453-R-93-027
Toxic Emissions From
Aircraft Firefighting Training
Prepared for:
Air Risk Information Support Center (Air RISC)
U.S Environmental Protection Agency
Co-Sponsored by:
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Office of Air and Radiation
Research Triangle Park, NC 27712
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed by the Air Risk Information Support Center (Air
RISC) of the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, and by the Environmental
Criteria and Assessment Office and approved for publication. Approval does not
signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute an endorsement or recommendatfon for use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE
2.0 BACKGROUND
2.1 Aviation Fuels .
2.2 Firefighting Training
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .
3.1 Sources Searched ....
3.2 Relevant Information Four
3.2.1 Hydrocarbon Studies
3.2.2 Health Effects.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS .
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 REFERENCES
APPENDIX A, SELECTED LITERATURE
CITATIONS . .
«.
iii
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1.0 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE
One source of potentially toxic air emissions associated
with the aviation industry is firefighting training. Past
practice for this training has been to dig a pit at a remote spot
on the airport, fill it with aviation fuel (or other available
fuels such as diesel oil), light it, and practice extinguishing
the flames. An alternate method makes use of mockup structures
that can be placed in the pit or surrounded with burning fuel so
that fire fighters can practice reaching the mockup. Because the
combustion takes place under poor burning conditions, large
clouds of smoke are generated that can drift to nearby populated
areas. Such practices have raised concerns about the public
health effects of the combustion by-products. Little is known
about the emission characteristics of such burning; however, the
military is known to have collected data on such practices.
The purpose of this work is to find what recent data are
available on the toxic and volatile organic compound (VOC)
emissions and on health effects from open burning of aviation
fuels. This task is intended as a small, preliminary effort to
establish direction for future research.
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2.0 BACKGROUND
2-1 Aviation Fuels
Aviation fuels are used for piston and turbine engines,
gasoline for the former and kerosine for the latter. Aviation
gasoline is composed primarily of paraffinic petroleum compounds,
but has a lower vapor pressure than automotive gasoline. A
significant number of piston aircraft have a supplemental type
certificate that allows them to use automotive gasoline. Turbine
(jet) engine kerosine is made in several grades for military and
civil use. Differences among the grades are mostly related to
volatility, moisture, and freezing point. Because kerosine-based
fuels (JET-A and JET-B for civil aircraft and primarily JP-5, and
JP-8 for military aircraft) are used to a much larger extent than
aviation gasoline, most firefighting practice is done with
kerosine-type compounds. Brewer1 describes JP-4, a more volatile
predecessor to JP-5, as a complex blend of up to 300 different
hydrocarbons with approximately 10 percent aromatics and 1
percent unsaturated hydrocarbons. Characteristics vary slightly
from one batch of fuel to another.
A large amount of research has been performed to
characterize the emission of criteria pollutants from automotive
engines. However, little similar research has been done for open
burning of aviation fuels, and even less to identify the emission
of toxic or hazardous air pollutants for either source. Complete
characterization of the toxics is difficult because of the many
compounds produced during combustion and the difficulties of
sampling emissions from an open pit. Speciated emission data
from volatile organic* compound (VOC) measurements are also
scarce. However, the military has performed studies of open
burning that provide emission information on total VOCs or on
individual organic compounds. The utility of this information
for estimating emissions from firefighting training should be
addressed.
2.2 Firefighting Training
Brewer2 describes a large military firefighting training
center designed to operate 10 days per month with 15 fires per
day. The facility burns an estimated 4,500 gallons of jet fuel
per training day, or 1,728 tons annually. Air pollutant
emissions from this burning are estimated at more than 800 tons
of VOCs, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and
suspended particulate matter. At another facility, each 1,000
pounds of fuel burned was reported to emit over 1,000 pounds of
air pollutants. These emissions are different from jet engine
exhaust emissions because of the vastly different way in which
the fuel is burned. Lack of good mixing with combustion air
promotes poor burning and emission of a variety of pollutants.
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Brewer3 also refers to U.S. Navy research that suggests the
existence of thousands of organic compounds in the emissions,
some of which may be carcinogenic. Each gram of emitted soot
contains 44.5 milligrams of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Known carcinogens in the soot exist in quantities that may
present a health hazard.
Quantities of fuel used for training are 300 to 500 gallons
for a 3,000 square foot area up to 600 to 700 gallons for 7,000
square feet. Burn times are from 20 to 30 second up to several
minutes.4
Methods used in the past to reduce emissions included
burning on impervious pads with low curbs, keeping burn times
short, and not burning during atmospheric stagnation or
inversion. These methods may still be used.
^T^^
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3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Sources Searched
A literature search was completed through the Enviro
Protection Agency's Online Library System (EPA/OLS), the
university libraries, and the Research Triangle Institute
Technical Information Center (RTI/TIC) of the Integrated :
Information System (IRIS). The latter is an online datab,
created by the EPA and mounted on the National Library of
Medicine's (NLM) TOXNET system. Additional literature se<
were completed on the following databases:
• National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
• Defense Technical Information Service (DTIC)
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and t
Technical Information Center (NIOSHTIC)
• Registry of Toxic Exposure to Chemical Substance
(RTECS)
• MEDLINE
• U.S. Department of Medicine (HSDB)
• Health and Safety (HSELINE)
• Engineering Information, Inc. (El ENERGY AND
ENVIRONMENT)
• TOXLINE
• U.S. Department of Transportation (CHRIS)
These sources were searched for two topical subject ai
Speciated hydrocarbon emissions and toxics from aircraft
firefighter training fires, and the health effects thereof.
Appendix A includes copies of citations printed from the cc
searches.
Finally, in this effort, RTI has maintained frequent
professional contact with the military services, which are
most aggressive agencies in investigating some of the
environmental problems addressed by this task. We have con
key personnel to identify military literature relating to t
task. The findings of these literature searches, and a sea
RTI's library resources on the subject of emission inventor
military bases, is presented in the following sections.
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3.2 Relevant Information Found
The literature searches did not reveal an abundance of
reports on the measurement of speciated hydrocarbons, and the
health effects thereof, from firefighter training fires. Most of
the literature citations on firefighting dealt primarily with
structural training facilities that use propane gas fuels. The
gas emissions of primary concern from a health standpoint were
for the criteria pollutants and HCL. No literature citations
were found correlating health effects specifically to the toxic
compounds emitted from firefighter training fires using jet
petroleum fuels. However, one citation was noted wherein No. 2
diesel fuel was used.
3.2.1 Hydrocarbon Studies.
A report obtained from the EPA Work Assignment Manager's
files (ETC ENVIRONMENTAL, INC.5) documents a source test
performed on a firefighter training pit facility. Although the
report seems to be complete, there is some question of the values
reported. Atmospheric samples were collected for polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and formaldehyde in three separate
tests. From an analysis of their data, the authors have reported
an average formaldehyde emission rate of 0.027762 Ib/hr (sic),
and an average emission rate of 0.032734 Ib/hr (sic) for a series
of 15 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Although the
formaldehyde emission rate might be reasonable, there were some
unexplained errors in the calculation of the total concentration
for each sample. Also, the emission rate values reported for the
PAH compounds were based on non-identifiable, less-than-
detectable limits. For these reasons we have some concern for
the validity of the reported values. The authors detected none
of the 15 PAHs, but implied that each was present at the
detection limit.
Perhaps the most significant publication found during the
literature search is the report by Brewer6 that was prepared from
his doctoral dissertation submitted to the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina.7 This report documents
a research methodology using survey questionnaires, interviews,
and site visits to develop and evaluate candidate air quality
management alternatives for firefighter training facilities. In •
the course of this research a thorough literature review was
completed that revealed adverse information about the emission
factors presently in use to calculate air pollutant emissions
from JP-4 training fires. The factors were derived from limited
sampling data, with limited background information, and were
primarily based on material balance calculations.8 With respect
to hydrocarbon emissions the report cites two disparate values:
an earlier study by Suggs reporting 73 pounds of hydrocarbon
emissions per 1000 pounds of JP-4 consumed during a training
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fire, and a later value of 320 pounds per 1000 pounds of JP-4
consumed. The latter value, which could not be documented, was
used in a generalized air quality assessment model, prepared by
Rote and Wangen,9 for Air Force operations. The report does not
contain any citations to studies that measured speciated
hydrocarbons.
Suggs10 reported on a series of tests conducted at the Fire
Training Facility at Treasure Island Naval Station to determine
emission factors applicable to JP^-4 fires used in Air Force Fire
Training exercises. Total pollutant emissions were measured at
approximately one-half pound for every pound of fuel consumed,
with particulate matter and carbon monoxide being the predominant
mass fraction. Total hydrocarbons measured and calculated in
terms of pounds per thousand pounds of fuel consumed were:
methane (24), ethylene (29), acetylene (9), and formaldehyde
(11). The material balance method used in this study seems to
provide a practical method of relating emission concentrations to
quantity of fuel burned, although the author questioned whether
the burning inside the fire training structure did, in fact,
simulate open burning as is commonly practiced in fire training
exercises.
The USAF Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory
has published the document "Manual Calculation Methods for Air
Pollution Inventories" (Fagin11) , which is still in use, to
provide uniform emission factors and calculations to simplify
emission inventories on air force bases. In the section
discussing fire fighting training fires, the recommended emission
factor for hydrocarbons is 320.0 lb/1000 Ib of JP-4 fuel. As
pointed out in the text, JP-4 fuel is normally used as the
combustible, although diesel fuel may be used on occasion.
However, the base fire department is the primary contact to
obtain specific training fire data.
The EDMS-Microcomputer Pollution Model for Civilian Airports
and Air Force Bases (Segal12) is an emissions and dispersion
modeling system developed jointly by the FAA and the USAF for use
in air quality assessments of airport sites and facilities. This
model replaces both the Air Quality Assessment Model (AQAM) and
the Federal Aviation Administration Airport Vicinity Air
Pollution Model. The EDMS is a refined model employing editable
internal databases and numerical integration procedures to
perform, on a microcomputer, the modeling and emissions inventory
tasks required of contemporary airports. The EDMS incorporates
the capability to allow for estimating firefighter training-fire
emissions.
In the course of this project we also contacted key
personnel in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy in an attempt to
identify any recent studies that might not yet be in literature
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review sources. Risinger13 advised that he was not aware of any
recent source testing for speciated hydrocarbons, although there
is in progress a plan to do source testing, to include speciation
of hydrocarbon emissions, on firefighter training pits/systems.
He also stated that the report by Brewer was the most
comprehensive study to date. Walker14 advised that the USAF
currently has approximately 40 fire training systems under design
to use a combination of propane and jet petroleum fuels.
