v>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
National Training
and Operational
Technology Center
Cincinnati OH 45268
Water
EPA-430/1-79-012
November 19Z9
Advanced
Instructional
Technology
Participant Reference
Manual
ff
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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Participant Reference Manual
National Training and Operational Technology Center
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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The mention of trade names or commercial products in this
publication is for illustration purposes and does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U. S Environmental Protection Agency.
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Project Funded By
National Training and Operations Technology Center
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Contract No. 68-03-2756
Project Officer: Mrs. Audrey D. Kroner
Awarded to:
Development and Evaluation Associates, Inc.
700 East Water Street
Syracuse, New York 13210
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FOREWORD
The Advanced Instructional Technology Workshop is the second of two
workshops developed to provide environmental protection professionals
with the skills needed to plan and deliver training programs. The first
workshop provides a basic foundation for the subjects treated here.
Materials and directions for the advanced workshop are presented in two
volumes. There is a Staff Guide intended for use by the instructor in
planning and conducting the workshop. This Participant Reference Manual
contains material for participants' use during the workshop. It is also
intended for future use as a reference when preparing instructional
activities.
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OTHER U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT SERVICES AND MATERIALS
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES CENTER
The U.S. EPA National Training and Operational Technology Center (NTOTC)
maintains an Instructional Resources Center in Cincinnati, Ohio. A primary
objective is the compilation and dissemination of information about water quality
and pesticide instructional materials available to interested persons. The
"Instructional Resources Center Bulletin" is designed as the communications link
between the Center and persons involved in environmental education and training.
If you wish to receive free copies of the Bulletin, send your name, position title,
organization or institution or agency name, mailing address and phone number to:
IRC Bulletin
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CATALOG
Several audiovisual units and course packages are available for free loan from
U.S. EPA's National Training and Operational Technology Center. The "Water
Quality Control Instructional Materials" catalog describes slide/tape units, 16 mm
films, videocassettes and course packages that can be borrowed. If you wish to
obtain a free copy of the catalog, please send address information to:
Instructional Resources Center .
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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iii
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION SYSTEM
The Instructional Resources Information System (IRIS) is a computer-based
information system. It currently lists information about 3000 printed or audiovisual
water quality and pesticide instructional resources available from various
individuals, state and federal government agencies, educational institutions and
commercial companies throughout the country. For more information about this
system, write to:
U.S. EPA Information Dissemination Project
Ohio State University
1200 Chambers Road
Columbus, Ohio 43212
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT PACKAGES
for
TRAINING ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
The U.S. EPA National Training and Operational Technology Center (NTOTC)
has developed instructional packages for several technical courses of interest to
water, wastewater and land management personnel. Each package consists of a
course manual, a staff guide and visual or audiovisual instructional aids for each
topic. The printed manuals are available through EPA's Instructional Resource
Information System (IRIS) and/or the National Technical Information Service
(NTIS). Instructional aids for teaching the topics are available on free loan from
EPA's NTOTC.
Following is a description of the courses for which instructional packages are
currently available. The format of the manuals facilitates selection and
presentation of those topics of interest to a particular student or group of students.
For more information about obtaining any of these materials, contact:
Instructional Resources Center
U.S. EPA - NTOTC
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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iv
Self-Monitoring Procedures: Basic Laboratory Skills
For: Treatment plant personnel who are required to monitor effluent discharges
and who have had little or no previous experience in laboratory work.
Topics: Review of basic mathematics including the metric system, formulas
and percentage; basic chemical laboratory operations such as weighing
techniques, use of equipment and preparation or reagents; basic microbiological
laboratory operations. Emphasis is on practice of skills.
Time: Seventeen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 hours. Total instruction time
is about 38 hours.
Effluent Monitoring Procedures:
Basic Parameters for Municipal Wastewaters
For: Municipal treatment plant personnel who are required to sample, measure
and analyze their discharges and who have had little or no previous
experience in laboratory work.
Topics: Open Channel Flow Measurements, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved
Oxygen, pH, Fecal Coliform by MPN and MF methods, Total Residual
Chlorine, Suspended and Settleable Solids, Reporting Data. Emphasis
is on laboratory practice.
Time: Eighteen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 7.5 hours. Total instruction time
is 30 to 45 hours.
Effluent Monitoring Procedures: Metals Analyses
For: Municipal treatment plant personnel who are responsible for performing
metal analyses and have had little or no experience in laboratory work.
Topics: Various metals are used as examples of six methods used to determine
metals: Boron, colorimetry; Calcium, volumetric; Copper, Magnesium,
Manganese, Zinc, direct aspiration atomic absorption; Lead, extraction
followed by atomic absorption; Mercury, flameless atomic absorption;
Potassium and Sodium, flame photometry. Emphasis is on laboratory
practice.
Time: Seven lessons ranging from 2.5 to 5 hours. Total instruction time is
20 to 23 hours.
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Effluent Monitoring Procedures: Nutrients
For: Municipal treatment plant personnel who are responsible for performing
nutrient analyses and who have had little or no experience in laboratory
work.
Topics: Phosphorus, Kjeldahl Nitrogen, Ammonia, Organic Nitrogen (by difference),
Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen by Cadmium Reduction. Also Chemical
Oxygen Demand and Oil and Grease. Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Nine lessons ranging from 1.0 to 7.0 hours. Total instruction time is
27 to 33.5 hours.
Methods for Determination of Chemical Contaminants
in Drinking Water
For: Chemists and technicians with little or no experience in chemical procedures
required to monitor drinking water.
Topics: Sampling, Statistics, Quality Control, Safety, Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium,
Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Selenium, Silver, Fluoride, Nitrate, Organics
(chlorinated Hydrocarbons, chlorophenoxys, trihalomethanes), Chlorine
and Turbidity. Representative methods can be selected for the laboratory
practice sessions.
Time: Fourteen lessons ranging from 1.0 to 3.8 hours. Total instruction time
is 26 to 49 hours.
Determination of Residual Chlorine and Turbidity
in Drinking Water
For: Chemists and technicians with little or no experience in chemical procedures
required to monitor drinking water.
Topics: Compliance Requirements, Total Residual Chlorine and Turbidity.
Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Five lessons ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 hours. Total instruction time
is 5 hours.
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VI
Inorganic Analyses in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Chemists and technicians with chemical laboratory experience, 1 year
of college level inorganic chemistry and 1 semester of quantitative
analysis (or equivalent).
Topics: Sample Handling, Compliance Methodology, Safety, Analytical Techniques,
Volumetric Analysis, Precision, Accuracy, Quality Assurance Programs,
Acidity and Alkalinity, Total Residual Chlorine, Fluoride, Hardness,
Nitrate and Nitrite Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus, Total and Suspended
Solids, Specific Conductance, Turbidity. Emphasis is on laboratory
practice.
Time: Nineteen lessons ranging from 0.5 to 5.25 hours. Total instruction
time is 30 hours.
Organic Analysis in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Chemists and technicians with chemical laboratory experience, 1 year
of college level organic chemistry and one semester of quantitative analysis
(or equivalent).
Topics: Sample Handling, Compliance Methodology, Safety, Control of Analytical
Performance, Spectrophotometer and Calibration Graphs, Gas Chromatography,
Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand,
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Total Organic Carbon, Total Kjeldahl and
Organic Nitrogen, Oil and Grease, Phenolics, Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
Surfactants. Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Twenty-one lessons ranging fromO.5 to 5.25 hours. Total instruction
time is 26 to 30 hours.
Bacteriological Methods in Water Quality Control Programs
For: Bacteriologists and technicians with bacteriological laboratory experience
including sample inoculations, transfers, media preparation and handling,
and related skills.
Topics: Compliance Methodology; Chlorine Determinations and Turbidity; Bacterial
Indicators; Equipment, Media and Solutions, Sample Volumes, Sample
Collection and Test Procedures for both the Multiple Dilution Tube (MPN)
and Membrane Filter (MF) methods; Statistics and Geometric Means.
Emphasis is on laboratory practice.
Time: Twenty-one lessons ranging from 0.75 to 4.0 hours. Total instruction
time is 28.75 hours.
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VII
Land Application of Wastes
For: Engineers, scientists, waste management speciaiists and other professionals
with at least the equivalent of an undergraduate degree in engineering,
agriculture or a related discipline.
Topics: Course integrates pertinent information from sanitary and environmental
engineering, agronomy, soil science, agricultural engineering, economics
and law as applicable to utilizing land for the application of various types
of wastes. Lessons are: Soil as a treatment medium, Site evaluation
procedures, Design approaches, Social factors, Vegetative cover, Alternative
systems, Monitoring, Nitrogen management, Phosphorus management,
Toxic element interactions, Organics, Legal aspects, Crop selection,
Non-crop uses, Costing procedure, Water management and climate effects.
Time: Twenty-one modules ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 hours. Designed for a workshop
setting of about 40 hour duration.
Note: Materials were developed by a grantee.
Erosion and Sediment Control, Audiovisual Training Program
For: Those responsible for erosion and sediment control, management, inspections
or State standard development or support.
Topics: Erosion and sediment control, Soils, Rainfall-runoff relationships, Erosion
and sedimentation, Plant materials, Control of runoff during construction,
Vegetative soil stabilization, Stream erosion control, Temporary soil
stabilization, Sediment from construction, Control planning, Wooded
sites, Roles and responsibilities.
Time: Thirteen modules, self-paced. The package is designed for both self-
study and for group presentation.
Note: Materials were developed by a contractor.
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vm
CURRICULUM GUIDES
Curriculum guides for training water quality control personnel have been
developed by various institutions and are available for use and adaptation by others.
For further information about the following, contact the source cited.
A Two-Year Water Quality Monitoring Curriculum
Source: Ulster County Community College
Attn: Professor Richard Glazer's Office
Stone Ridge, New York
Wastewater Technology: A Two-Year Post-High School Instructional Program
Source: Charles County Community College
Attn: Mr. William Engel's Office
P.O. Box 910
La Plata, Maryland 20646
Wastewater Engineering Technology Program
Source: Clemson University
Attn: Dr. Joseph Allen's Office
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Note: This is a four year program.
Bachelor of Engineering Technology Curriculum in Water Quality Management
Source: Pennsylvania State University
Attn: Dr. Charles Cole's Office
Capitol Campus, W 261
Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057
Note: This is a two + two or a four year program.
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CONTENTS
1x
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
Workshop Goal and General Description
Use of the Manual
SUMMARY PLAN OF INSTRUCTION
INDEX TO UNITS
UNITS OF INSTRUCTION
Unit One
Unit Two
Unit Three
Unit Four
Unit Five
Unit Six
Unit Seven
Unit Eight
Unit Nine
Unit Ten
PLANNING FORMS AND WORKSHEETS
REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
- Introduction
- Analysis
- Designing Instructional Objectives
- Designing Evaluations
- Selecting Instructional Methods
- Selecting Media for Instruction
- Selecting Instructional Strategies
- Using and Developing Media
- Adaptive Instruction
- Management of Instruction
i
1
1
1
2
4
7
11
21
59
109
123
131
273
307
311
317
331
333
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INTRODUCTION
Workshop Goal and General Description
As part of the Environmental Protection Agency's efforts to provide
environmental professionals with the skills required to plan and deliver
training programs, materials and guidelines have been developed for
conducting a workshop in Advanced Instructional Technology. Generally,
this workshop is intended to provide further breadth and depth to certain
topics which were introduced in the Basic Workshop. Furthermore, this
workshop has been designed so that each topic or unit can be treated
separately and thus the content of the workshop can be modified to meet
the needs of a specific group of participants. For each unit, a thorough
treatment of various concepts and principles is provided. Opportunities
are also provided for participants to practice applying new skills and
receive feedback on their performance.
This workshop consists of ten units of instruction totaling over thirty
hours of classroom time. It is designed for supervisors and other per-
sonnel who are responsible for on-the-job training and/or brief seminars
on work-related topics, and who have had some formal training and exper-
ience in instructional development. The workshop is intended to strengthen
and expand the skills of participants in designing instructional objec-
tives, evaluating student performance, choosing instructional methods,
using instructional strategies to implement those methods, selecting or
developing instructional media, adapting instructional materials to
trainee needs and managing instruction in either a work environment or
seminar-type situation. An overview of all the units contained in this
workshop is presented in the Summary Plan of Instruction in the next
page.
Use of the Manual
This manual contains four kinds of materials: Unit Overviews, Content
Summaries, Assignments, and Figures. A Unit Overview is provided to
describe the role of the unit within the workshop, and a brief description
of its content and objectives. Content Summaries are provided, where
relevant, as a formal kind of "class notes" highlighting the key points
to be gained from the workshop's instructional activities. Individual
assignments (consisting of readings and exercises) are included where
appropriate. Certain figures or illustrations used during instruction
are included for your reference. As the workshop proceeds, you may also
receive a variety of additional handouts and exercises which can be
included within the appropriate units of instruction.
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AN ADVANCED WORKSHOP ON THE
TECHNIQUES OF INSTRUCTION
AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
SUMMARY PLAN OF INSTRUCTION
Unit of
Instruction
Time
Method(s)
Content Outline
Unit One
Introduction
1 hour
-Lectures
-Assignment
-Purpose of the Workshop
-Systematic approach to
instruction
Unit Two
Analysis
2% hours -Lectures -Analysis of problems
-Guided discussions -Job and task analysis
-Assignment
Unit Three
Designing
Instructional
Objectives
Unit Five
Selecting
Instructional
Methods
hours -Lectures -Writing objectives
-Guided discussions -Types and levels of
-Assignment objectives
-Hierarchies of objectives
Unit Four
Designing
Evaluations
5% hours -Lectures
-Guided discussions
-Assignments
-Principles of criterion-
referenced test development
-Design of written test items
-Evaluating instructional
activities
2 hours
-Lecture
-Demonstration
-Assignments
-Types of methods
-Selecting methods
Unit Six
Selecting
Media for
Instruction
2 hours -Lecture
-Assignments
-Guided discussion
-Categories of media
-Selecting media
-Instructional Resource
Information System (IRIS)
Unit Seven
Selecting
Instructional
Strategies
7 hours -Lecture
-Assignments
-Guided discussions
-Instructional strategy
components
-Planning practice activities
-Types of reinforcement
-Motivation
-Content enhancement
strategies
-Teaching toward the
objective
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Unit of
Instruction
Time
Method(s)
Content Outline
Unit Eight
Using and
Developing Media
4 hours -Assignments
-Guided discussion
-Utilization of media
in instruction
-Preparing overhead
transparencies
Unit Nine
Adaptive
Instruction
2 hours -Lecture -Developing tutorials
-Guided discussions -Individual assignments
-Individualized Learning
Packages
Unit Ten
Management of
Instruction
hours -Lectures
-Guided discussions
-Classroom management
-Training in a work
environment
-Planning and conducting
workshops
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INDEX TO UNITS
UNIT ONE - INTRODUCTION
UNIT TWO - ANALYSIS
UNIT THREE - DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
UNIT FOUR - DESIGNING EVALUATION
UNIT FIVE - SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
UNIT SIX - SELECTING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
UNIT SEVEN - SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
UNIT EIGHT - USING AND DEVELOPING MEDIA
UNIT NINE - ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION
UNIT TEN - MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION
Estimated time for unit - One hour
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit presents an introduction to the purposes and content
of this workshop. The advantages of using a systematic approach
to plan instruction are presented. A model of the activities
involved in a systematic plan is explained. The results of
these activities are described in terms of the information they
provide for use in filling out planning forms such as the
Instructional Package Worksheet (IPW).
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
At the completion of this unit you will be able to:
-list the eight steps of a systematic procedure for planning and
preparing instruction
-explain how the systematic process provides information useful
for completing Instructional Package Worksheets.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
The purpose of this unit is to explain the use of one specific
model of instructional development. While it is assumed that
participants in this workshop are familiar with instructional
development activities, the model presented in this unit pro-
vides a systematic procedure for developing materials using
Instructional Package Worksheets. This unit is included to
insure a common understanding of procedures.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. The Instructional Development Process (model diagram)
2. Instructional Package Worksheet
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THE INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Analysis
Define
the Problem
Analyze
the Tasks
Design
Specify
Instructional
Objectives
Determine
Evaluation
Activities
Development
Select
Instructional
Methods
and Media
Develop
Instructional
Strategies
Delivery
and Revision
Deliver
Instruction
Evaluate
and Revise
00
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INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Activities
Resources
Instructional Approach
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11
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT TWO
ANALYSIS
Estimated time for unit - Two hours thirty minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit reviews the first two steps of the instructional devel-
opment process, Problem Analysis and Task Analysis. These pro-
cedures were presented in detail in the workshop, Basic Instruc-
tional Technology. The primary activity of the first lesson is
an exercise in which you analyze a problem situation using the
Problem Definition Worksheet. In preparation for this exercise
the definition of 'problem' and of the three categories of prob-
lems are reviewed. The second lesson presents a complete step-
by-step procedure for dividing the duties of a job into their
component tasks, and for detailing the steps required to complete
these tasks.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
After completing this unit you will be able to:
-define personnel performance problems in detail using the
Problem Definition Worksheet.
-use the Job Task Summary Sheet and the Task Detailing Sheet to
define a job in terms of its duties, their component tasks, and
the steps required to complete the tasks.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
This unit provides procedures for systematically determining the
nature of a personnel performance problems, the suitability of
using training to resolve the problem, and for isolating the
specific tasks for which the training is required.
The RESOURCES of this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. The Instructional Development Process - Analysis
3. Problem Definition Worksheet
4. Job Task Summary Sheet
5. Task Detailing Sheet
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12
UNIT TWO: ANALYSIS
CONTENT SUMMARY
Problem Analysis
Problem
A discrepancy or deficiency between the ways things are and
the ways things ought to be.
Categories of Problems
Skill or Knowledge Problems - when people do not know what
to do or how to do it.
Motiviation or Incentive Problems - when people know what
to do but do not care to do it.
Environmental Problems - when people cannot do something
because of an obstacle in the work environment.
Task Analysis
Job
The occupational title or position held by an employee.
Job Description
A statement (or statements) outlining the areas of respon-
sibility (duties) of a given position.
Task
Each of the skills or operations which belong to a specific
area of responsibility. Each task usually consists of speci-
fic and distinct steps for its completion.
Task Analysis
The act of dividing a job into all its components. It results
in a list of everything an employee must do to advance the
work to completion.
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13
Type of Behavior
Cognitive. Actions which involve knowing, understanding or
applying information; remembering or using facts or ideas.
Affective. Expressions of feeling or interest; the adoption
of an attitude or belief; the motivation to do something.
Psychomotor. Physical action, speed or agility; the performance
of a particular body movement.
Levels of Cognitive Behavior
Knowledge. Ability to state a fact, symbol, definition,
procedure, etc.
Comprehension. Understanding the meaning of a piece of informa-
tion; ability to explain or classify.
Application. Using knowledge and comprehension to complete some
activity; using a formula or rule; following a procedure.
Problem-Solving. Determining what must be done to perform some
task; creating a procedure; combining rules or formulas into a
new rule.
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THE INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Analysis
Define
the Problem
Analyze
the Tasks
Design
Specify
Instructional
Objectives
:jjj$^\$£
||P|ji3^tiQn;::;
ll^tpties-:^
Development
Delivery
and Revision
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15
PROBLEM DEFINITION WORKSHEET
(1) Something has caused you to suspect a personnel performance problem.
What is it? Describe the problem briefly in the space below.
(2) Identify the specific employees by job or position title (not name)
that are involved in or affected by the problem described above.
(3) What are the characteristics of this problem?
following items as seem relevant.
_new people have
"been hired
_experienced people
have new tasks or
responsibilities
_new equipment,
facilities or tech-
nology is being
used
_new information
exists
_output of work is
low
people cannot per-
form a task
effectively
people do not know
how to perform a
task
B
undesirable atti-
tudes toward work
are present
people do not seem
to want to work
_there are no rewards
for doing well
employees provide
poor service
people feel that
getting job done is
not worth the effort
employees rarely re-
ceive feedback on
their performance
employees are
punished for poor
performance
Check as many of the
_everything takes too
long
_there is not enough
time to do the work
equipment frequently
does not work
or breaks down often
supplies sometimes
run out
new management or
management policy
exists
employees rarely talk
to their superiors
weak or inefficient
management is
apparent
people frequently
seem to have nothing
to do
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16
(4) In which of the columns (Step 3) are most of the items you checked
located?
A? B? C?
If A, you appear to have a problem where employees lack skill or
knowledge.
If B, the immediate indications are that there is a motivation or
incentive problem.
If C, it is likely that you are faced with an environmental problem.
(Something in the work setting is preventing people from performing
effectively.)
(5) At this point, it is helpful to summarize the information gained in
the previous steps. You should now be able to describe your problem
in terms of WHO is affected (Step 2), WHAT is involved (Step 3), and
WHY (Step 4'). (You may also want to gather some further information
about the specific nature of the problem at this point in order to
develop more specific answers to the WHO, WHAT, and WHY questions.)
Write a clear summary of the problem in the following format:
WHO
WHAT
WHY
(If a variety of different jobs are affected by or involved in this
problem, it may be useful to construct separate problem statements
for each.)
(6) Is a training program a relevant solution to the specific problem
defined above? Consider the following points as appropriate to the
identified cause of the problem (Step 4).
-If you identified your problem as involving an employee lack of
skill or knowledge, you may want to consider a training program.
-If you decided that you have a motivation or incentive problem,
you may want to discuss the situation with others to insure that
this problem lends itself to a training solution. (Many times
a change in organizational policy or management procedures is a
more effective solution.)
-If the problem seems to involve something in the work environ-
ment, it is rather unlikely that a training program is a relevant
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17
solution. (Investigate the situation further and consider
direct changes in the work setting.)
Does a training program represent a relevant solution to your problem?
Yes No
What other kinds of actions might be taken to address the problem in
combination with or instead of a training program?
Additional strategies:
(7) If you are still certain that some form of training program is called
for, proceed to analyze the training need for such a program using
the Job Task Summary Sheet. Separate Job Task Summary Sheets must be
completed for each job to be the subject of training.
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18
JOB TASK SUMMARY SHEET
A. Job Title
Describe the job in terms of its major duties (2-4) of responsibility.
A)
B)
C)
D)
2. Which duties are most relevant to the problem identified in the Problem
Definition Worksheet? Circle the relevant items on the list above.
B. For each duty chosen as relevant to the identified problem, prepare a list
of the specific tasks which make up the activities of that duty. (Use
additional pages if necessary to describe other duties/tasks.)
DUTY
TASKS 1) ,
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
DUTY
TASKS 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
C. Should all of the tasks under each duty be considered as subjects for
training programs? Circle all the tasks which require training attention,
given your definition of the problem. (In deciding whether a specific
task should be the subject of a training program, consider its relative
importance, frequency of performance, and overall difficulty.)
D. Complete a Task Detailing Sheet for each task to be considered as the
focus of a training activity.
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TASK DETAILING SHEET
19
A. Write Job Title
B. Write Task
Complete steps C - F in the space below.
C. List the specific steps required to perform the task.
D. Check each step which needs to be taught.
E. Indicate whether the checked steps primarily involve cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor behavior.
F. For a cognitive behavior, indicate the appropriate level of performance:
Knowledge - ability to recall information or procedures
Comprehension - ability to explain information or procedures
Application - ability to use information or procedures to do
something
Problem Solving - ability to develop new information or procedures
C
Steps Required to Perform Task
0)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
D
Needs
to be
Taught
E
Type of Behavior:
Cognitive, Affec-
tive, Psychomotor
F
Level of
Cognitive
Behavior:
Know. , Comp. ,
Appl., P. S.
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21
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT THREE
DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Estimated time for unit - Two hours thirty minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit reviews the nature and procedure for constructing
specific instructional objectives. You will be able to practice
writing objectives for specific tasks using information from the
Task Detailing Sheet completed in Unit Two. Assignments in this
unit explain how to write objectives according to a four-part
format, and how to write them for the type and level of the
intended behavior. The hierarchical approach to objectives
specification is covered and the use of the Lesson Planning Form
is explained.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
After completing this unit you will be able to:
-define the term "instructional objective"
-list four reasons why objectives are important
-write instructional objectives according to the four-part format
-write cognitive instructional objectives on more than one per-
formance level
-list and describe the nature of the levels of the objectives
hierarchy
The PURPOSE of this unit:
This unit has been designed to provide trainers with a straight-
forward and systematic method of objectives writing. Well-
defined objectives help an instructor develop and organize train-
ing. They enable both the instructor and the trainee to identify
the intended outcomes of the training.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Assignment 3.1, Writing Instructional Objectives
3. Assignment 3.2, Types and Levels of Objectives
4. Lesson Planning Form
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22
UNIT THREE: DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
CONTENT SUMMARY
Objectives Specification
Instructional Objectives (Definition)
A statement that describes an intended outcome of instruction
in terms of learner behavior. It describes what a specific
group or class of students should be able to do under specific
conditions and how well it must be done.
Importance of Objectives
Instructional objectives can be useful to trainers in a number
of ways. They:
1. enable selection of the most appropriate lesson content for
on-the-job training programs.
2. permit selection of the most suitable instructional strategy.
3. establish clear instructor and student goals.
4. provide an objective basis for evaluating instruction.
Task Analyses vs. Instructional Objectives
Task Analyses Describe:
1. Total Job Performance by Skilled Person
2. All Skills Required
3. All Job Steps
Objectives Describe:
1. Only Performance To Be Learned Through Instruction
2. Only Skills To Be Learned Through Instruction
3. Only Steps To Be Learned
Hierarchy of Objectives
Objectives may be written for a number of levels of specificity.
However, there is no agreed-upon number of levels, from general
to specific objectives, to serve as a guideline to the developer
of instruction. One general rule when designing any training
materials is to begin at the highest (most general or global)
goal or objective which is being required, and identify subordi-
nate skills which must be achieved prior to achieving the goal.
One example of a hierarchy of objectives is shown below. Each
level of objectives is comprised of a larger number of subordi-
nate skills.
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23
Curriculum Objective
Course Objective
I I
Unit Objective
(Ml l"i I I I
Module Objective
I I i I I "I nTT'TTT
Lesson Objective
I' I 11 I I I 11 i I I I I I I I I ITTT
Enabling Objective
HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES
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25
UNIT THREE: DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LESSON 1 of 2: OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
ASSIGNMENT 3.1 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Estimated time: Forty-five minutes
This is a self-instructional assignment. Please read the
material and complete the exercises as directed.
WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Among the most useful educational planning devices are instructional
objectives. They provide a blueprint for measuring the goals or desired
outcomes of a learning experience. Instructional objectives are very
useful to both the instructor and the learner for selecting or designing
instruction, for directing the students' efforts to accomplish the
intended objectives, and for evaluating the success of the instruction.
The purpose of this module is to help you write clear instructional
objectives. Read the brief description of the parts of an instructional
objective given in the box below. After reviewing this description you
should be able to label segments of objectives as either "audience",
behavior", "conditions" or "acceptable performance" without making any
errors.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE COMPONENTS
Instructional objectives are measureable observable goals for
learning. They specify the intended outcomes of instruction
in terms of the learner's behavior.
Effective instructional objectives contain the following four
components:
1. Audience - who the students are or student character-
istics or prerequisite competencies stu-
dents should have
2. Behavior - what students should be able to do as a
result of the learning experience
3. Conditions - constraints, requirements, limitations,
or resources with which the behavior
must be performed
4. Acceptable Performance - required level or quality
of performance of the
behavior
Now try the exercise on the next page.
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27
Component Exercise
This exercise is designed to test your understanding of the four components
of instructional objectives (Audience, Behavior, Conditions, Acceptable Per-
formance). Various pieces of objectives are given below. Identify each piece
in terms of the component it represents by writing the components name in the
space provided.
Example: with the aid of the instruction manual
1. with accuracy to four decimal places
2. a chemical engineer with two years of experience
3. with room temperature between 12°C and 20°C
4. measure and place into the beaker ten moles of HC1
5. wastewater treatment plant lab technicians with no
formal training in chemistry
6. with no more than three errors
7. using a calculator and F tables
8. weigh and record the weight of the sample solution
Check your work against the answers on the next page.
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Answers to component exercise
1. acceptable performance
2. audience
3. conditions
4. behavior
5. audience
6. acceptable performance
7. conditions
8. behavior
If all of your answers were correct, go on to the next page. If you missed
any items, go over the material on the first page of this assignment and check
to see that you understand why the answers given above are correct. Then continue.
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29
The next four sections of this assignment describe in detail
the four components of instructional objectives. Each sec-
tion provides opportunities for practice in applying the
various concepts which will also enable you to assess your
progress.
Audience
Effective instructional objectives must be designed with a particular
audience in mind. Not everyone needs to learn the same things. Thus,
when the decision is made to plan a piece of instruction to teach a
particular behavior, specific attention must be given to defining the
exact nature and present capabilities of the intended students or
trainees.
Failure to identify the precise audience for instruction can lead to a
number of problems. The instruction might be too easy for the trainees/
students who eventually use it because they have already mastered the
intended objectives. On the other hand, the material might be too
difficult if it assumes that the trainees already possess certain compe-
tencies which in fact they do not. The more precisely you can specify
the intended audience for the instructor the better.
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31
Audience Exercise
The audience component in each of the following objectives is not clearly
defined. Underline the faulty audience component and rewrite a more appro-
priate audience component for the objective.
Example:
By the end of the training they_ will be able to collect water samples
Improved audience statement: ^ JCh>i_ *-- ' <''fitl-£'X^t
1. By the end of the fourth week of instruction, they should be able to
balance 10 chemical equations with only two errors.
Improved audience statement: __
2. Using a hand calculator and T tables, he will be able to perform a test of
Pearson's correlation on two samples with 100% accuracy.
Improved audience statement:
3. By the conclusion of this assignment, workshop participants will be able
to construct clear, effective instructional objectives.
Improved audience statement:
4. Through the slide-tape unit on Engineering Aspects of Water Fluoridation,
you will learn to identify and properly apply necessary equipment and
chemical procedures.
Improved audience statement:
Check your work against the suggested answers on the next page.
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Audience Exercise - Suggested Answers
Listed below are possible clarifications of the audience components in the
sample pieces of objectives given above. Check your efforts to clarify the
audience statements against these examples. Do your audience statements seem
to be as clear or specific as these? If not, why?
1. ...trainees with basic mathematical skills but no background in chemistry.,,
2. ...a student who has completed all of the exercises in the Basic Statistics
Handbook...
3. ...workshop participants with no previous instructional experience...
4. ...operators and supervisors of water treatment plants who need to learn
how to add fluorides to a water supply...
If any of your audience statements seem vague or general by comparison,
clarify them before going on to the next page.
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II
Behavior
The description of the intended behavior is the most critical component of
an instructional objective. It should clearly define the intent of the
instruction in terms of a specific capability to be possessed by those who
complete the instruction. It describes what someone will be able to do.
When learning is expressed in terms of observable behaviors, the instruc-
tor accepts the trainee's performance of that behavior as evidence that the
objective has been achieved. Clear behavior statements effectively answer
such questions as "How will I be able to judge when the trainees understand
the material?" or, "What evidence will I accept as proof that they have
learned what I taught?"
Defining the intent of the instruction in terms of explicit behaviors
(capabilities, competencies, or performances) is also helpful to the
trainee. Clearly stated objectives enable students to identify what is
expected of them and when they have accomplished it.
Failure to describe the objective using observable behaviors can result in
confusion over the true purpose of the instruction and evaluation of its
achievement. For example, what does it mean "to know" how to operate a
piece of equipment? Does "to know" mean to describe how it operates, or to
actually operate it, or perhaps even to fix it when it breaks? Simply des-
cribing an objective in such vague terms as "to know" or "to understand"
does not clearly communicate the intent of the instruction. A clear and
specific statement in the objective of what someone will be able to do
leaves little doubt about the capabilities which the learner should possess.
Certain verbs are more useful for clearly defining observable behaviors than
others. For example, while "to understand" is vague, "to construct" leaves
little doubt about the intended performance. Further examples are listed
below.
Vague Terms Which Refer to
Unobservable Behaviors:
to know
to really know
to fully appreciate
to grasp the meaning of
to conceptualize fully
to believe in
to gain an understanding of
to concentrate on
to be mindful of
to understand
Terms Which Refer to Clearly
Observable Behaviors:
to write
to recite
to draw
to dictate
to diagram
to list
to name
to perform (a test)
to trouble-shoot
to start up
to analyze
to adjust
to divert
to operate
to repair
to construct
to separate into groups
to compare and decide
to identify (circle and underline)
to measure and record
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35
Exercise on Behavior Component
Selected fragments of objectives are listed below. Each fragment contains
a more or less observable description of the intended behavior. For each
of the items, complete the following activities:
1. Underline the word or words which describe the intended behavior or
outcome of the instruction.
2. Decide whether the underlined word or phrase describes a specific and
observable, or vague and unobservable performance. Record your decision
by checking the appropriate blank on the right.
3. For each statement you identify as vague and unobservable, create a more
specific statement, and write it in the space directly below the original
item.
Example: Speci fi c Vague
The trainee will know the fire exits for each work area. ^
1. Fully understand the inspection procedure.
2. Use the model to demonstrate the process of
lubrication.
3. Name the chemistry tests required of this plant for
compliance reports.
4. Develop a working use of submerged flow rate diagrams,
5. List four operating conditions which affect the
primary sedimentation process.
6. Identify (label) the sections of a Parshall Flume.
7. Perceive the differences between the calibration
procedures for two applicators.
8. Measure and record the concentration of fluoride in
a sample of drinking water.
9. Diagram the parts of one applicator acceptable for
pest control for outdoor nursery crops.
Check your answers on the next page.
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36
Answers to Exercise of Behavior Component
Specific
1. Fully understand the inspection procedure.
Describe in writing:
2. Use the model to demonstrate the process of
lubrication. x
3. Name the chemistry tests required of this plant for
compliance reports. x
4. Develop a working use of submerged flow rate diagrams.
Identify components using submerged flow rate diagrams.
5. List four operating conditions which affect the
primary sedimentation process. x
6. Identify (label) the sections of a Parshall Flume. x
7. Perceive the differences between the calibration.
procedures for two applicators.
List.
8. Measure and record the concentration of fluoride in
a sample of drinking water. x
9. Pi agram the parts of one applicator acceptable for
pest control for outdoor nursery crops. x
Were you able to correctly identify the behavioral terms in each of the
examples? Did you have any difficulty in deciding whether they were specific
or vague? For those that were vaguely stated, were you able to suggest a more
specific statement? If you had any difficulties, review the preceding
material and try to resolve the differences between your responses and the
ones suggested above before continuing.
Please go on to the next page.
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37
III
Conditions
A third important component of instructional objectives is the description
of the conditions under which the desired behavior is to be performed. That
is, it is one thing to be able to describe the operation of a water treat-
ment facility from memory, and quite another thing to describe its operation
using a model of the facility. The difference between these two performances
is in the conditions for the performance (from memory with no aids, as op-
posed to using a model). The precise nature of the intended conditions can
have a major impact on the interpretation of the intended behavior. For
example, it is rather unclear what is expected of a student from the state-
ment:
Construct the Periodic Table of the Elements. The task is more clearly
clearly expressed as:
Given a list of chemical symbols and their atomic structure, construct
the Periodic Table of the Elements.But a rather different performance is
suggested with a change in the stated conditions:
Without the use of book, notes, or other outside aids, construct the
Periodic Table of the Elements.
As shown by these examples, a clear description of the conditions of the
behavior's performance answers such questions as: "With what materials or
assistance will the behavior be performed?" or, "Under what circumstances
will the performance be evaluated?" Note that describing the conditions of
performance is quite different from describing conditions of learning. That
is, neither of the example objectives included a statement like, "Given a
unit of instruction on the Periodic Table..." Such a statement would have
described the conditions under which the behavior was learned rather than
the circumstances surrounding its ultimate performance and would not have
clarified the precise nature of the behavior itself. Confusing the condi-
tions for learning with the conditions for performance is a common mistake
that should be avoided in constructing good instructional objectives.
Try the exercise on condition statements on the next page.
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39
First Exercise on Condition Statements
Review the following list of possible condition statements. Circle those
statements which might be used in an instructional objective to identify
the conditions for the intended behavior's performance.
1. name the hazards involved
2. after studying Chapter Three
3. with the use of a calculator
4. without the use of the Instruction Manual
5. raise the heated solution to eye level
6. in less than 30 minutes
7. graduate students in chemical engineering
8. using the computational formula and table of commom logarithms
Go on to the next page.
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40
Answer to First Exercise on Condition Statements
You should have identified the following phrases as condition statements:
3. with the use of a calculator
4. without the use of the Instructor Manual
6. in less than 30 minutes
8. using the computational formula and table of common logarithms
If you missed any of these or chose others, reread the previous material to
determine why your response was incorrect. Ask your instructor for addition-
al help if necessary. Then, continue with the exercise on the next page.
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41
Second Exercise on Condition Statements
Write a clear description of the conditions under which the behavior is to
be performed for each of the following incomplete instructional objectives.
Example: First year biology students will label with 100% accuracy the
four chambers of the heart, the aorta and the pulmonary artery.
Condi ti ons : tU^fU &L dia^-m / .J^Af ^At
1. Wastewater Lift Station Maintenance Mechanic II 's will diagnose mal-
functions in pumping station equipment. Their diagnoses must be correct
as determined by their supervisors.
Conditions:
2. Sewage Treatment Technology students will describe what happens during
each of the major stages of biological treatment.
Conditions:
3. Students enrolled in the course "Water Supply Studies" will state the
maximum acceptable nitrate content allowed in drinking water according
to the Safe Water Drinking Act.
Conditions:
4. Weed Control Farm Advisors will be able to calculate the standard
deviation of field sample particulate densities.
Conditions:
Check your work against the suggested responses on the next page.
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42
Suggested Responses to Second Exercise on Condition Statements:
1. Given a faulty piece of equipment, its service manual, and the lift
station tool set.
2. In no more than five minutes given a list of the stages of biological
treatment.
3. Without the use of books, charts, notes, or other aids.
4. Given the density measures of the samples collected.
Your answers may be different from the ones suggested here. To be con-
sidered correct, your answers must:
1. Specify the conditions under which the performance is to be evaluated;
and
2. not describe the conditions under which the behavior was learned.
Note: It is not necessary to list trivial conditions such as "Given a
pencil, blank paper, a desk, chair, etc."
If any of your condition statements seem vague or general by comparison,
clarify them before going on to the next page.
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43
IV
Acceptable Performance
The acceptable performance of an effective instructional objective is the
degree to which the intended audience performs the desired behavior. It is
the standard of performance for considering an objective as successfully
completed.
The degree of acceptable performance will differ according to the type and
importance of the objective of which it is part. Students learning the
names of the fifty states may not be required to list every state from
memory. However, a surgeon is expected to perform every step of an opera-
tion without error.
Acceptable Performance Exercise
Write a clear description of the degree of acceptable performance required
for each of the incomplete objectives below:
1. Given appropriate record sheets Operator I's, while on the job, will
read and record all meter levels associated with a specific piece of
equipment.
Acceptable Performance
2. Given a faulty water meter, the maintenance staff member will diagnose
the problem and repair the meter.
Acceptable Performance
Given a blank discharge monitoring report form, the operations log book,
and the laboratory record book, the plant superintendent will be able to
make the necessary calculations and record the required data on the form.
Acceptable Performance
4. Given a copy of the plant layout, Operator Trainees will identify (by
circling) the location of pressure gauges to be checked during rounds.
Acceptable Performance
5. Given a description of a major equipment malfunction, a shift foreman
will list the emergency procedures to be followed.
Acceptable Performance
Now check your answers on the next page.
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44
Suggested Answers to Acceptable Performance Exercise:
1. All readings will be recorded at the proper place on the form and will
be correct _+ 2%.
2. The repaired meter will be in 100% working order.
3. The form will be completed within sixty minutes and will contain no
errors.
4. Without error.
5. All procedures will be included and they will be listed in sequential
order.
Your answers may be different from the ones suggested here. To be considered
correct, your answers must specify the degree or standard of performance
which is to be an acceptable evidence that the instructional objective is
successfully completed.
If any of your performance statements seem vague or general in comparison
to the suggested answers, clarify them.
Then go on to the next page.
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45
SUMMARY
Instructional objectives represent the instructor's goals or desired out-
comes for the learning experience. Effective instructional objectives can
be very useful to the instructor for the selection and designing of instruc-
tion, learning materials and tests, for evaluating the success of instruction,
and for directing the student's efforts. Students find instructional objec-
tives useful to direct their learning and to know exactly what performance is
required. It is very important, if the instructor's desired outcomes are to
be realized, (1) that the objectives are appropriate for the particular
audience, (2) the performance which demonstrates the desired outcome be
.specified in terms of observable behavior, (3) intended performance condi-
tions be clearly communicated, and (4) the degree of acceptable performance
be specified.
All components of the instructional objective need not always be written
when the instructor is certain there is no misunderstanding. These compo-
nents should be viewed only as guides or aids for the instructor in his/her
management of the learning process. Clear, effective instructional objec-
tives offer students not only enhanced learning but also positive experiences
since unclear directions and misunderstandings are minimized.
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47
UNIT THREE: DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
LESSON 1 of 2: OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATIONS
ASSIGNMENT 3.2 TYPES AND LEVELS OF OBJECTIVES
Estimated time: Thirty minutes
This is a self-instructional assignment. Please read the material
and complete the exercises as directed.
TYPES AND LEVELS OF OBJECTIVES
In Unit Three's introduction to the Task Detailing Sheet, the concepts of
type of behavior and level of cognitive behavior were introduced. It was
explained that the performance of various steps of a task may require very
different types of behavior (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor), or
represent a particular level of cognitive behavior (knowledge, comprehension,
application, or problem solving). The particular type and level of behavior
called for in a step's performance must be considered in designing effective
training on that step. Good instructional objectives are written so as to
clearly indicate the type and level of behavior being taught.
This assignment reviews the key concepts and provides practice in construct-
ing objectives for different types and levels of cognitive behaviors. (An
emphasis is placed on cognitive objectives since they are the most common
and important learning outcomes for training programs designed to address
skill or knowledge problems.)
Types of Behavior and Instructional Objectives
Cognitive behaviors involve knowing, understanding, or applying information
or procedures. This workshop is almost totally concerned with providing
training in the cognitive behaviors required to plan and conduct instruction.
Excerpts from some of the workshop's objectives addressing cognitive behav-
iors are listed below.
"...participants will be able to list the phases of a systematic approach to
instruction and explain each briefly..."
"...participants will be able to plan and construct simple written tests..."
"...participants will be able to identify appropriate uses of audiotapes..."
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48
Affective behaviors involve feelings and attitudes towards something. They
include expressions of interest, the adoption of an attitude or belief, or
the motivation to do something. Affective behaviors can have an important
influence on how a particular job or task is performed. Excerpts from
sample instructional objectives which address affective behaviors follow.
"...participants will express increased interest in learning procedures
for planning effective instruction..."
"...participants will feel more at ease speaking in front of a group..."
Psychomotor behaviors involve physical action, the performances of a par-
ticular body movement. Psychomotor behaviors become the focus of training
activities when a particular task requires physical agility, speed, pre-
cision, or coordination. (While cognitive or affective behaviors may also
be involved, the primary behavior of interest is a physical action.)
Examples of psychomotor behaviors are:
"...speakers should maintain eye contact with audience..."
