:PA-600/4-74-002
IJI.Y 1974
Environmental Monitoring Series
GROUNDWATER:
OF
Wflct
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad categories were
established to facilitate further development and application of environmental tech-
nology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster tech-
nology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies.
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series. This
series describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instru-
mentation for the identification and quantification of environmental pollutants at the
lowest conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine
the ambient concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of
pollutants as a function of time or meteorological factors.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Development, EPA, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily re-
flect the views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does men-
tion of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
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GE74TMP-17 EPA 600/4-74-002
July 1974
POLLUTED GROUNDWATER:
ESTIMATING THE EFFECTS
OF
MAN'S ACTIVITIES
by
John F. Karubian
General Electric— TEMPO
Center for Advanced Studies
P.O. Drawer QQ
Santa Barbara, CA 93102
Contract No. 68-01-0759
Tasks 1 and 3
Program Element No. 1H1325
Project Officer
Leslie G. Me Mi 11 ion
Monitoring Systems Research and Development Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Las Vegas, Nevada
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard. 12tfl floor
CMcago,tl 60604-3590
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ABSTRACT
Data on the quality of the nation's groundwater are sparse and are expensive
to obtain through conventional sampling of water from wells. A supplementary
approach to monitoring is to estimate kinds, amounts, and trends of groundwater
pollution by relating them to man's activities.
Preliminary research on methodology for estimating the polluting effects on
groundwater of man's activities has been carried out for a number of examples:
unlined sedimentation basins and lagoons used by the pulp and paper industry, petro-
leum refining, and primary metals industries; wastewater ponds in phosphate mining;
agricultural use of chemical fertilizers; and beef cattle feedlot operations. The
methodology relies primarily on readily available census and other statistical data,
together with descriptions of the processes used in the activities examined. Estimates
are made of past and projected volumes and areas covered by potential pollutants.
Geohydrological analysis is then applied to estimate the extent to which these po-
tential pollutants may enter the groundwater.
The results of the broad preliminary analyses are not definitive, but are
intended only to illustrate the applicability of the methodology to whatever geo-
graphical areas are of interest.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Tasks 1 and 3 of Contract
68-01-0759, by General Electric—TEMPO under the sponsorship of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Work was completed as of May 1974.
in
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Valuable assistance was provided in the research reported on in this study by
Mr. Benjamin Aerenson, Ms. Marilyn Judson and Mrs. Janis Hallowell. Dr. David
K. Todd was involved in the initial formulation of the concept. Mr. Charles F.
Meyer of GE—TEMPO was the manager of the project under which this study was
conducted. Mr. Meyer, Dr. Richard M. Tinlin, and Mr0 William E. Rogers, also of
GE—TEMPO, provided considerable editorial assistance. Mr. Donald B. Gilmore
of EPA was very helpful in obtaining data sources and material.
The following officials of the Environmental Protection Agency were respon-
sible for administrative and technical guidance of the project:
Office of Research and Development (Program Area Management)
Mr. H. Matthew Bills
Dr. Henry F. Enos
Mr. Donald B. Gilmore
Mr. John D. Koutsandreas
NERC—Las Vegas (Program Element Direction)
Mr. George B. Morgan
Mr. Leslie G. McMillion
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vil
LIST OF TABLES viii
CONCLUSIONS xi
SUMMARY xiii
Wastewater from Paper, Petroleum and Steel Industries xiv
Phosphate Rock Mining Industry xxviii
Agricultural Fertilizer Consumption xxix
Beef Cattle Feedlot Industry xxxiv
SECTION
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Pollution Sources Analyzed 1
Rationale 3
Overview of Methodological Approach 5
2 PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY 16
Introduction 16
Approach 18
Regional Pollution Implications 23
National Pollution Implications 27
3 PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY WASTEWATER 29
Introduction 29
Approach 30
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CONTENTS
SECTION Pbge
3 Wastewater Volume Projections 32
Regional Pollution Implications 38
National Pollution Implications 41
Composition of Effluent 42
4 PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES WASTEWATER 44
Introduction 44
Approach 45
Volume Projections 48
Regional Pollution Implications 54
National Pollution Implications 57
Composition of Effluent 57
5 THE PHOSPHATE ROCK MINING INDUSTRY 61
Introduction 61
Method of Analysis 62
Composition and Concentration of Slime Effluent 66
6 AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION 69
Introduction 69
Composition of Commercial Fertilizers 70
Analytical Approach 72
Regional Consumption of Fertilizers 76
National Fertilizer Consumption 79
7 BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT INDUSTRY 82
Introduction 82
Approach 85
Summary of Beef Cattle Activity 93
REFERENCES 97
VI
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
i Total U.So pulp and paper industry wastewater treatment
volumes and acreage covered, 1954—1983. xvii
ii Total UoS. petroleum refining industry wastewater treatment
volumes and acreage covered, 1954—1983. xxi
iii Total U.S. primary metals industries wastewater treatment
volumes and acreage covered, 1954—1983. xxv
iv Polk County, Florida phosphate slime generation, 1966—1983. xxx
v Application of fertilizer in the United States to fertilized
harvested croplands, 1954—1985. xxxii
vi U.S. beef cattle marketed, average feedlot population, and
waste deposit tonnage and acreage, 1962-1983. xxxvii
1 Industrial water use regions. 7
2 Geographic distribution of steel mills in the United States. 45
3 Location map of Noralyn operations„ 63
4 Fertilizer-consuming regions of the United States. 70
5 Cattle feeding regions. 84
6 Cattle feeding areas. 95
VII
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
! Pulp and paper industry primary and secondary waste water
Treatment, 1954-1983. xix
ii Petroleum refining industry primary and secondary wastewater
treatment, 1954-1983. xxii
iii Primary metals industries primary and secondary wastewater
treatment, 1954-1983. xxvii
iv Agricultural fertilizer consumption, fertilized harvested
acreage, and per-acre application rates for the three leading
fertilizer consumption regions and the United States, 1954—1983. xxxiii
v Fed beef cattle production, feed lot acreage, and waste
deposits of the three leading feedlot regions, 1962—1983. xxxvii
1 Total wastewater discharged by the pulp and paper industry in
15 Industrial Water Use Regions, 1954-1983, and total treated
before discharge, 1964 and 1968 (billions of gallons). 19
2 Estimated percentages of pulp and paper industry total waste-
water discharged receiving primary treatment and estimated
percentages of primary treatment achieved in unlined sedi-
mentation basins, 1954-1983. 21
3 Estimated percentages of total wastewater discharged receiving
secondary treatment in lagoons in the pulp and paper industry,
1954-1983. 22
4 Volume and area of wastewater in pulp and paper industry in
unlined sedimentation basins, 1954—1983. 24
5 Volume and area of wastewater in pulp and paper industry
lagoons, 1954-1983. 25
6 Volume of pulp and paper industry wastewater discharged,
volume treated before discharge, and area covered by treatment
process, 1954-1983. 28
7 Total wastewater volume discharged annually by the petroleum
refining industry, 1954—1983, and wastewater treated before
discharge, 1964 and 1968 (billions of gallons). 33
VIII
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
8 Percentages of total wastewater receiving primary treatment
and estimated percentages of primary treatment achieved in
unlined sedimentation basins in the petroleum refining industry,
1954-1983. 35
9 Volume and acreage of wastewater in unlined sedimentation
basins in the petroleum refining industry, 1954—1983. 36
10 Estimated percentages of total wastewater discharged receiv-
ing treatment in lagoons in the petroleum refining industry,
1954-1983. 37
11 Volume and acreage of wastewater in the petroleum refining
industry, 1954-1983. 39
12 U.S. petroleum refining industry wastewater volume discharged,
volume treated before discharge, and area covered by treatment
processes, 1954-1983. 41
13 Total wastewater discharged by the primary metals industries,
1954-1983, and wastewater treated before discharge, 1964
and 1968 (billions of gallons). 47
14 Percentages of total discharged primary metals industries waste-
water receiving primary treatment and estimated percentages of
primary treatment in unlined sedimentation basins, 1954-1983. 50
15 Volume of wastewater (billions of gallons) receiving primary
treatment in unlined sedimentation basins in the primary metals
industries and acreage covered, 1954—1983. 51
16 Estimated percentages of treatable wastewater discharged re-
ceiving secondary treatment in lagoons in the primary metals
industries, 1954-1983. 53
17 Volume and acreage of wastewater in lagoons in the primary
metals industries, 1954-1983. 55
18 U.S. primary metals industries wastewater discharged, volume
treated before discharge, and area covered by treatment process,
1954-1983. 58
19 Wastewater pollutants from iron and steel industry processes. 59
20 Average pollutant concentrations in steel industry sedimentation
basin and lagoon effluents (pounds per gallon). 60
21 Phosphate rock slime ponds at the Noralyn operation, Bonnie,
Polk County, Florida and Polk Count, Florida phosphate
plants (1967). 62
IX
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
22 Volume of production output, volume of slime production, and
area covered by slime ponds in the phosphate rock industry,
Polk County, Florida and the United States, 1966-1983. 65
23 Approximate mineralogic and chemical composition of phosphate
slime solids. 68
24 Types and amounts of fertilizer consumed in the United States,
FY1969 and FY1970, and in regions, FY1970 (thousands of tons). 71
25 Fertilized harvested cropland acreage in the United States,
by region, 1954—1983 (thousands of acres). 74
26 U.S. cropland acreage harvested and cropland acreage idle or
in cover crops, 1954—1983 (thousands of acres). 75
27 Ratios of fertilized harvested cropland acreage to total harvested
cropland acreage by region, 1954—1985. 76
28 Fertilizer consumption in the United States by region, 1954—1985
(thousands of tons). 77
29 Fertilizer application per fertilized cropland acre, 1954-1985
(tons). 78
30 U.S. consumption of fertilizer, total harvested cropland acreage,
fertilized harvested cropland acreage, and intensity of fertilizer
application, 1954-1985. 81
31 Cattle waste characteristics in terms of 1000 pounds live weight. 85
32 Number of fed cattle marketed in the United States, by region,
1962-1983 (thousands). 88
33 Amount of beef cattle manure deposited on feedlots in the United
States, by region, 1962-1983 (thousands of tons). 89
34 Average number of beef cattle on feedlots in the United States,
by region, 1962-1983 (thousands). 90
35 Area of beef cattle feedlots in the United States, by region,
1962-1983 (thousands of acres). 92
36 Number of beef cattle, feed lot populations, amount of waste
deposits, and area covered by feedlots in the United States,
1962-1983. 94
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CONCLUSIONS
(1) Estimating actual and potential groundwater pollution by analyzing
man's activities is not only feasible, but appears to be a valuable supple-
ment or even an alternative to the conventional approach of depending
upon samples from water wells to monitor groundwater pollution. Trends
in groundwater pollution may be more easily deduced, and future pollu-
tion predicted with greater confidence, by analysis of man's activities
than by extrapolating data from water-well sampling.
(2) The methodology described is readily applicable to all geographical
areas for which the necessary data are available. The reliability of
estimates of groundwater pollution increases when small areas are ana-
lyzed, because of geological homogeneity and greater precision of data.
However, as demonstrated in this study, the approach can provide a quick
and useful synoptic estimate of the geographic incidence of pollution
from a particular activity; the relation of pollution to population distribu-
tion or to aquifers can be thus examined.
(3) The analysis of man's activities should be carried out only to the
precision justified by hydrogeologic knowledge of the area in question
(eg, if infiltration rates must be estimated, they can vary by an order of
magnitude; if such uncertainties exist, they make the results of the
analyses relatively insensitive to the assumptions concerning man's activi-
ties and processes).
(4) The coincidence of various pollution sources and the potential for
polluting groundwater in a given geographic area can be surveyed rapidly
to assess the potential buildup of pollution from a number of activities.
XI
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CONCLUSIONS
(5) For a particular activity, the approach can be used to assess the
relative importance of various processes that may pollute groundwater.
For example, the volumes of effluent treated by the pulp and paper in-
dustry in unlined sedimentation basins and in lagoons are of the same
order of magnitude but, because of differences in the processes, the po-
tential for groundwater pollution from unlined sedimentation basins is
minuscule compared to that from lagoons.
(6) Proposed regulations or controls on pollution may be evaluated by
analyzing the effect of different processes with respect to groundwater
pollution. Such analyses may help to evaluate the effects of imposing
"best practicable" and "best available" treatment processes on various
time scales, perhaps for comparison to socioeconomic costs associated
with different regulations.
XII
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SUMMARY
On the basis that information describing groundwater pollution is
sparse, research was undertaken to investigate the feasibility of "moni-
toring" groundwater quality by analyzing man's activities which may
pollute groundwater. This approach to monitoring may appear to be less
direct than the conventional practice of taking samples from wells and
performing biochemical analyses. However, samples from a well
represent water quality only in the immediate vicinity of the well, and
may fail to reveal the existence of severe pollution only a few tens or
hundreds of feet away in the aquifer. Therefore, the methodology de-
scribed here may be more complete and no less direct than that of
water-well sampling.
The results of this brief study do not provide a picture of the quality
of the nation's groundwater; it is to be emphasized that this was not the
objective of the study. The results of the study are neither comprehen-
sive nor conclusive. Rather, the study demonstrated the feasibility of
the approach through actually searching out data and applying them
methodically to selected examples of man's activities that may cause
groundwater pollution. If the methodology is to be applied to other
sources and kinds of pollutants to formulate specific descriptions of the
probable present and future state of groundwater pollution, the need for
further refinement and extension of the work is clear
Six exemplar industrial and agricultural activities were chosen for
methodology development and analysis of potential impact on groundwater
quality:
XIII
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SUMMARY
1. Pulp and paper manufacturing
2. Petroleum refining
3. Primary metals (steel) manufacturing
4. Phosphate mining
5. Agricultural fertilizer consumption
6. Beef cattle feedlots.
The first three of these activities are heavy users of water, ac-
counting for about half of the total industrial water use in the United
States (excluding hydroelectric power plants). The water is used both
for cooling and for manufacturing subprocesses, with the subprocesses
resulting in contamination requiring treatment before the wastewater
can be released as surface runoff. Ironically, the increasingly strin-
gent requirements for treatment of this wastewater before release into
surface streams has resulted in a serious threat to groundwater quality
since much of this treatment takes place in unlined basins for sedi-
mentation and lagoons for biological treatment.
Phosphate mining also uses large amounts of water which becomes
contaminated in the mining process. Current practice is to contain the
waterborne mining byproducts ("slime") in open, unlined earthen pits
for sedimentation.
Fertilizers applied to farmlands pose a threat to groundwater if
they leach through the soil into underlying aquifers. Wastes from beef
cattle feedlots may stand in holding basins or run off into surface
streams, from which they may infiltrate downward into aquifers.
WASTEWATER FROM PAPER, PETROLEUM,
AND STEEL INDUSTRIES
Assessment of the groundwater pollution potential arising from
pulp and paper manufacturing, petroleum refining, and steel manufactur-
ing was carried out on the basis of water used by these industries in each
of 1 8 Industrial Water Use Regions as defined by the U.S. Bureau of the
XIV
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PAPER, PETROLEUM, STEEL
Census, using 1964 and 1968 Census of Manufactures data as a base-
line and projecting back in time to 1954 and ahead to 1983. The regional
data for 1964 and 1968 included not only total water discharged, but
wastewater given primary treatment (settling out of solids only) in un-
lined sedimentation basins and wastewater given secondary treatment
(reduction of biological oxygen demand) in lagoons.