3.2.2 Health Effects.
Although no literature was found correlating firefighter
training facilities using jet petroleum fuels and the health
effects thereof, one citation documented the measurement of
speciated hydrocarbons in a fireflighting training structure using
No. 2 diesel fuel.
Hill, et al15 measured chemicals occurring in the vapor phase
and on airborne soot from a diesel oil fire in a firefighting
training structure. The samples were analyzed by mass
spectroscopy and gas chromatography. Forty-five compounds from a
grab sample of the atmosphere and seventeen aromatic structures.
from deposited soot were identified. Known carcinogens were
found on the soot, and benzo(a)pyrene was quantitated
fluorimetrically. Of the polycyclic hydrocarbons identified from
the deposited soot, several are known to be carcinogenic
including:
benzo(a)pyrene
benzo(a)anthracene
benzofluoranthene
dibenzo(a,j)anthracene
7H-benzo(d,e)anthracene-7-one.
As summarized by the authors, "The difficulty of evaluating
in man the carcinogenic activity of chemical compounds is well
known, [but]...until long-term studies are available,...the data
presented here support the belief that chronic exposure to the
fine, chemical-laden soots produced in these oil fires may
constitute a severe potential health hazard."
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4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the information discussed in this report, the
following conclusions are drawn:
1. Significant quantities of aviation fuels, mostly
kerosine types, are burned annually for fire-fighting
training. No known nationwide emission inventory is
believed to exist. The military does establish such-
inventories for its bases. Estimates could be
compiled.
2. Emitted pollutants from firefighting training fires
have been reported to contain carcinogens, including:
benzo(a)pyrene
benzo(a)anthracene
benzofluoranthene
dibenzo(a,j)anthracene
7H-benzo(d,e)anthracene-7-one.
3. Health risks associated with the training fire
emissions may possibly exist, but studies have not been
found that quantify the severity or affected
population.
4.. Fire-fighting training facilities are changing so that
emissions are reduced. The amount of reduction, in
emission quantities and in risk severity, is not known.
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5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Estimates should be made of U.S. emissions from
firefighting training to determine the associated risk,
if any.
2. Types and quantities of toxic materials associated with
emissions should be estimated where not now known.
3. Health risks should be estimated, at least on a model
training facility basis, to establish the potential
levels of risk that exist now and may exist in the
future.
11
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6.0 REFERENCES
1. Brewer, R. E., 1987. Air Quality Management
Alternatives: United States Air Force Firefighter
Training Facilities. Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to
the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. p.4.
2. Reference 1, p. 3.
3. Reference 1, p. 6.
4. Reference 1, p. 27.
5. Toxic Emission Testing, ETC Environmental, Inc., 1536
Eastman Avenue, Ventura, California. Job Number 7021,
Laboratory Report Number 291-090, June 11, 1991.
6. Brewer, R.E., Air Quality Management Alternatives:
United States Air Force Firefighter Training
Facilities, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-
Patterson AFB, Ohio, Report No. AFIT/CI/NR-88-128
(AFESC/ESL TR-87-65), 1988.
7. Reference 1.
8. Reference 6, p. 101.
9. Rote, D.M. and L.E. Wangen, A Generalized Air Quality
Assessment Model for Air Force Operation, AFWL-TR-74-
304, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Air Force Systems
Command, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico, February
1975
10. Suggs, Harry J., Air Pollutant Emissions from JP-4
Fires Used in Fire Fighting Training. Environmental
Health Lab, McClellan Air Force Base, California.
Report No. EHL-M-71M-23, November 1971.
11. Fagin, Guy T., Manual Calculation Methods for Air
Pollution Inventories, USAF Occupational and
Environmental Health Laboratory, Human Systems Division
(AFSC), Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, USAFOEHL Report
No. 88-070EQ111EEB, May 1988.
12. Segal, H. M., EDMS-Micr©computer Pollution Model for
Civilian Airports and Air Force Base^: Users Guide,
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation
Agency, Office of Environment and Energy, Washington,
D.C., Report No. FAA-EE-91-3, June 1991 (co-published
as U.S. Air Force Report No. ESL-TR-91-31).
13
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13. Risinger, C., Personal Communication, USAF/ESL, Tyndall
Air Force Base, Florida, January 1993.
14. Walker, Fred, Personal Communication, USAF/ESL, Tyndall
Air Force Base, Florida, January 1993.
15. Hill, T.A., A.R. Siedle, and Roger Perry, Chemical
Hazards of a Fire-Fighting Training Environment,
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, June
1972, pp.423-430.
14
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APPENDIX A, SELECTED LITERATURE CITATIONS
(See Description in Section 3.0)
15
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EPA ONLINE LIBRARY SYSTEM fEPA/OLS)
Main Title
Personal Author
Call Number
NAVY TOXICITY STUDY OF SHALE AND PETROLEUM JP-5
AVIATION FUEL AND DIESEL FUEL MARINE. HEALTH
EFFECTS INVEST. OF OIL SHALE DEVELOP.
COWAN MJ.
582843
Main Title
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Hydrocarbon Pollutant Systems Study. Volume I.
Stationary Sources, Effects, and Control.
MSA Research Corp., Evans City, Pa.
1900
PB-219 073
MSAR-72-233; EPA-71-12; 1499;
The study goal was the development of a
problem-solving R and D program for the control of
hydrocarbon air pollutants from major stationary
sources. Included in the report are identification,
characterization and ranking of all significant
stationary sources of hydrocarbon emissions;
characterization of the effluent streams from the
major sources of hydrocarbon emissions; evaluation,
both technical and economic, of existing and
developable technology for control of hydrocarbon
emissions; and, development of R and D priorities
and recommendations for a program that will
ultimately lead to proven control hardware and
technology.
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Abstract
Sample Collection Techniques for Combustion
Sources—Benzopyrene Determination.
Stenbur, Robert L. ; von Lehmde, Darryl J. ;
Hangdbrauc, Robert P. ;
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
1900
PB-214 953
The extent to which benzo(a)pyrene and other
polynuclear hydrocarbons are emitted to the
atmosphere from some of the more commonly occurring
suspect sources is currently being evaluated in a
source sampling study by the Public Health Service.
A first step in this study was the development of a
technique for collecting samples from high
temperature combustion and process gas streams in a
manner which would assure retention of the
hydrocarbon materials of interest. This paper
reports the findings of a series of tests conducted
to develop suitable methods for cooling the gas
samples, to establish temperature requirements for
the collected sample during the sampling period,
and to evaluate wet versus dry collection
techniques. (Author)
A-l
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Main Title
Personal Author
Publisher
Year Published
Halogenated aliphatic, olefinic, cyclic, aromatic
and aliphatic-aromatic hydrocarbon including the
halogenated insecticides, their toxicity and
potential dangers.
Von Oettingen, Wolfgang Felix
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service
1955
Main Title
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Air Pollution: Control Techniques for Hydrocarbon
and Organic Solvent Emissions from Stationary
Sources.
NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society,
Brussels (Belgium).;Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C. Office of Air and Waste
Management.;Research Trianale Inst., Durham, N.C.
1973
PB-240 577
NATO/CCMS-19;
Hydrocarbons and other organic matter in the
atmosphere are known to have many adverse effects
upon health and welfare, and reduction of emissions
of these pollutants is of prime importance to any
effective air pollution abatement program. This
document has been prepared to summarize current
information on organic air pollutants—sources and
methods of control. Hydrocarbons and organic
pollutants originate from a variety of sources, and
the emissions vary widely in physical and chemical
characteristics. The many agricultural, commercial,
domestic, industrial, and municipal sources of
these air pollutants are described individually in
this document. The nature"and quantities of the
emissions from the various processes are discussed,
and methods of control that have been successfully
applied are listed. The control techniques
described herein represent a broad spectrum of
information from many engineering and other
technical fields. A tabulation of emission factors
from which overall emissions for the various
sources can be estimated is presented.
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
ID Number
Call Number
REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT OF SMOKE ABATEMENT
DEVELOPMENT FOR US NAVY FIRE FIGHTING FACILITIES
BCCK A E
US NAVAL ACADEMY ANNAPOLIS MD
1974
00009263
NTIS D-A019 944MF
A-2
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Main Title
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Vapor-Phase Organic Pollutants - Volatile
Hydrocarbons and Oxidation Products.
National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Panel
on Vapor-Phase Organic Pollutants.;Health Effects
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
1975
PB-249 357
EPA-68-02-0542; EPA/600/1-75/005;
This report concerns vapor-phase substances likely
to be produced as community pollutants in
sufficient amounts to affect health and well-being.
Sources of vapor-phase organic pollutants are
listed, including collection and sampling
techniques and analytical methods. Possible
mechanisms of formation of oxygenated organic
hydrocarbon compounds in the atmosphere and of
atmospheric reactions of oxides of nitrogen and
sulfur are studied. Toxicologic, pathophysiologic,
and epidemiologic information on vapor-phase
organic pollutants is reviewed, their metabolism,
and their effects on the total environment. Special
attention is given to oxidized compounds,
formaldehyde, ozone, and benzene. The report
stresses the importance of oxidation reactions in
the vapor-phase and the human health hazards
produced from the more or less transient products
of oxidation. The review of metabolism indicates
that, although vapor-phase hydrocarbon pollutants
are modified usually by enzymatic oxidation within
mammalian systems from nonpolar to polar compounds
(which are then excreted by the kidney), this
sometimes occurs with the production of toxic
intermediates. These reactions occur mostly in the
liver and to a lesser extent in the kidney,
intestine, and lung.
A-3
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Air Pollution Assessment of Ethylene Dichloride.
Johns., R. ;
Mitre Corp., McLean, Va.;Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards.
1976
PB-256 733
MTR-7164; EPA-68-02-1495;
Ethylene dichloride, a chlorinated hydrocarbon, is
primarily used as an intermediate during the
production of vinyl chloride and other commercially
valuable compounds. The characteristic water
solubility and vapor pressure of ethylene
dichloride indicate that this compound will tend to
persist'in the hydrosphere and lithoaphere; while
its slow activity with peroxide radicals and ozone
indicates atmospheric persistence as well.
Industrial exposure is limited by Occupational
Safety and Health regulations to 200 mg/cum (50
ppm). Ambient atmospheric measurements are not
readily available. Inhalation of ethylene
dichloride during acute exposure has been shown to
produce central nervous system disorders as well as
pathological effects in the liver, kidneys, and
adrenals of humans, while chronic human exposure
produces similar results. The no-lasting-effect
level is quite high (1000 ppm for 1 hour and 3000
ppm for 6 minutes) indicating that detrimental
exposure levels would have to be much greater.
