United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Corvallis OR 97330
EPA-600-3-79-060
June 1979
Research and Development
&EPA
Treatment of
Lake Charles East,
Indiana Sediments
with Fly Ash
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U S Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields
The nine series are
1 Environmental Health Effects Research
2 Environmental Protection Technology
3 Ecological Research
4 Environmental Monitoring
5 Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6 Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8 Special' Reports
9 Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aguatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
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EPA-600/3-79-060
June 1979
TREATMENT OF LAKE CHARLES EAST, INDIANA SEDIMENTS
WITH FLY ASH
by
Thomas L. Theis, Richard W. Greene, Terry W. Sturm,
David F. Spencer, Peter J. McCabe, Brian P. Higgins,
Hung-Yu Yeung and Robert L. Irvine
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Grant R-801245-04-2
Project Officer
Donald W. Schults
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory enforcement actions by the Environmental Protection
Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific data on pollu-
tants and their impact on environmental stability and human health. Respon-
sibility for building this data base has been assigned to EPA's Office of
Research and Development and its 15 major field installations, one of which is
the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the effect
of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems;
the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lake systems; and the
development of predictive models on the movement of pollutants in the bio-
sphere.
This report describes the results of an evaluation on the effectiveness
of using fly ash in restoring eutrophic lakes by inactivating nutrients and
preventing cycling of phosphorus from the sediments.
James C. McCarty
Acting Director, CERL
m
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ABSTRACT
This report contains information relating to the degree of effectivenss of the
treatment of eutrophic lake sediments with a specific power plant fly ash.
The treatment was preceded by the diversion of the major nutrient sources out-
side of the drainage basin. Data on both chemical and biological changes are
documented.
The study area was Lake Charles East, an 8.7 ha lake in northeastern Indiana.
Intensive monitoring was begun in mid-1974. Phosphorus inputs were reduced
by 90% shortly after this time. Treatment of approximately one-third of the
sediments with fly ash and lime took place during the Summer of 1975. Follow
up studies indicated reduced release of phosphorus during peak summer release
periods for treated sediments, although a small autochthonous layer, presum-
ably due to post-treatment biological activity in the water column, developed
above the fly ash. Mass balance modeling indicated a net reduction in long
term phosphorus levels of 20% over levels without sediment treatment. If all
sediments had been treated, the steady state phosphorus levels were predicted
to decline by 61% over non-treatment levels. The dominant mechanisms associ-
ated with the sediment effects were chemical alteration of the sediments and
physically increasing the diffusional path for P release.
As phosphorus levels in the water column decreased, the phytoplankton communi-
ty composition changed from one dominated by blue green species virtually
year round to one in which the more classical successional pattern of diatoms-
greens-blue greens took place. Cryptophytes became much more important in
the post-treatment period. Blue green dominance, at the end of the study,
was confined to a late summer period. Zooplankton communities showed only
short term effects from the treatment and appeared to be more responsive to
the changing phytoplankton composition. Benthic organisms, dominated by
midge larvae, were not affected.
Total heavy metal concentrations increased slightly in the treated sediments,
however soluble levels in both the water column and the sediment interstices
were not elevated. Any heavy metal effects, although potentially of impor-
tance in this type of treatment, appeared to be masked by other present and
past inputs to the system such as lead from highway exhaust, copper from
algal treatments, and arsenic from weed control efforts.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant Number R-801245-04-2 by the
Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Notre Dame under the
sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of
December 31, 1977.
IV
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CONTENTS
Sections Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
III Scope of the Project 4
IV Review of the Relevant Literature 6
V Site Description 13
VI Methodology of Application of Fly Ash to Lake Charles East 33
VII Results 41
VIII Analysis of Data 82
IX References 98
X Appendix 103
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FIGURES
No. Page
1 Lake Charles East Area with Important Landmarks 14
2 Bathymetric Map of Lake Charles East: Eastern Third 15
3 Phosphorus Loadings for Lake Charles East 29
4 Secchi Disc Reading vs. Nonfilterable Residue 31
5 Treatment of Lake Charles East: Summer, 1975 39
6 Fly Ash Thickness after Treatment 40
7 Total and Soluble P in Lake Charles East 42
8 Average Total Ammonia Concentrations: 1975 - 1976 43
9 Soluble Nitrate plus Nitrite in Lake Charles East 44
10 Filterable Inorganic Nitrogen: Phosphorus Ratios 46
11 Phytoplankton Composition in Lake Charles East 47
12 Phytoplankton Biomass in Lake Charles East 48
13 Secchi Disc Values for Lake Charles East 49
14 Zooplankton Composition in Lake Charles East 54
15 Phosphorus Fractionation and Analysis Scheme 59
16 Schematic of Core Incubator 60
17 Density of Sediments in Lake Charles East 62
VI
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No. Page
18 Fractional Volatile Residue in Sediments 63
19 Phosphorus Release and Uptake: Untreated Sediments 64
20 Phosphorus Release and Uptake: Treated Sediments 65
21 Phosphorus Fractionation in Control Sediments 68-70
22 Phosphorus Fractionation in Treated Sediments 71-73
23 CDB Iron Regressed on CDB Phosphorus for Control Sediments 74
24 CDB Iron Regressed on CDB Phosphorus for Treated Sediments 75
25 Fractional Composition of Phosphorus Forms in Control 77
Sediments
26 Fractional Composition of Phosphorus Forms in Treated 78
Sediments
27 Input-Output Modeling of Phosphorus in Lake Charles East 97
VI1
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TABLES
No. Page
1 Some Published Values for Release and Uptake of Phosphorus 10
in Lake Sediments
2 General Features of Lake Charles East 18
3 Measured Lake Inflow and Outflow 20
4 Precipitation Records 21
5 Watershed Drainage Area 22
6 Motel Well Logs 22
7 Seepage Estimates from Water Budget 25
8 Detention Time Recurrence Intervals 26
9 Yearly Total Phosphorus Inputs: 1959 - 1978 27
10 Previously Reported Phosphorus Levels in Lake Charles East 30
11 Chemical Composition of Fly Ash Added to Lake Charles East 34
12 Algae Occurring in Lake Charles East During 1974 50
13 Lake Charles East Benthos Data 56
14 Seasonal Variation of Limnological Parameters, 1976 58
15 Mean Release Rates for Summer, 1976 and Significance Levels 66
16 Average Metal Concentrations in Sediments 80
17 Trace Metals in the Water Column of Lake Charles East 81
18 Calculation of Internal P loss Constant - Yearly Basis 93
19 Calculation of Internal P loss Constant - Seasonal Basis 94
viii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The active support and cooperation of the principal owners of Lake Charles
East, Mr. Daniel Hart of Angola, Indiana, and Mr. George Gilley of Hammond,
Indiana are gratefully acknowledged.
IX
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1) The fly ash used to treat the sediments in Lake Charles East brought
about statistically significant reductions in phosphorus release
during anoxic periods in comparison with control sediments.
2) The sediments of Lake Charles East are capable of contributing large
amounts of phosphorus to the lake on a seasonal basis after external
pollution abatement. This brings about noticeable short term P fluc-
tuations and has lesser long term effects on phosphorus levels in the
lake water.
3) Mass balance modeling on phosphorus in the system indicated a net
phosphorus retention time slightly less than the hydraulic retention
time after abatement. However, a seasonal analysis on phosphorus inputs
and outputs showed a large negative internal P reaction constant during
the summer season (indicating internal loading from sediments) whichwas
balanced by a large positive constant during the winter. It appears
that the determination of a single value for the phosphorus retention
time is of limited use in Lake Charles East. This may also be true for
similarly stressed systems.
4) The major mechanisms associated with the reduced P release were chemical
alteration of the sediments and physically increasing the diffusional
path length. With respect to the former mechanism, the smaller amount
of amorphous iron oxides (as determined by citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate
extraction) in the fly ash layer was an important factor.
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5) The appearance of an autochthonous detrital layer above the fly ash
which released small amounts of phosphorus has led to the recommenda-
tion that supplemental chemicals be used in conjunction with fly ash
treatment to limit primary productivity in the immediate post-treatment
period.
6) The combination of abatement and partial sediment treatment brought
about reductions in both total and soluble phosphorus in Lake Charles
East. Long term steady state levels were predicted to be 0.23 mg-P/£.
This is a 20% reduction over the projected levels with abatement but
without sediment treatment. In addition, cyclic peaks of phosphorus
related to sediment release appeared to be dampened. Studies showed
that if all of the sediments had been treated, long term phosphorus
levels would be reduced 61% over levels without sediment treatment.
7) As phosphorus concentrations in Lake Charles East decreased, signifi-
cant changes took place in the composition of the phytoplankton com-
munity. Total biomass was also less. Cryptophytes became much more
dominant after treatment. The spring and summer successional pattern
resembled more closely the classical sequence of diatoms-greens-blue
greens with blue green dominance being limited to the late summer
period.
8) Increased heavy metal concentrations from the fly ash in the sediments
did not appear to be a problem in this study.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1) There is a need for a greater degree of classification of both fly ashes
(and other particulate materials) and lakes to determine the compati-
bility of a given system and a specific treatment material for this
restoration technique.
2) If the treatment of sediments to effect water quality improvements in
polluted lakes is to become more widespread, a more efficient application
methodology should be developed. This should be done in concert with a
thorough economic analysis.
3) More research on the bioavailability, fate, and effects of heavy metals
and trace organics on fly ash added to lake systems should be performed.
4) There appears to be a need to document more extensively species shifts
among phytoplankton at high and fluctuating nutrient levels in lakes.
Although it was not specifically studied in this research, there is evi-
dence that trace metals may play an important role in this regard.
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SECTION III
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
Previous investigative efforts associated with the effects of pollution abate-
ment on a lake system have suggested that lake sediments may play an important
role in the nutrient budget after elimination of major external nutrient
sources . It has been shown, and further investigated in this project, that
sediments from highly nutrified systems undergo an annual alternating oxidized
and reduced state. Oxidized sediments are known to take up or adsorb nutri-
ents from solution and act as a sink, while reduced sediments release nutri-
ents and act as a source. Phosphorus, often a key nutrient in lake algal dy-
namics, is a chemically reactive specie in natural waters. When introduced
to a lake system in excess there is a strong driving gradient for phosphorus
toward the sediments via the mechanisms of adsorption, biological incorpora-
tion and chemical precipitation followed by settling. The extent to which
this nutrient is released during chemically favorable times would be expected
to depend upon the amount deposited, the length of time over which the depo-
sition took place and the chemical form of the phosphorus. The relative con-
tribution of the released phosphorus toward the delay of water quality im-
provements depends in turn on the lake and basin morphology and flushing rate.
This investigation consisted of a small demonstration project and associated
studies to reduce the release of phosphorus from eutrophic lake sediments
through the addition of power plant fly ash and to assess the effectivenss of
the treatment. Fly ash is a fine-grained, largely inorganic residue remaining
after the combustion of coal. In the United States approximately 50 million
tons are produced annually. The bulk of this quantity must be considered a
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waste material. Thus, part of the attractiveness of this method of lake
restoration is the disposal of fly ash in a useful fashion.
The demonstration site was Lake Charles East, Indiana, a man-made lake ap-
proximately 8.7 hectares in surface area. The lake had received secondary
treated wastewater effluent for six years prior to abatement in mid-1974.
Treatment of approximately one-third of the sediments took place during the
summer of 1975. Approximately 1400 tons of fly ash were used. Follow-up
studies were conducted through 1977. An attempt was made to partition the
lake so as to provide a control water body; however, the barrier which was
erected could not withstand the severe stresses imposed by winter weather.
Complete monitoring of the lake water for biological and chemical parameters
was made along with extensive experimentation with both treated and control
sediments. Sediment studies consisted of laboratory release/sorption work
and a full chemical characterization of the sediment phosphorus. A small
number of heavy metal analyses were also made in an attempt to assess the
effects of these constituents of fly ash on the sediments.
From the data which were collected, nutrient and hydrologic budgets were
obtained. These data were used in modeling the system to determine the
impact of sediment treatment and predict the long term phosphorus levels
in the lake.
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SECTION IV
REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE
PHOSPHORUS IN NATURAL WATERS
The most important form of phosphorus from an eutrophication standpoint is
orthophosphate and it will be the chemical interactions of this species
that will be examined in some detail in this report. Since phosphorus is
often found in natural waters in intimate association with oxidation reduc-
tion as well as pH sensitive species it is important to view its features
in light of both changing redox potential and pH. The tendency is for
increased solubility of phosphorus with decreasing pH and redox potential.
A special case of solid partioning is adsorption in which surface metal
ions form metal-ion-phosphate bonds by reaction with solution species. It
generally occurs between phosphate ions and the less thermodynamically
stable polymorphous iron and aluminum compounds that are usually found in
nature in lieu of the more discrete crystalline metal phosphate compounds.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PHOSPHORUS IN LAKE SEDIMENTS
In examining forty-eight surficial Lake Erie sediment samples Williams,
2
ji^t _al. , found that phosphorus was present in three major forms, (1)
phosphorus associated with apatite, (2) non-apatite inorganic phosphorus
(NAI-P), and (3) organic phosphorus. The apatite fraction was of natural
detrital origin. It existed as particles ranging from fine sand to clay
in size but mostly as silt-sized particles and was concentrated in near
shore sediments. Both NAI-P and organic-P were concentrated in fine-grained
sediments accumulating in offshore depositional areas. NAI-P was associated
-------
with amorphous hydrated ferric oxide in the oxidized microzone but was
present as vivianite (Fe (PO ) .8H 0) and possibly other forms also in the
reduced zone. It is noted that amorphous hydrated ferric oxide has an
iso-electric point (IEP) of pH = 8.5, at pH values below the IEP, it can
remove as much as 5% of its own weight of phosphorus in orthophosphate
from solution. It is termed here a "ferric oxide-orthophosphate complex."
There is as yet no general agreement as to whether this and similar com-
plexes are essentially homogeneous or whether they consist of an intimate
mixture of metal phosphate and metal oxide domains.