Regional data were not available for these industries for 1954 and
1959, but only national totals. Neither were data available on type of
wastewater treatment, but only in total amount treated. Thus, it was
assumed for the analysis that regional use distribution in previous years
was approximately the same as that for 1964, and assumptions were also
made regarding the relative amount of primary and secondary treatment
to take into account increasingly stringent treatment requirements and
increased treatment sophistication over the 1954-1968 period.
The 1969-1983 total water usage and primary and secondary waste-
water treatment rates for these three industries were derived from
industry growth rate projections by the University of Maryland's Bureau
of Business and Economic Research, the expected impact of FWPCA
and EPA pollution control requirements, and anticipated improvements in
treatment technology.
Based upon average residence times for primary (separation of
suspended solids) and secondary (biologic stabilization) treatment of
wastewater and average depths of basins and lagoons, the volumes and
acreages required for primary treatment basins and secondary treatment
lagoons were calculated for each industry. This, coupled with the
seepage rate of the basins and lagoons, which was estimated to average
30 inches per year, or about 2. 5 acre-feet per acre of basin and lagoon,
yields a rough idea of their potential for contaminating underlying aqui-
fers. (In specific situations, the actual seepage rates may vary by at
least an order of magnitude from the average that was used. )
xv
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SUMMARY
The pollution potential of primary treatment in unlined sedimenta-
tion basins appears to be minuscule compared with that of secondary
treatment in lagoons for all three industries. The chief reason is that
primary treatment in unlined basins is much less prevalent than is
secondary treatment in lagoons, and treatment times required for
lagooning are much greater than those for sedimentation. Sedimentation
treatment of wastewater can ordinarily be completed in less than one
working day; thus, only sufficient capacity for one day's output of
treatable wastewater is required. In contrast, secondary treatment may
require capacities of up to a month's wastewater output in order to com-
plete treatment, and the lagoons must be much shallower than sedimenta-
tion basins in order to allow sufficient aeration for the reduction of
biological oxygen demand (BOD) before the wastewater is released. It
follows that secondary treatment of a given amount of wastewater may
require up to 60 times more area than does primary treatment. The
amount of seepage, of course, is directly proportional to the area
covered.
Detailed descriptions of the methodology followed for pulp and
paper, petroleum refining, and steel manufacturing wastewaters are
given in Sections 2, 3, and 4, as are descriptions of their constituent
pollutants. Some summary results follow.
Pulp and Paper Industry
Of the three wastewater cases examined, the pulp and paper in-
dustry was projected to have the largest volume of wastewater requiring
secondary lagoon treatment through 1983 (see Figure i). From 1954
through 1968 and as projected through 1973, the curves of national figures
for volume of water treated and the lagoon acreage required are con-
gruent. Thereafter, increased volumes of wastewater per acre of lagoon
have been projected due to anticipated adoption of technological improve-
ments in secondary treatment. These improvements may take the form
XVI
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1,200
1,100
1,000
900
800
700
600
Q
1 500
400
300
200
100
I
I
TOTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGED
(billions of gallons)
1954: 1,620
1968: 2,078
1983: 4,056
VOLUME OF WASTEWATER
RECEIVING SECONDARY
TREATMENT IN LAGOONS
UNLINED BASIN AND •
LAGOON ACREAGES
PULP AND PAPER
2,400
VOLUME OF WASTEWATER_
RECEIVING PRIMARY
TREATMENT IN UNLINED
BASINS
I I I I
I I
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
_i
_i
<
O
1,200 O
u->
z
g
_i
1,000 3
800
600
400
200
1954
1959
1964
1969
YEAR
1974
1979 1983
Figure F. Total U.S. pulp and paper industry wastewater treatment volumes
and acreage covered, 1954-1983.
XVII
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SUMMARY
of lagoon aeration, allowing greater depth and shorter wastewater de-
tention times, lining of lagoons to prevent seepage, or substitution of
a different process for lagoon treatment in order to meet EPA require-
ments. Despite anticipated industry growth of more than 2 percent per
year during the latter part of the projection period, both wastewater
lagooned and lagoon acreage show a decline beginning in the late 1970s.
The major potential groundwater contaminants in the pulp and
paper effluent are lignins, wood sugars, sulfates, sulfites, calcium
compounds, grease, and color.
Based on treatment figures for 1954 — 1968, primary sedimentation
treatment in unlined basins was projected to increase through 1973, but
thereafter to decline because of the adoption of more advanced sedimen-
tation processes to satisfy EPA water treatment regulations. The acre-
age of unlined sedimentation basins is not shown separately in Figure i
because of the relatively insignificant area they occupy—50 acres in 1954,
rising to a projected peak of 190 acres in 1973, and declining to 60 acres
in 1983.
Census data and regional projections for this industry show the
Southeast, Pacific Northwest, and New England regions to have the great-
est groundwater pollution potential from primary and secondary wastewater
treatment. Their treatment volumes, areal coverage, and fractions of
the national total are given in Table i.
Based on the seepage rate assumed for this study of 30 inches per
year for unlined sedimentation basins and lagoons, the Southeast region
•would have subsurface infiltration of 34,000 acre-feet in 1968 and 75,000
acre-feet in 1983, or about 40 to 50 percent of the national total. In terms
of regional density of treatment acreage, however, the New England re-
gion exceeds the Southeast region for the later years of the projection:
it has one-fourth as much treatment acreage, but considerably less than
one-fourth as much geographic area.
XVIII
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PETROLEUM
Table i. Pulp and paper industry primary and secondary
wastewater treatment, 1954-1983.
Region
Southeast
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
Pacific Northwest
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
New England
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
United States
Billions of gallons
Hundreds of acres
1954
1 14(67)
23(51)
13(8)
4(9)
<1(.6)
0.3(.6)
170
45
1964
296(62)
87(54)
52(11)
13(8)
2(.4)
1(.6)
481
160
1968
429(63)
136(56)
66(10)
17(7)
2(.3)
K.4)
678
241
1973
693(51)
245(38)
187(14)
63(9)
66(5)
34(5)
1,347
726
1977
751(36)
333(44)
363(17)
95(13)
248(12)
76(10)
2,075
753
1983
647(37)
300(41)
334(19)
93(13)
244(14)
75(10)
1,763
731
Petroleum Refining Industry
The main petroleum refinery wastewater constituents of conse-
quence to groundwater quality are oil, ammonia, suspended solids,
phenols, spent caustics, and sulfides . Overall, this industry uses a
volume of water in its processes comparable to that used by the pulp and
paper industry. However, approximately 25 percent of the industry's
XIX
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SUMMARY
water intake is solely for cooling purposes, of which increasing amounts
are being recirculated: from 1954 to 1964 production output increased
approximately 48 percent, while water intake increased by 13 percent.
Figure ii shows national petroleum refining industry wastewater
treatment volumes and acreages of lagoons for 1954-1968 as obtained
from census data. The values shown for 1968-1983 are projections
based on a 2 percent per year growth rate of wastewater discharged.
As projected, the volume and acreage of wastewater lagooned peaks in
1977, the year when industry must meet the EPA's requirement for
use of the "best practicable technology" for wastewater treatment. The
decline in treatment by lagooning beyond 1977 is based on the assump-
tion that the petroleum refining industry will have begun by then to
adopt alternative methods for secondary wastewater treatment in order
to meet the more stringent EPA 1983 requirement for use of the "best
available technology. "
Unlike the pulp and paper and steel wastewater projection, the
ratio of lagoon acreage to treatment volume remains constant for the
petroleum refining wastewater projection. This is because no credit was
given for expected technological advances in lagooning as it was in the
other two industries .
Figure ii shows a decline in primary sedimentation treatment in
unlined basins from 1964-1983. The decline reflects increased usage
of other, more technologically advanced means of treatment, such as
mechanical separators. The area covered by unlined sedimentation
basins is not shown in the figure as it is so small as to be insignificant
if plotted (about 2 percent of the lagoon acreage in 1964 and about 0. 3
percent in 1983).
The largest past and projected processors of petroleum refinery
wastewater are the Delaware and Hudson, Western Great Lakes, and
xx
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PETROLEUM
1,200
1,100
1,000
900
800
«/> 700
-------
SUMMARY
Western Gulf regions. Their treatment volumes, area coverage, and
fractions of the national total are given in Table ii.
Table ii. Petroleum refining industry primary and secondary
wastewater treatment, 1954-1983.
Region
Delaware & Hudson
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
Western Great Lakes
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
Western Gulf
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
United States
Billions of gallons
Hundreds of acres
1954
96(26)
14(30)
31(8)
2(4)
112(30)
14(30)
368
47
1964
200(26)
40(28)
65(9)
13(9)
242(32)
47(33)
762
144
1968
198(28)
48(27)
44(6)
8(5)
239(34)
77(44)
705
176
1973
251(27)
77(25)
89(10)
27(9)
292(31)
91(30)
929
305
1977
290(25)
109(24)
130(11)
48(11)
328(28)
123(27)
1,174
448
1983
269(26)
110(26)
120(12)
49(12)
285(28)
115(27)
1,023
420
The two largest processors, the Western Gulf and the Delaware
and Hudson regions, are projected to process nearly identical amounts
wastewater by 1983. The fourth largest region, the California region,
of
XXII
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PETROLEUM
not shown in Table ii, is projected to process nearly as much wastewater
by 1983 (98 billion gallons) as the third largest, the Western Great Lakes
region.
The Western Gulf and Delaware and Hudson regions treat the
largest volumes of wastewater throughout the 1954-1983 period. The
Western Gulf in 1954 accounted for 30 percent of the national volume of
petroleum refinery wastewater treated in unlined sedimentation basins
and the Delaware and Hudson 24 percent, and these regions show frac-
tions of 30 and 26 percent, respectively, for 1983. Total volume treated
by unlined sedimentation peaks at 11 5 billion gallons in 1973 for the
Western Gulf region and at 102 billion gallons in 1973 for the Delaware
and Hudson region. The respective fractions of water lagooned in 1983
are about 27 percent and 26 percent of the national total for these two
regions, with the Western Gulf region ranging from 29 billion gallons in
1954 to 225 billion gallons in 1983. The 29-year total for the Western
Gulf region amounts to more than 4, 000 billion gallons with the Delaware
and Hudson region only slightly less.
Although the regional figures do not show concentrations of unlined
basins and lagoons, it is perhaps noteworthy that the Delaware and Hud-
son region, which lagoons a quarter of the nation's petroleum refining
industry wastewater, is also one of the smallest industrial water use
regions in the country. At the projected rate of growth in lagooning,
during the 1977 period this region will contain 10, 800 acres—about 17
square miles—of lagoons. Based on the lagoon seepage rate of 30 inches
per year assumed in this study, the potential exists for 27, 000 acre-feet
per year of polluted water to seep underground in this region alone.
At the projected nationwide rates of industry growth and the as-
sumed seepage rate for lagoons, by 1977 more than 111,000 acre-feet
per year of effluent might seep into the ground. It must be emphasized,
however, that the projections cited here are not forecasts, but serve only
XXIII
-------
SUMMARY
to demonstrate a methodology for the estimation of potential ground-
water impacts.
Primary Metals Industries Wastewater
About 25 to 30 percent of the water used by the primary metals
industries requires treatment for removal of pollutants, with the rest
being used only for cooling purposes. In 1968, for example, only 1,430
billion gallons of wastewater underwent primary and/or secondary treat-
ment although 4,692 billion gallons were discharged.
The major pollutants from this industry that potentially affect
groundwater quality are suspended and dissolved solids, iron, ammonia,
cyanide, phenol, oil, and the heavy metals —arsenic, cadmium, chro-
mium, lead, and zinc. The latter are especially hazardous to human
health.
Figure iii summarizes volumes of wastewater treatment in the
primary metals industry from 1954 to 1968 as determined from census
data and projected treatment from 1969 to 1983 based on assumptions
and estimates of industry growth and treatment practices, technological
change, and compliance with Federal treatment regulations.
As with the pulp and paper and petroleum refining industries, pri-
mary metals industry wastewater sedimentation treatment in unlined
basins and biological treatment in lagoons is expected to peak in the late
1970s to meet the initial EPA treatment requirements, and then decline
subsequently as more technologically advanced alternative treatment
methods are adopted.
The lagoon acreage projections of Figure iii reflect a 50 percent
excess capacity over volume of wastewater treated through 1975, when
the ratio begins to change. This is accounted for by adoption of expected
technological improvements in lagooning which will allow deeper lagoons
and shorter wastewater detention periods, thereby decreasing acreage
requirements for treatment of a given volume of wastewater.
XXIV
-------
PRIMARY METALS
1,200
1,100
1,000
900
800
700
600
Q
z
I 500
400
300
200
100
1 I
TOTAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGED
(billions of gallons)
1954: 3,682
1968- 4,692
1985: 7,568
T I
ACREAGE COVERED BY
LAGOONS AND UNLINED
BASINS
VOLUME OF PRIMARY
TREATMENT IN UNLINED
BASINS
VOLUME OF SECONDARY
TREATMENT IN LAGOONS
2,400
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400 Z
O
O
1,200
Z
g
1,000 ^
800
600
400
200
1954 1959 1964
1969
YEAR
1974 1979 1983
Figure Mi. Total U.S. primary metals industries wastewater treatment volumes
and acreage covered, 1954-1983.
xxv
-------
SUMMARY
Primary metals production —about 90 percent of which is steel-
is concentrated around the Great Lakes and on the Eastern Seaboard.
The regions with the greatest volumes and acreage of wastewater under-
going unlined sedimentation and lagooning are the Eastern Great Lakes,
Ohio River, and the Western Great Lakes. These three areas, listed
in Table iii, have treated, and are projected to continue to treat, the
largest volumes of wastewater and to have the greatest acreage in use
for wastewater treatment. Together they account for about 75 percent
of the industry's wastewater treatment from 1954-1983.
The largest of the three regions in terms of wastewater receiving
primary and/or secondary treatment is the Western Great Lakes region.
This region is projected to incur a peak wasteload for unlined basin and
lagoon treatment by 1977, processing 840 billion gallons of wastewater,
in basins and lagoons covering 28,000 acres.* The next largest, the
Ohio River region, also peaks in 1977 at 21, 400 acres of basins and
lagoons processing 640 billion gallons of wastewater in the same year.
During the late 1970s, the fractions of the national total of primary
metal industries unlined basins and lagoons for these three regions are:
Western Great Lakes, 35 percent; Ohio River, 27 percent; and Eastern
Great Lakes, 16 percent. From 1954 to 1973, the Western Great Lakes
region is projected to have a 33-fold increase in basin and lagoon
acreage, from 900 acres to 29,400 acres. All the other primary metals
industries regions exhibit substantial increases in acreage as well.
Assuming infiltration levels for unlined basins and lagoons of 30
inches per year, the Western Great Lakes region has in 1973 a ground-
water pollution potential of about 75, 000 acre-feet of wastewater seepage
from its unlined basins and lagoons. In the same year, the Ohio River
region has an infiltration potential of nearly 55, 000 acre-feet of waste-
water and the Eastern Great Lakes region 32, 000 acre-feet.