Although the compound does not appear to pose a
significant environmental hazard, little
information is available for assessment of
potential long-term low level effects. As a result
ethylene dichloride cannot be considered innocuous
until additional health data is accumulated.
A-4
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Assessment of Cyclohexanone as a Potential Air
Pollution Problem. Volume VII.
Patterson, Robert M. ; Bornstein, Mark I. ;
Garshick., Eric ;
GCA Corp., Bedford, Mass. GCA Technology Div.;
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
1976
PB-258 359
GCA-TR-75-32-G{7); EPA-68-02-1337;
Cyclohexanone is a colorless, slightly volatile
liquid with an odor similar to acetone and
peppermint. It is chemically stable and is
manufactured mainly by catalytic dehydration of
cyclohexanol. It is used extensively in the
production of nylon and adipic acid, and it is also
used as a solvent and degreaser. Cyclohexanone is a
strong irritant and a narcotic agent at high
concentrations, although concentrations producing
such effects are unlikely to occur due to the low
volatility of Cyclohexanone. Although emission
controls specifically for Cyclohexanone are not
reported, two types of controls are used
extensively by the chemical industry to control
hydrocarbon emissions. These are vapor recovery and
incineration. Control by adsorption on activated
charcoal is used when recovery is economically
desirable. Based on the results of the health
effects research presented in this report, and the
ambient concentration estimates, it appears that
Cyclohexanone as an air pollutant does not pose a
threat to the health of the general population. In
addition, Cyclohexanone does not appear to pose
other environmental insults which would warrant
further investigation or restriction of its use at
the present time.
A-5
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Assessment of Ortho-Xylene as a Potential Air
Pollution Problem. Volume X.
Patterson, Robert M. ; Bornstein, Mark I. ;
Garshick., Eric ;
GCA Corp., Bedford, Mass. GCA Technology Div.;
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, H.C.
1976
PB-258 362
GCA-TR-75-32-G(10); EPA-68-02-1337;
Xylene is a colorless, flammable liquid having an
aromatic odor similar to that of benzene and
toluene. There are three isomers of xylene: ortho-,
meta-, and para-xylene. Data linking ortho-xylene
exposure with health effects are lacking, due to
the almost always concomitant benzene and toluene.
Ortho-xylene is an irritant and narcotic at high
concentrations, producing effects similar to
alcohol intoxication. The primary emission sources
in descending order are mixed xylene solvent usage,
mixed xylene production, ortho-xylene production
and solvent usage, and bulk storage. Total
emissions are estimated to have been about 184
million pounds irj 1974. Although emission controls
specifically for ortho-xylene are not reported, two
types of controls are used extensively by the
chemical industry to control hydrocarbon emissions.
These are vapor recovery and incineration. Control
by adsorption on activated charcoal is used when
recovery is economically desirable. Based on the
results of the health effects research presented in
this report, and the ambient concentration
estimates, it appears that ortho-xylene as an air
pollutant does not pose a threat to the health of
the general population. In addition, ortho-xylene
does not appear to pose other environmental insults
which would warrant further investigation or
restriction of its use at the present time.
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Combustion Research on Characterization of
Particulate Organic Matter from Flames.
Hites, R. A. ; Howard, J. B. ;
Massachusetts Inst. of Tech., Cambridge. Dept. of
Chemical Engineering.;Industrial Environmental
Research Lab., Research Triangle Park, NC.
1978
PB-291 314
EPA-R-803242; EPA/600/7-78/167;
The report gives results of a study of the
formation and emission of soot and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from both laminar
flames and a turbulent continuous-flow combustor.
Decreasing the atomizing pressure decreased the
amount of soot and PAH produced in the latter
system. Benzene fuel gave more soot -and PAH than
did kerosene, and the PAH from benzene were more
substituted. Nitrogen- and sulfur-doped fuels did
not affect total soot production. The distribution
of soot and PAH within the flame was consistent
with the concept that certain PAH may serve as
intermediates in soot formation. The PAH formed
during combustion of coal, wood, and kerosene were
separated and identified by capillary column gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry. The PAH from
coal combustion were found to be similar to
airborne PAH from Indianapolis, a high coal
consumption area; those from kerosene combustion
were similar to airborne PAH from Boston, an area
of 'low coal consumption and high consumption of
petroleum derived fuels. Nitrogen containing fuels
primarily produce polycyclic aromatic compounds in
which the nitrogen is in a cyano substituent
(approximately 70%). This contrasts with the
observation that nitrogen heterocyclic compounds
are the major nitrogen containing compounds in
airborne particulate matter.
Main Title
Journal Title
Personal Author
Year Published
FIREFIGHTER EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENS.
J COMBUST TOXICOL
BENDIX S
1979
A-7
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Main Title
Personal Author
t
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Health Assessment Document for Polycyclic Organic
Matter.
Santodonato, Joseph ; Howard, Phillip ; Basu, Dipak
; Lande, Sheldon ; Selkirk, James K. ;
Syracuse Univ. Research Corp., NY./Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
1979
PB82-186792
EPA-68-01-2800; EPA-600/9-79-008;
The document responds to Section 122 of the Clean
Air Act as Amended August 1977, which requires the
Administrator to decide whether atmospheric
emissions of polycyclic organic matter (POM)
potentially endanger public health. This document
reviews POM data on chemical and physical
properties, atmospheric forms, atmospheric fate and
transport, measurement techniques, ambient levels,
toxicology, occupational health, and epidemiology.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's), such as
the carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), and their
neutral nitrogen analogs are the two POM chemical
groups occurring most frequently in ambient air.
The major environmental sources of POM's appear to
be the combustion or pyrolysis of materials
containing carbon and hydrogen. There is general
agreement that POM compounds are associated with
suspended particulate matter from both mobile and
stationary sources, principally respirable
particles. Available monitoring data suggest that
many POM compounds associated with particulate
matter probably are stable in ambient air for
several days. The major health concern over
exposure to POM's is their carcinogenicity. POM's
gain ready access to the body's circulation either
by inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. Although
it cannot be stated unequivocally that any POM's
are human carcinogens, several of these compounds
are among the more potent animal carcinogens known.
A-8
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Main Title
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Corporate Author
year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Investigations of Selected Environmental
Pollutants: 1,2-Dichloroethane.
Drury, John S. ; Hammona., Anna S. ;
Oak Ridge National Lab., TN./Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Toxic
Substances./Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
1979
PB-295 865
ORNL/EIS-148/ W~7405-eng-26/ EPA/560/2-78/006/
This study is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary
review of the health and environmental effects of 1,
2-dichloroethane. Other pertinent aspects such as
production, use, methods of analysis, and
regulatory restrictions are also discussed.
Approximately 250 references are cited. 1,
2-Dichloroethane is manufactured in greater tonnage
than any other chlorinated organic compound/ in
1977 nearly 5 million metric tons was synthesized
in the United States. It is used primarily as a raw
material in the production of vinyl chloride
monomer and a few other chlorinated organic
compounds. The environment is exposed to this
chlorinated hydrocarbon primarily through
manufacturing losses. Smaller exposures occur
through dispersive uses, such as grain fumigations
and application of paints and other coatings, and
through storage, distribution, and waste disposal
operations. Concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane in
environmental air and water distant from point
sources are small—on the order of parts per
billion or less. Concentrations in the environment
near point sources are unknown. 1,2-Dichloroethane
is toxic to humans, other vertebrates and
invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms. It is an
established carcinogen in rats and mice exposed by
oral intubation and is a weak mutagen in some
bacteria and certain grains.
A-9
;?^^
SI&'*'>:' ^ '" '
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Main Title
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Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Characteristics of Benzo(a)Pyrene and A-Ring
Reduced 7,12-Dimethyl Benz(a)Anthracene Induced
Neoplastic Transformation of Human Cells in Vivo.
Tejwani, R. ; Witiak, 0. T. ; Inbasekaran, M. N. ;
Gazer, F. D. ; Milo, G. E. ;
Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Dept. of Physiological
Chemistry./Health Effects Research Lab., Research
Triangle Park, NC.;Air Force Office of Scientific
Research, Boiling AFB, DC./National Cancer Inst.,
Bethesda, MO.
1981
PB84-174663
F49620-80-C-0085, EPA-R-806638; EPA-600/J-81-686;
The polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
benzo(a)pyrene (BP) and the A-ring reduced analogue
of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA), 1,2,3,
4-tetrahydro-7,12-dimethyIbenz(a)anthracene
(TH-DMBA) are carcinogenic to human cells. The
unsaturated PAH, DMBA exhibits no carcinogenic
activity on human cells as measured by growth in
soft agar of 84 and 86, respectively. These
anchorage independent cells when seeded on the
chick embryonic skin (CES) organ cultures, are
invasive and form a fibrosarcoma. It is highly
unlikely that TH-DMBA, which does not contain an
aromatic A-ring, can undergo metabolism in human
cells in culture to form a bay region 3,
4-dihydrodiol-l,2-epoxide. These results suggest
that an alternate mechanism for the induction of
carcinogenesis is appropriate to explain the
absence of bay region diol-epoxide metabolite as
the ultimate form of the carcinogen in TH-DMBA
induced carcinogenesis in human diploid cells.
A-10
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Characteristics of Benzo(a)Pyrene and A-Ring
Reduced 7,12-Dimethyl Benz(a)Anthracene Induced
Neoplastic Transformation of Human Cells in Vivo.
Tejwani, R. ; Witiak, D. T. ; Inbasekaran, M. N. ;
Gazer, F. D. ; Milo, G. E. ;
Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Dept. of Physiological
Chemistry.;Health Effects Research Lab., Research
Triangle Park, NC./Air Force Office of Scientific
Research, Boiling AFB, DC./National Cancer Inat.,
Bethesda, MO.
1981
PB84-174663
F49620-80-C-0085, EPA-R-806638; EPA-600/J-81-686;
The polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
benzo(a)pyrene (BP) and the A-ring reduced analogue
of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA), 1,2,3,
4-tetrahydro-7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene
(TH-DMBA) are carcinogenic to human cells. The
unsaturated PAH, OMBA exhibits no carcinogenic
activity on human cells as measured by growth in
soft agar of 84 and 86, respectively. These
anchorage independent cells when seeded on the
chick embryonic skin (CES) organ cultures, are
invasive and form a fibrosarcoma. It is highly
unlikely that TH-DMBA, which does not contain an
aromatic A-ring, can undergo metabolism in human
cells in culture to form a bay region 3,
4-dihydrodiol-l,2-epoxide. These results suggest
that an alternate mechanism for the induction of
carcinogenesis is appropriate to explain the
absence of bay region diol-epoxide metabolite as
the ultimate form of the carcinogen in TH-DMBA
induced carcinogenesis in human diploid cells.
