Characterization Of Municipal Solid Waste In The United States 1994 Update


vvEPA
             United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
             Solid Waste and
             Emergency Response
             (5305)
EPA530-R-94-042
November 1994
Characterization of
Municipal Solid Waste in the
United States: 1994 Update

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       CHARACTERIZATION OF
      MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
       IN THE UNITED STATES
             1994 UPDATE
               Prepared for

   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste Division
           Office of Solid Waste
            November 15, 1994
                             U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                             Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
                             77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
                             Chicago, IL 60604-3590

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CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
IN THE UNITED STATES: 1994 UPDATE

Table of Contents

Chapter Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

1 INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 17
Background 17
How this report can be used 17
New features of this report 19
Municipal solid waste in perspective 19
Municipal solid waste defined 19
Other Subtitle D wastes 21
The solid waste management hierarchy 21
Methodologies for characterizing municipal solid waste 21
The two methodologies 21
Definition of terms 22
^A Materials and products not included in these estimates 23
MJ Projections 24
\"\ Overview of this report 24
W\ References 26

IT) 2 CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BY WEIGHT 28
-x| Introduction 28

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Table of Contents (continued)

Chapter Page
3
Recovery for recycling and composting of yard trimmings 90
Mixed MSW composting 90
Combustion of municipal solid waste 91
Residues from waste management facilities 92
Historical perspective 93
References 94

PROJECTIONS OF MSW GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT 96
Introduction 96
Overview of this chapter 96
Materials generation in municipal solid waste 97
Paper and paperboard 98
Glass 99
Ferrous metals 99
Aluminum 99
Other nonferrous metals 99
Plastics 99
Wood wastes 100
Other materials 100
Food wastes 100
Yard trimmings 100
Projected growth rates for materials in MSW 101
Product generation in municipal solid waste 102
Durable goods 102
Nondurable goods 103
Containers and packaging 107
The effects of yard trimmings source reduction 109
Projections of MSW recovery 110
Discussion of assumptions 111
Scenarios for 2000 112
Projections of MSW discards after recovery 113
Projections of MSW combustion 114
Summary of projected MSW management 114
References 116

ADDITIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE 117
Introduction 117
Generation and discards by individuals 117
Residential and commercial generation of MSW 119
Organic/inorganic fractions of MSW 121
Ranking of products in MSW by weight 122
Factors affecting municipal solid waste generation 122
Population growth 125
Economic activity 126
Generation of product categories 127
Comparison of MSW generation, population, and GDP 129
Household size 129
IV
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Table of Contents (continued)

Chapter Page

6 CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BY VOLUME 132
Introduction 132
Methodology and experimental program 133
Density factors for landfilled materials 134
Data sources 134
Uncertainties in density factor estimates 134
Volume of products discarded 136
Volume of materials 139
Validity of results 141
Reported landfill densities 142
References 143

7 COMPARISON OF MSW ESTIMATES 145
Introduction 145
Comparison with previous material flows studies 145
Paper and paperboard 147
Metals 148
Glass 148
Plastics 148
Rubber and leather 148
Textiles 149
Food wastes 149
Yard trimmings 149
Comparison with estimates made by sampling studies 149
References 151

Appendix

A Material Flows Methodology 152
B Recovery Scenarios, 1995 and 2000 156
C Residential/Commercial Fractions of MSW 159

List of Tables

Table Page

Materials in the Municipal Solid Waste Stream, 1960 to 1993
I Generated 29
2 Recovery 30
3 Discarded 31

Products in Municipal Solid Waste, 1993
4 Paper and paperboard 32
5 Glass 35
6 Metals 38
7 Plastics 42
8 Rubber and leather 45
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List of Tables (continued)

Table Page

Categories of Products in the Municipal Solid Waste Stream, 1960 to 1993
9 Generated 52
10 Recovery 53
11 Discarded 54

Products in MSW with Detail on Durable Goods
12 Generated 55
13 Recovery 56
14 Discarded 57

Products in MSW with Detail on Nondurable Goods
15 Generated 60
16 Recovery 61
17 Discarded 62

Products in MSW with Detail on Containers and Packaging
18 Generated (by weight) 67
19 Generated (by percent) 68
20 Recovery (by weight) 69
21 Recovery (by percent) 70
22 Discarded (by weight) 71
23 Discarded (by percent) 72

24 Reduction of weights of soft drink containers, 1972 to 1992 86
24a Comparison of snack food packaging, 1972 and 1987 87
25 Generation, materials recovery, composting, combustion, and discards
of municipal solid waste, 1960 to 1993 92
26 Projections of materials generated in the municipal waste stream, 1993 and 2000 97
27 Average annual rates of increase (or decrease) of generation of materials in MSW 102
28 Projections of categories of products generated in the municipal waste stream,
1993 to 2000 103

Projections of Products Generated in MSW, 1993 to 2000
29 Durable goods 105
30 Nondurable goods 106
31 Containers and packaging 108

32 Comparison of three scenarios for source reduction of yard trimmings, 2000 109
33 Projected generation and ranges of recovery, 2000 112
34 Projections of materials discarded in MSW, 1993 and 2000 113
35 Generation, recovery, combustion, and disposal of municipal solid waste,
1993 and 2000 115
36 Per capita generation, materials recovery, combustion, and discards of
municipal solid waste, 1960 to 2000 118
37 Per capita generation of MSW by material, 1960 to 2000 119
38 Classification of MSW into residential and commercial fractions, 1993 120
39 Composition of MSW discards by organic and inorganic fractions, 1960 to 2000 121
40 Generation of municipal solid waste, 1993, arranged in descending order by weight 123
40a Discards of municipal solid waste, 1993, arranged in descending order by weight 124
VI
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List of Tables (continued)

Table Page

41 Summary of density factors for landfilled materials 135
42 Volume of products discarded in MSW, 1993 137
43 Summary of estimated volume of products discarded in MSW, 1993 139
44 Estimated volume of materials discarded in MSW, 1993 140
45 Estimated weight and volume of materials discarded in MSW, 1990 and 1993 141
46 Comparison of the 1992 and the 1994 estimates for 1990 materials generation 146
47 Comparison of the 1992 and the 1994 projections of materials generation in 2000 147
48 Comparison of MSW discards by material flows and sampling methodologies 150
B-l Scenarios for recovery of MSW, 2000 158
C-l Worksheet for estimates of residential/commercial fractions of MSW, 1993 160

List of Figures

Figure Page

1 Municipal solid waste in the universe of Subtitle D wastes 20

Materials Generated and Recovered in Municipal Solid Waste
2 Paper and paperboard products generated in MSW, 1993 33
3 Paper generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993 34
4 Glass products generated in MS W, 1993 36
5 Glass generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993 36
6 Metal products generated in MSW, 1993 37
7 Metals generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993 39
8 Plastics products generated in MSW, 1993 41
9 Plastics generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993 44

10 Generation of materials in MSW, 1960 to 1993 48
11 Materials recovery and discards of MSW, 1960 to 1993 49
12 Materials recovery, 1993 50
13 Materials generated and discarded in MSW, 1993 51
14 Generation of products in MSW, 1960 to 1993 75
15 Nondurable goods generated and discarded in MSW, 1993 76
16 Containers and packaging generated and discarded in MSW, 1993 77
17 Municipal solid waste management, 1960 to 1993 93
18 Materials generated in MSW, 1993 and 2000 98
19 Products generated in MSW, 1993 and 2000 104
20 Municipal solid waste management, 1960 to 2000 115
21 U.S. population and MSW generation 125
22 Growth of U.S. population and municipal solid waste generation 126
23 MSW generation and Gross Domestic Product, 1960 to 1993 127
24 MSW generation and Gross Domestic Product 128
25 MSW product categories and Gross Domestic Product 128
26 Growth of U.S. population, MSW generation, and Gross Domestic Product 129
27 MSW generation vs. persons per household 130
28 MSW generation per person and household size 131
29 MSW generation per household and household size 131
30 Landfill volume of MSW product categories, 1993 138
VII
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List of Figures (continued)

Figure Page

31 Landfill volume of materials in MSW, 1993 140
A-l Material flows methodology for estimating generation of products and materials
in municipal solid waste 153
A-2 Material flows methodology for estimating recovery and discards of
municipal solid waste 154
Vlll
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OMB Control Number 2010-0023

CHARACTERIZATION OF MSW IN THE U.S. CUSTOMER FEEDBACK FORM

The EPA Office of Solid Waste would like to hear from you about ways in which we
can improve the information we bring to you in this report. Please answer the
following questions and send or fax this form back to EPA. (The address and fax
number are on the back of the form.) Thank you.

1. What in the report was most helpful to you?
2. What should we be adding that would be helpful to you?
3. Would you be interested in understanding more about the methodologies and
calculations used to put together this report?
4. What other types of materials would you like to see characterized in the report?
5. Can you suggest alternative methods of estimating certain waste streams?
6. Are there particular areas that should be expanded or deemphasized?
7. Have you found this document to be a useful tool for planning or making
projections regarding local waste management programs?
8. Have you found typographical/calculation errors that should be corrected?
Burden Statement: The average burden is estimated to be 5-10 minutes per respondent.
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EPA Office of Solid Waste
Attn: MSW Characterization Study (5306)
401M Street SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
fax (703) 308-8609
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CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
IN THE UNITED STATES: 1994 UPDATE

Executive Summary
Management of the nation's municipal solid waste (MSW) continues to be
a high priority issue for many communities as we near the turn of the century.
Increasingly, the concept of integrated solid waste management—source
reduction of wastes before they enter the waste stream, recovery of generated
wastes for recycling and composting, and environmentally sound disposal
through combustion facilities and landfills that meet current standards—is being
used by communities as they plan for the future.

There are many regional variations that require each community to
examine its own waste management needs. Such factors as local and regional
availability of suitable landfill space, proximity of markets for recovered
materials, population density, commercial and industrial activity, and climatic
and groundwater variations all may motivate each community to make its own
plans.

Identifying the components of the waste stream is an important step
toward addressing the issues associated with the generation and management of
municipal solid wastes. MSW characterizations, which analyze the quantity and
composition of the municipal solid waste stream, involve estimating how much
MSW is generated, recycled, combusted, and disposed of in landfills. By
determining the makeup of the waste stream, waste characterizations also
provide valuable data for setting waste management goals, tracking progress
toward those goals, and supporting planning at the national, state, and local
levels. For example, waste characterizations can be used to highlight
opportunities for source reduction and recycling and provide information on
any special management issues that should be considered.

Readers should note that this report characterizes the municipal solid
waste stream of the nation as a whole. Local and regional variations are not
addressed, but suggestions for use of the information in this report by local
planners are included in Chapter 1.

FEATURES OF THIS REPORT

This report is the most recent in a series of reports released by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to characterize MSW in the United
States. It characterizes the national waste stream based on data through 1993 and
includes:
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Information on MSW generation from 1960 to 1993
Information on MSW management—recovery for recycling and
composting, combustion, and landfilling—from 1960 to 1993
A discussion of the role of source reduction in MSW management
Information on the relationship of MSW generation to population and
economic activity
Information characterizing MSW by volume as well as by weight
Projections for MSW generation to the year 2000
Projections for MSW combustion through 2000
Projections (presented in three recovery scenarios) for materials
recovery for recycling and composting through 2000.
DEFINITIONS

Municipal solid waste includes wastes such as durable goods, nondurable goods, containers
and packaging, food scrapsjjird trimmings, and miscellaTieojasJnorgajiicj^astes-frorn
residential-commercial, insrihjtjonal.' and^ndiistrial sjjjiuiiiigjt Examples of waste from these
categories include appliances, automobile tires, newspapers, clothing, boxes, disposable
tableware, office and classroom paper, wood pallets, anc^ cafeteria wastes. MSW does not
include wastes from other sources, such as tOT\s^ru,c^n^r^^e^ojitiorrwa5^| automobile
bodies, municipal sludges, combustion ash, and industria£proc£as>wastes that might also be
disposed in municipal waste landfills or incinerators.

Source reduction activities reduce the amount or toxicity of wastes before they enter the
municipal solid waste management system (see Generation). Reuse of products such as
refillable glass bottles or refurbished wood pallets is counted as source reduction, not
recovery for recycling.

Generation refers to the amount (weight, volume, or percentage of the overall waste
stream) of materials and products as they enter the waste stream and before materials
recovery, composting, or combustion takes place.

Recovery of materials includes materials or yard trimmings removed from the waste stream
for the purpose of recycling or composting. Recovery for recycling as defined for this report
includes purchases of postconsumer recovered materials plus exports of the materials.
Recovery of yard trimmings includes those materials received at a composting facility. For
some materials, recovery for uses such as highway construction or insulation is counted as
recovery along with materials used in remanufacturing processes.

Combustion includes combustion of mixed MSW, fuel prepared from MSW, or a separated
component of MSW (such as rubber tires), with or without energy recovery.

Discards include the municipal solid waste remaining after recovery for recycling and
composting. These discards are usually combusted or disposed of in landfills, although some
MSW is littered, stored, or disposed on site, particularly in rural areas.
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By presenting three possible scenarios for recovery in the year 2000, this
report illustrates how various recovery rates (25, 30, and 35 percent) could be
achieved. States and local communities can set their own goals and recovery
scenarios depending upon their local situations.

METHODOLOGY

There are two primary methods for conducting a waste characterization
study. The first is a source-specific approach in which the individual components
of the waste stream are sampled, sorted, and weighed. Although this method is
useful for defining a local waste stream, extrapolating from a limited number of
studies can produce a skewed or misleading picture if used for a nationwide
characterization of waste. Any errors in the sample or atypical circumstances
encountered during sampling would be greatly magnified when expanded to
represent the nation's entire waste stream.

The second method, used in this report to estimate the waste stream on a
nationwide basis, is called the "material flows methodology." EPA's Office of
Solid Waste and its predecessors in the Public Health Service sponsored work in
the 1960s and early 1970s to develop the material flows methodology. This
methodology is based on production data (by weight) for the materials and
products in the waste stream, with adjustments for imports, exports, and product
lifetimes.

REPORT HIGHLIGHTS

This report demonstrates that the generation of municjpaLsQlid waste
continues to increasesteadily, both in overall tonnage and in poundsjper_carjita.
TKere is"^61ne~e^ia&t\ce^h^tsource reduction measures, particularly efforts to
keep yard trimmings out of the waste management system, are beginning to
have an effect. Increasing recovery of matpri a 1 s inJMSW f nr_recycling_a n d
composting is le^dmgToIa3^1i^_inJtlie_4Jeirentage^of JMSW being sent to
Major findings include the following:
In 1993, 207 million tons, or 4.4 pounds per person per day, of MSW
were generated. After materials recovery for recycling and composting,
discards were 3.4 pounds per person per day. Virtually all of these
discards were combusted or sent to landfills.

For the first time, EPA projects that the per capita generation rate will
decrease by the year 2000 to 4.3 pounds per person per day. These
projections are based in part on source reduction efforts, especially
actions to divert yard trimmings from the solid waste management
system through backyard composting and leaving grass clippings on
lawns. States that include more than half of the U.S. population
already have regulations leading to these actions. Other source
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reduction activities, e.g., reduced packaging, are also contributing to
this decrease.

• Even with significant source reduction efforts, generation of MSW is
projected to increase to 218 million tons in 2000. However, discards to
combustion facilities or landfills are projected to decline from 162
million tons in 1993 to 152 million tons in 2000 assuming a 30 percent
recovery rate for recycling and composting is achieved.

• Recovery of materials for recycling and composting was estimated
to be 22 percent of MSW generated in 1993, up from 17 percent in
1990, continuing the impressive growth of recent years. Combustion
facilities managed 16 percent of total generation, and the remaining
62 percent of the municipal solid waste stream was sent to landfills
or otherwise disposed.

• Between 1990 and 1993, recovery of materials for recycling and
composting increased from 38 million tons to 45 million tons, an
increase of 18 percent. Recovery of paper and paperboard accounted
for over half of this increased tonnage. Yard trimmings for
composting contributed the next largest increase in tonnage
recovered.

• The percentage of MSW discards continues to decline due to increased
levels of recovery for recycling and composting. In 1985, 83 percent of
MSW was landfilled compared to 62 percent landfilled in 1993. Even
with this reduction, landfilling continues to be the single most
predominant waste management method into the year 2000.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN 1993

Materials in MSW

In 1993, generation of municipal solid waste totaled 207 million tons. A
breakdown by weight of the materials generated in MSW in 1993 is shown in
Figure ES-1 and Table ES-1. Paper and paperboard products are the largest
component of municipal solid waste by weight (38 percent of generation) and
yard trimmings are the second largest component (16 percent of generation). Five
of the remaining materials in MSW—glass, metals, plastics, wood and food
wastes—range between 6 and 9 percent each by weight of total MSW generated.
Other materials in MSW include rubber and leather, textiles, and small amounts
of miscellaneous wastes, which each made up approximately 3 percent of MSW
in 1993.
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Figure ES-1. Materials generated In MSW by weight, 1993
(Total weight - 206.9 million tons)
Paper & paperboard 37.6%
77.8 million tons
Yard trimmings 15.9%
32.8 million tons
Glass 6.6%
13.7 million tons
Metals 8.3%
17.1 million tons
Plastics 9.3%
19.3 million tons
Wood 6.6%
13.7 million tons
Food 6.7%
13.8 million tons
Other 9.0%
18.7 million tons
Table ES-1
GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF MATERIALS IN MSW, 1993
(In millions of tons and percent of generation of each material)

Paper and paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous metals
Aluminum
Other nonferrous metals
Total metals
Plastics
Rubber and Leather
Textiles
Wood
Other materials
Total Materials in Products
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
TOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Weight
Generated
77.8
13.7

12.9
3.0
1.2
17.1
19.3
6.2
6.1
13.7
3.3
157.3

13.8
32.8
3.1
49.7
206.9
Weight
Recovered
26.5
3.0

3.4
1.1
0.8
5.2
0.7
0.4
0.7
1.3
0.7
38.5

Neg.
6.5
Neg.
6.5
45.0
Percent of
Generation
34.0%
22.0%

26.1%
35.4%
62.9%
30.4%
3.5%
5.9%
11.7%
9.6%
22.1%
24.5%

Neg.
19.8%
Neg.
13.1%
21.7%
Includes wastes from residential, commercial, and institutional sources.
Neg. = Less than 50,000 tons or 0.05 percent.
Numbers in this table have been rounded to the first decimal place.
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Most of the materials in MSW have some level of recovery for recycling
or composting. This is illustrated for 1993 in Table ES-1. Since each material
category (except for food wastes and yard trimmings) is made up of many
different products, some of which may not be recovered at all, the overall
recovery rate for any particular material will be lower than recovery rates for
some products within the materials category.

The highest recovery rate shown in Table ES-1 is that for nonferrous
metals other than aluminum (63 percent of generation). This is because the lead
in lead-acid batteries is recovered at very high rates. Aluminum is recovered at
approximately 35 percent of generation overall, even though aluminum cans are
recovered at rates above 60 percent. Likewise, the overall recovery rate for paper
and paperboard is 34 percent, even though corrugated containers are recovered at
rates above 50 percent.

Products in MSW

The many products in MSW are grouped into three main categories:
durable goods (for example, appliances), nondurable goods (for example,
newspapers), and containers and packaging (Figure ES-2). The materials in MSW
are generally made up of products from each category. There are exceptions,
however. The durable goods category contains no paper and paperboard. The
nondurable goods category includes only small amounts of metals and
essentially no glass or wood. The containers and packaging category includes
only very small amounts of rubber, leather, and textiles.
Figure ES-2. Products generated in MSW by weight, 1993
(Total weight = 206.9 million tons)
Nondurable goods 26.5%
54.8 million tons
Durable goods 15.4%
31.9 million tons
Containers & packaging 34.1%
70.6 million tons
Food, other 8.2%
16.9 million tons
Yard trimmings 15.9%
32.8 million tons
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Generation and recovery of the product categories in MSW, broken down
by materials within each category, are shown in Table ES-2. Overall, the materials
in durable goods were recovered at a rate of approximately 13 percent in 1993.
The non-ferrous metals were recovered at a rate of approximately 63 percent
because of the high rate of recovery of lead-acid batteries. (The recovery of these
batteries also accounts for the high rate of recovery of "other materials," which
are the non-lead components of the batteries.) Considerable amounts of ferrous
metals are recovered from appliances in the durables category, and some rubber
is recovered from tires.

Overall recovery in the nondurable goods category was estimated to be 21
percent in 1993. In this category, large amounts of newspapers, office papers, and
some other paper products are recovered.

Recovery from the containers and packaging category is the highest of
these categories—33 percent of generation. Aluminum was recovered at over 53
percent in 1993 (mostly aluminum beverage cans), while steel (mostly cans) was
recovered at over 46 percent. Paper and paperboard recovery was estimated at 44
percent overall in 1993, with corrugated containers accounting for most of that
tonnage. Glass containers were estimated to have been recovered at 25 percent
overall, while wood packaging (mostly pallets) was estimated to have been
recovered at 14 percent of generation. Plastic containers and packaging were
estimated to have been recovered at an overall rate of 6 percent in 1993, with
most of the recovered plastics being soft drink bottles and milk and water bottles.

Management of MSW

The breakdown of how much waste went to recycling and composting,
combustion, and landfills in 1993 is shown in Figure ES-3. Recovery of materials
for recycling and composting was estimated to have been 45 million tons, or 22
percent of generation, in 1993. Combustion of MSW (nearly all with energy
recovery) was estimated to have been 33 million tons, or 16 percent of
generation, in 1993. The remainder, 129 million tons of MSW (62 percent of
generation), was assumed to have been landfilled (although small amounts may
have been littered or self-disposed, e.g., on farms).

Recovery for recycling remained at relatively low levels—9 to 10 percent
of MSW generation—well into the decade of the 1980s. In the late 1980s, people
nationwide realized that new approaches to solid waste management were
needed, and recovery for recycling and composting began to increase. Recovery
rates have increased from 13 percent in 1988 to 17 percent in 1990 to 22 percent in
1993 (Figure ES-4).
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Table ES-2
GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF PRODUCTS IN MSW
BY MATERIAL, 1993
(In millions of tons and percent of generation of each product)

Durable goods
Ferrous metals
Aluminum
Other non-ferrous metals
Total metals
Glass
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Wood
Textiles
Other materials
Total durable goods
Nondurable goods
Paper and paperboard
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Other materials
Total nondurable goods
Containers and packaging
Steel
Aluminum
Total metals
Glass
Paper and paperboard
Plastics
Wood
Other materials
Total containers and packaging
Other wastes
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total other wastes
TOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Weight
Generated

10.0
0.8
1.2
12.0
1.4
6.3
5.2
4.2
1.8
1.0
31.9

42.4
4.6
1.0
4.3
2.5
54.8

3.0
2.0
5.0
12.2
35.4
8.4
9.5
0.1
70.6

13.8
32.8
3.1
49.7
206.9
Weight
Recovered

2.0
Neg.
0.8
2.8
Neg.
0.2
0.4
Neg.
Neg.
0.7
4.1

10.8
Neg.
Neg.
0.7
Neg.
11.5

1.4
1.1
2.4
3.0
15.7
0.5
1.3
Neg.
22.9

Neg.
6.5
Neg.
6.5
45.0
Percent of
Generation

20.0%
Neg.
62.9%
23.1%
Neg.
2.4%
7.1%
Neg.
1.7%
76.0%
12.7%

25.4%
<1%
Neg.
16.2%
Neg.
21.0%

46.3%
53.3%
49.1%
24.6%
44.2%
6.1%
13.9%
Neg.
32.5%

Neg.
19.8%
Neg.
13.1%
21.7%
Includes wastes from residential, commercial, and institutional sources.
Neg. = less than 50,000 tons or 0.05 percent.
Numbers in this table have been rounded to the first decimal place.
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Figure ES-3. Management of MSW in U.S., 1993
(Total weight = 206.9 million tons)
Landfill, other, 62.4%
129.0 million tons
Recovery for recycling
and composting, 21.7%
45.0 million tons
Combustion, 15.9%
32.9 million tons
For this report, EPA looked at a range of recovery scenarios from 25
percent to 35 percent nationwide for the year 2000. A mid-range projected
scenario of 30 percent in the year 2000 was used to illustrate the effects of
recovery on future municipal solid waste management. To achieve this level of
recovery, it was assumed that local, state, and federal agencies will continue to
emphasize recycling and composting as a priority; that industries will continue
Figure ES-4. Recovery for recycling and composting
(in percent of total MSW generation)

• Historical A Projected
30 • •

25 ••

20.-

15.-

5 4-
1993 recovery = 22%
2000 recovery = 30% scenario
-I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—I h
1980
1985
1990
1995
-I 1
2000
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to make the necessary investments in recovery and utilization of materials; that
state and local governments will continue to expand programs designed to keep
yard trimmings out of landfills; and that most U.S. citizens will have access to
some sort of recovery program by the year 2000.

Source Reduction

Source reduction activities include the design, manufacture, purchase, or
use of materials (such as products and packaging) to reduce the amount or
toxicity of trash before it reaches the point of generation and enters the
municipal solid waste management system. Source reduction activities include:

• Designing products or packages so as to reduce the quantity of
materials or the toxicity of the materials used

• Reducing amounts of products or packages used through
modification of current practices

• Reusing products or packages already manufactured

• Lengthening the life of products to postpone disposal

• Managing non-product organic wastes (food wastes, yard
trimmings) through on-site composting or other alternatives to
disposal.

While most source reduction activities were not quantified in this report,
calculations were made showing that yard trimmings generation could be
reduced 30 percent or more by the year 2000 if current and planned state and local
programs to reduce disposal of yard trimmings are implemented.

MSW Volume Estimates

Although solid waste is usually characterized by weight, information
about volume is important for such issues as determining how quickly landfill
capacity is being filled and identifying the rates at which the volumes of various
materials in the waste stream are changing.

Volume estimates of solid waste are, however, far more difficult to make
than weight estimates. A pound of paper is a pound of paper whether it is in flat
sheets, crumpled into a wad, or compacted into a bale, but the volume occupied
in each case will be very different. The estimates presented here represent the
relative volume of materials as they would typically be found if compacted
individually in a landfill (a significant amount of compaction occurs in a
landfill). These estimates are based largely on empirical data that are then used to
estimate density factors (pounds per cubic yard) for components of solid waste
10
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under simulated landfill conditions, with corroboration from actual landfill
studies. It should be noted, however, that individual component density
measurements serve only to compare component volume requirements, one to
another. The component measurements should not be used to estimate landfill
densities of mixed municipal solid waste.

Figure ES-5 shows the materials in MSW by volume as a percentage of
total MSW discards (after recovery) in 1993. The paper and paperboard category
ranks first in volume of MSW discarded (30 percent). Plastics rank second in
volume, at 24 percent of the total, and yard trimmings are third, at 8 percent.
Paper and plastics combined accounted for over one-half of the volume of MSW
discarded in 1993.
Figure ES-5. Landfill volume of materials in MSW, 1993
(in percent of total)
Plastics
23.9%
Yard trimmings 8.1%
Ferrous metals 7.9%
Paper&
paperboard
30.2%
Others 1.4%
Rubber & leather 7.8%
Wood 6.8%
Textiles 6.2%

Food wastes 3.2%

Aluminum 2.4%

Glass 2.2%
Figure ES-6 shows the product categories that made up MSW by volume
of total discards in 1993. Containers and packaging were 32 percent of discards
after recovery for recycling and composting, while nondurable goods were 29
percent of discards. Durable goods were an estimated 27 percent of MSW discards
volume, while other materials (mostly yard trimmings and food wastes) were
approximately 12 percent of discards by volume.
11
-------
Figure ES-6. Landfill volume of products in MSW, 1993
(in percent of total)
Other 11.8%
Containers &
packaging
32.1%
Durables
27.0%
Nondurabies
29.1%
ADDITIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MSW

Per Capita Generation of MSW

Generation of MSW by individuals is an important parameter used by
solid waste management planners. During the period 1960 to 1993, per capita
generation of MSW increased steadily from 2.7 pounds per person per day to 4.4
pounds per person per day. During the period 1993 to 2000, per capita generation
of products (including packaging) is projected to continue to increase if present
trends continue. The per capita generation of yard trimmings is, however,
projected to decline if current source reduction activities at the state and local
levels continue. Overall, this could mean a decline in per capita generation from
4.4 pounds per person per day in 1993 to 4.3 pounds per person per day in 2000.

Residential and Commercial Sources of MSW

The sources of MSW as characterized in this report include both
residential and commercial locations (commercial locations include institutions
such as schools and some industrial sites where packaging is generated). The
source where the MSW is generated is highly relevant to management
techniques, including collection for disposal and collection for purposes of
recycling or composting.

For this report, estimates of residential and commercial generation of
MSW were made. Residential wastes (including wastes from multi-family
12
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dwellings) are estimated to be 55 to 65 percent of total generation, with
commercial wastes ranging between 35 and 45 percent of generation. Local and
regional factors such as climate and level of commercial activity contribute to the
variations.

Factors Affecting MSW Generation

For the first time in this series of reports, the correlation of historical
MSW generation with factors such as population and economic activity was
analyzed. Increasing population clearly contributes to increasing generation of
MSW. In statistical language, the correlation coefficient (r) between MSW
generation and population from 1960 to 1993 is 0.99, a high degree of correlation.

Population is not the only factor leading to increased MSW generation;
historical trends show that MSW generation has been increasing more rapidly
than population (Figure ES-7). While average annual population growth over
the 33-year period was 1.1 percent, average annual growth of MSW generation
was 2.7 percent. In other words, per capita generation of MSW increased over the
historical period.

Many reasons have been suggested for the grnwtb_jnj>pr capita MSW
ge^eration^ such as changes in lifesjyles, more two-income wagejgarners in
r^^gHpI3sl_amaller households^jtnd changes Jnjhe workplace (especially in
offices). It seems clear that many of these reasons are related to changes in the
level of economic activity, which has been generally upward except for
300-i
250-
200-
1
| 150-
1
100-
50-
0 .
Figure ES-7. U.S. population and municipal
solid waste generation, 1960 to 1993
Population
ave. annual growth = 1.1%
. .-.•»."r_<~_"
• »i^
^•Tj-DPVrKo~D""D^ MSW generation
pi_n rvO-D'^~^^"^^ ave. annual growth - 2.7%
.rio-p*0'"^ ~*ir"^
-.l-wO-D-0-""^

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ill 1 1
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
13
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occasional recessions. A plot of per capita MSW generation and economic
activity as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (in 1987 dollars per capita)
is shown in Figure ES-8. During the 33-year period, MSW per capita generation
increased 65 percent, while GDP on a per capita basis increased 82 percent. The
correlation coefficient (r) between per capita MSW generation and per capita GDP
is 0.99, a strong positive correlation.
Figure ES-8. MSW generation and Gross Domestic
5.00 -i
4.00-
CO
1 3.00-
o
£
S. 2.00-
1.00 -
0.00
1
Product, 1960 to 1993
J^HT*****^*
^^r—^t&Z^j^**^* • "•*"****
AA-Atf^^*^^^^^^*^

r = 0.99
i i i i i i
960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1£
• 20,000
• 15,000
-------
Recovery for recycling and composting has increased from approximately
7 percent of MSW generated in 1960 to 22 percent by 1993, with much of the
growth happening over the past five or six years. Projected scenarios for recovery
are between 25 and 35 percent in 2000. To achieve these recovery rates, some
products will have to be recovered at rates of 50 percent or more, and there will
have to be substantial composting of yard trimmings.

Combustors handled an estimated 30 percent of MSW generated in 1960,
mostly through incinerators with no energy recovery and no air pollution
controls. In the 1960s and 1970s, combustion dropped steadily as the old
incinerators were closed, reaching a low of less than 10 percent of MSW
generated by 1980, then increasing to approximately 16 percent of MSW in 1990.
Between 1990 and 1993, combustion remained around 16 percent of MSW
generation. All major new facilities have energy recovery and are designed to
meet air pollution standards.

The report projects that tonnage of MSW combusted will increase only
slightly by the year 2000—to 34 million tons, or less than 16 percent of
generation. Estimates of combustion projections are based on an assumption that
the facilities will operate at 85 percent of capacity.

Landfill use fluctuates with changes in the use of alternative solid waste
management methods. For example, when the use of combustion for MSW
management declined and recovery rates were low, the MSW percentage sent to
landfills increased (Figure ES-9). Alternatively, when recovery and combustion
of MSW increased, the percentage of MSW discarded to landfills declined. In
1960, approximately 62 percent of MSW was sent to landfills. This increased to 81
percent in 1980, then decreased to an estimated 62 percent in 1993 (the same
percentage but much more tonnage than in 1960) due to changing trends in
municipal solid waste management.

Recovery for recycling and composting at the 30 percent scenario in 2000
combined with projected source reduction efforts would reduce total national
discards of MSW after recovery to 152 million tons compared to the 1993 level of
162 million tons. Adding projected combustion levels to recovery for recycling
and composting would lower landfill tonnage to 118 million tons in 2000
compared to 129 million tons in 1993.

As we approach the twenty-first century, integrated waste management
with a focus on source reduction, recycling, and composting is clearly the
solution to our growing waste management needs. Through source reduction,
recycling, and composting, we can reduce generation and increase recovery, and,
in turn, reduce the quantities of waste that must be managed by combustors and
landfills.
15
-------
Figure ES-9. Municipal solid waste management, 1960 to 2000
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
16
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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY
BACKGROUND
This report is the most recent in a 20-year series of reports sponsored by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to characterize municipal solid waste
(MSW) in the United States. Together with the previous reports, this report
provides a historical database for a 33-year characterization (by weight) of the
materials and products in MSW, with projections through the year 2000.

HOW THIS REPORT CAN BE USED

The data in this report provide a nationwide picture of municipal solid
waste generation and management. The historical perspective is particularly
useful in establishing trends and highlighting the changes that have occurred
over the years, both in types of wastes generated and in the ways they are
managed. This perspective on MSW and its management is useful in assessing
national solid waste management needs and policy. However, the report is of
equal or greater value as a solid waste management planning tool for state and
local governments and private firms.

A common error in using this report is to assume that all nonhazardous
wastes are included. As shown later in this chapter, municipal solid waste as
defined here does not include construction and demolition wastes, industrial
process wastes, or a number of other wastes that may well go to a municipal
waste landfill.

At the local or state level, the data in this report can be used to develop
approximate (but quick) estimates of MSW generation in a defined area. That is,
the data on generation of MSW per person nationally may be used to estimate
generation in a city or other local area based on the population in that area. This
can be of value when a "ballpark" estimate of MSW generation in an area is
needed. For example, communities may use such an estimate to determine the
potential viability of regional versus single community solid waste management
facilities. This information can help define solid waste management planning
areas and the planning needed in those areas. However, for communities
making decisions where knowledge of the amount and composition of MSW is
crucial, e.g., where a solid waste management facility is being sited, some reliable
local estimates of the waste stream should be made.

Another useful feature of this report for local planning is the information
provided on MSW trends. Changes over time in total MSW generation and the
mix of MSW materials can affect the need for and use of various waste
17
-------
management alternatives. Observing trends in MSW generation can help in
planning an integrated waste management system that includes facilities sized
and designed for years of service.

While the national average data are useful as a check point against local
MSW characterization data, any differences between local and national data
should be examined carefully. There are many possible reasons for these
differences, for example:

• Definitions of waste streams may differ. That is, a local landfill may be
receiving construction and demolition wastes in addition to MSW, but
this report addresses MSW only.

• Per capita generation of some products, such as newspapers and
telephone directories, varies widely depending upon the average size
of the publications. Typically, rural areas will generate less of these
products on a per capita basis than urban areas.