*Acreage of basins and lagoons, however, is greater (29,400 acres) in
1973. Expected technological improvements over the 1973-1977 period
account for the difference.
xxvi
-------
PRIMARY METALS
Table Mi. Primary metals industries primary and secondary
wastewater treatment, 1954-1983.
Region
Eastern Great Lakes
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
Ohio River
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundreds of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
Western Great Lakes
Billions of gallons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Hundred of acres
and fraction of
national total (%)
United States
Billions of gallons
Hundreds of acres
1954
42(19)
6(17)
54(25)
6(17)
63(29)
9(25)
220
36
1964
191(20)
33(19)
181(19)
17(10)
65(7)
41(24)
938
174
1968
171(14)
35(13)
258(21)
41(15)
440(36)
89(32)
1,203
274
1973
306(15)
120(16)
513(26)
202(26)
735(37)
294(38)
1,980
770
1977
383(16)
128(16)
640(27)
214(27)
840(35)
280(35)
2,409
799
1983
259(16)
62(16)
434(26)
104(26)
572(34)
136(34)
1,663
398
At the projected volumes and acreages of unlined basin and lagoon
wastewater treatment, over the 29-year projection period the Western
Great Lakes region, which covers about 2 percent of the continental
United States land area, could absorb more than 1 million acre-feet of
wastewater through subsurface infiltration. Given the assumed industry
growth rates, treatment practices, industry distribution, and infiltration
rates, over the 29-year projection period the three areas taken together
XXVII
-------
SUMMARY
are subject to wastewater subsurface infiltration of up to 2. 25 million
acre-feet with its attendant long-term groundwater pollution implications.
PHOSPHATE ROCK MINING INDUSTRY
The approach used for the phosphate mining industry departs from
that employed for the other three wastewater-producing industries
examined. The analysis is more specific because it is concerned with a
single wastewater-treatment practice in a limited area and thus more
detailed data were available. Slime ponds are the treatment process and
the area is the western part of Polk County, Central Florida, where
about 65 percent of the U.S. phosphate rock production originates.
Phosphate rock is mined by blasting the phosphate matrix with
hydraulic guns to break it up. Through the use of more water the phos-
phate is separated from the clay, sand tailings, and other soil compo-
nents. The waste products from the matrix, coupled with the water
used to break it up and to separate the phosphate, form a waste slime
which is settled in slime ponds. These are of two types—"active" and
"inactive." Active ponds receive slimy wastewaters and desedimented
water is extracted from them for reuse. The disposal of slime is the
only function of the inactive ponds, which do not dry up, and the waste-
water is simply allowed to remain in them, resulting in a buildup of
sedimentation. The slime enters the ponds at a solids concentration
of 4 to 5 percent and quickly settles to 1 0 to 15 percent. Further con-
centration, even after years of settling, never exceeds 25 to 35 percent
solids. The suspended solids content of wastewater in slime ponds, as
well as the mineralogic and chemical composition of these solids— pri-
marily oxides of phosphorus, iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium
— are groundwater pollutants.
The infiltration rate of slime wastewater ponds into underlying
groundwater aquifers is assumed to be the same as that described for the
other industries' sedimentation basins and lagoons: 30 inches per year.
XXVIII
-------
PHOSPHATE
The annual projected growth rate for the phosphate mining industry is
estimated to be 5 percent (see Figure iv) with a commensurate yearly
increase in slime production. On this basis, Polk County is presently
subject to underground infiltration of 64,000 acre-feet of water per year
from its slime ponds. At the projected rate of industry growth, the
infiltration in Polk County alone could approximate 100, 000 acre-feet
per year by 1983. On a national basis, the infiltration may approach
150,000 acre-feet per year by 1983, with about 75 percent of this occur-
ring in Polk County and other parts of Florida, assuming that the geo-
graphic distribution of industry production does not change greatly.
Details of the analytical approach and the data used in projecting
phosphate rock mining production and its waste products are given in Sec-
tion 5.
AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION
The assessment of agricultural fertilizer consumption was based
largely on U.S. Department of Agriculture statistics compiled for nine
fertilizer-consuming regions in the Continental United States as defined
by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, as well as on Bureau of the Census
agricultural statistics.
Determining historical consumption of fertilizer by region was a
relatively straightforward process; all historical data (1954-1970) were
taken from USDA's Agricultural Statistics. The projected consumption
for the years 1971 through 1985 employs the University of Maryland's
Bureau of Business and Economic Research estimates of fertilizer growth
rates and assumes that the 1970 regional proportions of consumption will
remain stable through 1985.
Since the fertilizer-consuming regions vary greatly in size and
amount of fertilized cropland acreage (as distinct from total harvested
cropland acreage), it was necessary as part of the analysis to determine
the past and future fertilized acreage in each region to derive trends in
xxix
-------
SUMMARY
600
500
400
-------
FERTILIZERS
amount of fertilizer application per acre. The regional figures for
1954-1964 fertilized acreage were taken directly from Bureau of Census
statistics. Only the national figures were available for 1969 and 1970,
so these were prorated among the regions by using the regional distri-
bution percentages for 1964.
Data for 1971 and succeeding years were not available. Total har-
vested cropland acreage was projected at 5-year increments for 1975,
1980, and 1985. The projection assumed that essentially all of the
acreage in idle cropland in 1964-1969 will be put to use as harvested
cropland by 1975. This assumption was based on population growth
coupled with policies aimed at increasing food output.
The ratio of fertilized to unfertilized harvested cropland acreage
in the nine regions for 1969-1970 was used to estimate the acreage in
each region that would be under fertilization for the years 1975-1985,
based on the assumption that any cropland which would benefit from
fertilization would already have been under fertilization by 1969-1970.
The analysis indicates that nationally, annual fertilizer consump-
tion increased 1. 8 times from 22 million tons in 1954 to 40 million tons in
1970. A similar margin of growth is expected between 1970 and 1985,
when application of 74 million tons is anticipated. Since little increase
is projected in fertilized harvested cropland acreage, this increase in
consumption corresponds to an increase in application density per ferti-
lized acre as shown in Figure v.
Figures for the regional amounts of fertilizer application per
cropland acre were derived by dividing the past and projected regional
tonnage of fertilizer consumption by the acreage treated. The three
largest consumers of fertilizer, both historically and projected, are the
South Atlantic, East North Central, and West North Central regions,
whose consumption figures and per-acre application rates are given in
Table iv. Together these regions account for about 63 percent of the
XXXI
-------
SUMMARY
Q
Z
a.
O
8
Q
>
DC
I
u_
O
z
o
TOTAL HARVESTED
CROPLAND ACREAGE
200
FERTILIZED HARVESTED
CROPLAND ACREAGE
100
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986
YEAR
Figure v. Application of fertilizer in the United States to fertilized harvested
croplands, 1954-1985.
XXXII
-------
FERTILIZERS
Table iv. Agricultural fertilizer consumption, fertilized harvested
acreage, and per-acre application rates for the three
leading fertilizer consumption regions and the United
States, 1954-1985.
Region
South Atlantic
Millions of tons
and fractions of
national total (%)
Millions of
fertilized acres
Tons applied per
fertilized acre
East North Central
Millions of tons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Millions of
fertilized acres
Tons applied per
fertilized acre
West North Central
Millions of tons
and fraction of
national total (%)
Millions of
fertilized acres
Tons applied per
fertilized acre
United States
Millions of tons
Millions of
fertilized acres
Tons applied per
fertilized acre
1954
6.58
(30)
20.9
0.31
4.52
(20)
31.0
0.15
2.18
(10)
26.4
0.08
22.0
123.0
0.18
1964
7.23
(23)
17.2
0.42
6.13
(20)
33.0
0.19
4.85
(16)
44.1
0.11
30.90
133.0
0.20
1970
7.78
(19)
17.7
0.45
8.76
(21)
33.4
0.26
9.12
(22)
44.7
0.20
40.80
153.0
0.27
1975
9.97
(19)
20.8
0.48
11.23
(21)
39.9
0.28
11.69
(22)
53.3
0.22
52.30
182.5
0.29
1980
12.07
(19)
20.8
0.58
13.60
(21)
39.9
0.34
14.15
(22)
53.3
0.27
63.30
182.5
0.35
1985
14.19
(19)
20.8
0.68
16.00
(22)
39.9
0.40
16.63
(22)
53.3
0.31
74.40
182.5
0.41
XXXIII
-------
SUMMARY
national consumption. Of these, the South Atlantic region is projected to
have the heaviest application rate in 1985 with 0. 68 tons per acre. Two
other regions not shown in the table, the New England and California re-
gions, have the next heaviest application rates with 0.57 tons per acre
projected for 1985.
Details of the analytical approach, the data used, and regional
consumption are given in Section 6. While data are available to compute
consumption by type of fertilizer (principally commercial chemical
mixtures and unmixed nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash), this level of
analysis was not attempted in this demonstration of methodology, nor
was any attempt made to relate density of application to groundwater
pollution potential.
BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT INDUSTRY
The methodological approach to assessing pollution from beef
cattle feedlots was based on statistics compiled for eleven cattle feeding
regions in the continental United States. The available statistics were
compiled by USDA and EPA for yearly cattle feedlot production from
1962 through 1972. Growth rates for 1972-1983 feedlot beef production
are those of the University of Maryland's Bureau of Business and
Economic Research.
Of the constituents present in beef cattle wastes that are possible
groundwater pollutants, nitrogen comprises 3. 1 to 9-8 percent of total
solids, potassium 1. 7 to 3.8 percent, and phosphorus 0. 3 to 1.7 percent,
with other constituents occurring in lesser amounts. The mechanisms
by which these constituents might pollute groundwater are direct infiltra-
tion of leachates through feedlots and by rainwater or flushing water from
feedlots that may be caught and held or treated in ponds or lagoons.
Several estimates and assumptions were used to derive the amount
and concentrations of beef cattle wastes from regional feedlot activities.
xxxiv
-------
FEEDLOTS
These deal with average weight per head, average daily amount of
waste produced per head, average length of feedlot residence, average
feedlot area per head, seasonality of feedlot production, and regional
distribution of beef cattle production in the United States.
Historical data concerning average weight per head upon entering
and leaving feedlots were assumed to remain unchanged for the pro-
jection period of 1971-1983. The amount of waste per head per day was
derived as an average from several estimates. Average feedlot area
per head estimates were available for only four regions, so a conserva-
tive estimate of 200 square feet per head was assumed for the remain-
ing seven regions. Based on historical data, seasonality of feedlot
population was assumed to be relatively stable, and regional distribution
of production was assumed to remain unchanged for the 1971-1983 period.
Past data and beef production growth rate forecasts were used to
prepare regional estimates of feedlot acreage and annual amount of waste
deposits for 1962 through 1983. Figure vi indicates that by 1983 nation-
wide beef production, feedlot area, and animal waste deposits will be
more than double the 1962 figures.
The largest producers of fed beef cattle over the 1962-1983 pro-
jection period are the Corn Belt, Northern Plains, and High Plains
regions. These three regions are projected to account for about 70 per-
cent of the nation's feedlot beef cattle production from 1971 to 1983,
with concomitant shares of feedlot acreage and manure generation as
shown in Table v. Two of these regions, the Corn Belt region and
Northern Plains region, adjoin each other. Over the 1962-1983 period
they are projected to accumulate more than 0. 8 billion tons of cattle
feedlot wastes, or about one-half the U.S. total, amounting to a regional
concentration about six times that of the rest of the country.
Details of the study approach are presented in Section 7 along with
a breakdown of the principal constituents of cattle excreta. Although
XXXV
-------
SUMMARY
130
120
110
100
t 90
t/>
o
Q-
I— O
CO ««
II
-
.
°
70
0
I§
uj Q 50
U
o 40
3
Z
30
20
10
0
1962
FEEDLOT WASTE
DEPOSIT TONNAGE
CATTLE MARKETED
FROM FEEDLOTS
AVERAGE FEEDLOT
POPULATION
1966
1970
1974
YEAR
1978
1982
Figure vi. U.S. feedlot beef cattle marketed, average feedlot
population, and waste deposit tonnage and acreage,
1962-1983.
XXXVI
-------
FEEDLOTS
sufficient data are available to disaggregate regional feedlot production
into State production, this was not attempted in the present limited
methodology demonstration, nor was any attempt made to assess the im-
pact of feedlots on groundwater integrity.
Table v. Fed beef cattle production, feedlot acreage, and waste
deposits of the three leading feedlot regions, 1962-1983.
Region
Corn Belt
Millions of cattle marketed and
fraction of national total (%)
Millions of tons of
waste deposits
Thousands of feedlot acres
Northern Plains
Millions of cattle marketed and
fraction of national total (%)
Millions of tons of
waste deposits
Thousands of feedlot acres
High Plains
Millions of cattle marketed and
fraction of national total (%)
Millions of tons of
waste deposits
Thousands of feedlot acres
United States
Millions of cattle marketed
Millions of tons of
waste deposits
Thousands of feedlot acres
1962
5.23
(35)
15.05
9.99
3.18
(21)
9.17
6.08
1.07
(7)
3.08
2.05
14.96
43.08
27.39
1968
7.28
(32)
20.96
11.54
5.56
(24)
16.02
10.63
2.71
(12)
7.79
5.17
23.04
66.36
42.35
1971
6.64
(26)
19.13
12.69
6.39
(25)
18.39
12.20
4.58
(18)
13.19
8.75
25.70
74.01
47.36
1975
7.42
(26)
21.38
14.20
7.14
(25)
20.55
13.63
5.12
(18)
14.74
9.78
28.72
82.70
52.94
1979
8.23
(26)
23.69
15.79
7.91
(25)
22.77
15.11
5.67
(18)
16.33
10.84
31.82
91.64
58.68
1983
9.04
(26)
26.02
17.27
8.69
(25)
25.01
16.60
6.23
(18)
17.94
11.90
34.96
100.68
64.44
XXXVII
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
POLLUTION SOURCES ANALYZED
This report describes preliminary research towards the develop-
ment of a methodology for the estimation of kinds, amounts and trends
of groundwater pollution from the activities of man, and the illustrative
application of this methodology to selected activities which represent
important potential sources of groundwater pollution. The results of
these analyses consist of estimates—over time —of the volumes and the
areal coverage of potential groundwater pollutants. Given these estimates,
geohydrological analyses may be employed to infer the extent to which
the activities considered could contribute to groundwater degradation in
specific situations.
The activities for which preliminary analyses were performed are
the pulp and paper industry, the petroleum refining industry, the primary
metals industries, phosphate rock mining, and two major agricultural
activities, fertilizer use and cattle feedlots. Taken together, these com-
prise a broad spectrum of the types of activities which may affect ground-
water quality, and thus serve to demonstrate the applicability of the ap-
proach to a diversity of activities. Additionally, these activities embrace
examples of point source as well as a nonpoint source (agricultural fer-
tilizer) of potential groundwater pollution and therefore provide an oppor-
tunity for the use of various appropriate types of geohydrological analyses.
The industrial activities were selected from among the largest users of
industrial water in the United States because the amount of wastewater to
be disposed of (in ways which may pollute groundwater, such as lagooning
-------
SECTION 1
or sedimentation ponds) is usually related to the amount of water taken
in for processing operations. In 1968, chemical manufacturing, primary
metals production, pulp and paper production, and petroleum refining
accounted for 29 percent, 32 percent, 15 percent, and 9 percent, respec-
tively, of total U.S. industrial water intake, totaling about 85 percent.