Main Title
Journal Title
Personal Author
Year Published
Call Number
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY CARCINOGENIC
HYDROCARBONS DURING AVIATION FUEL COMBUSTION.
GIG SANTI
SMIRNOV GA
1981
586162
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Main Title
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Year Published
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Abstract
Review of Criteria for Vapor-Phase Hydrocarbons.
Tilton, Beverly B. ; Bruce, Robert M. ;
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC. Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office.
1981
PB82-136516
EPA-600/8-81-022;
Information on vapor-phase hydrocarbons presented
in this document covers basic atmospheric chemistry
relative to secondary products, especially ozone;
sources and emissions; ambient air concentrations;
relationship of precursor hydrocarbons to resultant
ozone levels in ambient air; health effects; and
welfare effects. The principal conclusions from
this document are as.follows. Hydrocarbons are a
principal contributor to the formation of ozone and
other photochemical oxidants; however, no fixed
single quantitative relationship between precursor
hydrocarbons and resulting ozone concentrations can
be defined. This relationship varies from site to
site depending on local precursor mixes, transport
considerations, and meteorological factors.
Consequently no single quantitative relationship
can be defined nationwide. While specific
hydrocarbon compounds can be of concern to public
health and welfare, as a class this group of
materials cannot be considered a hazard to human
health or welfare at or even well above those
concentrations observed in the ambient air.
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Binding of Polychlorinated Biphenyls Classified as
Either Phenobarbitone-, 3-Methylcholanthrene- or
Mixed-Type Inducers to Cytosolic Ah Receptor.
Bandiera, A. ; Safe, S. ; Okey, A. B. ;
Guelph Univ. (Ontario). Guelph-Waterloo Centre.;
Environmental Research Lab.-Duluth, MN.
1982
PB83-240788
EPA-R-809764; EPA-600/J-82-369;
It has been postulated that reversible,
high-affinity binding of 3-methyl-cholanthrene
(MC)-type inducers to a receptor protein (the Ah
receptor) in hepatic cytosol is essential for
induction of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH)
enzymic activity. To test this postulate, the
binding affinities of 16 highly purified, synthetic
chlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, which have
been categorized either as phenobarbitone (PB)-,
MC- or mixed (PB + MC)-type inducers of cytochrorae
P-450-dependent monooxygenases have been examined.
The affinity of individual biphenyl congeners for
the receptor was determined by their competition
with 2,3,7,8-(3 sup H) tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
((3 sup H)TCDD) for specific cytosolic binding
sites as measured by sucrose density gradient
analysis following dextran-charcoal treatment.
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Main Title
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Year Published
Call Number
Abstract
Analytical Methods for the Determination of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Air Particulate
Matter.
Wise, S. A. ; Bowie, S. L. ; Chesler, S. N. ;
Cuthrell, W. F. ; May, W. E. /
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC.;
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
1982
PB83-162230
Analytical methods for the determination of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) on urban air
particulate matter are described. These methods
consist of extraction, isolation of PAH by
normal-phase liquid chromatography (LC) followed by
analysis by gas chromatography (GC) and
reversed-phase LC. Quantitative results obtained by
GC and LC for an air particulate material, which
will be issued as a Standard Reference Material,
are compared.
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Recent Advances in EPA's (Environmental Protection
Agency's) Monitori and Methods Development
Research.
Jungers, Robert H. ;
Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab., Research
Triangle Park, NC. Data Management and Analysis
Div.
1983
PB83-231209
EPA-600/D-83-085;
Several areas of advanced research related to
sampling, analysis, and human exposure assessment
of exhaust emission in ambient air have been
developed. These include studies of new methods for
volatile organic compounds (VOC's), and the
development and application of personal exposure
monitors (PEM's) in screening for polynuclear
aromatics (PNA's) and carbon monoxide (CO). These
new methods for screening PNA's are fast,
economical and accurate. The more expensive and
time consuming traditional methods of analysis may
be judiciously applied to those samples which the
screening methods indicate are high in PNA's.
Carbon monoxide, an emission product directly
related to automotive emissions, is being monitored
using personal exposure monitors in urban scale
studies to obtain data on population exposures on a
real time basis. Such data may ultimately be used
in assessing more accurately human exposure to
mobile source and other emissions.
A-13
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Main Title
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Year Published
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Abstract
Characterization of Air Particulate Material for
Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds.
Wise, S. A. ; Allen, C. P. ; Chesler, S. N. ; Hertz,
H. S. ; Hilpert, L. R. ;
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC.;
Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab., Research
Triangle Park, NC.
1983
PB83-155580
NBSIR-82-2595;
In studies to evaluate the potential health and
ecological effects of atmospheric emissions,
bioassays have been employed in conjunction with
chemical characterization to correlate mutagenic
and/or carcinogenic activity with chemical
composition. The complexity of an air particulate
extract necessitates the prefractionation of the
mixture into suitable subfractures or chemical
classes prior to chemical characterization and/or
biological testing. The goal of this project was to
evaluate such a fractionation scheme for air
particulate material with respect to chemical
characterization of the various fractions with
particular emphasis on the identification of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). In this
study the authors have used three chromatographic
approaches to separate, identify, and quantify the
complex mixture of PAH extracted from SRM 1649
(Urban Dust/Organics): (1) capillary GC, (2) LC
with selective fluorescence detection, and (3)
multidimensional chromatographic techniques.
A-14
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Main Title
Personal Author
Publisher
Year Published
Firefighter's handbook of hazardous materials
Baker, Charles J.
Maltese Enterprises,
1984
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Mouse Skin Tumor-Initiating Activity of
Benz(e)aceanthrylene and Benz(1)aceanthrylene in
Sencar Mice.
Nesnow, S. ; Gold, A. ; Sangaiah, R. ; Triplett, L.
L. ; Slaga, T. J. ;
Health Effects Research Lab., Research Triangle
Park, NC. ;North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill.
Dept. of Environmental Sciences and Engineering. ;
Oak Ridge National Lab., TN. Biology Oiv.
1984
PB85-193738
EPA/600/J-84/259;
Benz(e)aceanthrylene and benz(l)aceanthrylene,
cyclopenta-fused derivatives of benz(l)anthracene,
have been reported to be active bacterial cell and
mammalian cell gene mutagens. In this study they
were evaluated as skin tumor initiators in both
male and female SENCAR mice. Both PAH induced
papilloma formation in the range of 50-1000
nmol/mouse. Benz(l)aceanthrylene was the most
active, being approximately 4 times as activeas
benzo(a)pyrene while benz(e)aceanthrylene had
activity approximately equivalent to
benzo(a)pyrene. These results are in contrast to
those reported for the air pollutant,
cyclopenta(cd)pyrene, another cyclopenta-fused PAH,
which is a weak mouse skin tumor initiator. The
authors postulate that these cyclopenta-PAH* are
formed by pyrosynthetic routes similar to other
environmental cyclopenta-PAH and that they may be
of importance as contributors to air pollution
carcinogenesis. (Copyright (c) 1984 Elsevier
Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.)
A-15
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Main Title
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Abstract
Mutagenicity of Cyclopenta-Fused Isomers of
Benz(a)anthracene in Bacterial and Rodent Cells and
Identification of the Major Rat Liver Microsotnal
Metabolites.
Nesnow, S. ; Leavitt, S. ; Easterling, R. ; Watts,
R. ; Toney, S. H. ;
Health Effects Research Lab., Research Triangle
Park, NC.
1984
PB85-193969
EPA/600/J-84/260;
The microsomal metabolites and mutagenic activity
of four cyclopenta-fused benz(a)anthracenes;
benz(j)aceanthrylene (B(j)A), benz(e)aceanthrylene
(B(e)A), benz(1)aceanthrylene (B(l)A) and
benz(k)acephenanthryiene (B(k)A) have been studied.
Arocolor-1254 induced rat liver microsomes
metabolized B(j)A to: B(j)A-l,2-dihydrodiol,
B(j)A-9,10-dihydrodiol, B(j)A-11,12-dihydrodiol and
10-hydroxy-B(j)A; B(e)A to: B(e)A-l,2-dihydrodiol,
B(e)A-3,4-dihydrodiol, and B(e)A-5,6-dihydrodial;
B(1)A to: B(1)A-1,2-dihydrodiol, B(l)A-4,
5-dihydrodiol and B(l)A-7,8-dihydrodiol; and B(k)A
to B(k)A-4,5-dihydrodiol and B(k)A-89-dihydrodiol.
With each PAH, metabolism occurred on the
cyclopentaring. All four isomers were active as
gene mutagens in S. typhimurium and in Chinese
hamster V79 cells. In the S. typhimurium mutation
studies using Aroclor-1254 induced rat liver S9,
B(j)A, B(e)A, and B(1)A required significantly less
microsomal protein for maximal mutation response
than B(k)A and B(a)P suggesting a one-step
activation mechanism, presumably on the
cyclopenta-fused ring. B(j)A, B(e)A, and B(1)A were
significantly more mutagenic than B(k)A and B(a)P
in S. typhimurium.
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Year Published
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Abstract
Cyclopenta-Fuaed Isomers of Benz(a)Anthracene II:
•Mutagenic Effects on Mammalian Cells.
Nesnow, W. ; Leavitt, S. ; Easterling, R. ; McNair,
P. ; Toney, G. E. ;
Health Effects Research Lab., Research Triangle
Park, NC. ;North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill.
School of Public Health.
1984
PB84-168772
EPA-600/D-84-071;
Cyclopenta-fused polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) are a unique class of PAH found in the
environment. Acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene and
cyclopenta (cd) pyrene represent characterized
cyclopenta-PAH already identified as air
pollutants. The pyrolytic synthesis of PAH from two
carbon fragments (3) suggests that many more such
cyclopenta-ring fusions are possible and may be
characterized from environmental samples.
Cyclopenta-PAH are non-alternate PAH in which the
fused five membered ring provides a new site for
metabolic attack by the cytochrome P-450
mixed-function oxidases. The study of the
metabolism, metabolic activation and mutagenesis of
these chemicals allows a probe into the mechanism
of oxygen transfer and the stereo-and
regio-specificity of the cytochrome P-450
mixed-function oxidases as well as an understanding
of the competition between sites of metabolic
action by these enzymes. This chapter is a
preliminary report of metabolism and mutagenesis
studies with four cyclopenta-fused isomers of
benz(a)anthracene: benz(j)aceanthrylene, BjA;
benz(e)aceanthrylene, BeA; benz(l)aceanthrylene,
B1A; and benz(k)acephenanthrylene, BkA.
