversion of light from its original path. It can be caused by
molecules or particles.
Proportion of incident light scattered per unit distance. Standard units are
inverse megameters (Mm"1).
Scattering efficiency
Scene element
Scene monitoring
Secondary particles
Sight path
SLAMS
Smog
Soot
Source
Southern
Appalachian
Mountain Initiative
(SAMI)
SRP
The relative ability of aerosols and gases to scatter light. A higher scattering
efficiency means more light scattering per unit mass or number of particles,
this in turn means poorer visibility. In general, fine particles (diameter less
than 2.5 microns) are efficient scatterers of visible light.
Discrete segment of a landscape scene.
Scene monitoring is the monitoring of a specific vista or target. Optical and
aerosol monitoring measure an abstract, but easily quantifiable parameter of
the atmosphere. Scene monitoring captures the effects of all atmospheric
parameters simultaneously, but in an inherently difficult manner to quantify.
It is, for example, difficult to determine quantitatively which of two
photographs represent "better" visibility conditions. Scene monitoring is
generally done to help relate quantitative data in a "user-friendly" format.
Formed in the atmosphere by a gas-to-particle conversion process.
The straight line between the observation point and the target.
State and Local Air Monitoring Stations
A mixture of air pollutants, principally ground-level ozone, produced by
chemical reactions involving smog-forming chemicals. See also haze.
Black particles with high concentrations of carbon in graphitic and amorphous
elemental forms. It is a product of incomplete combustion of organic
compounds.
Any place or object from which air pollutants are released. Sources that are
fixed in space are stationary sources; sources that move are mobile sources.
(See also major source).
A consortium of government agencies, industry, and environmental
groups, formed to investigate the status of air quality and its effects in
the highland regions of the southeastern United States. The objective of
this regional cooperative is to determine the current and future impacts of
regional air pollutants, such as ozone and acid deposition, and to recommend
regional air management strategies to control the formation of these
pollutants.
Salt River Project
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Standard visual
range (SVR)
STAPPA/ALAPCO
State
Implementation
Plan (SIP)
Stationary source
Stratification
data)
Strip chart recorder
Sun radiometer
Surface layer
S-VHS
Target
Temperature
Texture
Visual range is the furthest distance that a human observer can resolve range
a large dark target under the prevalent atmospheric conditions. Standard visual
range is visual range standardized to Rayleigh scattering at an elevation of
5,000 feet (10 Mm"1). The distance under daylight and uniform lighting
conditions at which the apparent contrast between a specified target and its
background becomes just equal to the threshold contrast of an observer,
assumed to be 0.02.
State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Association/Administrators and
the Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
A collection of regulations used by the state to carry out its Implementation
responsibilities under the Clean Air Act.
A fixed source of regulated air pollutants (e.g., industrial facility). See also
source; mobile sources.
The process of separating a database into different groups according to (of
some detail of their origin, for the purposes of improving statistical sensitivity.
A device for making a time record of some signal, usually an applied voltage.
The signal drives a pen in one direction, while paper is moved under the pen
in the perpendicular direction at a uniform rate.
A device for measuring the intensity of sunlight falling on the ground. If the
sky is cloudless and the angle of the sun is known, then a measure of the
clarity of the air can be had by this measurement.
A concentration of air pollution that extends from the ground to an elevation
where the top edge of a pollution layer is visible.
Super-VHS, an high definition video format which is capable of achieving
horizontal resolution of over 400 lines. A tape recorded in S-VHS format
cannot be played on a recorder which is designed to accommodate only the
VHS format. See also VHS.
Object in the distance observed by a person or instrument for visibility
measurements.
Weather condition in which warm air sits atop cooler air, promoting
inversionstagnation and increased concentrations of air pollutants. A
condition of a layer of atmosphere in which temperature increases with
altitude. Such a layer is stable, and pollutants migrate through it very slowly.
Also known as an inversion layer.
Roughness of the landscape.
