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ecycling, along with source
reduction, combustion, and
disposal in landfills, is a key
component of an integrated
municipal solid waste
management strategy. Recycling may
consist of several steps, including collec-
tion, separation, processing, remanufac-
ture, and marketing. A material is not
considered "recycled" until all of these
steps are completed and the "recycling
loop" is closed.
Since materials must be converted
into products and used by consumers to
close the recycling loop, understanding
the markets for recyclable materials and
for goods manufactured from recyclable
materials is key to continued and expan-
ded recycling. Markets for recyclable
materials, like all markets, are influenced
by the laws of supply and demand. As
more and more communities across the
nation implement recycling programs
and more recyclable materials enter the
marketplace, both supply and demand
are affected.
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) is, supporting market
development by promoting the govern-
ment purchase of goods containing
recycled materials; providing assistance
to local governments; and researching,
developing, and evaluating policy
options.
This booklet summarizes EPA's
Markets for Recovered Glass, It describes
factors affecting the current supply and
demand for glass, and provides informa-
tion on future market trends. It also
explains how to obtain a copy of the
full report.
The supply of scrap glass has three
components: transition glass, precon-
sumer cullet, and postconsumer cullet.
Cullet is simply crushed scrap glass.
Transition glass is made up of unmarket-
able glass products created by glass
manufacturers. Preconsumer cullet is
finished glass that breaks at a bottling
or distribution plant. Most transition
glass and much preconsumer cullet are
remelted by the plant that produced it.
More important from the perspective of
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recycling is postconsumer cullet,
Postconsumer cullet primarily includes
discarded glass beverage containers
(including juice, beer, aftid soft drink bot-
tles) and other glass containers (such as
food jars and medicine bottles). Cullet is
100 percent recyclable in that it can be
used repeatedly to make the same prod-
uct. Typically, there are three colors of
container cullet: flint (clear), amber, and
green.
In 1988, recovery of glass totaled 1.5
million tons, or 12 percent of the total
glass generated. Glass beverage contain-
ers accounted for about one-half of all
glass containers manufactured and most
of the glass recovered from the solid
waste stream. In 1988,20 percent of all
discarded beer and soft drink containers
were recovered.
In recent years, municipal glass
recycling collection programs have been
expanding in terms of the number of
areas participating, types of recovery
methods, employed, and amount of cullet
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recovered. From 1980 to 1988, the rate of
materials recovery of glass containers
from the municipal solid waste stream
rose 133 percent. Nevertheless, effective
and convenient recycling opportunities
do not yet exist in all areas, and many
areas do not yet sponsor any type of
glass collection program.
The supply of scrap glass is affected
by the type and availability of collection
methods used, costs, and publicity fac-
tors. The type of collection program in
place in an area affects the amount of
glass recycled and available for reuse.
Currently, there are three types of
postconsumer collection programs
around the country: (1) deposit/refund
programs (initiated by bottle bills), (2)
drop-off or buy-back centers, and (3)
curbside pickup.
Under deposit/refund programs,
consumers pay a deposit when buying
a bottled soft drink or bottled beer and
receive the deposit back when they
return the bottle. The bottles are then
refilled or recycled. States with deposit
laws report much higher recycling rates
for glass beverage bottles than states
without deposits. To achieve this
response, however, these states have had
to offer returns on bottles (5 to 10 cents)
far above the market scrap value of the
bottle. (A glass beverage bottle is worth
about a penny.) Although deposit pro-
grams do not increase the value of cullet
once it leaves the collectors, the effect is
to push more cullet into the market than
would otherwise be available, given
current scrap prices.
The convenience associated with a
recycling collection program also affects
cullet supplies. The beverage industry
sponsors buy-back and drop-off centers
in several states, whereby consumers
return or sell their containers back to
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irİ
rated oofİ its
major glass manufacturers directly.
These programs do not generate as much
consumer response as deposit/refund
programs because consumers typically
prefer to return glass to the same loca-
tion from which it was purchased, and
the market price of a glass container is
much lower than the typical deposit.
Curbside pickup programs, on the
other hand, can be even more effective
than drop-off programs at generating
cullet because they are more convenient
for consumers. In curbside programs,
consumers separate recyclables from
other trash for collection by the munici-
pality or other organization.
Currently, the recycling of
nonbeverage glass containers and non-
container glass does not significantly
affect cullet supplies. Publicity about
recycling often emphasizes beverage
*/ v_J* A C^"
containers. Consumers often are
unaware that many buy-back and drop-
off centers accept nonbeverage glass
containers and noncontainer glass in
addition to soft drink and beer bottles.