3
Syers, e_t £il_. , in studying the phosphate chemistry in lake sediments noted
that variations in the postulated Fe inorganic-P complex accounted for most
of the differences in total Fe and total P between sediments including cal-
careous ones. Evidence obtained from the exchangeability of inorganic-P
sediments indicated that it was highly unlikely that discrete phase Fe and
Al phosphates exist in sediments. It was found that while the Madison Lakes
were supersaturated with respect to hydroxy apatite rather small amounts
of apatite were present in surficial sediments from these lakes. There was
little or no evidence that hydroxyapatite played a major role in the
chemistry of phosphorus in lake waters or sediments. Application of the
solubility product principle was found useful for predicting which phos-
phorus compounds would be thermodynamically stable or which phosphorus com-
pounds could theoretically form. Examining the relationship between phos-
phorus and other sediment parameters were closely related to total P, indi-
cating that almost all the variability in total-P content was due to vari-
able amounts of extractable (oxalate or citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate
(CDB)) inorganic-P.
PHYSICAL TRANSPORT OF PHOSPHORUS IN LAKE SEDIMENTS
4
Sridharan and Lee suggested two possible ways in which iron associated
phosphorus release could occur in an anoxic system. First, is when ferric
iron is reduced to ferrous iron and the phosphorus in association with the
former is released to the overlying water. The second, is when phosphorus
in association with ferrous iron, such as sorbed phosphorus on ferrous
-------
sulfide, is kept in contact with a mild leaching solution under anoxic con-
ditions.
Batch tests run with sediments and overlying water by Fillos and Swanson
resulted in steady state concentration in the overlying water of 1.9 to 2.1
mg P/£ after 9 days under anaerobic conditions and 0.55 mg/ P/£ after 7 days
under aerobic conditions. In a continuous flow experiment the release rate
drops in a step-wise fashion under anaerobic conditions with time. The
release of iron was closely related to that of phosphorus.
DiGiano proposed a model for nutrient-transport in and from the sediments.
He claimed that the release of nutrients from bottom deposits to overlying
water could be conceived of as a phenomena of diffusion and facilitated
transport caused by chemical concentration gradient which occur in three
steps: (1) migration from deep layers of the deposit to its surface layer,
(2) emergence through the surface to the water immediately above, and (3)
dispersion throughout the overlaying water. Porosity was said to control
the flux of nutrients per unit area of deposit and tortuousity, which is a
measure of the "effective" diffusional path, was said to determine the
depth of nutrient penetration. A mass balance was made on a unit volume
of sediment and the following equation resulted.
NeA - NeAl + Ax + M = [e ^ + (1-e) -] AAx
X X ot at
O ^
N = flux of material, moles/cm -sec = D (Ficks 1st law)
e = porosity
2
A = cross-sectional area, cm
3
AAx = volume of the segment, cm
c = concentration accumulated in the solid phase, moles/cm
M = amount formed (+), or amount decomposed (-) due to
chemical reactions per unit time, moles/sec
Solutions to this equation for various boundary and initial conditions are
made and ways are suggested for obtaining experimental verification of the
-------
model and its coefficients. Stumm and Leckie also suggested that the rate
of phosphorus release by sediments to the overlying water depends primarily
on the rate of transfer (i.e., diffusion) through the interstitial water.
Table 1 summarizes several sediment uptake and release studies that are
found in the literature.
LAKE RESTORATION
From a study of 425 problem lakes in the United States, Ketelle and Uttor-
mark found that many could not be restored with cursory protective
actions alone. Low flushing rates, sediment releases, phosphorus con-
tributions from the atmosphere, land drainage, and other non-point sources
compound the eutrophication problem.
Dunst, et al. , defined lake restoration as "the manipulation of a lake
ecosystem to effect an in-lake improvement in degraded or undesirable con-
ditions." The terms rehabilitation, renovation, renewal, and restoration
are often used synonymously. The general approach to lake restoration is
to:
1. restrict the input of undesirable materials; and
2. provide in-lake treatment for the removal or inactivation of
undesirable materials.
I Q
Tenney listed several ret'for at ion techniques for water bodies, their ef-
fects on water quality, bottom sediments, and aquatic plants, and other ad-
vantages and disadvantages of each method. A summary of the techniques fol-
lows :
1. chemical control of aquatic plants (biocides);
2. mechanical control of aquatic plants (harvesting);
3. biological control of aquatic plants (herbivores);
4. physical control of aquatic plants (varying water levels);
5. elimination of pollutants in hydrologic inputs (wastewater
treatment or diversion; erosion prevention; controlled use
of agricultural fertilizers);
6. water replacement by displacement (flushing/dilution);
7. draining and subsequent refilling;
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TABLE 1
Some Published Values for Release and Uptake of
Phosphorus in Lake Sediments
Release Rate
mg-P/m2/day
3
30
1.2
1.2
2.2
3.5
9.4
22-49
3
-J
26
1.2
0.8
.03-. 08
0.27
17.3 + 4.6
12.3 + 3.6
1.2 + 0.2
0.8 + 0.2
Uptake Rate
mg-P/m^/day
i
!
i
!
!
>
t
!
2.0 + 1.8
1.4 +0.7
0.2 + 0.2
0.6 + 0.1
Oxic(O)
Anoxic (A)
Temperature (°C)
(0)
(A)
(A)
(A) 4°
10°
15°
25°
8°
(A) 20°
(A)
(0)
(A)
(0)
i
(A)
[
<0)
(A)
(0)
(A)
(0)
1
(A)
(0)
Reference
Fillos andMolof (8)
Andersen (9)
Anoub (10)
Bengtsson (11)
Fillos and Biswas (12)
Fillos and Swanson (5)
Serruya et al. , (13)
Bannerman et al., (14)
Stumm and Leckie (7)
i
1
!
:
1
i
I
Kamp-Nielsen (15)
10
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8. withdrawal to external treatment facility and return;
9. nutrient inactivation using multivalent metal salts (phos-
phorus precipitation);
10. addition of particulate materials such as sand, clay, or fly
ash (to retard nutrient release from sediments);
11. artificial plastic liner material;
12. dredging (to deepen lake; remove nutrient rich sediments); and
13. destratification (to maintain aerobic conditions).
Dunst, et_ al_. , described all of these methods and compiled a list of over
1000 lake rehabilitation experiences throughout the world. Another 1000 or
more U.S. lakes will benefit from wastewater treatment.
Lake rehabilitation programs frequently employ combinations or modifications
of lake restoration techniques depending on particular lake situations.
THE USE OF FLY ASH FOR LAKE RESTORATION
Fly ash is a particulate waste by-product removed from stack gases during
the combustion of coal primarily in electric generating plants. Several
19 20
authors ' have described fly ash and its uses in construction, manufac-
turing, and agriculture. Production of fly ash is increasing due to growing
energy needs and more stringent air pollution control regulations. Ash
21 22
disposal or utilization is a growing concern '
rj f\ n I
Tenney and Echelberger ' and their co-workers reported that the following
properties of fly ash made its addition to small lakes appear feasible:
1. great availability at virtually no cost;
2. low grade adsorbency, due to high specific surface area and
residual carbon content, removed soluble organics;
3. water soluble extracts of lime and gypsum precipitated
phosphorus;
4. rapid settling, due to particulate nature and high specific
gravity, helped remove suspended solids; and
5. particulate and pozzolanic character retarded nutrient release
from lake sediments.
25
Yaksich investigated the use of fly ash, clay, silt, and sand to control
phosphorus release from Stone Lake sediments. Fly ash was the most suitable
11
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material with respect to water quality, settling, and phosphorus release
criteria. Clays did not settle as well as fly ash, while silt sand tended
to sink below the surface of flocculative type sediments. Not all fly
ashes were equally effective, however. In laboratory jars two types of
fly ash prevented phosphorus release under anaerobic conditions for up
to five months. One fly ash sank below the sediments and another did not
prevent phosphorus release. A layer of fly ash 2 - 5 cm thick was re-
quired to prevent disruption by gas bubbles released from the sediments.
9 f\
Higgins, et al. , evaluated the fly ash and lime dosages selected for
Lake Charles East by means of laboratory jar tests, in situ column studies,
and algal assays.
The actual properties of a given fly ash depend upon its source, the type
of coal burned, the types of combustion and ash collection equipment em-
ployed, and the method of storage or disposal. Before a fly ash is used
in lake restoration its potential deleterious effects should be methodically
considered and weighed against potential benefits of accelerated lake re-
covery.
12
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SECTION V
SITE DESCRIPTION
GENERAL
The subject area is Lake Charles East, located approximately 8 km north of
the town of Angola in Steuben County, Indiana. Figure 1 shows the lake,
its drainage area, and associated relevant landmarks. Figure 2 is a bathy-
metric map of the eastern portion of the lake, which was treated with fly
ash. Table 2 gives relevant data on the general features of the lake. Lake
Charles is a shallow man-made lake which is fed by a small stream at its
east end. There is also an outlet at the west end. Filling of the lake
began in 1956 and was completed in mid-1958. In 1967 an interstate highway
bridge (1-69) was constructed and put into service. This is shown in both
Figures 1 and 2.
The land surrounding the lake has been subdivided, however, few houses have
been built to date. The major influencing development has been a motel
which occupies the eastern half of the lake. Beginning in August, 1968,
the effluent from the motel's sewage treatment plant was allowed to run
into the lake. Although the treatment plant brought about acceptable re-
movals of suspended solids and dissolved organic carbon, phosphorus and
nitrogen levels were consistently high and resulted in the deterioration of
water quality in Lake Charles East. Abatement of this source of nutrients
was achieved through the installation of a spray irrigation field south of
the watershed (see Figure 1), in September, 1974.
The abatement of the major source of nutrients into Lake Charles East was
13
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INFLOW GAGING STATION
PACKAGED STP
LAKE CHARLES
ha
18.2 ha
(gaged)
OUTFLOW
GAGING STATION
SPRAY
IRRIGATION
FIELD
TOTAL
DRAINAGE AREA =
55.4 ha
DRAINAGE AREA
BOUNDRY
TO
ANGOLA, INDIANA
8km
LAKE CHARLES EAST DRAINAGE AREA
SCALE 1:8000
D Cottages
FIGURE 1 : Lake Charles East Area with Important Landmarks
14
-------
Contour intervals
in feet.
Approximate scale
1600:1
LAKE CHARLES
EAST
Treated Section
FIGURE 2: Bathymetric Map of Lake Charles East: Eastern Third
15
-------
closely timed with the inception of this project. Intensive monitoring of
physical, chemical, and biological parameters in Lake Charles began in mid-
1974. It was felt at that time, and has subsequently been verified through
measurements, that after abatement the sediments of Lake Charles represented
a major source of nutrients at certain times during the year. The major
focus of the project was an attempt at sediment sealing through the appli-
cation of a 2 - 5 cm fly ash layer. From May to August, 1975 approximately
1400 metric tons of fly ash from the Indiana and Michigan Electric Company's
Twin Branch power plant (Mishawaka, Indiana) and 270 tons of agricultural
grade lime were added to the eastern third of Lake Charles. Details of the
application will be found in Section VI.
HYDROLOGIC BUDGET
The hydrologic budget for Lake Charles was investigated in order to: (1)
determine the seepage from the lake and (2) make an estimate of average hy-
draulic detention time in the lake.
Hydraulic Data. A portion of the lake inflow and the total lake outflow
were gaged from June, 1975 to September, 1976 with some periods of no record.
The instrumentation used consisted of triangular-notch weirs with continuous
stage recorders installed on both the inflow and outflow streams. Precipi-
tation was also measured at the lake during the summer of 1976 with a stan-
dard U.S. Weather Service non-recording gage, which was read weekly. Evap-
oration pan data and more complete precipitation data were necessary for
computation of a detailed water budget and were obtained from a weather
station at Prairie Heights, Indiana, which is approximately 20 km southwest
of Lake Charles. In addition, 30 years of daily precipitation data were
available from a weather station at Angola. This station was discontinued
in 1974, and the Prairie Heights station began operating in 1973.
The measured inflow and outflow volumes for the period of record are sum-
marized in Table 3, The large values of lake outflow for some of the gaging
periods resulted from cleaning the lake outlet which clogged quite often,
causing storage build-up in the lake. Monthly evaporation pan and precipi-
tation data from Prairie Heights are given in Table 4 for the years 1974 to
16
-------
1976. Normal monthly precipitation (30-yr. average) for Angola is also
included in the table.
Average annual precipitation for the geographic location of Lake Charles
is 88.9 cm (35.0 inches), and average annual lake evaporation is 80 cm
27
(31.5 inches) . Pan evaporation has an average annual value of 104.1 cm
(41.0 inches), which gives an annual pan coefficient of 0.77. Lake Charles
is located in the St. Joseph River Basin which has an average annual runoff
of 24.1 cm (9.5 inches); however, approximately 80 percent of this runoff is
28
due to groundwater seepage into the larger streams
Lake and Watershed Characteristics. Watershed surface deposits are com-
posed primarily of glacial till. The Soil Conservation Service hydrologic
classification of the surficial soils is class B, which indicates moderate
infiltration rates with moderately fine to moderately coarse soil texture.
Total watershed relief is approximately 33.5 m (110 ft.) from elevation 311
m to 344 m (1020 ft. to 1130 ft.) above MSL, The watershed topography is
characterized by moderately steep slopes with some depressions.
The watershed drainage areas for the lake, both gaged and ungaged, are
shown in Figure 1 and summarized in Table 5. The percent of impervious
area is also given in the table. Watershed cover on the pervious area
consists of heavy grass and weeds with some forest. There is no agricul-
tural cultivation on the watershed.
The Lake Charles watershed is underlain by 90 to 120 m (300 to 400 ft.) of
glacial drift, which contains numerous sand and gravel deposits that are
sources of groundwater. Bedrock Is gray shale at elevation 213 m (700 ft.)