A-17
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Main Title
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Year Published
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Abstract
Health Assessment Document for 1,1,
1-Trichloroethane (Methyl Chloroform). Final
Report.
Carchman, R. ; Davidson, I. W. F. ; Greenberg, M.
M. ; Parker, J. C. ; Benignus, V. ;
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC. Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office.
1984
PB84-183565
EPA-600/8-82-003F;
Methyl chloroform (MC) is a volatile chlorinated
hydrocarbon used extensively as an industrial
solvent and in consumer products. It has been
detected in the ambient air of a variety of urban
and non-urban areas of the United States. In
certain instances involving contamination of
groundwater, much higher levels have been reported.
The weight of available evidence obtained from both
human and animal data suggest that long-term
exposure to environmental levels of MC poses no
serious health concern to the general population.
No teratogenic potential has been demonstrated for
MC in studies conducted to date in rodent species.
Available data are inadequate for reaching firm
conclusions about its mutagenic potential in
humans. Because of the limited usefulness of the
animal bioassays conducted to date, it is not
possible to classify MC in regard to its
carcinogenic potential in humans.
Main Title
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Health Effects Assessment for Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHS).
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office. ;
Syracuse Research Corp., NY.
1984
PB86-134244
EPA/540/1-86/013;
The document represents a brief, quantitatively
oriented scientific summary of health effects data.
It was developed by the Environmental Criteria and
Assessment Office to assist the Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response in establishing
chemical-specific health-related goals of remedial
actions. If applicable, chemical-specific
subchronic and chronic toxicity interim acceptable
intakes are determined for systemic toxicants, or
q(sub 1)* values are determined for carcinogens for
both oral and inhalation routes. A q(sub 1)* was
determined for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
based on both oral and inhalation exposure. These
estimates are based on benzo(a)pyrene, the most
potent constituent in PAH containing mixtures
identified to date. The text provides information
concerning the limitations of these estimates.
A-18
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Main Title
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Year Published
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Report Number
Abstract
Review of Sampling and Analysis Methodology for
Polynuclear Aromatic Compounds in Air from Mobile
Sources.
Chuang, C. C. ; Petersen, B. A. ;
Battelle Columbus Labs., OH./Environmental
Monitoring Systems Lab., Research Triangle Park,
NC.
1985
PB85-227759
EPA-68-02-3487; EPA/600/4-85/045;
The objective of the program was to review and
recommend test compounds and sampling and analysis
methods for a future EPA study of polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in microenvironments.
Review of PAH profiles in ambient air indicated
that concentrations of PAH were generally higher in
winter than summer and varied with climate and
between sampling sites within an urban area. Levels
of several PAH were found to be proportional to
traffic density. Studies of the biological activity
of ambient air samples showed that some PAH and
their nitrated derivatives are extremely
carcinogenic and mutagenic. The following compounds
were determined to be the most prevalent and
mutagenic in ambient air and were recommended for
the future EPA study: phenanthrene, pyrene,
cyclopenta(c,d)pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenz(a,
h)anthracene, 1-nitropyrene, fluoranthene,
benz(a)anthracene, benzo(e)pyrene, benzo(g,h,
i)perylene, coronene, and 3-nitrofluoranthene. In
the review of PAH sampling methods, collection of
both gaseous and particulate bound PAH was
determined to be necessary to accurately
characterize health effects of PAH in ambient air.
Most studies have used filters to sample
particulate-bound PAH and absorbents to collect
vapor phase PAH. The major sampling problems
encountered in the studies were PAH losses due to,
volatilization and reactivity.
A-19
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Main Title
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Corporate Author
Year Published
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Report Number
Abstract
Metabolic Activation Pathways of Cyclopenta-Fused
PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) and Their
Relationship to Genetic and Carcinogenic Activity.
Nesnow, S. ; Gold, A. ; Mohapatra, N. ; Sangaiah,
R. ; Bryant, B. J. ;
Health Effects Research Lab., Research Triangle
Park, NC.
1985
PB85-236099
BPA/600/D-85/161;
Cyclopenta-fused PAH are a novel class of
environmental PAH of which the most well known
example is cyclopenta(cd)pyrene. The fusion of an
unsaturated cyclopenta-ring on a PAH in general,
markedly enhances its activity as a gene mutagen in
bacteria and cultured mammalian cells, a cell
transforming agent in rodent cells and a mouse skin
tumor initiator. A series of four cyclopenta-fused
isomers of benz(a)anthracene and the
cyclopenta-fused isomers of anthracene and
phenanthrene were studied with respect to the major
rat liver microsomal metabolites, their activity as
gene mutagens in Salmonella typhimurium and Chinese
hamster V79 cells and their ability to
morphologically transform C3H10T1/2CL8 mouse embryo
fibroblasts. For all six isomers, the dihydrodiol
arising from oxidation and hydration at the
cyclopenta-ring was a major pathway in Aroclor-1254
induced rat liver microsomes. All six isomers were
active in mutating Salmonella typhimurium and the
four benz(a)anthracene isomers active in mutating
V79 cells at the HGPRT locus.
Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Evaluation and Estimation of Potential Carcinogenic
Risks of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH).
Chu, M. M. L. ; Chen, C. W. ;
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, OC.
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment.
1985
PB89-221329
EPA/600/D-89/049 ;OHEA-C-147;
The evaluation and estimation of the potential risk
of human exposures to a hazardous substance
requires the analysis of all relevant data to
answer two questions: does the agent cause the
effect and what is the relationship between dose
(exposure) and incidence of the effect in humans.
For polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
carcinogenicity is the effect of concern. Three
types of evidence can be used to evaluate the
likelihood that a PAH is carcinogenic to humans.
They are epidemiologic evidence, experimental
evidence derived from long-term animal bioassays,
supportive or suggestive evidence from short-term
tests, metabolism, pharmacoki.netics and
structure-activity correlations. Mathematical
modeling can be used to estimate the potential
human risks. The approaches and the problems
associated with these approaches for estimating
cancer risk to humans are addressed with special
emphasis on problems related to PAH.
A-20
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Abstract
Health Effects Assessment for Acenaphthene.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office. ;
Syracuse Research Corp., NY.
1987
PB88-182068
EPA/600/8-88/010;
Because of the lack of data for the carcinogenicity
and threshold toxicity of acenaphthene risk
assessment values cannot be derived. The ambient
water quality criterion of 0.2 mg/1 is based on
organoleptic data, which has no known relationship
to potential human health effects. Acenaphthene has
been shown to produce nuclear and cytological
changes in microbial and plant species. Results of
acenaphthene mutagenicity studies in microorganisms
and carcinogenicity study are negative. Despite the
negative results in the newt (Triturus cristatus)
the fact that acenaphthene is a polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), a class of chemicals
that contain carcinogens, the carcinogenic
potential of acenaphthene is of great concern.
Inadequate evidence to allow any conclusion
regarding carcinogenicity for humans appropriately
places acenaphthene in EPA Group D.
Main Title
Corporate Author
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Health Effects Assessment for Acenaphthene.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office. ;
Syracuse Research Corp., NY.
1987
PB88-182068
EPA/600/8-88/010;
Because of the lack of data for the carcinogenicity
and threshold toxicity of acenaphthene risk
assessment values cannot be derived. The ambient
water quality criterion of 0.2 mg/1 is based on
organoleptic data, which has no known relationship
to potential human health effects. Acenaphthene has
been shown to produce nuclear and cytological
changes in microbial and plant species. Results of
acenaphthene mutagenicity studies in microorganisms
and carcinogenicity study are negative. Despite the
negative results in the newt (Triturus cristatus)
the fact that acenaphthene is a polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), a class of chemicals
that contain carcinogens, the carcinogenic
potential of acenaphthene is of great concern.
Inadequate evidence to allow any conclusion
regarding carcinogenicity for humans appropriately
places acenaphthene in EPA Group D.
Main Title
Personal Author
Publisher
Year Published
Firefighter's handbook of hazardous materials
Baker, Charles J.
Maltese Enterprises,
1990
A-21
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Main Title
Personal Author
Corporate Author
Publisher
Year Published
Call Number
Report Number
Abstract
Assessment of Neurobehavioral Response in Humans to
Low-Level Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Sources.
Otto., D. A. ;
Health Effects Research Lab., Research Triangle
Park, NC. Human Studies Div.
Jun 91
1991
PB91-233353
EPA/600/D-91/218;
Occupants of sick buildings often complain of CNS
symptoms including headache and memory loss, but
little objective evidence of neurobehavioral
effects exists. Available evidence of
neurobehavioral effects of low level VOC exposure
representative of new buildings is reviewed.
Methods suitable for studying the neurobehavioral
effects of low-level VOC exposure—including
computerized behavioral tests, balance tests and
sensory evoked potentials—are reviewed. The use of
computerized behavioral tests in conjunction with
symptom questionnaires is recommended for low-level
VOC studies.
A-22
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NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS)
TI: Quantitative Evaluation of Smoke Abatement System for Crash/Rescue
Training Fires. Technical rept. 4 Aug 72-28 Feb 73.
AN: AD9103367XSP
AU: Haney-J.T.; Ristau-W.T.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Univ., Albuquerque. Eric H. Wang Civil Engineering
Research Facility.
RD: May 73. 34p.
AB: The training of Air Force firefighting personnel involves the
extinguishing of large fires that simulate aircraft crash situations. Such
fires generate clouds of thick black smoke that are objectionable from an air
pollution viewpoint and, therefore, cannot be continued on the present basis.
This report outlines the quantitative evaluation of the water spray injection
smoke abatement system for the training fires. Basic design criteria have been
established for the smoke abatement systems and emission factors in terms of
pounds of particulates per 1000 pounds of fuel were determined for JP-4 fires.
(Author)
RN: AFWLTR73106
TI: Equivalency Evaluation of Firefighting Agents and Minimum Requirements at
U.S. Air Force Airfields. Final rept.
AN: AOA1264431XSP
AU: Geyer-G.B.; O'Neill-J.; Urban-C.H.
CS: Performer: Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center, Atlantic
City, NJ.
RD: Oct 82. 140p.
AB: An evaluation of selected aircraft firefighting agents was made both
blanketing and auxiliary and of dispensing equipment. Laboratory studies and
outdoor fire tests were conducted to ascertain the fire extinguishing
equivalency of the auxiliary agents and to determine the most acceptable
agents and equipment for use in performing large-scale firefighting tests.
Experiments were performed principally upon those agents which were
manufactures in conformance with a Federal or Military Specification (domestic
or foreign) or were approved and listed by a recognized testing laboratory.