Phosphate rock mining falls within the chemicals manufacture area, and
steel production accounts for about 90 percent of U.S. primary metals
production. The impact on groundwater quality of the two agricultural
activities, fertilizer use and cattle feedlots, are not keyed to their intake
of water, but rather to the areas they affect and to the intensity of the
activities in these areas.
Estimates were made of the volumes and areal extent of the possible
groundwater pollutants from each activity, by census regions for the United
States, except for phosphate rock mining. This estimate covered only a
small, well-defined area of Florida that accounts for about 64 percent of
U. S. phosphate rock production. Although geographically concentrated,
this activity was included as a demonstration of the approach in an extrac-
tive industry. The analysis could, of course, be repeated to treat other
extractive industries concentrated elsewhere.
The choice of activities analyzed in this report does not imply any
judgment that they are more important than other potential sources of
groundwater pollution which were not included. Further, only tentative
conclusions can be drawn regarding the relative importance among the
activities herein analyzed, within the context of the broad regional break-
downs employed in this preliminary study. The relative importance of
sources may vary greatly from region to region, even within a particular
broadly defined activity. For example, with respect to agriculture as a
broad activity, in areas of irrigated croplands the principal source of
salt input to the soil —and potentially, the groundwater—is often the irri-
gation water rather than the use of fertilizers which is analyzed in this
study.
-------
INTRODUCTION
The value of the approach demonstrated in this study lies primarily
in its use of easily available data on man's activities to provide a basis
for inferring groundwater quality. This is of special importance because
of the long delay—typical of ground-water aquifers—between input of the
pollutant and the recognition of the degradation of the resource. For
example, pollutants that entered an aquifer, say in 1955, may not be de-
tected at an extraction point until 1980. By relating groundwater pollution
to man's activities, both the current and future condition of an aquifer
may be inferred. The analysis can be performed for any desired geogra-
phic area, recognizing always that the inference may be very approximate
unless small areas are considered in detail.
However, from a broad point of view, an important use of the re-
sults of the analysis presented here is that even at an aggregated geogra-
phic level (ie, region) an inference may be drawn of the geographic areas
which may be most susceptible to groundwater pollution from various
activities.
In subsequent analyses, the geographic unit of study could easily
be made States, or Department of Commerce Business and Economic
Areas. This would give a rapid and synoptic view of the geographic in-
cidence of potential pollution from various sources of man's activities.
It cannot be overemphasized that the aim of this report is to pre-
sent an approach to relating groundwater pollution to man's activities.
Numerous assumptions were made when data were not readily available.
The reader is invited to change any assumptions he finds implausible,
and use the approach to develop numerical estimates of his own.
RATIONALE
The objectives of EPA and the States in implementing the require-
ments of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
(P. L. 92-500; 86 Stat. 816) are to "prevent, reduce, and eliminate
-------
SECTION 1
pollution of water resources, " "improve their sanitary condition, " and
"restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity"
of the Nation's groundwaters. To prevent, reduce, and eliminate pollu-
tion requires that the sources of groundwater pollution be identified, and
that control and enforcement actions be undertaken on the basis of the
severity of pollution and the number of people who would benefit from
cleaner waters.
The phrase "monitoring groundwater quality" has almost invariably
been used in the sense of taking samples of water from a well and subject-
ing these samples to chemical and biological analysis. Information de-
scribing groundwater pollution is very sparse, and the data that do exist
have not been centrally collected and compiled. Because of their sparsity
and unreliability it appears that an adequate picture of groundwater pollu-
tion could not be drawn from existing data even if the scattered and frag-
mentary reports were collected and compiled.
In studying the question of how groundwater quality might be assessed
most effectively in relation to cost and to best support the development
of groundwater quality standards and enforcement procedures, TEMPO
soon recognized that "monitoring" must be used in a much broader sense
than simply analyzing samples of groundwater, and inferring the state of
the aquifer from these samples. This recognition is based on some of
the facts of groundwater hydrology:
• Groundwater moves so slowly (the average rate ranges from
5 feet per day to 5 feet per year) that contaminants may not be
detected at sampling points for years or decades after they
enter the ground.
• A water sample from a nonpumped well is representative only
of the water in the well; if the well has been pumped, even for
a number of years, the water sample may have moved only a
few tens of feet during the period of pumping, and the sample
-------
INTRODUCTION
is still representative of only a tiny fraction of the aquifer
volume.
• Many contaminants tend to occur in plumes that spread out
quite slowly. Thus, samples taken from a particular point
in the aquifer are very unlikely to be representative of the
aquifer. It follows that groundwater monitoring in the conven-
tional sense of well-sampling is an indirect method, and one
that can be relied upon to produce high-confidence results only
at very considerable expense, if at all.
• Tracing detected contaminants back to their source—both in
space and time—is often very difficult, and may not provide
adequate proof of legal culpability.
A major conclusion from these facts is that the detection of pollu-
tants at the point where they enter the ground (which may constitute a
violation of regulations, when the regulations impose controls intended
to prevent the escape of pollutants into the ground) is the most rapid and
effective way to detect and limit the amount of pollution.
This study demonstrates that analysis of man's activities can serve
as an alternative approach to sampling groundwater to monitor its quality.
It should be noted that this approach may be no more indirect a means of
monitoring than the sampling approach which has conventionally been
used.
OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Available historical data and growth rate projections were used to
assess the impact of past, present, and future demographic, economic,
and technological factors upon groundwater quality. As indicated earlier,
demonstration studies were conducted using the following four industrial
wastewater examples and two solid waste examples:
• Pulp and paper manufacturing wastewater
• Petroleum refining wastewater
-------
SECTION 1
• Primary metals manufacturing wastewater
• Phosphate mining wastewater
• Commercial fertilizer consumption
• Beef cattle feedlot wastes
Wastewater Examples
The first three examples are based largely on U. S. Bureau of the
Census manufacturing statistics and industry growth forecasts by the
University of Maryland's Bureau of Business and Economic Research.
The fourth is based primarily upon U. S. Bureau of Mines data.
The estimates are segregated by U.S. Bureau of the Census Indus-
trial Water Use Regions (see Figure 1) except in the case of phosphate
rock mining, since this latter industry is concentrated in a single county
in central Florida. Because of the highly aggregate nature of the data
they are meant only to reflect orders of magnitude and in the case of
projections, only trends. Their use is intended to be limited to sugges-
tions for further research and not as regulatory guidelines, nor as de-
finitive indications of the hazard from these activities. For example,
the potential harm that might be caused by groundwater pollution in a very
concentrated, populous area is obviously greatly different from the same
amount spread over a wide area.
In addition to the uncertainty due to aggregations, more uncertainty
arises from the limited amount of data collected. In order to confidently
estimate pollution in groundwater not only is it necessary to know the
diffusion properties of the polluted water after it enters an aquifer, but
also to have information concerning soil properties and wastewater en-
gineering practices of the industries in question. The data collected did
not encompass all of these needs.
Of major interest in the wastewater studies were treatment prac-
tices that use unlined earthen pits to contain wastewater and their waste
solids, possibly allowing wastes to seep into underground aquifers. The
-------
INTRODUCTION
o
ro
£
D
0>
-------
SECTION 1
two relevant practices were unlined sedimentation and lagooning. The
first, unlined sedimentation, is used to remove suspended solids. The
water is contained in an unlined basin and the solids are settled out.
This purely physical treatment is also called primary treatment. In the
second, the water sits in a shallow pond and the bacteria which the water
contains combine with oxygen from the air to stabilize the waste products
remaining after primary treatment. This biological treatment is also
called secondary treatment. Because of the relatively short detention
time of the water for sedimentation as compared to lagooning —and thus
the lesser containment capacity required—unlined sedimentation consti-
tutes a lesser threat to groundwater integrity.
The major relevant parameters for estimating infiltration potential
from these wastewater treatment practices are the following:
1. Constituents of the wastewater which might migrate into the
underground water supply
2. Aquifer structure of proximate area
3. Soil composition
4. Containment time for water treatment
5. Area covered by water (or by empty lagoons, etc, -waiting to
be cleaned)
6. Degree to which lagoon or sedimentation basin seals itself.
Constituents and their concentrations were found for the most part
2
from The Cost of Clean Water. In most cases total wastewater as given
by Cost was divided into total wasteload of a specific constituent to obtain
the concentration. This, of course, varies from case to case; but only
an average could be obtained. The concentration becomes even more
uncertain in the case of a multistep production process in which different
waterborne wastes are generated according to steps, since the wastes
may be treated together. Depending on the assumptions made, the esti-
mated concentrations could vary greatly.
-------
INTRODUCTION
The waste constituents for which the water is being treated, BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) or suspended solids, are not necessarily
of interest. Those of concern are total solids dissolved in the water
(TDS) and constituents such as cyanide, arsenic, cadmium, zinc, etc.
These are the pollutants which may find their way into groundwater under
certain geological and hydrological conditions. While peculiar geological
and hydrological factors in each of the regions were not studied, it may
be germane to point out, for example, that the Southeast, a region in
which lagooning is a widespread practice, has a high water table which
greatly increases the potential for groundwater pollution.
On the basis of conversations with sanitary engineers, ' the waste-
water studies assumed a seepage rate of 30 inches per year for unlined
lagoons and ponds used in all industries and regions. The limiting fac-
tors are the soil and the sealing activity of the waste treatment bottom.
This sealing activity is rather uniform; thus the assumption of a constant
infiltration rate may not be too far off. However, a few months are re-
quired for a new lagoon or basin to seal itself, during which time a high
seepage rate exists. This seepage rate will obviously depend on the
characteristics of the soil. Moreover, since lagooning as a widespread
practice is a relatively recent phenomenon, presealant seepage has
probably not been negligible. Because of the sketchiness of the data,
however, variation in the seepage rate was not taken into account in any
systematic way.
The finalized data are in the form of volume of wastewater treated
and acreage covered continuously by water being treated by the various
processes. For sedimentation basins, the algorithm used to estimate
acreage is the following: obtain total water being treated per year from
Secondary treatment actually reduces cyanide level.
Notably Professor P. H. McGauhey, Sanitary Engine'
Laboratory, University of California at Berkeley.
-------
SECTION 1
3 4
Census of Manufactures ' and estimate the portion that is treated.
Assuming that each industry operates 300 days per year, divide 300 into
total water treated to estimate the total water dumped into basins each
day. Divide by two to account for one-half day of treatment time. To
obtain acreage covered, divide daily volume by 7. 5 to obtain cubic feet
of •water, divide cubic feet by the basin depth (assumed to be 8 feet for
sedimentation basins), and finally divide the resulting square feet of
coverage by square feet per acre (43,560). For lagoons, the calculation
is similar but the volume must be increased by the number of days the
wastewater is retained. Based on an average pond depth of 4 feet, a de-
tention time of 20 days was assumed (on the basis of personal contact, *
Paper Profits, Wastewater Engineering, etc). Thus, the calculation
was as follows:
Gallons lagooned/year + 300 days/year = gallons lagooned/day,
and
Gallons lagooned/day X 20 days -^7.5 gallons/cubic f t ^ 4 f t depth
•j- 43, 560 ft^/acre = acreage covered.
However, this calculation assumes 20 separate lagoons to avoid
holding some water for more than 20 days. Also, some excess lagoon
capacity must be available to allow for cleaning, and some time is re-
quired to fill and empty the lagoons. "I" Because of these latter considera-
tions, after arriving at acreage by the aforementioned method, an extra
50 percent was added for the steel and petroleum wastewater cases;
*P.H. McGauhey.
^Neglecting drainage times, exactly 50 percent excess capacity would be
necessary employing three lagoons of 10 days' capacity each. Lagoon 1
would be filled from days 1 through 10 and the effluent held through day
30. Lagoon 2 would be filled from days 11 through 20 and the effluent
held through day 40. Lagoon 3 would be filled from days 21 through 30,
after which lagoon 1 would again be available for filling.
10
-------
INTRODUCTION
the extra capacity was neglected in the paper wastewater case. The
omission is not critical because varying detention times, depths, waste-
water engineering processes, climate, etc, render these results very
approximate and aggregative at best.
Aside from estimating present acreage covered, wastewater vol-
umes were projected forward to 1983 and backward to 1954. As more
and more water receives treatment in unlined basins and lagoons, the
threat to groundwater increases because of larger seepage areas. In
most cases the 1968 figures from the 1967 Census of Manufactures were
used for a base and 1977 (the EPA deadline for best practicable technol-
ogy) was assumed to be the year in which all wastewater had to undergo
secondary treatment. In the pulp and paper industry, for instance, in
1968 about 34 percent of total wastewater underwent treatment. In 1977
100 percent is assumed to be treated, and interpolations were used for
the interim years. When supportable by the available data, different
projections were made for different regions.
In addition to considering amounts of water treated, assumptions
were made in regard to changes in treatment technology. For instance,
as more lagoons become lined and aerated and more water is treated by
alternate methods, deeper lagoons, shorter detention times, and a smaller
amount of water lagooned in relation to total -water receiving secondary
treatment can be assumed.
Detailed results of the pulp and paper, petroleum refining, and
primary metals manufacturing wastewater studies are given in Sections
2, 3, and 4. The phosphate mining wastewater study is described in
Section 5.
Solid Waste Examples
The commercial fertilizer and feedlot waste examples generally
follow a similar methodological approach to that employed in the liquid-
waste studies. Both employ statistical data prepared by the Bureau of
11
-------
SECTION 1
the Census and the U.S. Department of Agriculture to define past condi-
tions, both are based on regions defined by the Bureau of the Census,
and both employ growth forecasts from the University of Maryland's
Bureau of Business and Economic Research in order to project future
trends.
Like the industrial waste-water examples, the fertilizer and feedlot
examples employ certain assumptions: the results are intended only to
indicate orders of magnitude and trends and to demonstrate a methodology
and suggest areas for further work. The nine fertilizer-using regions
and the eleven cattle feeding regions used in these studies are doubtless
too aggregated to furnish data upon which to base regulatory action. But
again, even at this level of aggregation it may be useful to note, for exam-
ple, that the South Atlantic fertilizer consuming region is projected to
apply more fertilizer tonnage per acre by 1985 than any other region in
the United States, and this region is roughly equivalent in its boundaries
to the Southeast industrial water use region with its intensive industrial
wastewater lagooning activity.
Neither the fertilizer nor the feedlot waste study attempts to define
the groundwater pollution potential of these substances, but only to dem-
onstrate a possible approach to determine in a gross way what past,
present, and future concentrations of pollutants may exist and at what
rate the condition may be intensifying. To carry the analyses further
requires more disaggregation and additional data (eg, on rainfall, which
may be an important determinant of the pollution potential of some solid
wastes), and expert geological and hydrological judgments. The detailed
results of the fertilizer and feedlot waste investigations are described
in Sections 6 and 7, respectively.
Estimation of Groundwater Infiltration
The methodology employed in the demonstration studies described
in this report yields estimates of past and projected potential groundwater
12
-------
INTRODUCTION
pollutants based on economic growth and technological change. A hydro-
logical analysis is required to derive the actual ground-water pollution
which may be caused by these potential pollutants.