"...speakers will vary their volume level and tone of voice..."
"...speakers should not exhibit any distracting mannerisms..."
Many activities involve all three types of behavior to some degree. Even
a simple task like "check the filter" requires that the employee knows
what is to be done (cognitive), chooses to do it (affective), and physi-
cally removes and inspects the filter (psychomotor). However, in most
training situations it is readily apparent that one type of behavior is
the major concern. In this example, the primary emphasis would be on
the cognitive behavior of knowinq to check the filter (probably as one
step in a larger maintenance task).
For most of the training programs you will be concerned with, the instruc-
tional objectives will typically address cognitive behaviors. Sometimes
they may involve affective behaviors. Only rarely will a psychmotor
behavior be the target of instruction. (Most required psychomotor behav-
iors, like the use of a screwdriver, are simply assumed to be a basic
entering competency for anyone holding a job.)
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49
Exercise on Identifying Instructional Objectives by Type of Behavior
Read the following objectives and, for each, decide whether the concern is
with cognitive, affective, or psychomotor learning. Indicate your decision
by labeling each objective by type of behavior in the blank on the right.
1) As a result of this public awareness campaign, visitors to state parks
will come to value an unpolluted environment as shown by an increased
effort to keep the park free of debris indicated by an observable
decrease in litter and increase in the amount of trash in receptables.
Type of behavior?
2) Through this program, trainees will learn to write instructional objec-
tives which clearly specify the intended audience and behavior and the
conditions and nature of the acceptable performance. The ability to
construct such objectives for training in work-related tasks will be
evaluated through peer review of various exercises using the rating form
provided.
Type of behavior?
3) As a result of the redesigned materials, plant mechanic trainees will
maintain a higher level of interest in the training program as demon-
strated by decreased absenteeism and increased participation in optional
activities.
Type of behavior?
4) The Advanced Workshop will enable environmental faciltiy operators with
some previous instructional exnerience to apply a systematic model for
planning and delivering instruction. Achievement or this objective will
be evaluated in workshop exercises which require participants to design
and deliver an actual lesson. The quality of that performance will be
evaluated using specially designed rating scales.
Type of behavior?
Check your answers on the next page.
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50
Answers to Exercise on Identifying Instructional Objectives by Type of
Behavior
1) Affective behavior
2) Cognitive behavior
3) Affective behavior
4) Cognitive behavior
If you failed to properly identify any of the four objectives, reread the
preceding material and reconsider your answer(s). Talk to your instructor
if you have any particular questions.
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51
Levels of Cognitive Objectives
As originally explained in Unit Three, there are four levels of cognitive
behavior as follows:
I) Knowledge - the ability to state a fact, describe a symbol or repeat
a definition.
II) Comprehension - the ability to explain or classify procedures or
information.
Ill) Application - the ability to apply an existing knowledge or compre-
hension of something to conduct some procedure or
derive information.
IV) Problem-Solving - the ability to invent new information or procedures
based on past experience.
The four levels are listed in order from the simplest to the most complex
forms of cognitive behaviors. Each advanced level assumes the possession of
preceding levels of behavior. Thus, problem-solving activities require that
the relevant facts or procedures are known (Level I), understood (Level II),
and can be properly applied (Level III) to the new situation.
When "cognitive behavior" is the focus of instruction, it is important that
the objective specifies the precise level of behavior desired. The design
of the training activities will vary greatly depending on the level of cog-
nitive performance required. For example, it is one thing to teach someone
to name the parts of a piece of equipment (Level I), and quite another to
prepare him/her to "trouble-shoot" problems in the operation of that equip-
ment (Level IV).
One way to insure that an instructional objective specifies the desired level
of cognitive performance is to carefully consider the verb used to describe
the behavior. Different verbs naturally refer to different levels of cogni-
tive performance. The list on the next page provides some example verbs for
describing each level. Read the list carefully and notice how the level of
behavior suggested by the verbs changes from column to column.
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USEFUL VERBS FOR EXPRESSING
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORS IN WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
52
Knowledge
draw
duplicate
find
gather data
identify
label
list
match
repeat
recognize
state
Comprehension
classify
categorize
cite evidence
for
compare
contrast
define
describe
differentiate
discriminate
distinguish
between
explain
give examples
Application
analyze
calculate
compute
conduct a
test
construct
estimate
install
interpret
manipulate
apparatus
measure
organize data
plot a graph
Problem-Solving
create
develop
devise a method
discuss critically
evaluate
formulate hypotheses
generalize from data
infer
integrate
invent a new solution
manipulate ideas
plan
predi ct
of
illustrate
prepare
produce
prove
reformulate
relate
specify limi-
tations and
assumptions
propose reasons and
defend them
reorganize
solve a problem
synthesize
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53
Exercise on Identifying Levels of Cognitive Behaviors
Read the following objectives and, for each, decide whether the specified
cognitive behavior is at the knowledge, comprehension, application, or
problem-solving level. Indicate your decision by labeling each objective
by level of cognitive behavior in the blank on the right. (You may want to
refer to the verb list on the preceding page if you have any difficulty
deciding on the level.)
1) The activities of this lesson will enable participants to identify
various important variables in the physical and interpersonal environ-
ment of the classroom. . .
Level of cognitive behavior?
2) By the conclusion of this lesson, participants will be able to define
all of the principles for designing good instructional graphics when
given the names of those principles in a brief exercise.
Level of cognitive behavior?
3) Working with the task analysis and objectives developed as parts of
previous units, participants will learn to plan an evaluation and
offer explanations for their decisions.
Level of cognitive behavior?
4) By the conclusion of this lesson, participants will be able to define
the concepts of "job," "task," and "task analysis" from memory. . .
Level of cognitive behavior?
Check your answers against those on the next page.
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54
Answers to Exercise on Identifying Levels of Cognitive Behaviors
1) Knowledge
2) Comprehension
3) Problem-Solving
4) Comprehension
If your answers do not agree with these, reread the previous section and
check to see that you understand the concepts involved. You may wish to
discuss this material with your instructor.
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55
Exercise on Writing Instructional Objective for Different Levels of
Cognitive Behavior
Using specific tasks from your own job, write two complete instructional
objectives for each level of cognitive behavior. (It may be useful to
refer to the list of verbs again.)
You will hand this exercise in to your instructor for his/her review.
Your instructional objectives will be evaluated on the extent to which
they contain clear descriptions of the audience, behavior, conditions,
and degree. Use additional paper if necessary.
Tasks for which objectives are to be written.
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-
Solving
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Knowledge Level Objectives:
1)
2)
Comprehension Level Objectives
3)
4)
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56
Application Level Objectives:
5)
6)
Problem-Solving Level Objectives:
7)
8)
Optional Exercise
If there is time remaining, you may wish to try writing affective and
psychomotor objectives on some subject or area familiar to you. These
objectives should contain the same four components of any good instruc-
tional objective. Hand your objectives in to the instructor for his/her
review.
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57
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title Task
Step_
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
I) Instructional Objective:
Audience
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable
Performance
2) Entering Competencies:
3) Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD(S)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
6) Sequence of Instructional Activities, outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
1.
2.
3.
Figure 3.4/Lesson Planning Form
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59
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT FOUR
DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
Estimated time for unit: Five and one-half hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
Evaluation activities support training efforts in many ways. This
unit focuses on two of the most important, but quite different,
functions that evaluation can serve: the assessment of trainee
achievement and the evaluation of instructional effectiveness.
The content of this unit reviews the design of written tests,
checklists and rating scales, and then focuses on the nature and
use of criterion-referenced tests. Practice in the design of test
items is provided. Finally, consideration is also given to tech-
niques for evaluating the effectiveness of training materials and
programs.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the conclusion of this unit, you will be able to:
-describe the use and characteristics of simple written tests,
checklists and rating scales for evaluating trainee performance
-describe the use of criterion-referenced testing in assessing
training outcomes
-construct a Table of Specifications for a criterion-referenced
test
-construct multiple choice and short answer test items
-explain the use of several techniques for evaluating instruc-
tional effectiveness
The PURPOSE of this unit:
This unit is intended to provide you with fundamental skills in
two different uses of evaluation: assessing trainee performance
and evaluating the effectiveness of the instructional program.
The purpose of instruction in each of these areas can be described
briefly as follows:
1) For job-training activities, it is of fundamental importance
that either/or both the trainer and the trainee are able to
assess the trainee's progress towards specific instructional
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60
objectives. Properly constructed criterion-referenced tests
provide the best means of gathering this kind of performance
information in the classroom.
2) The final step in any systematic approach to training involves
gathering evaluation data on the instructional effectiveness of
the training activity in order to revise and improve future
training activities. This lesson introduces the concepts and
techniques of this kind of evaluation activity.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Figure 4.7/Example Check List
3. Figure 4.8/Example Rating Scale
4. Assignment 4-I/Preparing Criterion-Referenced Tests
5. Assignment 4.2/Exercise in Constructing Criterion-Referenced
Tests - Part I
6. Assignment 4.3/Constructing Multiple-Choice Items
7. Assignment 4.4/Constructing Short-Answer Items
3. Assignment 4.5/Exercise in Constructing Criterion-Referenced
Tests - Part II
9. Example Questionnaires for Evaluating Instructional
Activities
-Handout 4.I/Participant Questionnaire
-Course Evaluation Questionnaires (for Lecture,
Laboratory or Seminar Courses)
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61
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
CONTENT SUMMARY
Introduction
Evaluation
Defined as the activities of gathering information for making
decisions.
Training-Related Uses of Evaluation
-To determine the existing capabilities of employees
-To provide feedback to trainees
-To certify employee competencies
-To determine the effectiveness of training activities
Written Tests
Use
-to evaluate knowledge of facts, understanding of ideas,
problem-solving skills
Types
-short answer
-multiple choice
-true/false
-essay
General Rules for Test Item Construction
Test items
1) Should be clear
2) Should be uncluttered
3) Should be functional
4) Should be at proper level of difficulty
5) Should call on desired behavior
6) Should thoroughly sample that behavior
7) Should provide a positive test of that behavior
8) Should have clearly correct answers
9) Should not "give away" answer
10) Should not "give away" answers to other items
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62
Checklists and Rating Scales
Use
-to evaluate on-the-job performance of a particular task, skill
or procedure
Nature
-Checklist: a list of skills or tasks which the trainee is
expected to demonstrate in the satisfactory performance of
a job.
-Rating Scale: a list of skills or tasks with each so carefully
defined as to permit judgments as to the relative quality of
the trainee's performance
General Rules for Constructing Checklists and Rating Scales
-Define behavior to be evaluated at appropriate level of detail
-Determine standard for judgment of "good" performance
-simple presence or absence of behavior? Use check list.
-rating the relative quality of behavior? Use rating scale.
Cri teri on-Referenced Testi ng
Nature of Criterion-Referenced Testing
Tests can be used to:
-determine entering competencies
-assess progress
-certify achievement
-rank or grade students
-provide opportunities for trainees to practice using or apply
some skill
Two major approaches to test design:
1) Norm-referenced tests
-compares the performance of students
-useful for deciding which students can perform better
than others
2) Criterion-referenced tests
-compares the performance of students against a specified
objective (or criterion) that defines the nature of the
desired performance
-useful for determining the competence of each student
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63
(but is not intended to grade or rank students one-to-
another)
-the appropriate form of testing when the concern is with
the trainee's ability to do the job
Requirements of criterion-referenced testing
1) Desired competencies defined
2) Behaviorally-stated objectives
3) Clear level of minimum required performance
4) Representative sample of performance
5) Test behavior matches real behavior
6) Clear report of results
Preparing criterion-referenced tests (see Assignment 4.1)
Use of criterion-referenced tests
-To determine entering competencies
-To assess progress
-To certify achievement
-To rank or grade students
-To provide practice
-------
EXAMPLE CHECK LIST: FOCUSING THE MICROSCOPE
Directions: Check each item only if performed properly. Check final
square when each step has been performed properly and in
correct sequence.
1. Snap low power objective into place
2. Adjust mirror
3. Assume starting point for focus
4. Place slide on stage
5. Adjust coarse adjustment screw to focus
6. Change to high power
7. Identify image on slide
8. Correct sequence
D
D
Figure 4.7/Example Check list
cr>
-Pa
-------
EXAMPLE RATING SCALE: WORKMANSHIP
Directions: Place an X on the line at the point which
best describes this person on each dimension.
You may check anywhere along the line.
1) Quality of Work
Sloppy
Average
Excellent
2) Care of Tools
Careless and
Disrespectful
Average
Excellent
CJ1
Figure 4.8/Example Rating Scale
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67
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 1 of 4: CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING
ASSIGNMENT 4.1: PREPARING CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
Estimated time: 30 minutes
The following reading material describes a process for preparing
criterion-referenced tests. Knowing how to prepare these tests
will also give you a fuller understanding of the nature and use of
the tests themselves. A complete example of the use of this pro-
cess to develop a criterion-referenced test is also presented. This
assignment provides the basis for later exercises in which you will
have an opportunity to prepare your own criterion-referenced test.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be able
to describe in your own words the nature of criterion-
referenced tests and a process for their preparation.
EVALUATION: You may be asked to describe the steps in preparing a
criterion-referenced test in class and in the next
assignment you will begin constructing your own test.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Read the following material carefully. Call upon
the instructor for help if any sections are unclear.
2. You have 30 minutes to complete the reading, after
which the instructor will hold a brief discussion to
review the main points and concepts.
Introduction
Design and use of criterion-referenced tests involves a number of
activities and decisions on the part of the instructor. These activities
and decisions can be organized into a seven-step procedure for criterion-
referenced testing. Each step is fairly straightforward and when com-
pleted as described here should provide you with a testing instrument
that will enable you to accurately assess trainee competence in a given
area.
The steps of the criterion-referenced testing procedure are explained
below in terms of the key questions that must be answered or activities
completed at each step. General explanations of the nature of the steps
and how to complete them are also provided. After all seven steps have
been presented, an example is given of their application in the design
of a criterion-referenced test. Later assignments will give you an
opportunity to practice application of this procedure.
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68
Step 1: Deciding What to Test
Quite obviously, the first step in designing any test involves
deciding on what is to be tested. Three separate questions must be
answered in order to completely define the subject of the test. (This
information then plays a major role in the conduct of Step 3.)
What areas of trainee competencies should the test be designed
to asses??A criterion-referenced test is designed to reflect the
specific content of the training program which it accompanies. The test
should, therefore, cover the same things as the training program. In
other words, the content of the test is specified by the objectives of
the training program.
What kind of performance is required? Criterion-referenced tests
should be designed to test the same behavior called for by the objectives.
That is, the kind of behavior called for in the testing situation should
match the kind and level of behavior called for in the objectives. In
training programs designed with properly stated behavioral objectives,
the kind (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) and/or level of cognitive
behavior is clearly specified by the objectives themselves. (See Unit
Three of this workshop for further explanations of the varying kinds and
level of behavior.)
How much should the test cover? It is traditional to think of
designing a test to "cover" so much material, or so many hours of instruc-
tion. In criterion-referenced testing, however, the coverage of the test
is determined by the natural subdivisions of the competencies which com-
prise a job or task. In relatively simple training situations, the test
should focus on the complete set of skills relevant to a particular job.
For more complicated and lengthy training situations, it is generally
advisable to test trainee performance on each major set of competencies
comprising the performance of the total job. Specifically, in a system-
atically designed training program utilizing behavioral objectives
derived from a task analysis, the placement and coverage of tests is
suggested by the hierarchical ordering of objectives into lesson and
units.
Step 2: Setting Performance Standards
At this point in planning a criterion-referenced test, you have
a clear outline of what specific competencies the test will be designed
to measure. The next step is to decide on how well the trainee must per-
form on the test in order to be judged as possessing the desired compet-
ency. That is, how many correct responses will the trainee have to make
to be considered competent? (This question is stated in its more general
form below.)
It is interesting to note that this particular step in test design
is unique to criterion-referenced tests since traditional norm-referenced
tests use the performance of the total group to determine the relative
quality of the performance of any one trainee.
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69
How well should trainees perform on the test to be judged
as possessing the desired competency? In answer to this question, you
should specifically be able to say that 70% correct or 9 out of 10 items
properly completed on the test will constitute a sufficient demonstra-
tion of trainee mastery of some skill to be certified as adequately
proficient in that skill. The difficulty comes in determining just how
much is enough. Is a performance standard of 70% correct "good enough"
or should it be 90%? Two considerations must be taken into account in
deciding upon the proper standard of performance.
The first consideration is the nature of the subject of training.
Some skills simply require a higher level of performance (or tolerate
fewer mistakes) than others. For example, a pianist who only hits 9 out
of 10 notes correctly would not be considered a very good musician.
Similarly, it is rather meaningless to consider a minimum standard of
competency for a surgeon - the nature of the task demands nothing short
of perfection. Therefore, in setting a standard of performance on a
test you must first consider the extent to which the possibility of less
than perfect performance can be tolerated.
A second consideration involves the difficulty of the test itself.
Tests may be relatively harder or easier depending on their length and
type of item or performance required. For example, there is a consider-
able difference in the difficulty of obtaining 100% correct on a short
test with 10 true-false items and 100% correct on a test with 200 multiple-
choice items. Other things being equal, of course, the longer and more
difficult a test is, the more likely it is to provide an accurate assess-
ment of trainee competence. However, the standard of performance should
be adjusted to realistically reflect test difficulty. As a "rule of
thumb", the shorter a test is, the higher the required standard of per-
formance should be. Furthermore, a test composed of true-false items
should require a higher standard of performance (e.g., 90% correct) than
a test composed of multiple choice items (e.g., for the same-length test,
85% correct). Finally, a test composed of multiple choice items should
require a higher standard of performance than one based on short answer
i terns.
Thus, the final answer to the question of how well a trainee
should perform to be judged as competent is based on careful judgment of
the importance of the skill being learned and the difficulty of the test.
Some guidance is provided by the findings of educational researchers who
suggest that a performance standard of 80 - 85% correct on a series of
ten or more items is a realistic minimum in most situations. This stand-
ard should be raised to 90% or higher for skills where near perfect per-
formance is required.
Step 3: Defining the Sample of the Performance to be Tested
In most training situations, it would be impractical to test
trainees on every instance of every objective. Therefore, most tests
focus on only a sample of the actual behavior desired. The decision
facing the test designer at this point is then one of identifying an
appropriate sample of the behavior or competencies to be assessed on the
test. This information will then provide the basis for writing the items
themselves.
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Across the top of the table (as column headings) are all the
various types and levels of behaviors that could apply to a particular
objective. The second step is to match each objective against the type
and level of behaviors indicated and cross out all the cells that do not
apply. This step requires careful judgment on the part of the test
designer because unless the objectives have been very precisely defined,
most will contain (or imply) several levels or types of instructional
outcome. For example, the objective for this lesson given in the instruc-
tor's Staff Guide states that:
By the end of this lesson, participants will be able to
describe the use and complete the design of criterion-
referenced tests for basic training activities.
This objective and its accompanying instruction indicates a concern with
knowledge, comprehension and application level cognitive behaviors.
On the next page is an example Table of Specifications filled out
for a test on the first two lessons of this unit. Note how the objectives
have been listed on the left and many of the cells crossed out as irre-
levant. You will also find that each remaining cell has been filled in
with a specific number of test items. Establishing the number of test
items in each cell comprises the final step in completing the table and
selecting the behaviors to be sampled on the test.
To complete the table, then, it is first necessary to decide upon
the precise number of items to be used to sample trainee performance within
each cell of the table. To do this, you must first estimate the total
number of items to appear on the test (this number can be revised later
if necessary). Generally, the more important the test, the greater the
number of items. The number of total items is then placed in the lower
left cell of the table (see Example Table).
The second decision is to allocate the total number of items on
the test across the various objectives to be tested. By considering the
relative importance of the objectives the number of items to be constructed
for each objective is indicated in the cells of the left-hand column.
Finally, with a set number of items specified for the testing of
a given objective, the final decision involves allocating the items across
the cells for the type and levels of behavior comprising the objective.
In dealing with cognitive objectives, it is generally best to allocate more
items to the higher level behaviors (e.g. application and problem-solving)
than the lower ones. (To complete the table, the cells can be totalled
by column to give another kind of indication of the sample of items in the
test as distributed by type and level of behavior across all objectives
tested).
Step 4: Developing Test Items
The content of the test has now been fully defined in terms of the
sample of behaviors to be tested. What the Table of Specifications does
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73
not do is prescribe the nature of the test items themselves. Two questions
need to be addressed here to provide the proper guidance for developing the
test items.
What type of test item should be used?
The four most common forms of test items are short-answer, essay,
multiple-choice and true-false. Of these four, only short-answer, multiple-
choice and true-false are considered appropriate for criterion-referenced
tests. Essay items are difficult to score and since different scorers
may not agree on the nature of the correct answer, they are not useful as
objective items for testing purposes. (Furthermore, the quality of a
trainee's performance on an essay test may not reflect mastery of the
intended subject matter so much as the verbal ability of the person being
tested.)
Of the remaining three types of items, short-answer items are most
appropriate for higher-level cognitive objectives where the emphasis is on
the trainee's ability to complete some procedure or piece of reasoning in
order to supply or develop the correct answer. Short-answer items can
also be useful for lower level cognitive behaviors (such as defining or
describing) where it is important that the trainee be able to express the
answer in his/her own words.
Multiple-choice and true-false items are the easiest items to score
since the answers are all prespecified. They are typically used to measure
performance of relatively simple skills, but when properly designed they
can be used to measure higher levels of cognitive performance. However,
multiple-choice and true-false items are always "easier" for the trainee
to complete by comparison to short-answer items on the same subject. Fur-
thermore, multiple-choice and true-false items are subject to a certain
amount of guessing.
How difficult should the items be? The difficulty of the items
should match the difficulty of the actual, desired on-the-job performance
as closely as possible. (Contrary to traditional norm-referenced tests,
criterion-referenced tests do not require a range of hard, moderate, and
easy items with which to "spread out" student performance on the test.)
Each item should be as difficult or easy as the level of behavior and
nature of the objective which it tests.
With the information gathered from completing these four steps,
you should now be prepared to develop the actual test items. (Assign-
ments 4.3 and 4.4 provide specific information on the techniques of test
item construction.) A first draft of each item should be written on a
5x8 card. Placing the items on individual cards will facilitate the
subsequent editing and arrangement of these items into the final version
of the test. For longer tests with a large number of items it is often
useful to key the cards to the specific objective (or cell of the Table)
to which the item refers.
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74
Step 5: Assembling the Test
The next task is to assemble the items into a test that can be
easily administered, completed and scored. A variety of specific
activities should be completed as described below to accomplish this
task.
1) Review items for technical defects. Using the ten general
Rules for Test Item Construction (see Content Summary for this lesson),
review all of your test items for proper style and format. It is often
helpful to ask someone else to review your items at this point.
2) Check that the items match the Table of Specifications.
Organize the items by cell of the Table to insure that your actual
items match your intended sampling plan.
3) Group the items by objective. In criterion-referenced
tests, there is no reason to scatter the items on a particular subject
throughout the test. Having all the items testing performance on a
specific objective together on the test also makes it easier to score
and interpret the test's results. At this point simply group all the
items on a given objective together in any order.
4) Arrange items from least to most difficult within objectives
and across the test as a whole. A criterion-referenced test will work
best if the trainee is allowed to answer the easiest questions first
before moving on to the harder ones. Later, when scoring the test and
interpreting the results, the easy-to-hard organization also enables you
to quickly estimate the points at which trainee preparation fails and
further instruction is needed. Therefore, first sequence the items by
difficulty that are designed to test performance on a given objective.
Then, place these groups of sequenced items in order according to the
relative overall difficulty of the objective. Your items are now in the
final order in which they will appear on the test. (The first item on
the test should be the easiest item on the easiest objective.)
5) Number the items consecutively.
6) Develop clear directions for completing the test. Your
directions to the person taking the test should be carefully written and
appear on the test itself. These directions should explain the purpose
of the test and the amount of time and any conditions under which it is
to be completed. You should also provide specific instructions for
answering each type of item. For tests using multiple choice and true-
false items, directions should also be given regarding what to do about
guessing. (The best advice is to tell trainees to answer every item -
including the use of guesses if they have to.)
7) Arrange and type the test on the page so that it is easy to
read, complete and score.
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75
Check List For Evaluating Criterion-Referenced Tests
Review the quality of the test by checking for the presence of
the following characteristics of good criterion-referenced
tests. Place a check in the space to the left if the test
appears to reflect that characteristic. You should use the
back of this form to offer comments, explanations, or sugges-
tions regarding any problems or weaknesses you find in the
test.
D 1. The test is typed clearly and readably with proper amount of
space for student responses.
O 2. The directions for completing the test are clear and explicit.
Q 3. The directions explain the purpose of the test.
rj 4. The directions explain what the student should do about guessing
when uncertain of the answer.
O 5. The format of the test items (short-answer, multiple-choice,
true-false, matching, etc.) appears appropriate to the content of
the items.
D 6. The items have been designed such that student responses should
be easily and objectively scored.
D 7. Test items are grouped by subject (or instructional objective).
O 8. Test items proceed from easy to difficult.
D 9. The difficulty of the test items matches the nature of the
competency being tested.
D 10. The items are not all directed towards measuring the simplest
kinds of cognitive behavior (i.e., knowledge), unless that is
appropriate to the competency being tested.
Q 11. Test items do not "give away" answers.
Q 12. The length of the test seems appropriate to the nature and
importance of the competency being tested.
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76
Step 6: Testing the Test
Before administering the test to trainees, it should always be
reviewed by at least one person familiar with the content who has not
been immediately involved in creating the test items. This review
should at least ensure that the directions and the items are clear and
readable (and free of typographical errors). The Checklist for Criterion-
Referenced Tests on the following page provides a good means for reviewing
your test. If possible, you should actually have someone take the test
as a trial of its design. You can then ask the trial test-taker exactly
how each item worked and specifically whether the responses to some items
were "give-aways", or overly tricky, or easily misinterpreted. Identi-
fying and correcting problems with specific items now can save a lot of
confusion and difficulty in the later use of the test.
Step 7: Interpreting the Test
Once the test has finally been given to the intended group of
trainees, the final activity is to interpret the test results. This
task involves the completion of five separate activities as follows.
1) Score correct and incorrect items.
2) Group results by objective.
3) Calculate number correct and percentage correct.
4) Determine if the desired competency has been achieved. (By
comparing test results to the performance standard.)
5) Report the test results to the trainees and use the results
to inform subsequent training decisions as appropriate.
Example Preparation of a Criterion-Referenced Test
The following material presents a step-by-step description of
the development of a criterion-referenced test. The test under
development here is intended to measure the achievement of the
objectives for the first lesson of this unit (Unit Four). There-
fore, any background material for preparing the test (instruc-
tional objectives, content, etc.) comes directly from the Staff
Guide and Participant Reference Manual materials for this unit.
Step 1: Deciding What to Test
What areas of trainee competencies should the test be designed
to assess? From the Staff Guide, the objective for this lesson was
given as instructing participants so that they may be able to:
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77
-Describe the use and characteristics of simple written
tests, check lists and rating scales for evaluating trainee
performance.
What kind of performance is required? The focus of this lesson
is on cognitive behaviors in the design of evaluations. However, the
lesson's objective encompasses a variety of specific behaviors at dif-
ferent levels of cognitive performance. To actually construct a Table
of Specifications and write the test items it is often necessary to
break out these more specific objectives by cognitive level. Thus, the
objective for Lesson One, that participants will be able to:
-Describe the use and characteristics of simple written
tests, check lists and rating scales for evaluating
trainee performance,
can be broken down as follows:
Knowledge level objectives
-Identify the location of evaluation activities within the
instructional development process.
-List the uses of written tests,
-List the types of written tests.
-State the uses of check lists and rating scales.
Comprehension level objectives
-Describe the rules for writing test items.
-Describe the rules for constructing check lists and rating
scales.
-Explain a typical use of written tests.
-Explain a typical use of a check list.
Application level objectives
-Contrast the use of check lists and rating scales.
-Analyze the limitations of using check lists and rating
scales in on-the-job situations.
-Compare the advantages and limitations of short-answer,
multiple-choice, essay and true/false items.
-Distinguish between evaluation activities to assess trainee
competence and the evaluation of instructional effectiveness.
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78
The objective for lesson two would also be broken down in a similar
fashion.
How much should the test cover? The decision was made to design
a test to cover Lesson One.
Step 2: Setting Performance Standards
How well should trainees perform on the test? Lesson One is an
introductory lesson providing instruction in basic concepts needed for
some of the more complicated activities of later lessons. Since the
material is simple and fundamental, one could expect a high level of
performance. The nature of the behaviors called for on the test are
also not expected to be very difficult which also argues for a relatively
high performance standard. Therefore, the performance standard is set
at 90%.
Step 3: Defining the Sample of the Performance to Be Tested
What is an appropriate sample of the behaviors for which we wish
to test? Since the test will only cover the objectives of a single,
brief lesson, it seems appropriate to limit the test to ten items. Using
the break down of the objective by level of cognitive behavior completed
in Step 1, the Table of Specifications can be completed as shown.
Type and Level
)f Objective
Specific
Objective
O) O)
> 01
•i- -O
+-> Ol
01 o
o c
C_5 ^
01
•4J 0)
•r- J_
C Q.
01 E
O O
C
I O
0) -I-
> 4->
•r- ro
4-> O
Ol Q.
O 0-
I
O)
•r- r— >
C -Q i—
Ol O O
O S- 00
CJ d-
o>
o
Ol
o
O
>>
I/)
O-
Total
Items
1) Describe use
and character-
istics of
simple tests,
checklists
and rating
scales.
10
Total items
10
Step 4: Developing Test Items
test.
page.
Multiple-choice and short-answer item formats were chosen for the
The actual items as developed appear in the test on the following
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79
Criterion-Referenced Test on Lesson One of Unit Four
Directions: The following test is designed to assess your
achievement of the objective for Lesson One: Introduction
to Evaluation and the Use of Written Tests, Check Lists, and
Rating Scales. Complete each of the following items by
filling in the best word or phrase that completes the state-
ment or by circling the best alternative from the choices
provided. Complete every item even if you are unsure of
the correct answer. You have five minutes to complete the
test.
1) Written tests are typically useful as a means of evaluating
trainee...
a) Knowledge of facts
b) Attitudes
c) Problem solving ability
d) All of the above
e) Items (a) and (c)
2) The four kinds of test item formats are
and
3) Check lists are most useful for evaluating trainee...
a) Knowledge
b) Attitudes
c) Problem solving ability
d) On-the-job performance
e) Items (b) and (d)
4) A check list is defined as
5) A rating scale is defined as
6) Explain the use of check lists and rating scales
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80
7) Ten rules for constructing good test items have been given as
follows
Test items
1) Should be clear
2) Should be uncluttered
3) Should be functional
4) Should be at proper level of difficulty
5) Should call on desired behavior
6) Should thoroughly sample that behavior
7) Should provide a positive test of that behavior
8) Should have clearly correct answers
9) Should not "give away" answer
10) Should not "give away" answers to other items
Have any of these rules been violated in preceding six items of this
test? If one or more of the rules was/were violated, state which one(s)
and list the item(s) involved.
Rule violated In item(s)
8) Of the four kinds of test item formats, which are considered most
useful for criterion-referenced tests?
9) Explain why some types of items are considered inappropriate for
criterion-referenced tests.
10) Which of the following is/are characteristics of norm-referenced
tests (as opposed to criterion-referenced tests)?
a) The test enables the comparison of one student to the total
group of students.
b) The test compares the performance of individual students against
a specified objective that defines the desired quality of per-
formance.
c) This test is most appropriate when the concern is simply with
determining the trainee's ability to perform a job.
d) All of the above.
e) None of the above.
-------
Answers to Criterion-Referenced Test on Lesson 1.
1) e.
2) multiple-choice, short-answer, true-false, essay.
3) d.
4) A list of skills or tasks which the trainee is expected to demonstrate
in the satisfactory performance of a job.
5) A list of skills or tasks with each so carefully defined as to permit
judgments as to the relative quality of the trainee's performance.
6) They are used to evaluate on-the-job performance of a particular task,
skill, or procedure.
7) Rule 10 has been violated between items 3 and 6 (possibly including
items 4 and 5, as well).
8) Short-answer and multiple-choice).
9) Essay-type items can be time consuming to give and difficult to
analyze objectively. True-false items are usually too easy.
10) a.
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83
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 2 of 4: CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING
ASSIGNMENT 4.2 EXERCISE IN CONSTRUCTING CRITERION-REFERENCED
TESTS - Part I
Estimated time: 40 minutes
This assignment is intended to give you practice in the design of
criterion-referenced tests. Following directly upon the readings
and example provided by Assignment 4.1, you will work with several
other participants in the workshop to complete the first three
steps of the seven-step procedure for designing and using cri-
terion-referenced tests. By completing the first three steps you
will have constructed a Table of Specifications for the test. A
later assignment (Assignment 4.5) will give you an opportunity to
complete most of the remaining steps of the complete procedure.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment you will be able
to begin designing a criterion-referenced test up
through the completion of the Table of Specifications.
EVALUATION: Your test design decisions will be reviewed by other
participants in the workshop and the test that you
ultimately create (in Assignment 4.5) will be sub-
jected to the Checklist for Evaluating Criterion-
Referenced Tests.
DIRECTIONS: 1. At the direction of your instructor, form a team
of two or three participants to work on this assign-
ment (and Assignment 4.5).
2. Determine the subject for the criterion-referenced
test. Your instructor may suggest that you are to
design a test for a course in safe driving habits or
some other subject.
3. Complete the first three steps of the procedure
for constructing criterion-referenced tests as out-
lined in Assignment 4.1. In order to complete the
first step, you should develop at least four objec-
tives for the course.
4. Refer to any of your materials (such as those on
identifying objectives by type and level) as necessary
to complete the assignment.
5. You have 40 minutes in which to complete the first
three steps and fill out the blank Table of Specifi-
cations on the next page.
-------
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
Type and
-v. Level of
^\0bjecti ve
Specific ^"^-^^
Objective ^v.
i
! Total Items
Cognitive -
Knowledge
Cognitive-
Comprehension
Cognitive-
Application
Cognitive-
Problem
Solving
Affective
Psychomotor
Total
Items
00
-F*
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85
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 3 of 4: TEST ITEM CONSTRUCTION
ASSIGNMENT 4.3 CONSTRUCTING MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
Estimated time: 25 minutes
This assignment is designed to provide you with a review of
the basic techniques for constructing the most useful of
the selection-type test items for criterion-referenced tests.
The introductory reading reviews the characteristics of
multiple choice items and the principles for their construction.
An accompanying exercise provides practice in constructing this
type of item.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be
able to construct multiple choice items.
EVALUATION: Your performance on the exercise may be reviewed
in class at the end of this assignment.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Complete the reading entitled "Introduction
to Multiple Choice Items". This should take
approximately 10 minutes.
2. Complete one or the other of the two versions
of "Exercise in Constructing Multiple Choice
Items". One version of the exercise has been
designed for those familiar with wastewater
treatment facility operators. The other version
of the assignment has been designed for drinking
water specialists. Either version of the
exercise should require about 15 minutes to
complete.
3. Be prepared to participate in a brief dis-
cussion or review of your responses to the
exercise.
Introduction to Multiple Choice Items
While there are many kinds of test items (true/false, short-answer,
matching, completion), the multiple choice item is considered the most
versatile type of item. It can be used to test a wide variety of behaviors
and provides an objective, easily-scored testing format.
The multiple-choice item consists of two major parts: (1) the stem
(also called lead, premise, problem, question); and (2) the alternatives
(answers, distractors, foils or decoys).
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86
The basic usefulness of the multiple-choice test is that it can
answer questions relating to:
1. Definition
Example item: What means the same as ?
2. Purpose
Example item: What is the reason for ?
3. Cause
Example item: Under which conditions is this true?
4. Effect
Example item: If this is done, what will happen?
5. Association
Example item: What occurs in connection with
6. Identification of error
Example item: What principle is violated?
7. Difference
Example item: What is the difference between
8. Arrangement
Example item: Which is the first step in ?
9. Common principle
Example item: Which one of the following is not related
to ?
10. Controversial subjects
Example item: The x pump is better because ?
The multiple-choice test item has various advantages and limita-
tions when compared with other teacher-made tests.
Advantages: 1. It can be constructed to measure mental abili-
ties from simple recognition to some aspects of
critical thinking (dependent upon skill of test
construction).
2. It presents less possibility of guessing the
correct answer than other selection-type items.
3. It has less vagueness and ambiguity than short-
answer or supply-type items.
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87
4. It is practically free from response sets;
therefore, students do not have the oppor-
tunity to favor a particular alternative when
they don't know the answers.
5. It is useful as a diagnostic technique.
Limitations: 1. It is only a substitute for more direct means
of measurement; only an indicator of the ability
of the student to perform in an actual situation.
2. It is not designed to measure all types of
behavior. (Multiple choice items are sometimes
inappropriate for measuring problem-solving
behaviors.)
3. It is difficult to construct. The test-maker
must be skilled in writing items that will
measure the student's ability to interpret, dis-
criminate, select and evaluate rather than the
ability to memorize.
The following principles of test construction, if followed by the
test-maker, will ensure fair, good test items:
1. Write test items which will measure specific, significant
learning outcomes.
2. Use either a direct question or an incomplete statement as
the item stem, whichever seems more appropriate to the
presentation of the item.
3. Write items in clear and simple language, with vocabulary
kept as simple as possible and at the level appropriate for
the students.
4. Base each item on a single, central problem.
5. State the central problem of the item clearly and completely
in the stem.
6. In general, include in the stem any words that must otherwise
be repeated in each response.
7. Avoid negative statements.
8. Avoid excessive use of non-relevant material.
9. Place the choices at the end of the incomplete statement.
10. Make the responses grammatically consistent with the stem and
parallel with one another.
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88
11. Make all responses plausible and attractive to people who lack
the information and ability tested by the item.
12. Make the responses independent and mutually exclusive.
13. Use the "none-of-these" option with caution.
14. Write distractors (incorrect alternatives) which do not
contain clues revealing the correct answer.
15. Decide before writing if the correct or best answer is required,
then be sure that there is only one correct answer if that is
what is required or that all the answers have some elements of
correctness with one best answer (based upon evidence).
16. Compose clear and definite directions for "taking" the test.
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89
Exercise in Constructing Multiple Choice Items
(For Wastewater Treatment Facility Operators)
Directions: Complete the following activities which are designed
to provide you with practice in constructing multiple choice
items. You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Write appropriate stems for each of the following sets of alternatives.
A. (stem:)
1. The oxygen required to sustain aerobic biological oxidation
in sewage or waste.
2. The amount of dissolved oxygen required to support life in
a stream.
3. The required oxygen level to oxidize toxic metals.
4. The concentration of oxygen required to ensure aerobic
biological oxidation of sewage or waste.
B. (stem:)
1. pH of 1
2. pH of 5
3. pH of 7
4. pH of 9
5. pH of 14
II. Write three or more alternatives for each of the following stems.
A. A Parshall Flume ts used to
1.
2.
3.
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90
B. When computing gas production for the anaerobic digestion system,
what is the rate of volatile solids destroyed per cubic foot of
gas?
1.
2.
3.
C. What causes the change in pH values in the anaerobic digestion
system?
1.
2.
3.
III. Write two multiple choice test items on a subject familiar to you.
A.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
3.
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91
Exercise in Constructing Multiple Choice Items
(For Drinking Water Specialists)
Directions: Complete the following activities which are designed
to provide you with practice in constructing multiple choice
items. You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Write appropriate stems for each of the following sets of alternatives.
A. (stem:)
1. Distilling over the interferences and leaving the F behind.
2. Distilling over the F" and leaving the interferences behind.
3. Forming a color with the interferences.
B. (stem:)
1. Became effective in December of 1977.
2. Became effective in December of 1975.
3. Became effective in June of 1977.
II. Write three or more alternatives for each of the following stems.
A. Nitrate can be determined by
1.
2.
3.
B. Samples containing metals are preserved by adding
1.
2.
3.
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92
C. The reason for the MCL on turbidity is because
1.
2.
3.
III. Write two multiple choice test items on a subject familiar to you.
A.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
3.
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93
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 3 of 4: TEST ITEM CONSTRUCTION
ASSIGNMENT 4.4 CONSTRUCTING SHORT ANSWER ITEMS
Estimated time: 20 minutes
This assignment is designed to provide you with a review of the
basic techniques for constructing the most useful of the supply-
type test items for criterion-referenced tests. The intro-
ductory reading reviews the characteristics of short answer
items and principles for their construction. An accompanying
exercise provides practice in constructing these items.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion-of this assignment, you will be
able to construct short answer items.
EVALUATION: Your performance on the exercise may be reviewed
in class at the end of this assignment.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Complete the reading entitled "Introduction
to Short Answer Items". This should take no more
than 5 minutes to complete.
2. Complete the "Exercise in Constructing Multi-
ple Choice Items". This should require about 15
minutes to complete.
3. Be prepared to participate in a brief dis-
cussion or review of your responses to the
exercise.
Introduction to Short Answer Items
The short answer test item asks the student to recall information
in his own words. It is important to remember, however, that the judgment
of acceptable answers should not be influenced by the student's writing
skill. Items should be designed so that the acceptable answer can be as
brief as possible; a word, phrase, symbol, number, etc. In some cases,
the student may have to write a sentence or two as a response.
Compared to multiple choice items, short answer items are easy for
the instructor to write, but rather more difficult to "correct". They are
suitable for testing a wide range of learning outcomes. Some examples of
short answer items are listed below.
1. What is the pH of pure water?
1.
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94
2. If acid is present, litmus paper turns 2.
3. In the equation 5x + 5 = 15, what is
the value of x? 3.
4. State two tests for the presence of
acid. 4.
Suggestions for writing and correcting short-answer items:
1. Avoid the loose, ambiguous item that does not tie down the
answer to one or two specific words or phrases.
2. Do not require more than one or two completions to be made in
any one item.
3. For "filling the blank" type items, place the blank near the
end of the statement.
4. Avoid cues to the correct answer.
5. In computation problems, specify the degree of accuracy
expected.
6. Make the directions and each question explicit.
7. Allow sufficient space for student answers in a column to the
right of the questions.
8. Write a scoring key in advance and include all possible accept-
able answers for each item.
9. Use a variety of short answer formats. Avoid extensive use of
"fill in the blanks" as these often do not test for higher-
order learning outcomes.
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95
Exercise in Constructing Short-Answer Items
j Directions: Complete the following activities which are designed
I to provide you with practice in constructing short-answer items.
\ You have 15 minutes to complete this exercise.
I. Convert the following items from multiple choice to short-answer for-
mats. Write your new item in the space provided.
A. If the temperature is allowed to go beyond 180° C
1. the fluoride is not distilled.
2. the iron carries over.
3. sulfate is carried over.
A. (Short-answer version)
B. Which of the following steps must be performed in order to
express the value of "total" barium?
1. filtration
2. weighing
3. solubilization or digestion
B. (Short-answer version)
II. Write five short-answer items in the space below. No more than four
of these items should be simple "fill-in-the-blank" items. After
each item, list all possible correct answers (for use in correcting
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96
responses to the items). Base the items on a subject familiar to you
or use material from a subject in this workshop (such as the material
on writing objectives).
1.
Possible correct answers:
2.
