EPA/600/J-03/188
SEWER-SEDIMENT CONTROL:
OVERVIEW OF AN EPA WET-WEATHER FLOW RESEARCH PROGRAM
By Chi-Yuan Fan1, P.E., Richard Field2, P.E., Members, ASCE, and
Fu-hsiung Lai1, P.E., Fellow, ASCE
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a historical overview of the sewer sediment control projects
conducted by the Wet-Weather Flow Research Program of the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Research presented includes studies of the causes of sewer solids deposition and
development/evaluation of control methods that can prevent sewer-sediment accumulation.
Discussions focus on the relationship of wastewater characteristics to flow-carrying velocity,
abatement of solids deposition and solids resuspension in sewers, and sewerline flushing systems
for removal of sewer sediment. Methods for abating sewer sedimentation include steeper sewer
slopeage, pipe bottom shapes that maintain high velocity during low-flow conditions, and
periodic sewer flushing. The future research program plan for sewer-sediment control is also
presented.
Environmental Engineer, U.S. Envir. Protection Agency, Nat. Risk Mgmt. Res. Lab., Water Supply and Water
Resour. Div., Urban Watershed Mgmt. Branch, Edison, NJ 08837.
2
Wet Weather Flow Res. Program Leader, U.S. Envir. Protection Agency, Nat. Risk Mgmt. Res. Lab., Water
Supply and Water Resour. Div., Urban Watershed Mgmt. Branch, Edison, NJ 08837.
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INTRODUCTION
Combined-sewer wastewater solids deposition during dry-weather flow (DWF) periods and their
subsequent resuspension during wet-weather flow (WWF) periods has long been recognized as a
major contributor to the highly-polluted segment or first-flush phenomenon of the combined-
sewer overflow (CSO) event. Another potential cause of the polluted segment, in addition to the
resuspension of material deposited in lines during DWF periods, is the resuspension and
conveyance of solid particles on the urban-ground surface into the urban-drainage system. These
particles can either go through the system or settle out in the system and be available for washout
during periods of higher storm-generated flows. One of the underlying reasons for wastewater-
solids deposition is the combined-sewer-hydraulic design. Combined sewers are sized to convey
many times the anticipated peak dry-weather wastewater flowrate. During dry-weather
conditions the flowrates and associated velocities and shear forces are too low to carry a
significant portion of the suspended solids (SS), allowing them to settle. During many wet-
weather conditions, flowrates (shear forces) are high enough to both resuspend these solids and
carry them to the CSO point. The annual magnitude of the CSO SS loadings generated during
storm periods has been estimated to be as much as 30 percent of the annual dry-weather
wastewater loadings (Field and Struzeski 1972). As a result, a large residual sanitary-pollution
load, over and above that normally carried, is discharged over a relatively short interval of time,
often resulting in a relatively high polluted segment of the CSO event. Thus, during the initial
period of a storm event, SS concentrations of several thousand milligrams per liter (mg/L) are
not uncommon for CSOs. These high SS and associated pollutant loadings cause ecological risk
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in receiving waters.
In recognizing the problems of WWF-induced water pollution, the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, the predecessor of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
launched the Storm and Combined Sewer Overflow Research Program in 1965 (now called the
Wet-Weather Flow [WWF] Research Program). This paper presents an overview of the WWF
Research Program's Sewer Sediment Control Subprogram that commenced with sewer flushing
studies in 1967 (FMC 1967b and 1972) which subsequently gave rise to sediment
characterization and control projects (Field 1989, 1995; Field et al. 1996).
CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF SEWER SEDIMENT
One of the underlying reasons for considerable solids deposition in combined sewers is their
hydraulic design. Combined sewers are sized to convey many times the anticipated peak dry-
weather wastewater flow. Combined sewers can carry up to 1,000 times the expected sanitary -
or dry-weather wastewater flow because they are designed for very infrequent (e.g., 1 in 5 yr and
1 in 10 yr) storm-flow events. In large portions of the total length of conventional combined-
sewer systems (CSS), it is impossible to attain DWF velocities that have high enough shear
forces to carry SS or resuspend sediment. This condition allows for continuous DWF solids
deposition. Furthermore, it is usually even more difficult to obtain adequate solids-carrying
velocities in the upstream segments of a combined-sewer system due to flat grades and low flows
(FMC 1967a, b).