• The level of commercial activity in a community will influence
generation of some products, such as office paper, corrugated boxes,
wood pallets, and food wastes from restaurants.

• Variations in economic activity can affect waste generation in both the
residential and the commercial sectors.

• Variations in climate and local waste management practices will
greatly influence generation of yard trimmings. Yard trimmings also
exhibit strong seasonal variations in most regions of the country.

• Generation and discards of other products will be affected by local and
state regulations and practices. Deposit laws, bans on landfilling of
specific products, and variable rate pricing for waste collection are
examples of practices that can influence a local waste stream.

While caution should be used in applying the data in this report, for some
areas, the national breakdown of MSW by material may be the only such data
available for use in comparing and planning waste management alternatives.
Planning a curbside recycling program, for example, requires an estimate of
household recyclables that may be recovered. If resources are not available to
adequately estimate these materials by other means, local planners may turn to
the national data. This is useful in areas that can reasonably be expected to have
typical/average MSW generation or in areas where appropriate adjustments in
the data can be made to account for local conditions.

In summary, the data in this report can be used in the following ways in
local planning:
18
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• to develop approximate estimates of total MSW generation in an area

• to check locally developed MSW data for accuracy and consistency

• to help estimate quantities of recyclables and other MSW components
in an area

• to account for trends in total MSW generation and the generation of
individual components.

NEW FEATURES OF THIS REPORT

In addition to the data series that have been previously published by EPA
in these MSW characterization reports, the following information and features
have been added:

• A separate line item has been added for small appliances; these
products were formerly included with miscellaneous durable products.

• An estimate for groundwood inserts was added to the newsprint in
newspapers.

• A discussion of source reduction was added to the chapter on MSW
management.

• A discussion of the correlation of MSW generation with population,
economic activity as measured by Gross Domestic Product, and number
of persons in households was added to Chapter 5.

More information on the differences between this report and previous
reports is included in Chapter 7.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN PERSPECTIVE

Municipal Solid Waste Defined

Municipal solid waste includes durable goods, nondurable goods,
containers and packaging, food wastes and yard trimmings, and miscellaneous
inorganic wastes (Figure 1). EPA's 1989 Agenda for Action report states that
municipal solid wastes come from residential, commercial, institutional, and
industrial sources. Some examples of the types of MSW that come from each of
the broad categories of sources are:
19
-------
Figure 1. Municipal solid waste in the universe of Subtitle D wastes
Subtitle D Wastes
Municipal Solid Waste
Municipal sludge
Industrial nonhazardous waste
Construction & demolition waste
Agricultural waste
Oil and gas waste
Mining waste
Municipal Solid Waste
Durable Goods

Nondurable Goods

Containers & Packaging

Food Wastes

Yard Trimmings
Sources and Examples

Residential (single-
and multi-family homes)
Commercial (office buildings,
retail and wholesale estab-
lishments, restaurants)

Institutional (schools,
libraries, hospitals, prisons)
Industrial (packaging and
administrative; not process
wastes)
Example Products
Newspapers, clothing, disposable
tableware, food packaging, cans and
bottles, food scraps, yard trimmings

Corrugated boxes, food wastes, office
papers, disposable tableware, paper
napkins, yard trimmings

Cafeteria and restroom trash can wastes,
office papers, classroom wastes, yard
trimmings

Corrugated boxes, plastic film, wood
pallets, lunchroom wastes, office papers.
The material flows methodology used in this report does not readily lend
itself to the quantification of wastes according to their source. For example,
corrugated boxes may be unpacked and discarded from residences, commercial
20
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establishments such as grocery stores, institutions such as schools, or factories.
The methodology estimates only the total quantity of such boxes generated, not
their places of disposal or recovery for recycling. (For this report, estimates were
made of the residential/commercial distributions of MSW, but they were not
made by the material flows methodology. See Chapter 5.)

Other Subtitle D Wastes

Some people assume that "municipal solid waste" must include
everything that is landfilled in Subtitle D landfills. (Subtitle D of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act deals with wastes other than the hazardous
wastes covered under Subtitle C.) As shown in Figure 1, however, RCRA Subtitle
D includes many kinds of wastes. It has been common practice to landfill wastes
such as municipal sludge, nonhazardous industrial wastes, fluff from
automobile salvage operations, and construction and demolition wastes along
with MSW, but these other kinds of wastes are not included in the estimates
presented in this report.

The Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

EPA's Agenda for Action endorsed the concept of integrated waste
management, by which municipal solid waste is reduced or managed through
several different practices, which can be tailored to fit a particular community's
needs. The components of the hierarchy are:

• source reduction (including reuse of products and backyard composting
of yard trimmings)
• recycling of materials (including composting)
• waste combustion (preferably with energy recovery) and landfilling.

With the exception of source reduction, this updated characterization
report includes estimates of the quantities of MSW managed by each practice in
the hierarchy.

METHODOLOGIES FOR CHARACTERIZING MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

The Two Methodologies

There are two basic approaches to estimating quantities of municipal solid
waste. The first method, which is site-specific, involves sampling, sorting, and
weighing the individual components of the waste stream. This method is useful
in defining a local waste stream, especially if large numbers of samples are taken
over several seasons. Results of sampling also increase the body of knowledge
about variations due to climatic and seasonal changes, population density,
regional differences, and the like. In addition, quantities of MSW components
21
-------
such as food and yard trimmings can only be estimated through sampling and
weighing studies.

A disadvantage of sampling studies based on a limited number of samples
is that they may be skewed and misleading if, for example, atypical circumstances
were experienced during the sampling. These circumstances could include an
unusually wet or dry season, delivery of some unusual wastes during the
sampling period, or errors in the sampling methodology. Any errors of this kind
will be greatly magnified when a limited number of samples are taken to
represent a community's entire waste stream for a year. Magnification of errors
could be even more serious if a limited number of samples was relied upon for
making the national estimates of MSW. Also, extensive sampling would be
prohibitively expensive for making the national estimates. An additional
disadvantage of sampling studies is that they do not provide information about
trends unless they are performed in a consistent manner over a long period of
time.

The second approach to quantifying and characterizing the municipal
solid waste stream—the method used for this report—utilizes a material flows
approach to estimate the waste stream on a nationwide basis. In the late 1960s
and early 1970s, EPA's Office of Solid Waste and its predecessors at the Public
Health Service sponsored work that began to develop this methodology. This
report represents the latest version of this database that has been evolving for
over 20 years.

The material flows methodology is based on production data (by weight)
for the materials and products in the waste stream. Adjustments are made for
imports and exports and for diversions from MSW (e.g., for building materials
made of paperboard). Adjustments are also made for the lifetimes of products.
Finally, food wastes and yard trimmings and a small amount of miscellaneous
inorganic wastes are accounted for by compiling data from a variety of waste
sampling studies.

A more detailed description of the material flows methodology is included
as Appendix A.

Definition of Terms

The material flows methodology produces an estimate of total municipal
solid waste generation in the United States, by material categories and by product
categories.

The term generation as used in this report refers to the weight of materials
and products as they enter the waste management system from residential,
commercial, institutional, and industrial sources and before materials recovery
or combustion takes place. Preconsumer (industrial) scrap is not included in the
22
-------
generation estimates. Source reduction activities (e.g., backyard composting of
yard trimmings) take place ahead of generation.

Source reduction activities reduce the amount or toxicity of wastes before
they enter the municipal solid waste management system. Reuse of products
such as refillable glass bottles or refurbished wood pallets is counted as source
reduction, not recovery for recycling.

Recovery of materials as estimated in this report includes products or yard
trimmings removed from the waste stream for the purpose of recycling or
composting. For most recovered products, recovery equals reported purchases of
postconsumer recovered material (e.g., glass cullet, old newspapers) plus net
exports (if any) of the material. Thus, recovery of old corrugated containers (OCC)
is the sum of OCC purchases by paper mills plus net exports of OCC. If recovery
as reported by a data source includes converting or fabrication (preconsumer)
scrap, the preconsumer scrap is not counted towards the recovery estimates in
this report. For some materials, additional uses, such as glass used for highway
construction or newspapers used to make insulation, are added into the recovery
totals.

Combustion of MSW was estimated with and without energy recovery.
Combustion with energy recovery is often called "waste-to-energy," while
combustion without energy is called incineration in this report. Combustion of
separated materials—wood, rubber from tires, paper, and plastics—is included in
the estimates of combustion in this report.

Discards include the MSW remaining after recovery for recycling and
composting. These discards would presumably be combusted or landfilled,
although some MSW is littered, stored or disposed on-site, or burned on-site,
particularly in rural areas. No good estimates for these other disposal practices
are available, but the amounts of MSW involved are presumed to be small.

MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS NOT INCLUDED IN THESE ESTIMATES

As noted earlier, other Subtitle D wastes (illustrated in Figure 1) are not
included in these estimates, even though some may be managed along with
MSW (e.g., by combustion or landfilling). Household hazardous wastes, while
generated as MSW with other residential wastes, are not identified separately in
this report. Transportation equipment (including automobiles and trucks) is not
included in the wastes characterized in this report.

One problem with the material flows methodology is that product
residues associated with other items in MSW (usually containers) are not
accounted for. These residues would include, for example, food left in a jar,
detergent left in a box or bottle, dried paint in a can, etc. Some household
23
-------
hazardous wastes, e.g., pesticide left in a can, are also included among these
product residues.

Certain other materials associated with products in MSW are often not
accounted for because the appropriate data series have not yet been developed.
These include, for example, inks and other pigments and some additives
associated with plastic resins. Considerable additional research would be required
to estimate these materials, which constitute a relatively small percentage of the
waste stream.

Some adjustments are made in this report to account for packaging of
imported goods, but there is little documentation of these amounts.

PROJECTIONS

The projections of MSW generation to the year 2000 were not based on
total quantities, but were aggregated from separate projections for each product
and material. The projections are based on trend analysis of the 33-year historical
database developed for each product, from information in government sources
such as the Industrial Outlook published by the Department of Commerce, and,
in some cases, best professional judgment. Based on the correlations of MSW
generation with population and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as described in
Chapter 5, the projections for most products were kept higher than projected
population growth but lower than projected GDP growth.

It should be emphasized that projections are not predictions. Projections
are based on an assumption that there will be no unforeseen changes in current
trends. Thus, the economy is assumed to remain stable and population trends
are assumed to be as projected by the Bureau of the Census. Additional
discussions of projection assumptions are included in Chapter 4.

OVERVIEW OF THIS REPORT

Following this introductory chapter, Chapter 2 presents the results of the
municipal solid waste characterization (by weight). Estimates of MSW
generation, recovery, and discards are presented in a series of tables, with
discussion. Detailed tables and figures summarizing 1993 generation, recovery,
and discards of products in each material category are included.

In Chapter 3 of the report, estimates of MSW management by the various
alternatives are summarized. These include recovery for recycling and
composting, combustion, and landfilling. A discussion of source reduction is also
included in Chapter 3.

Projections of municipal solid waste generation and management to the
year 2000 are included in Chapter 4. Projections are made by material and by
24
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product. A discussion of assumptions and trends is included. In addition, there is
a discussion of the potential effects of source reduction in this chapter.

Chapter 5 of the report provides some additional perspectives on MSW
characterization. Information is included on per capita generation and
management of MSW, on residential and commercial sources of MSW, and on
organic and inorganic fractions of MSW. Also, there is a new section on the
relationship of MSW generation to demographic and economic factors.

In Chapter 6, a characterization of MSW discards in 1993 by volume (cubic
yards) is presented.

The final chapter of this report provides an overview comparison of the
results of MSW characterization by the material flows methodology with the
results of a number of field sampling studies. Also, the differences between the
current update and previous material flows reports are explained.
25
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Chapter 1

REFERENCES
Darnay, A., and W.E. Franklin, The Role of Packaging in Solid Waste
Management, 1966 to 1976. Public Health Service Publication No. 1855. U.S.
Government Printing Office. 1969.

Franklin, W.E., and A. Darnay. The Role of Nonpackaging Paper in Solid Waste
Management, 1966 to 1976. Public Health Service Publication No. 2040. U.S.
Government Printing Office. 1971.

Darnay, A., and W.E. Franklin. Salvage Markets for Materials in Solid Wastes.
Environmental Protection Publication SW-29c. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1972.

Franklin, W.E., et al. Base Line Forecasts of Resource Recovery 1972 to 1990.
Midwest Research Institute for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
March 1975.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. Second Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction
(SW-122). 1974.

Smith, F.L., Jr. A Solid Waste Estimation Procedure: Material Flows Approach.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (SW-147). May 1975.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. Third Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction
(SW-161). 1975.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. Fourth Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Waste Reduction
(SW-600). 1977.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Post-consumer Solid Waste and Resource Recovery
Baseline. Prepared for the Resource Conservation Committee. May 16, 1979.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Post-consumer Solid Waste and Resource Recovery
Baseline: Working Papers. Prepared for the Resource Conservation Committee.
May 16,1979.

Resource Conservation Committee. Choices for Conservation: Final Report to
the President and Congress (SW-779). July 1979.
26
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Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the
United States, 1960 to 2000. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. July 11,1986.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the
United States, 1960 to 2000 (Update 1988). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
March 30,1988.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1990 Update. (EPA/SW-90-042). June 1990.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1992 Update. (EPA/530-R-92-019). July 1992.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Solid Waste Task Force,
Office of Solid Waste. The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action.
February 1989.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste. Subtitle D Study
Phase I Report (EPA/530-SW-054). October 1986.
27
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Chapter 2

CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BY WEIGHT

INTRODUCTION

The tables and figures in this chapter present the results of the update of
EPA's municipal solid waste characterization study through 1993. The findings
are presented in two ways: a breakdown of municipal solid waste (MSW) by
material, and a breakdown by product (both by weight and by percentage of
generation or discards). While some products, e.g., newspapers, are made up of a
single material—paper—other products, e.g., rubber tires, contain more than one
material, such as rubber, ferrous metals, and textiles. Thus the materials
summary tables represent an aggregation of the materials that go into all the
products in MSW. (Note that the totals for the materials and the products tables
are the same.)

The summary tables and figures provide information on generation of
each material and product, and recovery for recycling and composting (if any).
Tables and figures displaying discards of materials and products after recovery for
recycling and composting follow.

Recovery means that the materials have been removed from the
municipal solid waste stream. Recovery of materials in products means that the
materials are reported to have been purchased by an end-user or exported. For
yard trimmings, recovery includes estimates of the trimmings delivered to a
composting facility (not backyard composting). Under these definitions, residues
from a materials recovery facility (a MRF) or other waste processing facility are
counted as generation, since they are not purchased by an end-user. Residues
from an end-user facility (e.g., sludges from a paper deinking mill) are considered
to be industrial process wastes that are no longer part of the municipal solid
waste stream.

Additional detail is provided for some of the materials and products in
MSW that are of the most interest to planners: paper, glass, metals, plastics, and
rubber and leather.

MATERIALS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Generation, recovery, and discards of materials in MSW, by weight and by
percentage of generation or discards, are summarized in Tables 1 through 3.
Following these tables, each material is discussed in detail.
28
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Table 1
MATERIALS GENERATED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Materials
Paper and Paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other Nonferrous
Total Metals
Plastics
Rubber and Leather
Textiles
Wood
Other
Total Materials In Products
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated - Weight

9,950
360
150
10,460
400
2,030
1,750
3,010
60
54.300

12,200
20,000
1,300
33.500
87.800
1970
44,180
12,680

12,590
850
670
14,110
3,060
3,260
2,030
3,980
800
84.100

12,800
23,200
1,780
37.780
121.880
1980
54,730
14,950

11,580
1,760
1,120
14,460
7,870
4,290
2,610
6,760
2,870
108.540

13,200
27,500
2,250
42.950
151.490
ands of Tons
1990
72,680
13,180

12,440
2,860
1,100
16,400
16,820
5,930
6,450
12,310
3,150
146,920

13,200
35,000
2,900
51.100
198.020
1991
71,100
12,740

12,560
2,980
1,150
16,690
17,230
5,800
6,100
12,610
3,250
145.520

13,300
35,000
2,950
51.250
196.770
1992
74,310
13,140

12,880
2,910
1,160
16,950
18,520
6,030
6,420
12,860
3,280
151.510

13,500
35,000
3,000
51.500
203.010
1993
77,840
13,670

12,930
2,970
1,240
17,140
19,300
6,220
6,130
13,690
3,300
157.290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49.650
206.940
Percent of Total Generation
1960
34.1%
7.6%

11.3%
0.4%
0.2%
11.9%
0.5%
2.3%
2.0%
3.4%
0.1%
61.8%

13.9%
22.8%
1.5%
38.2%
100.0%
1970
36.2%
10.4%

10.3%
0.7%
0.5%
11.6%
2.5%
2.7%
1.7%
3.3%
0.7%
69.0%

10.5%
19.0%
1.5%
31.0%
100.0%
1980
36.1%
9.9%

7.6%
1.2%
0.7%
9.5%
5.2%
2.8%
1.7%
4.5%
1.9%
71.6%

8.7%
18.2%
1.5%
28.4%
100.0%
1990
36.7%
6.7%

6.3%
1.4%
0.6%
8.3%
8.5%
3.0%
3.3%
6.2%
1 .6%
74.2%

6.7%
17.7%
1.5%
25.8%
100.0%
1991
36.1%
6.5%

6.4%
1.5%
0.6%
8.5%
8.8%
2.9%
3.1%
6.4%
1 .7%
74.0%

6.8%
17.8%
1.5%
26.0%
100.0%
1992
36.6%
6.5%

6.3%
1.4%
0.6%
8.3%
9.1%
3.0%
3.2%
6.3%
1.6%
74.6%

6.6%
17.2%
1.5%
25.4%
100.0%
1993
37.6%
6.6%

6.2%
1.4%
0.6%
8.3%
9.3%
3.0%
3.0%
6.6%
1.6%
76.0%

6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
29
-------
Table 2
RECOVERY* OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation of each material)

Materials
Paper and Paper-board
Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other Nonferrous
Total Metals
Plastics
Rubber and Leather
Textiles
Wood
Other"
Total Materials In Products
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered - Welaht

50
Neg.
Neg.
50
Neg.
330
10
Neg.
Neg.
5,850

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
5,850
1970
7,420
160

150
10
330
490
Neg.
250
10
Neg.
300
8,630

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
8.630
1980
11,850
750

370
340
540
1,250
20
130
20
Neg.
500
14,520

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
14.520
1990
20,250
2,630

1,710
1,010
730
3,450
370
330
580
390
680
28,680

Neg.
4,200
Neg.
4,200
32.880
1991
22,510
2,560

2,320
1,040
740
4,100
450
350
820
810
690
32,290

Neg.
5,000
Neg.
5,000
37,290
1992
24,480
2,890

2,780
1,110
720
4,610
600
360
800
1,070
670
35,480

Neg.
6,000
Neg.
6,000
41.480
1993
26,460
3,010

3,370
1,050
780
5,200
680
370
720
1,320
730
38,490

Neg.
6,500
Neg.
6,500
44.990
Percent of Generation of Each Material
1960
17.9%
1.5%

0.5%
Neg.
Neg.
0.5%
Neg.
16.3%
0.6%
Neg.
Neg.
10.8%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
6.7%
1970
16.8%
1 .3%

1 .2%
1 .2%
49.3%
3.5%
Neg.
7.7%
0.5%
Neg.
37.5%
10.3%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
7.1%
1980
21.7%
5.0%

3.2%
19.3%
48.2%
8.6%
0.3%
3.0%
0.8%
Neg.
1 7.4%
13.4%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
9.6%
1990
27.9%
20.0%

1 3.7%
35.3%
66.4%
21.0%
2.2%
5.6%
9.0%
3.2%
21.6%
19.5%

Neg.
12.0%
Neg.
8.2%
16.6%
1991
31.7%
20.1%

18.5%
34.9%
64.3%
24.6%
2.6%
6.0%
13.4%
6.4%
21.2%
22.2%

Neg.
14.3%
Neg.
9.8%
19.0%
1992
32.9%
22.0%

21.6%
38.1%
62.1%
27.2%
3.2%
6.0%
12.5%
8.3%
20.4%
23.4%

Neg.
17.1%
Neg.
1 1 .7%
20.4%
1993
34.0%
22.0%

26.1%
35.4%
62.9%
30.3%
3.5%
5.9%
11.7%
9.6%
22.1%
24.5%

Neg.
19.8%
Neg.
13.1%
21.7%
Recovery of postconsumer wastes for recycling and composting; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Recovery of electrolytes in batteries; probably not recycled.
Neg. = Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
30
-------
Table 3
MATERIALS DISCARDED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total discards)

9,900
360
150
10,410
400
1,700
1,740
3,010
60
48,450

12,200
20,000
1,300
33,500
81,950
1970
36,760
12,520

12,440
840
340
13,620
3,060
3,010
2,020
3,980
500
75,470

12,800
23,200
1,780
37,780
113.250
1980
42,880
14,200

11,210
1,420
580
13,210
7,850
4,160
2,590
6,760
2,370
94,020

13,200
27,500
2,250
42,950
136.970
ands of Tons
1990
52,430
10,550

10,730
1,850
370
12,950
16,450
5,600
5,870
11,920
2,470
118,240

13,200
30,800
2,900
46,900
165,140
1991
48,590
10,180

10,240
1,940
410
12,590
16,780
5,450
5,280
11,800
2,560
113,230

13,300
30,000
2,950
46,250
159.480
1992
49,830
10,250

10,100
1,800
440
12,340
17,920
5,670
5,620
11,790
2,610
116,030

13,500
29,000
3,000
45,500
161.530
1993
51,380
10,660

9,560
1,920
460
11,940
18,620
5,850
5,410
12,370
2,570
118,800

13,800
26,300
3,050
43,150
161.950
Percent of Total Discards
1960
30.0%
8.0%

12.1%
0.4%
0.2%
12.7%
0.5%
2.1%
2.1%
3.7%
0.1%
59.1%

14.9%
24.4%
1 .6%
40.9%
100.0%
1970
32.5%
11.1%

1 1 .0%
0.7%
0.3%
12.0%
2.7%
2.7%
1 .8%
3.5%
0.4%
66.6%

1 1 .3%
20.5%
1 .6%
33.4%
100.0%
1980
31.3%
10.4%

8.2%
1 .0%
0.4%
9.6%
5.7%
3.0%
1 .9%
4.9%
1 .7%
68.6%

9.6%
20.1%
1 .6%
31 .4%
100.0%
1990
31.7%
6.4%

6.5%
1.1%
0.2%
7.8%
1 0.0%
3.4%
3.6%
7.2%
1 .5%
71 .6%

8.0%
18.7%
1 .8%
28.4%
100.0%
1991
30.5%
6.4%

6.4%
1 .2%
0.3%
7.9%
10.5%
3.4%
3.3%
7.4%
1.6%
71.0%

8.3%
1 8.8%
1 .8%
29.0%
100.0%
1992
30.8%
6.3%

6.3%
1.1%
0.3%
7.6%
11.1%
3.5%
3.5%
7.3%
1.6%
71.8%

8.4%
1 8.0%
1 .9%
28.2%
100.0%
1993
31.7%
6.6%

5.9%
1 .2%
0.3%
7.4%
1 1 .5%
3.6%
3.3%
7.6%
1.6%
73.4%

8.5%
1 6.2%
1.9%
26.6%
100.0%
1 Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
31
-------
Paper and Paperboard

By any measure, the many products made of paper and paperboard, taken
collectively, are the largest component of MSW. The wide variety of products
that comprise the paper and paperboard materials total is illustrated in Table 4
and Figures 2 and 3. In this report, these products are classified as either
nondurable goods or as containers and packaging, with nondurable goods being
the larger category.
Table 4

PAPER AND PAPERBOARD PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation)
Generation
(Thousands
Product Category
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Newsprint
Groundwood inserts
Total Newspapers
Books
Magazines
Office Papers
Telephone Books
Third Class Mail
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Other Nonpackaging Paper*
Total Paper and Paperboard
Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons
Folding Cartons
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks
Wrapping Papers
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper and Paperboard
Containers and Packaging
Total Paper and Paperboard
tons)

10,620
2,320
12,940
990
2,500
7,120
740
4,010
5,440
3,010
830
4,830

42,410

26,350
470
4,940
300
2,200
70
1,100

35,430
77,840
Recovery
(Thousands (Percent of
tons)

4,970
950
5,920
160
450
2,600
60
540
1,060
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

10,790

14,620
Neg.
700
Neg.
350
Neg.
Neg.

15,670
26,460
generation)

46.8%
40.9%
45.7%
16.2%
18.0%
36.5%
8.1%
13.5%
19.5%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

25.4%

55.5%
Neg.
14.2%
Neg.
15.9%
Neg.
Neg.

44.2%
34.0%
Discards
(Thousands
tons)

5,650
1,370
7,020
830
2,050
4,520
680
3,470
4,380
3,010
830
4,830

31,620

11,730
470
4,240
300
1,850
70
1,100

19,760
51,380
* Includes tissue in disposable diapers, paper in games and novelties, cards, etc.
Neg. = Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
32
-------
Figure 2. Paper and paperboard products generated in MSW, 1993
Corrugated boxes
Newspapers
Office papers
Commercial printing
Folding and milk cartons
Other papers
Third class mail
Tissue paper and towels
Magazines
Bags and sacks
Other packaging
Books
Paper plates and cups
Telephone books

y^J^Jf^^Jf/^J^/^/^V^Jf/^^Jf^^^^

'////////////////A

'////////////

fSSS/////S///

'SSS//S/////1

'////////A
VSSSSA
"WSM
'///A
tH
b
2
$
|

•^•^^^^^^^H

5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

Thousand tons
25,000
30,000
Total generation of paper and paperboard in MSW has grown steadily
from 29.9 million tons in 1960 to 77.8 million tons in 1993 (Table 1). As a
percentage of total MSW generation, paper represented 34.1 percent in 1960
(Table 1). The percentage has varied over time, but increased to 37.6 percent of
total MSW generation in 1993.

(The sensitivity of paper products to economic conditions can be observed
in Figure 3. The tonnage of paper generated in 1975—a severe recession year—
was actually less than the tonnage in 1970, and the percentage of total generation
was also less in 1975. Similar but less pronounced declines in paper generation
can be seen in other recession years.)

Generation. Estimates of paper and paperboard generation are based on
statistics published by the American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA). These
statistics include data on new supply (production, exports, and imports) of the
various paper and paperboard grades that go into the products found in MSW.
The AF&PA new supply statistics are adjusted to deduct converting scrap, which
is generated when sheets of paper or paperboard are cut to make products such as
envelopes or boxes. Converting scrap rates vary from product to product; the
rates used in this report were developed as part of a 1992 report for the Recycling
Advisory Council. Various deductions are also made to account for products
diverted out of municipal solid waste, such as gypsum wallboard facings or toilet
tissue.
33
-------
80 000
70,000 ,
60000 •
fen rvy\ .
£ 40000 ,
E 30000
on Ann

o'
19
Figure 3. Paper generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993
•
Generation m *'
/>_._<;
• • •**" *
~^-y
^t-vi
L.,,---.'.
Recovery o^^
^^^^-j^o^0^*0"^
• ..-.^.p._c:pa;ttj3-D^>JWrt^ce^^
H3-D~O~Q~Q— U-O-QK^
1 ' ' 1 1 1 1
60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
Recovery. Estimates of recovery of paper and paperboard products for
recycling are based on annual reports of recovery published by AF&PA. The
AF&PA reports include recovery of paper and paperboard purchased by U.S.
paper mills, plus exports of recovered paper, plus a small amount estimated to
have been used in other products such as animal bedding. Recovery as reported
by AF&PA includes both preconsumer and postconsumer paper.

To estimate recovery of postconsumer paper products for this EPA report,
estimates of recovery of converting scrap and returned overissue publications are
deducted from the total recovery amounts reported by AF&PA. In earlier
versions of this EPA report, a simplifying assumption that all converting scrap is
recovered was made. For this update, however, various converting scrap
recovery rates ranging from 70 percent to 98 percent were applied to the estimates
for 1990 through 1993. The converting scrap recovery rates were developed for a
1992 report for the Recycling Advisory Council. Because converting scrap is
deducted, the paper recovery rates presented in this report are always lower than
the total recovery rates published by AF&PA.

When recovered paper is repulped, and often deinked, at a recycling paper
mill, considerable amounts of sludge are generated in amounts varying from 5
percent to 35 percent of the paper feedstock. Since these sludges are generated at
an industrial site, they are considered to be industrial process waste, not
municipal solid waste; therefore they have been removed from the municipal
waste stream.
34
-------
Recovery of paper and paperboard for recycling is at the highest rate
overall compared to all other materials in MSW. As Table 4 shows, 55.5 percent
of all corrugated boxes were recovered for recycling in 1993. Newspapers were
recovered at a rate of 45.7 percent, and office papers at 36.5 percent, with lesser
percentages of other papers being recovered also. Approximately 26.5 million
tons of postconsumer paper were recovered in 1993—34.0 percent of total
generation.

Discards After Recovery. After recovery of paper and paperboard for
recycling, discards were 51.4 million tons in 1993, or 31.7 percent of total MSW
discards.

Glass

Glass is found in MSW primarily in the form of containers (Table 5 and
Figures 4 and 5), but also in durable goods like furniture, appliances, and
consumer electronics. In the container category, glass is found in beer and soft
drink bottles, wine and liquor bottles, and bottles and jars for food, cosmetics, and
other products. More detail on these products is included in the later section on
products in MSW.

Generation. Glass accounted for 6.7 million tons of MSW in I960, or 7.6
percent of total generation. Generation of glass continued to grow over the next
two decades, but then glass containers were widely displaced by other materials,
principally aluminum and plastics. Thus the tonnage of glass in MSW declined
in the 1980s, from approximately 15.0 million tons in 1980 to 13.2 million tons in
Table 5

GLASS PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation)
Generation
(Thousand
Product Category
Durable Goods*
Containers and Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles and Jars
Total Glass Containers
Total Glass
tons)
1,440

5,440
1,850
4,940
12,230
13,670
Recovery
(Thousand (Percent of
tons)
Neg.

1,600
450
960
3,010
3,010
generation)
Neg.

29.4%
24.3%
19.4%
24.6%
22.0%
Discards
(Thousand
tons)
1,440

3,840
1,400
3,980
9,220
10,660
Glass as a component of appliances, furniture, consumer electronics, etc.
Neg. = Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
35
-------
Figure 4. Glass products generated in MSW, 1993
Beer & soft drink bottles
Food, other bottles & jars
Wine & liquor bottles
Durable goods
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

Thousand tons
5,000 6,000
1985. Beginning about 1987, however, the decline in generation of glass
containers reversed (Figure 5), and glass generation in 1993 was 13.7 million tons,
about the same as the estimate for 1985. A decline in generation occurred in 1991,
a recession year. Glass was 9.9 percent of MSW generation in 1980, declining to
6.6 percent in 1993.
Figure 5. Glass generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993
16,000 T

14,000

12,000 4- _•/
10,000 • •
8,000 • •
6,000 . .
4,000 . .
2,000 •
-.'
Generation.
1960
Recovery -
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990 1993
36
-------
Recovery. In 1993 an estimated 24.6 percent of glass containers was
recovered for recycling, with a 22.0 percent recovery rate for all glass in MSW.
Most of the recovered glass went into new glass containers, but a portion went to
other uses such as highway construction. The Glass Packaging Institute reports a
recovery rate of 35 percent for glass containers in 1993; this recovery rate includes
an allowance for refilling of bottles. Since this EPA report considers refilling to be
reuse (source reduction) rather than recovery for recycling, the recovery rate
calculated for this report is 24.6 percent of glass containers.

Discards After Recovery. Recovery for recycling lowered discards of glass to
10.7 million tons in 1993 (6.6 percent of total MSW discards).

Ferrous Metals

By weight, ferrous metals are the largest category of metals in MSW
(Figure 6 and Table 6). The largest quantities of ferrous metals in MSW are found
in durable goods such as appliances, furniture, tires, and other miscellaneous
durables. Containers and packaging are the other source of ferrous metals in
MSW. Large quantities of ferrous metals are found in construction materials and
in transportation products such as automobiles, locomotives, and ships, but
these are not counted as MSW in this report.
7.
Total generation and recovery of all metals in MSW are shown in Figure
Figure 6. Metal products generated in MSW, 1993

Q Durables • Packaging D Nondurables
Ferrous
Aluminum
Nonferrous
H
2,000 4,000
6,000 8,000

Thousand tons
10,000
12,000
14,000
37
-------
Table 6

METAL PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation)
Generation
(Thousand
Product Category tons)
Durable Goods
Ferrous metals* 9,950
Aluminum** 810
Leadt 820
Other nonferrous metalsj 420
Total Metals in Durable Goods 1 2,000
Nondurable Goods
Aluminum 180
Containers and Packaging
Steel
Beer and soft drink cans 70
Food and other cans 2,720
Other steel packaging 190
Total Steel Packaging 2,980
Aluminum
Beer and soft drink cans 1,610
Food and other cans 40
Foil and closures 330
Total Aluminum Packaging 1,980
Total Metals in
Containers and Packaging 4,960
Total Metals 17,140
Ferrous 12,930
Aluminum 2,970
Other nonferrous 1,240
Recovery
(Thousand
tons)

1,990
Neg.
780
Neg.
2,770

Neg.

40
1,300
40
1,380

1,020
Neg.
30
1,050

2,430
5,200
3,370
1,050
780
(Percent of
generation)

20.0%
Neg.
95.1%
Neg.
23.1%

Neg.

24.7%
47.8%
Neg.
46.3%

63.4%
Neg.
Neg.
53.0%

49.0%
30.3%
26.1%
35.4%
62.9%
Discards
(Thousand
tons)

7,960
810
40
420
9,230

180

30
1,420
150
1,600

590
40
300
930"

2,530
11,940
9,560
1,920
460
* Ferrous metals in appliances, furniture, tires, and miscellaneous durables.
* * Aluminum in appliances, furniture, and miscellaneous durables.
T Lead in lead-acid batteries.

^ Other nonferrous metals in appliances and miscellaneous durables.
Neg. = Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

Generation. Approximately 10.0 million tons of ferrous metals were
generated in 1960. Like glass, the tonnages grew during the 1960s and 1970s, but
began to drop as lighter materials like aluminum and plastics replaced steel in
many applications. Generation of ferrous metals did, however, increase to 12.9
million tons in 1993. The percentage of ferrous metals generation in MSW has
declined from 11.3 percent in 1960 to 6.2 percent in 1993.

Recovery. Recovery of ferrous metals from MSW has generally not been
well documented in the past. The renewed emphasis on recovery and recycling
in recent years has, however, included ferrous metals. Recovery of ferrous
38
-------
18000
16 000 ,

,000 <
15> OOO ,
i
10000 H

ft fiftfl .
A fiftfi i
o fwi .

0 1
19
Figure 7. Metals generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993
•-•-"
Generation *~m
"-
„.•?_
U --•'

„ „ .•pj>Ji^O-O-OHJ"o-a-J>J^
n '"JW^O-tW**^^ i i I
60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
metals from appliances ("white goods") was estimated to be approximately 68.0
percent in 1993. Overall recovery of ferrous metals from durable goods (large and
small appliances, furniture, and tires) was estimated to be 20.0 percent in 1993
(Table 6).

An estimated 24.7 percent of steel beverage cans was recovered in 1993,
although the tonnage of these cans in MSW is not large. Food and other steel
cans was estimated to be recovered at a rate of 47.8 percent in 1993.

Discards After Recovery. Discards of ferrous metals after recovery were 9.6
million tons in 1993, or 5.9 percent of total discards.