Full advantage was taken to avoid duplication of effort by accepting all
.published data which was considered reliable by reason of its source.
Large-scale fire tests were conducted only with those agents considered worthy
of additional testing. Full-scale tactical firefighting experiments were
performed on 20,555 and 10,028 square foot JP-4 fuel fires simulating the
practical critical fire area surrounding large and medium size aircraft, to
determine the effectiveness of each firefighting agent and the validity of the
techniques and agent application rates employed. From this information sets of
minimum requirements for the protection of small, medium and large aircraft
were developed for the Aircraft Ground Fire Suppression and Rescue Services
(AGFSRS). (Author)
RN: DOTFAACT82109
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TI: Firefighting. 1964-March 1983 (Citations from the NTIS Data Base).
AN: PB83805358XSP
CS: Performer: National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
RD: Apr 83. 341p.
AB: Firefighting techniques, equipment, and life support systems for
firefighters are investigated in the cited reports. Methods for fighting
residential, shipboard, aircraft, and forest fires are researched. Fire spread
techniques are studied. Firefighting training aids are described. (This
updated bibliography contains 333 citations, 81 of which are new entries to
the previous edition.)
TI: Evaluation of Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) on Deck Fires. Final rept.
AN: ADA1419282XSP
AU: Beene, D.E.
CS: Performer: Coast Guard Research and Development Center, Groton, CT.
Funder: Coast Guard, Washington, DC. Office of Research and Development.
RD: Oct 83. 50p.
AB: Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) concentrates were tested on the after
tank deck of the Tank Vessel A.E. WATTS. It simulated a spill fire using
marine diesel as the test fuel. The purpose of the testing was to evaluate the
firefighting effectiveness of different AFFF concentrates and to determine
whether 1% or 3% AFFF concentrates could be used to replace the 6% Military
Specification AFFF concentrate used on board Coast Guard cutters. This
replacement could reduce the weight and space required for AFFF storage or
increase the overall time of firefighting effectiveness. The AFFF's tested
were 3% and 6% AFFF concentrates meeting Military Specification MIL-F-24385,
two commercial 3% AFFF concentrates, two polar solvent resistant 3% AFFF
concentrates, and a 1% commercial AFFF concentrate. A secondary objective was
to evaluate the firefighting effectiveness of the four nozzles used aboard
Coast Guard cutters when using AFFF. The tests demonstrated that the 3% AFFF
concentrates were as effective the 6% Military Specification AFFF concentrate
in controlling and extinguishing deck fires, as well as in sealing around hot
metal surfaces and in burnback resistance. The 1% AFFF concentrate had control
and extinguishment times comparable to those of the 6% AFFF Military
Specification concentrate, but it was the least acceptable AFFF because of its
poor burnback resistance. The Coast Guard All Purpose (CGAP) nozzle and the
Twin Agent Unit (TAU) nozzle had the longest control and extinguishment times
while the Mechanical Foam Nozzle (MFN) and the Select-O-Flow (SFL) nozzle had
the shortest control and extinguishment times.
RN: CGRDC583, USCGD1184
A-24
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TIi Fire Performance Evaluation of Solid Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF).
Final rept.23 Apr 84-14 Sep 85.
AN: ADA1719434XSP
AU: Scheffey-J.L.; Jablonaki-E.J.; Leonard-J.T.; Walker-J.L.; Campbell-P.
CS: Performer: Hughes Associates, Inc., Wheaton, MD.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: May 86. 42p.
AB: The fire performance of solid AFFF firefighting foam purchased from the 3M
Company was determined and compared against the performance of liquid 3
percent concentrate which is on th& Navy Qualified Products List (QPL).
Twenty-eight and 50-square-foot fire tests specified in MIL-F-24385C were used
to measure fire performance. A limited number of large-scale
(1000-square-foot) fire tests were also conducted. Several mixing techniques
were used to prepare solution samples at agent-to-water ratios of 6 grams per
liter and 8 grams per liter. A total of 47 fire tests were conducted. In all
tests, the fire was extinguished using solutions prepared with solid AFFF.
These solutions averaged longer times to control and extinguish hydrocarbon
fuel fires when compared to solutions prepared with 3 percent liquid AFFF
concentrate. Less than desirable burnback and mixing characteristics were also
identified. Because there is potential to achieve significant agent space and
weight reductions by using a solid AFFF, additional testing and evaluation is
recommended. Specific recommendations include evaluation of solutions prepared
by increasing the solid agent-to-water ratio, or reformulation of the solid
agent to improve performance. Super-concentrated AFFF (proportioned at 1
percent or less) and concentrates prepared by reconstituting a base AFFF
formulation also have potential to reduce space and weight requirements
compared to existing 3 and 6 percent AFFF concentrates.
RN: AFESCESLTR8533
TI: Fire Suppression by Halon 2402, Volume 1. Final rept. Sep 84-Jun 86.
AN: AOA2036523XSP
AU: Plugge-M.; Tapscott-R.E.; Beeson-H.D.; Zallen-D.; Walker-J.L.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Oct 87. 268p.
AB: This Technical Report is divided into two volumes. Volume I consists of
the front matter and text while Volume II consists of Appendices A - J. Fire
testing shows that, in outdoor applications, the fire extinguishment
capability of Halon 2402 La superior to that of Halon 1211 and 1301. The
increase in effectiveness is due to better agent application properties (Halon
2402 is ejected as a liquid), better fuel-inerting capacity (lower vapor
pressure), and improved flame suppression (possibly resulting from the
presence of two bromine atoms). An environmental assessment shows no
environmentally unacceptable properties: however, toxicity during agent use
could be problematical. Halon firefighting agents, Fire extinguishment
testing, Military specification, Environmental assessment, (jes)
RN: NMERIWA326, AFESCESLTR8660VOL1
A-25
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TI: Fire Suppression by Halon 2402. Volume 2. Final rept. Sep 84-Jun 86.
AN: ADA2036531XSP
AU: Plugge-M.; Tapscott-R.E.; Beeson-H.O.; Zallen-D.; Walker-J.L.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inat., Albuquerque.
Funder; Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Oct 87. 219p.
AB: This technical report is divided into two Volumes. Volume I consists of
the front matter and text while Volume II consists of Appendices A - J. Fire
testing shows that, in outdoor applications, the fire extinguishment
capability of Halon 2402 is superior to that of Halon 1211 and 1301. The
increase in effectiveness is due to better agent application properties (Halon
2402 is ejected as a liquid), better fuel-inerting capacity (lower vapor
pressure), and improved flame suppression (possibly resulting from the
presence of two bromine atoms). An environmental assessment shows no
environmentally unacceptable properties: however, toxicity during agent use
could be problematical. Halon firefighting agents, Fire extinguishment
testing, Military specification, environmental assessment, (jes)
RN: NMERIWA326VOL2, AFESCESLTR8660VOL2
TI: Subchronic Toxicity of Diethylene Glycol Monobutyl Ether Administered
Orally to Rats. Final rept. 1986-1987.
AN: AOA1904887XSP
AU: Hobson-D.W. ,• Wyman-J.F.; Lee-L.H./ Bruner-R.H.; Uddin-D.E.
CS: Performer: Naval Medical Research Inst., Bethesda, MO.
RD: Aug 87. 32p.
AB: Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether (DGBE), a primary component of aqueous
film forming foams (AFFF) used by the U.S. Navy in shipboard firefighting
systems, was assayed for acute and subchronic toxicity in male and female
Fischer-344 rats. All animals received equivalent dose volumes. Male rates
receiving DGBE (high dose) showed a significant and persistent reduction in
body weight after one week exposure; food consumption for these animals was
lower during the first three weeks of exposure. Female body weights were
unchanged from controls. All rats exposed to EGBE for 13 weeks had elevated
liver and spleen weights and exhibited lowered red blood cells counts,
lymphocyte counts, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). A
dose-related decrease in MCHC was observed in female rats exposed to DGBE.
Generally, dose-related gross and microscopic lesions were restricted to the
thoracic cavity and respiratory tract where pulmonary congestion and edema
were common findings in rats which failed to survive the entire dosing
schedule. Lesions compatible with gavage trauma were common in several dose
groups exhibiting increased mortality.
RN: NMRI8745
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Title: Air-quality management alternatives: United States Air Force
fire-fighter training facilities. Doctoral thesis
Author(s): Brewer R.E.
Corporate Source: Air Force Inst. of Tech. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH (USA)
Publication Date: 1988 p 312
Report Number(s): AD-A-196476/6/XAB; AFIT/CI/NR-88-128
Academic Degree: Thesis
Language: English
Availability: NTIS PC A14/MF A01.
Abstract: Air-pollutant emissions from fire-fighter training fires are a
small portion of all annual air emissions from fixed and mobile sources
at an Air Force installation. However a single-practice fire burning
300 gallons of aviation fuel releases an estimated one ton of criteria
air pollutants during a one- to five-minute period. Bases report
conducting fire-fighter training 4 to 134 times per year burning 100
to 2000 gallons of fuel per fire. Based on current emissions-inventory
methodology 4 installations emit over 100 tons of air pollutants
annually from fire-fighter practice fires. A research methodology
utilizing questionnaires interviews and site visits is developed and
applied. This method enabled fire-prevention and environmental-management
experts and professionals to provide data opinions and to evaluate
candidate air-quality management alternatives. Analysis of survey data
interview findings opinions and management alternative evaluations
integrated with air-quality-management indexes developed through this ,
research lead to the study conclusions and recommendations. Implications
for future policy and actions include recommendations to improve recording
and reporting data via Facility Use and Firefighter Training Indexes. If
adopted the policy and actions would result in a more-efficient and
standardized fire-fighter training program Air Force-wide. Further
research is needed to verify air-emission factors and to determine
concentrations of PAH emissions in smoke and fugitive soot particles, (aw)
A-27
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TZ: Modeling of Aircraft Fire Suppression. Final rept. Jul 86-Apr 88.
AN: ADA2138840XSP
AU: England-W.J.; Morehouse-E.T.; Teuscher-L.H.; Hertel-J.; Quon-S.L.
CS: Performer: Tracer Technologies, Inc., San Diego, CA.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Oct 88. 89p.
AB: Modeling of aircraft fire suppression studies show that the theoretical
equations/parameters for scaling of the required quantities of fire
extinguishing agent from small test fires to large scale actual crash fires is
feasible. Modeling was based on the use of the firefighting agent Aqueous Film
Forming Foam (AFFF) which the United States Air Force currently uses in
response to aircraft fires. The fire suppression model relates fire control
time to variables in the fire area, agent application rates and agent
properties. This report contains the analysis data for various fire
configurations resulting in good correlation between the predictive models and
the actual events studied. Keywords: Fire suppression; Fire control; Fire
area; Firefighting agent; Aqueous film Forming foam (AFFF); Fire modeling
aircraft fires. (SOW)
RN: AFESCESLTR8761
«
TI: Next-Generation Fire Extinguishing Agent. Phase 4. Foundation for New
Training Agent Development. Interim rept. Jul 88-Dec 89.