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Tomlinson et al. (1980) and Klemetson et al. (1980) conducted a number of studies on the
transport of sewer sediment in receiving waters. Further mathematical modeling evaluation of
the CSO sediment transport in receiving waters was documented by Keefer and Clyde (1985).
Their work contains a linear, implicit, finite-difference flow model and an explicit, finite-
difference sediment-transport model. Experiments with the sediment model indicate that it can
be used for qualitative assessments of the fate of various sediment-size fractions in receiving
streams if properly calibrated.
Solids that enter the CSS that originate from rooftops, streets and highways, construction sites,
commercial and industrial parking lots, automobile maintenance yards, and lawn irrigation and
runoff contribute substantial amounts of toxic-laden particles. Accumulations of these particles
during DWF conditions results in a layer of sewer-bed sediment which undergoes a series of
anaerobic biotrasformations that result in the release of noxious and hazardous hydrogen sulflde
(H2S). The H2S is then converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) on the interior surface of sewerlines.
H2SO4is highly corrosive to the sewerage system causing structural disintegration. The primary
product of concrete decomposition by H2SO4 is calcium sulfate (CaSO4) or gypsum. Further
reaction between CaSC>4 and alumina produces calcium sulfuraluminate hydrate or "ettringite."
When ettringite forms, it lifts the corroded concrete away from the sound concrete and causes a
faster corrosion by continually exposing new surfaces to acid attack. Although the rate of
concrete loss is dependent upon a number of factors including ettringite formation, it is not
uncommon to see a concrete loss of 1 in./yr in heavy sulflde environments. Thus, dry-weather-
sewer sediment creates odor and sewer-decomposition problems, in addition to the CSO
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pollution (Pisano et al. 1998).
TRANSPORT OF SEWER SOLIDS
Sewer flow-carrying velocities for solid-phase matter were first evaluated at a sewer pilot system
in 1967 (FMC 1967a). Results indicated that the flow velocity for resuspension of the settled
solids was much greater than the flow velocity in which solids would settle (i.e., solids
resuspension > 0.44 m/s [1.44 ft/s] vs. solids settling < 0.27 m/s [0.88 ft/s]). Microscopic
examination of the sewer-sediment samples collected from the test pilot sewerline found sand-
like particles with a size range of 40 - 900 um having a specific gravity range of 2.4 - 2.6.
These particles required the highest flow velocity to be resuspended from the bottom of the test
sewerline. Another investigation was conducted to determine the settling characteristics
(including size and specific gravity distributions) of solids in sanitary wastewater, CSO, and
stormwater runoff (Dalrymple et al. 1975). The settling velocity distributions, for road dust (10
- 20 um) and wastewater solids (74 - 149 um), appeared to relate to Stokes' law for spherical
particles at these size ranges. According to Stokes, for Reynolds numbers (Re) < 1, particle
settling velocity (v,) can be expressed as:
R =V-^- (!)