Possible correct answers:
3.
Possible correct answers:
4.
Possible correct answers:
5.
Possible correct answers:
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97
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 3 of 4: TEST ITEM CONSTRUCTION
ASSIGNMENT 4.5
Estimated time:
EXERCISE IN CONSTRUCTING
CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS - PART II
30 minutes (to complete Steps 4
an additional 30 minutes may be
critique which follows
and 5 of the procedure •
used for the review and
This assignment is the second part of the practice exercise in
constructing criterion-referenced tests begun in Assignment 4.2.
Working from the Table of Specifications developed in that
earlier assignment, you will complete Steps 4 and 5 of the pro-
cedure for constructing criterion-referenced tests (as originally
explained in Assignment 4.1). To complete this assignment, you
will be working in the same teams as before. When your team com-
pletes Step 5, submit your finished criterion-referenced test to
the instructor or another team for the kind of review which con-
stitutes Step 6 of the procedure.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment you will be able
to complete the design of a criterion-referenced test.
EVALUATION: Your completed criterion-referenced test will be
reviewed by the instructor or other participants
according to Step 6 of the procedure outlined in
Assignment 4.1.
DIRECTIONS: 1. Reform the team of two or three participants who
worked with you on Assignment 4.2.
2. Complete the design of your criterion-referenced
test following the directions of Steps 4 and 5
(Assignment 4.1) and the Table of Specifications you
developed in Assignment 4.2. You have 30 minutes to
complete these steps.
3. Submit your completed test and Table of Specifi-
cations for review to another team of participants,
or the instructor.
4. Conduct a review of another team's completed test
following Step 6 of Assignment 4.1. You have 30
minutes to complete this part of the assignment.
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99
UNIT FOUR: DESIGNING EVALUATIONS
LESSON 4 of 4: EVALUATING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Lecture Courses
Following are several sets of statements concerning specific aspects of
this course. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree
with each statement by choosing one of the five alternative responses:
1 = strongly agree 3 = disagree 5 = uncertain or
2 = agree 4 = strongly disagree not aPPlicable
I. Instructor-Student Rapport
(1) The instructor showed fair and equal concern for all students.
(2) The instructor expected high standards of performance from him-
self as well as the students.
(3) The instructor answered questions in a straightforward and
understandable manner.
(4) The instructor encouraged individual help and discussion.
(5) The instructor was prompt in meeting class and in keeping
appointments.
(6) Students were given an opportunity to ask questions about the
lecture material.
II. Subject Matter and Presentation of Material
(7) The content of this course was valuable to me.
(8) The instructor seemed to be genuinely enthusiastic about the
course and subject matter.
(9) Students discussed the lecture material outside of class.
(10) Lectures were well organized.
(11) It was obvious that the instructor had prepared for his lectures.
(12) The instructor presented material that was too advanced for the
level of the course.
(13) The instructor's delivery was dull.
(14) The instructor frequently digressed from his lecture topic and
dwelt on the irrelevant.
(15) It was easy to follow the lecture.
(16) Lectures were presented in such a way that it was easy to take
notes.
(17) The lectures merely summarized the textbook(s).
(18) The lecturer's voice was monotonous.
(19) The instructor exhibited annoying mannerisms.
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100
(20) The lectures proved helpful when it came time for evaluation
and grading.
(21) The lectures were inclined to show the instructor's bias and did
not provide various points of view.
(22) The pace of the lectures was too rapid.
III. Tests and Grading
(23) The tests were fair and objective.
(24) The instructor provided an opportunity for the students to dis-
cuss the tests at a later time.
(25) The tests were effectively integrated with the course content.
(26) The expectations concerning performance standards for students
were clearly specified at the start of the course.
Any additional comments you would like to make about the course, or clari-
fications of your ratings above:
IV. Reactions to this Evaluation
Did this questionnaire provide a useful way for you to describe your
experiences and thoughts regarding this course? How could this question-
naire be improved?
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V. Recommendations for Change
Each of the statements listed below represents frequently-stated recom-
mendations from students concerning how they would like to see their
courses changed. Pick three recommendations for change that you think
are most important for this course. Rank the three recommendations in
order of importance where J^ = the most needed change, and rankings of 2^
or ,3 are needed changes of relatively lesser importance.
(27) The work load should be lighter.
(28) The work load should be heavier.
(29) The course goals and objectives should be stated more clearly.
(30) The course goals and objectives should be followed more
consistently.
(31) The examinations should more clearly reflect the course goals.
(32) The examinations should demand less memorization and more thought.
(33) The course should be more tightly structured.
(34) The course should be more loosely structured.
(35) The assignments should be clearer.
(36) The instructor should exhibit more openness to critical questions
from students.
(37) The instructor should be more responsive to the dissatisfaction
of students concerning the way the course is being taught.
(38) The instructor should update the material he is presenting in
the course.
(39) The instructor should use new teaching methods.
(40) The instructor should do more lecturing.
(41) The instructor should be more concerned with students who do not
speak up in class.
(42) The instructor should ramble around less when lecturing.
(43) The instructor should speak more slowly when lecturing.
(44) The physical setting (classroom, studio, etc.) for this course
should be changed.
(45) The instructor should more clearly relate the content of this
course to problems and issues that are of immediate concern to
the students.
(46) The instructor should plan for more discussion in this course.
(47) The instructor should do less lecturing.
(48) The instructor should use a more equitable and less subjective
method of grading.
(49) The instructor should allow fewer students into this course.
(50) The instructor should find a new textbook for this course.
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COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Laboratory Courses
Following are several sets of statements concerning specific aspects of
this course. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree
with each statement by choosing one of the five alternative responses:
1 = strongly agree 3 = disagree 5 = uncertain or nonapplicable
2 = agree 4 = strongly disagree
I. Structure and Goals
(1) The instructor clearly specified the objectives of the laboratory.
(2) My own learning objectives for this laboratory have been achieved.
(3) The content of the laboratory sessions has been highly relevant
to the objectives of the course as a whole.
(4) The number of students in this laboratory section has been
appropriate for learning to occur.
(5) The instructor clearly stated the objectives of each laboratory
exercise.
(6) The instructor was open to the ideas, suggestions, and criticisms
of the students.
II. Subject Matter and Instruction
(7) The instructor distributed directions and procedures for labora-
tories sufficiently in advance of the lab sessions.
(8) The instructions for completing each lab session were clear.
(9) The instructor provided sufficient opportunity for questions to
be asked and for laboratory assistance.
(10) The instructor demonstrated fundamental techniques in such a way
that I could use them.
(11) Special preparations, materials, or equipment were available on
time.
(12) The equipment was adequate and reliable.
(13) Students were encouraged to conduct their own laboratory
experiences.
(14) There was sufficient opportunity to do creative and imaginative
work in the laboratory.
(15) I learned a great deal from the other students in the laboratory.
(16) This laboratory was essential to my understanding of other seg-
ments of this course.
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103
III. Expectations and Evaluation
(17) I was given sufficient opportunity to demonstrate my knowledge
and skills in conducting laboratory work.
(18) The criteria for assessing my performance in this laboratory
section were clearly stated and consistently employed.
(19) The instructor did not expect me to spend more time in this
course than I had originally anticipated.
(20) I clearly understood before entering the course how much
materials would cost.
Any additional comments you would like to make about the course:
IV. Reactions to this Evaluation
Did this questionnaire provide a useful way for you to express your experi-
ence and thoughts on this course? How could it be improved?
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V. Recommendations for Change
Each of the statements listed below represents frequently-stated recom-
mendations from students concerning how they would like to see their
courses changed. Pick three recommendations for change that you think
are most important for this course. Rank the three recommendations in
order of importance where J^ = the most needed change, and rankings of 2^
or 2 are needed changes of relatively lesser importance.
(21) The work load should be lighter.
(22) The work load should be heavier.
(23) The course goals and objectives should be stated more clearly.
(24) The course goals and objectives should be followed more
consistently.
(25) The examinations should more clearly reflect the course goals.
(26) The examinations should demand less memorization and more thought.
(27) The course should be more tightly structured.
(28) The course should be more loosely structured.
(29) The assignments should be clearer.
(30) The instructor should exhibit more openness to critical questions
from students.
(31) The instructor should be more responsive to the dissatisfaction
of students concerning the way the course is being taught.
(32) The instructor should update the material he is presenting in
the course.
(33) The instructor should use new teaching methods.
(34) The instructor should do more lecturing.
(35) The instructor should be more concerned with students who do not
speak up in class.
(36) The instructor should ramble around less when lecturing.
(37) The instructor should speak more slowly when lecturing.
(38) The physical setting (classroom, studio, etc.) for this course
should be changed.
(39) The instructor should more clearly relate the content of this
course to problems and issues that are of immediate concern to
the students.
(40) The instructor should plan for more discussion in this course.
(4T) The instructor should do less lecturing.
(42) The instructor should use a more equitable and less subjective
method of grading.
(43) The instructor should allow fewer students into this course.
(45) The instructor should find a new textbook for this course.
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COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Seminar and Discussion Courses
Following are several sets of statements concerning specific aspects of
this course. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree
with each statement by choosing one of five alternative responses:
1 = strongly agree 3 = disagree g = uncertain or
2 = agree 4 = strongly disagree not applicable
I. Structure and Goals
(1) The size of this class was appropriate for effective student
participation.
(2) The instructor was open to ideas, suggestions, and criticisms of
the students.
(3) The subject matter introduced in the course clearly and con-
sistently reflected the course goals.
(4) The learning objectives of the course were clarified by the
instructor at the beginning of the course.
(5) The learning objectives of the course were at least in part
determined by the students.
(6) My own learning objectives were achieved by the end of the course.
II. Subject Matter and Instruction
(7) The instructor encouraged and helped interaction among the
students.
(8) The instructor presented and encouraged multiple viewpoints on
controversial subjects.
(9) The group frequently was side-tracked in its discussions.
(10) The instructor was helpful to the group when it floundered
during discussions.
(11) The other students restricted my contribution to the discussion.
(12) The instructor restricted my contribution to the discussion.
(13) I learned a great deal from the other students.
(14) I made significant contributions to the discussions in this
course.
(15) I benefited more from this seminar than I would have if it were
a lecture-based course.
(16) The instructor actually lectured rather than led discussions.
III. Expectations and Responsibilities
(17) The course requirements were clearly defined.
(18) I received fair recoginition for the amount of work I performed.
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106
(19) The instructor stimulated and encouraged self-initiative.
(20) Prior to entering the course, I was fully aware of seminar or
small group discussion procedures.
(21) More responsibility was expected of the students for their own
learning in this course than in a lecture course.
(22) Students were actively involved in planning for this course.
Any additional comments you would like to make about the course, or clari-
fications of your ratings above:
IV. Reactions to this Evaluation
Did this questionnaire provide a useful way for you to describe your
experiences and thoughts regarding this course? How could this question-
naire be improved?
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V. Recommendations for Change
Each of the statements listed below represents frequently-stated recom-
mendations from students concerning how they would like to see their
courses changed. Pick three recommendations for change that you think
are most important for this course. Rank the three recommendations in
order of importance where J_ = the most needed change, and rankings of 2^
or 3^ are needed changes of relatively lesser importance.
(23) The work load should be lighter.
(24) The work load should be heavier.
(25) The course goals and objectives should be stated more clearly.
(26) The course goals and objectives should be followed more
consistently.
(27) The examinations should more clearly reflect the course goals.
(28) The examinations should demand less memorization and more thought.
(29) The course should be more tightly structured.
(30) The course should be more loosely structured.
(31) The assignments should be clearer.
(32) The instructor should exhibit more openness to critical questions
from students.
(33) The instructor should be more responsive to the dissatisfaction
of students concerning the way the course is being taught.
(34) The instructor should update the material he is presenting in
the course.
(35) The instructor should use new teaching methods.
(36) The instructor should do more lecturing.
(37) The instructor should be more concerned with students who do not
speak up in class.
(38) The instructor should ramble around less when lecturing.
(39) The instructor should speak more slowly when lecturing.
(40) The physical setting (classroom, studio, etc.) for this course
should be changed.
(4l) The instructor should more clearly relate the content of this
course to problems and issues that are of immediate concern to
the students.
(42) The instructor should plan for more discussion in this course.
(43) The instructor should do less lecturing.
(44) The instructor should use a more equitable and less subjective
method of grading.
(45) The instructor should allow fewer students into this course.
(46) The instructor should find a new textbook for this course.
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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT FIVE
SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Estimated time for unit: Two hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit provides a trainer with some assistance in deciding
what methods should be used to deliver instruction for specific
types and levels of behavior. The unit consists of a review of
the four types of instructional methods in a reading and in
group discussion. A second assignment provides practice in
selecting methods for specific types and levels of behavior. A
discussion of participants' choices concludes the unit.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
-list and describe the four types of instructional methods
-give at least two advantages and disadvantages of each
-use the Instructional Methods Selection Table to select
instructional methods for specific types and levels of
behavior.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Instructional methods each have their own particular strengths
and weaknesses. When designing instruction, it is helpful to
have some guidance in choosing the most appropriate method for
delivering it. This unit provides some help in this area so
that methods are not arbitrarily chosen.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Assignment 5.1 Four Types of Instructional Methods
2. Assignment 5.2 Exercise in Selecting Instructional Methods
3. Instructional Methods Selection Table
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UNIT FIVE: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
LESSON 1 of 2: FOUR TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
ASSIGNMENT 5.1: FOUR TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Estimated time: Twenty minutes
The following is an extended outline of the definition, characteris-
tics, advantages and disadvantages of each of the four methods.
Read through the outline and note any items you might have questions
about for the discussion which follows.
I. Four Types of Methods
A. Lecture
B. Demonstration
C. Guided Discussion
D. Adaptive Instruction
1. Individualized learning packages
2. Assignments
3. Tutorials
II. Why Four Methods?
The four methods represent the four possible types of
communication between instructors and learners
A. Lecture - communication of verbal information from
instructor to learners
B. Demonstration - communication of verbal information and
visual display of skills from instructor to learner
C. Guided Discussion - sharing of communication among
instructor and learners
D. Adaptive Instruction - individual reception of communication
from printed materials or from tutor
III. The Lecture (Method #1)
A. Definition - uninterrupted speech by which one presents
information to others
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112
B. Characteristics of a Good Lecture
1. The lecturer has good public speaking skills
2. The presentation is
a. brief - usually no more than 15-20 minutes of
uninterrupted speech; a lecture should not strain
normal attention span
b. organized
i) the introduction
(a) establishes rapport between lecturer and
learners
(b) defines the purpose of the lecture, gains
learners' attention, and motivates them to
remain attentive
(c) outlines the major points of the lecture
(d) defines the objectives of the lecture
ii) the body
(a) uses a simple-to-complex structure for
presenting the content
(b) aims toward specific objectives
(c) provides opportunities for questioning
(d) allows for practice of knowledge
iii) the conclusion
(a) reviews and summarizes main points
(b) opens opportunity for student responses
(c) provides directions to the next activity
c. accompanied by media (when appropriate)
i) highlighting - visual accompaniments such as
outlines, graphics, pictures - reinforce content
during the lecture
ii) student handouts - "take-homes" such as outlines,
procedural guidelines, etc. - serve as a per-
sonal employee manual for on-the-job use
C. Advantages
1. Presents large amounts of information from many or
from hard-to-get sources in short amount of time
2. Gives instructor control over the kind of information
and organization presented
3. Provides the most efficient way to introduce and to
summarize a learning experience
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113
D. Disadvantages
1. Over stresses acquisition of facts
2. Can make learners into passive, dependent receivers of
information
3. Is instructor-paced
4. Is often too long
5. Is often over-used or misused
6. Is not for teaching "how to" (procedures)
7. Depends for success on instructor's public-speaking
ability
IV. Demonstration (Method #2)
A. Definition - showing, as opposed to telling, how to do
something by manipulating appropriate materials and
equipment
B. Characteristics of a Good Demonstration
1. The instructor prepares site and materials
a. on-location or simulated site is chosen and prepared
for maximum effectiveness and visibility to all
learners
b. materials and equipment obtained and tested by working
through demonstration
c. setup allows everyone to see demonstration
d. media/handouts prepared to complement demonstration -
i.e., steps outlined, decision points and criteria
defined, "success" described in terms of predefined
criteria
2. The instructor prepares for the students
a. necessary orientation information developed
b. mini-lectures for introducing and summarizing the
procedure prepared
c. frequent opportunities provided to ask questions
d. frequent checks to ensure student understanding
e. opportunities to practice the procedure
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114
C. Advantages
1. Gives on-the-job experience
2. Allows learners to develop and practice skills under
supervision
D. Disadvantages
1. Not useful alone; must be prepared for and summarized
through lecture or reading
2. Large groups of learners require much time for practice
in order to be effective
3. Useful only for fixed-step procedures, not for creative
problem solving
4. Requires equipment, materials, often site visits
V. Guided Discussion (Method #3)
A. Definition - a sharing of ideas and opinions in order to
arrive at a mutually acceptable decision or solution to a
problem
B. Characteristics of a Good Discussion
1. Not a bull session - topics and objectives must be
carefully prepared and purpose explicitly defined so
that group will know when discussion should end
2. Groups should be small enough to allow everyone to
participate and large enough to avoid polarization or
domination by a few
3. Discussion leader
a. initiates discussion by stating topics, objectives,
guidelines (rules for participating, parameters of
discussion)
b. coordinates discussion by summarizing ideas and
establishing relationships among ideas
c. orients discussion by pulling discussion back to
topic; avoids playing expert and giving lectures
d. encourages participation by warmth, non-critical
analysis of contributions, questioning silent
members in non-threatening way
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115
e. harmonizes the group by dealing with personal
confrontations and disagreements and arbitrating
as necessary
f. gate-keeps by preventing anyone from dominating the
group
4. Participants
a. participate - purpose is to share ideas in order to
develop solution to problem
b. remain non-critical and objective - avoid personal
attacks and emotional analyses like "that's stupid"
c. stick to the topic
d. avoid private discussions and share ideas with whole
group
e. direct comments and questions to group rather than
to leader
f. accept leader as arbitrator of group
5. Physical environment is arranged to facilitate discussion
by ensuring eye contact among all participants
C. Advantages
1. Allows all members of group opportunity to share ideas
2. Provides for mutual solving of a problem and practice
in ways of solving problems
D. Disadvantages
1. Can be dominated by an individual or faction
2. Can degenerate into an exchange of abuse
3. Can bog down in extended, uncomfortable silence or
irrelevancies
4. Can be a front for leader-provided lectures
5. Can be misused (not suitable for communicating factual
information or teaching procedures)
VI. Adaptive Instruction (Method #4)
A. Definition - to adapt instruction to individual needs,
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116
goals, learning materials and/or instructional methods and
techniques especially chosen to suit a particular student
or group of students
Types of Adaptive Instruction - individualized learning
packages, assignments, tutorials
B. Characteristics of Good Adaptive Instruction
1. Characteristics of effective individualized learning
packages
a. provides all the information and materials learner
needs to know on his/her own
b. provides for practice and feedback
c. is structured properly (orienting overview, body with
logical learning steps, summarizing review)
d. meets individual needs of learners
2. Characteristics of effective assignments
a. application oriented - allows students to apply
knowledge and skills in new or unfamiliar contexts
b. allows for choice - provides options so that the
students can choose among alternative assignments,
contexts, or subjects
c. builds skills in specific steps from simplest to
most complex
d. provides feedback reinforcement
3. Characteristics of effective tutorials
a. is a one-to-one session between tutor and learner
(tutor need not be the instructor)
b. has problem-solving orientation using stages of
diagnosis and remedy
c. builds skills in specific steps
d. tutor guides learner to discover answers - does not
lecture at learner
e. session is problem-specific and ends when solution is
discovered
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C. Advantages
1. Responsive to individual needs
2. Allows for learner pacing and repetition as desired
3. Individualized learning packages can be given out when
it is difficult to organize a class or too few students
or no instructor available
4. Tutorials can be used to help several learners with
difficult problems in a short space of time
D. Disadvantages
1. Instructor-made individualized learning packages are
expensive to prepare
2. Not suitable for complex or complicated subject matter
3. Not useful for teaching procedures that require
equipment or complicated materials
4. Does not allow for exchange of ideas and opinions -
basically a lonely method of learning
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UNIT FIVE: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
LESSON 2 of 2: SELECTING METHODS FOR SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR
ASSIGNMENT 5.2: EXERCISE IN SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Estimated time: Sixty minutes
DIRECTIONS:
This assignment provides practice in selecting methods for
instruction. The technique used to select methods requires
the behavior expected of the learner to be classified as
either Cognitive-knowledge, Cognitive-comprehension, Cogni-
tive-application, Cognitive-problem solving, Psychomotor,
or Affective.
On the following page is a list of "educational needs" which
have not been classified.
For each need:
1. Determine the type of behavior called for. For infor-
mation on how to classify behavior, review Assignment
3.2 in Unit Three.
2. Read the row of the Instructional Methods Selection
Table which corresponds to the behavior category to
find out which of the four methods may be useful. For
some behaviors more than one method may be appropriate.
3. Choose the instructional method or methods you would
use to satisfy each need.
Be prepared to defend your choices in a group discussion.
Suppose each of the following items describes an educational need of
students in your class. What Method of Instruction would you use to
help these students reach desired learning outcomes? Use the Instruc-
tional Methods Selection Table as an aid in completing this exercise.
1. My students must be able to check automatic flow recording equipment
for correct operation.
Type of behavior:
Choice of Instructional Method
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120
2. My students must be able to list fifteen conversion factors commonly
used in day-to-day treatment operations.
Type of behavior:
Choice of Instructional Method
3. My students must be courteous to other employees.
Type of behavior:
Choice of Instructional Method
4. My students must be able to describe the internal construction of a
large piece of plant equipment.
Type of behavior:
Choice of Instructional Method
5. My students must know how to determine settleable solids, ml/liter.
Type of behavior:
Choice of Instructional Method
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^Instructional
Method
Types of
Behavior
LECTURE
DEMONSTRATION
GUIDED DISCUSSION
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION
COGNITIVE,
Knowledge
COGNITIVE,
Comprehension
COGNITIVE,
Application
COGNITIVE,
Problem-
Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
Appropriate for
teaching facts
Appropriate
Appropriate for
initial presentation
of rules
Generally
not useful
Useful only in
support of a
demonstration
Usually not effective
for motivating trainees
or changing attitudes
about something
Generally
not useful
Useful as a supportive
method to reinforce
concept-using
Most appropriate method
for teaching rule-using
Useful for
problem-solving
Instruction
Live or simulated
demonstrations are
the most effective
method for teaching
motor skills
Modelling and
simulations are
useful for
forming attitudes
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Useful and appro-
priate for developing
problem-solving
skills
Generally
not useful
Group activities
such as role-playing
are often useful
for attitude
formation
Useful and appropriate
for conveying factual
information
Appropriate
Appropriate for
Initial presentation
of rules
Exercises are useful
for teaching
problem-solving
Useful only
in support of a
demonstration
Generally
not useful
individualized Learning Packages; Assignments; Tutorials
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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT SIX
SELECTING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
Estimated time for unit: Two hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit provides trainers with some guidelines for choosing
media when designing instruction. A lecture covers the kinds of
media which may be useful in training and how this media may be
classified. A Media Selection Table is provided and an assign-
ment allows for practice in using it.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
-list the five categories of media with examples of each
-use the Media Selection Table to choose media for specific
instructional content.
The PURPOSE of this unit: HI
HP
There are many media available for use in instruction. The $$f!
purpose of this unit is to provide a method for considering the
various available media when designing training. The intent of
this unit is to guide a trainer through a media selection process
which culminates in a trainer decision.
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Assignment 6.1 Selecting Educational Media for Instruction
3. Media Selection Table
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UNIT SIX: SELECTING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
CONTENT SUMMARY
Categories and Examples of Media
1. Objects
a) real things - provide an opportunity to see, feel, manipulate
and use the actual objects connected with the specified objec-
tive
b) people - useful objects for instruction, especially in the
psychomotor area
c) models - may be appropriate when real things are not readily
accessible or are too big, small, complex or expensive
2. Still Pictures
a) flat pictures - especially useful for individual study
b) slides - may be used to project a high-quality picture for
group use; also, individuals using a hand viewer
c) filmstrips - present a series of pictures in a fixed sequence
d) overhead transparencies - can project written material, art-
work or a photograph with black lines or in color; can be
"created" during the instruction
e) chalkboard - flexible and inexpensive way to present written
material and simple illustrations
f) charts and posters - for simple instruction, reminders, or to
gain attention. Flip charts may be especially useful for on-
the-job training.
3. Moving Pictures
a) commercially-produced 16mm films - a highly attractive and
attention-compelling medium, may be used to show motion, illus-
trate actual events and dramatically re-enact stories and events
b) single concept 8mm loop films - provide demonstrations of
single skills, processes, events or ideas; are usually silent
c) locally produced films - offer many of the advantages of the
films described above with the additional capability of pre-
senting instruction tailored directly to instructional needs
d) instructional television - commercial broadcasts and profession-
ally-produced tapes are similar to commercially-produced films;
they can present more current events as well; videotape units
can be used to record events or psychomotor behaviors and replay
them immediately for instructional feedback.
4. Audio Media
a) people - instructors and students present information, hold dis-
cussions and provide feedback through the common act of speaking
b) professionally-produced audio materials - present professional
musicians, poets, historians and other national or international
figures for individual or group use
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125
c) locally-produced audio materials - can present special instruc-
tions, guest presentations and student presentations; are flex-
ible and inexpensive to use
5. Written Materials
a) text and reference books - present detailed information which
is easily accessible and can be studied at an individual's own
pace
b) workbooks - allow for practice of procedures and other learning
events where learners can respond in writing to presented prob-
lems and often receive direct feedback immediately
c) periodicals - are especially useful for presenting current infor-
mation
d) teacher-produced handouts - useful for supplying specific
instructions on instructional activities and supplemented infor-
mation; are also used to evaluate learning
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UNIT SIX: SELECTING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
LESSON 2 of 2: SELECTING EDUCATIONAL MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
ASSIGNMENT 6.1 SELECTING EDUCATIONAL MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION
Estimated time: Thirty minutes
DIRECTIONS:
This assignment provides practice in selecting media for
instruction. The technique used to select media requires
the behavior expected of the learner to be classified as
either Cognitive-knowledge, Cognitive-comprehension, Cogni-
tive-application, Cognitive-problem solving, Psychomotor,
or Affective.
On the following page is a list of "educational needs" which
have not been classified.
For each need:
1. Determine the type of behavior called for. For infor-
mation on how to classify behavior, review Assignment
3.2 in Unit Three. (If you have completed Assignment
5.2 in Unit Five you have already completed this task.)
2. Read the row of the Media Selection Table which corres-
ponds to the behavior category to find out which of the
five categorial media may be useful. For some behaviors
more than one medium may be appropriate.
3. Choose one preferred and at least one alternate kind of
media appropriate for the type of behavior involved.
Be prepared to defend your choices in a group discussion.
Suppose each of the following items describes educational needs of stu-
dents in your class. What Instructional Media would you use to help
these students reach desired learning outcomes? Use the Media Selection
Table as an aid in completing this exercise.
1. My students must be able to check automatic flow recording equipment
for correct operation.
Type of behavior
Preferred medium
Alternate media
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128
2. My students must be able to list fifteen conversion factors commonly
used in day-to-day treatment operations.
Type of behavior
Preferred medium
Alternative media
3. My students must be courteous to other employees.
Type of behavior
Preferred medium
Alternative media
4. My students must be able to describe the internal construction of a
large piece of plant equipment.
Type of behavior
Preferred medium
Alternative media
5. My students must know how to determine settleable solids, ml/liter.
Type of behavior
Preferred medium
Alternative media
-------
MEDIA SELECTION TABLE
Types of Behavior
COGNITIVE
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
OBJECTS
Especially useful
with demonstra-
tions.
Can be used to teach
-recognition and
discrimination
-rules, principles
or sequential
steps .
Useful for teaching
and trainee prac-
tice of perfor-
mance in manipu-
lating tools and
equipment.
Especially appro-
priate for on-the-
job training.
People can be used
to demonstrate
physical actions.
Limited application.
May be useful if the
object is the
focus of the
desired attitude
formation.
Categories of Media
STILL PICTURES MOVING PICTURES AUDIO MEDIA WRITTEN MATERIALS
Very useful for all
levels of cogni-
tive instruction.
Can highlight stress
concepts by dis-
playing words,
lists of steps,
pictures and pic-
torial segments.
Can provide visual
cues.
Little application.
Can portray static
positions of
moving persons or
objects.
Limited application,
Slides in combina-
tion with audio
materials may
influence attitude
formation.
Useful for showing
content not other-
wise easily
brought into the
training situa-
tion.
Usually too costly
for presenting
still visuals
and/or narrative
audio.
Very useful.
Can be used to:
-model skills
requiring motion
-srlow motion for
close examination
-provide visual
feedback of stu-
dent performance
-demonstrate pro-
cesses which take
place over an
extended time
period.
Excellent for influ-
encing attitudes.
Special effects and
other visual tech-
niques are espec-
ially useful for
presenting affective
material. j
May have their
greatest use when
in conjunction
with printed
matter or pro-
jected visuals.
Useful if sounds
of machines,
alarms, etc. must
be learned.
Inexpensive.
Recorded audio
materials gener-
ally useful in
training only when
demonstrating
speech or hearing-
related skills.
Limited application.
Possibly useful for
establishing moods
or attitudes with
background music,
special sounds, or
unique narration.
May be used with
slides to influence
attitude formation.
Excellent media for
all levels of
cognitive instruc-
tion.
Relatively inex-
pensive, printed
materials allow
for self-pacing.
Can be used effec-
tively with still
pictures and
audio materials.
Limited application.
since motion is
difficult to re-
present.
One important use
is procedure
guides or check-
lists for skills
performance.
Very little applica-
tion for training
materials.
ro
10
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131
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT SEVEN
SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Estimated time for unit - Seven hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit extends your knowledge of instructional methods by
providing additional information about instructional events. The
unit identifies instructional methods as one part of an instruc-
tional strategy - a prescription of specific means used to help
trainees achieve different types and levels of objectives. Other
parts of strategies include providing appropriate kinds of prac-
tice, reinforcing trainees, motivating trainees, and emphasizing,
clarifying, and highlighting the content to be learned. The unit
concludes with instruction on specific strategies for each different
type and level of behavior.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
-define each instructional strategy component
-list and give examples of the application of the rules for incor-
porating practice within instruction
-identify appropriate uses for each type of reinforcement
-identify effective techniques for motivating trainees |:;i|i
-describe techniques for clarifying, emphasizing, and illustrating m
important instructional content and provide an example of each ||i|
-select instructional strategy components that are appropriate for S88
each type and level of behavior specified in an objective.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
Effective instruction is dependent upon the selection of appropriate
instructional strategy components. Each type and level of behavior
specified in an objective requires different combinations of compo-
nents; this unit provides participants with concepts and rules for
selecting appropriate strategy components to teach each type and
level of behavior.
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132
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Assignment 7.1 Incorporating Opportunities for Practice
3. Assignment 7.2 Feedback and Other Reinforcements
4. Assignment 7.3 Motivating Trainees
5. Assignment 7.4 Strategies for Enhancing Content
6. Assignment 7.5 Teaching Toward the Objective
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133
UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
CONTENT SUMMARY
Selecting Instructional Strategies
Learning
Learning refers to what happens inside the individual; it involves
a more or less permanent change in the ability to do something that
the learner could not previously do. It represents an increased
ability of some kind.
a. it is internal - it occurs within the learner and cannot be
directly observed; instead, it is inferred from the learner's
behavior.
b. it is an increased ability to do something the learner could not
previously do; it is demonstrated by some performance, some
behavior, of the learner.
Instruction
Instruction refers to what happens outside the individual learner;
it is the process of arranging conditions that lead to learning.
Instruction includes everything a teacher or trainer does to make
it possible for students to learn.
a. it is external - it occurs outside the learner and can be
observed, manipulated, and changed; it may involve anything in
the environment around the learner that can be used to help him/
her learn.
b. it is an arranging of conditions that promote learning; the
conditions may include materials, learning activities, resources,
facilities, and methods. Literally, anything one does in order
to help a student learn can be called instruction.
Instructional Activities
Instructional activities are things an instructor or trainer does to
help students learn. There are three basic types of instructional
activities.
1. selection of instructional methods and media and of learning
activities - involves decisions about what should be learned, how
and in what order, what materials will be provided, and how
learning will be evaluated.
2. motivation of learners - involves decisions about how to involve
learners in the activities, how to keep them working effectively,
and how to inform them about their progress.
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134
3. management of instruction - involves decisions about how to
control the logistics of instruction, including getting
materials to learners, performing housekeeping tasks, and working
within the limitations of time, space, and resources.
For each basic type of activity, there are strategies for carrying
out the activity. A strategy is a prescription for accomplishing
a particular goal or objective; it is a specific statement of what
means should be used to achieve a particular end.
Example: To teach trainees how to operate a slide (end/objective)
projector, give an introductory lecture
during which you identify the parts of (means)
the projector, demonstrate loading and
focusing the projector, and provide
practice in loading and focusing.
1. instructional strategies prescribes appropriate means for selecting
and sequencing methods and media. This unit presents several
types of instructional strategies.
2. Motivational strategies prescribe appropriate means for motivating
trainees. This unit presents several motivational strategies.
3. Management strategies prescribe appropriate means for managing
the logistics of training. Unit Ten presents management
strategies.
Instructional Strategies
Each instructional strategy has several parts or components.
1. instructional method component - identifies means for communicating
content to learners (see Unit 5 for a discussion of methods)
a. lecture
b. guided discussion
c. demonstration
d. adaptive instruction
2. practice component - identifies means of providing learners with
opportunities to practice what they are learning
3. reinforcement component - identifies ways of providing learners
with information about their degree of success in learning
4. content enhancement component - identifies techniques for clari-
fying, emphasizing, and illustrating the content to be taught.
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135
UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
LESSON 2 of 6: INCORPORATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRACTICE
ASSIGNMENT 7.1: INCORPORATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRACTICE
Estimated time: Fifty minutes
This assignment is concerned with means of incorporating practice
within instruction. The readings will introduce basic concepts
and identify general rules for incorporating practice. Accompany-
ing exercises will allow you to try out your understanding of the
concepts and rules and to demonstrate your ability to apply the
rules in the design of instruction. Answers to exercises and
self-checks are in the answer key at the end of the assignment.
Some exercises may not have a single correct answer; rather a
range of answers may be appropriate. In the answer key, you will
find a suggested or representative answer; your answer should be
similar to the one suggested. If you feel that your responses
are greatly different from those suggested in the answer key, you
may wish to consult your instructor.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be able
to give an example of the application of the rules for
incorporating practice within a lesson.
EVALUATION: The application exercise at the end of the assignment
involves you in designing practice activities that are
appropriate for a lesson teaching trainees to perform
a single task. Task Detailing Sheets and a Lesson
Planning Form are provided.
DIRECTIONS; 1. Complete Reading #1: The Nature and Purpose of
Practice. Answer the questions in Self-Check #1.
This task should take approximately 10 minutes.
2. Complete Reading #2: Types of Practice. Respond
to the self-checks within the reading. This
task should take approximately 30 minutes.
3. Complete the application exercise using the Task
Detailing Sheet and Lesson Planning Form provided.
This task should take approximately 10 minutes.
4. Discuss your responses to the application exercise
with your instructor and fellow participants.
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137
READING #1: THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF PRACTICE
This brief reading introduces you to the nature and functions
of practice. First, the concept of practice is explained;
then, three functions of practice are discussed. A brief
self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define practice, in your own words
2. list three functions of practice and briefly
explain each.
1. Practice: A definition. Practice is an opportunity for the
learner to use the skills and knowledge s/he is acquiring.
Practice is a participative activity which involves the learner
actively in doing, rather than passively in receiving. Practice
thus allows learners to employ new skills and knowledge, gain
experience in doing, and discover how well they understand what
they are learning.
2. The functions of practice. Practice experiences have three
functions. First, practice refines and sharpens the learning,
increasing the effectivenss and efficiency of the performance.
practice The first time you attempt to use new skills and knowledge, you
sharpens are slow and uncertain. Your initial practice experience must be
learning guided by the instructor, who prompts you by reminding you of what
to do next and how to do it. The second experience is a little
smoother and faster; less external guidance from the instructor is
needed. Succeeding practice experiences result in sharper and more
facile actions. Finally, you can perform the task effectively (with
no errors) and efficiently (in minimal time). Thus practice refines
and sharpens learning by making the performance more effective and
efficient.
practice
deters
forgetting
A second function of practice is to deter forgetting. The more
often you do something, the more firmly you fix it in your mind.
or knowledge, you strengthen your
to remember, the less likely you
you
As you continue to
memory of it. The
are to forget.
ing
use the skill
more you work
However, the reverse is also true. The less you use skills and
knowledge, the more likely you are to forget them. For this reason,
many occupations require that their members take refresher courses
and obtain periodic recertification. In this manner, personnel are
helped to practice important skills and knowledge so that they will
not be forgotten. Thus, practice deters forgetting.
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138
practice
improves
transfer
The third function of practice
of the learning. Transfer is
learner's ability to apply ski
Transfer occurs when you learn
can use that skill on the job.
occurs when an individual can
tion by applying what s/he has
tions.
is to improve the transferability
the term used to describe the
11s and knowledge in a new context.
a skill in the classroom and then
In the widest sense, transfer
respond effectively to a new situa-
learned previously in other situa-
For example, when a child learns to play the piano, s/he learns
what keys to strike to play different notes and how to read music.
When that same child learns, some time later, to play the guitar,
s/he transfers his/her skill in reading music and finds it easier
to learn to play the guitar. The more widely a skill or knowledge
is practiced, the more varied the contexts of practice experiences,
the more effective and efficient the learning, and the more easily
similar skills and knowledge can be learned. Thus practice in-
creases ability to transfer skills and knowledge.
What are some other specific benefits of good practice experiences?
Efficiency is developed. With each successive practice opportunity,
the learner requires less time per task and makes fewer errors.
Discrimination improves. The learner not only moves closer and
closer to the desired performance, but also develops the ability to
distinguish correct from incorrect performances, to evaluate and
correct his/her own performance, and to handle more difficult levels
of activities.
Summary. Practice opportunities have central importance in good
instruction. Practice involves learners in using the skills and
knowledge they are learning. Through practice, learners refine and
sharpen the learning, deter forgetting, improve transferability,
develop efficiency, and improve discrimination. Now that you under-
stand why it is important to provide practice opportunities, we will
look at some different types of practice and the uses of each.
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139
SELF-CHECK #1
Answer each of the following without looking at the answer key. Then
check your answers with the key.
1. What is practice? Define the term in your own words.
2. What are three functions of practice? Briefly explain each.
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141
READING #2: TYPES OF PRACTICE
This reading introduces some major issues concerning types of
practice activities. It includes discussions on matching
practice tasks to desired final performances, using progres-
sively more rigorous standards of performance during practice,
scheduling practice, providing assistance during practice, and
using actual versus simulated practice.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. match a practice activity to the type and level of
behavior required in the final perfor-
mance
2. design a practice activity that incorporates progres-
sively more rigorous standards of performance
3. design a practice activity that employs the parts-to-
whole structure
4. plan to provide assistance during practice
5. describe a simulated practice activity that is rele-
vant to your training situation.
1. Matching practice tasks to the desired performance. Trainees must
be able to practice performing the type and level of task that will
be required of them on the job. For example, if the job requires
them to assemble equipment for use in performing a chemical test,
then trainees must have practice in assembling the equipment. It
is not enough merely to have them describe how they would perform
the assembly; they must actually do it. If job performance requires
the selection and use of a formula, then trainees must have practice
in both selecting and using formulae.
Practice experiences must be designed to provide a sequence of
activities that lead to the final desired performance. Practice may
begin on a very simple level if the final expected performance is
very difficult or is composed of multiple or complex parts; however,
the final practice activity must require the trainee to perform the
exact type of task required on the job, under the same conditions as
the job. The assessment activity must match the final performance
standard exacted during practice.
match type
and level
of behavior
There are two issues involved in matching practice and on-the-job
tasks. First, the type and level of behavior required on the job
must be incorporated in practice. For example, if the trainee will
be expected to conduct tests for the presence of mercury in a solu-
tion, then s/he must be given practice on performing the required
tests. If the trainee is merely required to list the steps of the
procedure for carrying out a test, then practice must focus on list-
ing activities. The type and level of behavior required as a result
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142
provide
multiple
contexts
use
increasingly
rigorous
standards
of training must be incorporated during practice activities.
Second, all possible contexts or conditions under which the
desired skills and knowledge will be utilized on the job must be
represented during practice. If the trainee must be able to per-
form chemical tests both in the field and in the laboratory, then
practice opportunities must be provided in both field and labora-
tory situations.
Rules for Matching Practice Tasks to Desired Performance.
1. Match the type and level of behavior required during on-the-job
performance to the type and level provided during instruction.
2. If the final performance is highly complex or difficult, se-
quence practice activities, beginning with simple sub-tasks and
concluding with the final complete performance.
3. Provide practice conditions that are similar to the situations
and conditions existing on the job.
Example. You are teaching trainees to write behavioral objectives.
Your objective is that trainees will be able to write a behavioral
objective in the correct format for each type of learning—cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor. Since the final desired behavior"is a
cognitive application performance, y9u provide practice in both
using the correct format and in writing three different types of
objectives. You provide practice first in the correct format; after
trainees have mastered that, then you provide practice in writing,
first, cognitive objectives, then affective objectives, and last
psychomotor objectives.
Exercise. You are teaching trainees to prepare water samples for
chemical analysis. The objective of the lesson is that trainees
will be able to determine the correct weight of each sample. Brief-
ly describe how you would match practice opportunities to the
desired type and level of final performance.
2. Standards of performance. Another way to examine practice opportu-
mties' Ts"in terms of the standards of performance against which
trainee performance is judged. A performance standard is a criterion
such as the maximum time a task may take, a minimum acceptable test
score, or a tolerance range. In some job situations, an absolutely
correct response is the only one permitted. However, an approximate-
ly correct response may be entirely appropriate for an initial prac-
tice experience, since the instructor will relax the standards for
the trainee. For example, a chemical- test may involve the calcula-
tion of residue weight within a very narrow range. On the initial
practice experience, however, trainees may be permitted to report
as correct weights that lie within a much broader range. After
each attempt at weighing the sample, the range may be reduced until
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143
trainees are performing at the standard required for on-the-job
performance. For each exercise, a slightly higher standard of
performance is thus required until desired levels are reached.
On some tasks, time can be used to measure performance. Although
vary the final performance standard may require the trainee to complete
time a task within a certain time limit, initial practice activities
may allow unlimited time. As the trainee becomes more proficient,
the time limits can be reduced until the trainee is performing
within the required limits.
Rules for Utilizing Standards of Performance.
1. When appropriate, lower performance standards for initial
practice activities; increase standards as performance becomes
more proficient.
2. Use "time allowed" as a performance standard; begin by allowing
unlimited time and decrease allowed time as performance becomes
more proficient.
3. Always make final performance standards clearly understood so
that trainees will use those standards as a goal during prac-
tice activities.
Example. You are teaching trainees to operate a spectrophotometer.