AN: ADA2428845XSP
AU: Tapscott-R.E.; Lee-M.E.; Watson-J.D.; Nimitz-J.S.; Rodriguez-M.L.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Dec 89. 48p.
AB: The objective of the overall effort is to originate concepts for a
next-generation suppressant for multidimensional fires. The objective of the
Phase IV effort was to provide a foundation for the development of an agent to
substitute for Halon 1211 Air Force firefighting training. Toxicity and
environmental data on selected candidate training agents were surveyed and
compiled. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC)s, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and
blends of these materials were tested on small-scale through medium-scale
replacement for Halon 1211 in firefighting training.
RN: NMERISS206
A-28
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TI: Fire Extinguishers and Fire Extinguishing Agents. September 1970-October
1989 (Citations from the U.S. Patent Database). Rept. for Sep 70-Oct 89.
AN: PB90855248XSP
CS: Performer: National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
RD: Jan 90. 120p.
AB: This bibliography contains citations of selected patents concerning fire
extinguishers and fire extinguishing agents and systems. Types of equipment
include firefighting vehicles; portable systems; and fire extinguishing
systems, both handheld and built-in, for domestic and business environments.
Extinguishing agents include blankets and other smothering devices, gels,
foams, halon gases, powders, dry ice, water, and other chemicals or inert
materials for specific fire emergencies. Applications include buildings,
aircraft, stoves, storage tanks, chimneys, ships, and mines. Sprinkler systems
are not included in this bibliography. (Contains 300 citations fully indexed
and including a title list.)
TI: Initial Fire Suppression Reactions of Halons Phase 2 - Verification of
Experimental Approach and Initial Studies. Final rept. Jun 88-Apr 89.
AN: ADA2450963XSP
AU: Walters-E.A.; Nimitz-J.S.; Tapscott-R.E.; Brabson-G.D.; May-J.H.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Sep 90. 86p.
AB: The objective of this effort is to evaluate an experimental approach and
initiate work to determine the initial chemical reactions occurring when halon
firefighting agents extinguish flames. Initial studies using these procedures
were also performed. Three techniques were studied to compare their usefulness
for determining the concentrations of chemical species in flames: laser Raman
spectroscopy, matrix isolation Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and
photoionization mass spectrometry. Laser Raman spectroscopy of hydrogen/oxygen
flames extinguished with Halon 1301 provided identification of the principal
flames species; however, this method was not effective in detecting minor
species present in low concentration. The Raman spectrum of the hydrogen
molecule was used to calculate flame temperatures. Matrix isolation
experiments were used to characterize the fragmentation patterns of Halons
1211, 2402, and 1301. of the three techniques, photoionization mass
spectrometry was the most promising method for characterizing reactions
occurring in flames. It was found that Halon 1211 does react with the free
radical H, but the cross section of the overall process is small. No evidence
was found for reactions between 0 atoms and either Halon 1211 or 1301. A
database of fire suspension literature was developed and incorporated into the
nmeri halocarbon data base.
RN: NMERISS2082
A-29
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TI: Initial Fire Suppression Reactions of Halons Phase 3. Molecular Beam
Experiments Involving Halon Clusters. Final rapt. Jun 88-Apr 89.
AN: ADA2424612XSP
AU: Walters-E.A.; Grover-J.R.; Tapscott-R.E.; Clay-J.T.; Arneberg-D.L.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Sep 90. 47p.
AB: The system of Halon 1301 (CF3Br) and molecular oxygen (O2) was carefully
studied. Small, isolated molecular clusters of Halon 1301 and the
oxygen-atoms, flame free radical precursor 02 were formed in a supersonic
molecular beam, and chemical reactions were initiated within the clusters by
dissociative photoionization. The fragments formed were identified by mass
spectrometry, and the ionization and appearance potentials for many of the
species in this binary system were determined. The most striking result is the
inability to detect oxygenated fragments of dissociative photoionization of
the complex CF3Br.O2. The results hold important mechanistic implications for
the role of CF3Br in fire extinguishment and in guiding the search for
alternative firefighting agents.
RN: NMERISS2101, AFESCESLTR8950
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TI: New Version of Cameo. NTIS Tech Note.
AN: NTN901060XSP
CS: Performer: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington,
DC.
Funder: Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
RD: Dec 90. Ip.
AB: This citation summarizes a. one-page announcement of technology available
for utilization. The Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations (CAMEO)
program, designed to help emergency planners and first responders either plan
for or safely handle chemical accidents, has been updated. The new version,
CAMEO II, .contains a chemical identification and response data base, city and
building maps, and an air dispersion model. It also facilitates contingency
planning to meet the requirements of SARA Title III, the Emergency Planning
and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986. CAMEO II is designed for a
microcomputer that can be carried to the scene of the emergency. The computer
must be a Macintosh Plus, SE, or Mac II with 1 megabyte of memory and a hard
disk with 12 megabytes of storage. Also required are Apple Computer's
HyperCard 1.2 and drawing and communications software. Information on over
2,600 common chemicals is in the CAMEO II chemical identification and response
data base, called Codebreaker. It contains 50,000 synonyms, identification
numbers, and labeling conventions for the chemicals, each cross-referenced
with standard names and numbers used in the transportation industry. The
chemical data base also contains information from commonly used reference
sources. Subjects most critical to first responders are emphasized, including
personal protective measures, fire and explosion hazards, firefighting
techniques, human health threats, and spill cleanup procedures. User supplied
maps can be put into CAMEO II. They can contain city boundaries and street
names as well as the location of schools, hospitals, major landmarks, etc. An
air dispersion model is also an important part of CAMEO II. This predicts
downwind chemical concentrations resulting from an accident. It draws on
information from a radio-controlled atmospheric station linked to the computer
and its chemical data base. The first responder selects the chemical involved,
inputs weather conditions, the size or nature of the spill, and other known
factors. The 'footprint' of the chemical plume is then drawn by the computer
from the predefined location on a CAMEO II map. Recent additions to the
original CAMEO program allow it to be used for contingency planning and to
facilitate the hazards analysis process outlined in EPA's technical guidance
document for the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA),
Title III. To provide for the orderly transfer of this technology to the
private sector, the name CAMEO was trademarked by the U.S. Government, and an
agreement was made with the National Safety Council, a non-profit
organization, for distribution.
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TI: Toxicity of Halon 2402. Final rapt. Aug 85-Sep 86.
AN: ADA2425130XSP
AU: Humphrey-B.J.; Smith-B.R.; Skaggs-S.R.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Sep 90. 44p.
AB: The acute toxicity of Halon 2402 was assessed and compared to that of
Halon 1211. The purpose of this effort was to determine the acute toxicity of
Halon 2402 in laboratory animals and to compare this toxicity to that of Halon
1211. Because of the interest in Halon 2402 as a potential firefighting agent,
it was necessary to evaluate the toxicity of this agent and compare it to that
of Halon 1211, the standard USAF agent. Therefore, the New Mexico Engineering
Research Institute (NMERI), in collaboration with the University of New Mexico
College of Pharmacy, evaluated the acute toxicity of Halons 1211 and 2402 in
rats. Because of the high vapor pressure of halons, the route of exposure
posing the highest risk is inhalation. Therefore, determining the toxic
effects of acute inhalation provides an important step in understanding the
health risks of the agent.
RN: NMERIWA382318, AFESCESLTR8859
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TI: Alternative Training Agents Phase 1. Survey of Near-Term Candidate Fire
Extinguishing Agents and Predicting Properties of Halocarbon Mixtures.
Volume 1. Final rept.
AN: ADA2428142XSP
AU: Nimitz-J.S.; Tapscott-R.E.; Skaggs-S.R.; Beeson-H.D.
CS: Performer: New Mexico Engineering Research Inst., Albuquerque.
Funder: Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall AFB, FL.
Engineering and Services Lab.
RD: Feb 91. 170p.
AB: IN this report, 14 compounds are examined as potential near-term
candidates for alternative firefighter training agents for streaming
applications. This list consists of suitable fluorine-containing
compounds(primarily fluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons) known to have had significant toxicity testing
completed, with bulk production capabilities existing in the past, present, or
anticipated near future. Many of these compounds are being produced or
considered as replacements for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration and
foam-blowing applications. The ozone depletion potential, global warming
potential, stage of toxicity testing, toxicity, availability, and relative
cost of each compound are discussed. Physical and thermodynamic properties and
estimated and measured flame suppression concentrations are reported. Those
compounds that have low toxicity (with significant testing completed) are
available in bulk and have desirable properties are discussed in detail. It is
recommended that HCFC-123 be tested both in pure form and in blends as
potential replacement training agents. Twelve blends are recommended for fire
suppression.
RNs NMERIOC9017, AFESCESLTR9039VOL1
A-33
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OTHER LITERATURE SOURCES
Study of Alternate Fuels and Water Spray Injection as Methods of Smoke
Abatement for Crash Rescue Training Fires (Final rept.)
Ristau William T. ; Lehmann Richard B. New Mexico Univ Albuquerque Eric
H Wang Civil Engineering Research Facility
Corp. Source Codes: 400976
Report No.: AFWL-TR-73-153 Dec 75 39p
Journal Announcement: GRAI7604
NTIS Prices: PC A03/MF A01
Contract No.: F29601-72-C-0024
Two methods were investigated to reduce emissions from the open burning
of fuels which is necessary for crash rescue training exercises. Cleaner
burning fuels were examined but they did not reduce the emissions to an
acceptable level on large-scale fires (50-foot-diameter fires). The
addition of a fine water spray using a specific spray nozzle just above the
fuel bed of a JP-4 fire did result in a much cleaner burning fire with a
significant decrease in all pollutants measured.
A-34
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Aviation Fuel Fire Behavior Study (Final rept.)
Fu Tim T.
Naval Civil Engineering Lab Port Hueneme Calif
Corp. Source Codes: 248150
Sponsor: Aircraft Ground Fire Suppression and Rescue Wright-Patterson
AFB Ohio.
Report No.: NCEL-63-016; AGFSRS-72-2
Feb 72 64p
Journal Announcement: GRAI7522
NTIS Prices: PC A04/MF A01
Pool fires of aviation fuels were studied to determine their gross
burning behavior the flame geometry and the thermal environment generated
to provide the information needed for the various aircraft crash fire
fighting and rescue applications. Shallow steel pans of up to 8' size in
both circular and rectangular geometries were used to contain the fuels.