Aluminum

The largest source of aluminum in MSW is aluminum cans and other
packaging (Table 6 and Figure 6). Other sources of aluminum (almost one-third
of generation) are found in durable and nondurable goods.

Generation. In 1993, approximately 2.0 million tons of aluminum were
generated as containers and packaging, while a total of approximately 1.0 million
tons was found in durable and nondurable goods. The total—3.0 million tons—
represented 1.4 percent of total MSW generation in 1993. Aluminum generation
was only 360,000 tons (0.4 percent of MSW generation) in 1960.
39
-------
Recovery. Aluminum beverage containers was recovered at a rate of 63.4
percent of generation in 1993, and 53.0 percent of all aluminum containers and
packaging was recovered for recycling in 1993.

Discards After Recovery. In 1993,1.9 million tons of aluminum were
discarded in MSW after recovery, which was 1.2 percent of total discards.

Other Nonferrous Metals

Other nonferrous metals (e.g., lead, copper, zinc) are found in durable
products such as appliances, consumer electronics, etc. Lead in lead-acid batteries
is the most prevalent nonferrous metal (other than aluminum) in MSW.

Generation. Generation of other nonferrous metals in MSW totaled 1.2
million tons in 1993. Lead in batteries accounted for 820,000 tons of this amount.
Generation of these metals has increased slowly, from 150,000 tons in 1960. As a
percentage of total generation, nonferrous metals have never exceeded one
percent.

Recovery. Recovery of the other nonferrous metals was 780,000 tons in
1993, with most of this being lead recovered from batteries. It was estimated that
95 percent of battery lead was recovered in 1993.

Discards After Recovery. In 1993, 460,000 tons of nonferrous metals were
discarded in MSW. Percentages of total discards remained less than one percent
over the entire period.

Plastics

Plastics are a rapidly growing segment of MSW. Plastics are found in
durable and nondurable goods and in containers and packaging, with the latter
being the largest category of plastics in MSW (Figure 8 and Table 7).

In durable goods, plastics are found in appliances, furniture, casings of
lead-acid batteries, and other products. (Note that plastics in transportation
products are not included in this report.) As shown in Table 7, a wide range of
resin types is found in durable goods. While some detail is provided in Table 7
for resins in durable goods, there are hundreds of different resin formulations
used in appliances, carpets, and other durable goods; a complete listing is beyond
the scope of this report.

Plastics are found in such nondurable products as disposable diapers, trash
bags, cups, eating utensils, shower curtains, etc. The plastic foodservice items are
generally made of clear or foamed polystyrene, while trash bags are made of
high-density polyethylene or low-density polyethylene. A wide variety of other
resins are used in other nondurable goods.
40
-------
Plastic resins are also used in a variety of container and packaging products
such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) soft drink bottles, high-density
polyethylene (HOPE) bottles for milk and water, and a wide variety of other resin
types used in other plastic containers, bags, sacks, wraps, lids, etc.

Generation. Data on plastics resin use in products is taken from the
Modern Plastics annual statistical issue. The basic data are adjusted for fabrication
losses and for net imports of plastic products to derive generation of plastics in
the various products in MSW.

Plastics comprised an estimated 400,000 tons of MSW generation in 1960.
The quantity grew steadily to 19.3 million tons in 1993 (Figure 9). As a percentage
of MSW generation, plastics were 0.5 percent in 1960, increasing to 9.3 percent in
1993.

Recovery for Recycling. While overall recovery of plastics for recycling is
relatively small—680,000 tons, or 3.5 percent of plastics generation in 1993 (Table
9)—recovery of some plastic containers is increasing. Plastic (polyethylene
terephthalate) soft drink bottles and their base cups were recovered at a rate of
41.1 percent in 1993. Recovery of milk and water bottles (high-density
polyethylene) was estimated at 23.6 percent in 1993. Significant recovery of
plastics from lead-acid battery casings and from some other containers was also
Durables
Nondurables
Bags, sacks and wraps
Other packaging
Other containers
Soft drink, milk, and water
containers
0
Figure 8. Plastics products generated in MSW, 1993
r i i i i i i i
'mmmmmm
• ' )
'm^m^m^m
J J
Ym%%^/mtm\
\
mmm%%
I
m?///mm
\
mzm
I

tmmmzt

pmm%

mmmm

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Thousand tons
41
-------
Table 7

PLASTICS IN PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons, and percent of generation by resin)
Generation

Product Category
Durable Goods
PET
HOPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Total Plastics in Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
Plastic Plates & Cups
PS
Trash Bags
HOPE
LDPE
Subtotal Trash Bags
All other nondurables*
PET
HOPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Subtotal All Other Nondurables
Total Plastics in Nondurable Goods, by resin
PET
HOPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Total Plastics in Nondurable Goods
Plastic Containers & Packaging
Soft drink bottles
PET
HOPE
Subtotal Soft Drink Bottles
(Thousand
tons)

80
800
700
1,250
500
1,040
1,940
6,310

350

150
740
890

80
280
250
1,170
700
460
450
3,390

80
430
250
1,910
700
810
450
4,630

500
60
560
Recovery Discards
(Thousand(Percent) (Thousand
tons) tons)

30 50
10 790
Neg. 700
10 1,240
90 410
Neg. 1,040
10 1,930
150 2.4% 6,160

20 330

150
740

80
280
250
1,170
700
460
450
3,390

80
430
250
1,910
700
20 790
450
20 0.4% 4,610

210 290
20 40
230 41.1% 330
PET=
=Polyethylene terephthalate
HDPE=High density polyethylene
PVC=Polyvinyl chloride

Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
LDPE=Low density polyethylene
PP=Polypropylene
PS-Polystyrene
42
-------
Table? (continued)
PLASTICS IN PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons, and percent of generation by resin)
Generation
(Thousand
Product Category
Plastic Containers & Packaging, cont
Milk and water bottles
HDPE
Other plastic containers
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Subtotal Other Containers
Bags, sacks, & wraps
HDPE
LDPE
Subtotal Bags, Sacks, & Wraps
Other Plastics Packaging**
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Subtotal Other Packaging ***
tons)

550

280
930
90
180
160
220
70_
1,930

430
2,440
2,870

40
920
190
450
330
410
110
2,450
Recovery
(Thousand (Percent)
tons)

130 23.6%

10
70
Meg
Neg
Neg
Neg
10
90 4.7%

10
40
50 1.7%

Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
10
Neg
Neg
10 0.4%
Discards
(Thousand
tons)

420

270
860
90
180
160
220
60
1,840

420
2,400
2,820

40
920
190
450
320
410
110
2,440
Total Plastics in Containers & Packaging, by resin
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Total Plastics in Containers & Packaging
Total Plastics in MSW
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Total Plastics
820
2,890
280
3,070
490
630
180
8,360

980
4,120
1,230
6,230
1,690
2,480
2,570
19,300
220
230
Neg
40
10
Neg
10
510 6.1%

250
240
Neg
50
100
20
20
680 3.5%
600
2,660
280
3,030
480
630
170
7,850

730
3,880
1,230
6,180
1,590
2,460
2,550
18,620
PET=Polyethylene terephthalate LDPE=Low-density polyethylene
HDPE=High-density polyethylene PP=Polypropylene
PVC=Polyvinyl chloride PS=Polystyrene
All other nondurables include plastics in disposable diapers, clothing, footwear, etc.
Other plastic packaging includes coatings, closures, caps, trays, shapes, etc.
•Includes 80 thousand tons of plastics categorized as Other Miscellaneous Packaging.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

43
-------
Figure 9. Plastics generation and recovery, 1960 to 1993
20,000 y-.

18,000

16,000

14,000
o 12,000 • •
i
3
10,000 - -

8,000 . ..

6,000 ...

4,000 --

2,000 - --
-x. -
**•'
Generation — -X ------
•'
;_-.V«-"-"" " ...................................... Recovery -
o QGKa43-D-i^-a-D-o-a-q-o-o-o-D-^^ a a JT-T^JT^TJT
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
1993
reported. The primary source of data on plastics recovery is an annual survey
conducted for the American Plastics Council.

Discards After Recovery. Discards of plastics in MSW after recovery were
18.6 million tons, or 11.5 percent of total discards.

Other Materials

Rubber and Leather. The predominant source of rubber in MSW is rubber
tires from automobiles and trucks (Table 8). Other sources of rubber and leather
include clothing and footwear and other miscellaneous durable and nondurable
products. These other sources are quite diverse, including such items as gaskets
on appliances, furniture, and hot water bottles, for example.

Generation. Generation of rubber and leather in MSW has shown
slow growth over the years, increasing from 2.0 million tons in 1960 to 6.2
million tons in 1993. One reason for the relatively slow rate of growth is that
tires have been made smaller and longer-wearing than in past years.

As a percentage of total MSW generation, rubber and leather has ranged
between 2.0 and 3.0 percent of the total over the historical period.

Recovery for Recycling. The only recovery for recycling identified in
this category is rubber from tires, and that was estimated to be 370,000 tons (12.9
percent of rubber in tires in 1993) (Table 8). (This recovery estimate does not
44
-------
Table 8

RUBBER AND LEATHER PRODUCTS IN MSW, 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation)
Generation
(Thousand
Product Category
Durable Goods
Rubber Tires*
Other Durables**
Total Rubber & Leather
Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
Clothing and Footwear
Other Nondurables
Total Rubber & Leather
Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
Total Rubber & Leather
tons)

2,870
2,350

5,220

730
260

990
10
6,220
Recovery
(Thousand (Percent of
tons)

370
Neg.

370

Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
370
generation)

12.9%
Neg.

7.1%

Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
5.9%
Discards
(Thousand
tons)

2,500
2,350

4,850

730
260

990
10
5,850
Does not include other materials in tires.
** Includes carpets and rugs and other miscellaneous durables.
Neg. = Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
include tires retreaded or energy recovery from tires.) Overall, 5.9 percent of
rubber and leather in MSW was recovered in 1993.

Discards After Recovery. Discards of rubber and leather after
recovery were 5.9 million tons in 1993 (3.6 percent of total discards).

Textiles. Textiles in MSW are found mainly in discarded clothing,
although other sources were identified to be furniture, carpets, tires, footwear,
and other nondurable goods such as sheets and towels.

Generation. An estimated 6.1 million tons of textiles were generated
in 1993.

Recovery for Recycling and Discards. A significant amount of
textiles is recovered for reuse, but the reused garments and wiper rags re-enter
the waste stream eventually, so this is considered a diversion rather than
recovery for recycling and, therefore, not included in the recovery for recycling
estimates. Since data on elapsed time from recovery of textiles for reuse to final
discard is limited, it was assumed that reused textiles re-enter the waste stream
the same year that they are first discarded. It was estimated that 11.7 percent of
45
-------
textiles in clothing and items such as sheets and pillowcases was recovered for
export or reprocessing in 1993 (720,000 tons) leaving discards of 5.4 million tons
of textiles in 1993.

Wood. The sources of wood in MSW include furniture, miscellaneous
durables (e.g., cabinets for electronic equipment), wood packaging (crates, pallets),
and some other miscellaneous products.

Generation. Generation of wood in MSW was 13.7 million tons in
1993 (6.6 percent of total generation).

Recovery for Recycling and Discards. Recovery of wood pallets
(usually by chipping) has been increasing along with recovery of other materials.
It was estimated that 1.3 million tons of wood waste were recovered in 1993,
leaving wood discards of 12.4 million tons (7.6 percent of total discards).

Other Products. Generation of "other product" waste is mainly associated
with disposable diapers, which are discussed under the section on Products in
Municipal Solid Waste. The only other significant source of materials in this
category is the electrolytes and other materials associated with lead-acid batteries
that are not classified as plastics or nonferrous metal.

Food Wastes

Food wastes included here consist of uneaten food and food preparation
wastes from residences, commercial establishments (restaurants, fast food
establishments), institutional sources such as school cafeterias, and industrial
sources such as factory lunchrooms.

Generation. As noted earlier, the only source of data on food wastes is on-
site sampling studies. As many sampling studies as possible—representing a long
time frame—were scrutinized. Sampling studies are generally performed on
mixed wastes as received at a transfer station or landfill, and the results are
reported by material as a percentage of the total sample. Therefore, the sampling
study results for food wastes were integrated into the discards (after recovery) of
the other materials in MSW. In addition, an adjustment was made for the
moisture transfer that occurs when wastes are mixed prior to sampling.

Generation of food wastes was estimated to be 13.8 million tons in 1993.
The use of garbage disposals, which send food wastes to wastewater treatment
systems rather than MSW, and use of prepared foods both at home and in food
service establishments, affect the amount of food waste in MSW. (When foods
are prepared and packaged off site, food preparation wastes are categorized as
industrial wastes rather than MSW.)
46
-------
Recovery and Discards. While recovery of food wastes for composting or
animal feed has been practiced in some locations, no significant recovery of food
wastes was identified in 1993. Numerous composting pilot studies have been
initiated for source-separated wet organics, such as food waste, from restaurants,
grocery stores, institutions, and households. Also, some food wastes are used in
backyard composting, which is classified as source reduction. (See the section on
source reduction in Chapter 3.)

Yard Trimmings

Yard trimmings include grass, leaves, and tree and brush trimmings from
residential, institutional, and commercial sources.

Generation. Generation of yard trimmings was estimated in exactly the
same manner described above for food wastes, based on sampling studies.
(Generation is measured when the yard trimmings enter the solid waste
management system and do not include grass clippings that are left on the lawn
or yard trimmings composted.) As a percentage of the waste stream, yard
trimmings have been exhibiting a decline. An estimated 32.8 million tons of yard
trimmings were generated in MSW in 1993.

Recovery for Composting and Discards. Quantitative national information
on composting of yard trimmings is difficult to obtain, but estimates were based
on a literature search and telephone contacts with state agencies to determine
state policies on removal of yard trimmings from MSW (e.g., by banning leaves
from landfills), and estimates of the amounts of waste that might be affected.
Removal of yard trimmings for composting was estimated to be 19.8 percent of
generation in 1993 (6.5 million tons), leaving 26.3 million tons of yard trimmings
to be discarded.

It should be noted that these estimates do not account for backyard
composting by individuals or practices such as less bagging of grass wastes; since
the yard trimming estimates are based on sampling studies at the landfill or
transfer station, they are based on the quantities received there. These source
reduction practices are discussed in Chapter 3.

Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes

This relatively small category of MSW is also derived from sampling
studies. It is not well defined and often shows up in sampling reports as "fines"
or "other." It includes soil, bits of concrete, stones, and the like.

Generation. This category contributed an estimated 3.0 million tons of
MSW in 1993.
47
-------
Recovery and Discards. No recovery of these products was identified;
discards are the same as generation.

Summary of Materials in Municipal Solid Waste

Generation. Changing quantities and composition of municipal solid
waste generation are illustrated in Figure 10. Generation of MSW has grown
steadily, from 87.8 million tons in 1960 to 206.9 million tons in 1993. Over the
years, paper and paperboard has been the dominant material generated in MSW.
Yard trimmings, the second largest component of MSW, have been declining as
a percentage of MSW in recent years due to state and local legislated landfill bans
and increased emphasis on backyard composting and other source reduction
measures such as use of mulching mowers. Metals have remained fairly
constant as a source of MSW, while glass increased until the 1980s and has since
declined or shown a slower rate of increase. Food wastes have remained fairly
constant in terms of MSW tonnage.
Figure 10. Generation of materials in MSW, 1960 to 1993
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
D All Other

13 Yard

• Food

& Plastics

• Metals

E3 Glass

D Paper
Plastics have been a rapidly growing component of MSW. In terms of
tonnage contributed, they ranked third in 1993 (behind yard trimmings).

Recovery and Discards. The effect of recovery and composting on MSW
discards is illustrated in Figure 11. Recovery of materials for recycling grew at a
rather slow pace during most of the historical period covered by this data series,
increasing only from 9.6 percent of generation in 1980 to 9.9 percent in 1985.
48
-------
Figure 11. Materials recovery and discards of MSW,
1960 to 1993
200,000

g 150,000

c
S> 100,000
50,000 - -
•+•
555
^
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993
1
+
1
Renewed interest in recycling and composting as solid waste management
alternatives came about in the late 1980s, and the recovery rate in 1990 was
estimated to be 16.6 percent of generation, increasing to 21.7 percent in 1993.

Estimated recovery and composting of materials are shown in Figure 12.
In 1993, recovery of paper and paperboard dominated materials recovery at 58.8
percent of total tonnage recovered. Recovery of other materials, while generally
increasing, contributes much less tonnage, reflecting in part the relatively
smaller amounts of materials generated in those categories.

Figure 13 illustrates the effect of recovery of materials for recycling,
including composting, on the composition of MSW discards. For example, paper
and paperboard were 37.6 percent of MSW generated in 1993, but after recovery,
paper and paperboard were 31.7 percent of discards.

Materials that have little or no recovery exhibit a larger percentage of
MSW discards compared to generation. For instance, food wastes were 6.7
percent of MSW generation in 1993, but 8.5 percent of discards.

PRODUCTS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Generation, recovery, and discards of products in municipal solid waste
are shown in a series of tables in this section. (Note that the totals for these tables
are the same as the previous series of tables for materials in MSW.) The products
in MSW are categorized as durable goods, nondurable goods, and containers and
49
-------
Figure 12. Materials recovery*, 1993
Paper and
Paperboard
58.8%
' In percent by weight of total recovery.
Yard Trimmings Recovered
for Compost 14.4%
Metals 11.6%

Glass 6.7%

Plastics 1.5%

All Others 7.0%
packaging. Generation, recovery, and discards of these products are summarized
in Tables 9 through 11. Each product category is discussed in more detail below,
with detailed tables highlighting the products in each.

Durable Goods

Durable goods generally are defined as products having a lifetime of three
years or more, although there are some exceptions. In this report, durable goods
include major appliances, furniture and furnishings, rubber tires, lead-acid
automotive batteries, and miscellaneous durables (e.g., small appliances,
consumer electronics) (see Tables 12 through 14).* These products are often called
"oversize and bulky" in municipal solid waste management practice, and they
are generally handled in a somewhat different manner than other components
of MSW. That is, they are often picked up separately, and may not be mixed with
other MSW at the landfill, combustor, or other waste management facility.
Durable goods are made up of a wide variety of materials. In order of tonnage in
MSW in 1993, these include: ferrous metals, plastics, rubber and leather, wood,
textiles, glass, other nonferrous metals (e.g., lead, copper), and aluminum.

Generation of durable goods in MSW totaled 31.9 million tons in 1993
(15.4 percent of total MSW generation). After recovery for recycling, 27.9 million
tons of durable goods remained as discards in 1993.
Automobiles and other transportation equipment are not included in this report.
50
-------
Figure 13. Materials generated and discarded
in municipal solid waste, 1993
(in percent of total generation and discards)
Generation
Glass 6.6%
Metals 8.3%
Plastics 9.3%
Food Wastes 6.7%
Glass 6.6%
Metals 7.4%
Plastics 11.5%
Food Wastes 8.5%
Discards
51
-------
Table 9
CATEGORIES OF PRODUCTS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 15)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 18)
Total Product" Wastes
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated - Weight

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 15)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 19)
Total Product" Wastes
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated • %
Thousands of Tons
1960
9,430
17,550
27,320
54,300
12,200
20,000
1,300
33,500
87,800
1970
15,090
25,540
43,470
84,100
12,800
23,200
1,780
37,780
121,880
1980
19,700
36,490
52,350
108,540
13,200
27,500
2,250
42,950
151,490
1990
29,710
52,450
64,760
146,920
13,200
35,000
2,900
51,100
198,020
1991
30,260
50,000
65,260
145,520
13,300
35,000
2,950
51 ,250
196,770
1992
30,630
52,750
68,130
151,510
13,500
35,000
3,000
51 ,500
203,010
1993
31,910
54,800
70,580
157,290
13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
Percent of Total Generation
1960
10.7%
20.0%
31.1%
61.8%
13.9%
22.8%
1 .5%
38.2%
100.0%
1970
12.4%
21.0%
35.7%
69.0%
10.5%
19.0%
1.5%
31.0%
100.0%
1980
13.0%
24.1%
34.6%
71.6%
8.7%
18.2%
1.5%
28.4%
100.0%
1990
15.0%
26.5%
32.7%
74.2%
6.7%
17.7%
1.5%
25.8%
100.0%
1991
15.4%
25.4%
33.2%
74.0%
6.8%
17.8%
1.5%
26.0%
100.0%
1992
15.1%
26.0%
33.6%
74.6%
6.6%
17.2%
1.5%
25.4%
100.0%
1993
15.4%
26.5%
34.1%
76.0%
6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes.
Other than food products.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Major Appliances. Major appliances in MSW include refrigerators,
washing machines, water heaters, etc. They are often called "white goods" in the
trade. Data on unit production of appliances are taken from Appliance
Manufacturer Annual Report. The unit data are converted to weight using
various conversion factors developed over the years, plus data on the materials
composition of the appliances. Adjustments are also made for the estimated
lifetimes of the appliances, which range to 20 years.

Generation of these products in MSW has increased very slowly; it was
estimated to be 3.4 million tons in 1993 (1.7 percent of total MSW). In general,
appliances have increased in quantity but not in average weight over the years.
Ferrous metals are the predominant materials in major appliances, but other
metals, plastics, glass, and other materials are also present.
52
-------
Table 10
RECOVERY* OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation of each category)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail In Table 13)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 16)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 20)
Total Product" Waste*
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inoraante Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total USW Recovered • Weight

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 13)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail In Table 16)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 21)
Total Product" Wastes
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inoraante Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered - %
Thousands of Tons
1960
350
2,380
3,120
5,850
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Neg.
5,850

1960
3.7%
13.6%
1 1 .4%
10.8%
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Nea.
6.7%
1970
940
3,790
3,900
8,630
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Neg.
8,630
Percent
1970
6.2%
14.8%
9.0%
10.3%
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Nea.
7.1%
1980
1,350
4,810
8,360
14,520
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Neg.
14,520
of Gene
1980
6.9%
13.2%
16.0%
13.4%
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
Nea.
9.6%
1990
2,910
8,620
17,150
28,680
Neg.
4,200
Nea.
4,200
32,880
ration of
1990
9.8%
16.4%
26.5%
19.5%
Neg.
12.0%
Nea.
8.2%
16.6%
1991
3,230
10,300
18,760
32,290
Neg.
5,000
Nea.
5,000
37,290
1992
3,520
10,920
21.040
35,480
Neg.
6,000
Nea.
6,000
41,480
1993
4,050
1 1 ,500
22,940
38,490
Neg.
6,500
Nea.
6,500
44,990
Each Category
1991
10.7%
20.6%
28.7%
22.2%
Neg.
14.3%
Nea.
9.8%
19.0%
1992
1 1 .5%
20.7%
30.9%
23.4%
Neg.
17.1%
Nea.
1 1 .7%
20.4%
1993
12.7%
21 .0%
32.5%
24.5%
Neg.
19.8%
Nea.
13.1%
2" .7%
Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Other than food products.
Neg. - Negligible.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Data on recovery of ferrous metals from major appliances are from a
survey conducted by the Steel Recycling Institute. Recovery of ferrous metals
from shredded appliances was estimated to be 1.8 million tons in 1993, leaving
1.6 million tons of appliances to be discarded.

Small Appliances. For the first time, small appliances have been added as
a separate line item for this report; previously they were counted as part of
miscellaneous durable products. This category includes items such as toasters,
hair dryers, electric coffeepots, and the like.

Information on shipments of small appliances was obtained from
Department of Commerce data. Information on weights and materials
53
-------
Table 11
CATEGORIES OF PRODUCTS DISCARDED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total discards)
Thousands of Tons
Products 1960
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 22)
Total Product** Waste*
Other Wastes
food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inoraanic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded • Welahl

9,080
15,170
24,200
48,450
12,200
20,000
1.300
33.500
81,950
1970
14,150
21,750
39,570
75,470
12,800
23,200
1.780
37JBO
113.250
1980
18,350
31,680
43,990
94,020
13,200
27,500
2.250
42.950
136.970
1990
26,800
43,830
47,610
118,240
13,200
30,800
2.900
46.900
165.140
1991
27,030
39,700
46,500
113,230
13,300
30,000
2 950
46 250
159,480
1992
27,110
41,830
47,090
116,030
13,500
29,000
3 000
45 500
161 530
1993
27,860
43,300
47,640
118,800
13,800
26,300
3 050
43 150
161 950
Percent of Total Discards
Products 1960
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 23)
Total Product** Wastes
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inoraanic Wastes
Total Other Vastes
Total MSW Discarded - %
11.1%
18.5%
29.5%
59.1%
14.9%
24.4%
1 .6%
40.9%
100.0%
1970
12.5%
19.2%
34.9%
66.6%
1 1 .3%
20.5%
1 .6%
33.4%
1 00.0%
1980
13.4%
23.1%
32.1%
68.6%
9.6%
20.1%
1 .6%
31 .4%
JOO.0%
1990
16.2%
26.5%
28.8%
71.6%
8.0%
18.7%
1 .8%
28.4%
100.0%
1991
16.9%
24.9%
29.2%
71 .0%
8.3%
18.8%
1 .8%
29.0%
100.0%
1992
16.8%
25.9%
29.2%
71.8%
8.4%
18.0%
1 .9%
28.2%
100.0%
1993
17.2%
26.7%
29.4%
73.4%
8.5%
16.2%
1 9%
26 6%
100.0%
Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes.
Other than food products.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
composition of small appliances was obtained through interviews. It was
estimated that 530,000 tons of small appliances were generated in 1993. A small
amount of ferrous metals in small appliances may be recovered through
magnetic separation, but no specific data on recovery were found.

Furniture and Furnishings. Data on sales of furniture and furnishings are
provided by the Department of Commerce in dollars. These data are converted to
tons using factors developed for this study over the years. Adjustments are made
for imports and exports, and adjustments are made for the lifetimes of the
furniture.
54
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Table 12

PRODUCTS GENERATED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON DURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Products
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Small Appliances**
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs**
Rubber Tires
Batteries, lead acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 15)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 18)
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated • Weight

1,500
2,150
1,120
Neg.
4,660
9,430
17,550
27,320
54,300
12,200
20,000
1,300
33,500
87,800
1970

2,670
3,370
1,890
820
6,340
15,090
25,540
43,470
84,100
12,800
23,200
1,780
37,780
121.880
1980 1990 1991

2,830
5,100
2,560
1,490
7,720
19,700
36,490
52,350
108,540
13,200
27,500
2,250
42,950
151.490
Percent of 1
1960

1.7%
2.4%
1.3%
Neg.
5.3%
10.7%
20.0%
31.1%
61.8%
13.9%
22.8%
1.5%
38.2%
100.0%
1970

2.2%
2.8%
1.6%
0.7%
5.2%
12.4%
21.0%
35.7%
69.0%
10.5%
19.0%
1.5%
31.0%
100.0%
1980

1 .9%
3.4%
1.7%
1.0%
5.1%
13.0%
24.1%
34.6%
71.6%
8.7%
18.2%
1.5%
28.4%
100.0%
2.830
520
7,370
1,750
3,280
1,510
12,450
29,710
52,450
64,760
146,920
13,200
35,000
2,900
51,100
198.020
Fotal Gene
1990
3,100
590
7,410
1,840
3,190
1,550
12,580
30,260
50,000
65,260
145,520
13,300
35,000
2,950
51,250
196.770
1992 1993

3,220
600
6,670
1,970
3,280
1,540
13,350
30,630
52,750
68,130
151,510
13,500
35,000
3,000
51,500
203.010
3,430
530
7,020
2,130
3,410
1,670
13,720
31,910
54,800
70,580
157,290
13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
ration
1991
1992
1993

1 .4%
3.7%
0.9%
1.7%
0.8%
6.3%
15.0%
26.5%
32.7%
74.2%
6.7%
17.7%
1 .5%
25.8%
100.0%
1.6%
3.8%
0.9%
1.6%
0.8%
6.4%
15.4%
25.4%
33.2%
74.0%
6.8%
17.8%
1.5%
26.0%
100.0%
1.6%
3.3%
1.0%
1.6%
0.8%
6.6%
15.1%
26.0%
33.6%
74.6%
6.6%
17.2%
1.5%
25.4%
100.0%
1.7%
3.4%
1.0%
1.6%
0.8%
6.6%
15.4%
26.5%
34.1%
76.0%
6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Not estimated separately prior to 1990.
Other than food products.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Generation of furniture and furnishings in MSW has increased from 2.2
million tons in 1960 to 7.0 million tons in 1993 (3.4 percent of total MSW). No
significant recovery of materials from furniture was identified.
55
-------
Table 13

RECOVERY* OF PRODUCTS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON DURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation of each product)

Products
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Small Appliances'*
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs**
Rubber Tires
Batteries, lead acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 16)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 20)
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered - Weight

Products
Thousands of Tons
1960

10
Neg.
330
Neg.
10
350
2,380
3,120
5,850
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Nea
5.850

1960
1970

50
Neg.
250
620
20
940
3,790
3,900
8,630
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
8.630
1980

130
Neg.
140
1,040
40
1,350
4,810
8,360
14,520
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Nea.
14,520
1990
1991
1992
1993

910
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
400
1,470
130
2,910
8,620
17,150
28,680
Neg.
4,200
Neg.
4.200
32,880
1,180
Neg.
Neg.
10
410
1,500
130
3,230
10,300
18,760
32,290
Neg.
5,000
Neg.
5,000
37,290
1,470
Neg.
Neg.
10
430
1,450
160
3,520
10,920
21,040
35,480
Neg.
6,000
Neg.
6,000
41,480
Percent of Generation of Each Product
1970
1980
1990
1991
1992
1,840
Neg.
Neg.
10
440
1,580
180
4,050
11,500
22,940
38,490
Neg.
6,500
Neg.
6,500
44,990

1993
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs
Rubber Tires
Batteries, Lead-Acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 16)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 21)
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered • %
Neg.
Neg.
29.5%
Neg.
Neg.
3.7%
13.6%
1 1 .4%
10.8%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
6.7%
Neg.
Neg.
13.2%
75.6%
Neg.
6.2%
14.8%
9.0%
10.3%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
7.1%
Neg.
Neg.
5.5%
69.8%
Neg.
6.9%
13.2%
16.0%
13.4%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
9.6%
Neg.
Neg.
12.2%
97.4%
Neg.
9.8%
16.4%
26.5%
19.5%
Neg.
12.0%
Neg.
8.2%
16.6%
38.1%
Neg.
0.5%
12.9%
96.8%
1 .0%
10.7%
20.6%
28.7%
22.2%
Neg.
14.3%
Neg.
9.8%
19.0%
45.7%
Neg.
0.5%
13.1%
94.2%
1 .2%
1 1 .5%
20.7%
30.9%
23.4%
Neg.
17.1%
Neg.
1 1 .7%
20.4%
53.6%
Neg.
0.5%
12.9%
94.6%
1 .3%
12.7%
21.0%
32.5%
24.5%
Neg.
19.8%
Neg.
13.1%
21.7%
Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Not estimated separately prior to 1990.
Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Wood is the largest material category in furniture, with ferrous metals
second. Plastics, glass, and other materials are also found in furniture.
56
-------
Table 14

PRODUCTS DISCARDED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON DURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total discards)

Products
Thousands of Tons
1960
1970
1980
1990
1991
1992
1993
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Small Appliances"
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs"
Rubber Tires
Batteries, lead acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Good's
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 22)
Total Product Wastes}
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded - Weight

Products
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs
Rubber Tires
Batteries, Lead-Acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 23)
Total Product Wastest
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded - %
1,490
2,150
790
Neg.
4,650
9.080
15,170
24,200
48,450
12,200
20,000
1,300
33.500
81.950
2,620
3,370
1,640
200
6,320
14.150
21,750
39,570
75,470
12,800
23,200
1,780
37,780
113.250
2,700
5,100
2,420
450
7,680
18.350
31,680
43,990
94,020
13,200
27,500
2,250
42.950
136.970
1,920
520
7,370
1,750
2,880
40
12,320
26.800
43,830
47,610
118,240
13,200
30,800
2,900
46.900
165.140
1,920
590
7,410
1,830
2,780
50
12,450
27.030
39,700
46,500
113,230
13,300
30,000
2,950
46,250
159,480
1,750
600
6,670
1,960
2,850
90
13,190
27.110
41,830
47,090
116,030
13,500
29,000
3,000
45.500
161,530
1,590
530
7,020
2,120
2,970
90
13,540
27.860
43,300
47,640
118,800
13,800
26,300
3,050
43.150
161.950
Percent of Total Discards
1960
1970
1980
1990
1991
1992
1993

1 .8%
2.6%
0.0%
1 .0%
Neg.
5.7%
11.1%
18.5%
29.5%
59.1%
14.9%
24.4%
1 .6%
40.9%
100.0%
2.3%
3.0%
0.0%
1 .4%
0.2%
5.6%
12.5%
19.2%
34.9%
66.6%
1 1 .3%
20.5%
1 .6%
33.4%
100.0%
2.0%
3.7%
0.0%
1 .8%
0.3%
5.6%
13.4%
23.1%
32.1%
68.6%
9.6%
20.1%
1 .6%
31 .4%
100.0%
1 .2%
4.5%
1.1%
1 .7%
0.0%
7.5%
16.2%
26.5%
28.8%
71 .6%
8.0%
18.7%
1.8%
28.4%
100.0%
1 .2%
4.6%
1.1%
1 .7%
0.0%
7.8%
16.9%
24.9%
29.2%
71.0%
8.3%
18.8%
1 .8%
29.0%
100.0%
1.1%
4.1%
1 .2%
1.8%
0.1%
8.2%
16.8%
25.9%
29.2%
71.8%
8.4%
18.0%
1 .9%
28.2%
100.0%
1 .0%
4.3%
1 .3%
1.8%
Neg.
8.4%
17.2%
26.7%
29.4%
73.4%
8.5%
16.2%
1 .9%
26.6%
100.0%
* Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
** Not estimated separately prior to 1990.
t Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Carpets and Rugs. An industry publication. Carpet and Rug Industrial
Review, publishes data on carpet sales in square yards. These data are converted
to tons using various factors developed for this report. An estimated 2.1 million
57
-------
tons of carpets and rugs were generated in MSW in 1993, which was 1.0 percent
of total generation.

A small amount of recycling of carpet fiber was identified—estimated to be
0.5 percent recovery in 1993.

Rubber Tires. The methodology for estimating generation of rubber tires
for automobiles and trucks has been revised for this update; some of the data
series used previously have been discontinued. The estimates are based on data
on replacement tires purchased and vehicles deregistered as reported by the U.S.
Department of Commerce. It is assumed that for each replacement tire
purchased, a used tire enters the waste management system, and that tires on
deregistered vehicles also enter the waste management system. Retreaded tires
are treated as a diversion out of the waste stream; they are assumed to re-enter
the waste stream after two years of use.

The quantities of tires in units are converted to weight and materials
composition using factors developed for this series of reports. In addition to
rubber, tires include relatively small amounts of textiles and ferrous metals.
Generation of rubber tires increased from 1.1 million tons in 1960 to 3.4 million
tons in 1993 (1.6 percent of total MSW).

Data on recovery of rubber tires are taken from an EPA scrap tire market
study, updated with information from Scrap Tire News. Rubber recovery from
tires has been small, but increasing in recent years. In 1993, an estimated 12.9
percent of tire rubber generated was recovered for recycling, leaving 3.0 million
tons to be discarded. (Tires going to combustion facilities are included in the
combustion estimates in Chapter 3.)