(2)
ifyi
where:
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vs = particle settling velocity d = effective particle diameter
js = particle specific gravity jw = fluid specific gravity
/LI = fluid viscosity
Sonnen (1977) developed a subroutine, named SETVL, to determine particle settling velocity for
a wide range of Re values. The general equation used in the subroutine is:
y — I " ^_^ ' "" | V /
L
where:
v,s = particle settling velocity d = particle diameter
js = particle specific gravity jw = fluid specific gravity
Cd = drag coefficient g = acceleration due to gravity
For Re > 3,000, a Q value of 0.4 is assumed to start the computation. If the calculated Re is <
3000, turbulent conditions do not exist and the value of Cd is computed by this equation:
(4)
Re 4Re
This leads to a new value of v^. By using Newton's Method of iteration with the values of R and
Cd, convergence to a final solution will occur. In addition to the SETVL subroutine for
computing particle settling velocity, Sonnen (1977) also developed three other subroutines that
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were added to the 1973 version of the EPA Stormwater Management Model's (SWMM)
Extended Transport Block (EXTRAN). These subroutines included SCRDEP for computing
scour, deposition, and transport of solids in various sewer shapes, SCROUT for reporting
intermediate simulation information about the state of solids in a sewer system, and TREAT for
tabulating solids removal (by fractions) and costs in a treatment plant. The earlier version of
EXTRAN has two components: a hydraulic model and a quality model. While the hydraulic
model has been continuously maintained and updated, the quality model encountered problems
early on and has been essentially abandoned. It has never been distributed to the public as was
EXTRAN and the rest of the SWMM blocks. However, the theory adopted by Sonnen in 1977
for simulation of solids transport in a sewer system can be useful for predicting the fate and
transport of sewer solids and their control.
In a sewer, as in a natural channel, sediment can be transported in suspension, as bedload rolling
or sliding along the bed, or interchangeably by suspension and bedload. To facilitate analysis
and understanding, sediment loads are usually classified three ways: bedload, suspended load,
and washload. Sonnen (1977) defined bedload as solid materials that move near the pipe
bottom, suspended load as materials that have at one time been deposited and have subsequently
been swept from the bedloadmio the overlying flow, and washload as particles that have entered
the pipe at its upstream junction and have been determined to remain in suspension under the
given flow condition but can change over time. Most of the model formulations described below
were taken from the book by Graf (1971) on sediment transport and the book by an ASCE Task
Committee (1975) on sedimentation engineering.
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Bedload Transport
For bedload transport, Sonnen (1977) used Kalinske (1947) data to derive the following
relationships for computing mass of solids in motion per unit width of pipe:
<0.3
Where
qs = volume rate of solids movement per unit width, m3/s-m
u*= shear velocity, (TO/p)°'5, m/s
d = median particle diameter, mm
TO= shear stress = YrhS, N/m2
(TO) cr= critical shear stress, obtained at moment of particle incipient motion
(resuspension), N/m2
p = density of water, kg/m3
Y = specific weight of water, N/m3
rh = hy draulic radius of flow, m
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s = the energy slope, m/m
The values of (TO) cr are related to d:
(r0)cr =0.7105dL0648, d>6mm (8)
and
(r0)cr=0.3208rf02238, d<6mm (9)
Suspended-Load Transport
Sonnen (1977) adopted Equation (10), attributed to Rouse (1937), for relating suspended
sediment concentration with flow depth:
C =C (°^y—?-)z (10)
y a y D-a
Where:
Cy = the concentration of suspended particles at depth, y, kg/m3
D= total depth of flow, m
Ca = reference concentration near the bed, kg/m3
a = the reference depth where Ca occurs, taken as Id^o, m
dfo = diameter of particle of which 60% are finer, mm
z = Vs/ku*
vs = settling velocity of particles in quiescent water, m/s
k = von Karman "constant" equal to 0.385
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u* = shear velocity, (grhs)0'5, m/s, for g, r/,_ s see equation 3, 5, 6, and 7 definitions
The value of Ca is estimated for each particle size from the relationship:
.(11)
H.6M.V
in which
M*' = shear velocity computed with a hydraulic radius with respect to the grains of
solids, (grh's)m, m/s
a' = reference depth, m, essentially equal to a in equation 10
gs = the amount of bedload transport per unit width, kg/s-m, for each particle size
determined in equations 5-7
Th'= the portion of total hydraulic radius attributable to the grains of solids, m
To determine ih', Sonnen (1977) derived the following expression:
v r,' i\ o\
— = 5.75 log( 12.27 -^-) ([2)
in which Fis the average velocity in the pipe and its value is provided from EXTRAN hydraulic
model. Equation (12) can then be solved iteratively for r/,'. All variables on the right-hand side
of Equation (10) are defined and Cy can then be computed.