The motel located adjacent to Lake Charles has two wells for which
the driller's logs are given in Table 6. Approximate elevations of the
wells from a USGS topographic map indicate that the top of the water-bearing
gravel formation is located 6 to 15 m (20 to 50 ft.) below the elevation of
the bottom of Lake Charles with static water levels very near the lake sur-
face. It must be pointed out, however, that the gravel formation is a
confined aquifer and thus does not seem to be feeding Lake Charles with
inflow seepage. Water surface elevation for the lake is 310.9 m (1020 ft.)
at which the water surface area is 8.7 ha (21.4 acres). Total lake volume
17
-------
TABLE 2
General Features of Lake Charles East
Surface Area (ha) 8.6
Max. Depth (m) 3.2
Mean Depth (m) 2.0
Drainage Area (ha) 55.4
Volume (m3) 195,000
Average Hydraulic
Retention Time (years) 2.4
Alkalinity (mg/£ as CaCO ) 60 - 235
pH 7.0 - 10. 0+
High and Low Values Prior to Treatment
18
-------
3
is 195,000 m (158 acre-feet).
Seepage Determination. The time periods from April 14 to May 13, 1976 and
July 21 to August 18, 1976 were selected to obtain a detailed water budget
for Lake Charles so that a seepage determination could be made. The general
storage equation was utilized in the following form:
AS = I +1 + P-E-0-C) V-l
g u S
in which AS is the change in storage volume for the time period (positive
for increasing storage with time), I is gaged inflow volume, I is ungaged
inflow volume, P is the precipitation volume falling on the lake surface,
E is lake evaporation, 0 is lake outflow through the outlet structure, and
0 is seepage (positive out of the lake). All quantities in equation 1
o
were either measured or calculated except for 0 , which was then solved
s
for to obtain a seepage estimate.
The quantities AS, I , and 0 were measured at the lake site for the two
o
time periods specified above. Daily precipitation values from Prairie
Heights were obtained for the first time period in April and May, while
precipitation data at the lake site was available for the second time
period.
Ungaged inflow to the lake was calculated from the SCS equation:
n = v-2
in which P is storm precipitation, CN is the runoff curve number, and Q is
the volume of storm runoff. Runoff curve numbers were selected based on
the watershed cover and antecedent moisture conditions. Volumes of runoff
were then accumulated for the time periods under consideration for each
storm occurrence. Equation 2 has been used extensively by the U.S. Soil
Conservation Service for ungaged drainage areas. It is based on the assump-
tion that the ratio of actual infiltration to potential infiltration is
19
-------
TABLE 3
Measured Lake Inflow and Outflow
Inflow
Outflow
Dates
6/4-6/12, 1975
6/12-6/20
6/20-6/27
6/27-7/3
7/3-7/10
7/10-7/18
7/18-8/1
8/1-8/12
8/12-8/20
8/20-8/28
11/12-11/20
11/20-11/28
11/28-12/5
12/5-12/13
3/9-4/14, 1976
4/14-5/13
5/13-6/8
6/8-7/8
7/12-8/18
3
m
1628
2245
370
86
111
111
0
7981
-
839
49
259
1468
703
3675
5415
1567
1258
530
*
cm
1.88
2.59
0.43
0.10
0.13
0.13
0.00
9.22
-
0.97
0.05
0.30
1.70
0.81
4.24
6.25
1.80
1.45
0.61
3
m
-
-
-
86
765
136
62
86
62
-
222
1160
1628
1382
54447
1850
-
-
10694
A
cm
-
-
-
0.10
0.89
0.15
0.08
0.10
0.08
-
0.25
1.35
1.88
1.60
62.87
2.13
-
-
12.34
*
cm of water on the lake surface with area 8.7 ha (21.4-ac)
-missing records
20
-------
00 ^D
o ^o en i i o^ ^" r^-
CN m ^ oo m ^3" ^
rH rH
COr^CNCNi ^m
in i i co co ^c> rH r^ o
rH rH CN rH rH
i it i*^rcN^o*£>coovocNr^cN
o> cr^ o -sf ^o ^o i co ON i^* cr°i in
VvDcor^^cocoi iinocNin^d"
rH
. . a -H ai ^ . w
C3raV-i^i>^C'HoOft4J>cj
oja)n3fto3333cuooa)
^feS^S^^'tlWOSlQ
00
CT>
00
OO
CN
ON
CO
CO
O
0
rH
CN
O
O
00
^
TOTAL
OJ
oo
03
^
01
>
03
03
0)
21
-------
TABLE 5
Lake Charles Watershed Drainage Area
Drainage Area, Impervious Area,
acres %
Gaged Area
Ungaged Area
Total
50 (20.3 ha)
87 (35.3 ha)
137 (55.6 ha)
10
15
13
TABLE 6
Motel Well Logs
Well No. 1* - Static Water Level 77 ft. (23.5 m)
Formation Depth, ft, (m)
Yellow clay 0-15(0-4.6)
Gray clay 15-85(4.6-25.9)
Brown gravel 85-90(25.9-27.4)
Gray Clay 90-110(27.4-33.5)
Water gravel 110-137(33.5-41.8)
Well No. 2** - Static Water Level 110 ft.(33.5m)
Formation Depth, ft. (m)
Surface 0.5(.15)
Gravely clay 5-90(1.5-27.5)
Gray clay 90-150(27.5-45.7)
Clean gravel 170-190(51.8-57.9)
*Approximate surface elevation 1100 ft. (335.3m)
**Approximate surface elevation 1130 ft. (344.4m)
22
-------
equal to the ratio of direct runoff to potential runoff (storm rainfall
minus initial abstraction).
Lake evaporation was computed from daily pan evaporation data collected at
Prairie Heights. The daily pan coefficient was computed from the daily
wind movement, air temperature, and pan water temperature according to a
29
method developed by Kohler for the U.S. Weather Bureau
The results of the water budget analyses are presented in Table 7. The
seepage estimates are reported as depth of water on the lake surface with
an area of 8.7 ha (21.4 acres). The values for seepage are 0.76 cm
(0.3 in.) for the first time period of 29 days and 0.25 cm (0.1 in.) for
the second period of 28 days. Based on these results and taking into
account the possible errors involved in obtaining them, it is concluded
that seepage from the lake is less than 1.3 cm (0.5 in.)/month and can be
neglected. In detention time on an average annual basis, a seepage from
the lake of 1.3 cm/month produces a maximum possible relative error in the
detention time of 20 percent. This is considered acceptable in view of
the gross nature of a detention time which is based on the assumption of
a constant and continuous lake outflow.
Detention Time. An average annual hydraulic detention time in the lake was
computed from the total storage of 195,000 m (158 ac-ft.) and an average
annual outflow determined from:
0 = I + P - E V-3
where I is the annual surface inflow to the lake, P is annual precipitation,
and E is annual lake evaporation. The annual change in storage has not
been included in equation 3 since it is very small compared to the average
annual outflow. The seepage has also been left out of equation 3 for
reasons above. Average annual values for P and E, which were given earlier
in the report, were used in equation 3. Surface inflow I was estimated
by applying a runoff coefficient to the annual precipitation. Although
this is a crude method of estimating runoff that should never be applied
23
-------
on a storm by storm basis, it is acceptable for determining seasonal or
annual runoff since the effects of antecedent moisture conditions and other
storm factors are damped out over longer time periods.
Estimation of the runoff coefficient was guided by the available inflow and
precipitation data for the gaged portion of the Lake Charles watershed. A
straight line was fitted to this data by the method of least squares to
obtain an average monthly runoff coefficient of 0.18 for the months of April
through November. Calculating a weighted runoff coefficient from published
values gave a slightly different result. A coefficient of 0.05 was selected
for the pervious portion of the watershed based on annual water yield data
30
for similar experimental watersheds in Coshocton, Ohio . Choosing a
coefficient of 0.85 for the impervious areas and weighting the coefficients
according to the presence of pervious and impervious drainage areas found
in Table 5 resulted in a value of 0.15 for the annual runoff coefficient.
This value is approximately 15 per cent less than the growing season value
of 0.18. Inasmuch as the coefficient of 0.15 more closely represents annual
runoff rather than seasonal runoff, it was used in the calculation of de-
tention times.
The result for the average annual lake detention time was 2.4 years. De-
tention times were also determined for the calendar years of 1974 and 1975
to be 2.9 years and 1.5 years, respectively. Finally, a frequency analysis
was performed on the lake detention times calculated from annual precipita-
tion and evaporation data. The results are shown in Table 8, in which the
detention times given can be expected to be equalled or exceeded on the
average of once every N years, where N is the recurrence interval. A
normal distribution was fitted to the data to obtain the recurrence inter-
vals in the table.
WATER QUALITY DATA
Lake Charles East is a hard water lake characterized by high alkalinities
and alkaline pH values. The water quality parameter of greatest concern is
phosphorus. Table 9 gives the external phosphorus budget as determined by
calculation, measurement, and in some cases estimates for the period 1959
24
-------
TABLE 7
Seepage Estimates from Water Budget
Time Periods
Change in Storage, AS
Gaged Inflow, I
O
Ungaged Inflow, I
u
Precipitation, P
Evaporation, E
Outflow, 0
Seepage, 0
s
4/14 - 5/13, 1976
1.0*
2.5
0.8
4.0
5.2
0.8
0.3
7/21 - 8/10, 1976
-5.0*
0.4
0.2
4.4
5.0
4.9
0.1
*A11 values reported as in. of water on lake surface with area of 21.4 ac.
4-Multiply inches by 2.54 to obtain centimeters.
25
-------
TABLE 8
Detention Time Recurrence Intervals
Recurrence Interval, yr_s. Detention Time, yrs.
1.25 1.6
2. 2.2
5. 2.8
10. 3.1
25. 3.5
26
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27
-------
to 1978. It should be noted that these figures do not include any contribu-
tion from the sediments. This will be treated in Sections VII and VIII.
The average areal phosphorus loading for the year preceding abatement was
2
2.43 g-P/m /jr. After abatement (1975-1978) the phosphorus loading was
2
0.25 g-P/m /yr., a reduction of 90%. Various yearly loadings for Lake
Charles East are located on Figure 3, which is a diagram of Vollenweiders
31
phosphorus loading curves . The peak total phosphorus and soluble
ortho phosphate levels measured during 1974 were 970 yg-P/£ and 714 yg-P/£,
respectively, although it appears that phosphorus concentrations were even
higher prior to the Indiana phosphate ban on detergents enacted in 1972.
This is reflected in the data of Table 9.
Available data on phosphorus concentration prior to the initiation of this
study are given in Table 10.
Nitrogen
Ammonia levels in Lake Charles East are generally high. Most values are
consistently in the range of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/£ as N. It is produced primarily
through the deamination of organic nitrogen. These high values probably
play a role in the incidence of fish kills which have been noted previously
in the lake. Oxidized forms of nitrogen (nitrate + nitrite) display very
low levels, especially during the summer season.
Suspended Solids
If a suspended solids range of 5-20 mg/£ is representative of bloom condi-
34
tions, as suggested by some , then it is clear that Lake Charles East was
in a continued state of bloom prior to abatement and treatment. Secchi
disc transparencies reflect this also and in fact, a general relationship
between secchi disc and suspended solids can be seen in Figure 4. The data
on this log-log plot tend to agree with the exponential relationship for
absorption of light by water,
I = I e~nz V-4
z o
28
-------
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29
-------
TABLE 10
Previously Reported Phosphorus Levels
in Lake Charles East
Date
11-18-67
7-16-69
6-20-72
Concentration (mg-P/£)
Ortho Total
0.03
0.7
1.99
1.34
1.24
Reference
surface (32)
8 feet (33)
surface (32)
5 feet
8 feet
30
-------
or
LU
UJ
O
O)
Or
~2 OQ
£
O
-------
where I = light intensity at depth z,
z
I = surface light intensity,
o
z = depth
and n = extinction coefficient.
The data are scattered in Figure 4 because the type of particulate matter
varied and because of two other components in the extinction coefficient,
total water particles color.
Phytoplankton
Before abatement procedures were initiated in Lake Charles East, the bloom
conditions indicated above were composed almost exclusively of blue green
4 5
species of algae. Total blue green algae were typically 10 to 10 /ml.
These consisted chiefly of Oscillatoria and Anabaena. As will be seen
(Section VII) the number and type of algae changed considerably after abate-
ment and treatment.
32
-------
SECTION VI
METHODOLOGY OF APPLICATION OF FLY ASH TO LAKE CHARLES EAST
GENERAL
Experience with fly ash at Lake Charles East points out the importance of
material specifications, accessibility to the site, weather conditions, and
bulk material handling methods for projects of this type.
The fly ash was obtained from the Indiana and Michigan Electric Company's
Twin Branch Generating Station in Mishawaka, Indiana.
An analysis of the fly ash is given in Table 11. Because of the low calcium
oxide content, a supplemental quantity of lime (270 tons) was added to the
25
lake along with the fly ash. Previous studies had indicated the importance
of the lime content and at the initiation of the study it was believed to be
an essential component.
DELIVERY
The fly ash pond at Mishawaka had dried sufficiently since I&M had switched
from coal to oil in 1973. Heavy machinery and trucks were able to drive on
the fly ash. A thin layer of bottom ash, placed to hold down dust, was re-
moved from the surface of the fly ash, and a drag line was used to excavate
and pile up approximately 2000 tons of the fly ash. An articulated front end
loader was used to load the fly ash into a succession of 30 cubic yard tandem
(dual axle) trailer dump trucks. The loads were weighed and trucked approxi-
mately 65 miles to the lake site.
In order to achieve a uniform 4-5 centimeter layer of ash on the lake sedi-
25
ments (previous studies by Yaksich had indicated a 2 cm layer was needed at
33
-------
TABLE 11
Chemical Composition of
Fly Ash Added to
Sediments of Lake Charles East
(composite sample)
Component
CaO
As000
2 3
Fe2°3
Si 02
As
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Mn
Ni
Pb
Zn
Concentration
4.2
42.2
32,9
20.6
80
8
90
48
20
225
220
85
330
i
%
%
%
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
yg/g
34
-------
minimum) it was necessary to load fly ash to the treated section of the lake
at the rate of approximately 500 tons/ha (200 tons/acre). A total of 1973
tons of fly ash were excavated and delivered to the lake. The average mois-
ture content was 22.8% leaving 1523 tons of dry ash for application. The
first series of trucks used tarps to prevent fly ash from blowing on the high-
way, however, it was soon discovered that the tarps were unnecessary. Appar-
ently, the high moisture content of fly ash freshly removed from the pond
helped prevent a dust problem.