Lead-Acid Batteries. The methodology for estimating generation of lead-
acid batteries has been changed for this report to be similar to the methodology
for rubber tires as described above. An estimated 1.7 million tons of lead-acid
batteries from automobiles, trucks, and motorcycles were generated in MSW in
1993 (0.8 percent of total generation).

Data on recovery of batteries are provided by the Battery Council
International. Recovery of batteries for recycling has fluctuated between 60
percent and 95 percent or higher; recovery has increased since 1980 as a growing
number of communities have restricted batteries from disposal at landfills or
combustors. In 1993, 94.6 percent of the lead in these batteries was recovered for
recycling as well as substantial quantities of the polypropylene battery casings; so
discards after recycling of these batteries were decreased to 90,000 tons in 1993.
(Some electrolytes and other materials in batteries are removed from the
municipal solid waste stream along with recovered lead and polypropylene;
these other materials are counted as "recovered" along with the recyclable
materials.
58
-------
Miscellaneous Durables. Miscellaneous durable goods include consumer
electronics such as television sets, video cassette recorders, personal computers,
luggage, sporting equipment, and the like. (Small appliances were included with
miscellaneous durables in previous reports in this series, but are estimated
separately in this report.) An estimated 13.7 million tons of these goods were
generated in 1993, amounting to 6.6 percent of MSW generated. Small amounts
of ferrous metals are estimated to be recovered from this category, decreasing
discards to 13.5 million tons.

In addition to ferrous metals, this category includes plastics, glass, rubber,
wood, and other metals.

Nondurable Goods

The Department of Commerce defines nondurable goods as those having
a lifetime of less than three years, and this definition was followed for this report
to the extent possible.

Products made of paper and paperboard comprise the largest portion of
nondurable goods. Other nondurable products include paper and plastic plates,
cups, and other disposable food service products; disposable diapers; clothing and
footwear; and other miscellaneous products. (See Tables 15 through 17.)

Generation of nondurable goods in MSW was 54.8 million tons in 1993
(26.5 percent of total generation). Recovery of paper products in this category is
quite significant, resulting in 11.5 million tons of nondurable goods recovered in
1993 (21.0 percent of generation). This means that 43.3 million tons of
nondurable goods were discarded in 1993 (26.7 percent of discards).

Paper and Paperboard Products. Generation, recovery, and discards of
paper and paperboard products in nondurable goods are summarized in Tables
15 through 17. A summary for 1993 was shown earlier in Table 4. Each of the
paper and paperboard product categories in nondurable goods is discussed briefly
below.

• Newspapers are by far the largest single component of the nondurable
goods category, at 12.9 million tons generated in 1993 (6.3 percent of total
MSW). In 1993, 45.7 percent of newspapers generated were recovered for
recycling, leaving 7.0 million tons discarded (4.3 percent of total MSW
discarded). For the first time in this series of reports, the estimates of
newspaper generation are broken down into newsprint (the
59
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Table 15

PRODUCTS GENERATED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON NONDURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
Thousands of Tons
1960
9,430

1970
15,090

1980
19,700

1990
29,710

1991
30,260

1992
30,630

1993
31,910

Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books"
Magazines**
Office Papers
Telephone Books**
Third Class Mail**
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupsf
Trash Bags**
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases**
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 18)
Total Product Wastes?
Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated - Weight

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
7,110
1,920

1,520

1,260
1,090
270

Neg.
2,680
1,290

410
17,550
27,320

54,300
33,500
87,800
9,500
2,470

2,650

2,130
2,060
420

370
3,600
1,580

760
25,540
43,470

84,100
37,780
121,880
11,040
3,390

4,000

3,110
2,300
600
190

2,310
4,190
2,300

3,060
36,490
52,350

108,540
42,950
151,490
13,270

970
2,830
6,410
610
3,820
4,560
2,970
650
320
780
2,640
3,860
4,850
710
3,200
52,450
64,760

146,920
51,100
198,020
12,330

860
2,170
6,300
670
3,690
4,800
2,700
680
300
770
2,720
3,980
4,210
750
3,070
50,000
65,260

145,520
51,250
196,770
12,770

930
2,360
6,660
700
3,560
5,340
2,750
750
340
840
2,750
4,160
4,690
770
3,380
52,750
68,130

151,510
51,500
203,010
12,940

990
2,500
7,120
740
4,010
5,440
3,010
830
350
890
2,700
4,770
4,280
720
3,510
54,800
70,580

157,290
49,650
206,940
Percent of Total Generation
1960
10.7%

1970
12.4%

1980
13.0%

1990
15.0%

1991
15.4%

1 992
15.1%

1993
15.4%

Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books**
Magazines"
Office Papers
Telephone Books**
Third Class Mail"
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupsf
Trash Bags**
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases**
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurables
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 19)
Total Product Wastes?
Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated - %
8.1%
2.2%

1 .7%

1.4%
1.2%
0.3%

Neg.
3.1%
1.5%

0.5%
20.0%
31.1%

61.8%
38.2%
100.0%
7.8%
2.0%

2.2%

1 .7%
1 .7%
0.3%

Neg.
3.0%
1 .3%

0.6%
21.0%
35.7%

69.0%
31 .0%
100.0%
7.3%
2.2%

2.6%

2.1%
1 .5%
0.4%
0.1%

1 .5%
2.8%
1 .5%

2.0%
24.1%
34.6%

71.6%
28.4%
100.0%
6.4%

0.5%
1 .4%
3.1%
0.3%
1.8%
2.2%
1.4%
0.3%
0.2%
0.4%
1 .3%
1 .9%
2.3%
0.3%
1 .5%
26.5%
32.7%

74.2%
25.8%
100.0%
6.0%

0.4%
1 .0%
3.0%
0.3%
1 .8%
2.3%
1.3%
0.3%
0.1%
0.4%
1.3%
1 .9%
2.0%
0.4%
1 .5%
25.4%
33.2%

74.0%
26.0%
100.0%
6.2%

0.4%
1.1%
3.2%
0.3%
1 .7%
2.6%
1.3%
0.4%
0.2%
0.4%
1 .3%
2.0%
2.3%
0.4%
1 .6%
26.0%
33.6%

74.6%
25.4%
100.0%
6.3%

0.5%
1 .2%
3.4%
0.4%
1 .9%
2.6%
1 .5%
0.4%
0.2%
0.4%
1 .3%
2.3%
2.1%
0.3%
1 .7%
26.5%
34.1%

76.0%
24.0%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial
process wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Not estimated separately pnorto 1990.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

60
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Table 16

RECOVERY* OF PRODUCTS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO
(WITH DETAIL ON NONDURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation of each product)
1993

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 13)
Thousands of Tons
1960
350

1970
940

1980
1,350

1990
2,910

1991
3,230

1992
3,520

1993
4,050

Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books"
Magazines"
Office Papers
Telephone Books"
Third Class Mail"
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupst
Trash Bags**
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases"
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 20)
Total Product Waateaf
Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered - Weight

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 13)
1.820
90

250

130
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
80
10

Neg.
2,380
3,120

5,850
Neg.
5,850
2,320
260

680

340
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
180
10

Neg.
3,790
3,900

8,630
Neg.
8,630
3,000
350

1,000

440
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
0
20

Neg.
4,810
8,360

14,520
Neg.
14,520
4,520

130
410
2,020
40
270
670
Neg.
Neg.
10
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
430
120
Neg.
8,620
17,150

28,680
4,200
32,880
Percent of Generation o
1960
3.7%

1970
6.2%

1980
6.9%

1990
9.8%

5,260

150
390
2,290
50
440
910
Neg.
Neg.
20
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
660
130
Neg.
10,300
18,760

32,290
5,000
37,290
5,470

150
450
2,530
60
510
960
Neg.
Neg.
20
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
640
130
Neg.
10,920
21,040

35,480
6,000
41,480
5,920

160
450
2,600
60
540
1,060
Neg.
Neg.
20
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
570
120
Neg.
11,500
22,940

38,490
6,500
44,990
Each Product
1991
10.7%

1992
1 1 .5%

1993
12.7%

Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books"
Magazines**
Office Papers
Telephone Books"
Third Class Mail**
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupst
Trash Bags"
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases**
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurable^
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 21)
Total Product Wastes?
Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered • %
25.6%
4.7%

16.4%

10.3%
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
3.0%
Neg.

Neg.
13.6%
1 1 .4%

10.8%
Neo.
6.7%
24.4%
10.5%

25.7%

16.0%
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
5.0%
Neg.

Neg.
14.8%
9.0%

10.3%
Nea.
7.1%
27.2%
10.3%

25.0%

14.1%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

Neg.
0.0%
Neg.

Neg.
13.2%
16.0%

13.4%
Nea.
9.6%
34.1%

13.4%
14.5%
31 .5%
6.6%
7.1%
14.7%
Neg.
Neg.
3.1%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
8.9%
16.9%
Neg.
16.4%
26.5%

19.5%
8.2%
16.6%
42.7%

17.4%
18.0%
36.3%
7.5%
1 1 .9%
19.0%
Neg.
Neg.
6.7%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
15.7%
17.3%
Neg.
20.6%
28.7%

22.2%
9.8%
19.0%
42.8%

16.1%
19.1%
38.0%
8.6%
14.3%
18.0%
Neg.
Neg.
5.9%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
13.6%
16.9%
Neg.
20.7%
30.9%

23.4%
1 1 .7%
20.4%
45.7%

16.2%
18.0%
36.5%
8.1%
13.5%
19.5%
Neg.
Neg.
5.7%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
13.3%
16.7%
Neg.
21.0%
32.5%

24.5%
13.1%
21.7%
* Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
* * Not estimated separately prior to 1990.
t Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
t Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

61
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Table 17

PRODUCTS DISCARDED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON NONDURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total discards)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books**
Magazines**
Office Papers
Telephone Books**
Third Class Mail"
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupsf
Trash Bags**
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases**
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 22)
Total Product Wastes^
Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded - Weight

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books and Magazines
Books**
Magazines**
Office Papers
Telephone Books**
Third Class Mail"
Other Commercial Printing
Tissue Paper and Towels
Paper Plates and Cups
Plastic Plates and Cupst
Trash Bags**
Disposable Diapers
Other Nonpackaging Paper
Clothing and Footwear
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases**
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables
Total Nondurables
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 23)
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded - %
Thousands of Tons
1960
9,080

5,290
1,830

1,270

1,130
1,090
270

Neg.
2,600
1,280

410
15,170
24,200

48,450
33,500
81,950
1970
14,150

7,180
2,210

1,970

1,790
2,060
420

370
3,420
1,570

760
21,750
39,570

75,470
37,780
113,250
1980
18,350

8,040
3,040

3,000

2,670
2,300
600
190

2,310
4,190
2,280
0
3,060
31,680
43,990

94,020
42,950
136,970
1990
26,800

8,750

840
2,420
4,390
570
3,550
3,890
2,970
650
310
780
2,640
3,860
4,420
590
3,200
43,830
47,610

118,240
46,900
165,140
1991
27,030

7,070

710
1,780
4,010
620
3,250
3,890
2,700
680
280
770
2,720
3,980
3,550
620
3,070
39,700
46,500

113,230
46,250
159,480
1992
27,110

7,300

780
1,910
4,130
640
3,050
4,380
2,750
750
320
840
2,750
4,160
4,050
640
3,380
41,830
47,090

116,030
45,500
161,530
1993
27,860

7,020

830
2,050
4,520
680
3,470
4,380
3,010
830
330
890
2,700
4,770
3,710
600
3,510
43,300
47,640

118,800
43,150
161,950
Percent of Total Discards
1960
11.1%

6.5%
2.2%

1.5%

1.4%
1.3%
0.3%

Neg.
3.2%
1 .6%

0.5%
18.5%
29.5%

59.1%
40.9%
100.0%
1970
12.5%

6.3%
2.0%

1.7%

1.6%
1.8%
0.4%

Neg.
3.0%
1.4%

0.7%
19.2%
34.9%

66.6%
33.4%
100.0%
1980
13.4%

5.9%
2.2%

2.2%

1 .9%
1.7%
0.4%
0.1%

1.7%
3.1%
1.7%

2.2%
23.1%
32.1%

68.6%
31.4%
100.0%
1990
16.2%

5.3%

0.5%
1 .5%
2.7%
0.3%
2.1%
2.4%
1.8%
0.4%
0.2%
0.5%
1.6%
2.3%
2.7%
0.4%
1.9%
26.5%
28.8%

71.6%
28.4%
100.0%
1991
16.9%

1992
16.7%

1993
17.2%

4.4%

0.4%
1.1%
2.5%
0.4%
2.0%
2.4%
1.7%
0.4%
0.2%
0.5%
1.7%
2.5%
2.2%
0.4%
1.9%
24.9%
29.2%

71.0%
29.0%
100.0%
4.5%

0.5%
1.2%
2.6%
0.4%
1 .9%
2.7%
1.7%
0.5%
0.2%
0.5%
1.7%
2.6%
2.5%
0.4%
2.1%
25.9%
29.2%

71.8%
28.2%
100.0%
4.3%

0.5%
1.3%
2.8%
0.4%
2.1%
2.7%
1 .9%
0.5%
0.2%
0.5%
1.7%
2.9%
2.3%
0.4%
2.2%
26.7%
29.4%

73.4%
26.6%
100.0%
Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
process wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Not estimated separately prior to 1990.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
-------
majority of the weight of newspapers) and the groundwood* inserts
(primarily advertising) that are a significant portion of the total weight
of newspapers. This breakdown is shown in Table 4.

Books amounted to approximately 1.0 million tons, or 0.5 percent of
total MSW generation, in 1993. Recovery of books is not well
documented, but it was estimated that approximately 160,000 tons of
books were recovered in 1993. Books are made of both groundwood and
chemical pulp.

Magazines accounted for 2.5 million tons, or 1.2 percent of total MSW
generation, in 1993. Like books, recovery of magazines is not well
documented. It was estimated that 450,000 tons of magazines were
recovered in 1993. Magazines are predominately made of coated
groundwood, but some uncoated groundwood and chemical pulps are
also used.

Many different kinds of papers are generated in offices. For this report,
office-type paper estimates include the high grade papers such as copier
paper, computer printout, stationery, etc. (7.1 million tons, or 3.4 percent
of total MSW generation, in 1993). These papers are almost entirely
made of uncoated chemical pulp, although some amounts of
groundwood are also used. It should be noted that some of these office-
type papers are generated at locations other than offices, including
homes and institutions such as schools. Also, other kinds of papers (e.g.,
newspapers, magazines, and packaging) are generated in offices, but are
accounted for in other categories. An estimated 2.6 million tons of
office-type papers were recovered in 1993.

Telephone books (directories) were estimated to generate 740,000 tons
(0.4 percent of total MSW) in 1993. These directories are made of
groundwood. It was estimated that 60,000 tons of directories were
recovered in 1993.

Third-class mail includes catalogs and other direct bulk mailings; these
amounted to 4.0 million tons, or 1.9 percent of MSW generation, in
1993. Both groundwood and chemical pulps are used in these mailings.
While recovery of third-class mail is not well documented, it was
estimated that 540,000 tons were recovered in 1993. The U.S. Postal
Groundwood papers, like newsprint, are made primarily from pulp prepared by a
mechanical process. The other major type of wood pulp is prepared by a chemical process.
The nature of the pulp (groundwood vs. chemical) affects the potential uses for the
recovered paper.
63
-------
Service has announced a program to increase recovery of bulk mail in
the future.

• Other commercial printing includes a wide range of paper items:
brochures, reports, menus, invitations, etc. Both groundwood and
chemical pulps are used in these varied items. Generation was
estimated at 5.4 million tons, or 2.6 percent of MSW generation, in 1993,
with recovery at 1.1 million tons.

• Tissue paper and towels include facial and sanitary tissues and napkins,
but not toilet tissue, which is nearly all diverted from MSW into the
wastewater treatment system. Tissue products amounted to 3.0 million
tons (1.5 percent of total MSW generation) in 1993. No significant
recovery of tissue products was identified.

• Paper plates and cups include paper plates, cups, bowls, and other food
service products used in homes, in commercial establishments like
restaurants, and in institutional settings such as schools. Generation of
these products was estimated at 830,000 tons (0.4 percent of total MSW
generation) in 1993. No significant recovery of these products was
identified.

• Other nonpackaging papers—including posters, photographic papers,
cards and games, etc.—accounted for 4.8 million tons (2.3 percent of total
MSW generation) in 1993. No significant recovery of these papers was
identified.

Overall, generation of paper and paperboard products in nondurable goods
was 42.4 million tons in 1993 (Table 4). While newspapers were recovered at the
highest rate, other paper products, such as books, magazines, and office papers,
were also recovered for recycling, and the overall recovery rate for paper in
nondurables was 25.4 percent in 1993. Thus 31.6 million tons of paper in
nondurables were discarded in 1993.

Plastic Plates and Cups. This category includes plastic plates, cups, glasses,
dishes and bowls, hinged containers, and other containers used in food service at
home, in restaurants and other commercial establishments, and in institutional
settings such as schools. These items are made of polystyrene resin. An estimated
350,000 tons of these products were generated in 1993, or 0.2 percent of total MSW
(see Table 15). An estimated 20,000 tons of these products were recovered for
recycling in 1993.

Disposable Diapers. This category includes estimates of both infant diapers
and adult incontinence products. Generation was estimated using data on sales
of the products along with information on average weights and composition. An
estimated 2.7 million tons of disposable diapers were generated in 1993, or 1.3
64
-------
percent of total MSW generation. (This tonnage includes an adjustment for the
urine and feces contained within the discarded diapers.) The materials portion of
the diapers includes wood pulp, plastics (including the super absorbent materials
now present in most diapers), and tissue paper.

There has been some investigation of recycling/composting of disposable
diapers, but no significant recovery was identified for 1993.

Clothing and Footwear. Generation of clothing and footwear was
estimated to be 4.3 million tons in 1993 (2.1 percent of total MSW). Textiles,
rubber, and leather are major materials components of this category, with some
plastics present as well. Generation estimates for these products are based on
sales data from the Department of Commerce along with data on average
weights for each type of product included. Adjustments are made for net imports
of these products based on Department of Commerce data.

The Council for Textile Recycling reports on recovery of textiles for
exports, reprocessing, and reuse. Based on their data, it was estimated that 570,000
tons of textiles in clothing were recovered for export or recycling in 1993. (Reuse
is not counted as recycling and is discussed in Chapter 3.)

Towels, Sheets, and Pillowcases. An estimated 0.7 million tons of towels,
sheets, and pillowcases were generated in 1993. Generation was estimated using a
methodology similar to that for clothing. An estimated 120,000 tons of these
textiles were recovered in 1993.

Other Miscellaneous Nondurables. Generation of other miscellaneous
nondurables was estimated to be 3.5 million tons in 1993 (1.7 percent of MSW).
The primary material component of miscellaneous nondurables is plastics,
although some aluminum, rubber, and textiles are also present. Typical products
in miscellaneous nondurables include shower curtains and other household
items, disposable medical supplies, novelty items, and the like.

Generation of plastic products in miscellaneous nondurables is taken from
resin sales data published annually in Modern Plastics. Generation of other
materials in these nondurable products is estimated based on information in past
reports in this series.

Containers and Packaging

Containers and packaging make up a major portion of MSW, amounting
to 70.6 million tons of generation in 1993 (34.1 percent of total generation).
Generation, recovery, and discards of containers and packaging are shown in
detail in Tables 18 through 23.
65
-------
There is substantial recovery of many container and packaging products,
especially corrugated containers. In 1993, 32.5 percent of containers and packaging
generated was recovered for recycling. Because of this recovery, containers and
packaging comprised 29.4 percent of total MSW discards in 1993.

Containers and packaging in MSW are made of several materials: paper
and paperboard, glass, ferrous metals, aluminum, plastics, wood, and small
amounts of other materials. Each materials category is discussed separately
below.

Glass Containers. Glass containers include beer and soft drink bottles, wine
and liquor bottles, and bottles and jars for food, cosmetics, and other products.
Generation of glass containers is estimated using Department of Commerce data.
Adjustments are made for imports and exports of both empty glass containers
and containers holding products, e.g., imported beer.

Generation of these glass containers was 12.2 million tons in 1993, or 5.9
percent of MSW generation (Tables 18 and 19). Production of glass containers had
been declining in the 1980s, but increased in recent years.

Recovery data for glass containers comes from the Glass Packaging
Institute (GPI). The GPI figures include an estimate for use of refillable bottles.
Since refilling is defined as reuse rather than recycling in this report, the refilled
bottles are not counted as recovery in this report, although this has been the
practice in earlier versions. An estimated 3.0 million tons of glass containers
were recovered for recycling in 1993, or 24.6 percent of generation. After recovery
for recycling, glass container discards were 9.2 million tons in 1993, or 5.7 percent
of total discards.

Steel Containers and Packaging. Steel beer and soft drink cans, food and
other cans, and other steel packaging (e.g., strapping), totaled 3.0 million tons in
1993 (1.4 percent of total generation), with most of that amount being "tin" cans
for food (Tables 18 and 19). Generation estimates are based on data supplied by
the Steel Recycling Institute (SRI), the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
and the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI). Generation estimates include
adjustments for imports and exports. Generation of steel containers and
packaging had been declining in the 1970s and 1980s, but has been stable in recent
years.

Recovery data for steel containers and packaging were provided by the
Steel Recycling Institute. An estimated 1.4 million tons of steel packaging were
recovered in 1993, or 46.3 percent of generation. The SRI estimates include both
recovery from residential sources and magnetic separation of steel cans at waste-
to-energy facilities.
66
-------
Table 18
PRODUCTS GENERATED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In thousands of tons)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 15)
Thouc
1960
9,430

17,550

1970
15,090

25,540

1980
19,700

36,490

ands of Tons
1990
29,710

52,450

1991
30,260

50,000

1992
30,630

52,750

1993
31,910

54,800

Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Packaging
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons"
Folding Cartons**
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks**
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles**
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks'*
Wraps**
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pkg
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated - Weight

1,400
1,080
3,710
6,190

640
3,760
260
4,660

60
Neg.
110
170

7,280

3,840

2,940
14,060

60
120
2,000
120
27,320
54,300

12,200
20,000
1,300
33,500
87,800

5,580
1,900
4,420
11,900

1,570
3,540
270
5,380

270
60
240
570

12,680

4,830

3,810
21,320

910

1,180
2,090
2,070
140
43,470
84,100

12,800
23,200
1,780
37,780
121,880

6,750
2,450
4,770
13,970

520
2,850
240
3,610

920
40
310
1,270

16,980
560
3,710
320
3,370
200
850
25,990

260
230
890
390
840
790
3,400
3,940
170
52,350
108,540

13,200
27,500
2,250
42,950
151,490

5,700
2,100
4,110
11,910

150
2,540
200
2,890

1,550
20
330
1,900

24,010
500
4,300
290
2,440
110
1,020
32,670

430
530
1,660
940
1,530
2,200
7,290
7,890
210
64,760
146,920

13,200
35,000
2,900
51,100
198,020

5,280
1,840
4,190
11,310

90
3,000
190
3,280

1,640
30
320
1,990

24,100
500
4,600
270
2,280
80
1,050
32,880

450
490
1,740
930
1,700
2,180
7,490
8,100
210
65,260
145,520

13,300
35,000
2,950
51,250
196,770

5,410
1,830
4,530
11,770

80
2,740
170
2,990

1,590
30
330
1,950

25,400
480
4,600
280
2,320
80
1,120
34,280

510
520
1,860
970
1,820
2,310
7,990
8,930
220
68,130
151,510

13,500
35,000
3,000
51,500
203,010

5,440
1,850
4,940
12,230

70
2,720
190
2,980

1,610
40
330
1,980

26,350
470
4,940
300
2,200
70
1,100
35,430

560
550
1,930
.1,050
1,820
2,370
8,280
9,460
220
70,580
157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
* Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
** Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
t Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
67
-------
Table 19
PRODUCTS GENERATED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In percent of total generation)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 12)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 15)
Percent of Total Generation
1960
10.7%

20.0%

1970
12.4%

21.0%

1980
1 3.0%

24.1%

1990
1 5.0%

26.5%

1991
15.4%

25.4%

1992
15.1%

26.0%

1993
15.4%

26.5%

Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Packaging
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons"
Folding Cartons**
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks**
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles**
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks**
Wraps**
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaaina
Total Containers & Pkg
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated • %

1 .6%
1 .2%
4.2%
7.1%

0.7%
4.3%
0.3%
5.3%

0.1%
Neg.
0.1%
0.2%

8.3%

4.4%

3.3%
16.0%

0.1%

0.1%
0.1%
2.3%
0.1%
31.1%
61 .8%

13.9%
22.8%
1 .5%
38.2%
100.0%

4.6%
1 .6%
3.6%
9.8%

1 .3%
2.9%
0.2%
4.4%

0.2%
Neg.
0.2%
0.5%

10.4%

4.0%

3.1%
17.5%

0.7%

1.0%
1.7%
1.7%
0.1%
35.7%
69.0%

10.5%
19.0%
1.5%
31.0%
100.0%

4.5%
1 .6%
3.1%
9.2%

0.3%
1 .9%
0.2%
2.4%

0.6%
0.0%
0.2%
0.8%

1 1 .2%
0.4%
2.4%
0.2%
2.2%
0.1%
0.6%
17.2%

0.2%
0.2%
0.6%
0.3%
0.6%
0.5%
2.2%
2.6%
0.1%
34.6%
71 .6%

8.7%
18.2%
1 .5%
28.4%
100.0%

2.9%
1.1%
2.1%
6.1%

0.1%
1 .3%
0.1%
1.5%

0.8%
Neg.
0.2%
1.0%

12.2%
0.3%
2.2%
0.1%
1 .2%
0.1%
0.5%
1 6.6%

0.2%
0.3%
0.8%
0.5%
0.8%
1.1%
3.7%
4.0%
0.1%
32.7%
74.2%

6.7%
17.7%
1 .5%
25.8%
100.0%

2.7%
0.9%
2.1%
5.7%

0.0%
1 .5%
0.1%
1 .7%

0.8%
Neg.
0.2%
1 .0%

12.2%
0.3%
2.3%
0.1%
1 .2%
0.0%
0.5%
16.7%

0.2%
0.2%
0.9%
0.5%
0.9%
1.1%
3.8%
4.1%
0.1%
33.2%
74.0%

6.8%
17.8%
1 .5%
26.0%
100.0%

2.7%
0.9%
2.2%
5.8%

0.0%
1 .3%
0.1%
1.5%

0.8%
Neg.
0.2%
1.0%

12.5%
0.2%
2.3%
0.1%
1.1%
0.0%
0.6%
16.9%

0.3%
0.3%
0.9%
0.5%
0.9%
1.1%
3.9%
4.4%
0.1%
33.6%
74.6%

6.6%
17.2%
1.5%
25.4%
1 00.0%

2.6%
0.9%
2.4%
5.9%

0.0%
1 .3%
0.1%
1 .4%

0.8%
Neg.
0.2%
1 .0%

12.7%
0.2%
2.4%
0.1%
1.1%
0.0%
0.5%
17.1%

0.3%
0.3%
0.9%
0.5%
0.9%
1.1%
4.0%
4.6%
0.1%
34.1%
76.0%

6.7%
15.9%
1 .5%
24.0%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
68
-------
Table 20
RECOVERY* OF PRODUCTS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In thousands of tons)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 13)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 16)
Thousands of Tons
1960
350

2,380

1970
940

3,790

Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons**
Folding Cartons**
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks**
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles**
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks**
Wraps**
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pkg
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered • Weight

90
10
Neg.
100

10
20
Neg.
30

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

2,470

300

220
2,990

Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
3,120
5,850

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
5,850

140
10
Neg.
150

20
70
Neg.
90

10
Neg.
Neg.
10

2,700

530

420
3,650

Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
3,900
8,630

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
8,630
1980
1,350

4,810

1990
2,910

8,620

1991
3,230

10,300

1992
3,520

10,920

730
20
Neg.
750

50
150
Neg.
200

340
Neg.
Neg.
340

6,250
Neg.
Neg.
500
Neg.
Neg.
310
7,060

10
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
10
Neg.
Neg.
8,360
14,520

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
14,520

1,890
210
520
2,620

40
590
50
680

980
Neg.
30
1,010

1 1 ,530
Neg.
430
Neg.
220
Neg.
Neg.
12,180

140
20
20
30
30
20
260
400
Neg.
17,150
28,680

Neg.
4,200
Neg.
4,200
32,880

1,350
380
820
2,550

40
930
40
1,010

1,020
Neg.
20
1,040

12,110
Neg.
600
Neg.
310
Neg.
Neg.
13,020

160
70
70
10
10
10
330
810
Neg.
18,760
32,290

Neg.
5,000
Neg.
5,000
37,290

1,530
430
930
2,890

40
1,090
40
1,170

1,080
Neg.
30
1,110

13,310
Neg.
690
Neg.
340
Neg.
Neg.
14,340

210
120
80
20
20
10
460
1,070
Neg.
21,040
35,480

Neg.
6,000
Neg.
6,000
41,480
1993
4,050

11,500

1,600
450
960
3,010

40
1,300
40
1,380

1.020
Neg.
30
1,050

14,620
Neg.
700
Neg.
350
Neg.
Neg.
15.670

230
130
90
20
30
10
510
1,320
Neg.
22,940
38,490

Neg.
6,500
Neg.
6,500
44,990
Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
69
-------
Table 21

RECOVERY* OF PRODUCTS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In percent of generation of each product)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 13)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 16)
Percent of Generation of Each Product
1960
3.7%

13.6%

1970
6.2%

14.8%

1980
6.9%

13.2%

1990
9.8%

16.4%

1991
10.7%

20.6%

1992
1 1 .5%

20.7%

1993
12.7%

21.0%

Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons"
Folding Cartons**
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks**
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper & Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles**
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks**
Wraps"
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pkg
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Recovered - %

6.4%
Neg.
Neg.
1 .6%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

33.9%

7.8%

7.5%
21.3%

Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
1 1 .4%
10.8%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
6.7%

2.5%
Neg.
Neg.
1.3%

Neg.
2.0%
Neg.
1.7%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

21.3%

11.0%

1 1 .0%
17.1%

Neg.

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
9.0%
10.3%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
7.1%

10.8%
Neg.
Neg.
5.4%

Neg.
5.3%
Neg.
5.5%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.

36.8%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
36.5%
27.2%

3.8%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
16.0%
13.4%

Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
9.6%

33.2%
10.0%
12.7%
22.0%

26.7%
23.2%
25.0%
23.5%

63.2%
Neg.
9.1%
53.2%

48.0%
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
Neg.
37.3%

32.6%
3.8%
1 .2%
3.2%
2.0%
0.9%
3.6%
5.1%
Neg.
26.5%
19.5%

Neg.
1 2.0%
Neg.
8.2%
16.6%

25.6%
20.7%
19.6%
22.5%

44.4%
31.0%
21.1%
30.8%

62.2%
Neg.
6.3%
52.3%

50.2%
Neg.
1 3.0%
Neg.
13.6%
Neg.
Neg.
39.6%

35.6%
14.3%
4.0%
1.1%
0.6%
0.5%
4.4%
10.0%
Neg.
28.7%
22.2%

Neg.
14.3%
Neg.
9.8%
19.0%

28.3%
23.5%
20.5%
24.6%

50.0%
39.8%
23.5%
39.1%

67.9%
Neg.
9.1%
56.9%

52.4%
Neg.
15.0%
Neg.
14.7%
Neg.
Neg.
41.8%

41 .2%
23.1%
4.3%
2.1%
1.1%
0.4%
5.8%
12.0%
Neg.
30.9%
23.4%

Neg.
17.1%
Neg.
1 1 .7%
20.4%

29.4%
24.3%
19.4%
24.6%

57.1%
47.8%
21.1%
46.3%

63.4%
Neg.
9.1%
53.0%

55.5%
Neg.
14.2%
Neg.
15.9%
Neg.
Neg.
44.2%

41.1%
23.6%
4.7%
1 .9%
1.6%
0.4%
6.2%
14.0%
Neg.
32.5%
24.5%

Neg.
19.8%
Neg.
13.1%
21.7%
Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
70
-------
Table 22

PRODUCTS DISCARDED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In thousands of tons)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons"
Folding Cartons**
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks**
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles**
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks**
Wraps"
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pkg
Total Product Wastes?
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total USW Discarded - Welaht
Thousands of Tons
1960
9,080

15,170

1,310
1,080
3,710
6,090

640
3,760
260
4,660

60
Neg.
110
170

4,810

3,540

2,720
11,070

60
120
2,000
120
24,200
48,450

12,200
20,000
1,300
33.500
81.950
1970
14,150

21,750

5,440
1,900
4,420
11,750

1,570
3,470
270
5,290

270
60
240
570

9,980

4,300

3,390
17,670

910

1,180
2,090
2,070
140
39,570
75,470

12,800
23,200
1,780
37.780
113.250
1980
18,350

31,680

6,020
2,450
4,770
13,220

520
2,700
240
3,410

920
40
310
1,270

10,730
560
3,710
320
3,370
200
850
18,930

250
230
890
390
840
790
3,390
3,940
170
43,990
94,020

13,200
27,500
2,250
42.950
1 36 970
1990
26,800

43,830

3,810
1,890
3,590
9,290

110
1,950
150
2,210

570
20
300
890

12,480
500
3,870
290
2,220
110
1,020
20,490

290
510
1,640
910
1,500
2,180
7,030
7,490
210
47,610
118,240

13,200
30,800
2,900
46.900
165 140
1991
27,030

39,700

3,930
1,460
3,370
8,760

50
2,070
150
2,270

620
30
300
950

11,990
500
4,000
270
1,970
80
1,050
19,860

290
420
1,670
920
1,690
2,170
7,160
7,290
210
46,500
113,230

13,300
30,000
2,950
46.250
1 59 480
1992
27,110

41,830

3,880
1,400
3,600
8,880

40
1,650
130
1,820

510
30
300
840

12,090
480
3,910
280
1,980
80
1,120
19,940

300
400
1,780
950
1,800
2,300
7,530
7,860
220
47,090
116,030

13,500
29,000
3,000
45.500
161 530
1993
27,860

43,300

3,840
1,400
3,980
9,220

30
1,420
150
1,600

590
40
300
930

11,730
470
4,240
300
1,850
70
1,100
19,760

330
420
1,840
1,030
1,790
2,360
7,770
8,140
220
47,640
118,800

13,800
26,300
3,050
43.150
161 950
* Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
" Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
t Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
71
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Table 23
PRODUCTS DISCARDED* IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1960 TO 1993
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In percent of total discards)

Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 14)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 17)
Percent of Total Discards
1960
11.1%

18.5%

1970
12.5%

19.2%

1980
13.4%

23.1%

1990
16.2%

26.5%

1991
1 6.9%

24.9%

1992
16.8%

25.9%

1993
17.2%

26.7%

Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons"
Folding Cartons"
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks"
Wrapping Papers**
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles**
Milk Bottles"
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks"
Wraps**
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pka
Total Product Wastesf
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Discarded • %

1 .6%
1 .3%
4.5%
7.4%

0.8%
4.6%
0.3%
5.7%

0.1%
Neg.
0.1%
0.2%

5.9%

4.3%

3.3%
13.5%

0.1%

0.1%
0.1%
2.4%
0.1%
29.5%
59.1%

14.9%
24.4%
1 .6%
40.9%
100.0%

4.8%
1 .7%
3.9%
1 0.4%

1 .4%
3.1%
0.2%
4.7%

0.2%
Neg.
0.2%
0.5%

8.8%

3.8%

3.0%
15.6%

0.8%

1 .0%
1 .8%
1 .8%
0.1%
34.9%
66.6%

1 1 .3%
20.5%
1 .6%
33.4%
100.0%

4.4%
1 .8%
3.5%
9.7%

0.4%
2.0%
0.2%
2.5%

0.7%
Neg.
0.2%
0.9%

7.8%
0.4%
2.7%
0.2%
2.5%
0.1%
0.6%
1 3.8%

0.2%
0.2%
0.6%
0.3%
0.6%
0.6%
2.5%
2.9%
0.1%
32.1%
68.6%

9.6%
20.1%
1 .6%
31.4%
100.0%

2.3%
1.1%
2.2%
5.6%

0.1%
1 .2%
0.1%
1 .3%

0.3%
Neg.
0.2%
0.5%

7.6%
0.3%
2.3%
0.2%
1.3%
0.1%
0.6%
12.4%

0.2%
0.3%
1 .0%
0.6%
0.9%
1 .3%
4.3%
4.5%
0.1%
28.8%
71.6%

8.0%
18.7%
1 .8%
28.4%
100.0%

2.5%
0.9%
2.1%
5.5%

0.0%
1.3%
0.1%
1 .4%

0.4%
Neg.
0.2%
0.6%

7.5%
0.3%
2.5%
0.2%
1 .2%
0.1%
0.7%
12.5%

0.2%
0.3%
1 .0%
0.6%
1.1%
1 .4%
4.5%
4.6%
0.1%
29.2%
71 .0%

8.3%
18.8%
1 .8%
29.0%
100.0%

2.4%
0.9%
2.2%
5.5%

0.0%
1 .0%
0.1%
1.1%

0.3%
Neg.
0.2%
0.5%

7.5%
0.3%
2.4%
0.2%
1 .2%
0.0%
0.7%
12.3%

0.2%
0.2%
1.1%
0.6%
1.1%
1.4%
4.7%
4.9%
0.1%
29.2%
71.8%

8.4%
18.0%
1 .9%
28.2%
100.0%

2.4%
0.9%
2.5%
5.7%

0.0%
0.9%
0.1%
1.0%

0.4%
Neg.
0.2%
0.6%

7.2%
0.3%
2.6%
0.2%
1.1%
0.0%
0.7%
12.2%

0.2%
0.3%
1.1%
0.6%
1.1%
1.5%
4.8%
5.0%
0.1%
29.4%
73.4%

8.5%
16.2%
1.9%
26.6%
100.0%
Discards after materials and compost recovery. Does not include construction & demolition debris, industrial process
wastes, or certain other wastes. Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Not estimated separately prior to 1980.
Other than food products.
Neg. = Negligible.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
72
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Aluminum Containers and Packaging. Aluminum containers and
packaging include beer and soft drink cans, other cans, and foil and closures.
Aluminum can generation is estimated based on data from the Can
Manufacturers Institute and the Aluminum Association, while data on other
aluminum packaging is based on Department of Commerce data. Total
aluminum container and packaging generation in 1993 was 2.0 million tons, or
1.0 percent of total generation.