10
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To get a better estimate of the flux of suspended load in a pipe, Sonnen (1977) divided the entire
flow depth into five equal intervals. Values of Cy were computed at midpoints of each interval.
Values of corresponding velocity, uy were computed from the following velocity distribution
equations given by ASCE (1975):
H=H.[5.5+ 5.75 log ^]; * ri(n = ^^ < 10 (13)
or
5.75 log -^]; *.10 = ^- < 10 (14)
in which v is the kinematic viscosity of water (1.00 x 10 6 m2/s at 20° C)
The mass of suspended load movement per unit width and time, gss (kg/m-s), is obtained by
summing over the five depth intervals as:
The total mass moved through the pipe in a given time interval is obtained by multiplying gss by
width and by the time elapsed.
Washload Transport
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The sediment routing model adopted the following relationship, attributable to Durand (1953)
from his work on solid-liquid mixtures in pipes, for separating the deposit-free regime from the
deposit regime:
V< = F (16)
Where:
Vc = the critical velocity, m/s
D = water depth, m
Ss = the specific gravity of the solids, dimensionless
FL = a dimensionless parameter ranging from 0.8 to 1.1
but the model adopted the value of 0.9
When flow is at the computed "critical" velocity Vc or greater, all particles entering the pipe with
a specific gravity of Ss or less will not deposit. Their effective settling velocity in the flow can
be taken as zero. At flow velocities less than Vc, a portion of the particles may be able to
deposit. Under this condition, the model uses the following equation to estimate the proportion
of particles that are removed:
w (17)
PART =
where w is the effective settling velocity (m/s), Q is the flow through the pipe (m3/s), and As is
the surface area of the flowing pipe (m2, width of the flowing water times the length of the pipe).
The effective settling velocity is computed by a linear interpolation between 0 and vs:
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where vs is the settling velocity in an ideal, quiescent tank. The washload is computed as:
WLt = TRANS .(1- PART) (19)
where WLt is the washload, kg, in particle size group / moved through the pipe in the time
period, and TRANSt represents the total solids, kg, in particle size / that enter the pipe from the
upstream junction in the current time period. The remainder of TRANSt will deposit in the bed.
This deposited materials cannot became part of the washload in the same time period.
The above equations (3 through 19) formed the basis of Sonnen's version of the "EXTRAN"
water-quality model for routing particles by size as bedload, suspended load , or washload, and
kept track of the net deposition to, or the resuspension from, the bottom deposit in each sewer
segment. To facilitate simulation of sewer-sediment control, conduits with cunette sections were
added to both the hydraulic and water quality models. Three cunette shapes were incorporated:
circular pipe with semicircular cunette, circular pipe with rectangular cunette, and rectangular
pipe with rectangular cunette. The tabulated values of hydraulic radius, surface width, and
cross-sectional area for the corresponding cunette conduits were incorporated into the programs.