They must be able to prepare test samples and operate the equip-
ment fairly rapidly, since they will be using these procedures often.
You begin by allowing each trainee to work slowly and carefully,
taking all the time s/he needs. However, you inform trainees that
they must be able to perform 10-15 tests daily. During initial
training experiences, trainees work so slowly that they are only
able to complete 4-5 tests daily. However, after a two-day training
session, they have increased proficiency to 8-10 tests daily. Since
they have not yet reached the desired level of proficiency, you
incorporate two more days of practice. At the end of the fourth day,
all trainees are performing at the desired level.
Exercise. Explain how you would apply the rules for using perform-
ance standards as practice tools during instruction on operating a
piece of equipment relevant to your work situation.
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144
3. Scheduling practice activities. Practice activities should be
s chedu1ed according to the si ze and complexity of the task to be
learned. Very large and/or very complex tasks should be broken
use parts- into smaller manageable segments on which trainees may practice.
to-whole Practice should be provided on each segment (which may be a sub-
structure task, a step, or a smaller unit) first, and then on the whole task.
For example, training in the operation of a very complex piece of
equipment might include instruction and practice separately on each
phase of operation. Only after trainees are proficient on each
phase should they begin to practice putting the phases together
into a whole task. This parts-to-whole structure serves two pur-
poses. First, it allows trainees to master skills and gain know-
ledge in small, manageable amounts. Second, it allows both trainee
and instructor to pinpoint and correct specific errors before those
errors become learned performances.
You should remember, however, that trainees need to be aware of
and to practice the whole task as well as the parts. Practice
opportunities, therefore, should be scheduled appropriately to allow
trainees to master sequential skills, to deal with manageable units,
and to practice the whole task. Trainees should be made aware of
the nature of the whole task so that they will understand how the
parts fit together. For fairly simple, small tasks, whole practice
will be sufficient.
Rules for Scheduling Practice Activities
1. For small or fairly simple tasks, provide practice on the whole
task.
2. For large or complex tasks, provide practice first on those
parts which are new or difficult.
3. For large or complex tasks, provide practice on the whole task
after trainees have mastered the parts.
4. Arrange instruction and practice sequentially so that task steps
are mastered in correct sequences. Make trainees aware of the
nature of the whole task while they are learning the parts.
Ensure that trainees master the whole task in the appropriate
sequence.
Example. You are giving your daughter her first driving lesson.
You want her to learn how to start the car and put it into gear.
First, you list the steps of the task. Then you give her practice
in starting the car, including practice on operating the clutch.
After she has begun to master the clutch and gas pedal co-ordination,
you teach her the locations of the various gears. Finally, you have
her practice all the skills in their correct order.
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145
Exercise. Briefly describe how you would incorporate the parts-
to-whole structure of practice during a training sesson on the
operation of a pH meter or a piece of equipment with which you
are familiar.
4. Providing assistance during practice. Two kinds of assistance are
involved: prompting~arTd cueing the trainee before the trainee
makes a response and providing feedback after the response.*
Prompting or cueing is a form of preliminary assistance and should
be provided generously during initial practice activities; then the
prompts should be diminished gradually until the learner is able
to perform the task without any preliminary assistance. The more
complex or difficult the task, the more preliminary assistance will
be needed.
Prompts and cues can be built into the descriptions of activities.
use prompts For example, the initial practice activity for a lesson in designing
and cues effective overhead transparencies may include the following direc-
tions: "Design an overhead transparency to clarify a procedure.
Use the six principles of effective design in your work." Later
experiences may omit the second, prompting sentence. Alternately,
the instructor may wait until the trainee appears to be having
difficulties in making the desired resoonse before providing the
prompt ("Remember the six principles of effective design.")
Fellow trainees may provide prompts and cues as well as the instruc-
tor. However, trainee dependence on prompts and cues should be
gradually diminished until trainees can perform the desired task
without any assistance.
Rules for Providing Assistance During Practice.
1. Provide assistance for initial practice activities in the direc-
tions to trainees for completing assignments and exercises. The
prompts and cues may be given orally or in writing.
2. Gradually diminish the amount of assistance until trainees can
perform adequately without them.
3. Whenever appropriate, allow trainees to prompt each other. One
can perform the task while the other supervises and prompts;
then they should exchange roles.
4. Cue performance; don't perform for the trainee. Provide guidance,
directions, and examples as necessary but require the trainee to
respond to the task rather than watch you perform it for him/her.
*We will examine notions of feedback in Lesson Three.
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146
Example. During a lesson on performing task analyses, you incor-
porate practice on identifying the type of behavior required at
each step. You ask one trainee to identify the type of behavior
involved in calibrating a pH meter. For the initial practice
experience, you may include the following prompt in your question:
"What type of behavior is involved in this task—is it cognitive,
affective, or psychomotor?" After two or three such questions,
you no longer include the prompt.
Exercise. You plan to teach a lesson in identifying problems that
require a training solution. One of the practice activities
requires trainees to identify symptoms of each type of performance
problem from the problem analysis statements. Create a prompt that
you might use to help trainees respond correctly to the activity.
5. Actual versus Simulated Practice.
simulate
complex or
unpredictable
experiences
sible to arrange
situations under
formed. In these
provided. A simulation
situation for the use of
driver-training programs
students begin to practice
mastered basic skills and have
reactions to simulated driving
behind the wheel of a real car.
___ It is often difficult or impos-
for all practice experiences to take place in the
which assessment and on-the-job tasks will be per-
cases, simulated practice opportunities may be
involves creating an artificial context or
skills and knowledge. For example, many
make use of a driving simulator on which
driving skills. Once students have
begun to demonstrate appropriate
situations, they are first allowed
Complicated equipment can often be simulated, as can emergency
situations whose occurrence cannot be predicted but for which
personnel must be prepared. Remember the simulated disaster drills
by which medical, police, and fire personnel practice dealing with
real emergencies. Simulations, if well designed and executed, can
be extremely effective and useful practice tools.
Simulated experiences can serve to prepare trainees for actual
experiences which are costly and difficult to provide and can give
practice in dealing with situations that can not be expected to
occur predictably in actuality but which must be prepared for.
Whenever possible, simulated practice should be followed by actual-
situation practice.
Rules for Using Simulations.
1. Use simulations to prepare trainees to cope with unexpected or
emergency conditions.
2. Use simulations when it is too difficult or too costly to pro-
vide actual situations for practice experiences.
3. Whenever possible, follow simulations with actual-situation
practice.
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147
Example. Your department is extremely concerned about safety.
Conversations with subordinates indicate that most personnel are
unaware of the locations of firefighting equipment such as fire
extinguishers and sprinkler control valves. No one is sure how
best to escape from the work area if a fire should occur. You
decide to hold a series of short meetings on the location and use
of equipment and on appropriate measures for evacuating the work
area safely. To reinforce the information, you also desire to hold
monthly simulated fire and disaster drills to ensure that personnel
will act appropriately if a real disaster occurs.
Exercise. Briefly describe a training need which might effectively
utilize simulated practice experiences. Indicate how the simulation
would occur.
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148
ASSIGNMENT 7.1
Answer Key
Included here are suggested answers to the self-check. Your answers
should be similar to the ones suggested.
SELF-CHECK #1
1. Practice is any opportunity given to a learner to use the skills and
knowledge s/he is learning; thus it is a participative activity which
gives learners experience in doing.
2. The three functions of practice are to sharpen learning, to deter
forgetting, and to improve transfer.
a) practice sharpens learning by increasing the effectiveness and
efficiency of the performance. Each time one performs a task,
the performance is more accurate or correct and faster.
b) practice deters forgetting by using repetition to fix a skill or
knowledge more firmly in the person's mind.
c) practice improves transfer by providing multiple contexts in which
a skill or knowledge can be practiced.
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149
APPLICATION EXERCISE
You are teaching trainees to perform the suspended solids test. You have
completed the Task Detailing Sheet and Lesson Planning Form, which are
enclosed. Briefly indicate how you would design practice experiences for
this lesson that will incorporate the rules you have just learned.
A summary list of rules is enclosed for your convenience.
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150
TASK DETAILING SHEET
A. Write Job Title
B. Write Task
Complete steps C - F in the space below.
C. List the specific steps required to perform the task.
D. Check each step which needs to be taught.
E. Indicate whether the checked steps primarily involve cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor behavior.
F. For a cognitive behavior, indicate the appropriate level of performance:
Knowledge - ability to recall information or procedures
Comprehension - ability to explain information or procedures
Application - ability to use information or procedures to do
something
Problem Solving - ability to develop new information or procedures
Steps Required to Perform Task
D
Needs
to be
Taught
Type of Behavior:
Cognitive, Affec-
tive, Psychomotor
F
Level of
Cognitive
Behavior:
Know. , Comp.
Appl . , P. S.
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151
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
1) Instructional Objective:
Audience
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable
Performance
2) Entering Competencies:
Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD(s)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of" media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
- JZ&t44*
6) Sequence Of Instructional Activities. Outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
3.
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152
SUMMARY OF RULES FOR INCORPORATING PRACTICE IN INSTRUCTION
Rules for Matching Practice Tasks to Desired Performance.
1. Match the type and level of behavior required during on-the-job
performance to the type and level provided during instruction.
2. If the final performance is highly complex or difficult, sequence
practice activities, beginning with simple sub-tasks and concluding
with the final complete performance.
3. Provide practice conditions that are similar to the situations and
and conditions existing on the job.
Rules for Utilizing Standards of Performance.
1. When appropriate, lower performance standards for initial practice
activities; increase standards as performance becomes more proficient.
2. Use "time allowed" as a performance standard; begin by allowing
unlimited time and decrease allowed time as performance becomes more
proficient.
3. Always make final performance standards clearly understood so that
trainees will use those standards as a goal during practice activities.
Rules for Scheduling Practice Activities.
1. For small or fairly simple tasks, provide practice on the whole task.
2. For large or complex tasks, provide practice first on those parts
which are new or difficult.
3. For large or complex tasks, provide practice on the whole task after
trainees have mastered the parts.
4. Arrange instruction and practice sequentially so that task steps are
mastered in correct sequences. Make trainees aware of the nature of
the whole task while they are learning the parts. Ensure that trainees
master the whole task in the appropriate sequence.
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153
Rules for Providing Assistance During Practice.
1. Provide assistance for initial practice activities in the directions
to trainees for completing assignments and exercises. The prompts and
cues may be given orally or in writing.
2. Gradually diminish the amount of assistance until trainees can perform
adequately without them.
3. Whenever appropriate, allow trainees to prompt each other. One can
perform the task while the other supervises and prompts; then they
should exchange roles.
4. Cue performance; don't perform for the trainee. Provide guidance,
directions, and examples as necessary but require the trainee to
respond to the task rather than watch you perform it for him/her.
Rules for Using Simulations.
1. Use simulations to prepare trainees to cope with unexpected or
emergency conditions.
2. Use simulations when it is too difficult or too costly to provide
actual situations for practice experiences.
3. Whenever possible, follow simulations with actual-situation practice.
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155
UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
LESSON 3 of 6: USING FEEDBACK AND OTHER REINFORCERS
ASSIGNMENT 7.2: USING FEEDBACK AND OTHER REINFORCERS
Estimated time: Forty-five minutes
This assignment is concerned with various types of reinforcement
and the attributes of each. Readings introduce basic concepts
and identify general rules for utilizing reinforcement tech-
niques. Accompanying self-checks allow you to try out your
understanding of concepts and rules. Answers to the self-checks
are in the answer keys at the end of the assignment. Some
questions may not have a single correct answer; rather, a range
of answers may be appropriate. In the answer key, you will
find a suggested or representative answer; your answer should
be similar to the one suggested. If you feel that your responses
are greatly different from those suggested in the answer key,
you may wish to consult your instructor.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be
able to identify appropriate uses for each type of
reinforcer.
EVALUATION: Self-checks within the assignment will help you to
evaluate your understanding of concepts of rein-
forcement.
DIRECTIONS: 1
Complete Reading #1:
Answer the questions
The Nature of Reinforcement.
in Self-Check #1. This task
should take approximately 5 minutes.
Complete Reading #2: Types of Reinforcers.
Answer the questions in Self-Check #2. This task
should take approximately 10 minutes.
Complete Reading #3: Characteristics of Rein-
forcement. Answer the questions in Self-Check
#3. This task should take approximately 10
minutes.
Complete Reading #4: Feedback.
questions in Self-Check
_ Answer the
This task should
#4. This task should take
approximately 10 minutes.
Discuss any concerns and problems you may have
about the concepts and rules for providing rein-
forcement with your instructor and fellow parti-
cipants. The discussion should last approximately
10 minutes.
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157
READING #1: THE NATURE OF REINFORCEMENT
This brief reading introduces you to the nature and purpose
of reinforcement. A brief self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define reinforcement
2. identify situations requiring the use of rein-
forcement.
1. Reinforcement: A definition. Reinforcement is the process of
guiding behavior by the use of rewards and punishments. A
reinforcer is any event that changes the probability of the
occurrence of some behavior. The event may be a statement of
praise, a grade, a salary bonus, a criticism, or a disciplinary
action. When the reinforcing event occurs immediately after some
behavior, it affects the probability of the occurrence of that
behavior. For example, if you are teaching your dog to heel, a
pat on the head or a dog biscuit offered immediately after the dog
has obeyed your command will increase the probability that the
dog will obey your next command to heel.
2. Situations requiring reinforcement. Reinforcement plays an impor-
tant part in the education of humans, both in and out of school.
Parents use reinforcers to guide the behavior of their children;
teachers use reinforcers to motivate and discipline students;
individuals use reinforcers to reward and punish themselves for
their actions. A parent who spanks a naughty child is guiding
that child's behavior by following undesirable actions with
punishment. A teacher rewards good performance on a test or
assignment with a high grade and words of praise. A company
rewards good employee performance with salary increases and pro-
motions. Any time a reward or punishment follows some behavior,
reinforcement is being used.
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158
SELF-CHECK #1
1. The process of guiding behavior by the use of rewards and punishments
is called
2. When should a reinforcer occur if it is to be most effective?
3. Which of the following situations would probably never involve rein-
forcement?
a. a parent teaches her child to make his bed every day
b. a department plans to increase its workers' productivity
c. an instructor teaches a class to remain quietly in their seats
d. none of the above
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159
READING #2: TYPES OF REINFORCERS
This reading introduces the concepts of positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, and punishment. A brief self-check
follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define and give a training-situation example of the use
of each of the three kinds of reinforcement.
presence of
reward
reinforces
behavior
removal of
unpleasant
event
reinforces
behavior
There are three basic types of reinforcers: positive reinforcers
(often called rewards), negative reinforcers, and punishment.
Each type is used differently and has different effects.
Positive Reinforcement. A positive reinforcer or reward is an
event that increases the probability of the occurrence of the
behavior that it follows. If a trainee has studied hard for a
test and earns a high grade on the test, she will probably study
hard for the next test. The grade is a reward which increases
the probability that the trainee will repeat the behavior (studying
hard) that earned the high grade. There are many types of posi-
tive reinforcers or rewards, including praise, salary bonuses and
increments, promotions and peer recognition. Rewards strengthen
the behavior which they follow since behaviors which have been
rewarded tend to be repeated (see Figure 1).
Negative Reinfo rceme nt. A negative reinforcer is an unpleasant
event whose removal increases the probability of the occurrence of
the behavior which caused its removal. An employee who has been
reporting late for work each day may have part of his salary
deducted for lateness. When he begins arriving on time, the
penalty is lifted and he receives full salary. The removal of
the penalty is the negative reinforcement which should increase
the probability that the employee will arrive on time. Negative
reinforcement operates through removal of unpleasant or aversive
events; the behavior which caused the removal tends to be repeated.
Punishment. A punishment is an event which decreases the probability
of the occurrence of the behavior which occasioned the punishment.
An unruly student who misbehaves in class may be punished by being
kept after school. If that punishment prevents the student from
engaging in desirable afterrschool activities, she will learn to
avoid behaving in the manner which resulted in the punishment.
Punishment thus serves to reduce the occurrence of the undesirable
behavior (see Figure 2).
-------
LAW OF REINFORCEMENT
ANY FORM OF BEHAVIOR THAT IS REWARDED WILL BE MORE LIKELY
TO BE REPEATED.
Figure #1
-------
Results of Praise & Punishment
Good Work-
"good job",
good class-
room effort
etc.
OR
Positive Reinforcement-
praise from "boss" or
teacher, pay raise,
good "grade" in school .
OR
Poor Work-
sloppy job,
poor school
work, "loafing1
etc.
-
Puni shment-
chewed out by "boss"
or teacher, demotion,
pay cut, fai I ing
school grade, etc.
Good Work
cont inues-
may even
improve.
OR
Poor Work
may continue
and get worse-
anger bui Ids up,
tension and
fear develop.
Cheat ing,
quitt ing,
blaming others,
etc.
Figure #2
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162
SELF-CHECK #2
1. How does a positive reinforcer affect the behavior it follows?
2. Positive reinforcers are also called
3. Suggest three different positive reinforcers you might use during a
training session you are conducting.
4. How does a negative reinforcer affect the behavior it follows?
5. How does punishment affect the behavior it follows?
6. Suggest two types of punishments that might be appropriate for rein-
forcing poor performance during training sessions.
7. Match each type of reinforcer at the right to the situations described
on the left. Types of reinforcers may be used more than once.
a) increased productivity
earns a raise in salary
b) after losing 25 Ibs., Mr.
Smith buys a new suit
c) poor grades in school
cause Jeff to lose his
scholarship
d) the rescue of a drowning
child earns Frank a
certificate of merit
from the police depart-
ment
( continued on next page )
I. Positive Reinforcer
II. Negative Reinforcer
III. Punishment
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163
e) constant arguments with
her supervisor and fellow
workers resulted in Mary's
being passed over for a
promotion
f) Laura's mother hid Laura's
ice skates until Laura's
school grades improved;
then Laura got her skates
back
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165
READING #3: CHARACTERISTICS OF REINFORCEMENT
This reading delineates some general characteristics of rein-
forcement and lists rules for using reinforcement. A brief
self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. describe effective methods for providing reinforcement
during training, using the rules.
reinforce
immediately
clearly
identify
reinforce-
ment
structure
reinforce
consistently
reinforce
regularly
There are several characteristics of good reinforcement. First,
reinforcers are most effective when they immediately follow the
behavior that they are intended to reward or punish. The longer
the interval between the behavior and the reinforcer, the less
likely the individual is to make the connection between the two.
Second, the nature of the reinforcements must be clearly identi-
fied. Inappropriate or undesirable behaviors must be clearly
identified as such; the consequences (i.e., punishments) must
be clearly spelled-out so that trainees know what to expect.
Equally, the characteristics of desirable performance must be
made known and the rewards clearly identified. In part, this
involves making known the standards for acceptable performance,
the criteria against which performances will be judged, and the
reward and punishment structure (i.e., grading policies, promo-
tion and salary requirements, evaluation procedures and standards).
For example, trainees should be informed about grading policies
and performance standards as they begin training; subordinates
should be informed of evaluation procedures and standards before
they are evaluated; objectives should be clearly spelled out;
and reward and punishment structures and policies publicized.
Third, reinforcement should be provided consistently. Consistency
involves maintaining the standards, criteria, and reinforcement
structures that the instructor or superior has established. Similar
behaviors under similar circumstances should receive sinilar rein-
forcements. This principle is especially important when punishment
is employed. Two trainees or subordinates who display similarly
undesirable actions should both be punished; punishing one and
ignoring the other results in an ineffective reinforcement system.
Fourth, reinforcement should be provided regularly. Any type of
reinforcement gives an individual some information about the appro-
priateness that occasioned the reinforcement. Without reinforce-
ment, the individual is unable to determine whether his performance
is appropriate or not; in the absence of the information provided
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166
different
types of
reinforcers
have
different
effects
by reinforcement, he is unable to decide whether to repeat a
given action or perform a different one. Therefore, some kind
of reinforcement should be provided so that trainees and sub-
ordinates can judge the appropriateness of their behavior. For
example, rewards need not always be in the form of grades. A
word or two of praise is equally effective. Fellow trainees can
provide reinforcement as well as the instructor. Instructional
materials themselves can contain reinforcment. In fact, once a
trainee or subordinate becomes proficient at a task, s/he can
provide much of his or her own reinforcement by acknowledging
a task well-done or by identifying an error in performance. To
assist the individual, the trainer or supervisor can provide
answer keys, checklists, and evaluation criteria so that the
individual can judge and reinforce his or her own efforts.
Fifth, the three basic types of reinforcers (positive reinforcers
or rewards, negative reinforcers, and punishment) have different
effects. Positive reinforcers are most useful in directing and
controlling behavior. They increase the strength of the behaviors
they follow. The effects of punishment are uncertain; punish-
ment is not always effective in reducing undesired actions. Par-
ticularly with adults, punishment is often less useful than
counselling the individual about the undesired behavior. How-
ever, counselling carries its own hazards. For serious, long-
term problems, only a trained counsellor should attempt the
counselling process. For occasional problems, an out-of-class
conference between instructor and trainee or between superior
and subordinate may help to identify and correct the problem.
Punishment should never be used when trainees are having learning
problems; punishment should only be used with discipline problems,
both during training and on-the-job. Punishment should always
be followed by negative reinforcement when the undesirable or
inappropriate behavior has ceased. Individuals need to be
visibly reassured that their efforts to improve are recognized.
General Rules for Reinforcement
1. Reinforcement should occur immediately after the behavior or
action that is to be reinforced. The longer the delay, the
less effective the reinforcement.
2. Reinforcement structures should be made explicit. Performance
standards and criteria should be clearly identified, as should
assessment procedures and consequences.
3. Reinforcement should be consistent. Standards, criteria, and
reinforcement structures should be applied consistently and
regularly.
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167
4. Reinforcement should be provided regularly. Individuals
need some means of judging the appropriateness and adequacy
of their actions.
5. Punishment and negative reinforcement should be used sparingly
and with care. Positive reinforcement should be used whenever
possible.
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168
SELF-CHECK #3
1. Why is it important to provide reinforcement regularly?
2. Why is it important to be consistent in providing reinforcement?
3. Which of the following are useful sources of reinforcement during
training?
a) the instructor c) fellow trainees
b) answer keys in instructional d) a and b
materials e) a, b, and c
4. How can you, a trainer, identify the reinforcement structure for
your trainees? Suggest two or three ways.
5. Read the following scenario. Then suggest ways in which Gary's
instructor can utilize all three types of reinforcement—positive,
negative, and punishment—to help Gary improve his situation.
Gary has been sitting at the back of the room during the entirety of
the first week of a month-long training session you are conducting.
He does not participate in class discussions, nor turn in assignments
on time; nor does he appear to understand the procedures you are
teaching. You have reminded him several times of his responsibility
toward the training session and informed him that failure in the
training program will result in job termination (he is a new employee
undergoing pre-employment training). He has not responded to your
warnings. You decide to submit a formal report to his department
supervisor and to the personnel department; you give a copy of that
report to Gary during a conference with him.
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169
READING #4: FEEDBACK
This reading introduces concepts of feedback and lists rules
for incorporating feedback within instruction. A brief self-
check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define feedback
2. define and differentiate between confirmatory feedback
and constructive feedback.
1. Feedback: A definition. One of the most important ways of pro-
viding reinforcement is through feedback. Feedback involves
providing information about the success or appropriateness of
behavior. In a sense, all reinforcement is feedback of one
sort or another. For our purposes, however, we can define the
term more narrowly. Feedback is providing verbal information
about a behavior that leads an individual to approve of or
modify that behavior. Feedback may be given in oral or written
form, but it must contain verbal indicators of the success or
appropriateness of some behavior. Salary increases, grades,
promotions, and the like are not considered feedback as we have
defined the term.
2. Types of Feedback. There are two basic types of feedback: con-
firmatory and constructive. Confirmatory feedback involves the
confirmatory use of words which express approval or disapproval about actions;
feedback saying "good work" or "that's wrong" is providing confirmatory
feedback. Constructive feedback involves providing verbal
directions for maintaining or modifying a behavior. Telling a
trainee "no; you must hold the beaker in your left hand in order
to read the metric volume of that solution" is providing con-
structive feedback. Obviously, constructive feedback requires
more, and more specific, information than does confirmatory
feedback; constructive feedback is therefore more useful for
learning situations than confirmatory feedback, especially
during the initial stages of learning.
Characteristics of Constructive Feedback. Effective constructive
feedback has several important characteristics. First, it is
always problem-oriented, never personality-oriented. It focuses
on solving problems by identifying the precise problem or diffi-
cultv and recommending specific ways of resolving it. Construc-
tive feedback should never attack the individual; it can and
should be highly critical, but the criticism must be objective
and impartial. It is constructive--it helps to build skills and
knowledge by pointing out problems and ways to begin solving them.
constructive
feedback
problem
orientation
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170
tailor
feedback
to meet
trainees'
needs
reinforce
proficiency
utilize
various
sources of
feedback
give
immediate
feedback
Second, constructive feedback should be tailored in quality and
quantity to the trainee's or subordinate's progress and status.
During initial learning experiences, for example, trainees
should receive fairly detailed and frequent feedback on their
performance; as they become more proficient and more confident,
the quantity of constructive feedback can be decreased. Even-
tually, only confirmatory feedback will be needed. Similarly,
an employee's need for detailed information about performance
may vary with the task; for unfamiliar or infrequently performed
or very complex tasks, detailed constructive feedback may be
necessary; for fairly simple or routine tasks, confirmatory feed-
back will usually be adequate. The instructor or superior may
want to ask each individual how much information s/he needs in
order to improve performance.
Third, even those who are performing well need to be informed
of this fact. Recommending an employee for a promotion or raise
or giving a trainee a high grade is less effective than informing
the individual of the planned reward. The immediacy and direct-
ness of the verbal information may have greater reward potential
than the actual reward itself since the verbal contact comes
at a more personal level.
Fourth, feedback may come from many sources. The most obvious
source is the trainer or supervisor. However, feedback from
peers, such as may occur during discussions or peer evaluations,
can be equally effective. Peer tutors have a history of successful
use and can help an instructor to more adequately meet the needs
of trainees. In addition, feedback can be built into instruc-
tional materials. Answer keys and self-correcting exercises and
tests provide trainees with immediate feedback and enable them
to correct errors quickly. One type of instructional material,
called Programmed Instruction, makes extensive use of self-
correcting instructional materials by providing answers imme-
diately after questions and exercises. Whenever there exists the
possibility that a trainee may not understand why an answer is
incorrect, the answer key should contain an explanation of the
reason for the correct response.
For the employee, performance evaluation forms which indicate
both task competence and suggestions for improving performance are
far more useful than simple ratings. These can be completed by
supervisors, knowledgeable fellow workers, and by the employees
themselves as self-evaluations. The more information an individual
has about performance, the better able s/he is to improve it.
Finally, as with all types of reinforcement, the more immediate
the feedback, the more useful it is. If an individual must wait
a long time to receive feedback, s/he may forget why mistakes were
made and may no longer be capable of, or interested in, correcting
them.
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171
Rules for Providing Feedback
1. Provide feedback immediately after behavior.
2. Provide detailed constructive feedback for unfamiliar, com-
plex, or infrequently performed tasks. As individuals gain
proficiency, reduce the quantity of information. Provide
confirmatory feedback to maintain proficiency, competence,
and interest.
3. Involve trainees and subordinates in determining how much
information they need and how often they need it. Establish
reinforcement schedules to meet their needs.
4. Use multiple sources for feedback. Create answer keys for
exercises, quizzes, and tests. Involve trainees in evaluating
each other's performance and providing feedback. Provide
procedural guides and checklists for employees. Involve
individuals in self-evaluation; give them feedback on their
self-evaluations.
5. Use feedback to reinforce appropriate behavior. Compliment
the proficient; let trainees and employees know you are aware
of their successes.
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172
SELF-CHECK #4
1. What is the difference between reinforcement in general and feedback?
2. How do confirmatory and constructive feedback differ?
3. Which of the following should not be considered appropriate sources
for feedback during a training session?
a) personal conference between trainee and instructor
b) peer evaluations of an assignment
c) answer keys and procedural guides in instructional materials
d) none of the above
e) a, b, and c
4. Which of the following comments are not appropriate forms of feedback?
a) "You did an excellent job on this report."
b) "You failed the test because you confused these two types of
chemical processes."
c) "That's a stupid comment.1"
d) You forgot to clean the equipment again. Your sloppiness drives me
crazy."
e) You have been late for work every day this week. Your lateness
prevents our meetings from starting on time and throws the entire
day's schedule off.
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173
ASSIGNMENT 7.2
Answer Key
Suggested answers to self-checks are included below. Your responses
should be similar to those suggested.
SELF-CHECK #1
1. reinforcement
2. immediately after the behavior it is intended to reinforce
3. d
SELF-CHECK #2
1. it increases the probability of the occurrence of the behavior
2. rewards
3. praise, grades, peer recognition
4. its removal increases the probability of the occurrence of the behavior
which caused its removal
5. it decreases the probability of the occurrence of the behavior it
follows
6. job dismissal or probation, formal written warning to supervisor or
to personnel department
7. I a
I b
III c
I d
III e
II f
SELF-CHECK #3
1. reinforcement gives people information about the appropriateness of
their behaviors; regular information is important to help people know
whether they are right or correct in what they are doing.
2. consistency provides the same kinds of information to people and helps
them ensure that they understand the consequences of their actions; it
also ensures fairness.
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174
3. e
4. Discuss with them the standards and criteria for successful performance,
the requirements of the organization and of the training program, ask
them what types of rewards will be most meaningful to them. Then
develop and publicize a single system of rewards and punishments that
are appropriate for the tasks, the organization, and the trainees;
stick to it.
5. The formal report is a kind of punishment. It is a warning to Gary
that his work must improve or he may lose his job. During the con-
ference, explain to Gary that he needs to decide whether he intends to
participate in and learn from the training program; if you and he can
find good reasons for him to do so, then you are ready to establish
a series of small rewards for small steps toward Gary's successful
participation. You may decide to send a weekly report to his department
supervisor detailing Gary's successes; when he is participating and
succeeding as expected, you will remove the unpleasant report from his
permanent record in the personnel office.
SELF-CHECK #4
1. Reinforcement helps shape behavior by identifying appropriate and inappro-
priate actions in terms of the type of reinforcer each earns. Feed-
back, on the other hand, provides specific information that helps an
individual to approve of or modify a particular behavior or course of
action. Feedback thus identifies how appropriate or successful a
behavior is through direct verbal information.
2. Confirmatory feedback merely indicates whether the behavior was appro-
priate or not; constructive feedback indicates how the behavior can be
improved through specific suggestions and instructions. Constructive
feedback is more precise and therefore more useful than confirmatory
feedback, especially in initial learning situations.
3. d
4. c
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175
UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
LESSON 4 of 6: MOTIVATION
ASSIGNMENT 7.3: MOTIVATION
Estimated time: 60 minutes
This assignment deals with the topic of motivation. The readings
introduce basic concepts and general guidelines for motivating
trainees. Accompanying self-checks and exercises allow you to
try out your understanding of the concepts and guidelines and to
apply the guidelines in designing effective motivational strategies.
Answers to self-checks are in the answer key at the end of the
materials. Some items may not have a single correct answer;
rather a range of answers may be appropriate. In the answer key,
you will find a suggested or representative answer; your answer
should be similar to the one suggested. If you feel that your
responses are greatly different from those suggested in the answer
key, you may wish to consult your instructor.
The concluding activity for this lesson is an application exercise
during which you will identify techniques for motivating trainees;
you will use the guidelines delineated in the readings.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be able
to identify effective techniques for motivating trainees.
EVALUATION: The application exercise at the end of the assignment
involves you in selecting motivational strategies that
are appropriate in specified situations. (If you are
using this assignment for self-study, disregard references
to "discussions with fellow-participants.")
DIRECTIONS: 1. Complete Reading #1: The Nature of Motivation.
Answer the questions in Self-Check #1.TFis task
should take approximately 10 minutes.
2. Complete Reading #2: Needs and Mptiyation.
Answer the questions in Self-Check #2.This task
should take approximately 15 minutes.
3. Complete Reading #3: Characteristics of Motivation.
This task should take approximately 15 minutes.
4. Participate in a discussion during which you work
with fellow participants to complete the applica-
tion exercise. This task should take approximately
20 minutes.
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177
READING #1: THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION
This reading introduces basic concepts in motivation. A brief
self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define motivation
2. name at least four indicators that show an individual
is motivated.
motivation
results in
goal-
oriented
behavior
1. A Definition. An important concern in learning and instruction
is the concept of motivation. Very little is actually known about
what motivation is; we know more about what it does. We don't
create motivation; every organism comes equipped with it. We
must learn how to use it—much like electricity. Let's look
first at some general definitions of motivation:
1. motivation arouses, sustains, directs, and integrates a
persons's behavior
2. motivation acts to produce a certain kind of behavior,
maintained at a definite energy level, and directed toward
a specific objective
3. motivated behavior is characterized by persistence,
exploratory variation, and emotional energizations.
In general, we can say that the result of motivation is goal-
oriented behavior. We know someone is motivated when we see that
person direct his behavior toward a goal. While we can't measure
motivation directly, we can determine what the goal is, how im-
indicators portant the goal is to the individual, how much effort the
of individual is expending in striving toward the goal, how persis-
rnotivated tent the effort is, and what different actions and behaviors are
behavior involved in reaching the goal.
For example, Allison is dissatisfied with her job; she feels that
her job is boring, she is underpaid, and she is not being permitted
to use her skills and abilities. She meets with her supervisor
who informs her that a job slot is open that will be challenging
and interesting; however, Allison must compete with applicants
from outside the organization. Further, her supervisor informs
her that she must pass an examination that will require a great
deal of preparation in her spare time. Since Allison wants the
opportunity to advance in the organization, she is highly motivated
to prepare for both the application interviews and the examination.
She sacrifices her weekends and evenings for six weeks in order
to study; she resigns from her bowling team and bridge club, asks
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178
her husband to take over some housework, and concentrates on
preparing to take the exam and the interview. Because she is
highly motivated to work hard, Allison is selected for the
new position.
How does Allison's behavior demonstrate motivation? First, it
is goal-oriented; all her energies are directed toward preparing
for the interview and examination. The goal obviously has high
importance since Allison is willing to give up leisure activities
for it. She is extremely persistent over a fairly long period of
time, ignoring all temptations and concentrating on her goal.
All of these factors combine to form what we call motivation.
Another way to talk about motivation is in terms of different
competing goals and needs and the relative strength of each when they are
goals have in competition with each other. No human being is ever lucky
different enough to have only one task or interest or responsibility at a
strengths time; we all operate under multiple demands. Each demand repre-
sents a goal or need of some kind; all of these demands compete
with each other for our attention and effort. Thus, a major
component of motivation is the kinds of choices we make about
where, when, and why we should direct our efforts and energies.
For example, Allison has goals and needs that are related to her
work; however, she also has a family to make demands on her time
and energy. Moreover, she has friends and interests outside both
job and family. Each of these areas represents some need or goal
for Allison. She has a need to spend time with her family, to
care for them and receive their care. Her friends satisfy other
needs, as do her interests in bowling and bridge. Ordinarily,
she allocates a large part of her time and energy to her family,
a lesser amount to her job, and the least to her friends and
recreational interests. However, for the six weeks it will take
her to prepare for the examination and interview, she rearranges
her priorities. She allocates the largest share toward her job,
a much smaller share to her family, and almost no time or energy
to her friends and recreational interests. She has made a con-
scious choice among all of the competing goals and needs; she
has focused her energies toward only one of them.
Since we are all beset by multiple demands on our time and energy,
it is important to understand how and why people make choices so
that we can use our knowledge of motivation to make instruction
more relevant to trainees.
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SELF-CHECK #1
1. What is motivation? Define the term in your own words.
2. Although we cannot directly measure motivation, we can identify and
measure some of the results of motivation. Name at least three of
the indicators of motivated behavior.
3. Briefly describe a situation in which you demonstrated motivated
behavior. What was your goal? What did you do to reach it?
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READING #2: NEEDS AND MOTIVATION
This reading introduces Maslow's concept of a hierarchy of needs.
A brief self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of the reading, you should be able to:
1. explain each of the five levels of Maslow's hierarchy
2. identify elements at each level that motivate you.
One theory of human behavior advanced by Abraham Maslow maintains
that behavior is directed, and thus motivated, by different needs.
In Maslow's theory, a need is a discrepancy between what one has
and what one wants or ought to have. More basic needs must be
satisfied before needs higher on the ladder can be dealt with.
level i: Maslow has identified a hierarchy of human needs (see Figure 1),
physiologi- beginning with the basic physiological needs for food, water,
cai needs sleep, and sex. Until these basic needs are met, humans cannot
be concerned with other, less basic needs. At this level, all
human behavior is motivated toward survival. For example, to
fulfill these needs, humans in our culture seek employment that
provides sufficient salary to pay for food and other survival
needs. Welfare and social services have been provided by both
government and private agencies to ensure that people have basic
tools of survival. An employee whose salary does not stretch
to meet basic physiological need must either take on additonal
work or change jobs in order to provide for survival. Throughout
history, nations have gone to war because they lacked, or thought
they lacked, sufficient land and resources to maintain the survival
of their citizens.
Once survival has been assured, the next level of needs that moti-
levei 2: vates behavior is safety needs, which include the needs for shel-
safety ter, safe living and working conditions, job security, and pro-
ceeds tection from injury. At this level, behavior is directed toward
goals of attaining and maintaining a safe, orderly, and dependable
environment. For example, an individual who is motivated by needs
at this level strives to obtain a home that satisfies his per-
ception of adequate shelter; he may require a large salary in order
to live in a delux penthouse or a smaller salary adequate for an
efficiency apartment. Further, his shelter needs as a bachelor
are very different from his shelter needs as a married man and
father of several children. Moreover, his desire to secure a
safe working environment and job security may motivate him toward
activities that appear to conflict with the needs of the organiza-
tion that employs him. Labor unions were formed because of needs
at this level.
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MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN
NEEDS
Self-Actualization
Fulfillment, creativity
Ego Needs
Status, recognition, self-esteem,
success, etc
Social Needs
Belonging, acceptance, group association,
love, affection
Safety Needs
Shelter, clothes, protection from injury,
need for asafe, orderly, predictable world
CO
ro
Physiological Needs
Sex, food, water, sleep, etc
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level 3:
sodai
needs
level 4:
ego needs
levei 5:
self-
actuaiiza
The third level of needs which motivate behavior is social needs,
which include the need to belong to, be accepted by, and associ-
ate with a group, and the need for love and affection. At this
level, people are motivated to make friends, join social groups,
and participate as a member of a family. Emotional needs first
begin to surface at this level. For example, an individual who
is extremely poor cannot concentrate on emotional needs until she
has earned sufficient salary to purchase shelter, food, clothing,
and adequate medical care. Once these lower level needs are met,
the individual can begin to direct her energy in additional
directions; she can seek out friends, develop and share interests
in recreational activities, join social groups, and begin to
develop personal relationships that support her emotional needs.
The fourth level of needs that motivate behavior is ego needs,
which include the needs for status, recognition, self-esteem,
and success. At this level, the individual can first begin to
think of himself and of the future. At this level, too, man
needs satisfactory reactions (feedback) from others as well as
from himself; the need for self-respect is prominent here. Real
self-respect is based on achievement; esteem needs are founded
upon people's ability to achieve at tasks they believe to be
important; self-respect manifests itself in feelings of self-
confidence and the corresponding desire for recognition from
others. In learning, trainees must experience success in training
tasks; the instructor must ensure that tasks can be satisfactorily
completed so that self-esteem and respect can be achieved. For
example, an employee who works hard and actively seeks promotions
and other forms of recognition from his organization is motivated
by ego needs; he may, in fact, be earning a very large salary and
appear to be greedily striving for more. However, that individual
usually envisions money not as buying power but as a measure of
his worth; the more money he earns, the more valuable he believes
he is to the organization. Thus salary serves to fulfill ego
needs for status, recognition, and respect.
At the highest level, the individual is motivated toward self-
actualization, seeking professional and personal fulfillment and
creative expression. Man must be what he can be; he remains rest-
less unless he is doing what he thinks he is capable of doing.
This is the level of needs that drives man toward his highest
accomplishments; it is never completely satisfied. An interesting
aspect of needs at this level is that they do not require responses
from other people; the individual seeking self-fulfillment
retreats from public view and works only for himself. Artists,
inventors, and other highly creative individuals strive to satisfy
their own inner standards of excellence, ignoring the comments
and criticisms of others. It is at this stage, too, that materi-
al reinforcements become unimportant and many people leave their
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184
jobs and their familiar environments to retreat to less demanding
situations in which they can concentrate solely on their creative
impulses.
Maslow's hierarchy contains information that is important for
trainers and employers since they must create work environments
and incentives that will motivate trainees and subordinates.
Offering a higher salary to an employee who is seeking opportunities
for creative self-expression would be a mistake, just as encouraging
risktaking and creative opportunities to an individual who cannot
support his family on his present salary would be. We
must understand enough about the people we work with to identify
the levels of needs that serve as their most immediate and potent
motivators.
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SELF-CHECK #2
1. In what kind of structure does Maslow perceive human needs? Why is
this an important structure for trainers and supervisors to understand?
2. In the column on the left are several descriptive statements of
specific needs. In the column on the right are the five levels of
Maslow1s theory. Match each item on the left to its appropriate
level on the right. Each level may be used more than once.
_a) Barbara wants her supervisor to
recognize how well she handled
a difficult client.
_b) With a new baby, Gary needs to
save enough money for a down-
payment on a house.
_c) Since their father lost his job,
the Mally children haven't had
enough to eat.
d) Harris wants to join the soft-
ball team at his plant.
_e) Many nurses are threatening to
resign if the hospital does not
increase the number of security
guards in the parking garage.
_f) Evelyn is planning to leave her
job in order to devote all her
time to earning a college degree.
_g) After three lonely weeks as the
new girl at school, Joan has
made two friends.
1. physiological needs
2. safety needs
3. social needs
4. ego needs
5. self-actualization
3. What goals and needs serve as your most potent motivators? What
level of Maslow1s theory does each represent?
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READING #3: CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION
This reading identifies some basic characteristics of motivation
and lists some general guidelines for increasing motivation
during training. An application exercise completes the lesson
assignment. Directions for the exercise are given on the
Exercise Description Sheet.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. describe a general model of motivation
2. identify appropriate strategies to meet the motivational
needs of a particular group.
a model of
motivation
Motivation is a complex concept which incorporates several com-
ponents: the motives and values which energize and direct behavior,
the effort expended in achieving goals, the expectation the indi-
vidual has that his effort and ability will result in successful
task performance, and the expectation that successful task per-
formance will lead to the desired reward. We have already looked
at the types of goals that motivate behavior; now we will examine
how individuals select goals and determine courses of action
appropriate for achieving them. We can identify several charac-
teristics of motivation by examining each component of motivation
separately and in interactions with each other, as the motivation
model below indicates:
Motives
and
Values
1
Effort
Task
Performance
Reward
Briefly, the model describes relationships among the various com-
ponents of motivation. An individual's particular set of motives
andvaljues_ determine the amount of effort that an individual is
willing to exert to reach a particular goal or reward. A suf-
ficient amount of effort and ability, in combination, results in
successful task performance. Success at the task generates the
reward; in turn, attainment of the reward, or lack of attainment
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188
modifies the individual's set of motives and values. Given this
general model, we can now examine each component in greater detail.