Aluminum can recovery data comes from the Aluminum Association.
Aluminum beer and soft drink cans were recovered at an estimated 63.4 percent
rate in 1993. Recovery of all aluminum packaging was estimated to be 53.0
percent of total generation in 1993. After recovery for recycling, 930,000 tons of
aluminum packaging were discarded in 1993. This represented 0.6 percent of
MSW discards.

Paper and Paperboard Containers and Packaging. Corrugated boxes are the
largest single product category of MSW at 26.4 million tons generated, or 12.7
percent of total generation, in 1993. Corrugated boxes also represent the largest
single category of product recovery, at 14.6 million tons of recovery in 1993 (55.5
percent of boxes generated were recovered). After recovery, 11.7 million tons of
corrugated boxes were discarded, or 7.2 percent of MSW discards in 1993.

Other paper and paperboard packaging in MSW includes milk cartons,
folding boxes (e.g., cereal boxes, frozen food boxes, some department store boxes),
bags and sacks, wrapping papers, and other paper and paperboard packaging.
Overall, paper and paperboard containers and packaging totaled 35.4 million tons
of MSW generation in 1993, or 17.1 percent of total generation.

While recovery of corrugated boxes is by far the largest component of
paper packaging recovery, smaller amounts of other paper packaging products
are recovered (estimated at 1.1 million tons in 1993). The overall recovery rate
for paper and paperboard packaging in 1993 was 44.2 percent. Recovery of other
paper packaging like folding boxes and sacks is mostly in the form of mixed
papers.

Plastic Containers and Packaging. Many different plastic resins are used to
make a variety of packaging products. Some of these include polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) soft drink bottles—some with high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) base cups, HOPE milk jugs, film products (including bags and sacks)
made of low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and containers and other packaging
(including coatings, closures, etc.) made of polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and
other resins.

Estimates of generation of plastic containers and packaging are based on
data on resin sales by end use published annually by Modern Plastics, a trade
73
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publication. Adjustments are made for imports and exports based on Department
of Commerce data, and adjustments are made for the lifetimes of durable goods.

Plastic containers and packaging have exhibited rapid growth in MSW,
with generation increasing from 120,000 tons in 1960 (0.1 percent of generation)
to 8.3 million tons in 1993 (4.0 percent of generation). (Note: plastic packaging
does not include single-service plates and cups and trash bags, which are
classified as nondurable goods.)

Estimates of recovery of plastic products are based on data published
annually by the American Plastics Council. Plastic soft drink bottles and base cups
were estimated to have been recovered at a 41.1 percent rate in 1993. Recovery of
plastic milk bottles was estimated to have been 23.6 percent of generation.
Overall, recovery of plastic containers and packaging was estimated to be 6.2
percent in 1993. Discards of plastic containers and packaging were thus 7.8
million tons in 1993, or 4.8 percent of total discards.

Wood Packaging. Wood packaging includes wood crates and pallets. Data
on production of wood packaging (in units) is obtained from the Wooden Pallet
and Container Association, and converted to weight using converting factors for
wood. In 1993, 9.5 million tons of wood packaging were estimated to have been
generated. Wood packaging was thus 4.6 percent of total generation in 1993.

There is increasing recovery of wood pallets, mostly by chipping to make
products like mulch. The Wooden Pallet and Container Association provides
data on recovery of wood pallets. It was estimated that 1.3 million tons of wood
were recovered in this manner in 1993, or 14 percent of generation. This left 8.1
million tons discarded in 1993, or 5.0 percent of total discards.

There is considerable reuse of wood pallets. Reuse was not counted as
recycling in this chapter, but is discussed in the section on source reduction in
Chapter 3.

Other Packaging. Estimates are included for some other miscellaneous
packaging such as bags made of textiles, small amounts of leather, and the like.
These latter quantities are not well documented, but were estimated to amount
to 220,000 tons generated in 1993.

Summary of Products in Municipal Solid Waste

Changing quantities and composition of municipal solid waste generation
by product category are illustrated in Figure 14. This figure shows graphically that
generation of durable goods has increased very gradually over the years.
Nondurable goods and containers and packaging have accounted for the large
increases in MSW generation.
74
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Figure 14. Generation of products in MSW, 1960 to 1993
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
• Other Wastes

D Yard Wastes

Q Food Wastes

D Containers & Packaging

• Nondurable Goods

B Durable Goods
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
The materials composition of nondurable goods in 1993 is shown in
Figure 15. Paper and paperboard made up 77.4 percent of nondurables in MSW
generation, with plastics contributing 8.4 percent, and textiles 7.8 percent. Other
materials contributed lesser percentages. After recovery for recycling, paper and
paperboard were 73.0 percent of nondurable discards, with plastics being 10.6
percent, and textiles 8.2 percent.

The materials composition of containers and packaging in MSW in 1993 is
shown in Figure 16. Paper and paperboard products made up 50.2 percent of
containers and packaging generation, with glass second at 17.3 percent of
containers and packaging generation by weight. Recovery for recycling makes a
significant change, with paper and paperboard being 41.4 percent of containers
and packaging discards after recovery takes place. Glass was 19.4 percent of
discards of containers and packaging, plastics comprised 16.5 percent, and other
materials made up lesser amounts.

Some additional perspectives on products in municipal solid waste are
included in other chapters of this report.
75
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Figure 15. Nondurable goods generated and discarded
In municipal solid waste, 1993
(in percent of total generation and discards)
Metals 0.3%
Plastics 8.4%
Sf\ Rubber & Leather 1.8%
Textiles 7.8%
Other 4.3%
Generation
Metals 0.4%
Rubber & Leather 2.3%
Textiles 8.2%
Other 5.4%
Discards
76
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Figure 16. Containers and packaging generated and discarded
in municipal solid waste, 1993
(In percent of total generation and discards)
Glass 17.3%
Metals 7.0%
Plastics 11.9%
Other 13.6%
Generation
Glass 19.4%
Metals 5.3%
Plastics 16.5%
Other 17.4%
Discards
77
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Chapter 2

REFERENCES

GENERAL

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1992 Update. EPA/530-R-92-019. July 1992.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1990 Update. EPA/530-SW-90-042. June 1991.

Franklin, M.A. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States,
1960 to 2000 (Update 1988). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/530-SW-
88-033. NTIS PB88-232780/WEP. March 1988.

Franklin, M.A. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States,
1960 to 2000. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. REPT-15-3490-00. NTIS
PB87-178323/WEP. July 1986.

ALUMINUM CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING

The Aluminum Association. Aluminum Statistical Review. Various years.

Can Manufacturers Institute. Can Shipments Report. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Closures for Containers." MQ34H. Various years.

CARPETS AND RUGS

The Carpet and Rug Institute. Carpet & Rug Industry Review. Various years.

Personal communication with a representative of the Carpet and Rug Institute.
February 14,1992.

Rauch Associates, Inc. The Rauch Guide to the U.S. Adhesives and Sealants
Industry. ISBN O-932157-05-X.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Carpets and Rugs." MA22Q. Various years.

FERROUS METAL CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING

American Iron and Steel Institute. Annual Statistical Report. Various years.
78
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Can Manufacturers Institute. Can Shipments Report. Various years.

Personal communication with a representative of the Association of Container
Reconditioning. June 1994.

Personal communication with a representative of the Steel Recycling Institute.
AISI Technical Committee Report #823-0411 adjusted.

Smith, F.L. A Solid Waste Estimation Procedure: Material Flows Approach. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/530-SW-147. May 1974.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Closures for Containers." MQ34H. Various years.

FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of Manufactures
and Annual Survey of Manufactures. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Average Weight and Width of Broadwoven Fabrics (Gray)." MC-22T.
November 1977.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Office Furniture." MA-25H. Various years.

Smith, F.L. A Solid Waste Estimation Procedure: Material Flows Approach. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/530-SW-147. May 1974.

FOOD WASTE

Food Manufacturers Institute. Composting Workbook. "Reducing Waste
Disposal Costs: How to Evaluate the Benefits of Composting in the Supermarket
Industry." Food Marketing Institute. 1994.

Grocery Committee on Solid Waste. Composting Task Force Report. October 24,
1991.

Hinshaw, Jane, and Ivan Braun. "Targeting Commercial Businesses for
Recycling." Resource Recycling. November 1991.

Newell, Ty, Elizabeth Markstahler, and Matthew Snyder. "Commercial Food
Waste from Restaurants and Grocery Stores." Resource Recycling. February 1993.

Marion, James, New York State Department of Corrections. Presentation at the
BioCycle conference. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1994.
79
-------
Savage, George M. "The History and Utility of Waste Characterization Studies."
MSW Management. May/June 1994.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Population
Reports. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce. "Trends and Forecasts: Retail Sales." U.S.
Industrial Outlook 1994.

Walsh, Patrick, Wayne Pferdehirt, and Phil O'Leary. "Collection of Recyclables
from Multifamily Housing and Businesses." Waste Age. April 1993.

GLASS CONTAINERS

Brewers Almanac. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Glass Containers." M32G. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Exports, Schedule B Commodity by Country
- Domestic Merchandise. FT 447.

U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Imports of Merchandise for Consumption.
FT 110 and FT 125.

LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

Apotheker, Steve. "Batteries Power Secondary Lead Smelter Growth." Resource
Recycling. February 1990.

Apotheker, Steve. "Does Battery Recycling Need a Jump?" Resource Recycling.
February 1990.

Apotheker, Steve. "Get the Lead Out." Resource Recycling. April 1991.

Battery Council International. Industry Statistics. Various years.

Battery Council International. National Recycling Rate Study 1992.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Characterization of Products Containing Lead and
Cadmium in Municipal Solid Waste in the United States, 1970 to 2000. U.S.
80
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Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/530-SW-89-015A. NTIS PB89-
151039/WEP. January 1989.

Motorcycle Industry Council, Inc. Motorcycle Statistical Annual. 1992.

U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Industrial Outlook "Metals." Various years.

U. S. Department of Commerce. Statistical Abstract of the United States. Various
years.

MAJOR APPLIANCES

Appliance Magazine. Corcoran Communications. September 1983.

Appliance Manufacturer. Annual Industry Marketing Guide, March issue of
various years.

Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers. Trends and Forecasts. 1971 to
1988.

Electrical Merchandising. January 1951.

Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association. Statistical Highlights. Various years.

National Industrial Pollution Control Council. The Disposal of Major
Appliances. June 1971.

Personal communication with a representative of Amana, Inc. November 1991.

Personal communication with a representative of Steel Recycling Institute. May
1994.

Purchasing Magazine. Cahner's Publications. January 15,1987 and March 9,1989.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of Manufactures.
Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Major Household Appliances." MA36F. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States. Various years.
81
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PAPER AND PAPERBOARD

American Forest & Paper Association, Paper Recycling Group. 1994 Annual
Statistical Summary Waste Paper Utilization. May 1994.

American Forest & Paper Association. 1994 Statistics of Paper, Paperboard &
Wood Pulp. September 1994.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Supply of and Recycling Demand for Office Waste
Paper, 1990 to 1995. National Office Paper Recycling Project. July 1991.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. Evaluation of Proposed New Recycled Paper Standards
and Definitions. Special Task Force on Standards and Definitions, Recycled Paper
Committee, Recycling Advisory Council. January 27, 1992.

U.S. Postal Service. Annual Report of the Postmaster General: Fiscal year 1993.

"U.S. Portal Service to Recycle Undelivered Bulk Business Mail." Waste Age.
September 1994.

PLASTICS

Modern Plastics. Resin Statistics. January issue, various years.

R.W. Beck and Associates. "Postconsumer Plastics Recycling Rate Study for the
American Plastics Council." Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1994 U.S. Industrial Outlook.

RUBBER

McRee, Robert E. "Recap - Recapture: Incineration of Rubber for Energy
Recovery" Presented at the Joint NTDRA/RMA International Symposium.
Washington, DC. October 22,1982.

Personal communication with a representative of Scrap Tire News.

Retreaders Journal. April 1987.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of Manufactures.
Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Rubber Mechanical Goods." MA30C. Various years.
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U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Rubber: Production, Shipments, and Stocks." MA30A. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States. Various editions.

U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Industrial Outlook. "Plastics and Rubber."
Also earlier editions. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. U.S. Imports for
Consumption. FT 247. Table 1. 1991.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Markets for Scrap Tires. EPA/530-SW-90-
074A. October 1991.

TEXTILES AND FOOTWEAR

National Association of Hosiery Manufacturers. Fact Sheets. Various years.

Riggle, David. 'Tapping Textile Recycling." BioCycle. February 1992.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Apparel." MA23A, MA23E, MA23G. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. "Sheets, Towels and Pillowcases." MQ23X. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current Industrial
Reports. MA31A, MA23E, MA23G, and MA23A. Various years.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United States. Various years.

WOOD PACKAGING

Personal communication with representative of the National Wooden Pallet
and Container Association. December 1993.

Personal communication with representative of the U.S. Forestry Service
Laboratory, Princeton, WV. December 1991.

Eshbach, Ovid, Ed. Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals. Second Edition.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Personal communication with representative of Virginia Polytechnical Institute.
December 1991.
83
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Personal communication with representative of U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. December 1991.

Misner, Michael. "Cutting into Wood Waste Markets." Waste Age. August 1991.

U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Industrial Outlook . "Wood Products."
Various year.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
Wood Used in U.S. Manufacturing Industries, 1977. December 1983.
84
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Chapter 3

MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
INTRODUCTION

EPA's tiered integrated waste management strategy includes the following
components:

1. Source reduction (including reuse of products and backyard
composting of yard trimmings)
2. Recycling of materials (including composting)
3. Waste combustion (preferably with energy recovery) and landfilling.

Characterization of historical municipal solid waste (MSW) management is a
component of this report. Estimates of historical recovery of materials and yard
trimmings for recycling and composting are presented in Chapter 2. Estimates of
MSW combustion are presented in this chapter, and quantities of waste
landfilled are estimated by subtracting combustion and recovery for recycling and
composting from total MSW generation as estimated in Chapter 2.

While source reduction is not quantified as a line item in this report, a
discussion of source reduction activities is included in this chapter. Source
reduction activities have the effect of reducing MSW generation, while the other
management alternatives deal with MSW once it is generated.

SOURCE REDUCTION

While the primary focus of this report is on generation of municipal solid
waste and the ways in which the MSW is managed after it enters the waste
stream, there is another aspect to waste management: source reduction. (Note
that source reduction is often called "waste prevention.") EPA defines source
reduction as "any change in the design, manufacturing, purchase, or use of
materials or products (including packaging) to reduce the amount or toxicity
before they become municipal solid waste. Prevention also refers to the reuse of
products or materials." Thus, source reduction activities affect the waste stream
before the point of generation. In this report, MSW is considered to have been
generated if it is placed at curbside or in a receptacle such as a dumpster for
pickup, or if it is taken by the generator to another site for disposal or other
management alternative.

Many attempts have been made to measure and quantify source reduction
activities. It is relatively easy to measure source reduction for a single product,
such as a package, or for a specific location, such as an office. It is much more
difficult to quantify source reduction on a national basis, and there is no
85
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consensus at this time as to how this could be done. Some steps toward
measuring source reduction have been identified; they include establishing a
baseline, tracking that baseline, and accounting for major variables that impact
generation rates. Variables that make accurate measurement difficult include
economic factors, technical innovations, changing demographics, and climatic
variations.

Source reduction measures encompass a very broad range of activities by
private citizens, communities, commercial establishments, institutional
agencies, and manufacturers and distributors. In general, source reduction
activities include:

• Designing products or packages so as to reduce the quantity of materials
or the toxicity of the materials used.

• Reducing amounts of products or packages used through modification
of current practices.

• Reusing products or packages already manufactured.

• Lengthening the life of products to postpone disposal.

• Managing non-product organic wastes (food wastes, yard trimmings)
through backyard composting or other on-site alternatives to disposal.

Product and Packaging Design for Source Reduction

Since source reduction of products and packages can save money through
reducing materials and energy costs, manufacturers and packagers have been
pursuing these activities for many years. Design for source reduction can take
several approaches:

• A product or package can be reduced in size or made lighter. For
example, soft drink packaging, regardless of material, has been reduced
in weight over time (Table 24).

Table 24
REDUCTION IN WEIGHTS OF SOFT DRINK CONTAINERS, 1972 TO 1992
(in pounds per 100 containers)
Percent
1972 1992 Change
One-way glass bottle (16 fluid ounce)
Steel can (12 fluid ounce)
Aluminum can (12 fluid ounce)
PET bottle (2 liter, one-piece)
75.7
10.5
4.5
14.6
48.04
7.19
3.51
11.95
- 36.5%
- 31.5%
- 22.0%
-18.1%
Does not include weight of labels and caps. PET data for 1977 and 1992.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
86
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Materials substitution can make a product or package lighter. There has
been a continuous trend of substitution of lighter materials such as
plastics and aluminum for materials such as glass and steel. The
substitution may often be a flexible package (such as a bag) instead of a
rigid package (such as a box). For example, a brick pack for coffee made
of an aluminum foil/plastic laminate reduces packaging by 85 percent
compared to a steel coffee can.

Another illustration of source reduction by materials substitution is
shown in Table 3-24a. This shows that over a 15-year period, weight of
snack foods increased by over 42 percent, while weight of snack food
packaging decreased by nearly 9 percent and pounds of packaging per
100 pounds of product decreased by over 36 percent. This decrease can
be attributed primarily to a switch from rigid packaging (e.g., boxes) to
flexible packaging (e.g., bags).

Table 3-24a

COMPARISON OF SNACK FOOD PACKAGING, 1972 AND 1987

Millions pounds of product
Million pounds of packaging
Pounds packaging/100 pounds of product
Thousand cubic yards of packaging

1972
11,028
1,243
11.3
1,536

1987
15,731
1,134
7.2
1,391
Percent
Change
+42.6%
- 8.8%
- 36.2%
- 9.4%
Does not include tertiary packaging (corrugated containers).
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
• A product or package can be redesigned to reduce weight or volume.
For example, a box used to package a tube or bottle can often be
eliminated.

• Toxic materials in products or packaging can be replaced with non-toxic
substitutes. Considerable efforts have been made in this area in the past
few years. For example, vegetable-based inks are being substituted for
petroleum-based inks.

Modifying Practices to Reduce Materials Use

Businesses and individuals can often modify their current practices to
reduce the amounts of waste generated. In a business office, electronic mail can
replace printed memoranda and data. Reports can be copied on both sides of the
paper (duplexed).
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Individuals (and businesses) can request removal from mailing lists to
reduce the amount of mail received and discarded. When practical, products can
be purchased in large sizes or in bulk to minimize the amount of packaging per
unit of product. Concentrated products can also reduce packaging requirements;
some of these products, such as fabric softeners and powdered detergent, are
designed to be used with refillable containers.

Reuse of Products and Packages

Reuse of products and packages delays the time when the items must
finally be discarded as waste. When a product is reused, presumably purchase
and use of a new product is delayed, although this may not always be true.

Many of the products characterized for this report are reused in sizable
quantities. The recovery of products and materials for recycling and composting
as characterized in Chapter 2 does not include reuse of products, but reuse is
discussed below in this section.

Durable Goods. There is a long tradition of reuse of durable goods such as
large and small appliances, furniture, and carpets. Often this is done informally
as individuals pass on used goods to family members and friends. Other durable
goods are donated to charitable organizations for resale or donation to needy
families. Some communities and other organizations have facilitated exchange
programs for citizens, and there are for-profit retail stores that deal in used
furniture, appliances, and carpets. Other goods are resold by individuals at garage
sales, flea markets, and the like. Borrowing and sharing items like tools can also
reduce the number of products to be discarded ultimately. Except for tires, there is
generally a lack of data on the volume of durable goods reused in the United
States, and what the ultimate effect on MSW generation might be.

Nondurable Goods. While nondurable goods by their very nature are
designed for short term use and disposal, there is considerable reuse of some
items classified as nondurable. In particular, footwear, clothing, and other textile
goods are often reused. Much of the reuse is accomplished through the same
types of channels as those described above for durable goods. That is, private
individuals, charitable organizations, and retail outlets (consignment shops) all
facilitate reuse of discarded clothing and footwear. In addition, considerable
amounts of textiles are reused as wiping cloths before being discarded.

Another often-cited source reduction measure is use of washable plates,
cups, napkins, towels, diapers, etc. instead of the disposable variety. (This will
reduce solid waste but will have other effects, such as increased water and energy
use.)

Other reusable items are available, for example: reusable air filters,
reusable coffee filters, reconditioned printer cartridges, etc.
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Containers and Packaging. Containers and packaging can be reused in two
ways: they can be used again for their original purpose, or they can be used in
other ways.

Glass bottles are a prime example of reuse of a container for its original
purpose. Refillable glass beer and soft drink bottles can be collected, washed, and
refilled for use again. Some years ago large numbers of refillable glass soft drink
bottles were used, but these have largely been replaced by single-use glass bottles,
plastic bottles and aluminum cans. Considerable numbers of beer bottles are
collected for refilling, often by restaurants and taverns where the bottles can
conveniently be collected and returned by the distributor. The Glass Packaging
Institute estimates that refillable glass bottles achieve a rate of 8 trips (refillings)
per bottle.

Another example in this category is the use of refurbished wood pallets for
shipping palletized goods. The Wood Pallet and Container Association estimates
that over 50 percent of wood pallets produced are reusable; the pallets are reused
about four times per year, on average.

Many other containers and packages can be recycled but are not often
reused. Some refillable containers (e.g., for laundry softener) have been
introduced; the original container can be refilled using concentrate in small
packages. This practice can achieve a 75 percent source reduction in packaging. As
another example, some grocery stores will allow customers to reuse grocery
sacks, perhaps allowing a refund for each sack brought back for reuse. Also, some
parcel shippers will take back plastic packaging "peanuts" for reuse.

Many ingenious reuses for containers and packaging are possible in the
home. People reuse newspapers, boxes, bags, jars, jugs, and cans for many
purposes around the house. There are no reliable estimates as to how these
activities affect the waste stream.

Lengthening Product Life. Lengthening product life delays the time when
the products enter the municipal waste stream. The responsibility for
lengthening product life lies partly with manufacturers and partly with
consumers. Products can be designed to last longer and be easier to repair. Since
some of these design modifications may make products more expensive, at least
initially, consumers must demand the products and be willing to pay for them to
make the goal work. Consumers must also be willing to care for and repair
products.

Management of Organic Wastes. Food wastes and yard trimmings
combined made up 22.6 percent of MSW generation in 1993, so source reduction
measures aimed at these products can have an important effect on waste
generation. Composting is the usual method for source reducing these organic
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wastes. As defined in this report, composting of organic wastes after they are
taken to a central composting facility is a waste management activity comparable
to recovery for recycling. Estimates for these composting activities are included
in this Chapter 3.

Composting or other reduction management measures that take place at
the point of generation (e.g., the yard of a home or business) is source reduction.
Backyard composting of yard trimmings and some food wastes is not a new
practice, but in recent years publicity and education programs have encouraged
more people to participate. There also is a trend toward leaving grass clippings
on lawns, sometimes through the use of mulching mowers.

Part of the impetus for source reduction of yard trimmings is the large
number of state regulations discouraging landfilling or other disposal of yard
trimmings. The Composting Council and other sources report that in 1992, 12
states (amounting to over 28 percent of the nation's population) had in effect
legislation banning yard trimmings from landfills. By 1996, 23 states (amounting
to over 50 percent of the nation's population) will have in effect legislation
affecting disposal of yard trimmings. While data on amounts of yard trimmings
received at disposal facilities is limited, there is considerable anecdotal evidence
indicating that when these bans go into effect, people find ways to source reduce.
This is discussed in more depth in Chapter 4.

SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL AND PROJECTED MSW MANAGEMENT

The data presented in this chapter and Chapter 2 make possible a
comprehensive summary of historical municipal solid waste management.
The study results are summarized in Table 25 and Figure 17. Municipal solid
waste generation has grown steadily (except for occasional decreases during
recession years) from 87.8 million tons in 1960 to 206.9 million tons in 1993.

Recovery for Recycling and Composting of Yard Trimmings

Recovery for recycling and composting had little effect on the total waste
stream until the 1980s. Recovery was less than 10 percent of generation in the
1960s and 1970s. A strong emphasis on recovery for recycling, including
composting, developed in the latter part of the 1980s, and total recovery reached
an estimated 21.7 percent of generation in 1993.

Mixed MSW Composting

Composting of yard trimmings is well established in many communities
and was found to be increasing rapidly due to state-wide bans of yard trimmings
in landfills and other local initiatives. Composting of mixed municipal wastes
(e.g., by in-vessel units) is a developing technology in the United States. It was
estimated that less than 0.7 million tons of mixed MSW were recovered for
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composting in 1993. Insufficient data were available to make projections for the
future of this technology, however.

Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste

Most of the municipal solid waste combustion currently practiced in this
country incorporates recovery of an energy product (generally steam or
electricity); sale of the energy helps to offset the cost of operating the facility. In
past years, it was common to burn municipal solid waste in incinerators as a
volume reduction practice; recovery of energy started to become more prevalent
in the 1970s.

Previous estimates of combustion with energy recovery were updated and
expressed as a percentage of MSW generation (Table 25). Surveys by EPA and
other organizations were used as references. In addition, a literature search
updated lists of facilities that were operational, under construction, or in
planning in 1993.

In most cases the facilities have a stated daily capacity, but they normally
operate at less than capacity over the course of a year. It was assumed for this
report that throughput over a year of operation is 85 percent of rated capacity.
While this is a conservative assumption, it has proven to be reasonably accurate
over the years. (While new facilities are reporting operation at very high
utilization rates, other facilities do not meet the same standards for annual
throughput as compared to rated capacity.)

The surveys revealed that combustion of MSW increased rapidly between
1980 and 1990, with numerous new facilities coming into operation. The amount
of MSW combusted has remained relatively constant since 1990. It was estimated
that approximately 30.3 million tons of MSW were combusted with energy
recovery in 1993. These estimates include facilities that mass burn mixed MSW
with much pre-processing as well as those using fuel prepared from mixed MSW
(usually called refuse-derived fuel).

To provide a complete picture of historical MSW management, updates of
the estimates of combustion without energy recovery were also made. The
estimates indicate that MSW combustion without energy recovery dropped
steadily throughout the entire study period, to about 1.6 million tons in 1993.

In addition to facilities combusting mixed MSW (processed or
unprocessed), there is a small but growing amount of combustion of source
separated MSW. In particular, there is considerable interest in using rubber tires
as fuel in dedicated facilities or as fuel in cement kilns. In addition, there is
combustion of wood wastes and some paper and plastic wastes, usually in boilers
that already burn some other type of solid fuel. For this report, it was
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Table 25
GENERATION, MATERIALS RECOVERY, COMPOSTING, COMBUSTION,
AND DISCARDS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Thousands of Tons
Generation
Recovery for recycling
Recovery for composting*
Total Materials Recovery
Discards after recovery
Combustion**
Discards to landfill,
other disposalt
1960
87,800
5,850
0.0
5,850
81,950
27,000

54,950
1970
121,880
8,630
0.0
8,630
113,250
25,100

88,150
1980
151,490
14,520
0.0
14,520
136,970
13,700

123,270
1990
198,020
28,680
4,200
32,880
165,140
31,900

133,240
1991
196,770
32,290
5,000
37,290
159,480
33,330

126,150
1992
203,010
35,480
6,000
41,480
161,530
32,690

128,840
1993
206,940
38,490
6,500
44,990
161,950
32,920

129,030
Percent of Total Generation
Generation
Recovery for recycling
Recovery for composting*
Total Materials Recovery
Discards after recovery
Combustion**
Discards to landfill,
other disposalt
1960
100.0%
6.7%
0.0%
6.7%
93.3%
30.8%

62.6%
1970
100.0%
7.1%
0.0%
7.1%
92.9%
20.6%

72.3%
1980
100.0%
9.6%
0.0%
9.6%
90.4%
9.0%

81.4%
1990
100.0%
14.5%
2.1%
16.6%
83.4%
16.1%

67.3%
1991
100.0%
16.4%
2.5%
19.0%
81.0%
16.9%

64.1%
1992
100.0%
17.5%
3.0%
20.4%
79.6%
16.1%

63.5%
1993
100.0%
18.6%
3.1%
21.7%
78.3%
15.9%

62.4%
* Composting of yard trimmings and food wastes. Does not include backyard composting.
"Includes combustion of MSW in mass bum or refuse-derived form, incineration without energy recovery, and
combustion with energy recovery of source separated materials in MSW.
t Discards after recovery minus combustion.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

estimated that about one million tons of MSW were combusted in this manner
in 1993, with tires contributing a majority of the total.

The total of all MSW combustion was an estimated 32.9 million tons, or 16
percent of MSW generation, in 1993.

Residues from Waste Management Facilities

Whenever municipal wastes are processed, residues will remain. For the
purposes of this report, it is assumed that these residues are landfilled (although
residues from combustion processes (ash) are often managed separately from
other MSW).

Materials processing facilities (MRFs) and compost facilities generate some
residues when processing various recovered materials. These residues include
materials that are unacceptable to end users (e.g., broken glass, wet newspapers),
other contaminants (e.g., products made of plastic resins that are not wanted by
the end user), or dirt. While residue generation varies widely, 7 to 8 percent is
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probably typical for a MRF. Residues from a MRF or compost facility are
generally landfilled. Since the estimates of recovery in this report are based on
purchases of recovered materials, not weight of materials received at the
facilities, no further adjustments for residues were made.

When municipal solid waste is combusted, a residue (usually called ash) is
left behind. Years ago this ash was commonly disposed of along with municipal
solid waste, but combustor ash is not counted as MSW in this report because it
generally must be managed separately. As a general "rule of thumb," MSW
combustor ash amounts to about 25 percent (dry weight) of unprocessed MSW
input. This percentage will vary from facility to facility depending upon the types
of waste input and the efficiency and configuration of the facility.

Historical Perspective

This summary provides some perspective on why a landfill capacity
shortage developed in the 1980s. In the 1960s and early 1970s a large percentage of
MSW was burned. The remainder was not usually landfilled as we define
landfill in the 1990s; that is, it was not compacted and buried in cells with cover
material added daily. In fact, much of this waste was "dumped" and often it was
burned at the dump to reduce its volume.

As the old incinerators were closed down and landfills became more
difficult and expensive to site, waste generation continued to increase. Materials
recovery rates increased very slowly in this time period, and the burden on the
nation's landfills grew dramatically. As Figure 17 graphically shows, discards of
MSW to landfill or other disposal apparently peaked in the 1986-1987 period,
then began to decline as materials recovery and combustion increased.

Generation of MSW declined in 1991 (a recession year), but then
continued to increase in 1992 and 1993. Recovery of products and yard trimmings
increased steadily, while combustion stayed nearly constant. As a result, discards
to landfill were lower in 1993 than in 1990, but about the same as discards in 1992.
Figure 17. Municipal •olid watt* management, I960 to 2000
1960 1965 1970 1975 1960 1985
1990
1995 2000
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Chapter 3

REFERENCES

GENERAL

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1992 Update. EPA/530-R-92-019. July 1992.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1990 Update. EPA/530-SW-90-042. June 1991.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Solid Waste Task Force,
Office of Solid Waste. The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action.
February 1989.

SOURCE REDUCTION

Brown, Kenneth. Source Reduction Now. Minnesota Office of Waste
Management. February 1993.

Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment. Green Products
by Design: Choices for a Cleaner Environment. OTA-E-541. October 1992.

Fishbein, Bette K., and Caroline Gelb. Making Less Garbage: A Planning Guide
for Communities. INFORM. 1992.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. The Role of Recycling in Integrated Solid Waste
Management to the Year 2000. Keep America Beautiful, Inc. 1994.

Rattray, Tom. "Source Reduction—An Endangered Species?" Resource
Recycling. November 1990.

Selke, Susan E. "Evaluating a Source Reduction Opportunity." Solid Waste &
Power. June 1991.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Consumer's Handbook for
Reducing Solid Waste. EPA/530-K-92-003. August 1992.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste Prevention Pays Off: Companies
Cut Waste in the Workplace. EPA/530-K-92-005. November 1993.

COMBUSTION

Integrated Waste Services Association. "High Court Rules Ash Not Exempt from
Subtitle C Regulation." Update. Summer 1994.
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Kiser, Jonathan V.L. "The IWSA Municipal Waste Combustion Directory: 1993."
Integrated Waste Services Association. February 1994.

Kiser, Jonathan V.L. "Municipal Waste Combustion in North America: 1992
Update." Waste Age. November 1992.

Kiser, Jonathan V.L. "The 1992 Municipal Waste Combustion Guide." National
Solid Wastes Management Association. February 1992.

Kiser, Jonathan V.L. "A Comprehensive Report on the Status of Municipal
Waste Combustion." Waste Age. November 1990.