The open dump trucks were originally chosen over bulk material, cement-type
trucks because they were cheaper, in greater supply, and more suitable for
ponded ash. Completely enclosed trailers and bulk storage hoppers with dust
control devices would probably be required for dry fly ash delivery and stor-
age.
Site conditions, such as accessibility by road, soil moisture content, and
levelness of the ground, were extremely important in unloading the fly ash.
Many of the dump trucks also became stuck while backing into the fly ash
stockpile area and they had to be emptied in place. A small bulldozer was
used in a dual role: to pull out the trucks and to pile up the fly ash so
that more trucks could dump. The trucks also had to be emptied on a rela-
tively level area. Otherwise, they could have easily tipped over when the
loads were raised to dump.
FLY ASH AND LIME APPLICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
The fly ash and lime were applied to the treated side of Lake Charles East
by means of a piped water slurry system. The work site and the fly ash and
lime stockpiles were on a level area about 8 m (26 ft.) above the lake sur-
face elevation at the northeast corner of the lake (Figure 1).
A 10.2 cm (4 in) variable-speed, 2.26 m /min. (600 gpm) capacity trash pump
was used to pump screened lake water out of the lake, through a 10 cm diameter
canvas discharge hose, and into a 10 cm diameter black steel spray bar 6.3 m
(20_-6 ft)long. The spray bar contained 80-0.80 cm diameter spray holes at 1.2 cm
(3 in) on centers in two rows 3.9 m(12.8 ft) long. At full pump capacity
up to 28.4 H/min, (7.5 gpm) would have come out of each spray bar hole at
about 9.1 m/sec (30 fps) depending on the amount of debris clogging some
35
-------
3
of the holes. Actual pump discharge was 1.7 - 2.1 m /min. (400-500 gpm)
due to head and friction losses and pump control to match the capacity of
the slurry discharge line. The scouring action of the water as it left the
spray bar was sufficient to suspend the fly ash particles, forming a con-
centrated aqueous slurry of about 15% by volume. This slurry was collected
via a system of ditches and channeled into a 20.3 cm (8 inch) corrugated
plastic irrigation pipe which carried the slurry to the lake by gravity
flow. This pipe was chosen because it is flexible, lightweight, easy to
connect and disconnect in the field, slightly buoyant and relatively inex-
pensive.
During operation actual flow velocities in the slurry discharge line varied
from about 0.3 to 0.6 m/sec (1 to 2 fps) depending on pump discharge rate,
cross-sectional area of flows, and wall effects of corrugations. A velocity
of 0.3 m/sec was more than sufficient to keep individual fly ash particles
suspended, but the fly ash was contaminated with numerous larger and
heavier particles which tended to settle out in the pipe and cause sinking
and blockages.
There were numerous types of contamination in the fly ash from the following
sources:
1. Sand from the dike around the I&M fly ash pond.
2. Bottom ash from the dust control layer on the fly ash pond.
3. Large chunks of very hard ash material, some measuring 20 to
30 cm (8-12 in) across, caused either by high concentrations
of calcium, iron, or other cementitious material or high pres-
sure in certain layers of fly ash in the pond.
4. Organic matter, such as sticks and leaves from the unimproved
bottom of the fly ash pond, weeds from the stockpile site, and
clayey sod turned up by the bulldozer.
5. Sand and stones from the gravel which was spread at the stock-
pile site to improve bearing capacity and traction for trucks
and the front end loader.
The contaminants, especially the large chunks of slag and heavy gravel par-
ticles, were a major source of difficulty throughout the summer. Without
them, the slurry discharge system would have worked with far less irritation,
the pipe probably would not have plugged and broken so often, and much more
36
-------
fly ash would have been available to treat the lake. The contaminants ap-
peared to compose about 5 to 10% of the fly ash stockpile. About 200 tons
of heavy contaminated material was discarded at the end of the project.
Although fly ash contaminants may not be intrinsically harmful in lake treat-
ment, they do reduce the amount of effective fly ash, and organic material
may contribute to the amount of floating debris and sources of nutrients.
In retrospect, this particular application method might have worked better
if the slurry had been directed into a sump and pumped out into the lake by
another pump and hose. Another possible application technique on larger
projects would be to push the fly ash into a large stockpile at the edge of
a lake where a small dredge could scoop it and pump it out for distribution.
Still another approach would be to obtain cleaner fly ash by using dry fly
ash, improved ponding areas, or paved stockpile areas.
The corrugated plastic pipe used to carry the slurry to the lake required
additional floatation in the form of air-filled, 12.7 cm (5 in) corrugated
plastic pipe with ends capped. This was tied to the slurry discharge line
to help prevent it from sinking from the weight of fly ash in the slurry and
possible sediment build-up in the pipe. Air-filled pipe was preferred over
other common floatation devices, such as metal drums, inner tubes, and styro-
foam, because it was less expensive and it allowed continuous floatation along
the length of the slurry discharge line.
The slurry discharge line was required to float because it was swept back
and forth across the water to distribute fly ash and lime over the treated
portion of the lake. It was impossible to move the pipe if a section sank
to the bottom because the low point rapidly filled up with heavier particles
from the fly ash slurry, especially when the flow rate and scour velocity
declined or stopped.
The fly ash application method was similar to a dredging operation in reverse.
The source of slurry material was at a fixed point, the fly ash pile, while
the discharge end moved across the lake distributing fly ash which sank to
the bottom. A dredge would normally move across the lake, taking sedimented
material from the bottom and pumping it in slurry form to a fixed spoil
37
-------
location, either on land or in deeper water. One advantage of dredging is
that either a boat or the dredge itself provides propulsion to pull the
pipeline across the water and suction tends to position it.
In this project, however, the available pontoon boat with a 10 horsepower
outboard motor was awkward and imprecise in positioning the end of the
3
slurry discharge line. A flow of 2.12 m /min (500 gpm) exiting at an
average velocity of .46 m/sec (1.5 fps) causes only 12.3 kg of thrust, but
much higher drag forces were encountered in pulling the pipe back and forth
across the water. Better positioning was obtained by stretching a 1.3 cm
(0.5 in) Manila rope across the lake at 3.9 m (10 ft) intervals, attaching
the end of the slurry discharge line to a small raft, and manually pulling
the raft across the lake with a rope. This required frequent work stoppages
to change the rope, but it allowed much more precise control of fly ash ap-
plication because the same areas were not treated twice, and the depth of
the fly ash layer could be controlled by adjusting the rate that the raft
moved across the lake. The depth of the fly ash layer in place was measured
by core samples.
RESULTS OF APPLICATION
Fly ash and lime were applied to the eastern third of Lake Charles East
during the period May 10 to August 5, 1975. The total area covered was
approximately 3 hectares (7.4 acres). The approximate area covered during
the application period are shown in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows isopleths of
fly ash depth above the sediments (in centimeters) as determined by a coring
survey made in the spring of 1976. One difficulty which became apparent as
a result of the survey was the continued deposition of organic detritus in
the lake resulting in the establishment of a small but very noticeable
(about 1 cm) layer above the fly ash. The effects of this will be dis-
cussed in Sections VII and VIII.
38
-------
s
3
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LAKE CHARLES EAST
Fly Ash
Contours
Approximate scale
1600: I
contours in centimeters
FIGURE 6: Fly Ash Thickness After Treatment.
40
-------
SECTION VII
RESULTS
WATER CHEMISTRY EFFECTS
The changes in water chemistry in Lake Charles East of greatest interest are
for phosphorus and nitrogen. Both total and soluble reactive (filterable)
phosphorus levels are shown in Figure 7 for the period of this study. Fea-
tures of the data which are notable are the rapid decline in phosphorus
after diversion of the wastewater, the low levels of soluble phosphorus
during the summers during and after treatment, and the rise in phosphorus
levels in the late summer and early autumn of each year after treatment.
These will be discussed further in Section VIII.
The nitrogen levels in Lake Charles East are given in Figures 8 and 9 for
ammonia and nitrite plus nitrate, respectively. Although the dynamics of
the nitrogen cycle were not investigated specifically, a few observations
can be made from the data. There is general agreement that most algae can
utilize either ammonium or nitrate-nitrite as their source of inorganic
nitrogen. Free ammonia, NH , can have a toxic effect, however. This frac-
tion of the total increases with temperature and pH.
Figure 8 shows that average total ammonia concentrations in Lake Charles
East are high. Ammonia is produced by the de-amination of organic nitrogen
containing compounds. Free ammonia, NH_, may have been a factor in fish
kills which were observed on September 6, 1974 and August 8, 1975 (during
lime addition) because both temperature and pH were high.
In Wisconsin lakes Sawyer found that nuisance algal blooms could be expected
41
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when inorganic forms of nitrogen exceeded a critical level of 0.30 mg-N/£ in
the spring. In Lake Charles East, the oxidized forms of nitrogen were often
at growth limiting levels, especially in the summer months (Figure 9), but
total inorganic nitrogen (i.e., including ammonia) often exceeded the critical
level.
The filterable inorganic nitrogen:phosphorus ratios are plotted in Figure 10
as a means of estimating relative growth limitations. Various authors have
indicated that a N:P ratio greater than 10-15 to 1 indicates a phosphorus limi-
tation (or in some cases some other nutrient), while a lower ratio indicates
nitrogen limitation. Lake Charles East can be considered as predominantly
phosphorus limited during the summers of 1975 and 1976 as suggested by the
phosphorus data of Figure 7. The dominance of nitrogen-fixing blue-green
algal species in mid to late summer after diversion and treatment may be
partially explained by noting a trend toward nitrogen limitations at those
times of the year.
PHYTOPLANKTON EFFECTS
Relative phytoplankton composition is given graphically in Figure 11 for the
period of this study. For convenience, the phytoplankton are divided into
four functional groupings: blue-green, flagellates, green and diatoms. Bio-
mass determinations as computed from phytoplankton counts in the lake are
given in Figure 12. . The resultant water clarity, as determined by Secchi
disk measurements, are given in Figure 13.
When biological sampling began on 26 June 1974, Lake Charles East was domi-
nated by blue-green algae, primarily Oscillatoria agardhii. Algae present
in the lake before treatment with fly ash are listed in Table 12.
In the first half of 1975 (that is, still prior to treatment) Trachelomonas
became more abundant, reaching somewhat over 30% of total phytoplankton bio-
mass. At about the end of January 1975, diatoms began increasing in impor-
tance as the Trachelomonas population ebbed. By April, both the greens and
diatoms decreased in numbers and the blue-greens once again composed some
99% of the phytoplankton biomass. This condition existed up to, and during
the actual fly ash treatment. Biomass fluctuated between values of 2-12
45
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TABLE 12
Algae Occurring In Lake Charles East
During 1974, Arranged From Most
Abundant (top) to Least Abundant
(bottom) by Numbers of Cells
Oscillatoria agardhii
Ch putrida
Anabaena circinalis
Navicula sp.
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Trachelomonas hispida
Gyrosigma sp.
Ankistrodesmus sp.
Synedra sp.
Oscillatoria vulgare
Cosmarium sp.
50
-------
3
g-C/m before treatment, Reference to Figure 11 Indicates that the vast
majority of this biomass was blue-green algae throughout the period from
June 1974 to June 1975.
Figure 12 shows that a summer bloom of blue-green algae was being initiated
just as the fly ash treatment began. Phytoplankton biomass climbed to rela-
tively high levels, although fluctuations were evident. It should be noted,
however, that a similar bloom occurred the following summer (1976). This
point will be deferred to the Discussion of Results (Section VIII). The
bloom observed during treatment (Summer of 1975) was dominated throughout
by blue-green algae (Figure 11).
Shortly after the treatment of Lake Charles East with lime and fly ash, a
significant change occurred in the phytoplankton composition. Figure 11
shows the appearance of flagellated species, dominated by Cryptomonas ovata,
which by the end of 1975, had accounted for 98% of the phytoplankton biomass.
By the time Cryptomonas became important in the lake, the total biomass of
phytoplankton had dropped to rather low levels (Figure 12). The cryptophyte
dominated in the lake through the winter.
In the Spring 1976, diatoms appeared and constituted about 15% of the total
phytoplankton biomass in April. By the end of May the cryptophytes and dia-
toms had diminished and were briefly replaced by blue-green algae. Important
species present at that time were Anabaena circinalis and Microcystis
aeruginosa. Oscillatoria agardgii was also represented, but in much reduced
numbers from previous years.
Coincident with the May bloom of blue-greens, was the appearance of
Gymnodinium palustre, at one point reaching over 10% of the phytoplankton
biomass. This dinoflagellate persisted in our samples until October. The
blue-green bloom was also briefly interrupted by a bloom of diatoms, pre-
dominantly Cyclotella sp.
The blue-green algal bloom of 1976 was short-lived in comparison to those of
the previous two years. The population was again replaced in October by the
cryptophyte, Cryptomonas ovata. Diatoms were more common members of the
phytoplankton community after treatment. Their presence was not greater in
51
-------
absolute numbers, but rather was evidenced by duration through the year.
In addition to the phytoplankton composition change (Figure 11), biomass
levels changed as well. Figure 12 shows two changes following fly ash treat-
ment. First, the summer bloom of 1976 showed less constancy over its dura-
tion than did the bloom of 1975, Indeed, biomass was considerably lower
during the early Summer of 1976. It must be remembered, also, that the
species composition was considerably different.
The other change is represented by reduced phytoplankton biomass in the
period between the successive summer peaks. Again, the composition of the
phytoplankton in relative percentage of biomass changed greatly during that
time. Prior to treatment, blue-green algae dominated the year around, while
after treatment, the cryptophyte became more important.