MOTIVES
AND
VALUES
I
[,,,"M!IM
Task
sources
influencing
motives and
values
motives and
values
influence
rewards
motives and
values
influence
choice of
tasks
We behave in certain ways because we have certain values, set
particular goals, and strive to meet certain needs. Each of us
carries within ourselves a set of values, motives, and needs that
informs our personalities. These values and motives are a product
of both our culture and our personal choices. They are a part of
our determination of what we will do or not do, in terms of our
occupations, our leisure activities, even the friends we choose
and the type of family life we have.
This set of motives and values directly influences the kinds of
rewards we seek. An individual who values money will seek em-
ployment that pays well and a lifestyle that represents financial
well-being overtly; he may buy a large home, a luxury car, perhaps
even a boat; he may spend vacations traveling abroad; he may even
choose to spend large amounts on expensive clothing. Another man
who values personal freedom will choose employment that pays less
well but allows him a great deal of liberty; he will choose a
smaller home and car, take less expensive vacations, and spend
less money in general; but he will have more free time to spend
as he chooses and more control over how and when he does his work.
There is a direct relationship between one's set of values and
motives and the rewards that the individual is willing to work for.
Also linked to our set of values and motives are decisions about
the kinds of tasks we are willing to perform to achieve our goals.
A woman who values her role as homemaker and mother will not will-
ingly seek employment outside her home. Another may believe that
her fulfillment lies primarily in the practice of her profession;
she will eagerly seek outside employment, perhaps even hiring
another woman to care for her home and children while she works.
Several individuals who seek praise will perform different tasks
in order to earn that praise. One may become a gourmet cook, an-
other a sculptor, and the third seek recognition through his/her
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189
job. We all identify certain tasks as important and appropriate
for ourselves and reject others as inappropriate or improper.
Thus each of us acts on our set of motives and values by selecting
certain rewards and tasks as meaningful and relevant for our own
lifestyle.
Motives
and
1
EFFORT
task
ffeward
effort
Our motives and values also influence the amount of effort—time
and energy—we are willing to expend toward earning rewards.
Effort is compounded of three interwoven components: the amount
of time and energy required to complete a given task, the expec-
tation that expending such effort will result in task completion,
and the belief that task completion will lead to the desired
reward.
How much effort is required? Is the reward worth that much effort?
We have to deal with many needs and goals and we have only a finTte
amount of time and energy available for striving toward them. Thus
we must make choices. The desire to spend more time with your fam-
ily and the need for a new living room couch may compete for your
time and energy. You would like to be able to have both, but you
must choose between working overtime to pay for the couch and
spending that time with your family. Each goal has value—which
has greater value for you?
Motives
I
ABILITY
H »
Task
Reward
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190
ability
Can you perform the tasks required to achieve your goal? Ab i 1 i ty
is an important component of effort. No matter how much effort
you are willing to expend, if you lack the skills and knowledge
necessary to perform the tasks, you will be unable to achieve
your goal .
the right combination of effort and ability actually result
i n i SMC cess f ul task performance? lr\ sbme~ci" re urn stance's", no amount
of effort and ability is successful. In games of chance, the
probability of success has little or no relationship to effort or
ability. Similarly, when environmental constraints exist, such
as poor organizational management, inefficient supply routes, or
lack of communication, effort is wasted and ability is meaningless,
I
(expectation)
expectation
Mill successful task performance actually lead to the desired
reward?What guarantee is there that you will receive your
desired reward if you perform the tasks? An employee who works
long and hard in order to receive a promotion may not receive it;
instead, his/her supervisor will simply expect the employee to
continue his/her high level of diligence and competence. The
supervisor see successful job performance as a requirement for
keeping the job, not as grounds for promotion. Thus the reward
is not forthcoming. The less one perceives a relationship between
successful task performance and rewards, the less likely that
person is to be motivated to continue performing well. Thus,
people need to see overtly the relationship between performance
and reward; without guarantees that success will be recognized
in ways that are relevant to the individual, s/he will cease to
strive after success.
Thus, we can say that the motives and- values an individual pos-
sesses cause him to choose particular tasks and rewards on which
he is willing to expend time and energy. If he perceives that
the chosen goal is worth working for, that he is capable of
achieving the desired reward through a combination of effort and
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191
motives and
values
change
we can
increase
ability
intrinsic
rewards
ability, and that there is a direct relationship among effort
and ability, successful task completion, and the desired reward,
then the individual will be motivated to strive toward the reward.
If one or more of these components is missing, motivation will be
reduced accordingly.
Two additional points must be made. First, the relationship we
perceive among the components of motivation changes as we gain
experience and insight. If our experience leads us to believe
that our efforts rarely produce the rewards we desire, we cease
to expend much effort. If, on the other hand, experience teaches
us that diligence and hard work lead to desired rewards, we will
increase our effort. Thus, previous experiences and insights
modify and structure our perceptions of the relationships among
effort, performance, and reward and lead to modifications in our
value system.
Second, ability and effort are often within our control. We
choose the amount of effort we are willing to expend in each of
several activities. Equally, we can choose to expend effort to
develop our abilities. Often, we believe a goal to be so worth-
while that we will expend effort in learning how to perform the
tasks necessary to accomplish it. For this reason, people go to
colleges and trade schools; thus, ability is not totally con-
strained. However, our efforts to educate ourselves and thus
increase our abilities require significant expenditures of time
and energy; we must also be capable of delaying desired rewards,
often for several years, until we have developed the requisite
abilities.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards. A final concern is the distinction
between TntrinsTc and extrinsic rewards. A reward is called in-
trinsic when the individual sees some task as meaningful, important,
and enjoyable in and of itself. The satisfaction of the task be-
comes its own reward and ability to complete the task is rein-
forcing. For example, a young man may choose to spend all of his
free time working on, repairing, and rebuilding cars. He derives
pleasure from his work and satisfaction from seeing old, derelict
vehicles restored and running. His friends bring their cars to
him for repairs. He chooses this task for the enjoyment it brings
him; he seeks no monetary or other external reward and never
charges his friends for his labor. He has found an intrinsic re-
ward, since the more he works on cars, the more he wants to work
on them. Clergymen, medical personnel, social workers, and others
in similar professions are motivated intrinsically; the salaries
they receive are less rewarding than is the pleasure they receive
from helping others.
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192
extrinsic Extrinsic rewards utilize reinforcers that are external to the
rewards individual, such as money, grades, degrees, and job recognition.
The individual strives for the external reward attached to a
goal, rather than simply enjoying the task itself. The instructor
or employer usually sets the rewards toward which trainees and
employees strive; however, extrinsic rewards are dependent on the
dispenser of the reward—the employer or instructor. If the
reward-giver is out of the picture for any reason, there is no
incentive to succeed. For example, a young woman may choose to
work at a relatively boring job because of the high salary, good
benefits, and rapid promotion opportunities. So long as she is
regularly reinforced for her efforts with raises, bonuses, and
promotions, she will continue to work fairly hard. However, as
soon as the external rewards are removed, she will reduce her
effort. She is controlled by the nature of the extrinsic rewards;
without them, she has no reason to exert herself.
Extrinsic rewards have less strength and less long-term power
than do intrinsic rewards. The knowledgable instructor or employ-
er, therefore, learns what goals are important to trainees or em-
ployees and structures a motivational system that uses a minimum
of extrinsic rewards. In fact, opportunity for fresh and novel
experiences is, in itself, a good intrinsic reward, as is the
chance to earn praise from peers. Grades are far less useful in
the long run.
An understanding of these characteristics of motivation is impor-
tant for trainers, who must both motivate trainees and help them
to become self-motivating. It is especially important to help
trainees set realistic goals so that they will expect to achieve
them. A balance must be struck so that successful task performance
is neither too easy nor too difficult to achieve. Rewards must
be meaningful, appropriate, and obtainable; trainees should be
involved in the selection of tasks and rewards. An employee who
is not interested in job enlargement or promotion is an unlikely
candidate for a training program to expand his skills; he should
be able to choose whether or not he wishes to participate in the
program.
Further, every effort should be made to identify intrinsic rewards
for each employee and trainee. Such rewards as the opportunity to
work on a new and exciting project, the chance to help plan a
training program that will be more responsive to employees' needs,
provision for time to spend on personal, job-related interests,
and other similar rewarding activities will energize and direct
worker attention and effort and result in more satisfied personnel.
Finally, motivation should be established through positive rein-
forcers, both intrinsic and extrinsic, rather than through threats
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193
and punishments. Assuring opportunities for meeting social needs
through group membership and identification, providing opportuni-
ties for success and for recognition by peers and superiors will
help to foster more attractive working and learning environments.
Care must be taken to ensure that trainees' goals and program
goals are coordinated. Instructors must become aware of the
needs, values, and interests that motivate trainees.
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194
GUIDELINES FOR MOTIVATING TRAINEES
1. Know your trainees. Find out why they are in training programs, what
they expect and need from their jobs, and what their needs and values
are. An initial training session that focuses on the trainees rather
than on the topics of training will help you to make training more
relevant to the trainees.
2. Construct a system of rewards that is relevant to the trainees. Do
not use grades unless the individual has a need to be graded. Pass/
not-yet-pass systems can be equally effective for management's pur-
poses and will not involve trainees needlessly in competing for grades.
3. Make sure that trainees know why they are undergoing training. Detp
mine how they feel about the reasons for training. A need to impro\_
skills that is felt strongly by a trainee provides a very different
motivation than is felt by someone who is simply doing what his
supervisor told him to do.
4. Make training realistic. Build in guarantees of success so that
trainees will believe that they have the pre-requisite skills and
knowledge to succeed during training. Make success attainable but not
too easy. Know how much time and energy trainees will have to exert
to succeed; do not require more than they are willing and able to
give. Remember that they have lives outside the work environment
that also require time and energy.
5. Ensure that trainees believe that successful performance will result
in the desired or promised reward. Don't promise what you can't de-
liver. Work with trainees, supervisors, and management to build a
system of realistic and meaningful rewards. Publicize the system
and the standards for earning the rewards so that trainees know what
is possible and how to attain it.
6. Help trainees to develop intrinsic reward structures. Find out how
their jobs can be made more personally satisfying; work with them to
achieve personal satisfaction. Work within the organization to build
a system of intrinsic activities such as peer recognition programs,
recreational activities, career ladders, and the like, through which
employees can achieve a sense of personal commitment to and satisfac-
tion from the organization.
7. Praise is a very strong reinforcer; however, when it only comes from
above—from a trainer or supervisor—it, remains an extrinsic reward.
Create opportunities for providing praise from peers and from the
trainee or employee him/herself; help the trainee to recognize and be
proud of work that is well done.
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195
8. The organization as a whole must ensure that needs on the first two
levels of Maslow's hierarchy—physiological and safety needs—are
met before it can turn attention to those needs higher on the hierar-
chy.
9. To help identify motivational and environmental problems, use the
Problem Definition Worksheet (see Unit Two: Analysis). Plan your
problem-solving strategy in terms of what you learn from using the
Worksheet. If the problem is motivational, work to improve the
reward structure; if the problem is environmental, work to remove
inhibiting or constraining factors.
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196
SELF-CHECK #3
1. What are three sources which influence a person's motives and values?
2. What factors determine how much effort we will expend on a goal?
3. How are motives and values, effort, ability, and task performance
related to motivation? You may use either a diagram or a paragraph
or both to explain.
4. What is an intrinsic reward? Why is an intrinsic reward preferrable
to an extrinsic reward?
5. What are some intrinsic rewards that are relevant to you? Name at
least two or three.
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197
ASSIGNMENT 7.3
Answer Key
The following answers are suggested as acceptable responses to the
questions in the Self-checks; your answers should be similar to the
ones suggested.
SELF-CHECK #1
1. Motivation is some sort of personality factor that results in persis-
tent, energetic, goal-directed behavior.
2. We measure the results of motivation rather than motivation itself.
Some measurable components are
a. type of goal
b. importance or value of the goal (as compared to other goals)
c. amount of effort expended toward the goal (time on task is a good
indicator)
d. persistence
e. types of goal-oriented behaviors and actions.
SELF-CHECK #2
1. Maslow's structure is a hierarchy. The hierarchy requires that lower
order needs be satisfied before higher ones can be dealt with.
2- 4 a) 2 b) 1 c) J_d) 2 e) 5 f) 3 g)
SELF-CHECK #3
1. Our values and needs come primarily from three sources: our sense of
survival, innate in every animal, which drives us toward food, water,
sleep, and sex; the values inherent in our culture, which we learn
at a very early age; and the personal choices we make as a result of
our individual personalities.
2. The factors determining how much effort we will expend on a goal are
a. our analysis of the amount of effort necessary to attain the goal
b. our analysis of the value of attaining that goal
c. our belief that we have the ability—the skills and knowledge—to
attain the goal
d. our belief that successful task performance will result in the
desired reward.
3. Motives and values determine what goals individuals pursue, and the
types of tasks they are willing to perform to attain the goal. Effort
is a measure of how much time and energy an individual is willing to
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198
expend on attaining a goal; thus it is a measure of the worth of the
goal to the individual. Ability determines how much effort one is
willing to expend, since it helps to determine how successful the
person will be in achieving the goal. A diagram of the relationship
looks like this:
Motives
and
Values
1
Effort
Task
Performance
Reward
4. Intrinsic rewards involve reinforcers that are internal to an individ-
ual and which do not depend upon rewards provided by outside sources.
In intrinsic motivation, satisfaction with some task is rewarding;
the task is seen as meaningful, important, and enjoyable in and of
itself.
Extrinsic rewards depend upon the presence of a reward-giver; when
that individual is absent, motivation decreases. Thus intrinsic
motivators, which are part of an individual, are always preferrable
to extrinsic ones since intrinsic motivators do not depend on anyone
else.
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199
EXERCISE DESCRIPTION
You are a member of a training program; this is your first session.
You have just met the other participants over coffee and now you are
ready to discuss the nature and purpose of the training program, your
goals as a participant, and your responsibilities to the program.
Your task over the next 20 minutes is to identify a motivational
system that will make you feel willing and eager to participate in
the training. You should discuss with your fellow participants the
types of extrinsic reinforcers that you believe will be useful and
meaningful for this week-long program and you should also identify
those intrinsic aspects that would motivate you regardless of the
extrinsic reward system. You should be realistic in your determination
of rewards, but not restrictive. You should, at the end of 20 minutes,
have an outline of a motivational system that your group believes will
be effective for the particular circumstances of your training program.
Take notes in the space below, when the discussion ends, you should
have recorded an outline of an effective motivational system.
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201
UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
LESSON 5 of 6: STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING CONTENT
ASSIGNMENT 7.4: STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING CONTENT
Estimated time: Sixty minutes
This assignment is concerned with strategies for enhancing content
through devices to emphasize, highlight, illustrate, clarify, and
otherwise illuminate important information. The readings introduce
essential concepts and provide rules for enhancing content. Accom-
panying self-checks and exercises allow you to demonstrate your
understanding of the content of this lesson. Answers to the self-
checks are in the answer key at the end of the assignment. Some
questions may not have a single correct answer; rather a range of
answers may be appropriate. In the answer key, you will find a
suggested or representative answer; your answer should be similar
to the one suggested. If you feel that your responses are greatly
different from those provided in the answer key, you may wish to
consult your instructor.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be able
to identify instructional situations which warrant the
use of each content enhancement strategy.
EVALUATION: Self-checks within the assignment will help you to
evaluate your understanding of concepts for enhancing
content.
DIRECTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Complete Reading #1: Enhancing Content. Answer
the questions in Self-Check #K this task should
take approximately 5 minutes.
Complete Reading #2: Strategies for Highlighting
Content. Answer the questions in Self-Check #2.
This task should take approximately 15 minutes.
Complete Reading #3: Learning Guides. Answer the
questions in Self-Check #3. This task should take
approximately 10 minutes.
Read Rules for Enhancing Content and apply the rules
in the application exercise. TTTis task should take
approximately 30 minutes.
Participate in a discussion on ways of making
content more effective through the use of content
enhancement strategies.
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READING #1: ENHANCING CONTENT
This reading describes the nature of content enhancement
strategies and explains why such strategies are important,
A brief self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1, explain the purpose of content enhancing strategies
2. name at least three kinds of content enhancement
strategies.
A content enhancement strategy is any device used to clarify,
purpose emphasize, illustrate, or otherwise illuminate the content of
instruction. These strategies assist the instructor in pointing
out important sequences of information, in identifying major
concepts and principles, in providing additional means of ex-
plaining, and in making sure, generally, that learners under-
stand what they are being taught. Whether it is used by
instructor or learner, a content enhancement strategy is any-
thing that makes the content of instruction more understandable
and coherent for the learner.
It is important to distinguish here between the function such a
form vs. strategy has and the forms it may take. Strategies may take the form
function of notes on a chalkboard, pictures presented as a series of
slides, a film, or a typed handout. Thus, media are the forms
strategies can take. However, regardless of its form, each
strategy has a distinct function to perform: it enhances content
by emphasizing, clarifying, illustrating or otherwise illuminating
the content of instruction. Using these strategies will make
learning and teaching easier.
This training program makes extensive use of content enhancement
strategies in a variety of forms. Figures clarify and illustrate
concepts; content outlines and handouts emphasize and clarify
important points and indicate sequences; exercises and self-
checks highlight important content. As you can see, regardless
of their forms, content enhancement strategies always function
to make learning more effective and efficient. This lesson
focuses on the functions of such strategies; Unit Six, Selecting
Media for Instruction, provides instruction in selecting effec-
tive forms.
Content enhancement strategies can be divided roughly into two
major groups: highlighting techniques (which include techniques
for pointing out important concepts, identifying sequences,
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204
illustrating, and providing alternate means of explaining content)
and learning guides (which direct learners through lengthy or com-
plicated procedures and lessons). Between the two groups there is
some overlap; we can, however, distinguish between them on the
basis of the function each type of technique fulfills. A simple
diagram of these two groups may increase your understanding of
them (see Figure 1).
CONTENT ENHANCEMENT
STRATEGIES
HIGHLIGHTING LEARNING GUIDES
Indicator words Study guides
Repetition Procedural check lists
Summaries
Questions & exercises
Visual highlighting
Figure 1
In this lesson, we will examine each group and identify the
particular uses, strengths, and limitations of each type of
technique. We will also look at some general guidelines for
using content enhancement strategies. Finally, you will have an
opportunity to practice creating strategies for enhancing content
within a lesson.
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SELF-CHECK #1
1. What is a content enhancement technique? Why are these techniques
used?
2. Is a film automatically a content enhancement technique? Why or why
not?
3. A content enhancement technique can be identified in terms of its
a) form
b) function
c) form and function
4. Briefly describe one technique that you found particularly useful
during your studies in this workshop. What function(s) did it
perform? What form did it take?
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READING #2: TECHNIQUES FOR HIGHLIGHTING CONTENT
This reading presents several techniques for highlighting
content through emphasis, illustration, identifying sequences,
and providing alternative means of explaining and exemplifying
A brief self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. name and identify an example of a least five high-
lighting techniques
2, describe a strategy for providing highlighting
during an oral presentation such as a lecture.
The use of various devices to emphasize, illustrate, and
illuminate particular parts of instructional content is called
highlighting. Highlighting can occur verbally or visually;
it can utilize oral and written presentations. It involves
overtly calling to learners' attention some parts of the con-
tent to be learned. Highlighting techniques include the use of
indicator words (such as "first", "remember that", and "as a
result") to identify sequences, important relationships, and
crucial concepts and principles; the use of repetition and
illustrations to clarify and exemplify; the use of summaries,
questions, and exercises to emphasize and isolate important
points; and the use of visual techniques to emphasize, clarify
and isolate content. We will examine each type of technique
in turn.
1. Indicator words. Indicator words are words that identify the
order of information, emphasize important concepts and principles,
identify relationships, and indicate changes of topic and direc-
tion. A list of important indicator words is included below
(Figure 2); you should make a conscious effort to use them
during instruction. Indicator words are especially important
during oral presentations such as lectures since these words
guide learners through the presentation, point out sequences
and relationships, and key learners that important topics and
changes of direction are coming.
2. Repetition. Repetition is another, important highlighting
technique; it serves to draw learners' attention, to emphasize
the importance of ideas, and to deter forgetting. Repetition
should involve both the use of repeating of the important infor-
mation itself and the use of overt attention-drawers such as
"Remember the formula for . . ."or "We were talking about this
concept earlier . . .". The repetition can occur in one of two
forms; you can repeat the idea exactly as you said it earlier
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INDICATOR WORDS
208
Words Indi cati ng Order
First
Second
Third, etc.
Next
Prior to
After, afterwards
Later
Earlier
Words Indicating Similarity
Among Ideas'
Like, as
Equally
Similarly
Also
Moreover
Further
In addition
In the same vein
Words Indicating Importance
Notice (that)
Remember (that)
Watch for
Words Indicating Conclusion
or ResuTtT
Finally
In conclusion
As a result
In summary, to summarize
In sum
Words Indicating Differences
Among Ideas' "
However
But
On the other hand
In opposition
On the contrary
Figure 2
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209
or you can find another way to express it. The use of alternate
means of expressing ideas helps learners to understand the ideas
more easily. Unless a specific definition or rule must be
remembered and used verbatim, it is always better to find an
alternate way to express it.
3. Summaries. Providing a brief summary of important lesson content
is another important highlighting technique. At the end of a
logical unit of content (which may be only part of a lesson), the
instructor should provide a brief summary of the main points pre-
sented; the instructor may briefly review the content or may call
on a learner to provide the review. Additional highlighting ef-
fect can be obtained by writing a brief outline of the summary
on the chalkboard or overhead transparency. The summary should
identify the major points of the lesson, in order, with important
definitions, concepts, and principles included. Examples, illustra-
tions, and alternate means of expressing ideas should not be
included in the summary.
4. Questions and Exercises. A highlighting device that is particul-
arly useful is the insertion of questions and exercises into a
presentation. The questions and exercises serve two important
purposes. First, they provide learners with needed practice in
manipulating ideas and skills. Second, this technique provides
a variation of repetition by requiring learners to repeat impor-
tant information in order to answer questions and complete
exercises. Learners can be asked to respond orally or in writing;
when responses are to be written, an answer key should be pro-
vided so that responses can be evaluated. Questions and exer-
cises should be designed to help learners practice the types of
responses they will be required to make during evaluations and
on-the-job. If learners must eventually apply a formula, then
questions and exercises should lead up to and include exercises
in application. If questions and exercises are given and res-
ponded to orally, the instructor should ask the question first
and then call on a participant; this technique requires all
learners to think about a response rather than waiting until their
turn arrives. Questions and exercises should occur frequently
during initial stages of learning since responses will be more
uncertain at this point; each question or exercise should require
a small bit of information. As more sophistication with content
develops, responses may become more general and larger. Applica-
tion exercises should be preceded by comprehension questions and
exercises so that learners can demonstrate their understanding of
ideas before they are required to apply the ideas.
5. Visual Highlighting. Visual highlighting can be obtained in
several ways; the most obvious are the use of pictures and dia-
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pictures
graphs and
charts
page layout
grams for illustration and the use of page layout for clarifica-
tion, isolation, and emphasis.
Pictures provide an attractive complement to instructional
content when they are properly used. Pictures should never be
provided merely to entertain or to fill a page; they must always
serve a specific purpose. When properly used, pictures can il-
lustrate important concepts, demonstrate skills, and clarify ideas
that are difficult to explain verbally. Color is not an impor-
tant consideration, since research has indicated that simple
black-and-white line drawings are highly effective. Pictures
should be used sparingly.
Graphs and diagrams serve to illustrate concepts and procedures,
to provide alternate means of expressing ideas, to indicate se-
quences and relationships, and to clarify ideas that are difficult
to express verbally. Graphs and diagrams should be clear and
uncluttered, properly labelled, and as simple as possible. They,
too, are not present for entertainment, but must serve a specific
purpose. A diagram can serve to identify the sequence of steps
in a complex procedure; a graph can demonstrate a relationship
among important variables. Graphs and diagrams can be used when-
ever complex numerical or spatial information must be presented.
Page layout involves the arrangement on a page of words and
symbols such as pictures, diagrams, color, and arrows. Textbooks
make wide use of effective page layout techniques by changing
typeface, indenting, leaving large amounts of white space around
key points, and using color, underlining, arrows, and italics.
Large type indicates titles and main headings; underlining or
italics emphasize main ideas; color and arrows draw attention
to specific topics. Even with home-made instructional materials,
multiple type-faces and underlining, arrows, and italics can be
used effectively to emphasize, isolate, clarify, and integrate
important content. However, it is important to remember that
visual highlighting techniques are not used to entertain; they
must fulfill specific functions.
Highlighting is a most effective means of calling learners' at-
tention to important concepts, identifying sequences and rela-
tionships among ideas, providing emphasis, and illustrating con-
tent. It can be used for both oral and written presentations and
can be created by both instructor and learners. An effective
content presentation always includes a judicious combination of
the various highlighting techniques.
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SELF-CHECK #2
1. What is highlighting?
2. How can highlighting be achieved? Name at least three ways.
3. What are indicator words? How are they used?
4. Who should provide a summary? What should it contain?
5. How can questions and exercises function as highlighting?
6. When and how should pictures, graphs, and diagrams be used? Give
an example of the way in which you might use a visual during a
lesson on a topic relevant to your training situation.
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I READING #3: LEARNING GUIDES
This reading introduces two kinds of learning guides, study
guides and procedural check lists. A brief self-check follows
\ the reading.
i
j By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
i 1. describe the contents and purpose of a study guide
and a procedural check list.
A second major category of content enhancement techniques is
the learning guide. The guide directs a learner through a piece
of instruction; it is thus designed for use by the learner. It
may tell the learner how to use the instructional materials,
direct the learner through a sequence of activities, or serve as
a check list to ensure correct performance of a sequence of
steps or tasks. There are two basic types of learning guides:
study guides and procedural check lists.
Study Guides. A study guide is a set of directions to the
learner for preceding through a unit, a lesson, or a single
activity. At the unit or lesson level, the guide should include
a statement of the objectives, a description of evaluation activ-
ities, and directions for completing them, and the time that
should be allotted to each activity. At the activity level, the
guide should briefly list the contents of the activity, the
evaluation, and the objective. This assignment has an intro-
ductory study guide; each separate activity, which contains a
reading and self-check, has its own study guide. Moreover, this
unit was introduced, in your manual, by a study guide which
identified the purpose, objectives, and contents of the unit and
provided you with a summary of the important information within
the unit. A study guide serves the same purpose for the learner
that an Instructional Package Worksheet (IPW) does for the in-
structor; it identifies the sequence of activities through which
learners must proceed, the goal and purpose of the instruction,
and the things learners and instructor must do as they proceed
through the instruction.
Study guides vary in detail depending upon the length and com-
plexity of the activities, the degree of instructor-involvement
in the activities, and the types of activities. A very simple
study guide, such as might be developed to accompany an exercise,
may contain only a brief description of the exercise and a sen-
tence or two of instructions; this type is most useful when the
instructor is in charge and present during the exercise to assist
learners and answer questions. A more complicated assignment
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that does not involve instructor control may require a more
detailed and complex study guide. An individualized instructional
unit designed to be taken home by the learner may contain several
pages of instructions and directions since the learner will not
have an instructor available to assist him. The nature of its
intended use determines how long and complex the study guide must
be. However, regardless of its intended use, the study guide
for a unit or lesson of instruction must contain at least the
following information:
1. a brief description of the contents and purpose of the
instruction, along with the conditions of its use
2. a statement of the objective(s)
3. a description of the evaluation activity(s)
4. directions to the learner on how to proceed through the
activities, with indications of the time each activity
should be allotted.
For examples of study guides for a unit, a lesson, and an activity,
refer back to the appropriate pages for this unit in your manual.
Procedural Check Lists. A procedural check list is a document used
to guide an individual through the sequence of steps and activities
contained within a procedure. It contains a listing of all the
steps and subtasks involved in the procedure, together with a
list of necessary equipment and materials, descriptions of special
facilities, and warnings, special notes, and concerns and con-
straints. It can be a simple verbal list, a diagram, or a com-
bination of the two. Procedural check lists are used both to
teach new procedures and as support for complex or infrequently
performed orocedures. Primary characteristics of any procedural
check list are
1. a description of any special resources required to carry out
the procedure
2. a sequential listing or diagram of all steps to be performed
3. a place to check off each step as it is carried out, with
space for comments
4. brief notations of warnings, constraints, and special consid-
erations (as appropriate).
Figure 1 and 2 contain examples of procedural check lists.
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Procedural Check List
Safety Procedures: Screening and Grinding Operations
The goal of safety is the continuous and efficient
operation of unit without loss of health or comfort
to the operator and loss of efficiency of unit.
Step/Task
Completed
Step
Sequence
Information/Operating Goals/
Specifications
Comments
1. Inspect walkways
2. Inspect ladders and
steps.
3. Check safety signs.
4. Check washdown hoses
5. Check hand tools
storage area.
6. Check debris
container.
7. Check electric
controls.
8. Check guards and
protective shields.
9. Check safety switch
on grinder door.
10. Check safety
equipment.
1. Walkways and steps should be clean, free of
obstructions, not slippery with oil, grease,
ice, etc.
2. Ladders should have separate handrails and,
if over 10 feet high, have safety cage.
3. Entrance to structure should have sign,
warning: Open pit and moving equipment.
4. Washdown hoses should have racks and areas
to drain.
5a. Hand tools should have storage area.
5b. A list of tools on hand should be kept for
replacement lists.
6. Manually removed debris should have separate
container with tightly fitting lid.
7a. Electric controls should have locks with
keys.
Figure 1
ro
i—1
en
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PROCEDURAL CHECK LIST FOR WORKSHOP PLANNING AND PREPARATION
Comments
and Notes
Step/Task
Completed
Time in Weeks
Prior to Work-
shop Del 1very
Activity
Ten
Nine
Eight
Seven
Six
Five
Four
Three
Two
Obtain complete copies of Staff
Guide and Participant Reference
Manual and review thoroughly.
Design workshop schedule, select
dates and times, secure classroom/
meeting space.
Announce workshop or otherwise
establish procedures for deter-
mining the participants.
Check physical requirements for
conducting workshop and make
necessary arrangements, place
orders, etc.
-seating
-water, coffee
-ventilation, heat, light
-overhead projector, screen
-chalkboard or easel
-other audio-visual equipment
for Unit Six
-Xerox and Thermofax equipment
-paper, pencils, etc.
Prepare to conduct workshop by
thoroughly reviewing IPWs, Content
Outlines, etc. Review the materials
under "References" for additional
help in unfamiliar areas.
Obtain list of intended participants
and send letter with Pre-Workshop
Survey.
Prepare the necessary copies of all
instructional materials
-Handouts
-Participant Reference Manuals
-Overhead transparencies
Analyze Pre-Workshop Survey
Prepare final notes for delivering
each lesson. Determine the points
to emphasize, examples to use, etc.
Begin workshop.
Figure 2
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ASSIGNMENT 7.4
"Answer Key
Below are suggested answers to the self-checks. Your responses should
be similar to the ones suggested.
SELF-CHECK #1
1. any device used to clarify, emphasize, illustrate, isolate, or
otherwise illuminate important information within instruction
2. no; a film is only a content enhancement technique if it fulfills
one or more of the functions of clarification, emphasis, illustration,
or isolation
3. b
SELF-CHECK #2
1. highlighting is the use of various devices to illuminate important
bits of information during instruction
2. repetition
summaries
indicator words
questions and exercises
visual highlighting (page layout, illustrations, color, arrows, type-
face, or underlining)
3. words which point out sequences, relationships, results, or important
concepts
4. either the instructor or a trainee can provide a summary; it should
contain a listing, in order, of the important ideas of the lesson
5. they provide both repetition and practice
6. visuals should be used only to illustrate, clarify, or emphasize; they
should never be included merely to entertain or beautify
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UNIT SEVEN: SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
LESSON 6 of 6: TEACHING TOWARD THE OBJECTIVE
ASSIGNMENT 7.5
Estimated time: Two hours fifteen minutes
This assignment is concerned with strategies for teaching each type
and level of behavior. The readings and self-checks introduce con-
cepts and strategies relevant for each separate type of objective--
Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective—and for each level of Cog-
nitive Behavior—knowledge, comprehension, application, and problem-
solving. Answers to the self-checks are in the answer key at the
end of the lesson materials. Some questions may not have a single
correct answer; rather, a range of answers may be appropriate. In
the answer key, you will find a suggested or representative answer;
your answer should be similar to the one suggested. If you feel
that your responses are greatly different from those suggested in
the answer key, you may wish to consult your instructor.
OBJECTIVE: By the conclusion of this assignment, you will be able
to select instructional strategy components that are
appropriate for each type and level of behavior speci-
fied in an objective.
EVALUATION: Self-checks within the assignment will help you to
evaluate your understanding of concepts of teaching
toward the objective.
DIRECTIONS: 1
Complete Reading #1: Cognition and Cognitive
Objectives. Answer the questions in Self-Check
#1. This task should take approximately 10 minutes.
Complete Reading #2: Teaching Knowledge-Level
Objectives. Answer the questions in Self-Check #2.
This task should take approximately 10 minutes.
Complete Reading #3: Teaching Comprehension-Level
Objectives. Answer the questions in Self-Check #3.
This task should take approximately 20 minutes.
Complete Reading #4: Teaching Application-Level
Objectives. Answer the questions in Self-Check
#4. This task should take approximately 15 minutes.
Complete Reading #5: Teaching Problem-Solving Objec-
tives. Answer the questions in Self-Check #5. This
task should take approximately 15 minutes.
Complete Reading #6: Teaching Psychomotor Objec-
tives. Answer the questions in Self-Check #6.
This task should take approximately 10 minutes.
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7. Complete Reading #7: Teaching Affective Objectives.
Answer the questions in Self-Check #7. This task
should take approximately 10 minutes.
8. Participate in the final exercise.
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READING #1: COGNITION AND COGNITIVE OBJECTIVES
This reading introduces you to the concept of cognition and
identifies the hierarchy of four levels of cognitive skills.
A self-check follows the reading. By the conclusion of this
reading, you should be able to:
1. define cognition and give an example of a cognitive
skill
2. identify the name, characteristics, and types of
skills associated with each level of cognitive
behavior.
cognition
a hierarchy
of cognitive
skills
knowledge:
naming,
stating,
listing and
labeling
comprehension:
explaining
and
classifying
application:
using rules
and
following
procedures
Cognition refers to the processes of knowing, thinking, remem-
bering, and other intellectual activities. Cognitive skills
include the ability to state facts, classify objects and
events, explain ideas, use rules, follow procedures, and
solve problems. When we learn and remember a phone number,
or solve an equation, or follow a set of directions, we are
using cognitive skills.
There are several different levels of cognitive skills, which
exist in a hierarchy. That is, they exist in a sequence such
that lower-order skills are an important part of higher-order
skills. Lower-order skills must be learned before higher-
order skills can be learned. Also, skills and knowledge
acquired at a lower level are necessary for learning at
higher levels. There are four levels of cognitive skills in
the hierarchy.
At the lowest level is knowledge, the set of skills reflecting
the ability to recognize or recall information: to state,
name, list or label. A trainee knows a chemical formula when
he can state the formula whenever he is requested to do so.
Notice that no understanding is implied—merely the ability
to state the formula.
At the next level is the set of skills called comprehension,
which reflect the ability to explain or classify information.
When a trainee can explain what the formula means, he compre-
hends it.
At the third level are application skills, which reflect the
ability to use information to solve equations, use rules and
formulae, and follow procedures. At this level, the trainee
can use a formula to carry out a test or follow a procedure
to perform a task.
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problem- The highest level of skills is problem-solving, the ability to
solving: discover or generate "new" rules and procedures—that is, rules
generating and procedures which are new to the trainee, although not
new rules necessarily original or novel to an expert in the field. The
and trainee who can use what she has previously learned to create
procedures a novel solution to a problem—a solution that she has not been
taught—is demonstrating problem-solving skills.
It is important to remember that these levels of cognitive
skills exist in a hierarchy. Lower-level skills must be
learned before higher ones can be learned because the lower-
level skills generate knowledge and skills which are needed in
order to develop higher-order skills. Thus each level of
skills serves as a building block for skills at higher levels.
This relationship can be displayed visually:
PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS
Ability to generate new rules and procedures
require as prerequisites
APPLICATION SKILLS
Ability to use rules and follow procedures
require as prerequisites
COMPREHENSION SKILLS
Ability to explain and classify
require as prerequisites
KNOWLEDGE SKILLS
Ability to state, name, list and label
Within this hierarchical arrangement of skills, each of the four
levels differs from the others in several important ways. Each
has a different kind of content on which the skills are practiced.
Each level results in different kinds of learning and produces
different kinds of observable behaviors. Each level also
requires different kinds of instructional strategies.
In this lesson, we will examine each level of cognitive skills,
identify the content on which the skills are practiced, examine
the kinds of behaviors (skills) that result from learning at
that level, and describe a set of instructional strategies for
teaching that level of cognitive skills. We'll begin with the
lowest level of cognitive skills, knowledge.
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SELF-CHECK #1
1. Identify each example of a cognitive skill from the list below by
putting a "C" next to each correct example.
a) Barry is only two years old but already he can print his name.
b) The training session for today taught us how to perform the
suspended solids test.
c) My son learned to calculate the mean of a sample of test
scores.
d) Elizabeth is learning to be more tolerant of her younger
brother.
e) The mechanic solved the ignition problem on my car.
2. Each of the four levels of cognitive skills is listed below. For
each, name a representative skill or ability.
Knowledge:
Comprehension:
Application:
Problem-Solving:
3. What does the term cognition mean? Write a definition in your own
words.
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READING 12: TEACHING KNOWLEDGE-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
This reading introduces knowledge-level cognitive skills; it
defines the concept knowledge, describes the characteristics
of knowledge-level learning and teaching, and identifies
strategies for teaching at this level. A self-check follows
the reading. By the conclusion of this reading, you should
be able to:
1. explain what knowledge-level learning requires
2. identify the contents of knowledge-level learning
3. identify objectives written at knowledge level
4. list strategies for teaching knowledge-level objec-
tives
knowledge:
knowing that.
recall or
recognition
facts
At the lowest level of cognitive skills i s knowledge, which is
the ability to name, state, list, or label. At this level, the
individual knows that something is; she may be able to list, in
order, the steps involved in performing the suspended solids
test, but she will not be able to explain why or when the test
should be performed or actually perform it. A knowledge-level
skill results in the ability to recall or recognize information
on demand; it does not imply any understanding of the informa-
tion.
The contents of this level of behavior are called facts. A fact
is simply a single piece of information. A mathematical "fact"
is "7x3= 21". A history "fact" is "Americans celebrate
their independence day on July 4". A chemical "fact" is "The
symbol for iron is Fe". Facts make up a very large part of
what every human knows; they are the essential building blocks
of all understanding since facts carry information. Whenever
we learn to put a name or symbol with an object, or to put a
term with a definition, or to list the steps of a procedure,
or state a formula, we are learning facts.
For example, a geometry student may be asked to know that the
formula for finding the area of circle is "A =fir2". She will
know that formula when she can repeat it from memory or state
it in answer to the question "What is the formula for finding
the area of a circle?" Note that the student is not able to
explain the formula or use it to find the area of a particular
circle. These types of behavior are at higher levels than
knowledge. Knowledge of a fact means that one can state the
fact, not explain it or use it in any way.
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Any piece of information can be learned as a fact. Factual
ability to: learning—knowledge—merely involves the ability to state, name,
state list, or label something. An instructional objective at the
name knowledge level may require the learner to:
list -state the symbol for an object or event
label -name an object or its parts
-label a diagram or drawing
-name the functions, uses, or properties of an object
-state a definition, rule, or formula
-list, in order, the steps of a procedure
-list the details of an event
Factual learning requires heavy emphasis on memorization since
trainees must be able to demonstrate recall or recognition of
facts. There are two types of instructional strategies involved
in teaching facts: organizational strategies, and practice
strategies.
Organization strategies. Since human memory can deal with only
a few (usually 5-9} separate bits of information at a time,
know!edge-level learning must be highly organized in order to
be efficient. Some especially useful organizational strate-
mnemonics gies involve the use of memory devices (often called mnemonics)
such as acronyms and rhymes. Any memory device which organizes
separate facts into related groups will help trainees to learn
those facts more effectively and efficiently. For example,
children who are learning the number of days in each month can
be taught the following rhyme to help them organize the months
into groups which all have the same number of days:
"Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one,
Except February alone,
Which has twenty-eight in fine,
And each leap year twenty-nine."
Any technique which helps trainees to organize information will
assist them in remembering that information.
Practice Strategies. Practice is an essential component of fact
learning since the facts must be repeatedly presented and prac-
driii and ticed before they are learned. Drill and recitation are impor-
recitation tant strategies for providing practice. Trainees must have
frequent practice in recalling and recognizing facts. Facts
must be learned exactly as they are presented; paraphrase is
usually not permitted at this level. Seeing or hearing the
facts is not sufficient; trainees must have opportunities to
practice stating, naming, listing, and labeling until they can
perform the required behaviors on demand.
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match
practice
to job
performance
multiple
responses
Practice must also be given in the form in which the facts will
actually be used in assessments and on the job; if the desired
behavior is ability to identify the parts of a piece of equip-
ment, trainees must have practice in labeling the parts, perhaps
on a drawing at first, but eventually on the piece of equip-
ment. Merely requiring them to list the parts will not prepare
them for the final desired skill.
Also, practice opportunities should require trainees to provide
the desired information in a variety of ways. The more varied
the kinds of practice experiences, the more effective and long-
lasting the learning will be. Appropriate kinds of practice
may include requiring trainees to state a definition when given
a term, to label parts on a diagram, to match terms and defini-
tions, or objects and functions, to rearrange scrambled proce-
dures so that the steps are listed in the correct order, or to
match symbols with the objects they represent. All practice
and performance tasks at this knowledge level must require either
recall or recognition of facts.
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INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR KNOWLEDGE-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
1. Make certain that the objective requires knowledge-level
behavior. Do not confuse knowledge-level requirements with
requirements for higher skill levels.
2. Do not waste time requiring trainees to memorize facts that
are readily accessible from print or other available sources.
Require memorization only when it serves some useful and
efficient end.
3. Present facts in an organized form. Remember that, in general,
most people can remember only 5-9 separate bits of information
at a time. Organized groups of facts can be remembered as
easily as separate, unrelated facts.
4. Lectures and individual assignments are the appropriate instruc-
tional methods for teaching facts. Guided discussions and
demonstrations are not useful for knowledge-level learning.
5. Provide practice frequently and in a variety of forms. Trainees
must have opportunities to practice making the specific types
of responses that will be required of them during assessment
and on the job.
6. The more varied the types of practice experiences, the more
firmly the facts will be learned. Appropriate practice and
assessment experiences include requiring statements of facts
in response to questions, completion statements where part
of the fact (such as a name) is used as a prompt, matching
activities, listing activities, labelling exercises, and
simple recitation.
7. Practice should be spaced over several sessions to allow
trainees more practice opportunities. Single, long practice
sessions should be avoided.
8. Encourage and help trainees to create and use appropriate
memory devices (mnemonics) to assist their recall.