Levy, Steven J. Municipal Waste Combustion Inventory. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Municipal & Industrial Solid Waste
Division. November 22, 1991.

National Solid Wastes Management Association. "The 1992 Municipal Waste
Combustion Guide." Waste Age. November 1992.

"1991-1992 Energy-from-Waste Report." Solid Waste & Power. HCI Publications.
October 1991, December 1990.

"The 1991 Municipal Waste Combustion Guide." Waste Age. November 1991.
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Chapter 4

PROJECTIONS OF MSW GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION

This chapter includes projections of municipal solid waste generation and
management to the year 2000. It should be emphasized that these projections are
not predictions. Recent efforts at source reduction are difficult to measure at a
national level, but almost certainly are affecting MSW generation. No one can
foresee with accuracy changes in the economy (e.g., booms and recessions), which
also affect the municipal waste stream. In addition, it is difficult to predict which
innovations and new products will affect the amounts and types of MSW
discards. For example, there have long been predictions of the "paperless office"
due to improvements in electronic communications, but in fact, facsimile
machines, high-speed copiers, and personal computers have caused increasing
amounts of paper to be generated in offices.

In spite of the limitations, it is useful to look at projections characterizing
MSW based on past trends, since it is clear that the composition of the waste
stream does change over time. New products (e.g., disposable products) are used,
and materials are used in new ways (e.g., composite materials replace simpler
products). Planners thus may choose to use different projections than those
presented here, but anyone assuming that the current mix of materials in the
waste stream will remain constant is disregarding the experience of the past.

OVERVIEW OF THIS CHAPTER

This chapter includes projections of municipal solid waste generation,
recovery for recycling and composting, combustion, and landfill through the year
2000. Projections of total MSW recovery for recycling and composting are
presented in three scenarios for the year 2000—25 percent, 30 percent, and 35
percent. In making these projections, it was assumed that overall, products in
MSW would grow at a rate higher than population growth and lower than
growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). (See Chapter 5 for an explanation of the
correlation of MSW generation with these demographic and economic factors.)

It is important to note that the projections in this series of tables are also
based on the assumption that there will be a considerable reduction in the
generation of yard trimmings that enter the solid waste management system.
These assumptions are explained later in this chapter. One result of this
assumption is that the percentages of other products and materials in MSW are
higher in 2000 than they would be if yard trimmings generation stayed constant
or increased.
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A summary table showing projected MSW generation, recovery at the
mid-range scenario, and discards of MSW to combustion and landfill in 2000 is
included at the end of the chapter.

MATERIALS GENERATION IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Projections of materials generated in MSW (by weight) are summarized in
Table 26 and Figure 18, and a discussion of each material category follows.
Table 26

PROJECTIONS OF MATERIALS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1993 AND 2000
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Thousands of tons
% of total
Materials
Paper and Paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other Nonferrous
Total Metals
Plastics
Rubber and Leather
Textiles
Wood
Other
Total Materials in Products
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated
1993
77,840
13,670

12,930
2,970
1,240
17,140
19,300
6,220
6,130
13,690
3,300
157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
2000
89,340
14,020

14,220
3,425
1,395
19,040
22,490
7,610
6,200
16,010
3,540
178,250

14,000
22,200 **
3,300
39,500
217,750
1993
37.6%
6.6%

6.2%
1.4%
0.6%
8.3%
9.3%
3.0%
3.0%
6.6%
1.6%
76.0%

6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
2000
41.0%
6.4%

6.5%
1.6%
0.6%
5.7%
10.3%
3.5%
2.8%
7.4%
1.6%
81.9%

6.4%
10.2%
1.5%
18.1%
100.0%
* Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
** This scenario assumes a 32.3% reduction of yard trimmings. See Table 32 for other
scenarios.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
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Figure 18. Materials generated in MSW, 1993 and 2000
(in percent of total generation)
Glass 6.6%
Metals 8.3%
Plastics 9 3%
Wood 6 6%
Yard Trimmings
159%
Other 9 0%
Food 6 7%
1993
Glass 6 4%
Metals 8 7%
Plastics 10.3%
Wood 7 4%
Yard Trimmings
10.2%
Food 6 4%
Other 9.5%
2000
Paper and Paperboard

Projections of paper and paperboard generation were based on past trends,
with some slowing of growth projected for newsprint and paper packaging other
than corrugated boxes. These grades of paper are showing the effects of decreased
newspaper readership and some source reduction in packaging.

Paper and paperboard is projected to continue to be the dominant material
in MSW, growing from a generation of 77.8 million tons in 1993 to 89.3 million
tons in 2000. This would be 41.0 percent of MSW generation in 2000.
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Glass

Glass products have been a declining percentage of municipal solid waste,
and this trend is projected to continue, with tonnage of glass in MSW remaining
fairly constant. Glass generation is projected to grow from 13.7 million tons in
1993 to 14.0 million tons in 2000, which is 6.4 percent of the projected total
generation.

Ferrous Metals

Cans made of steel have been declining as a percentage of MSW. On the
other hand, more ferrous metals enter MSW as a component of durable goods
than as containers. Since durable goods are an increasing component of MSW,
ferrous metals in MSW were projected to increase to 14.2 million tons in 2000.
The percentage of ferrous metals in MSW is projected to increase slightly, from
6.2 percent of total generation to 6.5 percent in 2000.

Aluminum

Containers and packaging represent the primary source of aluminum in
MSW, although some aluminum is present in durables and nondurables.
Aluminum in MSW has grown rapidly, and the growth is projected to continue,
to 3.4 million tons in 2000. Because of its light weight, aluminum represents a
small percentage of MSW generation—1.4 percent in 1993 and a projected 1.6
percent in 2000.

Other Nonferrous Metals

Other nonferrous metals (e.g., lead, copper, and zinc) are found in durable
goods like appliances, furniture, and batteries. Lead-acid (automotive) batteries
comprise the majority of this category. Generation of lead-acid batteries is
projected to continue to increase, along with small increases in other nonferrous
metals. Other nonferrous metals were estimated to be 1.2 million tons in 1993
and are projected to be 1.4 million tons in 2000. These metals are expected to
continue to be less than one percent of MSW generation.

Plastics

Generation of plastics in MSW has grown very rapidly in the past three
decades. Plastics in MSW are projected to continue to increase both in tonnage
(from 19.3 million tons in 1993 to 22.5 million tons in 2000) and in percentage of
total generation (from 9.3 percent of total in 1993 to 10.3 percent in 2000).
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Wood Wastes

Wood wastes (in furniture and other durables and in pallets and other
packaging) have been increasing in MSW. The tonnage of wood wastes generated
is projected to grow from 13.7 million tons in 1993 to 16.0 million tons in 2000.
The percentage of wood wastes is projected to increase from 6.6 percent in 1993 to
7.4 percent of total in 2000.

Other Materials

Other materials in MSW—including rubber, leather, and textiles—are
projected to have modest growth in tonnage and nearly "flat" percentages of total
generation. Tonnage is projected to increase from 18.7 million tons in 1993 to
20.6 million tons in 2000.

Food Wastes

Sampling studies over a long period of time show food wastes to be a
declining percentage of the waste stream. Per capita discards of food wastes have
also been declining over time, which can be explained by the increased use of
preprocessed food in homes, institutions, and restaurants, and by the increased
use of garbage disposals, which put food wastes into wastewater systems rather
than MSW. Therefore, the generation of food wastes was projected to grow at a
slightly lower rate than population. The tonnage of food wastes is projected to
increase from 13.8 million tons in 1993 to 14.0 million tons in 2000. The
percentage of food wastes in total MSW would decline slightly, from 6.7 percent
to 6.4 percent of total generation.

Yard Trimmings

In earlier versions of this report, generation of yard trimmings* was
estimated based on sampling studies, which showed a more or less constant
generation on a per capita basis. (The definition of generation used here is the
amount of yard trimmings that enter the solid waste management system, e.g.,
they are placed at the curb for collection or taken to a drop-off site.) Projections
were made on the same basis. This methodology has now been revised because
of changing trends in the management of yard trimmings in many parts of the
country.

Although not well documented, there is evidence that where
communities have charged separately for pickup of yard trimmings, or where
Although there are limited data available on the composition of yard trimmings, it is
estimated that the average composition by weight is about 50 percent grass, 25 percent
brush, and 25 percent leaves. These are "ballpark" numbers that will vary widely
according to climate and region of the country.
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disposal of yard trimmings in landfills has been banned, or other
regulatory/educational measures have been taken, the amount of yard
trimmings entering the system has greatly declined. In other words, source
reduction at the site of generation (e.g., residences) has been accomplished
through backyard composting, leaving grass clippings on the lawn, and the like.

Using data published by the Composting Council as updated from more
recent sources, legislation affecting yard trimmings disposal in landfills was
tabulated. In 1992,12 states accounting for over 28 percent of the nation's
population had in effect legislation banning yard trimmings from landfills. Also,
data compiled by BioCycle magazine indicates that there were about 3,000
composting facilities for yard trimmings in 1992. Using these facts, it was
estimated that the effect of this legislation was that there was no increase in yard
trimmings generated (e.g., entering the waste management system) between 1990
and 1992, and that there was a 6 percent decline in yard trimmings generation
between 1992 and 1993.

The tabulation of existing legislation also shows that by 1996, 23 states
including more than 50 percent of the nation's population will have legislation
banning yard trimmings from landfills. Additional states have enacted less
stringent measures. Therefore, it was projected that yard trimmings generation
would be reduced by half between 1992 and 1996 in the states having
legislation—a 25 percent reduction overall. This is a rather conservative
assumption, because yard trimmings may well be reduced by more than half in
these states. Finally, it was assumed that some additional legislation affecting
generation of yard trimmings would be enacted between 1996 and 2000, and that
yard trimmings would decline by 15 percent between 1996 and 2000.

These assumptions yield a projection that generation of yard trimmings
would decline from 32.8 million tons in 1993 to 22.2 million tons in 2000 (a 32
percent decrease compared to 1993).

Projected Growth Rates for Materials in MSW

Projected growth rates by decade for the various materials generated in
MSW are shown in Table 27. Projected population growth rates (from the
Bureau of the Census) are included as well; the Bureau of the Census forecasts an
approximately one percent annual growth of population from 1990 to 2000. Paper
and paperboard, plastics, metals, and wood are all projected to increase faster
than population, while glass and food wastes are projected to increase more
slowly than population. Food wastes are projected to show almost no increase,
and yard trimmings are projected to decline. Overall, municipal solid waste
generation is projected to increase at a rate of one percent annually between 1990
and 2000. (The rate would be higher if the projected decline in yard trimmings
does not occur.)
101
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Table 27
AVERAGE ANNUAL RATES OF INCREASE (OR DECREASE)*
OF GENERATION OF MATERIALS IN MSW
(In annual percent by weight)
1960-1970 1970-1980 1980-1990 1990-2000
Paper & Paperboard
Glass
Metals
Plastics
Wood
All Other Materials**
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Total MSW
Population
4.0%
6.6%
3.0%
22.5%
2.8%
4.3%
0.5%
1.5%
3.3%
1.2%
2.2%
1.7%
0.2%
9.9%
5.5%
4.3%
0.3%
1.7%
2.2%
1.1%
2.9%
-1.2%
1.3%
8.4%
6.2%
3.9%
0.0%
2.4%
2.7%
1.0%
2.1%
0.6%
1.5%
2.5%
2.7%
1.9%
0.6%
-4.5%
1.0%
1.0%
Annual rates of increase or decrease calculated on 10-year end points.
Rubber and leather, textiles, electrolytes in batteries, wood pulp and moisture
in disposable diapers, miscellaneous inorganics.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
PRODUCT GENERATION IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Projected generation of the products in municipal solid waste is
summarized in Table 28 and Figure 19. All categories (except for yard trimmings)
are projected to grow in tonnage. Containers and packaging are projected to
remain the largest single category at 36.5 percent of generation, with nondurables
being the second largest category of generation at 28.8 percent of total generation
in 2000. More detailed observations on the projected growth in the individual
product categories follow.

Durable Goods

Overall, durable goods are projected to increase in both tonnage and
percent of total generation (Table 29). The trends in generation of major
appliances, carpet and rugs, and furniture and furnishings are well established by
production numbers, since lifetimes of up to 20 years are assumed. Generation of
rubber tires, lead-acid batteries, and miscellaneous durables are projected based
on historical trends, which are generally "flat" or exhibiting low rates of growth.

Substitution of relatively light materials like aluminum and plastics for
heavier materials like steel has occurred in durables like appliances and
furniture as well as other products. Also, cars have become smaller and tires
have been made longer-wearing, which tends to reduce the rate of increase at
which tires are generated. It was projected that these trends will continue.
102
-------
Table 28

PROJECTIONS OF CATEGORIES OF PRODUCTS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1993 AND 2000
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Thousands of tons
% of total
Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 29)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 30)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 31)
Total Product Wastes**
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated
1993
31,910
54,800
70,580
157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
2000
36,110
62,760
79,380
178,250

14,000
22,200
3,300
39,500
217,750
1993
15.4%
26.5%
34.1%
76.0%

6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
2000
16.6%
28.8%
36.5%
81.9%

6.4%
10.2%
1.5%
18.1%
100.0%
Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
Other than food products.
This scenario assumes a 32.3% reduction of yard trimmings. See Table 32 for other
scenarios.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Nondurable Goods

As noted above, generation of nondurable goods has been increasing
rapidly, and this trend is projected to continue (Table 30). Generation of
nondurable goods is projected to be 62.8 million tons in 2000, or 28.8 percent of
total generation.

Most of the nondurable paper products are projected to continue to grow
at rates higher than population growth. Based on historical trends, however,
paper plates and cups were projected to show little increase in tonnage or
percentage; plastic plates and cups were projected to show some growth in
tonnage, although not much change in percentage of total generation. (The
plates and cups categories include hinged containers and other foodservice items,
and it was assumed that there will be no bans of disposable foodservice items.)

Plastic trash bags are projected to continue to grow in tonnage from 1993 to
2000. Clothing and footwear and other textiles also are projected to increase in
tonnage.
103
-------
Figure 19. Products generated In MSW, 1993 and 2000
(in percent of total generation)
Nondurables 26.5%
Durables 15.4%
Food, Other
8.2%
Nondurables 28.8%
Durables 16.6%
Food, Other
7.9%
Yard Trimmings 15.9%

1993
Containers &
Packaging 34.1%
Containers &
Packaging 36.5%
Yard Trimmings 10.2%

2000
Finally, other miscellaneous nondurables, which include many items
made of plastics, have been growing historically and the growth is projected
to continue, causing this category to continue to increase as a percentage of MSW
generation.
104
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Table 29
PROJECTIONS OF PRODUCTS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1993 AND 2000
(WITH DETAIL ON DURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Thousands of tons % of total
Products
Durable Goods
Major Appliances
Small Appliances
Furniture and Furnishings
Carpets and Rugs
Rubber Tires
Batteries, Lead-Acid
Miscellaneous Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 30)
Containers and Packaging
(Detail in Table 31)
Total Product Wastes**
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated
1993

3,430
530
7,020
2,130
3,410
1,670
13,720
31,910
54,800

70,580

157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
2000

3,800
610
8,000
2,400
3,900
1,900
15,500
36,110
62,760

79,380

178,250

14,000
22,200
3,300
39,500
217,750
1993

1.7%
0.3%
3.4%
1.0%
1.6%
0.8%
6.6%
15.4%
26.5%

34.1%

76.0%

6.7%
15.9%
1.5%
24.0%
100.0%
2000

1.7%
0.3%
3.7%
1.1%
1.8%
0.9%
7.1%
16.6%
28.8%

36.5%

81.9%

6.4%
10.2%
1.5%
18.1%
100.0%
* Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
** Other than food products.
This scenario assumes a 32.3% reduction of yard trimmings. See Table 32 for other
scenarios.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
105
-------
Table 30
PROJECTIONS OF PRODUCTS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1993 AND 2000
(WITH DETAIL ON NONDURABLE GOODS)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)

Thousands of tons % of total
Products 1993 2000 1993 2000
Durable Goods 31,910 36,110 15.4% 16.6%
(Detail in Table 29)
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers 12,940 14,400 6.3% 6.6%
Books 990 1,180 0.5% 0.5%
Magazines 2,500 3,000 1.2% 1.4%
Office Papers 7,120 8,500 3.4% 3.9%
Telephone Books 740 870 0.4% 0.4%
Third Class Mail 4,010 4,700 1.9% 2.2%
Other Commercial Printing 5,440 6,400 2.6% 2.9%
Tissue Paper and Towels 3,010 3,500 1.5% 1.6%
Paper Plates and Cups 830 840 0.4% 0.4%
Plastic Plates and Cups 350 400 0.2% 0.2%
Trash Bags 890 1,020 0.4% 0.5%
Disposable Diapers 2,700 2,850 1.3% 1.3%
Other Nonpackaging Paper 4,770 5,400 2.3% 2.5%
Clothing and Footwear 4,280 4,800 2.1% 2.2%
Towels, Sheets, & Pillowcases 720 800 0.3% 0.4%
Other Misc. Nondurables 3,510 4,100 1.7% 1.9%
Total Nondurable Goods 54,800 62,760 26.5% 28.8%
Containers and Packaging 70,580 79,380 34.1% 36.5%
(Detail in Table 31)
Total Product Wastes** 157,290 178,250 76.0% 81.9%
Other Wastes
Food Wastes 13,800 14,000 6.7% 6.4%
Yard Trimmings 32,800 • 22,200 15.9% 10.2%
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes 3,050 3,300 1.5% 1.5%
Total Other Wastes 49,650 39,500 24.0% 18.1%
Total MSW Generated 206,940 217,750 100.0% 100.0%

* Generation before materials recovery or combustion.
** Other than food products.
This scenario assumes a 32.3% reduction of yard trimmings. See Table 32 for other
scenarios.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
106
-------
Containers and Packaging

Containers and packaging is the largest single category of MSW, and this is
projected to continue through the decade (Table 31). Generation was 70.6 million
tons in 1993, with an increase to 79.4 million tons in 2000. In percentage of total
MSW, containers and packaging were 34.1 percent in 1993, with a projected
increase to 36.5 percent in 2000.

Tonnage of glass containers generated is projected to increase at a low rate.
Glass containers are projected to continue to be a declining percentage of MSW
generation (5.7 percent of total generation in 2000).

Steel packaging generation has been declining, but steel packaging
generation is projected to be about constant to the year 2000. (In other words, the
decline is projected to "flatten out.") As a percentage of MSW generation, steel
packaging is projected to be constant at 1.4 percent of generation.

Tonnage of aluminum packaging has been increasing steadily over the
historical period, and this trend is projected to continue. Tonnage of other
materials also increases, however, so aluminum stays at one percent of total
generation in the projections.

Like other paper and paperboard products, overall generation of paper and
paperboard packaging has been increasing rapidly. The increase is almost all in
corrugated boxes, which are mainly used for shipping other products. Continued
increases in generation of corrugated boxes are projected; tonnage of these boxes
is projected to be 31.0 million tons in 2000, or 14.2 percent of total MSW
generation. Folding carton generation is also projected to increase. Other paper
packaging is projected to remain about constant in tonnage. All paper and
paperboard packaging is projected to be 18.6 percent of total generation in 2000.

Plastics packaging has exhibited rapid historical growth, and the trends are
projected to continue. Soft drink bottles, milk bottles, other containers, bags and
sacks, wraps, and other packaging are all projected to follow the increasing
trends. Generation of all plastics packaging is projected to be 9.8 million tons in
2000, or 4.5 percent of total generation.
107
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Table 31

PROJECTIONS OF PRODUCTS GENERATED*
IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM, 1993 AND 2000
(WITH DETAIL ON CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Thousands of tons
% of total
Products
Durable Goods
(Detail in Table 29)
Nondurable Goods
(Detail in Table 30)
Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles
Wine and Liquor Bottles
Food and Other Bottles & Jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Food and Other Cans
Other Steel Packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans
Other Cans
Foil and Closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons
Folding Cartons
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks
Wrapping Papers
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper &• Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles
Milk Bottles
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks
Wraps
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers 61 Pkg
Total Product Wastes**
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated
1993
31,910

54,800

5,440
1,850
4,940
12,230

70
2,720
190
£95U~

1,610
40
330
T55o~

26,350
470
4,940
300
2,200
70
1,100
35,430

560
550
1,930
1,050
1,820
2,370
8,280
9,460
220
70,580
157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940
2000
36,110

62,760

5,440
1,950
5,010
12,400

2,780
220
POTT

1,840
50
360
2,250

31,000
400
5,340
300
2,200
80
1,170
40,490

617
600
3,184
1,288
1,840
2,271
9,800
11,200
240
79,380"
178,250

14,000
22,200
3,300
39,500
217,750
1993
15.4%

26.5%

2.6%
0.9%
2.4%
5~9^T

0.0%
1.3%
0.1%
T4"%~

0.8%
0.0%
0.2%
TMT

12.7%
0.2%
2.4%
0.1%
1.1%
0.0%
0.5%
17.1%

0.3%
0.3%
0.9%
0.5%
0.9%
1.1%
4.0%
4.6%
0.1%
34.1%
7o.
-------
The Effects of Yard Trimmings Source Reduction

As discussed earlier in this chapter, the apparent trend toward lower
generation of yard trimmings (that is, a lower tonnage of yard trimmings
entering the waste management system to go to composting facilities, landfill, or
combustion facilities) has a marked effect on projections of total generation of
MSW. As discussed earlier, over half of the U.S. population will live in states
having regulations affecting disposal of yard trimmings by 1996, and some
additional legislation is projected between 1996 and 2000.

Since dramatic source reduction of yard trimmings is a comparatively new
phenomenon, data to support these projections are limited, although the data
that are available tend to support the assumptions used. Due to current lack of
hard data, three different scenarios for yard trimmings projections are shown to
present a range of possible outcomes (Table 32). The mid-range scenario
(Scenario 2) is used for projections in this report.
Table 32

COMPARISON OF THREE SCENARIOS FOR SOURCE REDUCTION
OF YARD TRIMMINGS, 2000
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Annual
Increase

Scenario 1: Yard trimmings constant since 1993
Yard trimmings
Total MSW generation
Scenario 2: Yard trimmings reduced*
Yard trimmings
Total MSW generation
Scenario 3: Yard trimmings reduced further**
Yard trimmings
Total MSW generation
Thousand
tons

32,800
228,350

22,200
217,750

16,400
211,950
Percent of
total

14.4%
100.0%

10.2%
100.0%

7.7%
100.0%
Compari
to 1993

1.4%

0.8%

0.4%
Assumes a 32.3 percent reduction from 1993 generation. (See text for assumptions.)
Assumes a 50 percent reduction from 1993 generation.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
For Scenario 1, it was assumed that there would be no further reduction in
yard trimmings generation compared to generation in 1993. Scenario 2 was
developed using the assumptions described earlier in this chapter. Assuming
that generation of all other products and materials would not change from
scenario to scenario, total projected MSW generation in 2000 would be 228.4
109
-------
million tons under Scenario 1 compared to 217.8 million tons under Scenario 2.
Yard trimmings would comprise 14.4 percent of total generation in Scenario 1,
compared to 10.2 percent in Scenario 2.

For a more optimistic scenario for yard trimmings reduction in 2000, it
was assumed that yard trimmings generation could be reduced by 50 percent
between 1993 and 2000 (Scenario 3). Under this assumption, yard trimmings
generation would be 16.4 million tons in 2000, and yard trimmings would be 7.7
percent of total MSW generation.

For another perspective, Table 32 also shows the annual rates of increase
of MSW generation between 1993 and 2000 under the various scenarios. If yard
trimmings do not decrease, MSW generation would increase an average of 1.4
percent annually. Under Scenario 2 for yard trimmings reduction, the average
annual rate of increase in MSW generation would be 0.8 percent. (Population
increase is projected at 1.0 percent annually.) Finally, under a 50 percent
reduction in yard trimmings scenario, the increase in MSW generation would be
0.4 percent annually. (Each scenario assumes that generation of other materials
would increase by the amount shown in Table 26.)

It should be noted that a marked reduction in yard trimmings causes the
percentages of all other products in the MSW stream to increase, even if their
tonnages remain constant or decrease modestly.

PROJECTIONS OF MSW RECOVERY

Prior to the 1980s, rates of recovery for recycling increased slowly and thus
projections were relatively easy to make. At this time, however, there is a high
level of interest in municipal solid waste management in general, and in
recycling and composting in particular. Government agencies at all levels are
seeking ways to stimulate materials recovery. Local communities are adding
materials recovery and recycling programs rapidly, but there is no accurate
nationwide accounting system. In response to the demand for more recovery and
more markets for recovered products, industry associations and individual
companies have invested large amounts of money and effort in developing new
recycling programs and products containing recovered materials.

Because of the rapidly changing situation and uncertainty in the available
data, projections of materials recovery were made in scenarios that could achieve
different rates of recovery in 2000. Scenarios were developed for 25, 30, and 35
percent recovery rates (see Appendix B). These scenarios are based on recovery of
postconsumer MSW and do not include industrial scrap. Also, composting of
only yard trimmings is included in these scenarios; estimates of composting of
mixed MSW were not made for this report.
110
-------
The recovery scenarios developed for this report describe sets of conditions
that could achieve the selected range of recovery rates. The scenarios are not
intended to predict exact recovery rates for any particular material; there are
many ways in which a targeted overall recovery rate could be achieved.
Especially at the state and local levels, differing circumstances mean that
recovery rates of a particular material could be higher or lower than those used
to develop these scenarios.

Discussion of Assumptions

Some general assumptions and principles were used in making the
recovery estimates:

• Recovery includes both recovery for recycling and for composting.
Recovered materials are assumed to have been removed from the
municipal waste stream.

• It was assumed that local, state, and federal agencies will continue to
emphasize recycling and composting as MSW management
alternatives.

• It was assumed that present state deposit laws will remain in place, but
that no additional deposit legislation for containers would be enacted.

• It was assumed that affected industries will continue to emphasize
recovery and recycling programs, and will make the necessary
investments to achieve higher recycling rates.

• It was assumed that the current trend toward banning certain yard
trimmings in landfills will continue, providing stimulus for
composting programs and for source reduction of yard trimmings by
citizens.

• Based on the preceding assumptions, most U.S. citizens will have access
to recovery options before 2000, which will often, in fact, be mandated.
These options will include curbside collection, drop-off and buy-back
centers, and, in some instances, mixed waste processing facilities.
Recovery will continue to increase as more recovery systems come on-
line.

• In spite of the factors encouraging more recovery as enumerated above,
many areas of the U.S. are thinly populated and/or remote from ready
markets for recovered materials; many of these areas also have adequate
landfill capacity. Therefore, the overall recovery rate for the entire
country may not reflect the higher rates achieved in communities
where conditions are favorable for recycling and composting.
Ill
-------
Scenarios for 2000

The range of projected recovery rates for materials in MSW under three
recovery scenarios in the year 2000 is shown in Table 33. (Details of the
assumptions for individual products in MSW are in Appendix B.) Continued
increases in recovery in every category will be required to reach the scenarios
shown. To reach a recovery rate of 35 percent nationwide in 2000, 47 percent of
all paper and paperboard, 37 percent of all glass, nearly 50 percent of metals, and
over 11 percent of all plastics in MSW would be recovered under this scenario.
Fifty-five percent of all yard trimmings would be recovered for composting
under this scenario (not including backyard composting and other source
reduction measures).
Table 33

PROJECTED GENERATION AND RANGES OF RECOVERY,* 2000
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation of each material)
Recovery
Thousand tons
Materials
Paper and Paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other Nonferrous**
Total Metals
Plastics
Rubber & Leather
Clothing, Other Textiles
Wood
Yard Trimmingst
Food Wastes
Other Materials}:
Totals
Generation
89,340
14,020
14,220
3,425
1,400
19,045
22,490
7,605
6,200
16,010
22,200
14,000
6,840
217,750
25%
31,680
3,845
3,900
1,465
890
6,255
1,530
490
240
1,570
8,880
15
Neg.
54,505
30%
37,480
4,340
5,135
1,575
920
7,630
1,975
660
480
1,680
10,655
520
Neg.
65,420
35%
41,915
5,210
6,800
1,620
920
9,340
2,660
820
720
2,015
12,210
1,385
Nag-
76,275
% of generation
25%
35.5%
27.4%
27.4%
42.8%
63.6%
32.8%
6.8%
6.4%
3.9%
9.8%
40.0%
0.1%
Neg.
25.0%
30%
42.0%
31.0%
36.1%
46.0%
65.7%
40.1%
8.8%
8.7%
7.7%
10.5%
48.0%
3.7%
Neg.
30.0%
35%
46.9%
37.2%
47.8%
47.3%
65.7%
49.0%
11.8%
10.8%
11.6%
12.6%
55.0%
9.9%
Neg.
35.0%
1993
Recovery
%***
34.0%
22.0%
26.1%
35.4%
62.9%
30.3%
3.5%
5.9%
11.7%
9.6%
19.8%
Neg.
Neg.
21.7%
* Recovery of postconsumer wastes; does not include converting/fabrication scrap.
Does not include recovery for mixed MSW composting.
* * Includes some nonferrous metals other than battery lead.
t Yard trimmings generation reduced by 32.3% in this scenario (Table 32).
t Miscellaneous inorganic wastes, electrolytes in batteries, other miscellaneous.
*** From Table 2.
Neg. = Negligible (less than 50,000 tons or 0.05%.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
112
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PROJECTIONS OF MSW DISCARDS AFTER RECOVERY

Discards of municipal solid waste as defined for this report are those
wastes remaining after recovery of materials for recycling and composting of yard
trimmings. The remaining discards must be managed by combustion, landfilling,
or some other means such as mixed waste composting or preparation of fuel
products. The effects of projected recovery rates on the amounts and
characteristics of municipal solid waste discards are illustrated in Table 34. (A 30
percent recovery scenario for 2000 is shown as an example.)

This projected scenario of discards, which is based on substantial source
reduction of yard trimmings and a 30 percent recovery rate for materials and
products generated in 2000, shows a 5.9 percent decrease in MSW discards in 2000
as compared to 1993.
Table 34

PROJECTIONS OF MATERIALS DISCARDED* IN MSW, 1993 AND 2000
(AT A 30 PERCENT RECOVERY SCENARIO IN 2000)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total discards)
Thousand tons
% of discards
Materials
Paper and Paperboard
Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other Nonferrous
Total Metals
Plastics
Rubber & Leather
Clothing, Other Textiles
Wood
Yard Trimmingst
Food Wastes
Other Materials:}:
Totals
1993
51,380
10,660
9,560
1,920
460
13,940
18,620
5,850
5,410
12,370
26,300
13,800
5,620
161,950
2000**
51,860
9,680
9,085
1,850
480
22,435
20,515
6,945
5,720
14,330
11,545
13,480
6,840
152,330
1993
31.7%
6.6%
5.9%
1.2%
0.3%
7.4%
11.5%
3.6%
3.3%
7.6%
16.2%
8.5%
3.5%
100.0%
2000
34.0%
6.4%
6.0%
1.2%
0.3%
7.5%
13.5%
4.6%
3.8%
9.4%
7.6%
8.8%
4.5%
100.0%
Discards after recovery for recycling and composting of yard trimmings.
** Recovery scenario at 30 percent (Table 33).
t Yard trimmings generation reduced in this scenario (Table 32).
$ Miscellaneous inorganic wastes, electrolytes in batteries, other miscellaneous.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
113
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The materials composition of MSW discards is quite different from the
materials composition of MSW generation, especially for materials that are
recovered at higher rates. For example, paper and paperboard are projected to
comprise 41.0 percent of MSW generation, but 34.0 percent of MSW discards, in
2000. Yard trimmings would decline from 10.2 percent of MSW generation to 7.6
percent of discards under this scenario. The percentages of other materials
discards would likewise increase or decrease, depending upon their projected
recovery rates.

PROJECTIONS OF MSW COMBUSTION

Making projections of MSW combustion is somewhat difficult at this time
because there are many uncertainties affecting construction of new facilities.
New rulings and regulations affecting air emissions control, ash management,
and flow control of MSW were all causing uncertainty at the time this report was
prepared. Since several years are required to site and obtain permits for
construction of new MSW combustion facilities, it was assumed that there will
be almost no new net MSW combustion capacity coming on-line between 1993
and 2000 (Table 35).

While substantial amounts of MSW were burned without energy recovery
in past years, most of these older facilities have been closed due to the costs of
implementing air pollution requirements. It is projected that all major facilities
for combustion of MSW will have energy recovery in the future.

Since there is increasing interest in combustion of certain source-separated
components of MSW—especially tires, but also wood pallets, paper, and
plastics—it was assumed that combustion of these materials would double
between 1993 and 2000. This is probably a very conservative assumption.

SUMMARY OF PROJECTED MSW MANAGEMENT

A summary of the projections is presented, with similar figures for 1993
included for contrast (Table 35). For the summary, a mid-range recovery scenario
of 30 percent in 2000 was used.

From 1993 to 2000, generation of MSW is projected to increase by 0.7
percent per year compared to 2.7 percent per year between 1980 and 1990. As
described earlier, source reduction of yard trimmings accounts for most of the
decrease under the selected scenario.

The effect of the mid-range scenario for materials recovery for recycling
and yard trimmings composting causes the discards of MSW to decline between
1993 and 2000, from 162.0 million tons in 1993 to 152.3 million tons in 2000. After
deductions for combustion, discards to landfill and other disposal were 129.0
million tons in 1993, declining to 118.3 million tons in 2000.
114
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A graphical illustration of the long-term trends is shown in Figure 20.
Table 35
GENERATION, RECOVERY, COMBUSTION, AND DISPOSAL
OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1993 AND 2000
(AT A 30 PERCENT RECOVERY SCENARIO IN 2000)
(In thousands of tons and percent of total generation)
Thousands of tons
Generation
Recovery for recycling
Recovery for composting*
Total materials recovery
Discards after recovery
Combustion**
Landfill, other disposal
1993
206,940
38,490
6,500
44,990
161,950
32,920
129,030
2000
217,750
54,245
11,175
65,420
152,330
34,000
118,330
% of generation
1993
100.0%
18.6%
3.1%
21.7%
78.3%
15.9%
62.4%
2000
100.0%
24.9%
5.1%
30.0%
70.0%
15.6%
* Composting of yard trimmings and food wastes. Does not include backyard composting.
** Combustion of MSW in mass bum or refuse derived form, incineration without energy
recovery, and combustion with energy recovery of source separated materials in MSW.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Figure 20. Municipal solid waste management, 1960 to 2000
240

200

160

120
I I
Recovery for composting
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
115
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Chapter 4

REFERENCES

Alozie, Emmanuel C. "More Illegal Dumping in Missouri." Kansas City Star.
August 15,1994.

Composting Council. "Yard Waste Legislation: Disposal Bans and Similar Passed
Bills as of July, 1993." Fact Sheet. July 1993.

Conversation with a representative of a waste hauler. August 10, 1994.

Franklin Associates, Ltd. The Role of Recycling in Integrated Solid Waste
Management to the Year 2000. Keep America Beautiful, Inc. September 1994.

Harrison-Ferris, Pamela. "Letters to the Editor." BioCycle. July 1992.

Monk, Randall. "After the Ban." MSW Management. September/October 1992.

Raymond Communication. State Recycling Laws Update. 1994.

Sheehan, Kathleen. "Yard Waste Composting—A Legislative Update." Waste
Age. February 1994.

Steuteville, Robert. "Measuring the Impact of Disposal Bans." BioCycle.
September 1994.