The following demonstrates a first-approximation approach to esti-
mating the extent to which liquid wastes can infiltrate and pollute aquifers,
using as an example leachate from an urban landfill. Clearly, the results
can be made more explicit and more reliable by incorporating more specific
data.
Consider a hypothetical groundwater basin in the Eastern United
States with an area of 1,000 square miles. The area is largely urbanized,
with a population of some 2 million persons. Assuming a landfill for
every 20,000 persons, a total of 100 landfills are distributed within the
area.
To determine the effect of landfills on groundwater quality, assume
that:
• The average landfill has an area of one million square feet
(1,000 by 1,000 feet, or 23 acres)
• Ninety percent of the existing landfills have no controls to pre-
vent leakage and hence are capable of generating leachate
• Annual precipitation averages 36 inches per year and 50 percent
(or 18 inches) of this infiltrates into the landfills and emerges
as leachate.
On the basis of the above assumptions, the leachate generated by one
landfill will amount to
106 ft2 X 1. 5 ft/yr X 7.48 gal/ft3 = 11 X 106 gal/yr.
This volume of leachate mixes in most cases with the ground-water
contained in the shallow unconfined aquifer underlying the landfill. For
estimating purposes let the actual groundwater velocity be 3 feet per day.
The leachate can be assumed to mix by dispersive action within the top
13
-------
SECTION 1
10 feet of the groundwater body below the water table. With an aquifer
porosity of 0. 33, this provides an available groundwater dilution volume
of
1, 000 ft X 10 ft X 0. 33 X 3(365)ft/yr X 7. 48 gal/ft3 = 27 X 106 gal/yr.
Bacterial pollution can be neglected so that only chemicals in solu-
tion need be considered. If the initial concentration of total dissolved
solids in the leachate averages S, 000 mg/1, and if the mixing of the
leachate within the top 10 feet of groundwater is complete, the resulting
increase in pollutant concentration of the groundwater will amount to
This concentration (plus that of the native groundwater) would be
expected in a shallow monitor well located immediately downstream
from the landfill. At greater distances downstream the concentration
will gradually diminish by dispersion and dilution. In a typical situation
the plume of polluted groundwater might extend 5, 000 feet from a land-
fill—either to a surface water body receiving groundwater outflow or to
a point where the concentration was considered acceptable in terms of
water quality criteria. The area affected could then be estimated as
1,000 ft X 5,000 f t = 5 X 106 ft2, or 115 acres.
Extending the above reasoning for a single landfill to the entire
groundwater basin, the total number of landfills contributing leachate
to groundwater would equal 90. The total volume of groundwater degraded
would amount to
90 X (11 + 27) X 106 gal/yr = 3. 4 X 109 gal/yr.
This volume represents the estimated annual production rate of
polluted groundwater due to landfills.
The gross area subject to groundwater pollution from landfills
would be equal to
14
-------
INTRODUCTION
100(23) + 90(115) = 12,650 acres
= 19. 8 square miles.
Stated another -way, landfills in the hypothetical basin occupy only 0. 36
percent (3. 6 square miles) of the gross land area in the basin, but they
adversely affect groundwater quality underlying 1.98 percent (19.8 square
miles) of the basin.
The type of hydrological analysis employed above has the advantage
of being a relatively rapid and easy method for arriving at gross estimates
of groundwater pollution concentrations, volumes, and areas. It has the
disadvantage of all approximations; namely, it may be misleading in spe-
cific applications unless refined by using more specific information and
improving the estimates on a case-by-case basis, or at least on the basis
of a number of categories of landfills, wastes, construction methods, and
local hydrological conditions (including soil and underlying aquifer materials).
Some of the techniques used in the context of the landfill illustration
are employed in the analyses of Sections 2 through 7 to give a rough indi-
cation of the probable importance of potential groundwater pollutants
from various sources. However, it cannot be emphasized too strongly
that the results are very approximate. Far more detailed and specific
data and analyses are necessary to make decisions regarding regulation,
monitoring, and enforcement actions. The intent at this stage is to dem-
onstrate methodology, not to produce quantitative results.
15
-------
SECTION 2
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTEWATER
INTRODUCTION
In 1968 the pulp and paper industry discharged 2, 078 billion gallons
of wastewater and was responsible for one-fourth of all industrial effluent
treated in lagoons in the United States. This total effluent output by the
pulp and paper industry represented an increase of 28 percent over that
of 1954, and is about one-half of the expected discharge in 1983. Pulp
and paper manufacturing is a significant industry in most, but not all, of
the 18 Industrial Water Use Regions (Figure 1).
Two types of wastewater treatment are commonly employed: "pri-
mary, " or sedimentation, treatment to settle out suspended solids, and
"secondary" treatment for the reduction of biological oxygen demand
(BOD) through bacterial action to stabilize waste products. Generally,
BOD treatment occurs after wastewaters have been subjected to sedi-
mentation treatment. In a few paper-manufacturing regions of the coun-
try sedimentation treatment is accomplished in unlined earthen basins,
while lagooning for BOD reduction is used in all areas.
Lagoons receive greater volumes of wastewater, require more
time to dispose of their wastes and occupy more extensive acreage than
do unlined sedimentation basins in this industry. In 1954, 86 billion gal-
lons of effluent were treated in lagoons covering 4,400 acres, while 84
billion gallons were processed in unlined sedimentation basins covering
only 54 acres. In 1968, the figures were 466 billion gallons and 24,000
acres for lagooning, with 212 billion gallons and 135 acres for unlined
sedimentation. As discussed subsequently in this section, the industry
16
-------
PULP AND PAPER
is projected by 1983 to process 1,864 billion gallons of waste-water cover-
ing 73,000 acres in lagoons, and 99 billion gallons covering 63 acres in
unlined sedimentation basins. These figures indicate the divergence over
time of increase in effluent treated from the more modest increases in
total effluent.
The greatest concentration of pulp and paper industry lagooning and
unlined sedimentation basin processing in the United States is in the
Southeast region, with substantial volumes and areas also evident in the
Pacific Northwest, Arkansas, New England, and the Western Great Lakes
regions. According to Paper Profits, lagooning is used extensively in
all regions of the country having significant pulp and paper industry ac-
tivity. Unlined sedimentation is used extensively only in the Chesapeake
Bay, Southeast, and Pacific Northwest regions, with the other paper-
producing regions using different primary treatment techniques.
The effluent from these lagoons and basins is a possible groundwater
contaminant, since it contains 0.012 pounds per gallon of TDS (total dis-
solved solids) and may infiltrate underlying groundwater. Generally,
the TDS content is composed of lignins, wood sugars, sulfates, sulfites,
calcium compounds, grease, and color. Since the TDS content of the
effluent is not significantly affected by sedimentation or lagooning, a
homogeneous batch of waste-water—in terms of its possible impact on
groundwater quality —can be assumed for both these treatment processes.
Based on conversations with sanitary engineers, the infiltration rate of
this effluent from unlined basins and lagoons into underlying ground-water
is estimated to be 30 inches per year. This figure may vary by as much
as a factor of 10, depending on local soil conditions, self-sealing, and
presealant leakage.
The following subsections discuss the assumptions made and the
analytical approach used in projecting the volume of wastewater for un-
lined sedimentation and lagooning. Standard Industrial Code (SIC) 26,
17
-------
SECTION 2
"Paper and Allied Products, " was used in gathering information from
3 4
Census of Manufactures. ' The regional volumes of and the areas cov-
ered by the two treatment methods are reviewed and the total volume of
wastewater discharged nationally by the industry is presented.
APPROACH
Five factors were considered in the projections of the volume of
wastewater in unlined sedimentation basins and lagoons and several
assumptions were made accordingly.
The first factor was the growth of the industry's production output.
The following estimates of the annual growth rates for 1971-1983 were
obtained from the University of Maryland, Bureau of Business and Eco-
nomic Research.
Year Percent/Year
1971-1973 5.73
1974-1975 6.55
1976-1978 5.36
1979-1983 2.21
The 1968-1971 growth rate was assumed to be the same as that shown
in the projections for 1971-1973.
The second factor considered was possible variation in water-
usage per unit of output. None of the references consulted anticipated
any lower usage or more recycling within the projection period. Thus,
the wastewater discharged (as opposed to wastewater treated) by the
industry was assumed to grow at the same rates as those shown for pro-
duction output. Table 1 shows the past and projected volume of waste-
water discharged from 1954-1983. The historical data (1954-1968) shown
3 4
in the table are taken from Census of Manufactures. ' The data were
listed by region for 1964 and 1968, but only national totals were available
for 1954 and 1959. For these earlier two periods the regional discharge
shares are assumed to be the same as for 1964 and the total industry
18
-------
PULP AND PAPER
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19
-------
SECTION 2
discharge allocated accordingly. The national projections for waste-water
discharge for 1971-1983 are based on the above industry growth rates
from Reference 1, while the regional projections assume that the 1968
regional distribution will remain unchanged through 1983.
The third consideration was possible changes in the amount of
wastewater undergoing primary treatment as a percentage of the total
discharged by the industry. This was reviewed only for the three regions
shown in Table 2, as none of the other thirteen regions examined was
using unlined sedimentation basins for primary treatment. The 1964 and
1968 data were taken directly from Census of Manufactures. The back-
ward projections for 1954 and 1959 assume that, since water pollution
regulations were less stringent in those years than in 1964, the approxi-
mate percentages of water treated in 1954 and 1959 were respectively
20 percent and 10 percent lower than in 1964. The 1971-1983 projections
assume that these particular three regions will comply with the EPA re-
quirement to treat 100 percent of all wastewater prior to discharge by
1977. Each region is projected to achieve 100 percent treatment by 1977
in increments that depend upon 1968 treatment percentages.
The fourth factor considered in the projections was possible changes
in waste-treatment technology. The references reviewed indicated that
industry use of the "best available" technology by 1983 -will tend to stem
the rise of unlined sedimentation and lagooning. The former is considered
a "primitive" treatment process, while the latter is considered an "ad-
^
vanced" method. Thus, in addition to total percentages of primary treat-
ment, Table 2 shows for three regions the percentages of primary treat-
ment accomplished in unlined basins for 1954-1983, the 1968 data for
which are taken from Paper Profits. In projecting back from 1968 to
But only in the context of today's technology. EPA 1983 requirements
will probably relegate unlined lagoons to something less than an "ad-
vanced" treatment technique.
20
-------
PULP AND PAPER
Table 2. Estimated percentages of pulp and paper industry total wastewater discharged
receiving primary treatment and estimated percentages of primary treatment
achieved in unlined sedimentation basins, 1954—1983.
Region
Chesapeake Bay
Total % treated0
% treated in unlined
basins
Southeast
Total % treated0
% treated in unlined
basins
Pacific Northwest
Total % treated0
% treated in unlined
basins"
1954
22
45
25
65
7
40
1959
32
40
35
60
17
35
1964
42
35
45
55
27
30
1968
49
30
55
50
41
25
1971
70
25
75
40
65
21
1973
85
20
90
30
85
18
1975
95
15
95
20
95
14
1977
100
10
100
10
100
10
1983
100
5
100
5
100
5
Notes:
a!964 and 1968 data from References 3 and 4; a 10% per 5 years decrease from
1964—1954 is assumed in total percentage of wastewater treated because of less
stringent pollution regulations.
"1968 data from References 2 and 5; for wastewater treated, 5% and 10% more is
assumed treated in unlined sedimentation basins in 1959 and 1954, respectively,
because of the state of treatment technology, and the EPA requirement of 'best
available technology" by 1983 is assumed to virtually rule out unlined basinso
1954, the percentages of wastewater treatment in unlined sedimentation
basins were increased by 5 percent per 5 years to reflect the more primi-
tive state of treatment technology. The 1971—1983 projections assume
that by 1983 EPA requirements will virtually eliminate the use of unlined
basins in the three regions. Each of the regions was projected individ-
ually, depending upon its 1968 percentage.
Since secondary treatment of wastewater by lagooning was an ad-
vanced process in the earlier part of the period covered by this study,
21
-------
SECTION 2
the 1954—1964 estimates contained in Table 3 assume that the percentages
of total effluent treated in each region by lagooning were less than they
were in 1968. For 1954, 1959, and 1964 these were assumed to be 25,
50, and 75 percent of the 1968 lagooning percentages, while the 1971-
1977 projections assume that the percentage of total effluent treated by
o
lagooning will increase to approximately 50 to 60 percent by 1977. Both
of these projections were made individually for each region, depending
Table 3. Estimated percentages of total wastewater discharged receiving secondary
treatment in lagoons in the pulp and paper industry, 1954—1983,,
Region
New England
Delaware and
Hudson
Chesapeake Bay
Eastern Great
Lakes
Ohio River
Southeast
Western Great
Lakes
Upper Mississippi
Arkansas
Western Gulf
Pacific
Northwest
1954°
Oo3
3.
6.
2.
3.
11.
4.
0.2
24.
12.
3.
1959°
0.5
6.
11.
4.
6.
22.
8.
0.4
49.
24.
6.
1964a
0.8
9.
17.
5.
8.
33.
11.
0.6
73.
35.
8.
1968b
lo
12.
22.
7.
11.
44.
15.
0.8
97.
47.
1.
1971
10.
25.
30.
20.
16.
50.
20.
10o
98.
55.
20.
1973
20.
40.
35.
35.
35.
60.
35.
20.
96.
60 o
30.
1975
40.
55.
40.
50.
45.
65.
55.
50.
94.
70.
50.
1977C
60.
60.
40.
60.
55.
65.
60.
60.
92.
70.
60.
1983°
50.
60.
40.
50.
50.
50.
50.
50.
86.
60.
50.
Notes:
aPast projections assume progressive 25 percent decreases in lagooning.
"Data from Reference 4.
c Based on estimates from Reference 2.
22
-------
PULP AND PAPER
upon its 1968 percentage. Finally, the 1983 projections assume that
simple lagooning will not be considered the "best available" technology
in 1983, and so will not satisfy the EPA's 1983 requirements. Thus,
all of the regional percentages for 1983 were either slightly reduced to
reflect more advanced technology or were maintained at their 1977 levels.
The fifth factor was whether the industry exhibits any significant
seasonality of production, as this could affect the capacity requirements
for sedimentation basins and lagoons. Since no production peaks seem
to exist, it was assumed that basin and lagoon capacities need be suffi-
cient only for uniform production, wastewater discharge, and treatment
schedules in any given year.
REGIONAL POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
Unlined Sedimentation Basins
The estimated volume of, and area covered by, wastewater in un-
lined sedimentation basins in the three regions employing this practice
are shown in Table 4. From 1954—1983, the Southeast is shown in the
table to have several times the volume and acreage of either of the other
two regions, with the Chesapeake Bay region having the smallest volume
and acreage. The year in which the greatest volumes and acreages for
the three regions are expected is 1973, while 1975-1983 reflect a signifi-
cant reduction in both parameters due to adoption of more advanced
treatment methods.
At the assumed infiltration rate of 30 inches per year, for 1973 the
Chesapeake Bay, Southeast, and Pacific Northwest regions show an infil-
tration potential of 37, 342, and 100 acre-feet of wastewater per year,
respectively. By 1983, the infiltration potential is projected to drop to
15, 95, and 50 acre-feet per year.