9. Practice experiences should be appropriate for knowledge-
level learning. It is frustrating to try to learn to state
a formula and to use it at the same time. Separate instruc-
tion on different cognitive levels; concentrate on one level
at a time.
10. Provide immediate feedback. For oral responses, either the
instructor or fellow trainees can provide feedback. For
written responses, provide answer keys so that trainees will
know immediately if their responses are correct.
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11. Provide only as much practice as trainees need to learn the
facts. Nothing is more frustrating or more damaging to moti-
vation than to be required to spend unnecessary time repeating
activities that have already been mastered. Whenever possible,
provide for individualization by allowing those trainees
who have mastered the desired skills to move on to other assign-
ments while others who need more practice have the opportunity
to obtain it.
12. Require mastery of knowledge-level learning. That is, set a
minimum acceptable level of performance (such as 12 of 15
parts of a diagram correctly labelled or 18 of 20 definitions
correctly stated); require trainees to practice until they
reach that level of proficiency and then give credit for
attaining the objective. In factual learning, letter grades
which identify who got the most right are inappropriate.
13. Provide refresher practice at widely spaced intervals for
important facts that may be forgotten.
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SELF-CHECK #2
1. What are the contents of knowledge-level skills?
2. Under what circumstances would each of the following be considered
knowledge-level learning? (You should provide a single answer to
this question regardless of the number of statements listed here.)
a) The capitol of Pennsylvania is Harrisburg.
b) The value of 7f is 3.1417.
c) A binomial equation can be factored into two separate terms.
d) Acidity is a condition in which there is a preponderance of acid
materials in the water.
e) X =
3. How many separate pieces of information can human memory deal with at
any one time?
4. What is a mnemonic? Give a brief example of a mnemonic you have used.
5. Which of the following objectives are not written at knowledge-level?
The trainee will be able to:
a) match each symbol on the flow chart to its appropriate explanation,
b) label correctly the parts of the spectrophotometer.
c) explain the reasons for performing the suspended solids test.
d) list, in order, the steps involved in operating the pH meter.
e) perform a pH test.
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READING #3: TEACHING COMPREHENSION-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
This reading introduces the strategies involved in teaching
comprehension-level objectives and discusses the reasons for
each type of strategy. An exercise follows the reading; it
includes both comprehension and application activities.
Suggested answers to the self-checks are in the answer key
at the end of the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you will be able to
1. explain what comprehension learning involves in your
own words
2. identify correct examples of the application of compre-
hension-level instructional strategies
comprehension:
knowing why
ability to:
explain
classify
identify
relationships
At the next level of cognitive behavior is comprehension, which
is demonstrated by the ability to explain or classify. At this
level, the individual knows why something is; understanding of
meanings, reasons, causes, and relationships constitutes this
level of behavior. When an individual comprehends, s/he can
use information to classify objects and events, explain the
meaning of a fact (such as a definition or a symbol), and
identify relationships among objects or events. The geometry
student can explain what "Area" is, not merely state a formula;
the chemistry student can classify chemical elements on the
basis of atomic
elements.
structure, not merely recall the names of the
explanations
The contents of this level of learning involve explanations of
why and how. Every time we explain, provide meaning, interpret,
give reasons or causes, or use explanations or definitions to
classify or categorize, we demonstrate comprehension. In other
words, we can say that an individual comprehends (i.e., under-
stands) when he or she can:
-explain a definition in his or her own words
-use a definition to classify or categorize objects, events, or
ideas
-explain why something is
-explain how something works
-interpret information
-provide an alternate means of expressing an idea (such as a
diagram, graph, or picture).
"understanding" Two important points must be made here. First, the ability to
is not a comprehend involves what we call "understanding" but the term
useful term "understanding" is too vague and general to convey real meaning.
Notice that each of the abilities listed above is stated very
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concepts
concepts can
be physical
entities or
ideas
precisely and concretly, in a phrase rather than with the
single word "understand". Each ability phrase is a more precise
way of describing "understanding". Since it is always preferable
to be as precise and concrete as possible, the more precise
ability-naming phrases should be used instead of the more general
"understand".
Second, information can be learned at different levels. A defi-
nition can be memorized as a fact (knowledge-level learning) or
used to classify or explain (comprehension-level learning). A
procedure may be learned at the knowledge level by memorizing
the list of steps, at the comprehension level by explaining
how the procedure works, and at the application level by demon-
strating how to follow the procedure effectively and efficiently.
One of the most important decisions an instructor can make is
the selection of the level of cognitive behavior at which infor-
mation should be learned. This decision must be made when instruc-
tional objectives are written, and there must be an exact match
between the level of behavior specified in the objective, the
level required in assessment and on-the-job tasks, and the kinds
of instructional strategies and practice activities used to teach
that particular level of behavior.
One important kind of information at this level of learning is
the concept. A concept is a class or category of objects,
events, or ideas which all share the same important characteristics.
A concept has a name or label, a set of important characteristics
that all members of the class must share, and examples or instances
of the concept (entities which have all of the important charac-
teristics and thus belong in the class or category identified
by the concept). "Square" is a concept; it has critical charac-
teristics which give it meaning: a square is:
1. a two-dimensional object
2. with four equal sides
3. and four right angles.
Any object which has these three important characteristics belongs
in the category labeled "square". Learning the concept "square"
involves learning to classify things as belonging or not belonging
to the category on the basis of the characteristics of the category.
Teaching the concept "square" thus requires presentation of the
concept label, the important characteristics, and examples or
instances of the concept. The learner comprehends the concept
when he can correctly identify instances of squares from instances
of other shapes such as triangles and pentagons.
Concepts can represent physical entities (such as "square" or
"table") or ideas. "Friendship" is also a concept1 it has a
label, a set of important character!sites, and instances. The
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concepts
incorporate
facts
wholistic
organization
layers of
complexity
and detail
important characteristics are identified in a definition, just
as they are for a physical or concrete concept. Again, when
the learner is able to identify correctly all instances of
"friendship" from a list of examples of several different types
of relationships, we can say that he or she has comprehended
the concept.
When an individual is asked to give reasons for something or to
explain why an event occurred, she or he is really being asked
to identify some critical characteristics of a concept and to
determine whether that event is a member of that concept.
Concepts incorporate facts. Before an individual can learn to
use a concept to explain or classify, he or she must learn the
concept definition; thus fact learning (knowledge-level behavior)
usually preceeds concept learning (comprehension-level behavior).
Comprehension learning requires three types of instructional
strategies: strategies for organizing the information to be
learned, strategies for enhancing the content to make it more
meaningful and useful, and strategies for providing appropriate
kinds of practice.
ORGANIZING STRATEGIES. Unlike psychomotor learning, comprehension
learning does not occur effectively in parts. Comprehension
learning must be wholistic; that is, the entire concept, expla-
nation, or classification must be taught as a unit, and in its
simplest form at first. Once trainees have mastered ("compre-
hended") the simplified version, detail can be added on in layers
of complexity until the desired level of complexity is achieved.
For example, in the basic workshop, you studied several rules
for providing instruction; one rule provided a simplified approach
to incorporating practice in instruction. You learned a very
basic set of strategies for providing practice opportunities.
During this advanced workshop, more detail and complexity is
included, which expands the instruction to a full lesson lasting
an hour. Additionally, at the beginning of each workshop, you
were introduced to a general model for systemizing training.
The succeeding units are elaborations on that model, adding
detail to the initial simplified version. Thus, this set of
workshops provides an example of the wholistic approach to organ-
izing instruction.
This type of organization is important for two reasons. First,
trainees who learn the whole concept or idea can use it to under-
stand how the details fit together; thus, understanding is
improved, transferability is increased, and details are learned
more efficiently without the need for excessive memorization.
The simplified whole serves as a kind of scaffolding on which
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use examples
and
non-examples
simple-to-
difficult
sequence
the details can be hung. Moreover, in this organization, details
appear to belong; they make sense and are understandable.
Second, this organization allows the instructor to provide
training at variable levels of complexity to suit the needs of
trainees. If trainees need only a general level of understanding
of a concept in order to recognize it when they are working with
its characteristics then a simplified wholistic presentation will
be sufficient. If, on the other hand, trainees need to be able
to explain and teach the concept to others, additional levels
of detail can be provided so that they will develop this more
sophisticated understanding.
For example, the basic workshop has been designed to assist
personnel whose responsibilities include occasional training.
Thus the level of detail is low; concepts, formulae, and proce-
dures are provided in fairly simplified form. The advanced work-
shop provides more depth and complexity of explanation and clari-
fication for those individuals who need the greater complexity
to do more frequent and prolonged training. Thus, the level of
complexity has been varied between the two workshops to meet
different needs of participants.
Another organizational strategy includes the use of examples and
non-examples to teach concepts. The trainee must be able to use
the concept definition with its important characteristics to
discriminate between instances that belong or do not belong to
the concept category. Therefore, concept teaching should be
organized in the following manner; first, the concept definition
should be presented and the critical characteristics clearly
listed and explained. Then, simple examples which clearly demon-
strate those important characteristics should be displayed. Third,
simple examples should be paired with non-examples (entities
which lack one or more of the important characteristics) and
trainees should be taught to discriminate between examples and
non-examples by using the concept definition. Finally, trainees
should practice classifying new instances as examples or non-
examples on the basis of the critical characteristics. When
the trainee can correctly identify new instances as belonging
or not belonging to the concept, the trainee has comprehended
the concept.
CONTENT-ENHANCEMENT STRATEGIES. Highlighting strategies are
particularly effective for teaching comprehension-level behaviors.
They should be used to serve one or more of the following purposes:
1) to emphasize, 2) to provide alternative representations, and
3) to illustrate or exemplify.
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use
highlighting
techniques
use
alternate
represent ations
illustrate
ideas
practice in
classifying
and
explaining
spaced
practice
Emphasis should be provided for important terms and concepts,
for sequences, and for relationships. Strategies for providing
emphasis include the use of indicator words, repetition, summaries,
and visual highlighting. Notice how this reading incorporates
such visual highlighting techniques as underlined captions for
some paragraphs and key words and phrases in the margins along-
side the text. Moreover, indicator words appear within the
text and summary paragraphs conclude each reading. Finally,
the list of strategies and guidelines at the end of the readings
provides both repetition and summary.
Alternate representations are another means of communicating
information. A verbal description of a process may be alternately
represented by a flow chart or wiring diagram. A definition of
a concept may be alternately represented by a picture of an
instance with the critical characteristics labeled. If trainees
must interpret or explain ideas, they should see, and practice
creating and using, various means of interpretation or explana-
tion. A picture can be used to clarify or illustrate a verbal
presentation, as can a chart or graph; a verbal description is
an effective alternate representation for a visual such as a
diagram. A demonstration can serve as an alternate representa-
tion to a verbal description.
Illustrated ideas are better remembered than unillustrated ones.
In addition to still visual illustrations, anecdotes, case
histories, and personal experiences can be used to illustrate
ideas. Illustrations must be relevant and familiar to trainees
if they are to be useful. When a trainee can provide an appro-
priate illustration for an idea, he or she is demonstrating
comprehension of that idea.
PRACTICE STRATEGIES. Practice is an important part of learning,
Trainees must be able to practice using ideas, interpreting,
explaining, classifying, and performing other types of compre-
hension-level skills. Practice must be provided at each level
of complexity and should require trainees to perform precisely
as the terminal skill requires. For example, if trainees must
eventually be able to explain why a given event occurred, they
must have practice in providing this type of explanation.
Merely recalling a memorized explanation demonstrates not com-
prehension but knowledge-level learning. Thus, trainees must
be helped to express ideas in their own words, to interpret or
to translate.
Multiple practice experiences should be provided, using many
examples. Practice should be spaced out, occurring in several
shorter sessions during instruction rather than one long session
at the end of the insturction. Trainees should be provided with
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provide
multiple
exit
opportuni ti es
match
practice to
job
performance
provide
cons tructi ve
feedback from
multiple
sources
ens ure
required
information
is available
enough examples to develop competence; those trainees who
master the desired skill quickly should be allowed to move on
to another activity while others who are having difficulty
have access to additional practice opportunities. This is
the concept of variable-exit instruction.
Practice activities should be cumulative, leading to the exact
type of performance that will be required during assessment
and on the job. The conditions of practice should be structured
so that they eventually resemble the actual conditions under
which tasks must be performed on the job. If a skill must
eventually be practiced under a variety of conditions, practice
should be provided in a variety of situations.
Feedback for comprehension-level learning must be constructive
since trainees need to know why answers are wrong and how to
make corrections. Constructive feedback can and should be pro-
vided from multiple sources: the instructor, the training
materials (via answer keys), and fellow trainees. Emphasis
should be on guiding trainees toward correct answers, not on
providing the correct answers. Cues and prompts should be pro-
vided as needed for guidance.
Finally, the instruction must provide the information trainees
need to perform correctly. This necessary information must be
readily accessible, either from memory or from external sources.
Before a trainee can use a definition, she or he must know it;
she or he can either commit it to memory or look it up in some
accessible source. The instructor must ensure that the infor-
mation is available, by asking trainees to state or locate the
information, before they are asked to use it. Such information
can be provided in oral or written form in the directions for
a practice activity. Information that is crucial or is frequently
used should be memorized; less critical information can be pro-
vided in procedural manuals, guides, and the like. The instructor
should require memorization only if on-the-job performance
requires that the information be committed to memory.
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INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR COMPREHENSION-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
1. Write comprehension-level objectives using the more precise and con-
crete ability phrases such as those listed in the reading. Do not
use the word "understand". Ensure that the desired behavior is, in
fact, comprehension-level.
2. Identify the concepts that must be taught. For each, write a concept
definition that includes the important characteristics. Specify
these characteristics as clearly and as simply as possible.
3. Pare down the content to be taught until it is in a simplified form.
Then create levels of detail that increase in complexity and that
can be added to meet specific needs for greater complexity.
4. Analyze trainee needs and identify the level of detail-complexity that
will be sufficient to meet those needs.
5. Lectures and individual assignments are the appropriate instructional
methods for teaching comprehension-level skills. Demonstrations of
concept-using are a necessary supportive method. Guided discussions
are not useful for teaching comprehension-level skills.
6. Select examples and non-examples for concept teaching. Begin with
simple and obvious examples and increase the level of difficulty until
the desired level of complexity has been reached.
7. Prepare alternative representations for all important content. Use
visual representations to enhance verbal presentations (lectures and
readings) and verbal representations to enhance visual presentations
(demonstrations and still or moving pictures). Build in exercises
requiring trainees to provide alternative representations and illus-
trations of concepts.
8. Integrate devices for emphasizing important content. Use indicator
words, voice tone and body language (for oral presentations), visual
highlighting techniques (such as page layout, color, underlining,
and arrows for printed materials). Create questions and exercises
that rfouire cororohension-level responses. Prepare summaries for
each lesson and employ repetition of key terms and concepts.
9. Structure the instruction to provide frequent opportunities for prac-
tice. Space practice opportunities so that trainees have an oppor-
tunity to practice the skills required for each objective separately.
10. Provide enough practice opportunities and examples to enable trainees
to demonstrate mastery. Provide for variable-exit by allowing trainees
who master objectives quickly to move on to other activities while
those who are having difficulty can continue practicing.
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11. Structure practice activities so that the final practice is on the
kind of task and under the same conditions that job performance
requires. Provide practice under a variety of different situations
and conditions to enhance transfer.
12. Provide continuous constructive feedback. Use answer keys for exercises
and assignments whenever possible. Provide opportunities for trainees
to provide feedback for each other. Wean trainees away from dependence
on the instructor for all feedback.
13. Provide trainees with the information they need to perform effec-
tively. Determine what information is crucial enough to require memori-
zation; provide other information in verbal or written directions to
learning activities. Ensure that trainees have the information they
need before they begin an activity.
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SELF-CHECK #3
1. What kinds of behaviors represent comprehension-level learning? Name
at least two.
2. Why isn't the word "understand" used in comprehension-level objectives?
3. What is a concept?
4. Select a concept with which you are familiar. Write a concept definition
which states the critical characteristics of the concept and name two
or three examples of the concept.
5. Briefly describe how you would teach the concept you defined in #4 above.
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READING #4: TEACHING APPLICATION-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
This reading is designed to introduce you to strategies for
teaching rules and procedures. The definitions of the two
types of application-level tasks are followed by descriptions
of effective strategies for teaching each. A list of strate-
gies follows the reading. A self-check concludes the reading;
suggested answers are provided in the answer key.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to
1. define "rule" and "procedure"
2. describe strategies that will be most useful in teaching
each type of application behavior
application:
knowing how
to do
rules and
procedures
rule-
learning
The third level of cognitive behavior is application, which is
demonstrated by the ability to use rules and procedures to do,
make, produce, or cause something. At this level, the individual
knows how to do something; ability to use rules and follow pro-
cedures constitutes this level of behavior. When an individual
applies a rule or follows a procedure, she or he solves equa-
tions, calculates, makes or produces a product, or causes an
effect or result to occur. The geometry student can calculate
the area of a rectangle by using the formula "A = bh"; the chemistry
student can follow the procedure for producing salt from hydro-
chloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
The contents of this level of learning are rules^ and procedures.
A rule* is a statement of a relationship between classes or
groups of things that can be applied in a variety of situations.
"A = bh" is a rule for finding the area of any rectangle whenever
the height and width are known. Often a rule may be stated in
the form of an equation, using mathematical notation or symbols;
other rules may be stated in verbal form. However, regardless
of their form, rules are defined by the expression of a relation-
ship between classes of things which can be used in a variety of
situations. Moreover, a rule must be used (not merely stated
or explained) to make, produce, or cause some product, result,
or effect. Below are some examples of rules from several fields
of knowledge:
-f = ma
-A = TTr2
-An instructional objective must contain statements of the audience,
the desired behavior, the conditions of performance,and the
degree of proficiency required
-X = lx
n
*We use the term "rule" to refer generally to principles, formulas,
and general equations of all kinds.
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procedure-
learning
flexibility
concept
comprehension
-The present participle of any English verb ends with the suffix
"-ing".
-Primary colors are combined two at a time to produce secondary
colors.
Rule learning requires that the individual comprehend the con-
cepts which are included in the rule. Thus comprehension-level
learning must precede rule-learning. Individuals must be able
to explain as well as use rules.
A procedure is a set of steps which, when followed correctly,
result in some product, effect, or event. An individual can
follow a procedure if she or he knows what to do; understanding
why the steps are included is not required. Procedures differ
from rules, then, in that rules require comprehension while pro-
cedures require only knowledge of the steps. Rule-learning may
include learning to follow a procedure, but rule-learning goes
beyond merely knowing what to do and includes knowing why and
understanding the concepts involved in the rule.
Another difference between rules and procedures is in the amount
of flexibility of each. A procedure is relatively inflexible;
that is, it must be followed exactly as specified in the sequence
of steps and it leads to the same result. A rule, on the other
hand, can be highly flexible; formulae which contain general
terms can be used to find the value of any one term if the values
of the other terms are known. For example, a physics student
who is learning about the concept of force is taught the rule
"f = ma" (the force of an object is equal to the product of its
mass and its acceleration). If students are taught the procedure
only, then they learn how to calculate force when the mass and
acceleration are known; they may not even understand what the
concepts of "force", "mass", and "acceleration" mean. However,
if the students are taught to understand the rule (to explain
the individual concepts and their relationships as a rule), then
they will be able to manipulate the formula to find the accelera-
tion of an object when its force and mass are known (a = f/m) or
to find the mass when the acceleration and force are known (m =
f/a). Thus, rule learning permits more flexibility than procedure
learning since a rule can incorporate several procedures and
since the individual procedures need not be taught directly;
learners can derive them from their understanding of the relation-
ships involved in the rule.
Organizational Strategies for Rule-Using. As we said earlier,
the prerequisite skill for rule-learning is concept comprehension.
Trainees must comprehend the concepts contained in the rule if
they are to be able to use the rule intelligently. Thus the
primary organizational strategies for rule-learning are instruction
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demonstrate
rule-using
use high-
lighting
techniques
multiple
practice
opportunities
spaced
practice
variable exit
easy to
difficult
sequence
match
practice
to job
performance
provide
constructive
feedback
from
multiple
sources
in the component concepts and providing prompts and cues to sti-
mulate recall of the concepts and relationships. The instructor
need not state the rule directly; in fact, it is often a highly
effective strategy to guide trainees in discovering the appro-
priate rules for themselves.
The second type of organizational strategy involves providing
examples of rule-using by means of demonstrations. The instructor
should demonstrate rule-using by listing and following all pro-
cedures involved in applying the rule. Trainees can be asked
to participate in the demonstrations of rule-using.
Content-Enhancement Strategies for Rule-Using. Highlighting stra-
tegies are useful in teaching rules. Verbal and visual devices
should be used to emphasize relationships among concepts and to
provide alternative representations (i.e., verbal descriptions
should always accompany symbolic or mathematical notation).
Examples of rule-using must be provided; the examples should be
structured in an easy-to-difficult sequence. The instructor
should demonstrate rule-using, then call on trainees to provide
additional demonstrations.
Practice Strategies for Rule-Using. Practice is a critical com-
ponent of rule-learning. Trainees must be able to practice
applying new rules in a variety of contexts. Practice should
be spaced, occurring in several shorter sessions during instruc-
tion, rather than in one long session at the end of the instruc-
tion. Many practice opportunities should be made available so
that those trainees who need additional practice can obtain it.
Variable exit opportunities should be available.
Practice activities should be structured in an easy-to-difficult
sequence and should be cumulative, leading to the exact type of
performance that will be required during assessment and on the
job. The conditions of practice should be structured so that
they eventually resemble the actual conditions under which the
tasks must be performed on the job. If a skill must eventually
be practiced under a variety of conditions, practice should be
provided in a variety of situations.
Feedback must be constructive since trainees need to know why
answers are wrong and how to make corrections. Constructive
feedback can and should be provided from multiple sources: the
instructor, the training materials (via answer keys), and fellow
trainees. Emphasis should be on guiding trainees toward correct
answers, not on providing the correct answers. Cues and prompts
should be provided as needed for guidance.
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ensure that
required
concepts
and facts
are available
organize
instruction
One effective feedback strategy involves having trainees check
each other's work step-by-step. Trainees should ask each other
to explain how and why each step was performed. This strategy,
when used during initial practice activities, provides important
repetition for both component concepts and the rules. Later
practice opportunities can be accompanied only by an answer key.
Finally, the instruction must provide the information trainees
need in order to perform correctly. This information, such as
definition, statements of rules, and the like, must be readily
accessible, either from memory or from external sources. Before
a trainee can use a rule, he or she must know it; the rule can
be committed to memory or looked up in a text or manual. The
instructor must ensure that necessary information is available,
by asking trainees to state or look up the information before
they are asked to use it. Information that is crucial or fre-
quently used should be memorized; less critical information
can be provided in procedural manuals and textual guides. The
instructor should require memorization only if on-the-job perfor-
mance requires that the information be committed to memory.
Organizational Strategies for Procedure-Using. Organization of
the instruction is the most critical aspect of teaching procedures,
Trainees must have access to several different kinds of informa-
tion in order to learn how to follow a procedure: what the steps
are and in what order they must be performed; what the resultant
product, effect, or event must look like; what special informa-
tion, warnings, or concerns must be considered and when; what deci-
sions must be made and how and when they should be made; and how
the various tasks should be performed. Training in following a
procedure should include the following sequence:
1. introduce the procedure: briefly explain its purpose
and describe the desired end product, effect, or event.
2. list, in order, the steps involved in the procedure.
Identify decision points, special concerns, and warnings.
3. demonstrate the entire procedure in a setting that is as
close as possible to that in which the procedure will
eventually be performed on the job.
4. discuss any decisions or special conditions involved;
explain why certain decisions were made and the means
for making them.
5. provide practice in carrying out the procedure.
If the procedure is very complex, it 'may be broken down into sub-
sets or tasks and instruction and practice provided on each sub-
set separately. Eventually, however, trainees must practice
carrying out the entire procedure.
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training in
decision-
making
familiarity
with equipment
provide
procedural
guide
provide
practice
practice on
parts and
on entire
procedure
If a procedure contains decision points, trainees must learn
how to make those decisions. This type of learning may include
learning how to apply decision rules. For example, a procedure
for operating a piece of equipment may involve a decision related
to a temperature gauge; the rule might say "If temperature gauge
indicates red-zone reading, cut off heating unit". Needed rules
must be taught and practiced in separate instructional activities.
Moreover, if equipment is involved in the procedure, knowledge of
the equipment must be taught separately from and prior to the
application of the procedure. Trainees must be familiar with
machines and materials before they learn to use that equipment
to make, produce, or cause a desired result. Trainees should,
at least, be able to identify the parts of the equipment, describe
relevant operations, and utilize materials and machinery correctly
before they learn to carry out procedures employing such equipment.
Content-Enhancement Strategies for Procedure-Using. The most
useful content-enhancement strategy is providing each trainee with
a hard copy of the steps of the procedure for use as a reference.
The hard copy may be verbal (a list of the steps, describing each
and listing decision points, warnings, and concerns) or visual
(a flow chart or other diagram identifying steps, decision points,
etc.), or a combination of the two. This kind of document is
called a procedural guide; it provides all the information an indi-
vidual needs to carry out the procedure. Such information should
include the list of steps, identification of decision points and
criteria for making the decisions, descriptions of equipment
needed, statements of warnings, concerns, and other special infor-
mation needed to carry out the procedure, and a description of
the desired result. The procedural guide may also contain a pro-
cedural checklist to enable the trainee to check off each step
as it is carried out. Operational manuals that come with equip-
ment are generally not useful in their present form for procedural
guides since they contain much unnecessary technical information;
the procedural guides should, however, be abstracted from them.
Practice Strategies for Procedure-Using. Practice is an essential
component of procedure learning. Trainees must have opportunities
to practice following procedures until they can perform within
desired parameters of efficiency and effectiveness. There are
three aspects of effective practice strategies.
First, complex or lengthy procedures should be broken down into
logical subtasks and step groupings. The entire procedure should
be described and demonstrated first; then the subtasks and step
groupings should be identified, taught, and practiced. Trainees
should have opportunities to practice each of the parts and then
to practice carrying out the entire procedure.
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246
match context
of practice to
context of job
performance
vary
standards
Second, the contexts of practice must reflect the contexts in
which the procedures will be followed on the job. Trainees must
have experience in performing under the same conditions and con-
straints that exist in the real world outside the training environ-
ment. If trainees may be required to follow a procedure in several
different environments, they should have experience in those
different environments. If procedures are highly complex, require
equipment not available during training, or are used in situations
that cannot be reproduced for training purposes, simulations should
be used. However, care must be taken to ensure that the simula-
tion approximates, as closely as possible, the actual situation,
and that trainees treat the simulation as seriously as they would
the actual situation. After each simulation, a debriefing discus-
sion should be held to make overt the differences between simulating
the procedure and following it on the job.
Third, practice experiences can be structured using a range of
standards of proficiency. Time is the most useful parameter in
this situation since the amount of time allowed for a procedure
can be varied. Initial practice situations may require a large
amount of time; succeeding experiences should require less and
less time until trainees are able to perform within time parameters
required on the job. Performance standards such as accuracy or
precision may also be varied. Trainees may initially have fairly
loose standards to reach; eventually, however, they must reach
the level of precision required for job performance. It is impor-
tant to remember that trainees must be made aware, from the
beginning, of final performance criteria so that they know the
goals toward which they are striving.
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INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR APPLICATION-LEVEL OBJECTIVES
I. For Rule-Using:
1. Ensure that the objective is, in fact, application level and requires
rule-using.
2. Specify the rule(s) and identify all component concepts. Ensure that
trainees comprehend the concepts before they are taught the rule(s).
Use comprehension-level objectives and strategies to teach the concepts.
3. Identify any component procedures involved in applying the rule(s).
Plan to teach these procedures (see below for instructional strategies).
4. Lectures and individual assignments are useful methods for initial
presentation of rules. Demonstration is the necessary method for
teaching rule-using. Guided discussion is not a useful method for
teaching rule-using.
5. Provide alternative representations of rules; formulae, equations,
charts, graphs, and diagrams should accompany verbal presentations and
verbal statements should accompany visual or symbolic presentations.
6. Provide examples of rule-using during demonstrations; structure examples
in an easy-to-difficult sequence.
7. Provide practice in rule-using through individual assignments; struc-
ture practice experiences in an easy-to-difficult sequence.
8. During practice, provide any necessary information (such as concept
definitions, and statements of rules) as prompts or cues. Require
memorization of such information only when job performance requires
that the information be committed to memory.
9. Provide continuous constructive feedback. Use multiple sources for
feedback: instructor, fellow trainees, and answer keys.
II. For Procedure-Using
1. Ensure that the objective is, in fact, application level and requires
procedure-using.
2. List, in order, the steps involved in the procedure. Identify those
steps and step-groupings that must be taught separately.
3. Identify decision points in the procedure and decision-making strategies
or rules. Plan to teach decision-making rules separately.
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248
4. Lectures and individual assignments are useful methods for initial
presentation, description, and explanation of procedures. Demonstra-
tion is the necessary method for teaching procedure-using. Guided
discussion is useful as an adjunct, debriefing experience after
simulation practice experiences.
5. Provide a procedural guide for each procedure. The guide should list
the steps of the procedure in order, state any warnings, concerns, and
other special information, identify decision-points and decision rules,
and describe the desired outcome. The guide may be in visual (i.e.,
graphic) form.
6. Demonstrate the procedure.
7. Provide practice in following the procedure. If the procedure is
highly complex or lengthy, practice should be provided both on separate
step-groupings and on the whole procedure.
8. Provide practice in all relevant contexts or situations or, at least,
in a representative sample of relevant contexts. Use simulations as
necessary; provide debriefing discussions after simulations.
9. Structure practice experiences through use of varying standards of
proficiency. Vary time-on task and/or performance standards as needed.
10. Provide constructive feedback continually and from multiple sources.
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249
SELF-CHECK #4
1. What kinds of abilities are defined as application-level? Name at
least two.
2. What is the difference between rule-using and procedure-using? What
lower-level abilities are required for each? What kind of organization
is needed to teach each?
3. What is a procedural guide? What does it contain? How is it used?
4. Select either a rule or a procedure that you might expect to teach.
Briefly describe how you would structure the lesson designed to teach
it.
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251
problem-
solving
skills in
analysis,
predicting,
evaluating
novel
solution
hi gher-order
rules and
procedures
READING #5: TEACHING PROBLEM-SOLVING OBJECTIVES
This reading is designed to introduce you to strategies for
teaching problem-solving skills. Since problem-solving
ability is developed only over long periods of time, these
strategies are more general than those you have encountered
in previous readings. A self-check concludes the reading;
answers are provided in the answer key.
By the conclusion of this reading, you should be able to:
1. define "problem-solving behaviors"
2. explain what a higher-order rule or procedure is
3. list some strategies for helping trainees to
develop problem-solving skills.
At the highest level of cognitive skills is problem-solving,
which is demonstrated by the ability to create or invent solutions
to problems. At this level, the individual analyzes a problem,
creates a plan for solving it, and selects or generates rules and/
or procedures for finding the solution. Component skills include
the ability to analyze a situation, to select tentative solutions,
to try out each tentative solution and assess its effectiveness,
and to select the appropriate solution for the problem. Problem-
solving ability differs from ability to apply rules and procedures
in that, at the application level, the rule or procedure is given
and the individual need only use it; at the problem-solving level,
the individual is given only a problem situation, for which he
or she must select or create rules and procedures and use them to
find a solution. The solution created is considered novel or
original in that it is new to the learner; that is, it has not
been taught to the learner so that the learner must discover or
invent it in order to be able to use it.
The contents of this level of behavior are higher-order rules and
procedures. They are referred to as "higher-order" because they
are created through the combination of lower-order rules and pro-
cedures that the individual has been taught. The individual must
recall these rules and procedures, perceive their usefulness in
the present situation, modify or combine them to make them applica-
ble, and then apply them. In some cases, an entirely new rule
or procedure may be needed; the individual must invent it to
solve the problem. Thus, any time an individual modifies or
combines previously learned rules and procedures or creates new
ones in order to solve a problem, the individual is demonstrating
problem-solving skills.
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252
difficult
to teach
ability to
organize
information
For example, children in elementary school learn the rule for
finding the area of a rectangle: A = bh. They apply the rule to
find the area of many different rectangles. This is an application
skill. If their instructor then gives them a parallelogram and
asks them to figure out a way to find the area of this figure, the
instructor is asking them to perform at the problem-solving level.
The students must perceive that a parallelogram is related to a
rectangle and that the figure may be modified, by the drawing of
a line perpendicular to, and connecting, top and bottom. Once
this line is created and a way found to determine its length, the
same formula can be used to find the area of the parallelogram:
A = bh. When students can perform in this manner, they are demon-
strating problem-solving skills.
In other words, an individual demonstrates problem-solving skills
when he or she can
-create (or generate, develop, devise, formulate, or invent) a
solution to a problem
-criticize or evaluate ideas, using self-generated critical stan-
dards
-draw inferences
-integrate or synthesize information
-predict outcomes, results, or effects
-provide a justification or rationale
The development of problem-solving skills requires frequent exposure
to situations requiring such skills, the opportunity to formulate
and tryout multiple solutions and evaluate the effectiveness of
each, opportunities to demonstrate curiosity, and willingness to
persist despite frustration and failure.
Problem-solving skills are very difficult to teach. They are
developed over long periods of time, through frequent exposure to
problem situations for which easy or simple solutions are not avail-
able. Short-term efforts can only identify and support certain
useful characteristics. There are three types of strategies
that are useful for helping trainees to develop the component skills
and personality characteristics that lead to problem-solving ability.
Organizational Strategies. Problem-solving skill involves the
ability to organize information in many different ways. The indi-
vidual must be able to examine a situation from many perspectives,
to select from memory rules and procedures that are potentially useful
in finding a solution, to create higher-order rules and procedures
and try them out until a successful solution is obtained. Often,
several different higher-order strategies may result in equally
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253
real and
simulated
situations
games and
role-plays
useful
guided
discussion
easy-to-
difficult
sequence for
practice
useful or appropriate solutions. The instructor must ensure that
the trainee is able to analyze the situation accurately and to
perceive all its characteristics. Moreover, the trainee must be
able to recall relevant rules and procedures that have been pre-
viously learned. During initial problem-solving attempts, a
large amount of guidance may be necessary to help the trainee
"see" the precise nature of the problem and possible means of
solving it. During later experiences, guidance must be kept to
a minimum so that trainees are actually in control of the problem
solution.
Both actual and simulated problem situations can be used to help
trainees develop problem-solving skills. Disaster drills, such as
those conducted by emergency personnel, are an effective example
of simulated problem-solving situations. During the drill, medical
personnel treat "victims" as if they had actually suffered injuries;
spot decisions must be made and acted upon without the aid of
rules and procedures. Personnel must act efficiently and correctly
with little information and little time. Games and role-playing
activities can be useful in developing problem-solving skills;
board games can be bought commercially (two well-known examples
are chess and Monopoly) which help people develop needed skills.
Military war games have been used for centuries to help armies
keep up their strategic skills during peace time.
Guided discussions are a useful means of analyzing problem situa-
tions and evaluating solutions. However, guided discussions should
not be used alone, but in conjunction with practice experiences.
Practice Strategies. Practice is essential for the development of
problem-solving skills, Trainees must gain practice in analyzing
situations, in developing and trying out tentative solutions,
and in assessing the effectiveness of these tentative solutions.
Practice experiences should be structured in an easy-to-difficult
sequence, with earlier experiences involving relatively large
amounts of instructional guidance and later experiences involvina
little or no Guidance.
Trainees must be convinced that the effectiveness of their higher-
order rules and procedures will be measured solely in terms of
complexity their usefulness in solving the problem. Highly complex or sophi-
not always sticated strategies are not always preferable; what matters is
good the solution. Emphasis should be placed on the development of
skills in creating solutions, not on the solutions themselves;
that is, the instruction should emphasize problem-solving in
general, rather than specific problems. Emphasis should also be
placed on patience, persistence, and flexibility.
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254
multiple
perspectives
frequent and
extended
practice
motivate,
encourage,
support
collaboration,
not
competition
Practice on developing the ability to use multiple perspectives
is also important. Trainees can be shown ordinary, familiar
objects (such as a brick or a pencil) and asked to list new or
different uses for each object. Viewing an event from the separate
perspectives of each of the participants is also a useful means
of developing multiple perspectives; role-playing experiences are
useful here.
Practice must be provided frequently, over a long period of time,
and with emphasis on the development of skills, rather than on
the solution to a specific problem.
Motivation Strategies. Motivation plays a crucial part in the
development of problem-solving skills. Trainees must manifest
a desire to increase their skills despite frustration and lack of
success. The instructor must provide encouragement and support,
creating an environment in which failure to solve a specific
problem is viewed as a learning experience and trainees work
together as colleagues. Competitiveness should be kept at a
minimum and collaborative effort emphasized. Guided discussions
are important as debriefing sessions to help trainees share
problems and concerns and assist each other in finding solutions.
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255
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR PROBLEM-SOLVING OBJECTIVES
1. Ensure that the desired behavior is problem-solving.
2. Ensure that trainees have already mastered necessary lower-order concepts,
rules, and procedures.
3. Provide practice in using multiple perspectives; use simulations, games,
and role-playing as necessary.
4. Provide practice in analyzing situations and defining problems.
5. Lecture is not a useful method for teaching problem-solving skills.
Guided discussions, individual assignments, and demonstrations are
effective methods for helping trainees to develop these skills.
6. Ensure that trainees are able to obtain information necessary for solving
the problem; provide guidance (prompts and cues) as needed at first;
reduce guidance to little or none in later experiences.
7. Emphasize usefulness of solution, not sophistication.
8. Emphasize the skills over the solution.
9. Motivate, encourage, and support trainees. Create an environment in
which failure has nothing to do with grades or success in the training
program; build confidence and encourage curiosity.
10. Encourage collaboration and discourage competitiveness. Use the team
approach and encourage trainees to assess and help each other. Make
assessment a tool, not a punishment.
11. Encourage trainees to seek out problem-solving experiences outside the
work environment.
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256
SELF-CHECK #5
1. How does problem-solving differ from rule or procedure using?
2. What is a higher-order rule or procedure?
3. Imagine an ordinary drinking glass. Suggest at least five uses for
it in addition to a container for liquids.
4. What motivational support should an instructor provide during problem-
solving activities?
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READING #6: TEACHING PSYCHOMOTOR OBJECTIVES
This reading introduces you to the techniques for teaching a
motor skill. It introduces the concepts of motor task analysis,
executive subroutine, and psychomotor skills.
By the conclusion of this reading, you
1. define each of the following:
subroutine, psychomotor skill
2. state the guidelines for teaching a motor skill
should be able to:
motor skill, executive
motor skill
cogni ti ve
component
A motor skill is a performance whose outcome is reflected in the
rapidity, accuracy, force, or smoothness of some bodily movement.
A motor skill thus involves some sort of physical activity; it is
evaluated in terms of one or more of the following criteria:
a) the rapidity or speed with which the action
b) the accuracy or precision of the action
c) the force or power of the action
d) the smoothness or agility of the action
is performed
Some motor skills involve gross bodily movements, in which all or
most of the body is involved. For example, the motor skill of
serving a tennis ball involves the arms, the legs, the trunk, and
the head, all of which must move in precise co-ordination to serve
the ball efficiently. Other motor skills involved very small
movements, in which only a few muscles are involved. For example,
the skill of printing a capital letter "A" requires only the muscles
of the arm and hand and eye-hand co-ordination. Whether the task
requires gross bodily movement or relatively limited muscular
activity, a motor skill is identifiable in its requirement of
rapidity, accuracy, force, and/or smoothness. An instructional
objective for a motor skill will require one or more of these per-
formance criteria in the statement of desired behavior and the
statement of acceptable performance. An objective for a student
in a typing class might look like this:
The student will type a single page of copy containing 250
words at 50 words per minute with no errors.
Notice that the objective specifies a physical activity (type) and
two of the performance criteria for motor skills: rapidity (50
words per minute) and accuracy (no errors).
Although motor skills focus primarily on physical movement, there
is a cognitive component involved. In order to type a page of
copy, a secretary must know how to type capital letters. This
skill has two components: a physical one which involves learning
how_ to hit the shift key and a cognitive component which involves
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258
psychomotor
skill
executive
subroutine
task analysis
of skill
description
and
demonstration
learning when to hit the shift key. A tennis player must learn
both how to make the various movements involved in serving the
ball and when and in what order to make the movements. Thus
motor skills are usually called psychomotor skills to indicate
that both components—physical and cognitive—are involved.
The cognitive component of a psychomotor skill includes the know-
ledge of when and in what order the various motor activities must
be performed. The timing and sequencing of motor activities con-
stitute what is called the executive subroutine, a term borrowed
from computer science. The executive subroutine is a set of
instructions on how to integrate and co-ordinate the various indi-
vidual physical movements of the motor skill. When teaching a
motor skill, it is important to teach both the individual motor
activities and the executive subroutine.
To prepare instruction on a psychomotor skill, begin with a task
analysis of the skill (see Unit Two, Analysis, for description
of a task analysis); the Task Detailing Sheet may be used for a
motor skill. The task analysis will help you to identify the com-
ponent activities and steps that comprise the motor skill, necessary
sequences in which the activities must be performed, and the exe-
cutive subroutine. Watch an expert perform the skill and note each
separate component movement. Ask the expert to "talk through" the
series of movements, describing each as it is performed. Pay
special attention to the executive subroutine; note all directions
and instructions, warnings, and any special information that a
novice would need in order to perform the motor skill. Then ask
a novice to perform the skill by strictly following the activities
and instructions detailed in the task analysis. This step provides
you with an early indication of the usefulness of the task analysis;
if it is useful, the novice should be able to demonstrate the
skill, although not as efficiently or confidently as the expert.
Repeat these steps of task analysis and novice try-out until you
have a useful task analysis.
After the task analysis has been completed, prepare instruction on
the executive subroutine, the component activities, and the complete
motor skill. The instruction should include the following:
1. description and demonstration of the complete motor skill.
This introductory step serves as a preview of the entire instruc-
tion and provides trainees with a knowledge of how the final perfor-
mance should look. Moreover, viewing the entire performance
assists trainees in understanding the role of the component acti-
vities they will be mastering. The description can be in the form
of a page of prose (such as this page), a numbered set of steps
(such as appears on a checklist), or a flow chart (useful for very
complex motor skills). Each trainee should have a description of
the motor skill. Regardless of its form, the description should
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259
part and
whole
practice
constructive
feedback
vary standards
of performance
contain (a) an ordered set or sequence of steps or movements
which comprise the motor skill, (b) notices, warnings, and con-
straints, or other special information which must be considered
when performing any or all of the component skills, and (c)
statements of performance standards against which the motor skill
will be judged (such as time limitations, degree of precision,
etc.). The demonstration may be live or simulated (such as on a
film); it should show clearly how the final performance should
look and what the result of acceptable performance will be.
Trainees should have regular access to such models of acceptable
performance. Films are particularly useful demonstrations since
they show movement, permit slow-motion and stop-frame techniques,
and are available whenever a trainee needs to review a model of
performance. Provide still visuals, such as pictures and dia-
grams, to demonstrate specific points or positions.
2. Ensure that trainees possess the prerequisite skills and
knowledge to begin learning the motor skill. Provide any necessary
remedial instruction before beginning instruction on the motor
skill.