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Threshold contrast
TMBR
Total light
extinction
Total suspended
participates (TSP)
Toxic air
pollutants
Tracer elements
Transmission gauge
Transmissometer
Transmittance
Tribal
Implementation
Plan (TIP)
TRPA
TSP
Turbidity
UCD
Uniform haze
USFS
A measure of human eye sensitivity to contrast. It is the smallest increment
of contrast perceptible by the human eye.
Tracer Mass Balance Regression
The sum of scattering (including Rayleigh scattering) and absorption
coefficients. See also extinction coefficient.
Total particulate matter in a sample of ambient air.
See hazardous air pollutants.
An element which is emitted most strongly by a specific source or class of
sources, and can therefore be used as evidence for an impact by such a source
when the element is detected in an air pollution sample.
A device for determining the amount of particles collected on a filter by the
attenuation of light passing through the filter. Beta rays are sometimes used
in place of visible light, and the resulting instrument is called a beta gauge.
A device for assessing visibility conditions by measuring the amount of light
received from a distant light source. Total light extinction is measured by
integrating light scattering and absorption properties of the atmosphere.
The ratio of the light transmitted through a medium to the incident light.
Light is attenuated by scattering and adsorption from gases and particles.
A collection of regulations used by the Indian tribes to carry out its
responsibilities under the Clean Air Act.
Tahoe Regional Planning Agency
The acronym for total suspended particulates, that portion of PM that is
captured by a PM sampler which does not attempt to discriminate according
to particle size.
A condition that reduces atmospheric transparency to radiation, especially
light. The degree of cloudiness, or haziness, caused by the presence of
aerosols, gases, and dust.
University of California-Davis
Pollutants that are uniformly distributed both horizontally and vertically from
the ground to a height well above the highest terrain.
United States Forest Service
7-16
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USFWS
VHS
VIEW
Violation of
standard
Virtual impactor
Visibility
Visibility indexes
Visibility
Metric
Visibility reduction
Visual air quality
Visual image
Visual range (VR)
Washout
WESTAR
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Video Home System, a video tape format commonly used on video
recorder/players.
Visibility Intensive Experiment in the West, a project of the US EPA, with
cooperation of the National Park Service, to measure visibility at many
stations throughout the western United States to document current visibility
and examine trends.
A regulatory situation, (i.e., NAAQS), where the pattern of "exceedences
of standard" is greater than the frequency allowable under that standard.
A type of dichotomous sampler which separates large particles from an air
stream by impacting them on the "virtual surface" of a slowly moving column
of air.
The ability to see an object or scene as affected by distance and atmospheric
conditions; to perceive form, color and texture.
Aerosol indexes include the physical properties of the ambient atmospheric
particles (particle origin, size, shape, chemical composition, concentration,
temporal and spatial distribution, and other physical properties). Optical
indexes include coefficients for scattering, extinction, and absorption, plus an
angular dependence of the scattering known as the normalized scattering
phase function. Scenic indexes comprise visual range, contrast, color, texture,
clarity, and other descriptive terms.
A statistical summary of a set of visibility data including the median (or
mean) of the cleanest 20% of the samples, the median (or mean) of all
samples, and the median (or mean) or the dirtiest 20% of the samples.
The impairment or degradation of atmospheric clarity. It becomes significant
when the color and contrast values of a scene to the horizon are altered or
distorted by airborne impurities.
Air quality evaluated in terms of pollutant particles and gases that affect how
well one can see through the atmosphere.
The digitizing, calibration, modeling, and display of the effects of
processingatmospheric optical parameters on a scene. The process starts with
a photograph of landscape features viewed in clean atmospheric conditions
and models the effects of changes in atmospheric composition.
An expression of visibility; the maximum distance at which a large black
object just disappears against the horizon.
The process by which particles are removed from air by capture by raindrops.
Western States Air Resources Council
7-17
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Wet deposition The deposit of atmospheric gases and particles (incorporated into rain, snow,
fog, or mist) to water or land surfaces.
Wildfire Any wildland fire that requires a suppression response. A controlled burn may
be declared a wildfire if part of it escapes from the control line or if weather
conditions deteriorate and become unacceptable, as described in the burning
plan.
XRF X-Ray Fluorescence
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