Lagoons
The volume of, and acreages covered by, wastewater lagoons in
various regions employing this treatment process are shown in Table 5.
23
-------
SECTION 2
Table 4. Volume and area of wastewater in pulp and paper industry in unlined
sedimentation basins, 1954-1983.
Region
Chesapeake Bay
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Southeast
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Pacific Northwest
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
United States
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
1954
9
0.06
68
0.43
6
0.04
84
0.54
1959
13
0.08
98
0.62
15
0.10
126
0.80
1964
17
0.11
127
0.81
26
0.16
170
1.08
1968
15
0.10
165
1.05
32
0.20
212
1.35
1971
22
0.14
214
1.36
50
0.32
286
1.82
1973
23
0.15
215
1.37
63
0.40
301
1.92
1975
22
0.14
172
1.10
62
0.39
256
1.63
1977
17
0.11
100
0.64
52
0.33
169
1.08
1983
10
0.06
59
0.37
30
0.19
99
0.63
Sources: Tables 1 and 2; References 2, 3, and 4.
From 1954-1983, the Southeast has a much greater volume and area than
any other region for lagoons as well as for unlined sedimentation. Other
regions expected to have relatively large volumes and areas in lagoons
from 1971-1983 are:
• New England
• Western Great Lakes
• Arkansas
• Pacific Northwest.
Most of the urban, colder regions of the country show a steady in-
crease in volume of wastewater lagooned from 1971-1977. Acreage for
these regions from 1975-1983 either increases much more gradually
than volume or decreases because it has been assumed that increased
use will be made of aerated lagoons (assumed to be 6 feet deep, with a
detention period of 18 days) in these regions. This will decrease acreage
requirements and treatment-cycle times. The volume-to-area ratio in
24
-------
PULP AND PAPER
Table 5. Volume and area of wastewater in pulp and paper industry lagoons, 1954-1983.
Region
New England
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Delaware and Hudson
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Chesapeake Bay
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Eastern Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Ohio River
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Southeast
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Upper Mississippi
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Arkansas
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Gulf
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Pacific Northwest
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
United States
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
1954
<1
0.3
4
2
6
3
2
1
1
0.5
46
23
5
3
<1
-
12
6
2
1
7
4
86
44
1959
1
0.5
10
5
11
6
3
2
3
2
103
53
12
6
<1
0.2
29
15
4
2
15
8
191
100
1964
2
1
11
6
19
10
4
2
4
2
169
86
17
9
<1
0.4
49
25
10
5
26
13
311
159
1968
2
1
8
4
22
11
5
3
5
3
264
135
24
12
1
0.5
77
39
24
12
34
17
466
240
1971
30
15
19
10
37
19
15
8
8
4
356
182
39
20
15
8
96
49
27
14
74
38
716
367
1973
66
34
33
17
48
24
29
15
19
10
478
244
77
39
33
17
106
54
33
17
124
63
1,046
534
1975
150
45
52
16
62
19
47
14
28
9
588
300
137
42
94
29
118
60
43
22
234
72
1,553
628
1977
248
76
62
19
69
21
62
19
38
12
651
332
166
51
124
38
127
65
48
24
311
95
1,906
752
1983
244
75
73
22
81
25
61
19
41
13
588
300
162
50
122
37
139
71
49
25
304
93
1,864
730
Sources: Reference 4 and Table 3.
25
-------
SECTION 2
the warmer, more rural regions is projected to show less change; for
purposes of the projections these were assumed to remain 4 feet deep
with a detention period of 20 days.
Table 5 shows that despite increased use of aeration, beginning in
1975 lagoon acreage in some regions continues to exhibit a general in-
crease due to the increased volumes of wastewater. The declines in
lagooning acreage between 1977 and 1983 in some regions are explained
by the substitution of other treatment methods for lagooning.
A comparison of the figures in Table 4 with those in Table 5 indi-
cates that unlined sedimentation basins occupy up to hundreds of times
less area per gallon of effluent treated than do lagoons. This is due to
the greater wastewater depth and shorter detention time employed in
sedimentation. The difference between the volume-to-area relationship
of each treatment method is apparent in the 1968-1983 data for the three
regions of the country which employ both types of treatment processes:
the Chesapeake Bay, the Southeast, and the Pacific Northwest. During
this 15-year period, Tables 4 and 5 reveal the following volume and area
relationships of lagooning to unlined sedimentation:
• Chesapeake Bay
— 1968 volume 1. 5 times greater, area 110 times greater
— 1983 volume 8 times greater, area 400 times greater
• Southeast
— 1968 volume 1.6 times greater, area 130 times greater
— 1983 volume 10 times greater, area 800 times greater
• Pacific Northwest
— 1968 volume equal, area 85 times greater
— 1983 volume 10 times greater, area 500 times greater.
The foregoing area relationships highlight the vastly greater infiltration
potential of lagoons for a given volume of wastewater treated.
26
-------
PULP AND PAPER
The peak year in the Southeast region for acreage covered, 1971,
results in a potential for 45, 500 acre-feet per year of wastewater infil-
tration at the assumed rate of 30 inches per year. In 1977, the peak
year for the Northwest region in terms of acreage covered, infiltration
•would amount to 19,750 acre-feet per year. In this same year, the in-
filtration amount for the New England region is 15, 750 acre-feet per
year. While these infiltration projections are at best very approximate,
it should also be borne in mind when considering their magnitude that
the computations do not include the extra lagoon acreage necessary
(approximately 50 percent) for filling and emptying cycles and BOD
reduction.
NATIONAL POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
Table 6 shows the national volume of wastewater discharged, the
volume treated before discharge, and the area covered by the treatment
processes over the 1954—1983 projection period. The total volume dis-
charged by the industry increased by approximately 25 percent from
1954-1968, and is projected to double from 1968-1983. The rates of
increase in the future, however, are expected to reflect the projected
rates of growth of production output and so will be slowly decreasing.
The volume and area covered by wastewater in unlined sedimenta-
tion basins from 1954-1968 increased by a factor of approximately two
and one-half, -while from 1968—1983 they decrease by approximately
one-half.
The volume and area covered by wastewater in lagoons from 1954-
1968 increases by approximately five times. From 1968—1983, the
volume lagooned increases fourfold, while the area covered by the pro-
cess increases threefold. The 1983 volume and area figures, however,
show a slight decline from 1977, representing technological improvements
in treatment.
27
-------
SECTION 2
T!
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28
-------
SECTION 3
PETROLEUM REFINING
INDUSTRY WASTEWATER
INTRODUCTION
The petroleum refining industry employs a complex series of inter-
related steps, each subprocess yielding a different type of product and
liquid effluent. Detailed information describing the wastewater from
these several steps is sparse, and no attempt was made in these pro-
jections to delineate wastewater treatment by specific production subpro-
cesses of the petroleum refining industry. Wastewater from the industry
as a whole was assumed to be homogeneous. The principal constituents
of consequence to groundwater quality appear to be oil, ammonia, sus-
278
pended solids, phenols, spent caustics, and sulfides. '
The volumes of petroleum refining wastewater treated vary sub-
stantially among the Industrial Water Use Regions. Overall, this industry
uses a volume of water in its processes that is comparable to that used by
the pulp and paper industry. In 1959, 1964, and 1968 the industry dis-
charged 1,200, 1,320, and 1,220 billion gallons of water, respectively.
Approximately 25 percent of the industry's water intake is solely for
cooling purposes, of which increasing amounts are being recirculated:*
from 1954 to 1964 production output increased approximately 48 percent,
-while water intake increased only 13 percent. Since cooling water re-
quires treatment only for thermal pollution, the volume of wastewater
subject to effluent treatment processes is less than the total volume
discharged.^
*A 2-year study, partially funded by EPA, is currently being conducted
to find means to increase even further the percentage of petrochemical
wastewater that can be recycled.
29
-------
SECTION 3
The primary references used in this effort were the Census of
34 2
Manufactures ' and The Cost of Clean Water. Standard Industrial
Code 29, "Petroleum and Coal Products," was used from References 3
and 4 for 1959, 1964, and 1968 baseline data for wastewater output pro-
jections instead of the seemingly more appropriate Subcode 2911, "Petro-
leum Refining, " because SIC 29 was the only industrial entry containing
both the regional and national tables. However, since Subcode 2911
accounted in 1959 and 1964 for 97 percent of the volume of water dis-
charged in SIC 29, this did not appear to present a serious problem in
developing and demonstrating a methodological approach for monitoring
and predicting petroleum refining wastewater output.
As with paper and primary metals manufacturing wastewater, the
treatment practices of interest are unlined sedimentation and lagooning,
broken down by the Industrial Water Use Regions shown in Figure 1. Use
of these two treatment methods appears to be concentrated in the Dela-
ware and Hudson, Western Great Lakes, Western Gulf, and California
regions. The same factors described in Sections 1 and 2 were con-
sidered in making regional projections into the past and future: industry
growth, variations in water usage per unit of production output, changes
in amount of wastewater treated as a percentage of the total discharged,
and changes in wastewater treatment technology.
APPROACH
University of Maryland Bureau of Business and Economic Research
projections of average annual growth rates of production output of the
petroleum refining industry were used to estimate the expected output of
the petroleum refining industry from 1971-1983. The growth estimates
are:
Years Percent/Year
1971-1973 4.49
1974-1975 3.85
1976-1978 3.43
1979-1983 3.08
30
-------
PETROLEUM
These industry growth rate projections indicate an overall growth
of 71 percent between 1968 and 1983 in industry output, but in the past
production output has increased more rapidly than water intake and
wastewater discharged. This divergence was taken into account by as-
suming a 1968-1983 annual growth rate of 2 percent per year in waste-
water discharged, a rate somewhat less than the projected industry
output growth. This results in an overall increase in annual wastewater
discharged of 35 percent between 1968 and 1983. The 2 percent growth
2 8
rate was derived as a middle figure between FWPCA and EPA waste -
water growth projections. The former suggests a rate of 3.6 percent
per year, while the latter suggests an annual growth rate of only about
1. 2 percent.
The third factor listed above, changes in the amount of wastewater
treated as a percentage of the total amount discharged, is not expected to
show the large increase projected in the pulp and paper industry. Ac-
3, 4
cording to Census of Manufactures * data, 75 percent of the total volume
discharged in 1964 and 1968 received effluent treatment. Except for
those regions exhibiting more than 75 percent treatment in 1968, this per-
centage of the total wastewater discharged was viewed as the maximum
amount requiring treatment for effluents throughout the 1968-1983 pro-
jection period, because of the large percentage of the water used only
for indirect cooling. For those regions reporting effluent treatment of
more than 75 percent the percentage was held constant throughout the
projection period. *
The fourth factor, changes in treatment technology, is expected to
be of significance to the petroleum refining industry due to EPA require-
ments for 100 percent treatment of (treatable) wastewater before discharge
*The regions reporting more than 75 percent treatment in 1968 could
actually show a future decline in percentage of water treated, de-
pending upon the selectivity of their treatment practices. A corollary
to this is wastewater treatment in some urban areas where a common
system is used to handle both sewage and precipitation runoff.
31
-------
SECTION 3
by 1977, and for use of the best "practicable" treatment technology by
that year. Decreases are anticipated in unlined sedimentation as
clarifiers come into wider use. Technological changes that are ex-
pected to affect lagooning beyond 1977 are the adoption of activated sludge
processes for BOD reduction and a growing tendency to use aeration in
lagoons, allowing greater depths and shorter detention times.
The calculations made on petroleum refining assumed a constant
rate of production, since no large seasonal effluent output variation for
this industry is apparent. Thus, capacity estimates for sedimentation
basins and lagoons are based on a uniform production schedule over the
year, and no excess capacity is allowed for, other than a 50 percent
extra capacity factor for lagoon filling and emptying, BOD reduction (see
Section 1), and cleaning.
WASTEWATER VOLUME PROJECTIONS
3 4
The 1963 Census of Manufactures and 1967 Census of Manufactures
were used as a data base for the total volume of wastewater discharged in
each region for 1959, 1964, and 1968 and for the treated volumes in 1964
and 1968. These data are given in Table 7 along with estimates for 1954
and projections for 1971-1983.
4
Data listed in the 1967 Census of Manufactures for "Primary
Settling" and "Secondary Settling" and FWPCA estimates were used as a
baseline for the volume of wastewater undergoing unlined sedimentation
treatment from 1954-1968.
Unlined Sedimentation Basins
For 1967, FWPCA estimated that 40 percent of all petroleum refin-
eries used "earthen basins" and for 1963, 50 percent. These figures
were assumed also to be applicable for 1964 and 1968. Although they do
not refer to the volume of wastewater thus processed, they are the only
such estimates available in the literature reviewed. Therefore, for lack
of better data they were assumed to represent that portion of "primary and
32
-------
PETROLEUM
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33
-------
SECTION 3
secondary settling" accomplished in unlined basins in all petroleum-
refining regions of the country, and were used as a baseline for the
estimated treatment percentages given in Table 8. Projections for 1954
and 1959 unlined sedimentation treatment were assumed to increase by
5 percent during each period to 60 and 55 percent, respectively. The
1971-1983 treatment projections in Table 8 were based on an assump-
tion of 75 percent treatment (or more, depending upon the 1968 regional
percentages) of total wastewater by 1977 for each region in order to meet
EPA requirements. The 1971, 1973, and 1975 percentages of waste-
water treated in each region were individually projected on the basis of
the amount of wastewater treatment that had been achieved in 1968.
Table 9 gives the estimated petroleum refining volume and acreage
of wastewater processed in unlined sedimentation basins from 1954-1983.
The volume for each region and year was derived from Tables 7 and 8
by multiplying total volume (from Table 7) first by estimated percentage
receiving treatment (Table 8), and then by estimated percentage of
primary treatment achieved in unlined basins (Table 8). The acreage-
covered figures of Table 9 were derived using the algorithm described
in Section 1 (A = 1/2 (V + 300) T 7. 5 * 8 + 43,560). The figures assume
an average depth for sedimentation basins of 8 feet and a detention time
of one-half day.
Lagoons
The procedure used for estimating the volume of wastewater that
was lagooned from 1954 to 1968 was similar to that for unlined sedimenta-
4
tion treatment. The 1968 figures in 1967 Census of Manufactures for
total volume of water discharged (see Table 7) and the lagoon treatment
volume estimates from the same source (listed under "Ponds or lagoons")
were used to establish percentages of wastewater treated by lagooning
in 1968 both regionally and nationally. These percentages are given in
Table 10 with 1954-1964 estimates and 1971-1983 projections.
34
-------
PETROLEUM
Table 8. Percentages of total wastewater receiving primary treatment and estimated
percentages of primary treatment achieved in unlined sedimentation basins
In fhe rxatrnlenm refinmn inrlnctrv. 1954— 1983.
l^^l v*d!IUUC3 *_*! 1^1 III IMI V I I ^VJ I 11 IV* I II v*\vlll^^v^^' III Ul
in the petroleum refining industry, 1954—1983.
Region
Delaware and Hudson
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Eastern Great Lakes
Total primary treatment % .