ZOOPLANKTON EFFECTS
The Rotifer Community
The composition of the zooplankton communities in Lake Charles East for the
duration of the study are depicted graphically in Figure 14. Zooplankton
trends are presented briefly below and are discussed in more detail in Sec-
tion VIII. The following discussion is based on population counts (see Appendix)
The rotifer community in Lake Charles East exhibited two peaks each year.
These two peaks were evident in 1975, 1976, and 1977 (first peak). The first
population peak usually occurred in June and extended into July each year. It
was then followed by a population low in August, with a second peak occurring
between September and October. The second peak was less than half the magni-
tude of the first peak. Even though the species composition of each peak was
different from year to year, the relative density at each peak was very simi-
lar. Spring peaks of all the years lie between 17,000 and 20,000 rotifers
per liter of water sample, and the Fall sample ranged from 5,000 to 7,000
individuals per liter. According to the trophic classification system of
35
Ruttner-Kolisko , the extremely high densities of rotifers found in Lake
Charles East would place the lake in the eutrophic category for all the
years studied. This trophic designation is further confirmed by the presence
of the rotifers Anuraeopsis fissa, Keratella cochlearis and Pompholyx sulcata,
52
-------
all of which are known to be good biological indicators of eutrophic lakes
O £
in North America
Because of the relatively long time taken to apply the fly ash to the lake,
the treatment itself did not seem to have any significant effect on the
rotifer density. However, the rapid addition of lime at the end of the
treatment process eliminated the rotifer community from the lake for some-
what less than a week. Repopulation of the treated side of the lake was
rapid. The lime addition coincided with the seasonal low of rotifers in
August, and therefore, the detrimental effect of lime was reduced in mag-
nitude.
The Cladoceran Community
The effect of treatment on cladocerans in Lake Charles East followed the pat-
tern set by the rotifers discussed above. That is, the lime application
halted the development of cladoceran population in the lake, and numbers
were not regained until several weeks later. The high density of Bosmina
observed in the summer months of 1974 was not repeated in 1975 after the
treatment, and in fact, never showed up again for the duration of the samp-
ling program. Two species of Daphnia (Eh longiremis and I), ambigua) were
also present in the late summer and fall prior to treatment of the lake.
Alona and Ceridaphnia were represented in those early collections as well.
The Copepod Community
Population of cyclopoid copepods (Cyclops and related genera) showed con-
siderable fluctuation during the late summer and fall of 1974, through
early 1975. The annual trend for total copepods is similar to that of the
cladocerans in Lake Charles East, in that both have spring and fall popula-
tion peaks separated by a summer minimum. The spring peaks, however, were
dominated by nauplius larvae, with adults constituting only a minor compo-
nent of the population. In the fall, population peaks of nauplii were fol-
lowed by high densities of adult copepods. Immediately prior to the applica-
tion of lime and fly ash, the spring peak was already in its decline.
The short-term effect of the chemical treatment seems to be the termination
of the later part of the annual cycle of the copepods by eliminating the
aestivating copepodites in the summer (see Section VIII). If the treatment
53
-------
TOTAL ZOOPLANKTON (cmVm3)
100 10 I
I i I I . I I I I III I i _ _1 t J I I I I I I
o
d
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54
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were applied at another time, the copepod community may be affected less
significantly when the individuals are planktonic and do not have to contend
with the fly ash sediments.
Fish
The major fish species in Lake Charles East are the bluegill (Lepomis
macrochirus) and the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). While no
systematic study was carried out, a few observations can be made. A gill
net set in Summer 1974, showed the lake to be populated primarily with
stunted bluegill. In the Fall of 1974, a fish-kill occurred which sub-
stantiated the gill-net observations. The kill was attributed to circula-
tion of the lake (resulting in reduced oxygen levels) coupled with elevated
ammonia levels (determined by personnel from the Steuben Co. Health Depart-
ment). Virtually all bluegill that died were in the 10-12 cm range. Some
large (30 cm) bass were also killed.
A fish kill occurred in the Summer of 1975, as a result of the liming oper-
ation associated with the lake treatment. Several thousand small bluegill
died on the side of the lake being treated. No dead bass were observed
(see Section VIII).
Benthos
The benthic community of Lake Charles East both before and after treatment
consisted primarily of chironomid larvae, a common indicator of a eutrophic
status. The effects of the treatment on this and other sediment-dwelling
creatures appeared to be minimal. Data for surveys performed the year before
(1974) and the year after treatment (1976) are given in Table 13. Chirono-
mids and Chaoborus were more abundant after treatment while fewer oligo-
chaetes were found.
SEDIMENT CHEMISTRY EFFECTS
Inasmuch as the main function of the added fly ash was to bring about a re-
tardation of phosphate release from the sediments of Lake Charles East, a
major portion of this study was devoted to an evaluation of the effective-
ness of the ash seal. It has previously been indicated in Section VI the
extent of coverage of the treated sediments (Figure 6). Treatment of only
55
-------
TABLE 13
Lake Charles East Benthos Data
(individuals/ft2)
12-6-74 (before treatment)
Depth
Oligochaeta
2.4
1.8
1.8
1.4
2.4
2.6
2.9
2.7
2.7
129
45
101
50
0
3
0
1
28
Chironomus
plumosus
67
110
303
45
20
44
4
139
92
Palpomyia
tibialis
6
27
39
18
2
4
1
2
6
Chaoborus
punctipennis
0
0
0
0
7
4
3
9
0
2-20-76 (after treatment)
Oligochaeta
0.8
1.5
2.1
2.5
2.8
2.8
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.5
2.0
84
4
4
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
12
0
Chironomus
460
288
364
184
44
4
4
0
12
44
128
348
Unknown
Chaoborus
0
0
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
48
24
480
84
64
52
20
0
56
-------
a portion of the lake provided control sediments (western portion of the
lake) to which comparisons could be made. Parallel sets of undisturbed sedi-
ment cores were taken from both sides of the lake (WILDCO Model 2404 K.B.
core sampler) on a monthly basis during 1976, the year following treatment.
Variations in pertinent lake parameters during this time are summarized in
Table 14. For each set of cores gathered, a complete fractionation of sedi-
ment-bound phosphorus into the cltrate-dithionite-bicarbonate (CDB) extract-
able, apatite, remaining non-apatite forms, and organically bound phos-
phorus was made at several sediment depths. The procedures are summarized
in Figure 15. Soluble interstitial phosphorus was also determined. Other
important sediment parameters determined included CDB-Fe, pH, moisture con-
tent, and specific gravity of sediment solids. Iron analyses were run by
flame atomic absorption.
Remaining cores were incubated in the dark in a batch mode under prevailing
conditions of dissolved oxygen and temperature in a sealed environmental con-
trol chamber (Aminco Model 4-5460) for measurement of release and sorption
of phosphorus. Figure 16 shows a schematic diagram of the apparatus. A
small amount of stirring was provided in order to give a more completely
mixed system above the sediment-water interface. Phosphate analyses on the
overlying water were made daily. Certain aerobic cores which had a compara-
tively low phosphorus level above the sediments were spiked with small
amounts of phosphate to provide greater accuracy in measurement differen-
tials during sorption experiments.
Concern over the potential adverse environmental effects of heavy metals as-
sociated with fly ash led to the analysis of cores from both sides of the
lake for these constituents. The top five centimeters of the cores were
dried (103 C) and digested via a hot concentrated nitric acid reflux method.
Other cores were centrifuged to bring about a good separation of solids from
interstitial water. The supernatant was filtered (0.45 pm) and analyzed for
soluble metal concentrations. All metal analyses in this phase of the study
were made by flameless atomic absorption (Perkin-Elmer Model 305 with HGA-
2100 graphite furnace).
Figures 17 and 18 show total residue and volatile residue, respectively, of
57
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FIGURE 15: Phosphorus Fractionation and Analysis Scheme
Followed for Lake Charles East Sediments,
59
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sediment material as a function of depth for treated and untreated lake sedi-
ments. The fly ash layer (about 5 cm) is clearly evident due to its much
lower moisture content and volatility. The zone of higher residue but ap-
proximately constant volatility at 10-12 cm in the control sediments (12-15
cm on the treated side) may be due to the construction activity associated
with the placement of the bridge foundation in 1967. If so, the rate of
sedimentation in Lake Charles over this ten-year period is approximately
1 cm/yr, a high value but not out of line with lakes of such high productiv-
ity. In connection with this it was observed visually, and is evident in
Figures 17 and 18, that a one to two centimeter layer of organic detrital
material existed above the fly ash layer when samples were taken (about one
year after treatment).
Some of this layer could have come about through initial mixing of sediments
during treatment with a subsequent settlement on the fly ash. In view of
the probable rate of sedimentation in the lake it appears more likely that
most of the material was produced autochthonously after treatment. This
phenomenon is important since it impacts on the degree of effectiveness of
the seal and the permanence of the overall ash treatment. Implications will
be discussed in Section VIII.
The seasonal variation in phosphorus release and uptake for both control and
treated sediments for the period of study is given in Figures 19 and 20.
Both sediments displayed uptake during aerobic periods and release when the
lake bottom was anaerobic (refer to Table 14). Treated sediments, however,
released considerably less phosphorus during the summer. When all anaerobic
2
data are pooled the control side showed 31 +_ 39 mg/m /day for release of
2
phosphorus while the treated side gave 14 +_ 12 mg/m /day. The means were
significantly different at the 95% confidence level. Uptake during aerobic
2
periods was more nearly the same for both sides, 16 + 12 mg/m /day for the
2
control and 13+8 mg/m /day for the treated sediments.
A comparison of release rates by months from June through September is shown
in Table 15. Here it can be seen that the month of maximum P release for
untreated sediments is July. The reduction in P release brought about by
sediment treatment is significant at the 99% confidence level. This is
61
-------
D FLY ASH TREATED
SITE 2
O UNTREATED
SITE 3
4 8 12 16 20
DEPTH OF SEDIMENTS (CM)
FIGURE 17: Density of Sediments in Lake Charles
East vs. Sediment Depth
62
-------
0.35
0.30
D FLY ASH TREATED
SITE 2
O UNTREATED
SITE 3
_L I l
4 8 12 16 20 24
DEPTH OF SEDIMENTS (CM)
FIGURE 18: Fractional Volatile Residue in Sediments
of Lake Charles East vs. Sediment Depth.
63
-------
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TABLE 15
Mean Release Rates for Untreated and Treated
Sediments of Lake Charles East During 1976 and the Level of
Which the Means are Significantly Different
(units of mg-P/m^/day)
Month
June
July
August
September
Untreated
Mean (STD)
22.27 (15.84)
75.49 (48.42)
11.18 ( 9.05)
11.19 ( 8.24)
Treated
Mean (STD)
17.55 (13.25)
18.38 (14.54)
15.42 (10.58)
6.75 ( 5.71)
t
score
0.75
3.72
-1.11
1.47
Level
of
Significance
50%
99%
60%
80%
66
-------
important since it shows that while fly ash treated sediments do release
phosphorus under reducing conditions, the peak releases are dampened consid-
erably.
The variation in important sediment phosphorus parameters are given in
Figures 21 and 22 for the control and treated sediments, respectively. In
Figure 22, for treated sediments, a distinction is made between the top cen-
timeter or so of detrital material indicated previously and the ash layer.
Total depth is to approximately six centimeters. Figure 21 gives readings
according to depth for the top centimeter and every two centimeters to a
depth of seven. A comparison of these figures indicates clearly the lower
amounts of different phosphorus forms in the sediments treated with fly ash.
Of special note are Figures 21 (b) and 22 (b), CDB extractable phosphorus,
which is a measure of the most labile forms. It represents, in essence, a
"reservoir" of phosphorus to the lake. The lower available amounts of phos-
phorus are reflected in Figures 21 (c) and 22 (c), soluble interstital phos-
phorus, which is also lower for the treated sediments.
In spite of these lower values for the treated sediments, the effect of the
detrital layer above the ash is evident in Figure 22. It is reasonable to
assume that the higher values of CDB and hence interstitial phosphorus in
this layer are at least partially responsible for the release characteristics
noted in Figure 20.
Further evidence for the importance of the citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate
(CDB) extractable mineral forms is presented in Figures 23 and 24. Sediment
values for CDB-iron values have been regressed on values for CDB-phosphorus
yielding a positive correlation at the 99% level of significance. Although
the slopes of the lines in Figures 23 and 24 are similar, the intercept for
the treated sediments is much lower than the control reflecting the lower
amounts of amorphous iron mineral forms in the treated sediments. Thus, the
lower quantities of phosphorus which are available from the treated sedi-
ments (Figure 22 (b)) appear to be due to the smaller capacity of this fly
ash to act as a phosphorus sink.
A summary of the effects of fly ash on the sediments of Lake Charles East is
67
-------
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74
-------
r - 0.69
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CDB Iron Regressed on CDB Phosphorus for Treated Sediments.
75
-------
presented in Figure 25 and 26 as fractional composition plots of phosphorus
forms. These diagrams are derived from averages over the depth of the cores
which were analyzed. The smaller fraction of CDB-phosphorus for the treated
sediments is evident. The expanded area of other inorganic phosphorus forms
may be due to the lime and aluminum components of the fly ash exerting an
effect on phosphorus distribution.
HEAVY METAL DATA
Legitimate concern exists in the use of fly ash over the heavy metal content
of the ash and the availability of these constituents to the environment. A
significant degree of cycling of toxic components from the fly ash would de-
tract considerably from the benefits of the treatment. This concern must, of
course, be balanced by a knowledge of the amounts and forms of background
heavy metals in the sediments themselves since the sediments of many lakes
which have been affected adversely by cultural influences have sizeable
metal concentrations. This is illustrated to some extent by the data in
Table 16 which gives average values for several cores, taken randomly during
anoxic periods, of nitric acid digested metal concentrations in the top five
centimeters and also soluble metal levels in the interstitial waters of cores.