Steuteville, Robert. "The State of Garbage in America, Part II." BioCycle. May
1994. Also earlier editions of the same BioCycle survey.
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Chapter 5

ADDITIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the municipal solid waste (MSW) characterization data
summarized in the previous chapters are presented again from different
perspectives. These are:

• Historical and projected MSW generation and management on a
pounds per person per day basis

• Historical and projected MSW generation by material on a pounds per
person per day basis

• A classification of 1993 MSW generation into residential and
commercial components

• Historical and projected discards of MSW classified into organic and
inorganic fractions

• A table ranking products and materials in MSW by tonnage generated
in 1993

• A discussion of some of the demographic and economic factors that
appear to affect MSW generation.

GENERATION AND DISCARDS BY INDIVIDUALS

Municipal solid waste planners often think in terms of generation and
discards on a per capita (per person) basis. Data on historical and projected MSW
generation and management are presented on the basis of pounds per person per
day in Table 36. The top line shows a steady increase in per capita generation of
MSW, from 2.7 pounds per person per day in 1960 to 4.4 pounds per person per
day in 1993, with a projection of 4.3 pounds per person per day in 2000. (The
primary reason for the projected decline in MSW generation is a decrease in yard
trimmings entering the MSW management system. See Chapter 4 for a
discussion of the assumptions used in making the projections.)

The per capita discards represent the amount remaining after recovery for
recycling and composting. Discards after recovery for recycling and composting
grew from 2.5 pounds per person per day in 1960 to 3.6 pounds per person per day
in 1990. Between 1990 and 1993, discards declined to 3.4 pounds per person per
day due to increased recovery for recycling and composting. Under a 30 percent
117
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Table 36

PER CAPITA GENERATION, MATERIALS RECOVERY, COMBUSTION,
AND DISCARDS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960 TO 2000
(In pounds per person per day; population in thousands)

Generation
Recovery for recycling & composting
Discards after recovery
Combustion
Discards to landfill,
other disposal
Population (thousands)
1960
2.66
0.18
2.48
0.82
1.67
180,671
1970
3.27
0.23
3.04
0.67
2.37
203,984
1980
3.65
0.35
3.30
0.33
2.97
227,255
1990
4.35
0.72
3.63
0.70
2.93
249,399
1993
4.39
0.96
3.44
0.70
2.74
257,908
2000
4.32
1.30
3.02
0.67
2.35
276,241
The year 2000 scenario assumes substantial reduction of yard trimmings generation, a 30% recovery scenario,
and virtually no increase in net combustion of MSW.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Population figures from Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
recovery scenario for 2000, this decline is projected to continue, to 3.0 pounds per
person per day.

In 1993, an estimated 0.7 pounds per person per day of discards were
managed through combustion, while the remainder—2.7 pounds per person per
day—went to landfill or other disposal. The projection for 2000 is that 0.7 pounds
per person per day would be combusted, and 2.4 pounds per person per day
would be landfilled.

In Table 37, per capita generation of each material category characterized in
this study is shown. Paper, plastics, rubber and leather, and wood in MSW have
grown on a per capita basis throughout the 33-year historical period, and this
growth is projected to continue. Glass generation grew on a per capita basis
during the earlier decades, but declined in the 1980s. Generation in the 1990s was
lower on a per capita basis, and is projected to decline slightly. Generation of
metals and textiles on a per capita basis also grew, then declined somewhat.
Some growth in metals generation is projected to 2000, while textiles generation
is projected to be declining slightly.

Generation of food wastes has declined on a per capita basis due to
increased processing of food before it enters the residential or commercial waste
streams. This trend is projected to continue. Generation of yard trimmings on a
per capita basis increased over a 30-year period, but has begun to decline for
reasons discussed elsewhere in this report.
118
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Table 37
PER CAPITA GENERATION* OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE,
BY MATERIAL, 1960 TO 2000
(In pounds per person per day)
Materials
Paper and paperboard
Glass
Metals
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Wood
Other
Total Nonfood Products
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total MSW Generated
I960
0.91
0.20
0.32
0.01
0.06
0.05
0.09
0.00
1.65
0.37
0.61
0.04
2.66
1970
1.19
0.34
0.38
0.08
0.09
0.05
0.11
0.02
2.26
0.34
0.62
0.05
3.27
1980
1.32
0.36
0.35
0.19
0.10
0.06
0.16
0.07
2.62
0.32
0.66
0.05
3.65
1990
1.60
0.29
0.36
0.39
0.13
0.13
0.27
0.07
3.23
0.29
0.77
0.06
4.35
1993
1.65
0.29
0.36
0.43
0.13
0.11
0.29
0.07
3.34
0.29
0.70
0.06
4.39
2000
1.77
0.28
0.38
0.47
0.15
0.10
0.32
0.07
3.54
0.28
0.44
0.07
4.32
Generation before materials or energy recovery.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Tables 1 and 33. Population figures from the Bureau of the Census.
Overall, per capita generation of MSW increased throughout the 33-year
study period. A decline is, however, projected primarily because of the projected
source reduction of yard trimmings.

RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL GENERATION OF MSW

The sources of MSW generation are of considerable interest to
management planners. The material flows methodology does not lend itself well
to a distinction as to sources of the materials because the data used are national
in scope. However, a classification of products and materials by residential and
commercial sources was first made for the 1992 update of this series of reports.

For purposes of this classification, residential waste was considered to
come from both single family and multi-family residences. This is somewhat
contrary to a common practice in MSW management to classify wastes collected
from apartment buildings as commercial. The rationale used for this report is
that the nature of residential waste is basically the same whether it is generated
in a single or multi-family residence. (Yard trimmings are probably the primary
exception, and this was taken into account.) Because of this approach, the
119
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percentage of residential waste shown here is higher than that often reported by
waste haulers.

Commercial wastes for the purpose of this classification include MSW
from retail and wholesale establishments; hotels; office buildings; airports and
train stations; hospitals, schools, and other institutions; and similar sources. No
industrial process wastes are included, but normal MSW such as packaging,
cafeteria and washroom wastes, and office wastes from industrial sources are
included. As is the case for the data in Chapter 2, construction and demolition
wastes, sludges, ashes, automobile bodies, and other non-MSW wastes are not
included.

The classification of MSW generation into residential and commercial
fractions was made on a product-by-product basis, as shown in Appendix C. The
1993 tonnage generation of each product was allocated to residential or
commercial sources on a "best judgment" basis; then the totals were aggregated.
These are estimates for the nation as a whole, and should not be taken as
representative of any particular region of the country.

A few revisions to the 1993 methodology were made for the current report
based on estimates made in a recent report for Keep America Beautiful, which
was extensively reviewed by public and private sector experts in municipal solid
waste management. Discards of major appliances and rubber tires were
reassigned to the commercial sector rather than the residential sector because,
while these products may be used in a residential setting, they tend to be collected
and managed through the commercial sector.

Based on this analysis, a reasonable range for residential wastes would be
55 to 65 percent of total MSW generation, while commercial wastes probably
range between 35 to 45 percent of total generation (Table 38).
Table 38

CLASSIFICATION OF MSW GENERATION INTO
RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FRACTIONS, 1993
(In thousands of tons and percent of total)
Thousand tons Percent of total
Residential Wastes
Commercial Wastes
113,820 -134,510
72,430 - 93,120
55.0% - 65.0%
35.0% - 45.0%
Estimates are presented as a range because of wide variations across
the country.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd. (Appendix C).
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ORGANIC/INORGANIC FRACTIONS OF MSW

The composition of MSW in terms of organic and inorganic fractions is of
interest to planners of waste management facilities and others working with
MSW. This characterization of MSW discards is shown in Table 39. (Discards
were used instead of generation because discards enter the solid waste
management system after recovery for recycling and composting.) The organic
fraction of MSW has been increasing steadily since 1970, from 75 percent organics
in 1970 to 84 percent in 1993.

It is interesting to note, however, that the percentage of MSW that is
organics began to "level off" after 1992 because of the projected decline in yard
trimmings discarded. This trend is projected to continue, with organics declining
to 83.3 percent of total MSW discards in 2000. Other than yard trimmings, other
organic components of MSW, such as paper, are tending to increase.
Table 39

COMPOSITION OF MSW DISCARDS*
BY ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FRACTIONS,
1960 TO 2000
(In percent of total discards)
Year
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1991
1992
1993
2000
Organics**
77.6
78.4
75.2
75.5
78.1
81.3
83.9
83.8
84.2
84.2
83.3
Inorganicst
22.4
21.6
24.8
24.5
21.9
18.7
16.1
16.2
15.8
15.8
16.7
* Discards after materials recovery has taken place,
and before combustion.
** Includes paper, plastics, rubber and leather,
textiles, wood, food wastes, and yard trimmings.
t Includes glass, metals, and miscellaneous inorganics.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

Source: Tables 3 and 34.
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RANKING OF PRODUCTS IN MSW BY WEIGHT

About 50 categories of products and materials are characterized as line
items in the tables in Chapter 2. It is difficult when examining that set of tables to
see in perspective the relative tonnages generated or discarded by the different
items. Therefore, Tables 40 and 40a were developed to illustrate this point.

In Table 40, the various products and materials are arranged in descending
order by weight generated in 1993. Subtotals in the right-hand column group
categories together for further illustration. For example, only yard trimmings
and corrugated boxes stand at the top of the list, with each generating over 12
percent of total MSW. Together these two items totaled 28.6 percent of MSW
generated in 1993. The next six categories totaled 31 percent of total generation.
Together these eight categories made up almost 60 percent of total MSW
generated. The 19 items at the bottom of the list each amounted to less than one
percent of generation in 1993; together they amounted to only 8.0 percent of total
generation.

A different perspective is provided in Table 40a, which ranks products in
MSW by weight discarded after recovery for recycling and composting. This table
illustrates how recovery alters the products' rankings. For example, corrugated
boxes, which ranked second highest in generation, ranked fourth in discards in
1993.

Discards of three categories—yard trimmings, food wastes, and
miscellaneous durables—were 33.1 percent of all discards in 1993. The next four
categories—corrugated boxes, wood packaging, newspapers, and furniture and
furnishings—made up 20.9 percent of total discards. Together these seven
categories made up over 50 percent of MSW discards in 1993. Eighteen categories
of discards were each less than one percent of the total; together these items
totaled less than 7 percent of 1993 discards.

FACTORS AFFECTING MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION

Data on municipal solid waste (MSW) generation presented elsewhere in
this report show steady growth in most years. Many reasons have been suggested
for this growth: increasing population, changing population demographics,
growing economic activity, and changes in lifestyles and the nature of the
workplace. In this section, the 33-year data series on MSW generation is
correlated with data on U.S. population, economic activity as measured by Gross
Domestic Product, and household size to illustrate factors contributing to growth
in MSW generation.
122
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Table 40
GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1993
ARRANGED IN DESCENDING ORDER BY WEIGHT
(In thousands of tons)

Yard trimmings
Corrugated boxes
Food wastes
Miscellaneous durables
Newspapers
Wood packaging
Office-type papers
Furniture and furnishings
Glass beer & soft drink bottles
Other commercial printing
Glass food & other bottles
Paper folding cartons
Other nonpackaging paper
Clothing and footwear
Third class mail
Miscellaneous nondurables
Major appliances
Rubber tires
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Tissue paper and towels
Steel cans and other packaging
Disposable diapers
Magazines
Other plastic packaging
Paper bags and sacks
Carpets and rugs
Aluminum cans and other packaging
Plastic other containers
Glass wine & liquor bottles
Plastic wraps
Lead-acid batteries
Other paper packaging
Plastic bags and sacks
Books
Trash bags
Paper plates and cups
Telephone books
Towels, sheets, and pillowcases
Plastic soft drink bottles
Plastic milk bottles
Small appliances
Paper milk cartons
Plastic plates and cups
Other paperboard packaging
Other miscellaneous packaging
Paper wraps
Total
Thousand
tons
32,800
26,350
13,800
13,720
12,940
9,460
7,120
7,020
5,440
5,440
4,940
4,940
4,770
4,280
4,010
3,510
3,430
3,410
3,050
3,010
2,980
2,700
2,500
2,370
2,200
2,130
1,980
1,930
1,850
1,820
1,670
1,100
1,050
990
890
830
740
720
560
550
530
470
350
300
220
70
206,940
Percent
of total Subtotals
15.9%
12.7% 28.6% (over 12%)
6.7%
6.6%
6.3%
4.6%
3.4%
3.4% 31.0% (3 to 7%)
2.6%
2.6%
2.4%
2.4%
2.3%
2.1% 14.4% (2 to 3%)
1.9%
1.7%
1.7%
1.6%
1.5%
1.5%
1.4%
1.3%
1.2%
1.1%
1.1%
1.0%
1.0% 18.0% (1 to 2%)
0.9%
0.9%
0.9%
0.8%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.4%
0.4%
0.4%
0.3%
0.3%
0.3%
0.3%
0.2%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.0% 8.0% (Otol%)
100.0% 100.0%
Source: Chapter 2.
123
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Table 40a
DISCARDS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1993
ARRANGED IN DESCENDING ORDER BY WEIGHT
(In thousands of tons)

Yard trimmings
Food wastes
Miscellaneous durables
Corrugated boxes
Wood packaging
Newspapers
Furniture and furnishings
Other nonpackaging paper
Office-type papers
Other commercial printing
Paper folding cartons
Glass food & other bottles
Glass beer & soft drink bottles
Clothing and footwear
Miscellaneous nondurables
Third class mail
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Tissue paper and towels
Rubber tires
Disposable diapers
Other plastic packaging
Carpets and rugs
Magazines
Paper bags and sacks
Plastic other containers
Plastic wraps
Steel cans and other packaging
Major appliances
Glass wine & liquor bottles
Other paper packaging
Plastic bags and sacks
Aluminum cans and other packaging
Trash bags
Books
Paper plates and cups
Telephone books
Towels, sheets, and pillowcases
Small appliances
Paper milk cartons
Plastic milk bottles
Plastic soft drink bottles
Plastic plates and cups
Other paperboard packaging
Other miscellaneous packaging
Lead-acid batteries
Paper wraps
Totals
Thousand
tons
26,300
13,800
13,540
11,730
8,140
7,020
7,020
4,770
4,520
4,380
4,240
3,980
3,840
3,710
3,510
3,470
3,050
3,010
2,970
2,700
2,360
2,120
2,050
1,850
1,840
1,790
1,600
1,590
1,400
1,100
1,030
930
890
830
830
680
600
530
470
420
330
330
300
220
90
70
161,950
Percent
of total
16.2%
8.5%
8.4%
7.2%
5.0%
4.3%
4.3%
2.9%
2.8%
2.7%
2.6%
2.5%
2.4%
2.3%
2.2%
2.1%
1.9%
1.9%
1.8%
1.7%
1.5%
1.3%
1.3%
1.1%
1.1%
1.1%
1.0%
1.0%
0.9%
0.7%
0.6%
0.6%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.4%
0.4%
0.3%
0.3%
0.3%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.0%
100.0%

Subtotals

33.1% (over 8%)

20.9% (3 to 8%)

22.5% (2 to 3%)

16.6% (1 to 2%)

6.8% (Otol%)
100.0%
Source: Chapter 2.
124
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STATISTICAL TERMS USED IN THIS SECTION

The correlation coefficient (r) is a standardized measure of the linear relationship between
two variables. The value of the correlation coefficient varies from +1 to -1, with the positive
numbers indicating that the two variables increase and decrease together, and negative
correlations indicating one variable increases as the other decreases. Thus the best-fit line of the
two variables on an X-Y graph has a negative slope when the correlation coefficient is negative. A
correlation coefficient of zero means the two variables are not linearly related, and the best-fit line
is horizontal (parallel to the X axis). In mathematical terms, the correlation coefficient is the
covariance of two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations.

Correlation is often presented in squared form (r2), which is known as the coefficient of
determination. R2 is always positive and ranges between zero and one. For the MSW vs. population
analysis, r2 represents the proportion of the variance in MSW generation that can be explained by
the population. For example, an r2 of 0.98 between MSW generation and population means that 98
percent of the variance (which is the standard deviation squared) of MSW generation can be
explained by the changes in population.
Population Growth

The most basic observation about MSW generation is that people generate
wastes in their daily lives at home, at work, and at other sites such as schools,
restaurants, retail stores, and the like. Therefore, increasing population means
more MSW will be generated. However, growing MSW generation is only
partially explained by population growth, because MSW generation is growing
faster than the population (Figure 21).
Figure 21. U.S. population and MSW generation
300,000

250,000
£ 200,000 ••
§
'•§
| 150,000 ••
c
o
100,000 ..
i. 50,000 • •
1960
1 Population!
avg annual growth = 1.08%
MSW generation
avg annual growth = 2.66%
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
125
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During the 33-year time period from 1960 to 1993, the population grew
from 180.7 million to 257.9 million for a 43 percent total increase, compared to a
135 percent increase in MSW generated. Therefore, the population growth alone
explains about one-third of the growth in MSW.

Figure 22 shows the annual growth rates for population and for MSW
generation from 1960 to 1993. The average population growth is 1.08 percent per
year. The annual percentage increase in MSW generation shows greater
variations from year to year, with an average growth of 2.66 percent.

The correlation coefficient (r) between total MSW generation and
population from 1960 to 1993 is 0.99, and the coefficient of determination (r2) is
0.98.
Figure 22. Growth of U.S. population and municipal solid
waste generation
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Economic Activity

Consumption can be measured using Gross Domestic Product (GDP); these
figures are published regularly by the U.S. Department of Commerce. GDP is the
output of all goods and services produced. To examine the correlation of MSW
generation with GDP in the U.S., MSW generation is expressed as pounds per
capita per day. This removes the element of MSW growth explained by
population changes, and considers only the remaining portion of growth. GDP
can be expressed in constant dollars (1987 dollars per capita) to remove the effects
of inflation.
126
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During the 33-year period, MSW generation grew from 2.7 pounds per
person per day to 4.4 pounds per person per day, an increase of 65 percent. During
the same period, the Gross Domestic Product rose from $10,922 per person to
$19,908 per person, an increase of 82 percent. Plots of MSW generation per person
and GDP in constant dollars per person are shown in Figure 23. The correlation
coefficient (r) for the two data series is 0.99.
Figure 23. MSW generation and Gross Domestic Product,
1960 to 1993
4.50 y
p 4.00 ••
1960
-Generation
-GDP
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Figure 24 is a scatter plot showing the nearly linear relationship of MSW
generation and Gross Domestic Product since 1960. The correlation coefficient (r)
is 0.99, showing a very strong positive correlation.

Generation of Product Categories

Generation of the major categories of MSW, which are durable goods,
nondurable goods, and containers and packaging, is plotted in Figure 25 along
with GDP. Generation is expressed in pounds per person per day and GDP in 1987
dollars per person to eliminate the effects of population growth and inflation.
Correlation coefficients are shown for each MSW category.

Because of their long life spans, durable goods—e.g., furniture and
appliances—are not as sensitive to the single year dips in GDP of 1975,1982, and
1991 as are nondurable goods and containers and packaging. However, the
calculated correlation coefficient for each category is quite high, ranging from 0.96
for containers and packaging to 0.98 for nondurable goods.
127
-------
Figure 24. MSW generation and Gross Domestic Product
4.50 ,
>. 4.00 •
| 3.50 •
| 3.00 .
1 2.50 •
| 2.00 .
o 1.50 •
S
g LOO-
'S 0.50 .
0.00 •
10,(
»«**
..» «•** «*
4 • ** *** *

r = 0.99

300 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 20,000
GDP in 1987 dollars/person
Figure 25. MSW product categories and Gross
Domestic Product
I
f
I
c
S
o>
o
O
20,000
15,000
-• 10,000
-•5,000
0-
Q
O
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
128
-------
Comparison of MSW Generation, Population, and GDP

Comparative growth rates of MSW generation, population, and Gross
Domestic Product are shown in Figure 26. For each parameter, 1960 is taken as
the base year, with percentage increase over 1960 plotted. If per capita generation
of MSW were constant, the population and generation plots would be the same.
As can be seen, however, MSW generation correlates more closely with GDP
than with population. GDP grew an average of 2.94 percent per year from 1960 to
1993; population grew 1.08 percent per year; and MSW generation grew 2.66
percent per year.
Figure 26. Growth of U.S. population, MSW generation,
and gross domestic product
0)
CO
<0
a?
o
c
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
Household Size

For a variety of reasons, the average size of households has decreased
more than 20 percent in the last 33 years, from 3.42 persons in 1960 to 2.67
persons in 1993. The Bureau of the Census and American Demographics project
that the average household size will continue to drop to 2.4 by 2000, before
starting to increase again.* Bureau of the Census data on household size was
correlated with data on per capita MSW generation from this report to illustrate
the possible effects of household size on generation.

The smaller households have resulted in higher per capita consumption
rates for several products that end up in the waste stream. Certain items of the
waste stream, such as newspapers, appliances, furniture, and yard trimmings
American Demographics. August 1994.
129
-------
would be expected to relate more closely to the number of households than to
population. For example, households with one or two persons generally read the
same newspapers and have the same number of appliances as larger households.

Figure 27 shows how the per capita MSW generation decreases with
increasing household size. The correlation coefficient is -0.955 (r2 = 0.91).
Generation and average household size are shown as a function of time in
Figure 28. As expected, per capita generation is seen to rise as household size
decreases. Figure 29 shows that in spite of the decreasing household size, the
amount of MSW generated per household has continued to increase, but not as
rapidly as per capita generation. (The correlation between generation in pounds
per household per day and persons per household is weaker than the correlation
between generation in pounds per person per day and persons per household.)

_c
c
.2
2

«
o
2
-------
Figure 28. MSW generation per person and
household size
5.00-1
4.00-
3.00-
•
2.00-
1.00-
0.00-
19
Generation in
pounds/person/day m m m
• »*»***'
i^^*************** «***•**** 11 4
Persons/household
r = -0.96
r2= 0.91
60 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
Figure 29. MSW generation per household and

household size
4.00 T
3.00
Pounds/household/day
°- 1.00--
0.00
Persons/household
r = -0.74

r2 = 0.55

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
12.00
-•2.00
0.00
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980 1985
1990
--6.00 3
--4.00 S
o
Q.
131
-------
Chapter 6

CHARACTERIZATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BY VOLUME

INTRODUCTION

Solid waste is generally characterized by weight, either in pounds or tons.
Most statistics are compiled by weight. Landfill and combustion facility operators
generally charge fees by weight, and estimates of quantities are stated in tons. The
remainder of this report uses tons or thousands of tons to specify the quantity of
municipal solid waste (MSW). Weight can be readily and rapidly measured with
a set of scales. People agree that properly calibrated scales will accurately measure
weight, but there is no agreed-upon method for measuring volume.

It has been realized for many years, however, that the space occupied by
waste is also important. Landfills do not get overweight; instead, their space fills
up. It is useful to quantify MSW by cubic yards of space occupied, but volume
measurements are far more complex to make than weight measurements.
Volume measurements are very contextual. A pound of paper is a pound of
paper no matter whether it is in flat sheets, crumpled into a wad, or compacted
into a bale. However, the volume occupied will be very different in each case.
Perhaps the one-pound wad of paper will occupy as much as ten times the
volume of a pound of baled paper.

Another problem with volume measurement of MSW is the difficulty in
establishing a typical set of environmental conditions to serve as a basis for
comparison. We may agree that volumes of MSW in landfills are of interest, but
the difficulty arises as to how to define typical landfill conditions. Every waste
management system treats waste differently, and achieves different levels of
compaction and therefore different volumes for different materials. The waste
also degrades with time. As waste remains in a landfill, biochemical reactions
occur and many of the organic materials are converted to gases. The moisture
conditions will also change with time. This makes it extremely difficult to devise
a set of standard environmental conditions to serve as a basis for volume
measures.

To begin the process of determining a scientific basis for decision-making,
a set of volume factors for MSW was developed. While it is difficult to attain a
high degree of accuracy in volume measurements because of the complexity of
the problem, a reasonable approach can shed light on the volume issue.

Because of the desirability of establishing a national consensus on solid
waste volumes, a series of measurements were taken in 1989 to present for the
first time a methodology for measuring volumes and to generate a preliminary
132
-------
set of data (1). This chapter is based in part on the results reported in that
reference.

METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

As described in the 1990 EPA MSW characterization report (2), the basic
approach was to set up an experimental program to develop a set of landfill
density factors for solid waste components, measured in pounds per cubic yard.
The MSW weight data reported in thousands of tons (from Chapter 2 of this
report) were converted to thousands of pounds, and the MSW volume in
thousands of cubic yards was calculated by dividing the weight values by the
density (in pounds per cubic yard).

The experimental program was developed in cooperation with The
Garbage Project, administered as a part of the Department of Anthropology,
Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology, The University of Arizona,
located in Tucson. They are experienced in landfill sampling and in volume
measurement. They use a specially constructed machine that can compact MSW
samples so as to replicate landfill conditions.

For purposes of conducting experiments, paper was separated into four
broad categories based on similarities of compaction behavior. Plastics were also
separated into four categories, with another category for composite mixtures of
paper and plastics. The nine categories are listed below (no other materials
categories were segregated):

• Nonpackaging paper (paper plates, tissues, towels, mail, newspapers,
magazines, books, forms, greeting cards, etc.)

• Corrugated boxes

• Paperboard boxes (food boxes, detergent boxes, milk cartons, six-pack
wraps, etc.)

• Other paper and paperboard packaging (bags, wrapping paper, towel
rolls, molded pulp egg cartons, cups, hinged fast food containers,
cigarette wrappers, etc.)

• Plastic film packaging (bags, wrappers, food wrap films, wet-wipes packs,
bubble packaging, condiment packs, etc.)

• Plastic rigid containers (bottles, jars, tubs and lids, microwave trays, hard
cosmetic cases, bottle basecups, etc.)

• Other plastic packaging (cookie trays, six-pack ring holders, flexible
tubes, polystyrene foam packaging, etc.)
133
-------
• Nonpackaging plastic (cups, tumblers, eating utensils, pens, razors, toys,
food serving trays, hangers, sponges, etc.)

• Composite mixtures of paper and plastic (blister packs, juice concentrate
containers, composite cans, diapers, etc.)

A central part of the methodology was to retrieve materials from landfills
after they had experienced the actual conditions of the solid waste system.
Landfill excavations were made at the Los Reales landfill in Tucson in June 1989.
Samples were sorted and compressed, and density measurements were recorded
by The Garbage Project staff. The results of these experiments and analysis of the
data resulted in a set of density factors for the paper and plastic products.

DENSITY FACTORS FOR LANDFILLED MATERIALS

Data Sources

Best estimates of the density of 24 important categories of waste, reported
in pounds per cubic yard as compacted in landfills, are summarized in Table 41.
The paper and plastic densities are the result of the experimental efforts described
above. The values for other materials are based on prior work by The Garbage
Project, other literature sources, and other experiments performed at Franklin
Associates. In some cases, estimates were made based on behavior of similar
materials. References for the origins of each density value are included in Table
41.

Uncertainties in Density Factor Estimates

Problems With Experimental Values. Measuring densities of various
waste products under conditions designed to simulate those in a landfill can
result in data that may be useful but, at the same time, potentially misleading. As
previously mentioned, conditions in different landfills vary significantly
including the equipment and techniques used in compaction, refuse depths, and
other factors. Of perhaps greatest concern, however, is the fact that
experimentally derived densities are based on compaction of individual waste
materials. In a landfill, wastes are mixed together and the materials become
intermingled. This intermingling tends to reduce void space that may be present
with a single material. For example, fine materials will, at least partially, fill the
voids between cans and bottles and other waste products that are not completely
flattened in a landfill. As a result, the relative landfill space occupied by these
products is less than would be indicated by densities determined from
compaction tests. The aforementioned compaction tests on rigid plastic
containers, for instance, would have led to density calculations that included all
void space between the containers. Since some of these voids would be filled
with other materials in a landfill, the landfill density of plastic containers would
be higher than indicated by the tests (assuming equal compaction characteristics).
134
-------
Accordingly, the landfill space occupied by the containers would be less than
calculated from the compaction tests density.

Durable Goods. Densities of durable goods present a particular problem,
since no experimental values are available. Where it was necessary to include
densities of durable products, they were assigned the average density of
nondurable products that have the same densities (e.g., metals, plastics). A
composite density is shown in Table 41.
Table 41

SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED DENSITY FACTORS FOR LANDFILLED MATERIALS

Density
(Ib/cu yd)
DURABLE GOODS"
NONDURABLE GOODS
Nondurable paper
Nondurable plastic
Disposable diaperst
Diaper materials
Urine and feces
Rubber
Textiles
Misc. nondurables (mostly plastics)
PACKAGING
Glass containers
Beer & soft drink bottles
Other containers
Steel Containers
Beer & soft drink cans
Food cans
Other packaging
Aluminum
Beer & soft drink cans
Other packaging
Paper and Paperboard
Corrugated
Other paperboard
Paper packaging
Plastics
Film
Rigid containers
Other packaging
Wood packaging
Other miscellaneous packaging
FOOD WASTES
YARD TRIMMINGS
475

800
315

795
1,350
345
435
390

2,800
2,800

560
560
560

250
550

750
820
740

670
355
185
800
1,015
2,000
1,500
12

1
1

4
13
5
6
11

5,9
5,9

5
5
5

9,10
9

1
1
1

1
1
1,11
6
3
5
7,8
References are listed at the end of this chapter.
* * No measurements were taken for durable goods or plastic coatings.
135
-------
Plastic Coatings. Plastic coatings applied to packaging and other products
present another special case. These coatings do not act as materials in their own
right, but take on the characteristics of the products on which they are applied.
Their density was also assumed to be the same as the average density of other
products.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTS DISCARDED

The estimated volume of product discards in cubic yards (Table 42) was
derived from Chapter 2 and Table 41. (It is necessary to characterize the volume
of MSW discards rather than generation because the weight discard estimates
most closely match the wastes received at a landfill, where the experimental data
were derived. Discards include the waste left after materials recovery and
composting and before combustion, landfilling, or other disposal.) The weight
values from Tables 14, 17, and 22 are shown in the first column of Table 42, with
the volumes being calculated by taking the weight values, converting to pounds,
and dividing by the density (in pounds per cubic yard) from Table 41. The results
are reported in Table 42 as volume in thousands of cubic yards of waste on a
landfill volume basis for the individual products. The data in Table 42 are
summarized by product categories in Figure 30 and Table 43.

The data in Table 42 may be useful in comparing the relative volumes of
products in a landfill. However, the volumes shown for several products may be
too high for the reasons indicated previously. The landfill density shown for
total MSW discards is below those usually achieved in landfills receiving MSW,
as demonstrated later in this chapter. This is further evidence that at least some
of the product densities shown in Table 42 are too low and corresponding
volume estimates too high.

Total landfill volume shown in Table 42 for 1993 MSW discards is judged
to be higher than actual for two reasons. First, not all MSW discards were
landfilled (e.g., some were combusted) and, second, total MSW densities in
landfills appear to be higher than shown. (When estimating landfill volumes,
however, cover material requirements must be considered as well.)
136
-------
Table 42
ESTIMATED VOLUME OF PRODUCTS DISCARDED IN MSW, 1993
DURABLE GOODS
NONDURABLE GOODS
Newspapers
Books
Magazines
Office papers
Telephone books
Third class mail
Other commercial printing
Tissue paper and towels
Paper plates and cups
Plastic plates and cups
Trash bags
Disposable diapers
Diaper materials
Urine and feces
Subtotal diapers
Other nonpackaging paper
Clothing and footwear
Towels, sheets & pillowcases
Other misc. nondurables
Total Nondurable Goods
CONTAINERS AND PACKAGING
Glass Packaging
Beer and soft drink
Wine and liquor
Food and other bottles & jars
Total Glass Packaging
Steel Packaging
Beer and soft drink cans
Food and other cans
Other steel packaging
Total Steel Packaging
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and soft drink cans
Other cans
Foil and closures
Total Aluminum Pkg
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated boxes
Milk cartons
Folding cartons
Other paperboard packaging
Bags and sacks
Wrapping paper
Other paper packaging
Total Paper & Board Pkg
1993
Discards*
(thousand tons)
27,860
7,020
830
2,050
4,520
680
3,470
4,380
3,010
830
330
890
934
1,766
2,700
4,770
3,710
600
3,510
43,300
3,840
1,400
3,980
9,220
30
1,420
150
1,600
590
40
300
930
11,730
470
4,240
300
1,850
70
1,100
19,760
Weight
(%of
total)
17.2%
4.3%
0.5%
1.3%
2.8%
0.4%
2.1%
2.7%
1.9%
0.5%
0.2%
0.5%
0.6%
1.1%
1.7%
2.9%
2.3%
0.4%
2.2%
26.7%
2.4%
0.9%
2.5%
5.7%
0.02%
0.9%
0.1%
1.0%
0.4%
0.02%
0.2%
0.6%
7.2%
0.3%
2.6%
0.2%
1.1%
0.04%
0.7%
12.2%
Landfill
Density**
(Ib/cu yd)
475
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
800
355
670
795
1,350
—
800
435
435
390
686
2,800
2,800
2,800
2,800
560
560
560
560
250
250
550
303
750
820
820
820
740
800
740
765
Landfill
Volume***
(thousand cu yd)
117,305
17,550
2,075
5,125
11,300
1,700
8,675
10,950
7,525
2,075
1,859
2,657
2,350
2,616
4,966
11,925
17,057
2,759
18,000
126,198
2,743
1,000
2,843
6,586
107
5,071
536
5,714
4,720
320
1,091
6,131
31,280
1,146
10,341
732
5,000
175
2,973
51,647
Volume
(%of
total)
27.0%
4.0%
0.5%
1.2%
2.6%
0.4%
2.0%
2.5%
1.7%
0.5%
0.4%
0.6%
0.5%
0.6%
1.1%
2.7%
3.9%
0.6%
4.1%
29.1%
0.6%
0.2%
0.7%
1.5%
0.0%
1.2%
0.1%
1.3%
1.1%
0.1%
0.3%
1.4%
7.2%
0.3%
2.4%
0.2%
1.2%
0.0%
0.7%
11.9%
(continued on next page)
137
-------
Table 42 (continued)
ESTIMATED VOLUME OF PRODUCTS DISCARDED IN MSW, 1993

Plastics Packaging
Soft drink bottles
Milk bottles
Other containers
Bags and sacks
Wraps
Other plastics packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood packaging
Other misc. packaging
Total Containers & Packaging
Total Product Waste*
Other Wastes
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganics
Total Other Wastes
TOTAL MSW DISCARDED
1993
Discards*
(thousand tons)

330
420
1,840
1,030
1,790
2,360
7,770
8,140
220
47,640
118,800

13,800
26,300
3,050
43,150
161,950
Weight
(%of
total)

0.2%
0.3%
1.1%
0.6%
1.1%
1.5%
4.8%
5.0%
0.1%
29.4%
73.4%

8.5%
16.2%
1.9%
26.6%
100%
Landfill
Density**
(Ib/cu yd)

355
355
355
670
670
185
320
800
1,015
684
621

2,000
1,500
2,500
1,682
746 J
Landfill
Volume***
(thousand cu yd)

1,859
2,366
10,366
3,075
5,343
25,514
48,523
20,350
433
139,385
382,888

13,800
35,067
2,440
51,307
434,195 J
Volume
(%of
total)

0.4%
0.5%
2.4%
0.7%
1.2%
5.9%
11.2%
4.7%
0.1%
32.1%
88.2%

3.2%
8.1%
0.6%
11.8%
100%
From Tables 14,17, and 22. Discards after materials recovery and composting, before combustion
and landfilling.
** From Table 41.
*** This assumes that all waste discards are landfilled, but some are combusted.
t Other than food products.
| This density factor and volume are derived by adding the individual factors. Actual landfill density
and densities of certain products may be considerably higher than shown (see discussion in text).
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Figure 30. Landfill volume of MSW product
categories, 1993 (In percent of total)
Other
11.8%
Packaging
32.1%
Durables
27.0%
Nondurables
29.1%
138
-------
Table 43
SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED VOLUME OF PRODUCTS DISCARDED* IN MSW, 1993
(In percent of total)
Percent by Percent by
Weight* Volume**
Durable Goods 17.2%
Nondurable Goods 26.7%
Containers and Packaging 29.4%
Food Wastes 8.5%
Yard Trimmings 16.2%
Miscellaneous Inorganics 1.9%
Total Discards 100%
* Discards after materials recovery and composting, before
combustion and landfilling.
** From Table 42.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.