% primary in unlined basins
Ohio River
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Southeast
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Western Great Lakes
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Upper Mississippi
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Lower Mississippi
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Missouri
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Arkansas
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Western Gulf
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Great Basin
Total primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
California
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
Pacific Northwest
Total primary treatment % ,
°/c primary in unlined basins
United States
Total primary treatment % ,
% primary in unlined basins
1954
36
60
32
60
27
60
50
60
31
60
40
60
51
60
55
60
53
60
40
60
50
60
41
60
1959
49
55
41
55
34
55
65
55
41
55
46
55
70
55
64
55
71
55
53
55
75
55
55
55
1964
70
50
60
50
67
50
80<
50
54
50
73
50
84
50
95
50
87
50
91
50
100
50
80
50
100
50
74
50
1968
82
40
45
40
80
40
16'
40
45
40
65
40
71
40
89
40
90
40
89
40
80
40
100
40
74
40
1971
82
35
53
35
80
35
31
35
53
35
68
35
72
35
89
35
90
35
89
35
100
35
80
35
100
35
76C
35
1973
82
35
60
35
80
35
46
35
60
35
70
35
73
35
89
35
90
35
89
35
100
35
80
35
100
35
78<
35
1975
82
30
67
30
80
30
61
30
67
30
72
30
74
30
89
30
90
30
89
30
100
30
80
30
100
30
80C
30
1977
82
25
75
25
80
25
75
25
75
25
75
25
75
25
89
25
90
25
89
25
100
25
80
25
100
25
82C
25
1983
82
15
75
15
80
15
75
15
75
15
75
15
75
15
89
15
90
15
89
15
100
15
80
15
100
15
82d
15
Notes:
"For percentages of total wastewater receiving primary treatment:
• 1954 and 1959 regional data based on national data from References 3 and 4 using
1964 regional distributions
• 1964 and 1968 regional and national data from References 3 and 4
• 1971-1983 regional and national projections based upon EPA requirement for 100 percent
treatment by 1977; regional projections individualized on basis of 1968 treatment status.
bpor estimated percentages of treatment in unlined basins:
• 1954-1968 figures based on 1950-1967 estimates from FWPCA2
• 1971-1975 figures based on FWPCA* estimates with 5 percent increases because original
estimates appear too optimistic
• 1977-1983 figures based on assumption that unlined basins will not meet EPA's 1983
requirements.
c Apparent anomaly due to large increase in discharge between 1964 and 1968 with no reported
increase in treatment.
"Weighted national averages (% primary treatment v discharge volume summed by year for all
regions and divided by total national discharge volume).
35
-------
SECTION 3
Table 9. Volume and acreage of wastewater in unlined sedimentation basins in the
petroleum refining industry, 1954-1983.°
Region
Delaware and Hudson
billions of gallons
hundreds of acresc
Eastern Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acresc
Ohio River
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Southeast
billions of gallons
hundreds of ocres°
Western Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Upper Mississippi
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Lower Mississippi
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Missouri
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Arkansas
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Western Gulf
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Great Basin
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
California
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Pacific Northwest
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
United States
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
1954
68
0.43
11
0.07
6
0.04
< 1
<0.01
27
0.17
2
0.01
28
0.18
-
-
4
0.03
83
0.53
-
-
30
0.19
< 1
<0.01
278
1.77
1959
89
0.57
14
0.09
7
0.04
< 1
<0.01
36
0.23
3
0.02
36
0.23
-
-
5
0.03
108
0.69
-
-
40
0.26
< 1
<0.01
363
2.31
1964
123
0.78
20
0.13
8
0.05
2
0.01
52
0.33
4
0.03
50
0.32
10
0.06
7
0.04
152
0.97
1
<0.01
55
0.35
1
<0.01
485
3.09
1968
105
0.67
13
0.08
9
0.06
2
0.01
28
0.18
4
0.03
35
0.22
7
0.04
5
0.03
119
0.76
-
-
33
0.21
1
<0.01
363
2.31
1971
98
0.62
14
0.09
9
0.06
3
0.02
31
0.20
4
0.03
33
0.21
6
0.04
5
0.03
110
0.70
1
<0.01
30
0.19
1
<0.01
344
2.19
1973
102
0.65
16
0.10
9
0.06
5
0.03
37
0.24
4
0.03
35
0.22
7
0.04
5
0.03
115
0.73
1
<0.01
32
0.20
1
<0.01
367
2.34
1975
91
0.58
16
0.10
8
0.05
5
0.03
36
0.23
4
0.03
32
0.20
6
0.04
4
0.03
103
0.66
1
<0.01
28
0.18
1
<0.01
336
2.14
1977
79
0.50
16
0.10
7
0.04
6
0.04
35
0.22
3
0.02
28
0.18
5
0.03
4
0.03
89
0.57
1
<0.01
24
0.15
1
<0.01
299
1.91
1983
53
0.34
11
0.07
5
0.03
4
0.03
24
0.15
2
0.01
19
0.12
3
0.02
3
0.02
60
0.38
-
-
16
0.10
-
-
202
1.29
Notes:
p-From Tables 7 and 8 (based on References 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Regional figures may not add up to national totals due to rounding of percentages given in Table 8.
cAcreages based on algorithm given in Section 1.
36
-------
PETROLEUM
Estimates of wastewater treated by lagooning prior to 1968 were
2
made on the basis of FWPCA estimates for 1968 and consideration of
discharge volumes and the state of wastewater treatment technology for
the period. The 1954 percentage was thus estimated to be about 30 per-
cent of that for 1968. Regional percentage projections for 1954—1964
lagooning treatment approximate the national percentages, but take into
account the amount of lagooning being done in each region as of 1968.
Table 10. Estimated percentages of total wastewater discharged receiving treatment
in lagoons in the petroleum refining industry, 1954-1983.
1954"
1959
1964
1968
1971
1973
1975
1977
1983
Delaware and Hudson
Eastern Great Lakes
Ohio River
Western Great Lakes
.e
Upper Mississippi
Lower Mississippi
.e
Missouri
Arkansas
Western Gulf
California
United States
8
3
18
24
21
11
22
8
15
14
5
32
42
37
19
38
14
22
21
7
46
60
54
27
55
21
29
28
10
60
79
71
36
72
28
36
35
20
60
80
73
42
73
36
42
41
30
67
80
75
48
75
44
49
48
40
60
75
70
54
70
52
55
55
50
55
70
70
60
70
60
50
50
45
55
65
60
50
60
50
Notes:
a!954 national and regional projections based on FWPC estimates* that lagooning was only
about 30 percent as prevalent as in 1968; 1959 and 1964 interpolated.
"1968 regional and national data from Reference 4 used as a baseline for 1954—1964 and
1971-1983 projections.
C1971-1977 national projections assume increasing use of lagooning to meet EPA 1977
criterion of "best practicable technology."
"1983 projections assume increasing use of techniques other than lagooning to meet EPA
criterion of "best available technology."
eRegional percentage distributions approximate the national percentages but take in
account regional amount of lagooning as of 1968.
No lagooning data.
into
37
-------
SECTION 3
The national projections for lagooning from 1971-1983 were based
on two assumptions: (1) that through 1977 lagoons would fulfill EPA's
"best practicable technology" criterion for secondary treatment of
wastewater, and (2) that by 1983 their use will most likely be declining
as other secondary treatment techniques are adopted (eg, activated
sludge) because of EPA's requirement for use of "best available tech-
nology" by that date. These assumptions tend to be confirmed by
2
FWPCA estimates of adoption rates of various secondary treatment
techniques (activated sludge, aerated lagoons, oxidation ponds) by petro-
leum refineries from 1963 through 1977. The regional projections for
1971-1983 approximate the national percentages, but vary to some degree
depending upon the 1968 baseline percentages.
Table 11 contains the estimated volume and acreage of petroleum
refinery wastewater treatment lagoons for 1954-1983 as developed from
the data of Table 7 (total volume discharged) and Table 10 (estimated
percentage treated). Again, the acreage figures are derived using the
algorithm described in Section 1 and assuming a 6-foot lagoon depth and
a 20-day detention time. * Unlike the unlined sedimentation basin acreage
estimates, however, the lagoon acreage estimates were multiplied by a
factor of 1. 5 to allow for the additional volume required for longer filling
and emptying times and the much longer detention times.
REGIONAL POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
Table 9 shows that from 1954 to 1983 the regions with the greatest
volume of petroleum refinery wastewater processed in unlined sedimenta-
tion basins are the Western Gulf and the Delaware and Hudson regions.
As projected, the Western Gulf in 1954 accounted for 30 percent of the
national total and the Delaware and Hudson 24 percent, and these regions
* Lagoon aeration is more prevalent in the petroleum refining industry
than in the others studied; hence the assumption of a 6-foot depth for
lagoons instead of a 4-foot depth.
38
-------
PETROLEUM
Table 11. Volume and acreage of wastewater in lagoons in the petroleum
refining industry, 1954-1983.°
b
Region
Delaware and Hudson
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Eastern Great Lakesc
Ohio River
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Upper Mississippi
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Lower Mississippi0
Missouri
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Arkansas
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Gulf
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
California
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
United States
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
1954
28
14
—
3
3
4
2
2
1
—
—
—
2
1
29
15
27
14
90
45
1959
50
26
—
5
3
8
4
4
2
—
—
—
5
3
53
27
52
27
168
86
1964
77
39
—
6
3
13
7
5
3
—
13
7
8
4
90
46
76
39
277
141
1968
93
47
—
8
4
16
8
9
5
—
15
8
10
5
120
61
73
37
342
174
1971
123
63
—
11
6
34
17
10
5
—
16
8
11
6
149
76
79
40
466
238
1973
149
76
—
13
7
52
27
11
6
—
17
9
11
6
177
90
85
43
593
303
1975
181
92
—
16
8
72
37
10
5
—
17
9
11
6
207
105
82
42
729
372
1977
211
108
—
19
10
95
48
10
5
—
16
8
12
6
239
122
85
43
875
446
1983
216
110
—
20
10
96
49
10
5
—
17
9
11
6
225
115
82
42
821
419
Notes:
°From Tables 7 and 10 (based on References 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Regional figures may not add up to national totals due to independent rounding.
°No lagooning data.
show fractions of 30 and 26 percent, respectively, for 1983. Total
volume treated by unlined sedimentation peaks at 115 billion gallons in
1973 for the Western Gulf region and at 102 billion gallons in 1973 for the
Delaware and Hudson region. The third and fourth largest processors
by unlined sedimentation in 1973, when the national volume peaks at
367 billion gallons, are the Western Great Lakes and Lower Mississippi
regions with 37 billion and 35 billion gallons, respectively.
39
-------
SECTION 3
The Western Gulf and Delaware and Hudson regions also are pro-
jected to process the largest volumes of wastewater in lagoons through-
out the 1954-1983 period, as shown in Table 11. The respective frac-
tions of water lagooned in 1983 are about 27 percent and 26 percent of
the national total for these two regions, with the Western Gulf region
ranging from 29 billion gallons in 1954 to 225 billion gallons in 1983.
The 29-year total for the Western Gulf region amounts to more than
4, 000 billion gallons with the Delaware and Hudson region only slightly
less. Also lagooning large quantities of wastewater are the Western
Great Lakes and California regions.
The acreage covered by the effluent is the primary indicator of
the potential threat to groundwater quality. The areas covered by un-
lined sedimentation and lagooning (see Tables 9 and 11) were calculated
for the petroleum refining industry in a manner similar to that described
for the pulp and paper industry except that no credit was given for ex-
pected technological advances in lagooning. Increasing use of aeration,
for example, would tend to decrease the acreage required for lagoons,
decrease detention times for treatment, or both. In addition, the
analysis does not take into account regional and seasonal variations in
detention times because of climatic effects on BOD reduction.
Although the regional figures do not show concentrations of lagoons,
it is perhaps noteworthy that the Delaware and Hudson region, which
lagoons a quarter of the nation's refining industry wastewater, is also
one of the smallest industrial water use regions in the country. At the
projected rate of growth in lagooning, during the 1977 period this region
will contain 10,800 acres—about 17 square miles—of lagoons. Assuming
that the lagoon seepage rate of 30 inches per year adopted for this study
is reasonable, the potential exists for 27, 000 acre-feet per year of pol-
luted water to seep underground in this region alone.
40
-------
PETROLEUM
NATIONAL POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
Table 12 shows the volume of and area covered by wastewater in
unlined sedimentation basins and lagoons in the petroleum refining in-
dustry, at the national level. The total wastewater discharged peaks
in 1964, declines for several years due to recirculation of cooling water,
then rises to another peak in 1983. The volume of wastewater treated
by unlined sedimentation peaks in 1964, while the volume treated by
lagooning peaks in 1977. The large increase in secondary treatment
that has been assumed causes the volume and area of lagoons to increase
substantially from 1964 to 1977, with a proportionate increase in the
potential for wastewater to infiltrate into the ground.
Table 12. U.S. petroleum refining industry wastewater volume discharged, volume
treated before discharge, and area covered by treatment processes,
1954-1983.
Item
Total wastewater
discharged (billions
of gallons)
Volume treated in
unlined sedimentation
basins (billions of
gallons)
Area covered by
wastewater in unlined
sedimentation basins
(hundreds of acres)
Volume treated in
lagoons (billions of
gallons)
Area covered by
wastewater in
lagoons (hundreds
of acres)
1954
1,130
278
1.77
90
45
1959
1,200
363
2.31
168
86
1964
1,320
502
3.20
277
141
1968
1,220
366
2.33
342
174
1971
1,295
344
2.19
466
238
1973
1,347
367
2.34
593
303
1975
1,401
336
2.14
729
372
1977
1,458
299
1.91
875
446
1983
1,642
202
1.29
821
419
Source: Tables 7, 9 and 11 (based on References 1, 2, 3, and 4).
41
-------
SECTION 3
At the projected nationwide rates of growth and assumed seepage
rate for lagoons, by 1977 more than 111, 000 acre-feet per year of ef-
fluent might seep into the ground. It must be emphasized, however,
that the projections used for the petroleum refining industry are not
forecasts, but serve primarily to demonstrate a methodology for the
estimation of potential groundwater impacts. Much closer scrutiny of
industry practices and trends would be necessary to verify the assump-
tions used. An assumption that unlined sedimentation and lagooning
volumes will decrease throughout the projection period because of more
rapid adoption of separators, activated sludge processes, etc, may be
as defensible as the assumptions that were used.
COMPOSITION OF EFFLUENT
Petroleum refining is a very complicated process, involving many
steps and subprocesses. Little data are available in the literature as to
specific pollutants in the wastewater from these various subprocesses.
In a survey by the FWPCA, it was observed that:
Wastewater surveys from only five refineries had pollutant
concentration and wastewater flow data suitable for deter-
mination of •waste loadings from individual subprocesses.
. . . Because of the limited amount of data available,
breakdown of waste-loading on a sub-process basis was
considered impractical and of doubtful validity.