3. Provide specific instruction on all important component
skills with which trainees are unfamiliar. Provide instruction
on the executive subroutine.
4. Provide practice on all important component skills and
on the whole skill. Practice should be distributed over time
since research has shown that several short practice sessions
are more effective than a single long session. Moreover, even
after trainees have mastered the motor skill, occasional practice
should be provided or the whole skill to refresh the learning and
deter forgetting.
5. Constructive feedback should be provided consistently and
constantly during the learning of a motor skill. For initial
training activities, the instructor may be the best source of
constructive feedback; however, once trainees have begun to master
the skill, they can provide each other with useful information.
Trainees can take turns coaching and criticizing each other's
performance.
6. During training, use increasingly more rigorous standards
of performance as feedback criteria; begin with very loose stan-
dards and, as trainees become more proficient and more confident,
increase the standards until trainees are performing at or above
the minimum acceptable standards. Involve trainees in setting the
intermediate standards; keep them continually aware of the final,
required levels.
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260
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR PSYCHQMOTOR OBJECTIVES
1. Identify content to be learned as a motor skill; ensure that what is
to be learned reflects physical activity that can be evaluated in terms
of the rapidity, accuracy, force and/or smoothness of some bodily
movement.
2. Write an instructional objective that reflects one or more of the stan-
dards listed above and requires some physical movement.
3. Perform a task analysis on the motor skill, using an expert and identi-
fying (a) the performance sequence of activities and movements which
comprise the motor skill, (b) the executive subroutine (set of direc-
tions and instructions for integrating and co-ordinating the component
activities), (c) the warnings, constraints, and other special informa-
tion trainees will need to perform the motor skill, (d) the final per-
formance standards and criteria against which skill mastery will be
evaluated. Have a novice try-out the task analysis to ensure that it
results in desired performance.
4. Ensure that trainees have mastered all prerequisite skills and knowledge
before they begin to learn the motor skill.
5. Provide models of desired performance; live or simulated demonstrations
are the most effective instructional method for teaching motor skills.
Lectures and assignments should be used only in support of demonstra-
tions. Guided discussion is not a useful method for teaching psycho-
motor skilIs.
6. Provide practice on component skills and on the whole skill. Distribute
practice time so that several sessions are possible.
7. Provide constructive feedback consistently and constantly. Involve
trainees in providing guidance and feedback to each other.
8. Vary standards of performance during training; begin with fairly loose
standards and increase rigor as trainees become more proficient.
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261
SELF-CHECK # 6
1. What is a motor skill? What characteristics identify a skill as motor
rather than cognitive or affective?
2. Why are motor skills often called "psychomotor skills"?
3. What is the executive subroutine? What role does it play in motor
skills?
4. When should practice be provided during motor-skill learning?
5. How should feedback be provided? How often?
6. Why is demonstration the most effective method for teaching motor skills?
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263
READING #7: TEACHING AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES
This reading introduces strategies for teaching affective objec-
tives. A discussion of four different types of affects—beliefs,
values, attitudes, and interests~4s followed by strategies for
helping trainees to develop more appropriate attitudes and to tap
interests. A self-check follows the reading.
By the conclusion of this reading, you will be able to:
1. identify strategies for assisting in effective attitude
formation and interest development.
affect: an
internal state
motivation
derives
from affect
not directly
teachable
Affective learning involves the development of interests, attitudes,
values, and beliefs. An affect is an internal state which governs
an individual's choice of actions. It results in a tendency to
approach or avoid whole classes of objects, ideas, people, and
events. An individual's motivation to do something or to strive
toward some goal derives directly from his or her affects. Yet
since an affect is an internal state, it cannot be observed dir-
ectly. What can be observed and measured is the behavior that is
guided by the affect. Because an individual has certain values,
beliefs, and attitudes, he chooses one set of actions over another;
this choice results in overtly observable behaviors from which
attitudes, values, and beliefs can be inferred.
For example, a man who values religion and believes in the impor-
tance of divine guidance in his life will demonstrate these beliefs
by joining a church or synagogue, attending regularly, partici-
pating in related activities, and giving his time and money to
support religious endeavors. His behaviors overtly demonstrate
his beliefs.
Of all the types of behavior, affect is most difficult to teach,
and almost impossible over short periods of time. Values and
beliefs are developed beginning in infancy; the influences of
family, religion, and community are pervasive and long-lasting.
They result in a set of values and beliefs that are stable and
enduring. Public educational systems assist in the transmission
of cultural values and beliefs. By the time an individual has
graduated from high school, he or she has developed a value and
belief system that is extremely resistant to change and is
usually affected adversely only by situations and events that
have strong shock value. War, catastrophic illness or injury,
and disaster are the usual means for effecting a changing in values
and beliefs.
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264
The values that an individual holds serve to motivate the indi-
vidual. Thus motivation stems directly from the value system
that characterizes the individual. Activities that are con-
gruent with the value system are intrinsically motivating; that
is, an individual derives satisfaction or pleasure from doing
something that is a reflection of his values. External rewards
are unnecessary since the activity serves as its own reward.
For example, a woman who places a high value on being a good
mother derives intrinsic satisfaction from spending time with
her children. The more time she spends playing with and teaching
them, the more satisfaction she derives. And the greater her
satisfaction, the more time she wants to spend with the children.
Thus, motivation in general, and especially intrinsic motivation,
is derived from one's value system (for a further analysis of
motivation, see Unit Seven, Lesson Four).
Attitudes are less resistant to change. An attitude is a tendency
to approach or avoid classes of,objects, events, people, or
ideas. A positive attitude results in approach tendencies; that
is, an individual tends to seek out, or not avoid, certain ideas,
objects, events, or people. For example, a young girl with a
positive attitude toward reading may choose to spend her leisure
time reading, select school projects involving books, join book
clubs, and ignore social activities in order to spend more time
reading. As she grows older, this attitude should continue;
reading will always be an important part of her life, and she will
pass on to her children her example of a positive attitude toward
reading.
A negative attitude results in avoidance tendencies; that is, the
individual seeks to avoid certain experiences, ideas, or people.
A boy who dislikes sports will refuse to participate in sports
activities, to watch them, or to read about sports events or
personalities.
attitudes are Attitudes are always directed toward or against something; they are
predispositions predispositions to behave in certain ways. Since they are learned,
attitudes:
approach or
avoidance
tendencies
to behave in
certain ways
reference
groups affect
attitudes
they can be unlearned. However, the more long-lasting an atti-
tude, the more difficult and time-consuming the unlearning will
be. Also, the support an attitude receives from important reference
groups such as family, ethnic group, and peer group, the more resis-
tant to change an attitude will be. Attitude formation depends on
several variables, including the degree of congruence between the
attitude and the individual's value system, the influence of reference
groups, and the individual's perception of the relative pay-offs
(rewards and punishments) associated with both maintaining and
changing the attitude. For this reason, prejudice is so diffi-
cult to defeat; prejudicial attitudes toward members of various
ethnic and religious groups are the result of long-term behavior
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attitude
change can be
influenced but
not taught
modelling
interests are
preferences
by large groups of people. The support of entire communities
for the continuation of prejudicial attitudes prevents the pre-
judice from being removed.
Although attitudes can not be directly influenced for change, if
the individual perceives that changing an attitude can result in
some desirable reward (such as respect from someone the indivi-
dual admires), then that individual can be influenced to change
the attitude. Notice that the operative word is "influenced",
not taught. For adults, teaching attitudes is impractical
since attitudes are already formed. Instead, if the contin-
gencies can be arranged so that demonstrations of the desired
attitude are rewarded or positively reinforced and demonstra-
tions of negative attitudes are ignored or punished, then the
adult can be influenced to change the attitude. Persuasion is
far less effective than are demonstrations of desired attitudes
by people the individual admires and respects. Influencing an
attitude change thus requires an indirect teaching method called
modelling: the desired attitude is demonstrated in terms of
actions which would result from holding a particular attitude.
Role-playing, games, and guided discussions reinforce the demon-
strations. Adults then choose to change an attitude if the new
attitude is perceived as desirable and rewarding.
Interests reflect attitudes and values in a very loose way. They
represent preferences for activities and experiences which are
fairly short-lived and impermanent. Interests are easily changed
and are most directly influenced by outside agencies such as
family, peer group, and job. Novelty, curiosity, and trends or
fads also directly influence choice of interests. For example,
after moving to a new town, a man with no prior interest in gar-
dening may discover that one of the most important events in the
town's calendar is the annual rose festival. After watching the
time and energy his neighbors invest in growing roses and noting
the number of social events revolving around gardening clubs and
activities, the man may develop an interest in gardening.
Helping an individual develop specific interests can be fairly
simple. It may involve merely exposing the individual to several
kinds of activities, making him aware of the benefits (both intrin-
sic and extrinsic) attached to the activities, and providing access
to participation in the activities. Standardized interest inven-
tories are available as an objective means of determining peoples'
interests. However, since interests are fairly changeable, the
same inventory given to a person at two different points in time
may produce significantly different results.
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modelling:
learning by
observation
admiration
and respect
for model
role-playing
models need
high
credibility
active parti-
cipation
better than
observation
Strategies for Influencing Attitude Formation. The most effective
strategy is modelling, an instructional situation in which trainees
observe some individual who demonstrates the desired behavior.
This method of learning by observing requires that the model be
observed performing an action which derives from a desirable atti-
tude; the model must be observed receiving intrinsic satisfaction
or pleasure from the behavior. Moreover, the model must be a
person who is admired and respected by the observers so that the
behavior is perceived as worthy of imitation. When the model is
observed deriving intrinsic satisfaction from the behavior, obser-
vers gain vicarious satisfaction. The modelling process must be
repeated often, using different models when possible, all of whom
are admired and respected by trainees. Observations should be
followed by guided discussions on the implications of the desired
attitudes, reasons for attitude change, and the effects of obser-
ving the modelling on trainees.
Additional strategies for attitude formation include the use of
simulations and role-playing, which should be designed to make
trainees aware of the desired attitudes and resulting behaviors,
the consequences of developing and failing to develop desired
attitudes, and the relationship between simulated and actual
behaviors. Role-playing activities are an especially useful
attitude-formation device for working with adults. Adults can be
asked to play roles that differ markedly from their own set of
values and attitudes. For example, in a role-play activity to
develop an attitude of tolerance toward people of different poli-
tical beliefs, an extremely conservative individual may be asked
to role-play a person holding liberal beliefs and a liberal asked
to role-play a conservative. After the two have role-played a
confrontation over some controversial issue, their audience can
discuss perceptions of the two positions; equally important, the
two players should discuss their feelings about "stepping into
someone else's skin". At the end of each role-play, guided dis-
cussions permits both players and audiences to share perceptions
and feelings.
Some characteristics of modelling and role-playing are worth noting.
First, in modelling, the model must have high credibility; exper-
tise is the most important component of credibility and trustworthi-
ness is also important. Equally, the model must be attractive to
the audience; sports and entertainment figures and heroes usually
have high attractiveness, while political figures are often less
attractive and viewed as less trustworthy.
In role-playing activities, active participation produces greater
potential for change than does observation. Therefore, the strongest
proponents of undesirable attitudes should be invited to take roles.
Participation should be enforced by participation in debriefing
discussions after the role-play activity.
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influence of Third, people are strongly influenced by the reference groups in
reference their lives. Resistance to changing from a group-held attitude
groups is related directly to the degree to which an individual values
the group and to the kind of reward involved in maintaining adher-
ence to the group's attitude.
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INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES
ATTITUDES AND VALUES CANNOT BE TAUGHT DIRECTLY; INSTEAD, THEY ARE INFLUENCED,
OVER LONG PERIODS OF TIME, BY A VARIETY OF FACTORS INCLUDING FAMILY, COMMU-
NITY, PEER GROUPS, AND THE LIKE.
1. Desired attitudes should be modelled consistently by the instructor;
attitudes are acquired and changed by imitation.
2. The cognitive component of an attitude can be dealt with through guided
discussions which focus on the meaning and implications of the attitudes,
the behaviors associated with them, and the consequences of such beha-
viors. Trainees should be guided toward recognizing the implications
of holding certain attitudes.
3. Lecture and individual assignment are not effective methods for influ-
encing attitude formation. Guided discussion, demonstration (modelling),
and group activities such as role-playing and simulations are useful
methods for influencing attitude formation.
4. Modelling is an effective strategy for influencing attitude formation.
a) the model must be an individual who is respected and admired by
trainees.
b) the model must be observed demonstrating the desired behavior and
deriving intrinsic reward from the actions.
c) trainees need multiple exposures to models.
d) discussions should be used to analyze the attitude, resulting beha-
viors, and consequences.
5. Role-playing experiences are useful to help trainees understand how
other people feel.
a) roles and situations must be clearly delineated but actual scripts
should not be used. Players must have the freedom to interpret situa-
tions and roles as they see fit.
b) players should be selected for roles that differ markedly from their
own beliefs and values.
c) role-plays should be brief (no more than 5 minutes) and highly focused
on a specific situation.
d) debriefing sessions should focus on how players felt as they acted
out roles very different from their own personalities and on what
the audience perceived and felt as they watched.
e) two or three role-plays are usually sufficient to deal with any one
situation; the role-plays should not be repetitions of each other
but should focus on different aspects of a situation or on different
but related situations. Different players should be used in each.
6. Attitude formation activities should include overt attention to and
discussion of the roles of reference groups in an individual's choice
of actions. Suggestions for resisting group pressure and for devising
alternate reward structures should also be discussed.
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SELF-CHECK # 7
1. Why can't an attitude or value or belief be measured directly? What
can be measured?
2. What is an attitude? How are attitudes formed?
3. What are two effective means for influencing attitude formation?
4. What is an interest? How can an instructor help trainees develop
interests?
5. Name an interest you have had over the past year. Briefly explain how
you developed the interest.
6. Name two or three attitudes that you have perceived that are detrimental
or inhibiting to your ability to do your job effectively. They may be
held by co-workers, management, or anyone else who might affect your work.
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ASSIGNMENT 7.5
Answer Key
SELF-CHECK #1
1. a)
C b)
_C_c)
d)
_C_e)
2. Knowledge: e.g., labels the parts of a diagram of a pH meter
Comprehension: e.g., explains the meaning of the term "Neutral Solution"
Application: e.g., performs the suspended solids test
Problem-Solving: e.g., correctly diagnoses the malfunction in an
electrical circuit
3. Cognition refers to all the intellectual processes of knowing, thinking,
reasoning, and remembering.
SELF-CHECK #2
1. facts
2. When each would be learned as a fact
3. 5 - 9 (or 7 +2)
4. a memory device such as a rhyme
5. yes a) yes d)
yes b) no e)
no c)
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SELF-CHECK # 3
1. explaining, classifying, concept-using
2. it is general and imprecise
3. a class or category which has a label, a set of critical characteristics
which must be possessed by all members of the concept-category, and
instances
4. e.g., learning (label)
is an internal change in an individual's ability to do something
that is relatively permanent and enduring (definition)
learning to tie a shoelace
ability to perform the suspended solids test
skill in driving a car (instances)
blinking my eyes when dust blows (non-instance)
5. First, teach the label and definition at knowledge level.
Then teach concept by presenting examples and non-examples, in an easy-
to-difficult sequence, emphasizing the important characteristics in
the examples.
Finally, provide practice in using the concept definition to classify
new entities as examples or non-examples
SELF-CHECK #4
1. rule using and procedure following
2. rule using requires comprehension of component concepts while procedure
using involves only knowledge of the correct sequence of steps in the
procedure. For rule use, teach concepts before rules; for procedure
use, teach sequence of steps.
3. a document that identifies the list of steps (in order), important
warnings, special equipment, and other important information, and
describes the final product. Trainees use it as a reference to guide
them in following the procedure.
SELF-CHECK #5
1. problem solving involves selecting a rule or procedure rather than merely
following one that has been given to the individual.
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2. a rule or procedure that has been created from simpler rules or pro-
cedures for use in problem solving
3. a stethoscope
a magnifying glass
a door stop (when filled with sand)
a protective covering for a new plant
a prism
4. encouragement, support, an environment in which failure to solve
problems is not penalized, a collaborative environment
SELF-CHECK #6
1. a skill requiring physical activity, reflected in the rapidity, accuracy,
force, or smoothness of physical movement
2. because a cognitive component is involved
3. the set of directions for integrating the individual physical move-
ments
4. practice should be continued, on both whole and part skills, and not
saved up for the end of the lesson; it should be spaced out
5. provide constructive feedback constantly from multiple sources
6. because trainees must see the movements before they can reproduce them.
SELF-CHECK #7
1. because it is internal
behaviors resulting from affects can be measured
2. a fairly permanent disposition toward or against something. They are
formed over long periods of time by examples from family, religious,
ethnic, and peer groups, and experiences
3. modelling and role-playing
4. a fairly short-lived preference for activities and experiences
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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT EIGHT
USING AND DEVELOPING MEDIA
Estimated time for unit: Four hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit is primarily concerned with how to use media in
instruction. It discusses five general steps of media utilization
which may be applied to any medium. One especially useful and
versatile medium, overhead transparencies, is covered in detail.
Both utilization and production concerns are covered in a self-
instructional assignment.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
After completion of this unit you should be able to:
-list and explain each of the five steps in effective utilization
of media in instruction
-describe at least four things which should be considered in each
step to ensure effective use of the media
-apply the five steps to any medium selected to meet an instruc-
tional need
-describe four advantages of the use of overhead projectors.
-describe four advantages of transparencies as a medium of
instruction
-describe four techniques for using the overhead projector
effectively
-describe three factors to be considered in creating effective
transparencies.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
The effective use of media in training requires planning and
preparation. Good presentation and practice sessions don't just
happen because the medium used is especially good. In fact, a
poorly produced mediated material can be very effective if used
wisely by a prepared trainer. This unit provides useful infor-
mation for planning to use media in a presentation.
.*•*•••
m
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The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Assignment 8.1: Effective Utilization of Media in Instruction
2. Assignment 8.2: Production and Use of Transparencies on the
Overhead Projector
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UNIT EIGHT: USING AND DEVELOPING MEDTA
LESSON 1 of 2: UTILIZATION OF MFDIA IN THE TRAINING SESSION
ASSIGNMENT 8.1 EFEECTIVE UTILIZATION OF MEDIA IN INSTRUCTION
Estimated time: 45 minutes
The use of media in instruction is no guarantee that learning
will occur. However, if media is selected on the basis of its
potential contribution to the accomplishment of a specific
objective and the proper steps are taken to utilize it
effectively there is reason to believe that learning will take
place effectively and efficiently. Consideration of the use
of media in instruction must begin with an awareness of the
importance of ME in Media. If media is to have meaningful
impact on instruction it will be dependent on how well the
teacher uses it.
The purpose of this
steps which must be
These are selection,
presentation of the
you plan for the use
sider in detail each
Although each media
characteristics each
will consider media
specific media will
assignment is to introduce you to the five
considered in effectively utilizing media.
teacher preparation, student preparation,
material and follow-up and evaluation. As
of media it is essential that you con-
of these factors in effective utilization.
may have slightly different utilization
of these factors is applicable. This unit
as a total group and where appropriate,
be used as examples.
OBJECTIVES: After completion of this unit you should:
1. List each of the five steps in effective utili-
zation of media and tell why each is important
in planning for the use of media in instruction.
2. Given any one of the five steps in effective
utilization, describe at least four things
which should be considered in that step if the
media is to be used effectively.
3. Given a medium selected by yourself and an
instructional need, describe how each of the
five steps would be implemented to effectively
utilize the medium.
DIRECTIONS: Complete this assignment. Your instructor will
discuss with you each of the five steps in effec-
tive utilization of media. After discussion of
each step you should apply the information in the
unit in planning for the use of media in a parti-
cular teaching-learning situation in which you
are involved.
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One of the major concerns and responsibilities of every
instructor should be to see that the time trainees spend in various
learning activities is spent as profitably as possible. Stated another
way, our responsibility is to help each student gain maximum educational
benefit from the training which, we plan and implement. We must use the
limited amount of time we have as wisely as we know how. To make sure
we do this, every instructor should consider the five basic steps in
effective utilization. These are:
-selection of the media material
-teacher preparation for use of the material
-student preparation for use of the material
-the use of the material
-the follow-up activity and evaluation
Each of these steps is important. To leave out one of them in your
planning is to lessen the value of the others. If each is considered
seriously in your planning, the potential for a significant contribution
to learning from the use of media is increased. This reading will con-
sider each of these five steps as they apply to the utilization of media
in instruction.
Selection of the Media Material
We begin the task of effective utilization with the selection of
the material. The selection of the media has been considered in detail
in another unit dealing specifically with this topic. Here we will con-
sider the merits of selecting a particular material -- which film, film-
strip, recording, or slide program should be selected. You may have few
alternatives as to which material you will use due to problems of availa-
bility. Even if this should be true, it is important to be aware of the
considerations of selection,
Selection of any specific material must be based on its contri-
bution to the accomplishment of the objectives of the lesson. You must
answer the question, "Will this material efficiently and effectively
assist my students to accomplish the objectives of the lesson?" This
question can best be answered after previewing various materials and
selecting the material which in your judgment is most suitable. It should
be pointed out at this point that without specific learning objectives
there is no basis for beginning the task of selection. It has been said
that if you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there.
At the same time, once you have a destination there may be alternate ways
of getting there and you must decide which way is best for you. As you
consider the relationship of the material to your objective you will
want to determine whether the content has a high positive correlation
with your lesson or whether most of the material is irrelevant. Often
you will find material that will not be useful in its entirety. You may
be able to use appropriate sections, if that is all that is available.
A second factor in selection is the accuracy of the information.
Related to this is the consideration of whether the information is up-to-
date. In areas which are changing rapidly because of technological
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developments this is very important. In all areas of environmental con-
trol you will be concerned with whether the material portrays the latest
developments in that area. Does the material show equipment and methods
which are in use today so that trainees can relate the information to
situations in which they may find themselves? Technology changes rapidly
and it is possible that parts of any material may be out of date. This
should not prevent you from using the material if you are aware of the
problem and make sure that your students are aware of the changes. Do
not confuse being up to date with clothing styles or other social changes.
As you are aware, clothing styles change rapidly, perhaps more rapidly
than the information presented in the material. You do need to be aware
of the differences in clothing styles. So do your students since such
things may receive more attention than the relevant content.
Another factor which should be considered in selection is the
ability level of your students. Some questions you will want to answer
are: Does the material present the concept or skill to be learned in a
way which is appropriate for the ability level of your students? Is it
designed for persons with a higher educational level? Does it consider
the topic in too great detail? Is the vocabulary used appropriate for
the level of your students? Can materials be locally produced or found
which would have a better chance of reaching your students where they
are in terms of ability? The emphasis here is on the ability of your
students and of course this means both individually and collectively.
Each student and/or group of students may differ significantly and this
will affect your selection as you evaluate materials on the basis of the
ability level of the particular group with whom they are to be used.
Closely related to the ability of students is their background
and experiences. Do they have the prerequisite skills or have they
acquired the prerequisite knowledge which will allow them to benefit from
the content of the material as it is presented? It is important in
selecting materials that we know something about the previous experiences
of our students in the area under consideration so that we can select
material based on realistic information on their knowledge and skill. Be
careful to select materials based on the students' knowledge and skills,
not yours. Your knowledge of a subject as a teacher may cause you to see
the material as very simple to understand, but your students may find it
very difficult. Although it is not part of this step, it is important to
note here that if you determine that your students do not have the pre-
requisite knowledge and skills to benefit from the use of specific material
that this readiness be developed before the material is used.
Teacher Preparation for Use of the Material
The second step in effective utilization of media is that of
teacher preparation. This is the key to all the steps to follow. It is
at this point that you consider how you will use the materials to
accomplish the objectives of the lesson. With materials such as films,
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filmstrips, sound filmstrips, audio tapes, disk recordings and video tapes
you begin to prepare yourself by previewing the materials with pencil in
hand making notes on the content, vocabulary and important concepts pre-
sented. It is impossible to overstress the importance of previewing
materials before they are used. No one would think of trying to teach
from a textbook they had not read, but many a time have teachers tried
to teach with media they had not previewed. Without previewing you can-
not determine whether the material has a high positive correlation with
your objective, its appropriateness for your students' abilities and
backgrounds, the best way to introduce it, what you and your students
will do during the presentation of the material and what kind of follow-
up activities are most suitable after the material is used. As a result
of previewing the material, you will establish precise objectives for
the use of the material based on your analysis of the content. You will
want to ask the question: What behavior do I want my students to exhibit
after the use of this material?
As part of your preparation you will want to make sure your know-
ledge of the topic is adequate. There may be concepts, skills and infor-
mation presented with which you are not sufficiently familiar. If so,
you may need to do some further study to be able to handle questions and
problems which may arise in using the material.
No one medium is the solution to the needs in a given area.
Gather together whatever supplementary materials you will need to enlarge
upon or clarify the concepts presented. If you are using a film perhaps
you will need a transparency, slide series, model, chart or specimen to
help in establishing the ideas, skills or information in the film. In
using a film which explores primary or secondary waste water treatment
series you could use a transparency to show all of the components of the
system prior to showing the film and use the same transparency and a set
of slides showing a local primary treatment system after the film to
help students apply the information from the film to their own situation.
If you wish to follow up the film with a demonstration or have your stu-
dents carry out some learning activity you will want to make sure that
you have arranged for the necessary materials.
Last, but certainly not least, take care of the physical arrange-
ments. Make sure the room is suitable in terms of amount of space
required and the need for darkening facilities. Check in advance to see
if the proper equipment is available and that you are competent in its
operation. A well-planned presentation can lose much of its impact if
the teacher does not know how to competently operate the equipment. Know
what to do when problems arise in the operation of projection and audio
equipment. They frequently do.
As a transition to the next step in effective utilization -- that
of student preparation — the factors which affect the amount of learning
which will take place will be considered. Although they will not be
considered in detail, an awareness of these factors should help you to
better understand and appreciate the need for careful planning and for
adequate student preparation.
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Students learn better, more effectively, and learning is longer
lasting:
1. When they are actively involved in the learning process,
when they do something rather than having something done
to them.
2. When there is immediate feedback of the consequences of
periods of time to find out if their responses are
correct.
3. When the learning activity is perceived to have validity,
that it is relevant to their important concerns.
4. When they are interested in or enthusiastic about the
learning activity.
5. When their reactions to the learning activity are re-
inforced by the reactions of others.
6. When the learning activity is carefully designed to
accomplish clearly conceived objectives.
These conditions or factors which affect the quality and amount
of learning are closely related to the concept of motivation and reward.
This concept is considered in detail in the component of this course
dealing with this topic.
Student Preparation for Use of the Materials
The step of student preparation is sometimes referred to as stu-
dent motivation, and that certainly is an important part of it. It is
sometimes referred to as the introduction or developing student readiness.
It is, in fact, all of these things.
Some of the specific things which should be considered in pre-
paring the student are:
1. The objective of the lesson and of the material being
used. Discuss with the students the objectives and
make sure they understand what they mean in terms of
their expected behaviors. Seek to establish the vali-
dity of the objective. Students will attend more
diligently to those things which they perceive as being
important to them. This can be done by helping the
students see the correlation between the objective and
the ultimate goal of the students.
2. Knowledge of the topic. Try to ascertain how much the
trainees know about the topic. The importance of this
has been touched on before. It is your responsibility
to make sure that students have the prerequisite skills
and knowledge which are essential to understanding the
material to be used. This could be described as an
element of student readiness.
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280
3. Vocabulary - New or difficult words, or words used in a
new context can create confusion and lessen the effective-
ness of the material. Identify these new terms and help
students to understand their meanings within the context
of the material to be used.
4. Assign responsibility for content included in material
used. Indicate to students what they will be responsible
for after listening to or viewing the material. If stu-
dents are not listening or looking for something it is
very probable that they will see or hear nothing. They
need to be prepared to do selective viewing and listening;
to look and listen for those things which are important
for the accomplishment of the objectives. This will pro-
vide for meaningful involvement on the part of students.
To facilitate this you may want to provide students with
an outline to be filled in, a list of questions to be
answered, solutions to identified problems, or processes
to be followed. These structuring or organizing tech-
niques will particularly enhance the learning of lower
ability students.
5. Use other materials to develop basic ideas. It may be
easier for a student to understand a film on the primary
or secondary treatment of waste water if a series of
transparencies are used to show a basic diagram of these
systems and particular functions of equipment and pro-
cesses within the system.
Student preparation can be summarized as the time when students
are made ready for the learning activity in terms of their motivation,
involvement and the prerequisite knowledge and skills which will allow
them to gain maximum benefit from the activity.
The Use of the Material
When you "sense" that the students are really ready for the pre-
sentation of the material you will proceed with this step. I use the
statement "sense that the students are ready" because that may be the only
thing you will have on which to base your decision. If you have considered
those things suggested, your students, as a group, should be ready. This
is not the time, however, to sit back and relax. You still have a role to
play. During this step the student should be actively involved. This
involvement may be through the awareness of the student to look or listen
for specific ideas, information or skills or it may come through discussion
and interaction during the presentation of the material. All students
profit from active participation during the presentation of materials.
During the step of teacher preparation you will decide how this active par-
ticipation will take place. Discussion of individual filmstrip frames,
stopping the film or sound filmstrip projector or recorder for discussion
and clarification of ideas presented will keep the student actively involved.
The decision to use these techniques can only be based on your evaluation
of the needs of your particular students. There are no rules or even
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guidelines which can be provided. Only you can decide that a film should
be stopped for discussion or reversed to look at a sequence over again or
other material used to clarify the concept presented. You should feel
free to move from a motion picture to a transparency, model, slide,
specimen or other material and back to the motion picture. The attitude
that once projected materials or audio materials are started they should
not be interrupted is based on tradition and not good teaching techniques.
Such a practice does not always provide for the desired involvement or
any response which would indicate to the instructor or student that the
material is understood. Through the act of making active responses during
the presentation, lower ability students particularly will be able to
compensate for poorer memories and processing skills. If through dis-
cussion during a presentation you discover that students do not under-
stand the information presented you may determine at that point that it
is desirable to reverse a film, video tape or audio tape and look at or
listen to a sequence a second time. In the case of a sound film-strip,
motion picture, video tape or sound-slide program you might decide to
narrate the material yourself to try to clarify the information or concepts
presented.
The responsibility for teaching, planning and implementing stu-
dent learning activities, is yours. The responsibility for learning is
the students'. Students will have a difficult time fulfilling their
responsibility unless you as a teacher make every effort to provide a
learning experience which is appropriate for the student and which offers
maximum opportunities for feedback and response so that you can modify
your approach if learning is not occurring.
Follow-up and Evaluation
The final step in effective utilization is referred to as the
follow-up and evaluation. Evaluation is considered with the follow-up
as opposed to being a separate step because as the follow-up activities
are implemented you will be evaluating the learning which has taken place
and your own lesson planning. The types of follow-up activities which
are appropriate are dependent on the objectives of the lesson. If the
material presented involves the teaching and learning of certain skills
it would be appropriate for the student to practice the skills presented.
Other activities might be discussion, role playing, problem solving,
research, construction activities, experimentation, field trips, use of
resource people or panel discussions. The follow-up activities should
provide the students with an opportunity to use or apply the knowledge
or skills they have learned. The follow-up activities should be used
not only to find out what students learned, but what they didn't learn
that is related to your objectives. If there are important things which
were not learned you will have to decide how to modify your approach to
provide those experiences which will permit the student to accomplish
the objectives. This may mean showing projected materials a second time
or using other materials and activities to clarify problem areas.
Often times the follow-up activity consists of such questions as
"Does anyone have any questions?" or "What questions do you have about
the material shown?" or "Do you all understand this now?" or "Are there any
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questions?" Usually the response to these questions is less than over-
whelming. Such questions indicate poor planning. Students have a diffi-
cult time responding when they don't know what they were supposed to
learn to begin with. There is a need to structure the follow-up activi-
ties in such a way as to give students an opportunity to use or display
the knowledge or skills they have learned which would indicate the desired
behaviors you determined for the material and the lesson. Appropriate
valid follow-up activities help to provide motivation for future use of
materials as they help the student to develop an appreciation and an under-
standing of the value of media presentations in assisting them to learn
things which will be useful to them. When there are no follow-up activi-
ties students may develop a negative attitude or at least a neutral atti-
tude toward the use of those kinds of learning activities as they may
see little need to pay attention if nothing is done with the information
presented.
During the follow-up activities you will be evaluating the accom-
plishment of the objectives which you have established. If you didn't
accomplish your objective you will want to discover why. Such questions
as "Was the material appropriate for the objectives, for the background
of the students or for the ability of the students?" will help you make
this determination. Other questions might be, "Were the students inade-
quately prepared in terms of interest and motivation?" "How could I have
changed the lesson to make it more meaningful?"
If it appears that making effective use of materials is difficult
and time consuming, you are beginning to see how demanding teaching is if
it is to be done well. Each of the steps in effective utilization are
important if maximum benefit is to be received by the student from the
use of media. Our goal should always be to use media to assist students
to learn effectively and efficiently those things which are important for
them to learn. The use of media will be most meaningful if serious con-
sideration is given to selection of the appropriate media for the objec-
tives and the characteristics of the students, preparing ourselves as
teachers to present the material in the best possible way, preparing our
students so that they may beneficially participate in the learning acti-
vity, providing ways for students to be actively involved during the pre-
sentation of the material and finally, providing opportunities for stu-
dents to apply the learning which has taken place to help them learn new
things and to do new tasks which are important to them.
Check your understanding of the above material by trying
the self-test below.
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SELF TEST
Effective Utilization of Media in Instruction
Circle the one most appropriate answer for each question.
1. Effective utilization of media involves consideration of:
a. Proper selection of media
b. Preparation of the instructor
c. Plans for evaluating the use of the media
d. All of the above
2. When previewing materials to be used you should be concerned about:
a. Vocabulary used in the material
b. Physical arrangements required
c. Follow-up activities
d. Your ability to operate the equipment
3. Effective utilization can be accomplished if the instructor:
a. Previews the material
b. Knows how to correctly operate equipment required
c. Considers each of the five steps in effective utilization in
planning
d. Helps the students to understand the objectives
4. Selection of materials should be based on:
a. Its contribution to the accomplishment of lesson objectives
b. The amount of time required to secure the material
c. Your ability to operate the equipment required to use the material
d. None of the above
5. Factors which affect the quality of the learning experience are:
a. Students learn best when they are actively involved
b. Students learn best when there is immediate feedback of the conse-
quences of their behavior
c. Students learn best when the learning activity is perceived to have
validity
d. All of the above
6. Preparation of the instructor would require:
a. Determining ability level of students
b. Determining background and experience of students
c. Planning introduction, presentation and follow-up activities
d. Determining objectives of the lesson
7. In preparing students for the use of media the instructor should:
a. Help students to understand the objectives for the material
b. Explain new or difficult vocabulary
c. Develop prerequisite skills and knowledge
d. All of the above
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8. Developing student readiness would be the same as the step of:
a. Teacher preparation
b. Student preparation
c. Presenting the material
d. Selection of the material
9. When presenting or using the material the instructor should:
a. Go out for a beer
b. Keep the students actively involved
c. Help students understand the objectives for the material
d. Develop prerequisite skills and knowledge
10. The activities appropriate for follow-up activities will be determined
by:
a. Objectives of the lesson
b. Ability of students
c. Background of students
d. Amount of time available after using the material
11. Appropriate, valid follow-up activities help to:
a. Provide motivation for future use of materials
b. Develop an understanding and appreciation for the value of media
c. Accomplish objectives of the lesson
d. All of the above
12. In presenting material such as film, filmstrip or audio tape the decision
to stop and discuss the material during the presentation should be
based on:
a. The length of the material
b. Your evaluation of the needs of your students
c. The age of your students
d. You should never stop during this presentation of these types of
materials for discussion, but wait until the program is completed
13. Competency of the instructor in operation of required equipment:
a. Is not important in the effective utilization of material
b. Is of great importance in effective utilization of material
c. Is only important if you are not competent in the subject matter
being presented
d. None of the above
14. The main criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of media material is
that:
a. Students enjoy the learning experience
b. It is good for teaching
c. It produces the desired learning
d. It enhances the image of the teacher
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15. Students learn best when:
a. The learning activity is carefully designed to accomplish clearly
conceived objectives
b. A multi-media approach is used
c. They are paid for learning
c. All of the above
16. Follow-up activities should be used to:
a. Find out what students learned
b. Find out what students didn't learn
c. Provide opportunities for students to display knowledge or skills
learned
d. All of the above
17. Previewing materials before using them is important when:
a. The students have little background in the subject matter area
b. The teacher has little expertise in the subject matter area
c. The teacher desires to make the most effective use of the material
d. Behavioral objectives are not understood by students
18. The attitude that once projected or audio materials are started they
should not be interrupted until the end is based on:
a. Good teaching practices
b. Tradition
c. The use of behavioral objectives
d. All of the above
19. The most effective way to prepare yourself to use a particular material
is to:
a. Talk to someone who has used it before
b. Read the study guide which accompanies the material
c. Preview the material
d. Talk to students who have seen it before
20. Material in which all of the information is not up to date:
a. Should never be used
b. Should be used only as a last resort
c. Should be used if information is appropriate and students are made
aware of changes which have occurred
d. Should only be used if students understand the objectives of the
lesson
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UNIT EIGHT: USING AND DEVELOPING MEDIA
LESSON 1 of 2
Answers to Self-test
1. ~d
2. -a
3. — c
4. —a
5. —d
6. --c
7. —d
8. —b
9. --b
10. --a
11. —d
12. -b
13. — b
14. --c
15. —a
16. — d
17. --c
18. --b
19. --c
20. — c
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UNIT EIGHT: USING AND DEVELOPING MEDIA
LESSON 2 of 2: PRODUCTION AND USE OF TRANSPARENCIES
ON THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
ASSIGNMENT 8.2 PRODUCTION AND USE OF TRANSPARENCIES
ON THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
Estimated time: Two hours
Although the overhead projector has a great potential for
improvement of instruction, this potential can only be realized
if the user correctly uses the projector and creates effective
transparencies to use on it. This unit will present some sug-
gestions as to how you might make more effective use of the
overhead projector and how you can produce attractive and
effective transparencies to fit your needs using what will be
called "handmade materials". These materials are those which
would be easily available and can be used without any special
equipment. There are many ways of producing transparencies.
These include such methods as the diazo process, thermo pro-
cess, color lift and photographic transparencies. Each of
these has particular advantages and characteristics. However,
all require special equipment and in some cases special skills
to produce. "Handmade" transparencies are emphasized in this
module because you should be able to put this information into
immediate use. As part of the unit you will create a trans-
parency using "handmade" materials. If you are interested in
learning about other methods of producing transparencies it is
suggested that you arrange with a media specialist for an
instructional session, contact your media center if you are in
a setting where such a service is available or acquire one of
the books on this subject listed in the bibliography for this
unit.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit you should:
1. Describe at least four advantages of the overhead
projector over other types of projectors.
2. Describe at least four advantages of transparencies
as a medium of instruction.
3. Describe at least four ways or techniques for using
the overhead projector which will increase its effec-
tiveness.
4. Describe three factors which should be considered in
creating effective transparencies.
5. Produce a transparency from an original drawing pro-
vided using felt or nylon tip pens, grease pencils with
transparent or opaque lead, dry transfer letters, trans-
parent color tapes and transparent color adhesive backed
acetate sheets.
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PRODUCTION AND USE OF TRANSPARENCIES ON THE
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
This unit is divided into five areas or topics. These areas
are: (1) Advantages of the overhead projector, (2) Advantage of
Transparencies as a medium of instruction, (3) Considerations in using
the overhead projector, (4) Considerations in planning and producing
transparencies, and (5) Producing "handmade" transparencies. After
reading through each of these sections proceed with the production of
the "handmade" transparency.
ADVANTAGES OF THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
1. Used in front of the group
By using the projector in the front of
the room the presenter is able to main-
tain eye contact with the audience.
This allows for easy observation of
the reaction of the audience and ad-
justment of the presentation rate or
content accordingly. This face-to-
face communication possible with the
overhead projector is a natural
communication position.
2. Provides a bright image in a normally
lighted room
This not only eliminates the need for
darkening facilities, but makes it
possible for easy use of other materials
along with transparencies such as
models, maps, charts, photographs and
demonstrations. This advantage makes
meaningful the advantage of being
able to face your audience. Students
can easily take notes. A lighted
room eliminates the drowsiness asso-
ciated with a darkened room. However,
DO NOT hesitate to lower the light
level in the room to achieve a more
satisfactorily brilliant image on
the screen. Some transparencies have
a somewhat dense image and the image
on the screen can be enhanced in
these cases by lowering the light
level in the room. You should never
have to totally darken the room.
3. Ease of operation
The only controls on the overhead
projector are the on/off switch, the
focusing knob and the elevation control.
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4. Large aperture permits easy use
The 7 1/2 x 9 1/2 inch area within
a transparency mount or the 10 x 10
inch area of the stage of the projec-
tor make it easy to use a variety of
materials. Also the large aperture
area provides a convenient size for
doing the artwork to produce trans-
parencies. It is the large aperture
size which permits a very large
projected image in a minimum of
projection distance. (This is why
it can be used in the front of the
room.)
5. Horizontal stage provides
flexibility
The horizontal stage permits the
placement of the opaque, transparent
and fluid objects on the stage of
the projector. Real objects may be
used as well as transparencies.
(Unless the objects are transparent
a silhouette will appear on the
screen.) The horizontal stage also
permits the use of such techniques
as the use of masks or overlays to
provide for progressive disclosure
and sequencing of material.
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPARENCIES
1. Can be locally produced to meet
specific needs
Transparencies for overhead projection
do not require complex equipment or
laboratory facilities to produce.
Non-professionals can easily prepare
simple, but effective visuals in a
minimum of time and at low cost
using "handmade" materials. There
are a variety of techniques for pro-
ducing transparencies which can be
used, each of which has special
advantages and characteristics, if
the necessary equipment and skilled
personnel are available.
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2. Preserved for future use
Transparencies can be prepared prior
to the presentation saving the time
used in chalkboard illustrations,
providing more time for the presenta-
tion. The transparencies can be easily
filed for future use saving valuable
time where repeated presentations are
being made.
3. Inexpensively made in color
Color can easily be added to
transparencies to add emphasis and to
separate components. This is true of
"handmade" transparencies and other
processes such as the diazo and
thermo processes.
4. Many presentation techniques can
be used
Presentations can be enhanced through
the use of disclosure systems and the
use of overlays. The presenter by
using these methods can control the
pace and the content of the presenta-
tion when the visual materials are
used in combination with verbal
explanations. Through the use of
polarization techniques motion can
be simulated on the screen. Contin-
uous tone photographic images in
both black and white and color can
be used. Transparent 3-dimensional
objects can be used such as a
transparent slide rule. Color chem-
ical changes can be projected.
Opaque objects can be used when a
silhouette is useful in showing the
shape of an object. The presentation
methods and methods of producing
transparencies are limited only by
the imagination and skill of the
producers.
CONSIDERATIONS IN USING THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
1. Position the projector so that the
projected image is in focus and
completely fills the screen. A
screen size of at least 70 x 70
inches is recommended to provide for
adequate enlargements of the pro-
jected image for classroom viewing.