The basic data were obtained first in still air and then the effects of
wind and water spray were studied. Quantitative data obtained consists of
the significant spectral emission bands of aviation fuel fires the fuel
burning rates the thermal radiation field and the temperature profiles
downwind of the fires. Results show that the radiation depends strongly on
the dimensionless distance from the fires (distance to pan center/pan
diameter) and only weakly on the fire size suggesting the possibility of
simple scaling relationship.
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EQUIPMENT : EMERGENCY VEHICLES ARE MEDIA STANDARDS STILL REALISTIC?
JANE'S AIRPORT REVIEW. FEBRUARY 01, 1992, p. 47, v.04, no. 01
By: Brian Walters
Standards relating to media for fighting airport fires remain vague
and should perhaps be updated to reflect the realities of today's
aircraft Brian Walters reports.
Although at first glance the International Civil Aviation
Organisation's (ICAO) specifications for the provision of fire
services at airports appear clear enough further investigation
reveals this is not quite the case.
The specifications form the basis of an agreement which has allowed
them to be implemented internationally but there appear to be
fundamental differences in the interpretation of ICAO standards
particularly regarding the quality of media which eventually reaches
the fire.
These differences do not so much arise from opposing views on the
type of foam to be used but rather from the actual density and
therefore effectiveness of the foam when it hits the target.
The Second World War stimulated the improvement of fire-fighting
facilities at airfields because fuel and explosives could well
feature in a crash there. However it took some time before this
expertise was passed on to the civil sector at the end of the war.
In the US (by then the unchallenged leader in air transport) the
national Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) was tasked with the
development of nationally-agreed standards by drawing on wartime
experience.
Published as NFPA 403 in 1951 these early crash/fire/rescue requirements in
turn influenced ICAO which largely based Annex 14
(Chapter 9) of its Airport Services Manual on the NFPA standards.
A more scientific approach to the subject later led ICAO to update
its standards in 1970 and these — with a few modifications — were
adopted by the NFPA in 1973. However in 1990 ICAO issued a further
revision to Annex 14 which civil aviation authorities the world over
are invited to implement as the basis for their national standards.
In the UK the CAA was one of the first to adopt the revised
standard which it has incorporated into CAP 168 Chapter 8. However
while experts agree that the latest standards which have resulted in
the minimum performance level 'A' standard foam and the higher
performance level 'B' are step forward there is by no means
universal agreement on the issue of distance versus quality.
Opinions differ as to what the optimum projection distance is for
foam and just what its consistency should be when it hits the fire.
Senior Fire Officer at British Aerospace Filton, Gerry Johnson holds
definite views on the subject asserting that the quality of media
reaching the fire is a critical factor.
He believes that a 60 m throw from a fire tender monitor is close to the
optimum: beyond that distance weather interference and other
factors can start breaking up the concentration before it hits the
target.
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Agreeing that a 60 m throw is about the maximum effective range over which
good quality foam can be delivered Robin Maryon of Simon Gloster Saro suggests
that beyond that, the foam quality is sacrificed and only dirty water hits the
target. He further suggests that only aspirated monitors can ensure that a
thick blanket of foam is created — one which will take up to 12 minutes to
drain whereas poor quality foam can disperse within six minutes. The longer
foam can stick to the target the greater the opportunity to smother the fire.
Foam is used because of its ability to provide a stable low-expansion
blanket with good heat resistance as well as the adhesive qualities
necessary to cling to the target.
Although foam concentrate does have a shelf life in practice old
stock is used during fire drills so degradation in performance is not a major
problem.
Aqueous Film Forming foam (AFFF) developed over 25 years ago remains in
widespread use despite the development of Film Forming Fluoroprotein (FFFP) in
the early 1980s, the latter combines the rapid knockdown characteristics of
AFFF with the intrinsic heat resistance of protein-based foam. This makes it
unnecessary to stock two types of foam (one to knock the fire down and the
other to prevent re-ignition). Other type of foam have been developed
including High Expansion Foam (HX) but the two kinds described above remain
the most widely used. However some fire authorities have shown a preference
for sodium or potassium-based dry powder and this is particularly popular in
continental Europe.
Micky Gardiner chief instructor at the CAA Fire Fighting School
acknowledges the beneficial knock-down qualities of powder — it is
faster than foam and performs well against a running fuel fire — but
points out that it offers no post-fire control and must be backed up with a
foam blanket. f
With the same rate of delivery as foam (up to 6000 Ib with in two
minutes) powder necessitates dual monitors on crash fire tenders in
order to provide a dual-application capability.
The CAA regards foam and water as the primary media for fire-fighting with
dry powder as a secondary system. Some European authorities however hold
the opposite view.
While it is not difficult to produce crash fire tenders that can accommodate
foam concentrate water and power plus the appropriate monitors
the widespread acceptance and use of foam will assure its continued dominance
of the market.
The new 'A' and 'B' standards for foam should encourage the adoption
of the latter by airports which set out to provide the highest safety
standards. Both standards specify the ability to extinguish a fire
in less than one minute with a demonstrated re-ignition time of over
five minutes.
However level 'B' must pass a more stringent test because it demands the same
performance but at a much lower application rate. It is encouraging that ICAO
is applying more scientific methods of assessing the performance of foam
regardless of compound category.
As a supplier of foam products Angus Fire has closely followed the results of.
the studies carried out by ICAO's Rescue and Fire Group and Tony Cash the
company's foam products specialist told Jane's Airport Review that his
company's Petroseal FFFP exceeds level 'B' requirements by demonstrating an
extinction time of 45 seconds and a burnback time of over 15 minutes.
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In a recent paper published by the Flight Safety Foundation* B Victor
He we a also quaations the accepted levels of foam quantity considered
adequate to tackle aircraft fires.
A retired Delta Air Lines captain Hewes has presented numerous
papers on airport fire and rescue matters is a member of the Society
of Air Safety Investigators and has participated in more than 25
major accident investigations.
Hewes has made a study of major accidents in which fire was a factor
and concludes that the ICAO standards which determine the minimum
quantity of media at airports of different categories are inadequate.
The formula which has resulted in the establishment of 10 international
categories (only five in the US) is based on the median (rather than the
longest) length of aircraft which operate regularly into an airport.
However both ICAO and the FAA allow a remission factor based on the
number of movements of the largest aircraft within the busiest three-month
period. If 700 movements by the largest aircraft are not recorded during this
period the airport category may be reduced (with a consequent reduction in the
amount of media which must be available as a minimum).
Hewes suggests that this remission actor is too generous to airport
authorities seeking to save on safety and the ICAO Rescue and Fire
Fighting Panel concurs voting recently to recommend its elimination.
Relating the potential size of an aircraft fire to the number of movements is
not valid Hewes suggests and it represents a compromise with safety that
serves to reduce the extinguishing agent requirements below those necessary to
contain the fire.
It can result in airport fire-fighters battling an aircraft fire
with a less than optimum chance of extinguishing it, he asserts.
Of 34 airliner crashes examined by Hewes in his paper only four used
less agent than that required by ICAO NFPA403 or FAA regulations.
In the other cases substantially more media (usually AFFF) was used.
For example the recommended foam production for the Boeing
737/Fairchild Metro collision at Los Angeles (LAX) in 1991 was 2800 US
gallons whereas in fact more than 8000 gallons were used.
It is a measure of the efficiency of the LAX fire service that 68
passengers and crew were rescued from the inferno but while it took
only four minutes to extinguish the ground fire nearly 20 minutes
passed before the burning aircraft was put out and at one time the
extinguishing agent was evaporating because of the intensity of the
fire.
In a Boeing 727 crash at Bradley in the US also last year some 36000 gallons
of AFFF were used against the recommended figure of 3300. Not all the
higher-than-recommended rates were of such high proportions but it is
estimated that an average of 5000 gallons of extra agent has been used when
combating a cabin fire.
It is suggested that the high rate of delivery can be ascribed to a
lack of adequate practical training and Hewes comments that many
states will not allow live fire drills because of environmental
restrictions. Gardiner supports this view noting that the CAA Fire
Fighting School has cut BCF (fire extinguishant) emissions by up to
300 per cent. Certainly the tendency to exceed recommended rates by a wide
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margin cannot be ascribed simply to delay in getting to the scene of the
accident: despite a response time of less than 40 seconds to a DC-10
runway amoving accident as Los Angeles in 1978 the recommendations by
3000 gallons. In the case of the Boeing 737/Metro collision at the
same airport last year 5000 gallons of media were used to control
the fire a further 4000 gallons were used to fight the cabin fire
and an additional 8000 gallons were applied to prevent re-ignition.
ICAO does not specify the type (nor indeed the number of vehicles
which should deliver the media but since the aerodrome category
determines the quantities of extinguishant that must be.available
airport authorities are left to make their own choice.
Experience has shown that the smaller Rapid Intervention Vehicles
cannot carry sufficient foam (or powder) to affect materially the
progress of a fire through a burning airliner and these are being
replaced by faster and more maneuverable crash tenders.
It is curious however that fire authorities cannot agree on the
quality and quantity of foam necessary to achieve the objective of
saving lives in the event of an aircraft accident. ICAO studies have shown
that a direct fire can burn through a cabin wall in less than a minute
but they have also determined that the cabin temperatures are survivable.
This would seem to reinforce the view of those who suggest that the delivery
of effective foam could be crucial to the successful outcome of a fire
fighting/rescue effort.
Noting that the NFPA estimates of the amount of foam necessary to
tackle a burning Boeing 747 are somewhat less than USAF estimates for
the same task (6500 versus 12 745 gallons) Maryon highlights another
disparity in safety standards. He points out that some modern airliners carry
more fuel than earlier models of similar dimensions to meet ETOPS
requirements. Some aircraft carry fuel between decks or in the tail yet this
is not currently taken into account when determining the category of a
particular airport.
Cynics will point out that any fire tender manufacture is bound to
advocate an increase in the total media capacity at airports but
Hewes supports Maryon's contention that size based on wing span and
fuselage length is no longer an adequate measure of the capacity
which should be provided.
Clearly the quantity and quality of media available at airports need
to be examined as a matter of urgency if safety standards are to be
increased.
* Updating Airport Emergency Capabilities published by Flight Safety
Foundation in Airport Operations Vol 17 No 5 September/October 1991.
SPECIAL FEATURE:
Photograph:\
Photograph: Debate continues about the distance foam can be thrown\and
still remain effective and about the quantities of media\required.
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