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ESTIMATION OF DRY-WEATHER POLLUTANT DEPOSITION LOADING
Determination of where to apply sewer-sediment control alternatives requires a good prediction
of the location and quantity of deposited solids that build-up during the DWF period. Based on
regression analysis of field data surveyed from Boston and Fitchburg, MA (Pisano and Queiron
1977), and Cleveland, OH, (Pisano and Queiron 1984), three empirical models (i.e., Simplest,
Intermediate, and Elaborate) were developed for estimating total solids (TS) deposition loading
in CSS for different purposes (e.g., assessment, planning, or designing). Nine variables were
tested in the regression analyses. The Elaborate Model represents the highest multiple-
correlation coefficient value (R2 > 0.94), and the R2 is > 0.85 for the Simplest Model. Models
calibrated with field data collected from Boston and Fitchburg, MA and Cleveland, OH (Pisano
and Queiron 1984) are:
Fitchburg, MA:
Simplest Model: TS= 0.0011 (LL063)(SfOA36)(Q-°-51) [R2 = 0.85]
Intermediate Model: TS = 0.0013 (ZL18)(Z)0-604X^-ai78)(^a418Xg0-51) [R2 = 0.85]
Elaborate Model: TS = 0.00073 (Z0-814)^!)-0-819)^!)//0-108)^-0-51) [R2 = 0.95]
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Cleveland. OH:
Simplest Model: TS = 0.0012 (£i-065)(^°-433)(g°-539) r^2 = 0.88]
Elaborate Model: TS = 0.00017 (Z0'948)^0323)^!)-0-519)^!)//0-148)^-0-518) [R2 = 0.94]
Where:
A = service area of collection sewer system, ha
D = average sewer diameter, mm
L = total sewer length, m
LPD= sewer length corresponding to 80% of the solids deposited in the sewer system, m
Q = flowrate per capita, including allowance for infiltration, L/capita-d
S = average sewer slope, m/m
SPD = sewer slope corresponding to LPD, m/m
SpD/4 = sewer slope corresponding to Vi of the percentage of sewer length (LPD) below
which 80% of the solids deposit, m/m
TS = daily total wastewater solids deposition loading in collection system, kg/d
As shown above, all R2 values of these regression models are > 0.85. The differences ofR2
values between Boston and Cleveland are < 5% for the Simplest Model and < 1% for the
Elaborate Model.
The total sewer length of the CSS, L, is generally assumed to be known. In cases where it is not
known, crude estimates may suffice and the estimated sewer length, L \ can be determined from
the service area of the collection sewer system, A, using the following expressions (Pisano and
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Queiron 1977):
For low population density (10 to 20 people/acre)
L' = 168.95 04)°'928 (R2 = 0.82)
For moderate-high population density (30 to 60 people/acre)
L' = 239.41 (,4)a928 (R2 = 0.821)
If data on pipe slope is not available, the average sewer slope,
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Caruccio 1979). Improvement of CSS design, including cross-sectional bottom configurations
for low-flow solids conveyance, steeper sewer slopes, inline storage and routing, and inline
sediment control will afford better cost effectiveness and solids-capture efficiency compared to a
comparably designed separate storm and sanitary system or conventionally designed CSS
(Sonnen 1977; Kaufman and Lai 1978).
Sonnen (1977) used his version of the "EXTRAN" water quality model to evaluate the effects of
sewer slope and shape on the transport of sewer solids using a hypothetical case. The results
indicated that the increased slopes allowed more solids to reach the wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP) so they could be removed. It was estimated that 25 and 50 % greater slopage (from
0.0008 to 0.001 m/m and from 0.0008 to 0.0012 m/m, respectively) would achieve an additional
30 and 70% solids removal, respectively. However, the simulation results of cunette-bottom-
shaped and circular-shaped cross-sections indicated that the circular pipe transported more solids
to the treatment plant and had less accumulation on the pipe bottom than the cunette-shape
conduit. This might be a function of the sizes chosen for the examples and not a general
refutation of the cunette's reputed self-cleansing properties, despite the monetary upsets in the
hydraulics results for the cunettes.
In addition, sewer-sediment-control methods (e.g., sewer flushing), should be considered as an
effective method for retrofitting existing CSS or in the design of new ones (Kaufman and Lai
1978 and 1980).
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SEWER FLUSHING
The concept of sewer flushing had been applied more than 100 years ago as a maintenance
measure. Today, it involves resuspension and transport of deposited solids and their associated
pollutants to the WWTP during DWF, by conveying solids deposited in the upper reaches of
large CSS to points closer to the WWTP where there is more flow for solids conveyance and/or
to a downstream point of series flushing. The intent is to reduce depositing pollutants that may
be resuspended and prevent their overflow during WWF events. Periodic sewer flushing during
DWF periods can be conducted to remove accumulating material and convey it hydraulically to a
WWTP. This reduces the amount of solids resuspended during WWF events and lessens the
need for CSO storage and treatment and sludge removal at downstream storage facilities.