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2. Correct any "keystoni nq" by adjusting
the sci pen angle. Keystoninq is the
distortion of the image so that it is
wiiler at t lie top caused by increasinq
the height of the screen imaqe without
chnnginq the angle of the screen so
that the light from the projector
strikes the screen at 90 . When
usinq a tripod screen with a keystone
elimination rod this correction is
accomplished by slanting the top of
the screen toward the projector. When
using a wall screen which is mounted
away from the wall with keystone
elimination brackets the correction
is made by pulling the bottom of the
screen toward the wall. If the key-
stoning is not eliminated part of
the image may remain out of focus
because of the differences in the
distance from the lens of the top
of the"image and the bottom of the
image.
3. Check the classroom seating arrange-
ment to see that no student must "look
around" or "through" the projector or
you to see the screen. Student
viewing may be improved by using a
tripod screen in the corner of the
room or mounting the screen permanently
in the corner of the room. If this is
not possible the screen should be
located high enough to eliminate any
obstruction of the view of the screen.
Placing the projector on a low stand
and sitting next to it will allow
for good viewing when using a wall
screen in the front and center of
the room.
4. Stay seated next to the projector if
possible. Standing beside the pro-
jector or walking back and forth in
front of the screen is distracting
to the audience.
5. Arrange your transparencies before-
hand so as to permit an orderly flow
to your presentation.
I I
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Stack your transparencies neatly
as they are removed from the projec-
tor to maintain the established
sequence. This will allow you to
find a transparency quickly when
needed for review.
Have an overhead projector pointer
ready for use on the transparency
to draw attention to a particular
item or portion on the transparency.
A common pencil or pen will serve
this purpose. Touch the pointer
to the transparency to prevent
movement. Your finger can be used
as a pointer. However, it is pos-
sible when using your finger, that
the rest of your hand may cover
part of the transparency. Never go
to the screen to identify a part of
the projected image. Use your
pointer on the transparency.
Use the overlay and progressive
disclosure techniques to control
the sequence and content of the
material on the screen. These
techniques will keep the attention
of the audience focused on the
important elements of the presenta-
tion.
Position the transparency before
turning on the projection lamp. It
is distracting to see the image on
the screen not lined up correctly
and also to see the positioning of
the transparency after the lamp is
turned on. Do not turn from your
audience to check the image on the
screen. Remember, one of the
advantages of this projector is that
you can maintain eye contact with
your audience. You will see the
exact image being projected by
looking at the transparency--there
should be no need to look at the
screen if you have lined up the
projector and transparency
correctly.
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10. When you are ready to change
transparencies turn the lamp off
before removing the transparency.
Position the next transparency on
the stage of the projector and then
turn the lamp back on. A bright
white screen only competes for
attention. When you turn the lamp
off the audience immediately shifts
its attention back to you. If you
leave the lamp on when there is no
transparency on the projector, the
screen continues to compete with
you for attention.
11. Never leave a transparency on the
screen that is not related to the
subject being presented. When the
subject changes either change the
transparency or turn off the lamp.
Both the unrelated transparency
and the blank lighted screen compete
for attention with you as previously
noted. Turn on the lamp only when
the image on the screen is relevant
to the topic being considered and
that is when you want the attention
of the audience. Turn off the lamp
when you want the attention of the
audience focused on you. The over-
head projector should be employed
only to emphasize, amplify and
clarify what you are trying to
communicate.
CONSIDERATIONS IN PRODUCING TRANSPARENCIES
1. Transparencies should not replace or
duplicate hand-out materials although
a transparency might be reproduced
as a handout. Transparencies should
be used to emphasize main points.
Perhaps the greatest misuse of
transparencies is to place too much
information on a single transparency.
Materials which require extensive
writing do not make good transparencies
and should probably be produced as a
handout. I'm sure you have exper-
ienced transparencies of a typed or
printed page which was too small for
you to read and required the presenter
to read the information to you. One
main idea or point should be presented
at a time. Too much information,
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whether written or illustrated on
a transparency, may cause confusion
on the part of the audience. Only
the essential information should be
used.
Use bold letters, numbers or symbols
on transparencies. Boldness adds
significantly to the visual impact.
When using illustrations from books
for transparencies the material
should be enlarged, by the use of
a pantograph, opaque projector or
enlargement camera to fit an
approximate area of 7 1/2 x 9 1/2
inches. All of the unimportant de-
tails should be left out. Copying
or tracing printed materials directly
from books is a poor practice be-
cause the drawings are too small and
generally too complicated to make
good transparencies. Illustrations
in books are meant to be studied
closely and on the basis of one
student to one book and size is of
little importance in this situation.
Add interest to your transparencies
by using several different types of
material on your "handmade"
transparencies, having a clear center
of interest and by the imaginative
use of color.
If a typewriter is to be used in
lettering a transparency use a primary
typewriter or a typewriter with similar
size type. Elite or pica type is
too small to be easily read. If a
primary typewriter is not available,
it is recommended that hand lettering
or some type of lettering device be
used such as dry transfer letters if
the audience is to be able to easily
read the material. It is always
easy for you to read the material as
you look at it in the stage of the
projector. Look at the material on
the screen from where your audience
is sitting to determine the suitability
of the size of lettering.
BOLD O
TYPE ,
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When producing a handmade trans-
parency sketch the entire plan for
the transparency on a piece of paper
within a 7 1/2 x 9 1/2 inch area;
the area within a transparency frame
or mount. After you have completed
your sketch, place a piece of acetate
over the top of the drawing and
trace the material onto the acetate
using felt or nylon tip pens or
grease pencils and complete the
lettering of the transparency.
When possible use a horizontal format
in planning, designing and producing
transparencies. This practice,
although not always possible, pro-
vides for using the most easily seen
part of the screen (the top) when
the transparency is projected. If
necessary re-arrange the material
on the original you are going to
reproduce to make it fit the hori-
zontal format.
MATERIALS FOR PRODUCING HANDMADE TRANSPARENCIES
Clear Acetate Sheets
These acetate sheets are used as the
base for "handmade" transparencies.
The other materials listed in this
section are used on these acetate
sheets. These sheets can also be
used to protect the surface of a
"handmade" transparency by covering
the surface with a piece of acetate.
This allows you to write on the
transparency while using it without
damaging the original transparency.
Reprocessed X-ray film works well
and is inexpensive. A source for
reprocessed X-ray film is listed
on the materials sheet included in
this unit.
Felt and Nylon Tip Pens or Markers
These pens or markers are applied
directly to the acetate sheet. They
are useful for coloring in small
areas. Since the colors are trans-
parent apply them carefully; each
overlapping stroke deepens the tone
and may produce uneven tones in
large areas. Nylon tip pens have
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296
fine tapered points and are most
useful in drawing lines and writing.
Felt tip pens usually have a broad
tip and are most useful for coloring
areas.
All felt or nylon tip pens do not
project color equally well when used
on acetate. The colors may look
very bright, but when projected may
look very dark or even a different
color. The ink from some pens tends
to bead up and disappear. You should
test a particular brand of pen before
purchasing it for use on the overhead
projector.
There are two basic types of pens—
Permanent and Non-Permanent.
Permanent pens use a spirit based
ink which cannot be removed from
acetate except with cleaners such
as spirit duplicating fluid or
lighter fluid. If in doubt as to
whether the ink is permanent, make
a small mark on a piece of acetate,
dampen your finger and rub the line.
If it does not smudge or wipe off,
it is permanent. Non-permanent
pens use a water based ink which can
be easily removed from acetate with
a damp cloth. Transparencies made
with non-permanent pens should be
covered with a clean sheet of acetate
to prevent the smudging of the
colors should your moist hand come
in contact with the ink while using
the transparency.
Grease or Wax Pencils (China Marking Pencils)
Grease or wax pencils are common
types of material used on acetate
sheets. Most of these pencils have
a grease or wax base which is opaque
and projects a black image on the
screen. The grease or wax markings
on a transparency can be removed with
a dry cloth. One brand, Visual Craft,
is water-soluble and can be removed
with a damp cloth.
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There are several different types of
special pencils which are available
which have grease or wax base which
is translucent and can be used to
project color when used on clear
acetate sheets. The brilliancy of
the color projected on the screen
varies with the degree of transpar-
entness of the grease or wax lead
in the pencil and the amount (intens-
ity) of the light on the screen. How
heavy you draw your lines can also
affect the brilliancy of the image.
Because the substance in these pencils
will smudge, it is recommended that
the acetate sheet on which they are
used be covered with a second sheet
if it is to be stored for future use.
Dry Transfer (Rub on) Letters
The dry transfer process allows a
pre-printed letter, number of symbol
to be transferred from a transparent
or translucent carrier to any dry
surface by rubbing the image down
with a pencil, ball point pen or
burnishing tool. The letters,
numbers and symbols come in various
sizes and styles. They are avail-
able in transparent colors for
direct use on transparencies. A
professional touch can be added to
"handmade" transparencies using
these materials.
Procedure for applying dry transfer
letters;
1. Remove the backing sheet from
the letters .
2. Position the letters on the
surface, spacing the letters
optically, so they appear prop-
erly spaced based on the space
requirements of individual
letters.
Backing sheet
Carrier sheet
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3. Burnish (rub) the entire letter
to the mounting surface with a
blunt instrument such as a ball
point pen, pencil or burnishing
tool. Be sure you rub the entire
surface of the letter or number.
If you make a mistake the letter
can be removed by sticking a
piece of masking tape on the
letter and removing the letter.
4. Slowly pull the sheet of letters
from the mounting surface. The
letter will remain transferred.
5. After all letters have been
transferred, replace the backing
sheet behind the letter sheet.
Transparent Tapes
Transparent color adhesive backed
tapes are available in a variety of
colors, black and white patterns,
and in various widths. They come
in easy to use dispensers and can
be applied directly to the surface
of acetate sheets. These tapes
project a very vivid color. To
apply to acetate lay the strip of
tape onto the sheet of acetate
leaving the tape a little longer
than desired, and then trim to the
desired length with an x-acto knife
or razor blade. Be careful when
cutting the tape to avoid cutting
the acetate sheet as these cut
marks will show up as dark lines
on the screen.
Color, Adhesive-backed Acetate Sheets
These sheets come in a wide range of
colors and patterns, both translucent
and transparent. They are excellent
for use on areas of any size and are
applied directly to the acetate
sheet. The brilliancy of the color
projected on the screen will vary
with the transparentness of the par-
ticular brand color sheet used.
Those materials designed for use on
transparencies will project a
brilliant color.
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Procedure for Applying Color Adhesive
Acetate:
1. Place a sheet of the selected
material over the area of the
transparency to be colored or
shaded.
2. Lightly (carefully) cut a piece
slightly larger than the area to
be colored or shaded. Try not
to cut through the backing sheet.
3. Peel the cut piece from the
backing sheet.
4. Place the cut piece of adhesive
backed material over the area to
be covered and rub to adhere.
Ease the colored piece into posi-
tion smoothing by hand so that
there are no air bubbles or
wrinkles. Place the color piece
on the underside of the trans-
parency so that it cannot be
damaged during use or cover the
transparency with a second piece
of acetate if the material is
placed on the top of the
transparency.
5. Trim the color material to match
the area using lines on the diagram
as guidelines. Use care when
trimming the material so as to not
cut through the acetate as the
cut will show up as a dark line
when projected.
Transparency Mounting Frames
These frames make it easier to handle
and file transparencies as informa-,
tion related to the transparency can
be written on the frame. When using
overlays or disc-osure masks, these
are taped to the top of the mounting
frame.
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X-Acto Knife or Razor Blade
Some type of cutting instrument
such as an X-acto knife or razor
blade is needed to cut transparent
tapes and color adhesive acetate
sheets.
Masking Tape
Masking tape is useful to tape the
acetate sheet to the drawing to be
traced and to attach the transparency
to a mounting frame if one is used.
If a mounting frame is used place
the transparency on the bottom of
the frame and tape it down to the
frame with masking tape. Masking
tape can also be used to tape selec-
tion disclosure masks and overlays
to the top of the mounting frame.
Complete exercise on following page
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301
Producing a Transparency Using Hand-Made Material
To complete this part of the unit you will need the materials which
have been identified for producing "handmade" transparencies. When you
have the materials available you should proceed as follows:
1. Using masking tape fasten the acetate sheet to the transparency
original which is provided.
2. Using the material required in the transparency original draw, letter
or color in the areas of the transparency.
3. Cover the transparency with an acetate sheet and mount on the bottom
of a transparency mounting frame (if available).
4. Prepare a set of transparencies which could be used to present the
eleven points covered in the section of this assignment titled "Con-
siderations in Using the Overhead Projector". Use the materials
available for this lesson as well as any others to which you may have
immediate access. You should create at least three transparencies.
Your instructor will be available for guidance and to examine your
work.
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302
£
>8
i
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303
PRODUCING TRANSPARENCIES FOR THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
(Check with your local audio-visual dealer for these supplies)
I. Ready to use materials
A. Clear acetate (roll or sheet) re-processed x-ray film
1. Grease pencils
a. Opaque - remove with dry cloth (several on the market
for use on the overhead are water soluble)
b. Transparent - Mars Lumo color - remove with dry cloth
c. Can be used on prepared transparencies
2. Felt or nylon tipped pens
a. Permanent
b. Water soluble
c. Not all pens are equally transparent - try them before
you buy them
3. Adhesive acetate sheets
a. Good for coloring in large areas
b. Variety of colors and patterns available
4. Lettering - Dry transfer
a. Available in various colors, sizes and styles
5. Transparent tapes
a. Available in various colors and patterns
B. Frosted Acetate - translucent
1. Lumochrom pencils (transparent lead)
2. Ordinary lead pencil
3. Felt or nylon tipped pens
4. A-3, 4, 5 above can also be used
To make clear (transparent), spray with clear plastic spray.
All materials become permanent after spraying.
Advantage - works well for fine lined work
II. Semi-ready to use materials
A. Spirit duplicator transparencies
1. Made with frosted acetate sheets
a. Run through spirit duplicator so that frosted side
comes in contact with spirit master carbon
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304
2. Adding color
a. Use various colored carbons
b. Lumochrom pencils
c. Felt or nylon tipped pens
d. Adhesive acetate
3. Spray with clear plastic spray to make
transparent and permanent
B. Lifted pictures - Pictures must be printed on clay coated paper
1. Can be done using any laminating machine
a. Dry mount press
b. Thermofax (heat)
c. Translifter (cold)
d. General binding laminator (heat)
e. Rubber cement method
2. Apply laminating material to surface of picture
3. Soak in detergent solution
4. Remove paper from back of picture (ink left on acetate)
5. Either spray back with clear plastic or apply a second
sheet of laminating material (depends on process used)
Note: By applying laminating material to both sides of a
picture of which you wish to save the picture on both
sides, you can lift both pictures at the same time.
III. Process requiring special equipment
A. Heat or thermo process
1. Material which is to be copied must be printed in a lead
or carbon based ink - (not ball point unless pen is
specifically designed for this purpose)
2. Wide variety of different types of material
a. Clear with black image
b. Clear with white image (Projects black)
c. Tinted with black image (red, green, blue or yellow
background)
d. Negative image (red, green, white, blue and yellow
on black background)
3. Felt or nylon tipped pens, grease pencils and pieces of
colored acetate can be used on these transparencies
a. Advantage - quick and dry
b. Disadvantage - original must be printed in right
kind of ink
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305
B. Photo Copy
1. Use Xerox, 3M or other dry photo copies
2. Advantage - original copy can be printed in any kind of
color or ink
3. Disadvantage - most copiers do not reproduce half tones
well - some machines do better than others
C. Photographic Process - Photographic enlargement
1. Made from black and white negative
2. Using enlarger, enlarge negative onto either Kodalith
Ortho film or fine grain positive film
3. Develop according to directions
4. Advantage - will reproduce continuous tone
5. Disadvantage - requires photographic darkroom and darkroom
equipment and trained darkroom personnel
IV. Mounting Transparencies
A. Any kind of cardboard frame can be used
1. Commercially made frames available
B. Mount single transparency on bottom of mount
C. For transparency with overlays, mount basic transparency on
bottom of mount and hinge overlays on top of mount
D. Mounting overlays
1. Masking tape or mylar hinges
2. Sequence of mounting overlays
a. Dependent on desired order of presentation and
flexibility
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307
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT NINE
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION
Estimated time for unit - Two hours
The CONTENT of this unit:
Adaptive instructional methods permit the modification of instruction
to meet the needs of individual trainees and small groups. Methods such as
tutorials, individual and small-group assignments (including readings,
exercises, role-plays, and simulation exercises), and individualized learning
packages permit the adaptation of instruction by such means as varying time
on task, number and/or level of complexity of learning activities, degree
of instructor control and guidance, and circumstances of use (classroom,
on-the-job, or take-home). This unit introduces participants to three basic
types of adaptive instruction -- tutorials, individual assignments, and
individualized learning packages -- and provides guidelines for creating or
selecting and using these methods.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
-define "adaptive instruction" and list at least three character-
istics which differentiate adaptive instructional methods from
other instructional methods
-name three types of individual assignments and list the central
characteristics and utilization criteria for each
-explain what an Individualized Learning Package is and what it
should contain
-list the criteria for selection or creation of adaptive instructional
materials
The PURPOSE of this unit:
This unit is designed to teach participants how to identify
adaptive instruction needs, to select or create relevant types
of adaptive instruction, and to use these methods appropriately.
The unit presents characteristics of and guidelines for utilizing
adaptive methods of instruction.
The RESOURCE for this unit:
Content Summary
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308
UNIT NINE: ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION
CONTENT SUMMARY
I. Adaptive Instruction Defined
Instruction that meets any or all of the following:
-focuses on participative learner activities
-is adapted or modified to meet needs of individual learners or
small groups of learners
-involves the instructor in guidance or supervisory activities
rather than teaching (i.e., content-presentation) activities
-allows for variation in : time on task;
number of practice activities required;
complexity or level of difficulty of
practice activities;
amount of instructor guidance or super-
vision;
location for use (classroom, OJT, at-home)
II. Types of Adaptive Instruction
A. Individual Assignments: part of instruction in which the active
performer is the learner; contained within a lesson but does not
constitute the entire lesson; participative learner activity
which is responsive to an instructional objective; under direct
control of learner.
1. Content Presentation - readings, audiotaped lectures,
video presentations, audio-visual presentations.
Learner control through ability to attend to presentation
on own time, to control rate of presentation by
selectively replaying sections at will (variable-speed
playback capacities), to freeze, replay, or fast-play
video presentations, to skim or reread print materials.
2. Exercises (practice activities): activities requiring
learner to respond to content in some way, to use what
is being learned — requires trainees to write, speak,
or do something.
Examples: exercises in labeling the parts of a diagram,
carrying out a procedure, using a concept definition, using
a formula to calculate the weight of a sample, and trouble-
shooting on a malfunctioning piece of equipment.
3. Role-plays, Simulations and Games: activities in which
learners simulate some event, confrontation, or situation
in order to gain experience and insight in dealing with
such events. Equipment mock-ups, artificially represented
situations, and scenarios are used to provide practice
when actual equipment or real-life events and situations
cannot conveniently be employed.
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309
B. Individualized Learning Packages (ILPs): completely self-contained
instructional materials which can be used by an individual learner
without direct instructor control. Instead, an instructor or super-
visor is needed to manage the access to materials and keep records.
Packages can be commercially/professionally prepared or instructor-
created.
C. Tutorial: one-to-one instructional situation which focuses on
identifying and solving a learning problem. The tutor may be
either the instructor or a fellow trainee.
III. Criteria for Selecting Types of Adaptive Instruction
A. What is the need?
-Do different trainees within a class work at different rates?
-Do only one or two trainees require training at any given time?
-Do trainees need "real" experiences with situations and events
that cannot be forced to occur on demand?
B. What is the instructional objective?
-Can the instructional objective be achieved by adaptive
instruction?
-If so, which type is most appropriate to the objective?
C. What instructional materials are readily available or are easily
produced or obtained? At what cost (price or production
time/resources)?
D. What are the trainees' preferred learning modes?
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311
ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
PARTICIPANT REFERENCE MANUAL - UNIT OVERVIEW
UNIT TEN
MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
Estimated time for unit - Two hours ten minutes
The CONTENT of this unit:
This unit consists of three lessons each dealing with the manage-
ment of particular kinds of instructional situations: formal-
classroom instruction, on-the-job or near-site training, and
workshops. Each lesson deals with materials particularly important
to the conduct of that kind of instructional activity, but they
also contain suggestions and considerations relevant across all
three situations. The main focus of the lesson on classroom man-
agement is the control of the physical and psychological environ-
ment of the instructional situation. The lesson on training in a
work environment highlights techniques, advantages and disadvant-
ages of on- or near-site training. Finally, the lesson on planning
workshops details the kinds of specific logistical preparations
that may have to be completed in advance of an instructional
activity.
The OBJECTIVES of this unit:
As a result of this unit's instruction you will be able to:
-identify important variables in the physical and interpersonal
environment of the classroom and describe examples of techniques
for classroom management and maintaining trainee attention.
-describe techniques and characteristics of effective training in
the work environment.
-describe administrative and logistical considerations involved
in planning and conducting a workshop.
The PURPOSE of this unit:
The delivery of effective instruction involves more than well-
designed materials. Attention must also be given to a variety of
variables affecting the delivery of those materials in specific
situations. This unit addresses the most important considerations
in the delivery of classroom instruction, on-the-job training, and
workshops.
m
The RESOURCES for this unit:
1. Content Summary
2. Workshop Check List
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312
UNIT TEN: MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
CONTENT SUMMARY
Classroom Management
There are two major kinds of environmental influences on the effective-
ness of instructional communication:
1. physical environment - the setting for the instruction
2. psychological environment - the learner's attitudes and
dispositions towards the instruction or the setting
Considerations when planning instruction include:
-selection of methods and media
-rewards
-class schedule
-degree of formality
Techniques for managing class and maintaining attention include:
-beginning with overview
-noting progress
-directing attention
-maintaining participation
-maintaining appropriate pace and variety
-moving around classroom
-counseling problem students
-treating all students equally
Training in a Work Environment
Whether the instructor is in-house or from an outside group, all roles
should be clearly defined. Some questions to be resolved are:
1. What is the role of the instructor in relation to that of the
plant supervisor? Is the trainee a supervisor?
2. Is the instructor from a regulatory agency? Do the personnel
feel "threatened"?
3. What is the instructor permitted to do with or to equipment at
the plant?
4. Who is responsible if equipment is damaged or an accident occurs?
5. Can the instructor and the trainee(s) devote the total allotted
time to instructional activities?
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313
When choosing a site to conduct training for employees from more than
one plant in an area:
1. Provide an environment where the trainees can feel comfortable
and can learn. Avoid schools. Look for community centers like
a city hall, fire house, etc., with restaurants nearby.
2. Choose a plant utilizing processes most common in the area.
The plant should be reasonably near the instructional center.
3. The instructor must be familiar with the specific equipment at
the plant so he can explain or demonstrate it.
Preparing for Instruction:
1. Prepare and use a thorough check list for all instructional
materials and audiovisual equipment including extension cords,
extra bulbs, etc., since these are not ordinarily available.
2. All preparations must be done in advance because resources will
not be available.
3. Contingency plans are especially important. For example, have
an alternate "classroom" presentation ready in case rain pre-
vents use of plant facilities. Have a pertinent audiovisual
ready to show if a speaker is called out for some emergency.
4. Arrive early enough to:
-Make personal contacts.
-Check out plant equipment if it is involved in the instruction.
-Set up and check out projection equipment, etc.
-Set up any demonstration equipment.
-Organize instructional materials.
-Plan or arrange facilities with regard to seeing, hearing,
and minimizing distractions.
-Arrange for carrying out contingency plans in case equipment
malfunctions, etc.
Planning and Conducting Workshops
(See attached check list)
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314
WORKSHOP CHECK LIST
The following checklist is designed to facilitate the control of key
administrative and logistical considerations in planning and conducting
workshops.
All of the points will not be relevant to every workshop. Use the left-
hand column to check those points which do apply to the workshop under con-
sideration. Establish a deadline for the completion of each point/task
and write the date in the space provided. Finally, use the righthand
column to check off each task as it is completed.
(Note: This checklist does not consider the design of the workshop's
instructional content as these activities are presumed to proceed separately
following the steps of the instructional design model presented in Unit
One.)
[J Applicable Completed fj
Administrative Considerations
Workshop staff identified (Director/Chair, Trainer, Audio-Visual
Specialist, Other) Deadline
CD Budget established (Salaries/honorariums, consultants, media
production, equipment and facilities rental, transporta-
tion, participant costs, duplication and telephone)
Deadline _ | ]
[]] Production resources identified and availability determined
(for signs, manuals, programs, etc) Deadline _ Qj
Technical Planning and Operations
CD Target audience identified Deadline _ Q
CD Workshop date or dates determined Deadline _ Q
CD Overall timelines for workshop preparation established
Deadline _ PH
CD Means of contacting target audience determined
Deadline
CD Target audience contacted Deadline
CD Workshop's objectives defined Deadline
CD Agenda established Deadline
CD First draft of training materials/presentations
Deadline _ ||
CD Field test of workshop materials Deadline
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315
CH Meeting rooms and other facilities located and reserved (see
below) Deadline
Revised workshop materials Deadline
Materials reproduced in final form for workshop
Deadline
Travel arrangements completed Deadline
Facilities Arrangements
Meeting room arranged as desired Deadline
Provision for room darkening available Headline
Room clean, furniture suitable, lighting/air conditioning
working properly Deadline
Public address system available and working
Deadline _ j_]
Water glasses/pitchers available for speakers and partici-
pants Deadline
Ashtrays available and/or local smoking regulations deter-
mined Deadline
Chalkboard, easels, screens, pointers available for presen-
tations as required Deadline
Pencils, note paper available for participants
Deadline _ [_J
Arrangements made for coffee breaks/lunch
Deadline
Arrangements for participant registration complete
Deadline
Audio-Visual Preparations
Necessary projection equipment of suitable size and type
available/ordered Deadline
Projectionist scheduled for each session
Deadline
LJ Availability/compatibility of power source determined
Deadline _ | |
CU Spare lamps and fuses obtained Deadline
Public address system tested and volume levels set
Deadline _ | |
Projection equipment tested in the meeting room using
actual materials Deadline
Recording equipment set up and tested Deadline _ Q
Copies of all print and audio-visual materials delivered
tO Workshop Site Deadline _ [J
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317
PLANNING FORMS AND WORKSHEETS
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318
PROBLEM DEFINITION WORKSHEET
(1) Something has caused you to suspect a personnel performance problem.
What is it? Describe the problem briefly in the space below.
(2) Identify the specific employees by job or position title (not name)
that are involved in or affected by the problem described above.
(3) What are the characteristics of this problem? Check as many of the
following items as seem relevant.
A
_new people have
been hired
_experienced people
have new tasks or
responsibilities
_new equipment,
facilities or tech-
nology is being
used
_new information
exists
_output of work is
low
people cannot per-
form a task
effectively
people do not know
how to perform a
task
B
_undesirable atti-
tudes toward work
are present
_people do not seem
to want to work
_there are no rewards
for doing well
employees provide
poor service
people feel that
getting job done is
not worth the effort
employees rarely re-
ceive feedback on
their performance
^employees are
punished for poor
performance
_everything takes too
long
_there is not enough
time to do the work
_equipment frequently
does not work
or breaks down often
_supplies sometimes
run out
_new management or
management policy
exists
_employees rarely talk
to their superiors
_weak or inefficient
management is
apparent
jDeople frequently
seem to have nothing
to do
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319
(4) In which of the columns (Step 3) are most of the items you checked
located?
A? B? C?
If A, you appear to have a problem where employees lack skill or
knowledge.
If B, the immediate indications are that there is a motivation or
incentive problem.
If C, it is likely that you are faced with an environmental problem.
(Something in the work setting is preventing people from performing
effectively.)
(5) At this point, it is helpful to summarize the information gained in
the previous steps. You should now be able to describe your problem
in terms of WHO is affected (Step 2), WHAT is involved (Step 3), and
WHY (Step 4"). (You may also want to gather some further information
about the specific nature of the problem at this point in order to
develop more specific answers to the WHO, WHAT, and WHY questions.)
Write a clear summary of the problem in the following format:
WHO
WHAT
WHY
(If a variety of different jobs are affected by or involved in this
problem, it may be useful to construct separate problem statements
for each.)
(6) Is a training program a relevant solution to the specific problem
defined above? Consider the following points as appropriate to the
identified cause of the problem (Step 4).
-If you identified your problem as involving an employee lack of
skill or knowledge, you may want to consider a training program.
-If you decided that you have a motivation or incentive problem,
you may want to discuss the situation with others to insure that
this problem lends itself to a training solution. (Many times
a change in organizational policy or management procedures is a
more effective solution.)
-If the problem seems to involve something in the work environ-
ment, it is rather unlikely that a training program is a relevant
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320
solution. (Investigate the situation further and consider
direct changes in the work setting.)
Does a training program represent a relevant solution to your problem?
Yes No
What other kinds of actions might be taken to address the problem in
combination with or instead of a training program?
Additional strategies:
(7) If you are still certain that some form of training program is called
for, proceed to analyze the training need for such a program using
the Job Task Summary Sheet. Separate Job Task Summary Sheets must be
completed for each job to be the subject of training.
-------
TASK DETAILING SHEET
321
A. Write Job Title
B. Write Task
Complete steps C - F in the space below.
C. List the specific steps required to perform the task.
D. Check each step which needs to be taught.
E. Indicate whether the checked steps primarily involve cognitive, affective,
or psychomotor behavior.
F. For a cognitive behavior, indicate the appropriate level of performance:
Knowledge - ability to recall information or procedures
Comprehension - ability to explain information or procedures
Application - ability to use information or procedures to do
something
Problem Solving - ability to develop new information or procedures
C
Steps Required to Perform Task
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
02)
D
Needs
to be
Taught
E
Type of Behavior:
Cognitive, Affec-
tive, Psychomotor
F
Level of
Cognitive
Behavior:
Know. , Comp. ,
Appl., P. S.
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322
LESSON PLANNING FORM
Job Title Task
Step_
Type and Level of Behavior
(as appropriate)
1) Instructional Objective:
Audience
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable
Performance
2) Entering Competencies:
3) Evaluation Activities:
4) Instructional Methods: Using the Instructional Methods Selection
Table for guidance, choose the method or methods most suitable for
reaching the objective and describe how it will be used.
METHOD (s)
5) Instructional Media. Use the Media Selection Table to guide your
choice of media for use in instruction. List all that apply.
Appropriate Category of Media Specific Medium & Title Available
6) Sequence of Instructional Activities, outline the specific activities
which comprise the instructional approach.
1.
2. _______
3. __
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323
JOB TASK SUMMARY SHEET
A. Job Title
1. Describe the job in terms of its major duties (2-4) of responsibility.
A)
B)
C)
D)
2. Which duties are most relevant to the problem identified in the Problem
Definition Worksheet? Circle the relevant items on the list above.
B. For each duty chosen as relevant to the identified problem, prepare a list
of the specific tasks which make up the activities of that duty. (Use
additional pages if necessary to describe other duties/tasks.)
DUTY
TASKS 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
DUTY
TASKS 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
C. Should all of the tasks under each duty be considered as subjects for
training programs? Circle all the tasks which require training attention,
given your definition of the problem. (In deciding whether a specific
task should be the subject of a training program, consider its relative
importance, frequency of performance, and overall difficulty.)
D. Complete a Task Detailing Sheet for each task to be considered as the
focus of a training activity.
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324
INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE WORKSHEET
CURRICULUM:
COURSE:
UNIT:
LESSON:
Estimated time:
Entering competencies
Objective
Behavior
Conditions
Acceptable Performance
Justification
Evaluation Activities
Resources
Instructional Approach
-------
325
WORKSHOP CHECK LIST
The following checklist is designed to facilitate the control of key
administrative and logistical considerations in planning and conducting
workshops.
All of the points will not be relevant to every workshop. Use the left-
hand column to check those points which do apply to the workshop under con-
sideration. Establish a deadline for the completion of each point/task
and write the date in the space provided. Finally, use the righthand
column to check off each task as it is completed.
(Note: This checklist does not consider the design of the workshop's
instructional content as these activities are presumed to proceed separately
following the steps of the instructional design model presented in Unit
One.)
/ / Applicable Completed j~~f
Administrative Considerations
Workshop staff identified (Director/Chair, Trainer, Audio-Visual
Specialist, Other) Deadline
I I Budget establ ished (Salaries/honorariums, consultants, media
production, equipment and facilities rental, transporta-
tion, participant costs, duplication and telephone)
Deadline _ [J
I I Production resources identified and availability determined
(for signs, manuals, programs, etc) Deadline
Technical Planning and Operations
I I Target audience identified Deadline
LJ Workshop date or dates determined Deadline _
LJ Overall timelines for workshop preparation established
Deadline f~~l
I I Means of contacting target audience determined
Deadline
LJ Target audience contacted Deadline
L] Workshop's objectives defined Deadline
LJ Agenda established Deadline
LJ First draft of training materials/presentations
Deadline _ [_J
LJ Field test of workshop materials Deadline _ f~]
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326
Meeting rooms and other facilities located and reserved (see
below) Deadline
Revised workshop materials Deadline
Materials reproduced in final form for workshop
Deadline
Ashtrays available and/or local smoking regulations deter-
mined Deadline
Travel arrangements completed Deadline
Facilities Arrangements
Meeting room arranged as desired Deadline
Provision for room darkening available Deadline _ fl
Room clean, furniture suitable, lighting/air conditioning
working properly Deadline
Public address system available and working
Deadline
Water glasses/pitchers available for speakers and partici-
pants Deadline
HH Chalkboard, easels, screens, pointers available for presen-
tations as required Deadline
LJ Pencils, note paper available for participants
Deadline _ Q
O Arrangements made for coffee breaks/lunch
Deadline _ I |
[~] Arrangements for participant registration complete
Deadline _ [~j
Audio-Visual Preparations
LJ Necessary projection equipment of suitable size and type
available/ordered Deadline _ Q
L] Projectionist scheduled for each session
Deadline _ [ |
LJ Availability/compatibility of power source determined
Deadline _ | |
LJ Spare lamps and fuses obtained Deadline _ Q
EH Public address system tested and volume levels set
Deadline _ [ _ ]
Q Projection equipment tested in the meeting room using
actual materials Deadline _ Q
LJ Recording equipment set up and tested Deadline ______ _ Q
I _ I Copies of all print and audio-visual materials delivered
to workshop Site Deadline _ [)
-------
This chart will help you to plan your lesson,
included in the lesson.
Fill in each column for each activity
Objective:
Type and Level of Behavior:
Step/Activity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Method (s) Media
Strategies
CO
ro
-------
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS SELECTION TABLE
.Instructional
Method
Types of
Behavior
LECTURE
DEMONSTRATION
GUIDED DISCUSSION
ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTION
COGNITIVE,
Knowledge
COGNITIVE,
Comprehension
COGNITIVE,
Application
COGNITIVE,
Problem-
Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
Appropriate for
teaching facts
Appropriate
Appropriate for
initial presentation
of rules
Generally
not useful
Useful only in
support of a
demonstration
Usually not effective
for motivating trainees
or changing attitudes
about something
Generally
not useful
Useful as a supportive
method to reinforce
concept-using
Most appropriate method
for teaching rule-using
Useful for
problem-solving
instruction
Live or simulated
demonstrations are
the most effective
method for teaching
motor skills
Modelling and
simulations are
useful for
forming attitudes
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Generally
not useful
Useful and appro-
priate for developing
problem-solving
skills
Generally
not useful
Group activities
such as role-playing
are often useful
for attitude
formation
Useful and appropriate
for conveying factual
Information
Appropriate
Appropriate for
Initial presentation
of rules
Exercises are useful
for teaching
problem-solving
Useful only
in support of a
demonstration
CO
no
oo
Generally
not useful
I w I MIUw I V ' I
individualized Learning Packages; Assignments; Tutorials
-------
MEDIA SELECTION TABLE
Types of Behavior
COGNITIVE
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Problem-Solving
PSYCHOMOTOR
AFFECTIVE
OBJECTS
Categories of Media
STILL PICTURES MOVING PICTURES
AUDIO MEDIA
WRITTEN MATERIALS
Especially useful
with demonstra-
tions.
Can be used to teach
-recognition and
discrimination
-rules, principles
or sequential
steps .
Useful for teaching
and trainee prac-
tice of perfor-
mance in manipu-
lating tools and
equipment.
Especially appro-
priate for on-the-
job training.
People can be used
to demonstrate
physical actions.
Very useful for all
levels of cogni-
tive instruction.
Can highlight stress
concepts by dis-
playing words,
lists of steps,
pictures and pic-
torial segments.
Can provide visual
cues.
Little application.
Can portray static
positions of
moving persons or
objects.
Limited application.
May be useful if the
object is the
focus of the
desired attitude
formation.
Limited application
Slides in combina-
tion with audio
materials may
influence attitude
formation.
Useful for showing
content not other-
wise easily
brought into the
training situa-
tion.
Usually too costly
for presenting
still visuals
and/or narrative
audio.
Very useful.
Can be used to:
-model skills
requiring motion
-slow motion for
close examination
-provide visual
feedback of stu-
dent performance
-demonstrate pro-
cesses which take
place over an
extended time
period.
Excellent for influ
encing attitudes.
Special effects and
other visual tech-
niques are espec-
ially useful for
presenting affecti
material.
May have their
greatest use when
in conjunction
with printed
matter or pro-
jected visuals.
Useful if sounds
of machines,
alarms, etc. must
be learned.
Inexpensive.
Recorded audio
materials gener-
ally useful in
training only when
demonstrating
speech or hearing-
related skills.
Excellent media for
al 1 levels of
cognitive instruc-
tion.
Relatively inex-
pensive, printed
materials allow
for self-pacing.
Can be used effec-
tively with still
pictures and
audio materials.
Limited application.
since motion is
difficult to re-
present.
One important use
is procedure
guides or check-
lists for skills
performance.
Limited application.!
Possibly useful for j
establishing moods ,
or attitudes with '
background music,
1 special sounds, or
ve unique narration.
,May be used with
I slides to influence.
attitude formation.!
Very little applica-
tion for training
materials.
CO
no
vo
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331
REFERENCES
Bloom, B.S., Hastings, J.T., and Madaus, G.F. Handbook on formative and
summative evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Borich, G.D. Evaluating educational programs and products. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology, 1974.
Briggs, L.J. (ed.) Instructional design: principles and applications.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1977.
Butler, E.C. Instructional systems development for vocational and technical
training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology, 1972.
David, L.M. and McCallon, E. Workshops. Austin, TX: Learning Concepts, 1974.
Dick, W. and Carey, L. The systematic design of instruction. Glenview, IL:
Scott, Foresman and Company, 1978.
Gagne, R.M. Essentials of learning for instruction (expanded edition).
Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press, 1975
Gagne, R.M. and Briggs, L.J. Principles of instructional design. New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1974.
Gerlach, V.S. and Ely, D.P. Teaching and media: a systematic approach.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Gronlund, N.E. Preparing criterion-referenced tests for classroom instruction.
New York: Macmillan, 1973.
Gronlund, N.E. Stating behavioral objectives for classroom instruction.
New York: Macmillan, 1970."~~
Harless, J.H. An ounce of analysis (is a worth a pound of objectives).
McLean, VA: Harless Performance Guild, Inc., 1975.
Kemp, J.E. Planning and producing audio-visual materials. New York:
Crowell, 1975.
Mager, R.F. Preparing instructional objectives. Belmont, CA: Fearon
Publishers, 1962.
Mager, R.F. and Beach, K.M., Jr. Developing vocational instruction.
Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, 1967.
Mager, R.F. and Pipe, P. Analyzing performance problems (or 'you really
oughta wanna'). Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, 1970.
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332
Merrill, M.D. and Goodman, R.I. Selecting instructional strategies and
media: a plan to begin. Provo, UT: National Special Media Institutes, 1972.
Popham, W.J. Criterion-referenced measurement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Popham, W.J. and Baker, E.L. Systematic instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1970.
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333
GLOSSARY
Adaptive Instruction - a means of bringing instruction under some
aspect of learner control
Affective Behavior - expressions of feeling or interest; the adoption of
an attitude or belief; the motivation to do something
Check List - a list of skills or tasks which the trainee is expected
to demonstrate in the satisfactory performance of a job,
behavior, etc.
Cognitive Behavior - actions which involve knowing, understanding or
applying information; remembering or using facts or ideas
Demonstration - showing, as opposed to telling, how to do something by
manipulating appropriate materials and equipment
Entering Competencies - skills and knowledge that trainees must possess
before they are ready to learn the behavior specified in the
objective
Evaluation - the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and pre-
paring information for the purposes of decision-making. The
functions of evaluation in training programs are to determine
existing capabilities of employees, to provide feedback to
trainees, to practice using a new skill and to determine (or
certify) the preparation of a trainee to do a particular job
Guided Discussion - a sharing of ideas and opinions in order to arrive
at a mutually acceptable decision or solution to a problem
Instruction - external conditions arranged to help the student learn
Instructional Activities - activities an instructor plans and arranges
to help students learn
Instructional Approach - the sequence of activities which an instructor
uses to teach a lesson
Instructional Design - the systematic process of specifying the goals and
means of instruction. Included are the stages of objectives
specification, evaluation design, method selection, and lesson
planning
Instructional Method - how content is taught
Instructional Objective - a statement that describes an intended outcome
of instruction in terms of learner behavior. It describes
what a specific group of class of students should be able to
do under specific conditions and how well it must be done
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334
Instructional Strategy - a prescriptive statement identifying the most
appropriate instructional methods and learning activities for
a specific type of desired performance.
IPW (Instructional Package Worksheet) - describes in detail and in order
what must be done in order to teach a single objective
IRIS (Instructional Resources Information System) - is an automated
information system managed by EPA Information Dissemination Project
which acquires,reviews, indexes and announces both print and
non-print instructional materials
Job - the occupational title or position held by an employee
Job Description - a statement(s) outlining areas of responsibility (duties)
of a given position
Learning - involves a more or less permanent change in the ability of
the person to do something s/he could not do previously
Learning Activities - things learners do to help them learn
Lecture - uninterrupted speech by which one presents information to others
Lesson - instruction which (usually) encompasses a single instructional
objective. A set of lessons on related objectives comprise
a unit or a module of a unit.
Lesson Planning Form - a standardized format on which a lesson is planned
Media - means or methods of presenting information aurally and/or visually
Medium of instruction - a channel of communication through which instruction
is presented to the learner
Motivation - the process of directing, focusing, and energizing behavior
toward the accomplishment of specific goals
Problem - a discrepancy or deficiency between the way things are and the
way things ought to be
Psychomotor Behavior - physical actions, speed or agility; the performance
of a particular body movement
Rating Scale - a list of skills or tasks, but with each so carefully
defined as to permit the evaluator to judge the relative
quality of the performance
Resources - anything an instructor or trainee uses during instruction
as a resource
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335
Task - is one of the skills or operations which belong to a specific duty or
area of responsibility. Each task usually consists of specific
and distinct steps for its completion.
Task Analysis - the act of dividing a duty into all of its components. It
results in a list of everything an employee must do to advance
the work to completion
Unit - instruction on a set of related objectives, each of which is taught
in a single lesson
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