Sediment values of heavy metals show modest increases for most metals for the
treated cores, however, manganese, copper, and lead concentrations exhibit a
decrease. Lake Charles East has, historically, received sizeable inputs of
copper for control of algae and lead from automobile exhaust and for weed
control. In spite of the increases for other metals, soluble metal concen-
trations in the interstices of the treated sediments are not statistically
distinguishable from control sediments.
Table 17 shows data for filterable heavy metals in the water column of Lake
Charles East. Because of the small amount of pre-treatment data (i.e., be-
fore 5-20-76) it is not possible to draw statistically significant conclusions
about the effects of fly ash on the concentrations of heavy metals in the
water. The major correlation which was found was between lead concentration
during the Summer and Fall 1976 and traffic density across the interstate
highway bridge which bisects the lake . Arsenic values seem high and are
probably reflective of the previous use of lead arsenate for aquatic weed
76
-------
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control. Elevated concentrations of most metals in the Spring of 1976 could
be due to runoff caused by spring rains. Elevated copper concentrations
during periods of lake circulation are likely caused either by release from
fly ash or release from sediment material. As indicated, copper sulfate was
commonly used for algal control. The higher than normal nickel concentrations
could be caused by aerosol deposition and/or runoff from truck traffic on the
highway. Nickel is a common contaminant in diesel oil. Many of the iron
concentrations are in excess of that predicted from solubility calculations
for Fe (III) in an oxygenated environment. Occassional analysis for Fe (II)
showed nearly half of the iron in this reduced form suggesting complexation
by soluble organics plays a role in the iron chemistry of this system.
The data of Tables 16 and 17 are site and fly ash specific. Careful evalua-
tions of increases in metal concentrations must be made for each individual
type of ash material and lake sediment. Of great importance in assessing
the overall problem of metal availability is the specific chemical form of
the metals, whether present initially or added with the fly ash. It is sug-
gested that a bioassay test could be developed using a sediment dwelling or-
ganism since such a creature is likely to be the most sensitive to metal up-
take from sediments and is probably the most immediate pathway for the entry
of metals into the aquatic food chain.
79
-------
TABLE 16
Average Metal Concentrations in Sediments
and Pore Water for Treated and Control Samples
(n = 14)
Metal
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Ni
Pb
Zn
Sediment
Treated
3.0
29
54
7400
1000
152
140
-
s(ug/g)
Control
1.4
23
66
3700
1490
132
183
-
Pore Watei
Treated
2.1
3.0
21
1690
1380
78
82
13
:(Vig/O
Control
3.8
3.5
23
1680
1320
81
69
16
80
-------
TABLE 17
Trace Metals in the Water Column of Lake Charles East
(all values
Fe
4-05-75 (n=4) 32.5
5-20-75(n=3) 21.1
8-05-75(n=7) 43.3
4-14-76(n=8) 226.0
5-13-76 (n=8) 250.0
5-26-76(n=4) 78.8
6-16-76 (n=4) 254.6
6-30-76 (n=4) 130.0
7-14-76(n=4) 171.3
7-28-76 (n=4) 96.3
8-11-76 (n=4) 130.0
8-25-76 (n=4) 215.0
9-15-76(n=4) 296.3
10-04-76 (n=4) 538.8
10-20-76(n=4) 576.3
ll-17-76(n=4) 537.5
12-09-76 (n=4) 518.8
Mn
3.0
68.3
101.9
13.9
16.9
28.1
33.8
41.3
83.1
90.8
42.4
118.9
179.4
495.0
345.6
92.5
185.0
Cu
2.9
3.6
3.6
37.5
25.5
4.8
4.3
5.0
9.0
7.6
7.9
5.1
38.8
27.5
31.3
9.5
6,5
Cr
2.2
1.2
1.4
16.0
17.6
4.3
12.4
1.3
6.0
1.2
<0.4
4.5
4.4
6.8
5.3
3.0
3.0
Cd
4.3
4.4
4.4
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.7
3.6
3.1
3.3
0.8
0.9
2.8
2.9
1.7
10.1
4.2
Pb
39.0
39.1
56.9
33.6
32.0
42.9
56.5
60.0
61.0
55.0
90.0
118.8
58.0
25.5
34.3
111.5
111.5
Zn
1.8
1.0
4.5
9.3
6.1
1.4
1.1
3.7
4.4
3.7
5.0
7.5
7.4
4.9
4.8
5.0
2.3
Ni
37.0
42.3
113.6
383.8
410.0
53.0
87.5
110.0
41.8
36.3
30.0
83.8
93.1
70.5
52.5
70.0
63.8
As
96.0
i
110.7
84.6
112.0
107.5
61.5
66.0
54.5
58.0
59.8
56.5
68.0
61.0
56.0
51.0
43.0
40.0
81
-------
SECTION VIII
ANALYSIS OF DATA
BIOLOGICAL DATA
Phytoplankton Analysis
Figure 11 and 12 in Section VII illustrate the effect of diversion followed
by liming and fly ash treatment on phytoplankton in Lake Charles East. Fig-
ure 11 clearly demonstrates a qualitative change in phytoplankton composition
following the treatment. The lake was dominated by blue-green algae for the
entire year prior to treatment in the Summer of 1975. The early part of 1975,
saw a burst of chlorophyte and diatom growth, but the system was still domi-
nated by cyanophytes. As the treatment was completed, the blue-greens ex-
perienced a decline in importance. This decline was coincident with the
appearance in the lake of the cryptophyte, Cryptomonas, and a bloom of
diatoms. Cryptomonas dominated the phytoplankton biomass until late May
1976, when blue-greens regained their importance and dominated through the
summer. Cryptomonas reappeared in the end of 1976, and retained its impor-
tance in the phytoplankton until the end of sampling in 1977.
The blue-green bloom species were different in the before- and after-treat-
ment samples. Prior to treatment the dominant algae were Oscillatoria
agardhii, CK putrida and Anabaena circinalis. After treatment, the dominant
blue-greens (during the restricted bloom), were Anabaena circinalis,
Microcystis aeruginosa and Oscillatoria agardhii, respectively. There also
occurred an increase in algal diversity following treatment of the lake.
Diatoms were represented by a more sustained population through the year.
Dinoflagellates (particularly Gymnodinium) appeared in samples for the first
82
-------
time in the summer following treatment. The green flagellates (specifically
Trachelomonas) became less important in the phytoplankton relative to diatoms
following the lime and fly ash application.
There was apparently also a change in biomass of phytoplankton with re-
spect to before- and after-treatment samples (see Figure 12). As indicated
previously, Lake Charles East was in a state of almost continual bloom con-
ditions. The summer bloom of 1975 (year of the treatment), was possibly the
result of nutrients suspended during disruption of the bottom sediments
while the lake was being treated. In any event, as indicated previously,
there was a significant change in the lake between the Summers of 1975 and
1976. While a summer bloom took place in 1976, the major species were dif-
ferent than in the previous year. Algal biomass in the interim period fell
below the level observed during the same time in the year prior to applica-
tion of fly ash. This trend was repeated in the first half of 1977. Figure
13, secchi disc transparency, shows the increasingly positive effects on the
clarity in the water column from 1974 (before diversion and treatment) to
1977.
In summary, it might be said that phytoplankton in Lake Charles East were
affected in both quantity and quality, with biomass generally decreasing and
diversity increasing after wastewater diversion and treatment. The succes-
sional pattern which appears dominant is the more normal progression of
diatoms - green algae - blue green algae. The blue greens, rather than
dominating essentially year round, are confined to a late summer bloom
period. The changing nutrient levels in the system during this period would
appear to be primarily responsible for this alteration in phytoplankton suc-
cession.
Zooplankton Analysis
The Rotifer Community
As indicated previously, rotifers in Lake Charles East exhibit two seasonal
population peaks. The species compositions at times of high densities are
different for each year (see Figure 14, Section VII). The relatively diverse
rotifer faunas found in the spring peaks of 1975 and 1976, are in contrast
to that of 1977. The fall peak of 1975 has more evenly distributed species
83
-------
populations than either 1974 or 1976. In general, the spring fauna is more
diverse than that of the fall. There were negligible rotifer populations in
the winter of 1975-76 and 1976-77; but in the Winter of 1974-75, there was a
large population of Polyarthra dolichoptera. The high densities of rotifers
found in the warmer months of each year seems to coincide with the high algal
biomass also found at that time.
Although the rotifer community seemed to be very regular and predictable in
terms of time of occurrence and abundance, the same cannot be said about the
individual species within the community itself. The species involved have
a much wider population fluctuation in any given year, and between years.
Four categories of rotifers were recognized based on their time and regular-
ity of appearance in our samples. The first category includes species that
appear regularly each year, and include Anuraeopsis fissa, Brachionus
angularis, Filinia longiseta, Keratella quadrata, Polyarthra remata and
Proalides sp. The second category appeared only in 1975 and 1976. It in-
cludes Asplanchna girodi, Brachionus havanensis, J3. quadridentatus and
Pompholyx complanata. These species achieved very high population densities
in either one or both years. The third category contains species that made
their first appearance in 1976, and includes Brachionus calyciflorus,
Euchlanis sp., Hexarthra mira, Keratella cochlearis, Lecane sp., Philodina
sp. and Trichocera stylata. The unidentified Philodina, Lecane and Euchlanis
species, together with Hexarthra mira were present only in 1976, but Tri-
chocera and Brachionus calyciflorus were present in both 1976 and 1977. The
last category included Lepadella patella and Polyarthra dolichoptera that
appeared in the Winter of 1974-75, Filinia cornuta in the Fall of 1974, and
Brachionus urceolaris in the early spring of 1977.
Although the average summer algal biomass in 1975 was higher than in 1976,
it did not result in higher rotifer diversity. Instead, the high rotifer
diversity of 1976 is probably the result of high algal diversity seen in
that year.
The Cladoceran Community
High densities of the cladoceran Bosmina longirostris were observed in the
late Summer and Fall of 1974 and 1976, but not in the Fall of 1975 after the
84
-------
chemical treatment of the lake, Daphnia longiremis and _D. ambigua appeared
in the Fall of 1974, 1975 and 1976 with extremely high densities in the
Winter and Spring of 1975-76, and exhibited wide fluctuations in the Summer
of 1976. Unusual densities of one Alona species, Ceriodaphnia quadrangula
and Chydorus sphaericus were also detected in the Spring and Summer of 1976.
Although the exact causes for the observed fluctuations could not be deter-
mined, plausible explanations can be offered in view of available data on
the algal community of the lake and literature on cladoceran populations in
the other studies.
After the chemical treatment of the lake, the algal species composition
changed dramatically from a blue-green algae dominated association to one
dominated by flagellates. The flagellates prevailed from October 1975, to
late June 1976. It was during the same period that the Daphnia species ex-
perienced the highest density. It is likely that the shift of algal compo-
sition induced the increase in Daphnia. Supporting evidence from other
studies also indicated that small algae, such as many flagellates, diatoms
and some green algae, are more nutritious than filamentous blue-green algae
39 40 41
such as Anabaena and Oscillatoria ' ' . In the Fall of 1974 and 1976
Daphnia species again peaked in the presence of desirable algal species in
the lake. All of these results strongly suggested that the quality of food
resource is limiting the growth of the Daphnia populations. The decline of
Daphnia in February 1977 was not due to changes of algal food since green
algae and diatoms continued to dominate the algal community at that time.
Rather, the demise could be attributed to the extremely low oxygen content
of the lake water during that period, for it is well-known that most clado-
47
cerans require relatively high dissolved oxygen levels in order to survive
Fish predation of cladocerans in lakes had been suggested in the literature
42 43
to be an important regulatory factor on crustacean community dynamics '
However fish predation has been shown to be size-selective and operates only
on large cladocerans. The two Daphnia species found in Lake Charles East
are quite small, and their fluctuation in the lake seems unlikely to be con-
trolled by fish predation.
85
-------
There are many indications in the literature that Bosmina species are poor
44
competitors because of their slow developmental rate and can consume only
45
restricted sizes of food particles . One behavioral adaptation for sur-
44
vival which was suggested by Kwik and Carter was that Bosmina readily mi-
grates to the bottom and switches from filtering of plankton to grazing of
microbenthos at the water-sediment interface. Another adaptive strategy
would be their remaining pelagic, but using a less preferable planktonic
food resource when competition is imminent. The hypothesis that the Daphnia
species in Lake Charles East are highly inefficient in utilizing blue-green
algae, and therefore, leave this food resource open for Bosmina to exploit
seems to be the explanation for the presence of 15. longirostris in the lake.
Population peaks of _B. longirostris in Lake Charles East were always associ-
ated with dominance of blue-greens in the algal community. Similar relation-
46
ships for these two species have also been observed by Allen in Frains Lake,
Michigan, where a Daphnia bloom was coupled with the abundance of phytoflag-
ellates from February to April, while Bosmina longirostris increased in num-
bers only when blue-greens and a large dinoflagellate became dominant in
late May.
The rest of the cladoceran species, which included one species of Alona,
Ceriodaphnia quadrangula and Chydorus sphaericus, were present in the lake
sporadically in low numbers in 1974 and 1975. In the Spring and Summer of
1976 comparatively large fluctuations in numbers were observed, and coin-
cided with the rapid shifting of algal species from June to August of that
year. In the literature it is reported that Chydorus sphaericus would aban-
don its benthic habitat and become planktonic in times of cyanophycean
47
blooms and summer blooms of Ceriodaphnia quadrangula and Chydorus sphaericus
48
were also observed in a Masurian lake by Gliwicz . It seems likely that the
populations of these two species in Lake Charles East are also responding to
food species as a controlling factor.
The long-term effect of the chemical treatment on the cladoceran community
appears to be an indirect one. After the treatment, the species of primary
producers was altered considerably. The increase in algal diversity in 1976
may well explain the presence of cladoceran species such as Chydorus
sphaericus
86
-------
sphaericus and Ceriodaphnia quadrangula. The pattern of 1976 was not repeated
for the spring-summer period of 1977; therefore, it is not possible to say
that the treatment had a lasting effect on the zooplankton dynamics in Lake
Charles East.