Furthermore, it allows the passage of more WWF to the WWTP for treatment, by reducing sewer
blockages, and if the flushing system is used, for interceptor sewer-solids resuspension.
Engineered sewer-sediment flushing systems are potentially low-cost and low-structurally-
intensive controls. By creating high velocity flushing waves to resuspend deposited sediments,
these methods have been used to effectively reduce sediment and debris levels. Hydraulic pilot-
plant studies were initiated by the EPA predecessor agency at the FMC Central Engineering
Laboratories in Santa Clara, CA to determine the feasibility of a periodic flushing system for
combined-sewer cleaning (FMC 1967b, 1972). Subsequent field evaluation and modeling study
results indicated that sewer-sediment flushing can significantly reduce overall costs when
integrated with other upstream control practices and downstream storage tanks (FMC 1972;
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Kaufman and Lai 1978, 1980; Pisano et al. 1979).
Internal automatic flushing devices have been developed for sewer systems. An inflatable fabric
dam (FMC 1972) has been used to stop flow in upstream reaches to back up volume capable of
generating a flushing wave. When the appropriate volume is reached, the bag is deflated,
releasing the impounded wastewater, resulting in the cleaning of the downstream sewer segment.
Field experience indicated that sewer flushing by manual means (water-tank truck) was a simple,
reliable method for CSO solids removal in smaller diameter laterals and trunk sewers as the
results of field investigation in Dorchester, MA (Pisano et al. 1979). A sediment-solids removal
efficiency of 40% and BODs removal efficiency of 60% were attained in a 300- or 380-mm
sewer, respectively using a flushing volume of approximately 1.5 m3, injected at a rate of
approximately 15 L/s. These removals were effective for segment lengths of up to 305 m
downstream of the flushing station. Results indicate that flushing is also an effective means for
suspending and transporting heavy metals associated with light colloidal particles.
Approximately 20 - 40% of heavy metals contained in sewer sediment, including cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc were transported at least 305 m by flush waves.
During the last 15 years, at least three new passive hydraulic-flushing systems have been
developed and installed in sewers and/or storage tanks in more than 500 locations in Europe, the
United States, and Canada (Pisano et al. 1998). During that time, two new systems (Tipping
Flushers® and HYDROSELF® (flushing gate) developed in Switzerland and Germany,
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respectively) have been widely used in Europe for cleaning accumulated sludge and debris in
CSO and stormwater storage-sedimentation tanks. Pisano et al. (1998) evaluated the
performance of these two technologies, i.e., the tipping flusher and the flushing gate by a
detailed examination of 18 facilities in Germany, Canada, and United States. As a result, both
the tipping flusher and the flushing gate technology appear to be the most cost-effective means
for flushing solids and debris from CSO-storage tanks. The flushing gate was found to be the
most efficient method for flushing large-diameter, flat sewers. These gates are hydraulically
operated to open quickly to release backed-up combined wastewater for flushing grit and debris
to downstream collector grit pits. A cost-effectiveness analysis conducted for an actual project
compared flushing-gate technology to conventional large, pipe-cleaning operations using
bucketing methods. The flushing-gate system was found to be more cost effective and was
selected for the project (Pisano et al. 1998).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Combined sewers that are oversized to accommodate very infrequent WWF events act as
sedimentation unit processes during DWF periods. This is due to the low-flow velocities they
typically experience. As a result of these low-flow velocities, these oversized sewers fail to
maintain settleable solids in suspension. In addition to the organic solids in the sanitary
wastewater, solids that enter the CSS from rooftops, streets and highways, construction sites,
commercial and industrial parking lots, automobile maintenance yards, and lawn irrigation and
runoff contribute substantial amounts of toxic-laden solids. Aside from CSO pollution, sewer
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sediments create odor problems and hazardous and corrosive conditions. The production and
release of H2S gas in CSS is responsible for odor complaints, the destruction of sewer pipes and
other wastewater infrastructure facilities, and in rare instances, has caused the death of sewer-
maintenance personnel. The National CSO Control Policy (EPA 1994), which requires control
and treatment of all CSO, will result in CSO control compliance costs approaching 100 billion
dollars. Thus, low-cost low-structurally intensive controls, e.g., sewer-sediment flushing, must
be thoroughly considered in any new CSO control planning effort.