VOLUME OF MATERIALS

These same data are reported by material rather than by product in Table
44 and Figure 31. The values are ranked by estimated landfill volume occupied,
with the most voluminous materials listed first. Paper is shown to occupy the
most volume, at about 30 percent of the total. This is followed by plastics, at 24
percent of the total.

The right-hand column of Table 44 presents the ratio of volume percent to
weight percent for each material category. A ratio of 1.0 means that the material
occupies the same proportion of volume as weight. Values greater than 1.0 mean
that a larger proportion of volume is occupied than weight. Four materials stand
out as having ratios of approximately 2.0 or greater: plastics, rubber and leather,
textiles, and aluminum. On the other hand, yard trimmings, food, and glass each
have ratios of 0.5 or less, illustrating that these materials are quite dense and
occupy proportionately less volume in landfills.

Estimated landfill volumes by material are compared for 1990 and 1993
MSW discards in Table 45. Plastics are shown to be increasing in percentage of
landfill volume occupied while certain other materials such as yard trimmings
are declining.

Again, caution is advised when using the data in Tables 44 and 45 and
Figure 31. In particular, the volume estimates shown for the experiment-
determined low density materials should be considered questionable. The
landfill volume of these materials relative to other MSW discards is probably
lower than shown.
139
-------
Table 44
ESTIMATED VOLUME OF MATERIALS DISCARDED IN MSW, 1993
1993 Weight*
Discards* (% of MSW
(thousand tons) total)
Paper & Paperboard
Plastics
Yard Trimmings
Ferrous Metals
Rubber & Leather
Wood
Textiles
Food Wastes
Aluminum
Glass
Othert
Totals
51,380 31.7
18,620 11.5
26,300 16.2
9,560 5.9
5,850 3.6
12,370 7.6
5,410 3.3
13,800 8.5
1,920 1.2
10,660 6.6
6,080 3.8
161,950 100.0
* From Table 3. Discards after materials recovery.
** Composite factors derived by Franklin Associates,
*** This assumes that all waste discards are landfilled,
t Found by difference to obtain total to match produ
Landfill
Density**
(Ib/cu yd)
784
359
1,500
560
346
840
400
2,000
366
2,268
2,000
746 t
Landfill Volume
Volume*** (%ofMSW
(thousand cu yd) total)
131,071
103,733
35,067
34,143
33,815
29,452
27,050
13,800
10,492
9,400
6,080
434,103 t
30.2
23.9
8.1
7.9
7.8
6.8
6.2
3.2
2.4
2.2
1.4
100.0
Ratio
(vol %/
wt%)
1.0
2.1
0.5
1.3
2.2
0.9
1.9
0.4
2.0
0.3
0.4
1.0
Ltd.
but some are combusted.
:cts table. Note:
Results in this table and
Table 42

are not identical due to rounding differences.
This density factor and volume are derived by adding the individual factors. Actual landfill density
and densities of certain materials may be considerably higher than shown (see discussion in text).
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Figure 31. Landfill volume of materials in MSW, 1993
(In percent of total)
Plastics
23.9%
Paper &
Paperboard
30.2%
Yard Trimmings 8.1%
Ferrous Metals 7.9%

Rubber & Leather 7.8%

Wood 6.8%

Textiles 6.2%

Food Wastes 3.2%
^" Aluminum 2.4%
Others 1.4% Glass 2.2%
140
-------
Table 45
ESTIMATED WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF MATERIALS
DISCARDED IN MSW, 1990 AND 1993
(in percent of total)

1990 1993

Paper & Paperboard
Plastics
Yard Trimmings
Ferrous Metals
Rubber & Leather
Wood
Textiles
Food Wastes
Aluminum
Glass
Othert
Totals
Weight*
(% of MSW
total)
31.7
10.0
18.7
6.5
3.4
7.2
3.6
8.0
1.1
6.4
3.5
100.0
Volume**
(%ofMSW
total)
30.9
21.2
9.5
8.8
7.5
6.6
6.8
3.0
2.3
2.1
1.3
100.0
Weight*
(% of MSW
total)
31.7
11.5
16.2
5.9
3.6
7.6
3.3
8.5
1.2
6.6
3.8
100.0
Volume**
(%ofMSW
total)
30.2
23.9
8.1
7.9
7.8
6.8
6.2
3.2
2.4
2.2
1.4
100.0
From Table 3. Discards after materials recovery.
** Volume estimates based on MSW weights and densities shown in previous tables.
t Found by difference to obtain total to match products table.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
VALIDITY OF RESULTS

As previously indicated, the density and volume data presented in this
chapter are of questionable accuracy. The density values in Table 41 are based on
sorted MSW materials. Later tests conducted by The Garbage Project indicated
that mixing wastes results in higher composite densities than those attained with
sorted waste materials. The intermingling of different materials with different
characteristics, as occurs in a landfill, results in filling more air space than if the
materials were landfilled individually (or apart from each other). For example,
mixing one cubic yard of paper with one cubic yard of plastic results in less than
two cubic yards of material.

The mixing effect is believed to have a more pronounced impact on
measured densities and volumes of cans, plastic containers and a few other waste
products. In a landfill, more finely divided materials will tend to fill the voids
between these items. Thus, the occupied volume of these items in a landfill will
be less than would be measured through an individual material/product
compaction test.
141
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At best, the data in the tables and figures in this chapter may provide an
indication of the relative order of densities and volumes of the various waste
components in a landfill. However, it is anticipated that the spread
between the higher and lower density components will be less than indicated. In
particular, the materials shown to have the highest ratios of volume to weight
probably use less landfill space than indicated.

REPORTED LANDFILL DENSITIES

Densities achieved in landfills that accept MSW are reported to vary
between 700 and 1,600 pounds per cubic yard (14). A minimum initial
compaction density of 1,000 pounds per cubic yard is sometimes recommended
in landfill operator training courses (14). As landfill depth increases, the density
of the waste increases. The maximum density of solid waste in a landfill under
overburden pressure is reported to vary from 1,750 to 2,150 pounds per cubic yard
(15).

The calculated landfill densities shown in Tables 42 and 44 for total MSW
discards are about 740 pounds per cubic yard. Higher densities are found in other
solid wastes disposed in landfills including industrial process wastes and
construction and demolition debris. However, quantities of other wastes in
landfills accepting MSW are usually small by comparison. The MSW discards
density would, therefore, need to be higher than shown here in order to achieve
the landfill densities generally reported today.
142
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Chapter 6

REFERENCES

1. Hunt, R.G., Sellers, V.R., Franklin, W.E., Nelson, J.M., Rathje, W.L.,
Hughes, W.W., and Wilson, D.C. Estimates of the Volume of MSW and
Selected Components in Trash Cans and Landfills. Franklin Associates, Ltd.
(with The Garbage Project) for The Council for Solid Waste Solutions,
Washington, D.C. February 1990.

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal
Solid Waste in the United States: 1990 Update. EPA/530-SW-90-042. June
1990.

3. Darnay, A., and W.E. Franklin. The Role of Packaging in Solid Waste
Management, 1966 to 1976. Public Health Service Publication No. 1855. U.S.
Government Printing Office. 1969. Appendix B, Table 20.

4. Derived from the densities of individual components of disposable diapers.

5. Reference 3, Appendix B, Table 21.

6. Estimates based on very limited experimental data with landfill samples.

7. Taylor, A.C., and Kashmanian, R.M. Study and Assessment of Eight Yard
Waste Composting Programs Across the United States. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. December 1988.

8. John Christopher Madole Associates. "Yard Waste Management Action Plan
for San Jose, California. Final Draft Report. March 1988.

9. Franklin Associates estimates based on experiments with non-landfilled
material.

10. Rankin, S. Recycling Plastics in Municipal Solid Wastes. Center for Plastics
Recycling Research at Rutgers. The State University of New Jersey. January
1989.

11. Based on densities from Reference 1 as applied to a detailed profile of this
category.

12. No measurements were taken for durable goods. The value shown
assumes that durable products have the same landfill density as
nondurable products made of the same materials.
143
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13. Welch, R.O., et al. Study of Environmental Impacts of Disposables versus
Reusables. Midwest Research Institute and Franklin Associates, Ltd. for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 1, 1977.

14. Magnuson, Ann. "The Economics of Landfill Compaction." MSW
Management. November /December 1992.

15. Tchobanoglous, G. and P.R. O'Leary. "Landfilling" Chapter 12 in
F. Kreith (ed.), Handbook of Solid Waste Management. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
1994.
144
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Chapter 7

COMPARISON OF MSW ESTIMATES
INTRODUCTION
As explained in Chapter 1, there are two basic methodologies for
estimating quantities and composition of MSW:

• The material flows approach used in this report

• Sampling, sorting, and weighing of waste on-site.

Both methodologies have validity; both must be used with care if they are to be
effective for solid waste management purposes.

This chapter compares the MSW estimates in this report with other
estimates from two perspectives. First, the estimates in the current report are
compared with previous material flows estimates. Second, the estimates in the
current report are compared with some of the estimates made by on-site
sampling studies.

COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS MATERIAL FLOWS STUDIES

The material flows methodology has been evolving for about 20 years.
Over the years increasing levels of detail have been added as new data became
available and as new funding from public and private sources allowed more
complete analyses of the materials and products in MSW. For example,
generation of some products—e.g., disposable diapers—was insignificant in the
early 1970s when the methodology was first being developed. Many new types of
packaging also have come into common use in the past two decades, and the
current estimates include more detailed information on paper and plastic
packaging than was available previously.

When changes have been made in the database, e.g., to account for
additional products, the changes were generally—to the extent data were
available—carried backward in the data series as well as being added to the recent
years. This has been done to preserve the integrity of the data series by avoiding
discontinuities in the database. (There are, however, some discontinuities
introduced by the information sources.)

The last year for which MSW was characterized in the 1992 update was
1990. To highlight changes that have been made in this 1994 update, Table 46 was
prepared. Overall, the estimate of MSW generation in 1990 has been increased by
1.2 percent, from 195.7 million tons of MSW to 198 million tons. A change in the
145
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Table 46
COMPARISON OF THE 1992 AND THE 1994 ESTIMATES
FOR 1990 MATERIALS GENERATION*
(In thousands of tons and percent)

Materials
Paper and paperboard

Glass
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other nonferrous

Plastics
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Wood
Othert
Total Nonfood Product Waste
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total MSW Generated
Pounds per Person per Day
Previous
Estimate**
73,325

13,182

12,302
2,660
1,209

16,244
4,640
5,584
12,313
3,173
144,632
13,200
35,000
2,900
195,732
4.3
Current
Estimate***
72,681

13,184

12,437
2,860
1,103

16,822
5,928
6,450
12,313
3,147
146,925
13,200
35,000
2,900
198,025
4.4
Percent
Difference
-0.9%

0.0%

1.1%
7.5%
-8.8%

3.6%
27.8%
15.5%
0.0%
-0.8%
1.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
1.2%
1.2%

Comments
Revisions in data source.
Changes in methodology.

Changes in tires methodology.
Addition of small appliances.
Changes in battery methodology.
Addition of small appliances.
Revisions in data series.
Changes in tires methodology.
Revisions in data series.

Changes in battery methodology.

* Generation before recovery tor recycling and composting.
** From worksheets for the July 1992 EPA MSW characterization report.
*** From worksheets prepared for this report.
t Includes part of materials in disposable diapers and lead-acid batteries.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
methodology for estimating generation of rubber tires accounted for some of the
increase, although there were adjustments in some other categories, as explained
below.

As discussed in earlier chapters of this report, projections of MSW
generation are done on a material-by-material and product-by-product basis. The
projections are made using trend analysis, available reports from government
(usually Department of Commerce) sources, industry sources, and in some
instances, best professional judgment on the industries involved. Projections
were updated for this 1994 report based on an additional three years of historical
data.

A comparison of projections of MSW generation for the year 2000 as made
for the 1992 update and for this report is shown in Table 47, with results
discussed below.
146
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Materials
Paper and paperboard

Glass
Table 47
COMPARISON OF THE 1992 AND THE 1994 PROJECTIONS
OF MATERIALS GENERATION IN 2000*
(In thousands of tons and percent)
Previous Current Percent
Estimate** Estimate*** Difference Comments
84,720 89,340 5.5% More growth in paper products
than anticipated.

13,484 14,022 4.0% Previous decline in container
generation reversed.
Metals
Ferrous
Aluminum
Other nonferrous
Plastics
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Wood
Othert
Total Nonfood Product Waste
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total MSW Generated
Pounds per Person per Day

12,050
3,572
1,498
24,768
6,466
6,659
16,015
3,655
172,887
13,200
32,900
3,100
222,087
4.5

14,220
3,426
1,396
22,492
7,606
6,197
16,011
3,538
178,248
14,000
22,200
3,300
217,748
4.4

18.0%
-4.1%
-6.8%
-9.2%
17.6%
-6.9%
0.0%
-3.2%
3.1%
6.1%
-32.5%
6.5%
-2.0%
-2.0%

Change in tires methodology puts
more steel in 1993 base.

Addition of small appliances puts less
metals in 1993 base.
Trends reevaluated.
Change in tires methodology puts
more rubber in 1993 base.
Trends reevaluated.

Change in battery methodology puts
less electrolytes in 1993 base.

Trends reevaluated.
Source reduction practices.
Trends reevaluated.

* Generation before any materials recovery.
** From worksheets for the July 1992 EPA MSW characterization report.
*** From worksheets prepared for this report.
t Includes part of materials in disposable diapers and lead-acid batteries.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
Paper and Paperboard

The methodology for estimating generation and recovery of paper and
paperboard products was revised to better account for generation and recovery of
converting scrap (preconsumer waste). In earlier versions of this report, it was
assumed that all converting scrap was recovered. For this report, converting
scrap recovery rates as developed for the Recycling Advisory Council were used.
These rates range from 70 percent to 98 percent of converting scrap. The
recovered converting scrap was subtracted from total recovered paper to obtain
postconsumer recovery. The unrecovered converting scrap was added to MSW
generation of the appropriate paper grades. This has the effect of increasing
generation of paper and paperboard in MSW.
147
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In spite of these adjustments, estimates of generation of paper and
paperboard in 1990 declined. This is because the data source for new supply
(production plus imports minus exports) of paper grades (the American Forest &
Paper Association) revised its estimates for 1990 downward.

At the time projections for paper and paperboard generation in 2000 were
made in 1992, it was thought that some decreases in growth rates due to source
reduction would occur. At this time, however, production of the corrugated and
printing-writing grades (the two grades with the most significant production)
continues to increase rapidly. Therefore, the projections of paper and paperboard
generation in 2000 were increased compared to the projections made in 1992.

Metals

Some significant changes were made affecting metals generation. The
methodology for estimating rubber tires was revised, with the result that
estimates of rubber tire generation in 1990 were increased. Since there is steel in
rubber tires, this had the effect of increasing the estimates of ferrous metals in
MSW. Also, small appliances were added as a line item, which caused a
recalculation of the materials allocation in the remaining miscellaneous durable
goods. This had the effect of increasing estimates of aluminum in MSW. The
methodology for estimating generation of lead-acid batteries was also revised;
this had the effect of lowering estimates of other nonferrous metals (lead).

The projections of these metals were revised to account for these changes
in estimates of metals generation.

Glass

Generation of glass had been declining when the 1992 update was
completed. This trend has reversed itself somewhat since 1992, with production
of glass containers increasing again. Therefore, glass generation for 2000 was
projected to increase slightly rather than declining.

Plastics

Plastics generation continues to grow, but based on recent trends, the rate
of growth for plastics between 1993 and 2000 was decreased somewhat compared
to the estimates made in 1992.

Rubber and Leather

The methodology for estimating generation of rubber tires was revised
because the Department of Commerce database used previously was
discontinued. A methodology based on sales of replacement tires and
deregistrations of automobiles was substituted. This had the effect of increasing
148
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the estimated generation of rubber tires (and rubber) significantly. Projections of
generation of rubber and leather were adjusted accordingly.

Textiles

The statistics used for estimating textiles generation in clothing and other
products tend to fluctuate widely. This caused estimates of textiles generation in
1990 to be increased.

Food Wastes

Generation of food wastes in 2000 was projected to be somewhat higher
than that projected in 1992. The per capita generation of food wastes (including
some allowance for composting at home) is projected to be lower than per capita
generation in 1990.

Yard Trimmings

As discussed in other chapters of this report, the projection of yard
trimmings generation was reduced substantially.

COMPARISON WITH ESTIMATES MADE BY SAMPLING STUDIES

Comparison of estimates made by the material flows methodology with
estimates made by sampling and weighing MSW are of interest, but must be
approached with caution. For one thing, the waste stream sampled in any
particular study may not be comparable to the mix of products included in the
material flows methodology. For example, industrial waste is often included in
waste received and sampled at a landfill or transfer station. Seasonal variations
in the waste stream may also affect the results of a sampling study.

Another important factor to consider when comparing results is moisture
transfer among materials in wastes as they are collected. The material flows
methodology characterizes wastes in their as-generated condition. That is,
moisture in disposable diapers is accounted for, and estimates of food wastes and
yard trimmings have been adjusted to include the moisture inherent in the
discards. Wastes as sampled, however, have been mixed together prior to
sampling, and the moisture in the wastes has been transferred among products.
For example, paper products in MSW absorb large quantities of moisture from
food wastes and yard trimmings, and the latter wastes thus contain less moisture
than they did in their as-generated condition. This moisture transfer may
significantly affect the relative weight percentages of the materials in MSW.

Municipal solid waste composition estimated by the material flows
methodology is compared with composition estimated by sampling studies in
Table 48. The sampling study results are presented in ranges; the first set
represents the results of 16 studies as compiled by Franklin Associates, the second
149
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Table 48

COMPARISON OF MSW DISCARDS BY MATERIAL FLOWS
AND SAMPLING METHODOLOGIES
(In percent of total by weight)

1993
Material
Flows
Material Estimate*
Paper and paperboard
Glass
Metals
Plastics
Rubber, leather, textiles
Wood
Food wastes
Yard trimmings
Other
31.7
6.6
7.4
11.5
6.9
7.6
8.5
16.2
3.5

Range of
16 Sampling
Studies**
14.4
2.8
4.3
4.9
1.9
0.8
5.1
3.5
NA
-54.2
- 19.9
- 11.5
- 9.7
- 5.9
- 12.9
-19.3
-30.9
NA

Range of
9 Sampling
Studies***
29.9
3.6
1.5
5.3
1.1
0.7
1.3
0.0
3.8
-45.9
- 12.9
- 9.4
- 12.6
- 7.2
- 8.2
-28.8
-39.7
- 16.6

Range of
8 Sampling
Studiest
29.1
3.3
4.4
6.3
3.2
4.5
6.5
5.1
NA
- 43.8
- 5.9
- 8.8
- 10.2
- 5.6
- 15.1
- 9.8
- 19.8
NA
* Discards after recovery for recycling and composting.
** Compiled by Franklin Associates from a variety of sources. 1984-1988
time frame.
*** Office of Technology Assessment.
t Compiled by Franklin Associates from a variety of sources. 1987-1990
time frame.
NA - Not available.
set is taken from a recent Office of Technology Assessment report on MSW, and
the third set is a more recent compilation made by Franklin Associates. For each
material category, the percentage estimated by the material flows methodology
falls within the range found in the sampling studies. (The sole exception is an
"other" category, which is not well defined.)

It seems clear that both the material flows and sampling methodologies
have valid uses in estimating municipal solid waste generation and discards.
Whatever methodology is used, it is most important to be very clear as to what
wastes are being measured and at what point in the solid waste management
system the measurements are being taken.
150
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Chapter 7

REFERENCES
Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment. Facing
America's Trash: What Next for Municipal Solid Waste? (OTA-O-424). October
1989.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1992 Update. EPA/530-R-92-019. July 1992.
151
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Appendix A

MATERIAL FLOWS METHODOLOGY
The material flows methodology is illustrated in Figures A-l and A-2. The
crucial first step is making estimates of the generation of the materials and
products in MSW (Figure A-l).

DOMESTIC PRODUCTION

Data on domestic production of materials and products were compiled for
1970 through 1993, using published data series. U.S. Department of Commerce
sources were used where available, but in several instances more detailed
information on production of goods by end use is available from trade
associations. The goal is to obtain a consistent historical data series for each
product and/or material.

CONVERTING SCRAP

The domestic production numbers were then adjusted for converting or
fabrication scrap generated in the production processes. Examples of these kinds
of scrap would be clippings from plants that make boxes from paperboard, glass
scrap (cullet) generated in a glass bottle plant, or plastic scrap from a fabricator of
plastic consumer products. This scrap typically has a high value because it is
clean and readily identifiable, and it is almost always recovered and recycled
within the industry that generated it. Thus, con verting/fabrication scrap is not
counted as part of the postconsumer recovery of waste.

ADJUSTMENTS FOR IMPORTS/EXPORTS

In some instances imports and exports of products are a significant part of
MSW, and adjustments were made to account for this.

DIVERSION

Various adjustments were made to account for diversions from MSW.
Some consumer products are permanently diverted from the municipal waste
stream because of the way they are used. For example, some paperboard is used
in building materials, which are not counted as MSW. Another example of
diversion is toilet tissue, which is disposed in sewer systems rather than
becoming MSW.

In other instances, products are temporarily diverted from the municipal
waste stream. For example, textiles reused as rags are assumed to enter the waste
stream the same year the textiles are initially discarded.
152
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Domestic Production
of
Materials/Products
Imports
of
Materials/Products
Conversion/
fabricating
Scrap
Exports
of
Materials/Products
Diversion
of
Materials/Products
Permanent
Diversion
Municipal
Solid Waste
Generation
I
I Temporary
Diversion
Figure A-1. Material flows methodology for estimating
generation of products and materials in municipal solid waste.
153
-------
MSW
Generation
Recovery for
Recycling
Recovery for
Composting
T
Discards after
Recycling and
Composting
Recovery for
Combustion with
Energy Recovery
Recovery for
Combustion without
Energy Recovery
Discards
to Landfill and
Other Disposal
Figure A-2. Material flows methodology for estimating
recovery and discards of municipal solid waste.
154
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ADJUSTMENTS FOR PRODUCT LIFETIME

Some products (e.g., newspapers and packaging) normally have a very
short lifetime; these products are assumed to be discarded in the same year they
are produced. In other instances (e.g., furniture and appliances), products have
relatively long lifetimes. Data on average product lifetimes are used to adjust the
data series to account for this.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND DISCARDS

The result of these estimates and calculations is a material-by-material and
product-by-product estimate of MSW generation, recovery, and discards.
155
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Appendix B

RECOVERY SCENARIOS FOR 2000
Because of the rapidly changing situation and uncertainty in the available
data, projections of materials recovery were made in scenarios that could achieve
different rates of recovery in 2000. Scenarios were developed for total MSW
recovery rates of 25, 30, and 35 percent recovery rates in 2000. These scenarios are
based on recovery of postconsumer MSW and do not include industrial scrap.
Also, estimates for composting of food wastes and yard trimmings are including
in these scenarios.

The recovery scenarios developed for this report describe sets of conditions
that could achieve the selected range of recovery rates. The scenarios are not
intended to predict exact recovery rates for any particular material; there are
many ways in which a selected overall recovery rate could be achieved.

Discussion of Assumptions

Some general assumptions and principles were used in making the
recovery estimates:

• Recovery includes both recovery for recycling and for composting.

• It was assumed that local, state, and federal agencies will continue to
emphasize recycling and composting as MSW management
alternatives.

• It was assumed that there will be no new deposit laws for beverage
containers, but that the present state deposit laws will remain in place.

• It was assumed that affected industries will continue to emphasize
recovery and recycling programs, and will make the necessary
investments to achieve higher recycling rates.

• Based on the preceding assumptions, most U.S. citizens will have access
to recovery options in 2000, which will often, in fact, be mandated.
These options will include curbside collection, drop-off and buy-back
centers, and composting facilities. Recovery will continue to increase as
more recovery systems come on-line.
156
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• In spite of the factors encouraging more recovery as enumerated above,
many areas of the U.S. are thinly populated and/or remote from ready
markets for recovered materials; many of these areas also have adequate
landfill capacity. Therefore, the overall recovery rate for the entire
country may not reflect the rates achieved in communities where
conditions are favorable for recycling and composting.

The ranges of projected recovery assumptions for the various materials in
MSW are shown in Table B-l. Assumed recovery rates for 2000 were based on
existing recovery rates in 1993, with projected growth that seemed reasonably
achievable nationwide. Projections for each product in MSW were made
separately, and the results were aggregated, with some minor adjustments to
achieve the three selected scenarios for each year. Assumptions as to the
projected recovery rates for specific products and materials were made in ranges.
It is certainly possible (indeed, probable) that any given material will be
recovered at higher or lower rates than those given here, but the scenarios
illustrate how the selected recovery rates could be reached.
157
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Table B-1
SCENARIOS FOR RECOVERY* OF MSW, 2000
(In thousands of tons and percent of generation)

Products
Durable Goods
Major Appliances (ferrous metals only)
Rubber Tires (rubber only)
Batteries, lead acid
Nonferrous metals
Plastics
Misc. Durables (ferrous metals only)
Other Durables
Total Durable Goods
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers
Books
Magazines
Office- type Papers
Directories
Third Class Mail
Other Commercial Printing
Textiles, Footwear
Other Nondurables
Total Nondurable Goods
Containers and Packaging
Glass Containers
Steel Containers Pkg
Aluminum Packaging
Paper & Paperboard Packaging
Corrugated Containers
Other Packaging
Total Paper t Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles
Milk Bottles
Other Containers
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Packaging
Total Product Waste"
Other Wastes
Yard Trimmingst
Food, Other
TOTAL MSW

Generation

3,036
3,289

938
88
5,135
23.624
36,110

14,400
1,180
3,000
8,500
870
4,700
6,400
4,800
18,910
62,760

12,400
3,000
2,250

31,000
9,490
40,490

617
600
3,184
5,399
9,800
11,200
240
79,380
178,250

22,200
17,300
217,750
25%
Tons

1,518
493

891
79
411
472
3,865

7,488
236
840
2,975
131
705
1,280
240
95
13,989

3,844
1,500
1,463

17,360
664
18,024

278
180
796
135
1,389
1,568
0
27,787
45,641

8,880
17
54,539
Recovery
%

50.0%
15.0%

95.0%
90.0%
8.0%
2.0%
10.7%

52.0%
20.0%
28.0%
35.0%
15.0%
15.0%
20.0%
5.0%
0.5%
22.3%

31.0%
50.0%
65.0%

56.0%
7.0%
44.5%

45.0%
30.0%
25.0%
2.5%
14.2%
14.0%
0.0%
35.0%
25.6%

40.0%
0.1%
25.0%
30% Recovery
Tons

1,822
658

919
79
719
945
5,142

8,640
295
1,050
3,825
174
940
1,792
480
189
17,385

4,340
1,650
1,575

19,530
1,234
20,764

309
210
955
270
1,744
1,680
0
31,752
54,279

10,656
519
65,454
%

60.0%
20.0%

98.0%
90.0%
14.0%
4.0%
14.2%

60.0%
25.0%
35.0%
45.0%
20.0%
20.0%
28.0%
10.0%
1 .0%
27.7%

35.0%
55.0%
70.0%

63.0%
13.0%
51.3%

50.0%
35.0%
30.0%
5.0%
17.8%
15.0%
0.0%
40.0%
30.5%

48.0%
3.0%
30.1%
35%
Tons

2,125
822

919
84
924
1.654
6,528

9,360
354
1,200
4,675
218
1,175
2,240
720
378
20,320

5,208
2,100
1,620

21,080
1,613
22,693

339
240
1,114
540
2,234
2,016
0
35,871
62,719

12,210
1,384
76,313
Recovery
%

70.0%
25.0%

98.0%
95.0%
18.0%
7.0%
18.1%

65.0%
30.0%
40.0%
55.0%
25.0%
25.0%
35.0%
15.0%
2.0%
32.4%

42.0%
70.0%
72.0%

68.0%
17.0%
56.0%

55.0%
40.0%
35.0%
10.0%
22.8%
18.0%
0.0%
45.2%
35.2%

55.0%
8.0%
35.0%
Does not include recovery for mixed waste composting.
Other than food products.
Yard trimmings substantially reduced in this scenario.
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
158
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Appendix C

RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL FRACTIONS OF
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

The material flows methodology does not lend itself well to a distinction
as to sources of the materials because the data used are national in scope. For the
1992 MSW characterization update, a preliminary classification was made based
on the best knowledge available at the time. For this 1994 update, some
refinements were made to these estimates based on a recent report for Keep
America Beautiful, which was extensively peer reviewed by representatives of
both public and private organizations.

For purposes of this classification, residential waste was considered to
come from both single family and multi-family residences. This is somewhat
contrary to a common practice in MSW management to classify wastes collected
from apartment buildings as commercial. The rationale used for this report is
that the nature of residential waste is basically the same whether it is generated
in a single or multi-family residence. (Yard trimmings are probably the primary
exception, and this was taken into account.) Thus, the percentage of residential
waste shown here is higher than that often reported by waste haulers.

Commercial wastes for the purpose of this classification include MSW
from retail and wholesale establishments; hotels; office buildings; airports and
train stations; hospitals, schools, and other institutions; and similar sources. No
industrial process wastes are included, but normal MSW such as packaging,
cafeteria and washroom wastes, and office wastes from industrial sources are
included. Construction and demolition wastes, sludges, ashes, automobile
bodies, and other wastes that may be landfilled along with MSW are not
included.

The classification of MSW generation into residential and commercial
fractions was made on a product-by-product basis, as shown in Table C-l. The
1993 tonnage generation of each product (from Chapter 2) was allocated to
residential or commercial sources on a "best judgment" basis; then the totals
were aggregated. Sampling studies were consulted where applicable, although
available data on residential/commercial sorting of waste are limited. These are
estimates for the nation as a whole, and should not be taken as representative of
any particular region of the country.

While this appendix contains estimates for each component of MSW by
source, there is substantial uncertainty associated with the individual estimates.
For this reason, the report provides final estimates for commercial and
residential MSW in a range, and encourages the use of this range rather than a
point estimate. A reasonable range for residential wastes would be 55 to 65
percent of total MSW generation, while commercial wastes probably range
between 35 to 45 percent of total generation.
159
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Table C-1
WORKSHEET FOR ESTIMATES OF
RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL FRACTIONS OF MSW, 1993
1993
Generation
Thousand tons
Durable Goods
Major Appliances 3,430
Small Appliances 530
Furniture and Furnishings 7,020
Carpets and Rugs 2,130
Rubber Tires 3,410
Batteries, lead acid 1,670
Miscellaneous Durables 13,720
Total Durable Goods 31,910
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers 12,940
Books 990
Magazines 2,500
Off ice Papers 7,120
Telephone Books 740
Third Class Mail 4,010
Other Commercial Printing 5,440
Tissue Paper and Towels 3,010
Paper Plates and Cups 830
Plastic Plates and Cups 350
Trash Bags 890
Disposable Diapers 2,700
Other Nonpackaging Paper 4,770
Clothing and Footwear 4,280
Towels, Sheets and Pillowcases 720
Other Miscellaneous Nondurables 3,510
Total Nondurable Goods 54,800
Containers and Packaging
Glass Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Bottles 5,440
Wine and Liquor Bottles 1,850
Food and Other Bottles & Jars 4,940
Total Glass Packaging 12,230
Steel Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans 70
Food and Other Cans 2,720
Other Steel Packaging 190
Total Steel Packaging 2,980
Aluminum Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink Cans 1,610
Other Cans 40
Foil and Closures 330
Total Aluminum Packaging 1,980
Residential
ercent
10
95
80
80
5
5
80

85
80
65
25
60
65
65
60
20
20
95
90
50
60
90
50

80
80
85

80
85
5

80
50
90

Tons
343
504
5,616
1,704
171
84
10,976
19,397
10,999
792
1,625
1,780
444
2,607
3,536
1,806
166
70
846
2,430
2,385
2,568
648
1,755
34,456
4,352
1,480
4,199
10,031
56
2,312
10
2,378
1,288
20
297
1,605
Commercial
ercent
90
5
20
20
95
95
20

15
20
35
75
40
35
35
40
80
80
5
10
50
40
10
50

20
20
15

20
15
95

20
50
10

Tons
3,087
27
1,404
426
3,240
1,587
2,744
12,514
1,941
198
875
5,340
296
1,404
1,904
1,204
664
280
45
270
2,385
1,712
72
1,755
20,344
1,088
370
741
2,199
14
408
181
603
322
20
33
375
(continued on next page)
160
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Table C-1 (continued)
WORKSHEET FOR ESTIMATES OF
RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL FRACTIONS OF MSW, 1993

1993
Generation
Residential
Thousand tons Percent
Paper & Paperboard Pkg
Corrugated Boxes
Milk Cartons
Folding Cartons
Other Paperboard Packaging
Bags and Sacks
Wrapping Papers
Other Paper Packaging
Total Paper A Board Pkg
Plastics Packaging
Soft Drink Bottles
Milk Bottles
Other Containers
Bags and Sacks
Wraps
Other Plastics Packaging
Total Plastics Packaging
Wood Packaging
Other Misc. Packaging
Total Containers A Pkg
Total Product Wastes
Other Wastes
Food Wastes
Yard Trimmings
Miscellaneous Inorganic Wastes
Total Other Wastes
Total MSW Generated
Range

26,350
470
4,940
300
2,200
70
1,100
35,430

560
550
1,930
1,050
1,820
2,370
8,280
9,460
220
70,580
157,290

13,800
32,800
3,050
49,650
206,940

10
50
60
50
90
90
70

80
95
80
90
80
80

0
70

50
90
50

59
55-65
Tons

2,635
235
2,964
150
1,980
63
770
8,797

448
523
1,544
945
1,456
1,896
6,812
0
154
29,776
83,629

6,900
29,520
1,525
37,945
121,574

Commercial
Percent Tons

90
50
40
50
10
10
30

20
5
20
10
20
20

100
30

50
10
50

41
35-45

23,715
235
1,976
150
220
7
330
26,633

112
28
386
105
364
474
1,469
9,460
66
40,804
73,662

6,900
3,280
1,525
1 1 ,705
85,367

Source: Franklin Associates, Ltd.
161
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REFERENCES
Franklin Associates, Ltd. The Role of Recycling in Integrated Solid Waste
Management to the Year 2000. Keep America Beautiful, Inc. September 1994.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States: 1992 Update. EPA 530-R-92-019. July 1992.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
162
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United States
Environmental Protection EPA530-R-94-042

Agency November 1994
ERRATA SHEET

Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States:
1994 Update
Full Report
Page 4, third bullet, change to read:

Between 1990 and 1993, recovery of materials for recycling and

composting increased from 33 million tons to 45 million tons, an

increase of 37 percent.

Page 38, Table 6, under Containers and Packaging, change to read:

Beer and soft drink cans 70 40 57% 30
vvEPA

Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(5305)
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