The Copepod Community
Spring and fall peaks separated by summer minima characterized the copepod
population encountered. Summer aestivation of many cyclopoid species in the
copepodite IV and V stages has been reported ' ' ' and might account for
the disappearance of the nauplii in the summer months at Lake Charles East.
The breaking of summer diapause and resumption of normal development were
reflected in the high fall adult copepod populations of 1974 and 1976.
Development of the copepod community seemed to be normal for the early part
of 1975, when a nauplius peak was observed. However, the summer minimum of
1975 coincided with the time of chemical treatment of the lake, and was not
followed by the reappearance of either peaks of nauplii or adults in late
summer. The increase of nauplii was delayed until the winter months of
1975-76. Though there was no direct verification, it is possible that this
peculiar behavior of the copepod community in 1975 was caused by the chemical
treatment in the summer of that year. The amount of fly ash and lime mixture
applied to the lake put a considerable layer on the lake bottom. This layer
undoubtedly buried the aestivating copepodites and might later have consti-
tuted a physical barrier which prevented the copepodites from re-entering
the lake after breaking diapause. The chemical environment surrounding the
aestivating copepodites could also be altered by the fly ash and lime mix-
ture and become detrimental to them. Repopulation of the lake by copepods
after the chemical treatment was much slower than that of the rotifers or
cladocerans. Since the rest of the planktonic community rebounded rapidly
from the treatment, the copepods were probably not handicapped by lack of
food.
Any long-term effect of the chemical treatment on the copepod community is
not apparent in this study. The annual cycle, disrupted in 1975, was resumed
in 1976 and 1977, and population densities of 1976 and 1977 seemed comparable
to those of 1974 and 1975 prior to treatment.
87
-------
Fish
Other than the immediate fish-kill described in Section VII of this report,
no long-term effect could be noted with respect to the fish population. Evi-
dently the great majority of fish, especially the bass, were able to avoid
the area of the lake being treated at any particular time. In this way, they
were able to minimize the acute effects of the lime and fly ash. The fish
kill was probably due to the rapid rate at which the final lime application
was carried out. There simply was no safe area of the lake in which they
could take refuge. This suggests that fish kills might be averted so long
as the area under treatment at any given time was strictly controlled. As
mentioned earlier, only small bluegills were observed as being affected by
the kill.
SEDIMENTS
The demonstrated effectiveness of the fly ash in reducing the release of
phosphorus during anoxic periods (Figures 19 and 20) would appear to be due
to two factors: formation of a physical barrier and changes in the chemical
properties of the ash-sediment material. To the extent that phosphorus re-
717^
lease is a diffusion controlled reaction in lake sediments ' ' it could
be expected that the finer grain size contributes to a decreased permeability
thereby increasing the diffusional path length or tortuosity for the ash
layer. The average moisture content of the fly ash layer was measured to be
1.79 mg of water/gram dry weight of sediments as compared to 18.77 mg/g for
the top centimeter of the control sediments. However, the generally spheri-
cal nature of ash particles would work counter to this trend in comparison
to the control sediments which possess a large clay fraction and therefore
a much lower degree of "sphericity". In situ measurements of permeability
for the two sediment types are difficult and were not attempted in this
research.
In any case, it appears that the chemical alterations brought about by the
fly ash are also of considerable importance in assessing the effects noted.
The specific fly ash used in this study had a relatively low lime content
(Table 11) and the data presented suggest strongly that the resulting lower
-------
amorphous iron content (Figures 23 and 24) is largely responsible for the
lower amounts of phosphorus in a form available for release (Figures 21 (b)
and (c); 22 (b) and (c)). Both CDB iron and phosphorus values, measures of
the capacity for and amount of phosphorus available for release, were reduced
by an average 37% and 44%,respectively, in the treated sediments. This as-
pect of the results should be noted in addition to the observations of
? S 1 8
Yaksich and Tenney in which the lime content of the ash was postulated
as the important phase controlling the chemistry of phosphorus.
The lower CDB-iron content of the treated sediments raises questions con-
cerning the effectiveness of different fly ashes in sealing eutrophic lake
53
sediments. Theis and Wirth have shown that the relative amounts of amor-
phous iron oxides and lime are a good indication of the ultimate acid-base
character of a fly ash. It seems unlikely that an acidic ash could be of
use in the treatment of lake sediments, however, many basic fly ashes con-
tain large amounts of CDB-iron, the normally acidic character of this com-
ponent being masked by large amounts of lime. If CDB-iron is viewed as the
primary phosphorus sink material, then fly ashes which have low amounts of
this phase should be favored for use in lake sediments.
The development of the detrital layer above the fly ash suggests the need for
some measure of control over lake production of primary producers. Residual
phosphorus levels after treatment in Lake Charles were sufficient to promote
excessive algal activity. The resulting re-establishment of essentially pre-
treatment type sediments above the ash was very likely the major source of
phosphorus released by the treated sediments during anoxic periods. Since
an annual treatment of lake sediments with fly ash is probably not feasible,
there would appear to be two approaches to the problem. Addition of a sup-
plemental chemical, such as lime or alum, to the lake in sufficient quanti-
ties and with the necessary degree of mixing and dispersion could bring about
54
the desired lower levels of phosphorus to limit growth. Cooke and Kennedy
have used alum effectively for this purpose. Alternately, a suitable alga-
cide, such as cupric ion, could be used until ambient phosphorus levels have
been sufficiently reduced through natural lake flushing.
89
-------
CHEMICAL MODELING
Figure 7 indicates a loss of total phosphorus from the water column in Lake
Charles East after diversion of wastewater and treatment of sediments. Anal-
ysis of sediments has shown that the fly ash was effective in retarding the
release of phosphorus during anoxic periods. The loss of phosphorus from
the lake is due to two factors: flushing and interchange with the sediments.
For purposes of this study, it is important to assess the relative contribu-
tion of the fly ash treatment to the phosphorus budget of the lake. This is
most conveniently approached through an approach which makes use of mathe-
matical models which describe the system.
There are basically two types of lake models, those which include seasonal
phytoplankton interactions and distinguish between total and soluble forms
of phosphorus, and phosphorus budget or input-output models which generally
predict total phosphorus only. It is this latter type of model which is
applied to the data of Lake Charles East.
The phosphorus vs. time data for Lake Charles East (Figure 7) can be fitted
rather well by an exponential decay function. This suggests that a simple
input-output model in which the lake is treated as a completely mixed reac-
tor with a phosphorus reaction term should be applicable. The phosphorus
residence approach of Sonzogni and Uttormark is such a model and will be
used initially here. Basically, the model consists of a mass balance on
phosphorus.
d C
V --£- = QC1 - Q C - kC_,V VIII-1
dt p x p P
where
V = lake volume (assumed constant),
Q = flow,
C = concentration of phosphorus,
P
Ci = influent phosphorus concentration, and
k = internal phosphorus reaction rate constant.
90
-------
The internal loss constant, k, is assumed first order with respect to the
phosphorus concentration. It thus has units of time
If the lake is well mixed, equation 1 can be integrated to
r _ r (r r,
C - C - (C - C )e
P P P P
where
oo
C is the steady state phosphorus concentration,
C° is the initial phosphorus concentration at time zero, and
R is the phosphorus residence time which is equal to (1/R +k) ,
R = hydraulic residence time, V/Q.
w
In the original model formulation, k was considered to be a positive quantity
reflecting loss of phosphorus to the sediments (through the mechanisms of
sedimentation and adsorption). It was taken to be constant reflecting, at
least over the short term, the specific chemistry of phosphorus in a lake
system. Under these conditions, the phosphorus residence time is always
less than or, when k is zero (i.e., phosphorus behaves conservatively)
equal to R . It should be noted, however, that there is no intrinsic reason
w
why k may not vary or assume a negative value (the absolute value of which is
not greater than 1/R ) for periods of excessive phosphorus release from sedi-
w
ments, or cycling of phosphorus in the water column. In such cases, R is
P
greater than R .
w
If a sufficiently long time base is used (i.e., months to years), the calcu-
lation of k and hence, the phosphorus residence time is straightforward.
Using equation 1 and approximating the differential linearly, one obtains
V- P + P
k _ ftt v-Ln - out
avg.
where phosphorus quantities are on a total mass basis. Equation 3 can be
applied to any comprehensive set of phosphorus budget data.
This is done for the data of Lake Charles East on a yearly basis from 1973
91
-------
through 1977 in Table 18. In all years except one, 1975, the loss constant
is positive indicating loss to the sediments was greater than release from
them. 1975 was the year after external abatement of phosphorus loading and
the year of sediment treatment. The loss constant reflects a definite change
after abatement suggesting the sediments play a much more important role when
external phosphorus loading is comparatively small.
The variation in sign and magnitude of k becomes more pronounced when calcu-
lations are made on a seasonal basis in Lake Charles East. Data are given
in Table 19. Here the time period 1973 to 1977 is divided decimally so that
there are approximately two calculation periods per year corresponding
roughly to the winter and summer seasons. Several important observations
can be made from these data. It is clear that before abatement (which oc-
curred at 1974.8) the net flux of phosphorus is strongly toward the sediments.
After abatement and treatment the net is still toward the sediments (Table 18)
but the annual cycle of uptake and release is more balanced. Thus, the com-
paratively small internal reaction rate constants for 1976 and 1977 calculated
from the yearly time interval are seen to consist in reality of a relatively
large set of oppositely paired fluxes, one toward, the other from the sedi-
ments. The relative magnitudes of each one of the pair are nearly the same
giving rise to a reaction rate constant on a yearly basis which is very
small. This cyclic variation is in concert with the observed uptake and re-
lease trends in the sediments and offers an explanation for the oscillation
of phosphorus levels observed in the water column, visible in Figure 7. The
initial conclusion which could be inferred from Table 18 is that phosphorus
behaves as a chemically conservative substance (R = R ) whereas the data of
J p w
Table 19 more accurately reflect the known reactivity of phosphorus in lake
systems.
The fact that peak phosphorus concentrations in the water column within a
yearly cycle and maximum release from sediments do not coincide suggests that
algal uptake and sedimentation play an important role in Lake Charles East.
The algae take up large quantities of phosphorus from the lake and subse-
quently settle to the sediments. Fall circulation brings about a large in-
crease in total phosphorus. Chemical precipitation or adsorption onto
92
-------
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94
-------
sediments or settling oxide or clay particles could also be contributory
mechanisms.
It has been shown that the release of phosphorus from Lake Charles East sedi-
ments during anoxic periods is significantly reduced by the fly ash layer.
Thus, the negative values of k in Table 19 after treatment are inclusive of
this retardation, albeit the effect may be small since only 35% of the sedi-
ments were treated and the constant is calculated from the data for the en-
tire lake basin. Nevertheless, based upon sediment release values measured,
it is possible to model the long-term effects of the abatement/treatment
restoration scheme using the basic input-output model described. Results of
this effort are shown in Figure 27 in which total phosphorus is plotted as a
function of time. Since both R and k were allowed to vary, a simple closed
w
form solution to the model could not be used. Rather, time varying solutions
to the mass balance equation were obtained using numerical integration tech-
niques. Figure 27 contains computer simulations of five possible scenarious
for Lake Charles East:
1) Unabated phosphorus inputs to the system at essentially pre-1972
levels.
2) Unabated phosphorus inputs in which Indiana's detergent phos-
phate ban is included. Phosphorus loading at 1972-1974 levels.
3) Abatement of external phosphorus sources to the degree experienced
in mid-1974 (approximately 90% reduction).
4) Same as 3) with treatment of 35% of the lake sediments with fly
ash. This combination of manipulation techniques is the course
actually followed in Lake Charles East.
5) Same as 3) with treatment of all sediments which release phosphorus.
Actual data points are also shown in Figure 27. The degree of fit between
scenario 4 and the historical data lend credence to the future projections
which are given.
Figure 27 predicts a steady state total phosphorus concentration in the lake
of 0.23 mg-P/£. This is 0.06 mg/H less than if no sediment treatment had
taken place and still considerably above the level considered necessary to
limit phytoplankton growth to non-bloom conditions. It thus appears that
for the foreseeable future Lake Charles East will remain a eutrophic system.
95
-------
Nevertheless, there are documented improvements in overall water quality con-
sisting of altered phytoplankton composition in which noxious blue-green
algae are more limited, reduced total biomass, and increased water clarity
for large portions of the year. In assessing the relative improvement of a
culturally hypereutrophic system such as Lake Charles East it is apparent
that the standard ranges of health indices normally applied to less polluted
systems do not portray accurately the extent of change. For example, it ap-
pears that blue-green algae are not able to compete as effectively with flag-
ellated species at 100 yg-P/£. Aspects of lake pollution such as this are
not as well documented as they might be and reflect, perhaps a lesser amount
of research activity on these types of lake systems.
With respect to the covering of lake sediments to reduce internal phosphorus
loading, it should be noted that Figure 27 predicts a steady state phosphorus
concentration of 0.11 mg-P/£ in Lake Charles East if 100% of the sediments
are treated. This is a reduction of 61% over the level predicted if no sedi-
ment treatment had taken place.
The suitability of sediment covering with fly ash or other particulate ma-
terials to improve water quality for a given lake depends upon several fac-
tors. These would include the physical and chemical properties of both sedi-
ments and material especially as they impact on phosphorus chemistry, the
relative contribution of sediments to the phosphorus budget of the system,
lake morphology, the need for supplemental chemical addition, possible dele-
terious effects such as fish kills and heavy metal cycling, and aesthetic
and economic factors. Although it was not within the scope of this research
to perform a detailed economic analysis of the sediment treatment, it is ob-
vious that transportation costs of the particulate material would very likely
be a major factor. Bulk hauling rates range from $.05 to $.20 per ton-mile
depending upon the type of vehicle used.
96
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES
1. Theis, T.L. and J.V DePinto, "Studies on the Reclamation of Stone Lake,
Michigan", EPA-600/3-76-106, Corvallis, OR, Nov. 1976.
2. Williams, J.D.H., J.M. Jaquet and R.L. Thomas, "Forms of Phosphorus
in the Surficial Sediments of Lake Erie", Journal Fisheries Research
Board of Canada, J33, 413-429 (1976).