The goal of sewer flushing is to transport the resuspended sediment to strategic locations, i.e., to
a point where the wastestream is flowing with sufficient velocity, to another point where
flushing will be initiated, to a storage sump (trap) which allows later removal of the stored
contents, or to the WWTP. This eliminates H2S gas that causes health hazards and sewerline
corrosion, reduces the amount of solids resuspended into CSO during storm events, lessens the
need for CSO storage-treatment and sludge removal at downstream storage facilities, and allows
the conveyance of more flow for treatment at the WWTP.
Innovative methods for cleaning accumulated solids and debris in CSS (and storage tanks) have
emerged over the last 15 years. Although flushing of sewerlines was widely used around the
turn of the century as a maintenance practice, it is still in its infancy regarding its use as a
pollution-control alternative for CSS. Development of new and improved sewer sediment
control methods will be a continuous research effort.
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To control sewer sediment and its resulting problems, an integrated approach should be adopted
for the design of urban-drainage systems. A wide variety of options can be used, including
upland BMP solids removal, the sewer-system, and storage-treatment facilities. The design of
the total system should be the objective, not the individual design of its parts. A model, such as
the Sonnen's (1977) version of the "EXTRAN" water-quality model, would be able to assist in
meeting the overall objective. This sewer analysis model is a useful tool that could be applied in
a variety of field applications, both to test its relationships and inherent assumptions and to allow
sewer cleansing evaluations and designs to be performed. More research is being undertaken in
the area of sewer-sediment transport. Particularly important topics for research are the
characterization of bedload, suspended load, and washload in cohesive sediment conditions,
extension of the relationships to account for cohesiveness and armoring of deposited materials,
and the linkages between sediment solids and other constituents such as organic matter, toxic
metals, and nutrients.
REFERENCES
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for Urban Stormwater Pollution Control, EPA-600/2-83-043, NTIS PB 83 217 745, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, OH.
ASCE Task Committee. (1975). Sedimentation Engineering, V.A. Vanoni (ed.), Manuals and
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Reports on Engineering Practice-No. 54, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
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528, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
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Buxton, H. and Caruccio, F.T. (1979). Evaluation of Selective Erosion Control Techniques.,
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OH.
Durand, R. (1953). Basic Relationships of the Transportation of Solids in Pipes - Experimental
Research, Proceedings, Intern. Assoc. Hydr. Res., 5th Congress, Minneapolis, MN
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Field, R. (1989). Storm and Combined Sewer Overflow: An Overview of EPA 's Research
Program, EPA-600/8-89/054, NTIS PB 90-187 006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
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Field, R. (1995). Bibliography of Storm and Combined Sewer Pollution Control R&D Program
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Documents, EPA-600/9-90/032, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction
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Field, R., Borst, M., Stinson, M., Fan, C-Y., Perdek, J., and Sullivan, D. (1996). Bisk
Management Research Plan for Wet Weather Flows, EPA-600/R-96/140, NTIS PB 90-187
006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH
FMC Corporation Central Engineering Laboratories (1967a). Relationship of Sewage
Characteristics to Carrying Velocity for Pressure Sewers, FWQA Program Report No.
11020EKO08/67, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
FMC Corporation Central Engineering Laboratories (1967b). Feasibility of a Periodic Flushing
System for Combined Sewer Cleansing, FWQA Program Report No. 11020DNO08/67, NTIS
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