To date, no collection methods have been
widely established to handle large or
heavy pieces of glass or flat glass (such
as window panes), or glass that needs
to be separated from other components
(such as lightbulbs).
Another factor affecting supply is
the low value of cullet and the high cost
of transporting it. Transporting cullet to
the glass manufacturers is the single
largest cost component for cullet
suppliers. The market for glass contain-
ers, therefore, is regional, and more glass
tends to be recycled in areas where
manufacturers are located. Exceptions to
this trend occur in areas where the high
cost of trash disposal makes it economi-
cal to recycle glass and other items at a
great distance from manufacturers. If
municipalities take into account the
avoided costs of disposing of this glass
in landfills, they may be able to justify
high transport costs.
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Industry observers predict that the
use of glass food and beverage contain-
ers will rise only slightly over the next
several years. This modest increase will
nonetheless lead to an increase in the
supply of cullet because more glass will
be available for recycling. Curbside pro-
grams, in particular, are likely to boost
recycling rates, since this type of pro-
gram is most convenient for consumers
and the number of curbside collection
programs is rapidly increasing.
The expansion of the cullet supply
partially depends on how well glass
fares over aluminum and plastic in the
container marketplace. Aluminum has
long been a competitor of glass, and,
since the introduction of plastic beverage
containers in the 1970s, the glass share of
the beverage container market has
dropped steadily. Between 1980 and
1989, the number of glass containers
declined 12 percent, and the supply of
potential cullet decreased. Shipment of
glass containers, however, grew slightly
in 1989, and that growth is expected to
continue for several years.
Glass manufacturers buy cullet
directly from recyclers and from
intermediary companies that purchase
cullet from recyclers. Furnace-ready
cullet (which is crushed and decontami-
nated) may be purchased from indepen-
dent dealers and processors (who often
obtain cullet from industrial or commer-
cial glass manufacturers that do not use
scrap glass). Many glass beverage con-
tainer manufacturers also own and
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operate benefidation units where glass
is made furnace-ready. *
Glass container manufacturers
are the largest consumers'of cullet.
According to industry representatives,
these manufacturers will buy as much
cullet as is available because it saves raw
materials, energy, and furnace life. In
addition, manufacturing recycled glass
projects a positive company image.
Noncontainer glass industries cur-
rently do not use significant quantities
of cullet. The fiberglass insulation indus-
try and companies that make such items
as ceramics, industrial compounds, and
glasphalt (a road-paving compound
made of asphalt and glass) use some
cullet. Although most noncontainer glass
manufacturers rarely purchase cullet,
they do use small amounts that are self-
generated. Pressed and blown glassware
producers do not use or purchase cullet
and sell their own scrap glass.
To meet strict manufacturing
specifications, all cullet must be sorted
by color, crushed to a size suitable for
the furnace, and separated from bits of
aluminum and other contaminants.
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Color sorting is accomplished either by
consumers or after disposal by process-
ing facility operators. Bits of gravel,
pieces of ceramic, and some types of
noncontainer glass pose special prob-
lems for glass manufacturers because
they cannot be easily removed from the
cullet. Recyclers need to pay special
attention to see that these materials do
not contaminate their glass.
Strict specifications for most prod-
ucts limit the amount of cullet that
manufacturers can use. Although it is
possible to manufacture some glass
products using 50 percent cullet or more,
most glass containers are manufactured
using 20 to 30 percent cullet. Higher per-
centages would require significant pro-
cess modifications. Manufacturers are
unlikely to make these process modifica-
tions without the assurance of a constant
supply of color-sorted, contaminant-free
cullet. To respond to the industry's need
for a steady supply of cullet, some glass
manufacturers subsidize cullet prices
and deal with large intermediaries and
independent dealers that can provide a
large volume of cullet with greater relia-
bility than small individual communities
or cullet processors.
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The success of glass against alu-
minum and plastic in the marketplace
will affect the amount of cullet the glass
industry will demand. Observers predict
that the glass container industry will
continue to see modest growth over the
next few years. Growth in the container
industry will dictate the overall capacity
to use cullet. Consumer demand for
recycled containers will also affect use of
cullet.
To increase the use of cullet, existing
collection and beneficiation units must
improve operations to a level that can
guarantee cullet quality and quantity.
Glass industry observers also speculate
that if prices or regulations changed
enough to make it more worthwhile to
use cullet, more companies would be
motivated to do so.
A copy of the full report. Markets for Kew&ered Glass (JEPA/53Q-SW-9D-
071 A), is available from the National Technical Information Service
), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161,703-487-4650.
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