3. Syers, J.K., R.F. Harris and D.E. Armstrong, "Phosphate Chemistry in
Lake Sediments", Journal of Environmental Quality, _2 , 1-14 (1976).
4. Sridharan, N. and G.F. Lee, "Phosphorus Studies in Lower Green Bay,
Lake Michigan', Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 46,
684-696 (1974).
5. Fillos, J. and W.R. Swanson, "The Release Rate of Nutrients From
River and Lake Sediments", Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
_47, 1032-1042 (1975).
6. DiGiano, F.A., "Mathematical Modeling of Nutrient-Transport", Water
Resources Research Center, Publication No. 17, University of Massa-
chusetts at Amherst (1971).
7. Stumm, W. and J.O. Leckie, "Phosphate Exchange with Sediments: The
Role in the Productivity of Surface Waters", Proceedings 5th Inter-
national Water Pollution Research Conference, III-26/1-III-26/16 (1970).
8. Fillos, J. and A.H. Molof, "The Effect of Benthal Deposits on the Oxygen
and Nutrient Economy of Natural Flowing Waters", Presented at the 160th
National ACS Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, September (1970).
9. Andersen, V.J.M., "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budgets and the Role of
the Sediments in Six Shallow Danish Lakes", Arch. Hydrobiol., 74,
528-550 (1974).
98
-------
10. Anoub, M.W. , "Experimental Studies on Material Transactions Between
Mud and Water of the Gnadensee (Bodensee)", Verb. Internat. Verein.
Limnol., 19, 1263-1271 (1975).
11. Bengtsson, L. , "Phosphorus Release from Highly Eutrophic Lake Sedi-
ments", _Ve^h_._J[n^ernj.t_._J/^r^inJLJ^ 19_, 1107-1116 (1975).
12. Fillos, J. and H. Biswas, "Phosphate Release and Sorption by Lake
Mohegan Sediments", A.S.C.E. Journal of the Environmental Engineering
Division, 102, 239-249 (1976).
13. Serruya, C. , M. Edelstein, U. Pollingher and S. Serruya, "Lake Kineret
Sediments: Nutrient Composition of the Pore Water and Mud Water Ex-
changes", Limnology and Oceanography, 19, 489-508 (1971).
14. Bannerman, R.T., D.E. Armstrong, R.F. Harris and G.C. Holdren, "Phos-
phorus Uptake and Release by Lake Ontario Sediments" Ecological Re-
search Series, EPA-660/3-75-006 (February 1975).
15. Kamp-Nielsen, L. , "Seasonal Variation in Sediment -Water Exchange of
Nutrient Ions in Lake Estrom", Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol., 19,
1057-1065 (1975).
16. Ketelle, M.J., and P.D. Uttormark, "Problem Lakes in the United States",
Tech. Rpt. 16010 EHR 12/71, EPA, Wash., D.C. (1971).
17. Dunst, R.C., et al. , "Survey of Lake Rehabilitation Techniques and Ex-
periences", Tech. Rpt. No. 75, Wisconsin Dept, of Natural Resources,
Madison, WI (1974).
18. Tenney, M.W. , "Restoration of Water Bodies", Environ. Engineer's
Handbook, Vol. I, E.G. Liptak, ed. , Chilton, Radnor, PA (1974).
19. Faber, J.H. , N.H. Coates, and J.D. Spencer, eds., "Second Symposium
on Fly Ash Utilization", Pittsburgh, Mar. 1970, Bu. of Mines Information
Circ. 8488, Wash., D.C. (1970).
20. Capp. J.P., and J.D. Spencer, "Fly Ash Utilization: A Summary of
Applications and Technology", Bu. of Mines Information Circ. 8433,
Wash., D.C. (1970).
21. DiGioia, A.M., J.E. Niece, and R.P. Hogden, "Environmentally Acceptable
Coal-Ash Disposal Sites", Civ. Engr. , 40, 64-67 (1974).
22. Roffman, H. , "Disposal of Coal-Fired Utility Wastes", Ind. Wastes, 22,
36-39, (Sept. /Oct. 1976).
23. Tenney, M.W. , and W.F. Echelberger, Jr., "Fly Ash Utilization in the
Treatment of Polluted Waters", 2nd Sym. on Fly Ash Utilization,
Pittsburgh, Mar. 1970, Bu. of Mines Information Circ. 8488, 237-268
(1970).
99
-------
24. Tenney, M.W., W.F. Echelberger, Jr., and P.C. Singer, "Reclamation
of Polluted Lakes by Fly Ash Addition", JWPCF, ^4 (1972).
25. Yaksich, S.M., The Use of Particulate Materials to Control Phosphate
Release from Eutrophic Lake Sediments, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of
Notre Dame (Dec. 1972).
26. Higgins, B.P.J., S.C. Mohleji, and R.L. Irvine, "Lake Treatment with
Fly Ash, Lime, and Gypsum", JWPCF, _48, 2153-2164 (Sept. 1976).
27. Ficke, John, "Comparison of Evaporation Computation Methods, Pretty
Lake, Lagrange County, Northeastern Indiana", Geological Survey
Prof. Paper 686-A, U.S.G.P.O., Washington (1972).
28. Reussow, J.P. and Rohne, P.B., Jr., "Water Resources of the St.
Joseph River Basin in Indiana", Hydrologic Investigations Atlas,
USGS, Reston, VA (1975).
29. Linsley, R.K., Kohler, M.A., and Paulhus, J.L.H., Hydrology for
Engineers, McGraw-Hill (1958).
30. "Hydrologic Data for Experimental Agricultural Watersheds in the
United States", Agricultural Research Service USDA, Misc. Publica-
tion 1262 (1967).
31. Vollenweider, R.A., "Scientific Fundamentals of the Eutrophication of
Lakes and Flowing Waters with Particular Reference to Nitrogen and
Phosphorus as Factors in Eutrophication", Tech. Rpt. DAS/C81/68,
Org. for Econ. Cooperation & Dev., Paris, France (1968).
32. Heier, A., Water Monitoring Biologist. Pers. communications, Stueben
Co. Health Dept., Angola, IN.
33. 0 A Laboratories. Letter No. 1023 to Holiday Inn, Angola, Indiana,
Indianapolis, IN (Aug. 6, 1969).
34. Azad, H.S., and J.S. Borchardt, "Variations in Phosphorus Uptake by
Algae", Env. Sci. and Tech., 4., 737-743(1970).
35. Ruttner-Kolisko, Agnes, "Plankton Rotifers: Biology and Taxonomy>"
Die Binnengewasser 26(1) supplement, 146 pp (1974).
36. Gannon, J.E. and R.S. Stemberger, "Zooplankton (especially crustaceans
and rotifers) as Indicators of Water Quality!' Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc.,
97.: 16-35 (1978).
37. Watanabe, F.S., and Olsen, S.R., "Colorimetric Determination of Phos-
phorus in Water Extracts of Soil", Soil Science, 93, 183 (1962).
100
-------
38. Harwood, J.E, ert jil., "A Rapid Method for Orthophosphate Analysis at
High Concentrations in Water", Water Research, _3_, 417 (1969).
39. Arnold, D.E., "Ingestion, Assimilation, Survival and Reproduction by
Daphnia pulex Fed Seven Species of Blue-Creen Algae", Limnol.
Oceanogr. 16: 906-920 (1971).
40. Porter, K., "Selective Grazing and Differential Digestion of Algae by
Zooplankton", Nature 224: 179-180 (1973).
41. Schindler, J.E., "Food Quality and Zooplankton Nutrition", J_. Anim.
Ecol. 4£: 589-595 (1971). ~
42. Brooks, J.L. and S.I. Dodson, "Predation, Body Size, and Composition
of Plankton", Science 150: 28-35 (1965).
43. Hall, D.J., S.T. Threlkeld, C.W. Burns and P.H. Crowley, "The Size-
Efficiency Hypothesis and the Size Structure of Zooplankton Com-
munities", Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. ]_: 177-208 (1976).
44. Kwik, J.K. and J.C.H. Carter, "Population Dynamics of Limnetic Cladocera
in a Beaver Pond", J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32: 341-346 (1975).
45. Burns, C.W., "The Relationship Between Body Size of Filter-Feeding
Cladocera and the Maximum Size of Particle Ingested", Limnol. Oceanogr.
JL3: 675-678 (1968).
46. Allen, J.D., "An Analysis of Seasonal Dynamics of a Mixed Population of
Daphnia, and the Associated Cladoceran Community", Freshwater Biology 7:
505-512 (1977).
47. Hutchinson, G.E., A Treatise on Limnology: Vol. I, Geography, Physics,
and Chemistry, (1957); Vol. II, Intro, to Lake Biol. and the Limnoplank-
ton, (1967); Vol. Ill, Macrophytes, Wiley, NY (1975).
48. Gliwicz, Z.M., "Food Size Selection and Seasonal Succession of Filter
Feeding Zooplankton in an Eutrophic Lake", Ekolgia Polska 25: 179-225
(1977).
49. Birge, E.A. and C. Juday, "A Summer Resting Stage in the Development of
Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus." Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 16: 1-9
(1908).
50. Cole, G.A., "An Ecological Study of the Microbenthic Fauna of Two Min-
nesota Lakes", Am. Midi. Nat. ji3_: 213-230 (1955).
51. Moore, G.M., "A Limnological Investigation of Microscopic Benthic Fauna
of Douglas Lake, Michigan", Ecol. Monogr. 9: 537-582 (1939).
101
-------
52. Elgmork, K., "Seasonal Occurrence of Cyclops strenuus strenuus", Folia
Limnol. Scand. 2.1, 196 pp (1959).
53. Theis, T.L., and Wlrth, J.L., "Sorptive Behavior of Trace Metals on
Fly Ash in Aqueous Systems", Env. Sci. and Tech., 11, 1096 (Nov. 1977).
54. Cook, G.D., and Kennedy, R.H., "Internal Loading of Phosphorus",
Conf. on Mechanisms of Lake Restoration, Madison, Wise, (April 1977).
55. Sonzogni, W.C., P.C. Uttortnark, and G.F. Lee, "A Phosphorus Residence
Time Model: Theory and Application", Water Res.. 10, 429-435 (1976).
56. Spencer, D.F., R.W. Greene, T.L. Theis, H.Y. Yeung, Q.E. Ross, and
E.E. Dodge, "A Study of the Relationship Between Phytoplankton
Abundance and Trace Metal Concentrations in Eutrophic Lake Charles
East, Using Correlation Techniques", Proc. Indiana Academy of Science
(in press).
57. Mullin, M.M., P.R. Sloan, R.W. Eppley, "Relationship Between Organic
Carbon, Cell Volume, and Area in Phytoplankton," Limnology and Oceanography,
11, 307-311 (1966).
102
-------
APPENDIX
ZOOPLANKTON COUNTS IN LAKE CHARLES EAST
Following are zooplankton populations in Lake Charles East for
use with the discussions presented in Chapters VII and VIII.
Dates are given in consecutive numerical order beginning with
January 1, 1974. Thus the first day of monitoring was number
189 (189th day of 1974). The abbreviations given below are
used for each genus or species of organism found.
Rotifers
Anura
Br3
Br4
Spla
Euchl
Br5
Br6
Hex
Phil
Bangui
Poly
Kerqua
Pomph
Filin
Proal
Lepad
Trich
Lecan
Kcod
Br2
Copepods
Cope
Cyclop
Cladocera
Bosm
Daph
Cerio
Chyd
Alona
Anuraeopsis fissa
Brachionus calyciflorus
B. quadridentata
Asplanchna
Euchlanis
Brachionus urceolaris
B. havanaensis
Hexarthra
Philodina
Brachionus angularis
Polyarthra remata
Keratella quadrata
Pompholyx sulcata
Filinia cornuta
Proalides sp.
Lepadella sp.
Trichocera sp.
Lecane
Keratella cochlearis
Brachionus diversiconis
Copepod nauplii
Cyclops and other related genera
Bosmina longirostris
Daphnia spp.
Ceriodaphnia sp.
Chydorus
Alona
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-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-79-060
2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Treatment of Lake Charles East, Indiana Sediments
with Fly Ash
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSI ON-NO.
5. REPORT DATE
June 1979 issuing date
7. AUTHOR(S)
Thomas L. Theis, Richard W. Greene, Terry W.
Sturm, David F. Spencer, Peter J. McCabe, Brian P. Hig-
gins. Hune-Yu Yeung. Robert L. Trvi'np
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA R 801245-04-2
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th St.
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final 5/74 - 12/77
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: Donald W. Schults, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR
97330
16. ABSTRACT
This report contains information relating to the degree of effectiveness of the
treatment of eutrophic lake sediments with a specific power plant fly ash. The treat-
ment was preceded by the diversion of the major nutrient sources outside of the drain-
age basin. Data on both chemical and biological changes are documented.
The study area was Lake Charles East, an 8.7 ha lake in northeastern Indiana. Treat'
ment of approximately one-third of the sediments with fly ash and lime took place
during the summer of 1975. Follow-up studies indicated reduced release of phosphorus
during peak summer release periods for treated sediments. Mass balance modeling indi-
cated a net reduction in long term phosphorus levels of 20% over levels without sedi-
ment treatment. If all sediments had been treated, the steady state phosphorus levels
were predicted to decline by 61% over non-treatment levels. The phytoplankton communi-
ty composition changed from one dominated by blue green species virtually year round
to one in which the more classical successional pattern of diatoms-greens-blue greens
took place. Cryptophytes became much more important in the post-treatment period.
Zooplankton communities showed only short term effects from the treatment. Benthic
organisms, dominated by midge larvae, were not affected.
Total heavy metal concentrations increased slightly in the treated sediments, how-
ever, soluble levels in both the water column and the sediment interstices were not
elevated.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
lakes*
eutrophication*
sediments*
fly ash*
restoration
algae
models
limnology
aquatic biology
phosphorus*
*Major descriptors
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
OH8
06F
07B
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
120
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
109
US Government Printing Office 1979698-859/168
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