According to FWPCA, six pollutants commonly found in the effluent
from petroleum refineries are of consequence to groundwater quality:
1. Oil
2. Ammonia
3. Suspended solids
4. Phenols
5. Spent caustics (alkaline waters)
6. Sulfides.
42
-------
PETROLEUM
According to the EPA, petroleum refinery waste-water also con-
tains several other pollutants, occurring in smaller but unspecified
amounts and concentrations:
1. Bromine
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Boric acid
4. Magnesium chloride
5. Ammonium carbonate
6. Ammonium sulfide
7. Cyanide
8. Ammonium thiocyanate
9. Ammonium ferrocyanide.
43
-------
SECTION 4
PRIMARY METALS INDUSTRIES WASTEWATER
INTRODUCTION
Although a large volume of water is used in the primary metals
industries in the United States, only about 25-30 percent of this is used
2 11
for anything other than cooling purposes. ' Therefore, the major
volume is not subjected to treatment practices that threaten groundwater
quality. In 1968, for example, 1,430 billion gallons of wastewater under-
went primary and/or secondary treatment although 4,696 billion gallons
were discharged. The major pollutants of consequence to groundwater
are suspended and dissolved solids, iron, ammonia, cyanide, phenol,
oil, and the heavy metals —arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and
zinc. The latter are especially hazardous to human health.
Sixteen of the 18 industrial water-use regions shown in Figure 1
have at least a. small amount of primary metals production. However,
as shown in Figure 2, production is concentrated principally around the
Great Lakes and on the Eastern Seaboard. The regions with the greatest
volumes and acreage of wastewater undergoing unlined sedimentation and
lagooning are the Eastern Great Lakes, the Western Great Lakes, and
the Ohio River. These three areas are expected to continue to treat the
largest volumes of wastewater and to have the greatest acreage in use
for wastewater treatment throughout the projection period.
The primary references used in this effort were The Cost of Clean
Water, Environmental Steel, Census of Manufactures, * and Uni-
versity of Maryland Bureau of Business Research steel industry growth
forecasts. The Standard Industrial Code entry used in the census
44
-------
PRIMARY METALS
^H 5-10 Mills
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of steel mills in the United States.
material was Number 33, Primary Metals Industries. The 1967 Census
4
of Manufactures defines "primary metals" as the following:
. . . establishments engaged in the smelting and refining
of ferrous and nonferrous metals from ore, pig, or scrap
in the rolling, drawing, and alloying of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals; in the manufacture of castings, forgings
and other basic products of ferrous and nonferrous metals;
and in the manufacture of nails, spikes, and insulated wire
and cable. This major group also includes the production
of coke.
Of the 1,430 billion gallons of wastewater treated in the primary
metals industry in 1968, approximately 90 percent, or 1,360 billion
gallons, were treated by steel mills and blast furnace operations.
Since the Census of Manufactures was a primary data source in this
effort and since the emphasis in this study is on demonstrating a method-
ological approach to estimating the potential groundwater quality im-
plications, rather than on detailed, refined results, the figures for the
45
-------
SECTION 4
overall industry of "primary metals" are assumed to be applicable to
the specific industries of steel and blast furnaces. As in the paper and
petroleum refinery waste-water cases, 1964 and 1968 regional data on
wastewater treated and total water discharged were used as a baseline.
Regional estimates were made for years prior to 1964 and projections
for subsequent years.
APPROACH
Five factors were taken into account in projecting the past and
future volume of and acreage covered by steel industry wastewater
treatment: industry growth, variations in water usage per unit of pro-
duction output, changes in the amount of wastewater treated as a per-
centage of the total amount discharged by the industry, seasonality of
production, and technological changes in wastewater treatment practices
and methods.
Industry growth estimates for 1968 through 1970 were assumed to
be 5 percent per year. The following University of Maryland annual
growth estimates of steel industry output were used for the 1971 — 1983
projections:
Years Percent/Year
1971-1973 6.03
1974-1975 2.69
1976-1978 1.25
1979-1983 0.67
The second projection factor, water usage per unit of output, was
assumed to increase by 10 percent over the industry growth projections
for 1977-1983. This increase is based on the introduction of new pro-
cess technologies that require more water per unit output than present
2 11
techniques. ' The baseline water discharge figures for 1964 and
1968, the regional estimates based on national totals for 1959 and 1954,
and the regional and national projections for 1971-1983 are given in
Table 13.
46
-------
PRIMARY METALS
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47
-------
SECTION 4
In estimating the quantities of wastewater discharged and treated
by the industry from 1954—1983, it was assumed, based on the actual
national share receiving treatment in 1964 and 1968 and estimates from
References 2 and 11, that only 30 percent of the industry's wastewater
would require treatment for other than thermal pollution in order to
comply with EPA regulations. Thus, like the petroleum refining indus-
try, no dramatic increases are anticipated in amount of wastewater
treated in order to meet EPA requirements. While some regions showed
3 4
more than 30 percent treatment in 1964 and 1968, ' this could be attri-
butable to lack of selectivity in treatment or reporting of treatment.
Steel production schedules appear to be constant throughout the
calendar year; therefore, basin and lagoon capacities for an even flow
of production and a 300-day-per-year work schedule were assumed.
The fifth factor, technological changes in wastewater treatment
practices and methods, incorporated various estimates by EPA and
the Council on Economic Priorities concerning the prevalence of use
of unlined basins and lagoons for primary and secondary wastewater
treatment throughout the 1954-1983 projection period. In general, un-
lined basin primary treatment is viewed as a declining percentage of
the total steel industry primary treatment from 1959 to the end of the
projection period. Percentage of biological treatment by lagooning is
viewed as peaking in the mid-1970s and then declining as more advanced
methods are adopted.
VOLUME PROJECTIONS
Unlined Sedimentation Basins
Based on trends indicated for 1964 in Cost of Clean Water, 60
percent of the total wastewater treated was estimated to have received
*References 2 and 11 estimate that only 25 percent requires treatment;
data in References 3 and 4 indicate national averages of 27 percent and
30 percent receiving treatment in 1964 and 1968.
48
-------
Table 14. Percentages of total discharged primary metals industries wastewater receiving primary treatment and estimated
percentages of primary treatment in unlined sedimentation basins, 1954—1983.
Region
New England
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Delaware and Hudson
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Chesapeake Bay
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Eastern Great Lakes
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Ohio River
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Tennessee
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Southeast
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Western Great Lakes
primary treatment %
% primary in unltned basins
Upper Mississippi
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Missouri
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Arkansas
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Western Gulf
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Colorado Basin
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Cal ifornla
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
Pacific Northwest
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
United States
primary treatment %
% primary in unlined basins
1954°
1
70
8
70
7
70
7
70
5
70
15
70
8
70
10
70
13
70
7
70
8
70
7
70
3
70
20
70
10
70
7
70
1959°
2
70
15
70
14
70
15
70
9
70
31
70
16
70
20
70
26
70
15
70
17
70
14
70
7
70
40
70
21
70
15
70
1964
<1
60
33
60
L
27b
60
34
60
12
60
63
60
48
60
33
60
84
60
27b
60
27b
60
19
60
14
60
90
60
50
60
27
60
1968
6
60
30
60
30
60
26
60
25
60
64
60
29
60
46
60
33
60
30b
60
41
60
9
60
<1
60
70
60
33
60
30
60
1971
12
55
30
55
30
55
27
55
27
55
64
55
30
55
46
55
33
55
30
55
41
55
14
55
7
55
70
55
33
55
31C
55
1973
18
50
30
50
30
50
28
50
28
50
64
50
30
50
46
50
33
50
30
50
41
50
19
50
15
50
70
50
33
50
32C
50
1975
24
45
30
45
30
45
29
45
29
45
64
45
30
45
46
45
33
45
30
45
41
45
25
45
20
45
70
45
33
45
33C
45
1977
30
40
30
40
30
40
30
40
30
40
64
40
30
40
46
40
33
40
30
40
41
40
30
40
30
40
70
40
33
40
33C
40
1983
30
25
30
25
30
25
30
25
30
25
64
25
30
25
46
25
33
25
30
25
41
25
30
25
30
25
70
25
33
25
34C
25
Notes:
Regional percentages of total discharge receiving primary treatment in 1954 and 1959 based on fractions of national
total discharge receiving primary treatment in 1954, 1959, 1964, and 1968 (ie, 1959 regional fraction = 1/2[(1964
+ 1968J/2]; 1954 regional total - 1/41(1964 + 1968J/21 ).
Not reported; assumed to be same fraction as national total.
Weighted national averages (% primary treatment x discharge vo ume summed by year for all regions and divided by
total national discharge volume).
o
-------
Table 15. Volume of wastewater (billions of gallons) receiving primary treatment in
primary mefaJs industries and acreage covered, 1954—1983.
unlined sedimentation basins in the
Q
Region
New England
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Delaware and Hudson
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres'3
Chesapeake Bay
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Eastern Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Ohio River
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres0
Tennessee
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Southeast
billions of gallons
i i i r b
Western Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Upper Mississippi
bil lions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Missouri
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Arkansas
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Gulf
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Colorado Basin
billions of gallons
hundreds of acresb
California
billions of gal Ions
hundreds of acres
Pacific Northwest
bil lions of gal Ions
hundreds of acres^
United States
bl Mions of gallons
hundreds of acres
1954
-
-
14
0.09
9
0.06
34
0.22
46
0.30
1
<0.01
4
0 03
51
0.33
7
0.05
<1
-
1
<0.01
3
0.02
-
-
1
<0.01
3
0.02
174
1.12
1959
<]
-
26
0.17
20
0.13
69
0.44
78
0.50
2
0.01
6
0. 04
99
0.63
13
0.08
1
<0.01
3
0.02
6
0.04
-
-
3
0.02
6
0.04
332
2.12
1964
<1
-
55
0.35
56
0.36
149
0.95
160
1.02
9
0.06
13
0. 08
185
1.18
50
0.32
2
0.01
4
0.03
16
0.10
<1
-
5
0.03
12
0.08
717
4.57
1968
1
<0.01
52
0.33
59
0.38
126
0.80
206
1.31
8
0.05
14
0.09
326
2.08
24
0.15
4
0.03
7
0.05
9
0.06
-
-
4
0.03
11
0.07
851
5.43
1971
3
0.02
54
0.34
62
0.40
141
0.90
237
1.51
9
0.06
15
0. 10
346
2.21
25
0.16
4
0.03
8
0.05
14
0.09
<1
-
4
0.03
12
0.08
934
5.96
1973
4
0.03
56
0.36
64
0.41
150
0.96
252
1.61
10
0.06
16
0. 10
354
2.26
26
0.17
4
0.03
8
0.05
20
0.13
1
<0.01
5
0.03
12
0.08
982
6.26
1975
5
0.03
53
0.34
60
0.38
147
0.94
247
1.58
9
0.06
14
0. 09
335
2.14
24
0.15
4
0.03
7
0.05
25
0.16
1
<0.01
5
0.03
11
0.07
947
6.04
1977
6
0.04
53
0.34
60
0.38
152
0.97
256
1.63
9
0.06
14
0.09
336
2.14
24
0.15
4
0.03
7
0.05
30
0.19
2
0.01
5
0.03
11
0.07
969
6.18
1983
4
0.03
35
0.22
40
0.26
100
0.64
166
1.06
6
0.04
10
0.06
220
1.40
16
0.10
2
0.01
5
0.03
20
0.13
1
<0.01
3
0.02
6
0.04
634
4.04
Notes:
aRegional figures may not add up to national totals due to rounding.
'•'Acreage based on algorithm given in Section 1.
-------
SECTION 4
sedimentation basins of 8 feet and a detention time of one-half day, and
are calculated using the algorithm described in Section 1.
Lagoons
Reference 4 served as the primary source of volume estimates for
waste-water secondary biological treatment by lagoontng. This document
indicated that of 1,431 billion gallons of waste-water undergoing treatment
in 1968 before discharge in the primary metals industry, 352 billion gal-
lons, or 25 percent, received treatment in lagoons.
A comparison of total wastewater discharged, and amount treated
before discharge for 1964 and 1968 (see Table 13) shows a relatively small
percentage increase —only about 3 percent—for these four years. Based
on this observation, the 1964 percentage rate of lagoon BOD treatment of
treatable wastewater was assumed to be 80 percent of that of the 1968
rate for each region. This same percentage was assumed for 1959 and
1954 also, although it could easily have been lower. However, the vol-
ume of water treated before discharge for 1959 -was only half that of 1964,
and for 1954 only one-quarter that of 1964, so the estimate, even if high,
is probably of little consequence to the overall projection.
Reference 2 estimates that in 1968, 10 percent of the steel industry
plants treated their waste-water biologically, with the percentage increas-
ing to 15 percent in 1972 and 20 percent in 1977. These percentages -were
taken to be roughly equivalent to percentages of total wastewater treated
biologically and,.based upon the estimate that only 25 to 30 percent of the
total wastewater requires treatment, -were assumed to be equivalent to
40 percent, 60 percent, and 80 percent biological treatment of treatable
wastewater. However, because the 80 percent secondary treatment esti-
mate for 1977 falls short of EPA requirements, 80 percent-was assumed
to be achieved by 1975, with 100 percent treatment of treatable wastewater
occurring by 1977. The resulting biological treatment percentage projec-
tions for lagooning are given in Table 16.
52
-------
PRIMARY METALS
Table 17. Volume and acreage of wastewater in lagoons in the primary metals indus-
tries, 1954-1983.
Region
New England
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Delaware and Hudson
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Chesapeake Bay
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Eastern Great Lakes
bi Ilions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Ohio River
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Tennessee
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Southeast
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Great Lakes
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Upper Mississippi
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Missouri
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Arkansas
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Western Gulf
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Colorado Basin
billions of gal Ions
hundreds of acres
California
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
Pacific Northwest
billions of gal Ions
hundreds of acres
United States
billions of gallons
hundreds of acres
1954
-
-
13
10
3
2
8
6
8
6
<1
-
-
—
12
9
6
5
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
1
1
46
35
1959
-
-
23
18
7
5
17
13
13
10
1
1
1
1
24
18
11
8
-
-
<1
-
2
2
-
-
-
-
2
2
96
73
1964
-
-
57
44
23
18
42
32
21
16
6
5
2
2
52
40
49
37
1
1
1
1
5
4
-
-
'
2
2
4
3
221
169
1968
-
-
67
51
29
22
45
34
52
40
7
5
3
2
114
87
29
22
2
2
3
2
4
3
-
-
2
2
5
4
352
269
1971
2
2
77
59
50
38
97
74
136
104
9
7
9
7
340
260
30
23
3
2
6
5
10
8
-
-
3
2
8
6
657
503
1973
4
3
87
67
72
54
156
119
261
200
12
9
16
12
381
292
37
28
4
3
9
7
22
17
1
<1
5
4
13
10
998
764
1975
8
6
92
70
93
71
228
174
384
294
14
11
23
18
522
399
39
30
6
5
11
8
39
30
2
2
7
5
18
14
1,489
1,139
1977
9
5
80
44
91
50
231
127
384
212
13
7
22
12
504
278
36
21
5
3
11
6
45
25
3
2
6
3
17
9
1,440
793
1983
6
2
56
21
63
24
159
61
268
103
9
3
9
6
352
135
25
10
4
2
7
3
32
12
2
1
4
2
12
5
1,029
394
Note:
Regional figures may not add up to national totals.
55
-------
SECTION 4
all of the projected years except for 1983, when the ratio changes to
45 percent.
Although second in wastewater discharged, the largest of the three
in terms of wastewater receiving primary treatment is the Western Great
Lakes region (see Table 15). This region is projected to incur a peak
wasteload for unlined sedimentation basin treatment in 1973, with basins
covering 226 acres processing 354 billion gallons of wastewater. The
next largest, the Ohio River region, peaks in 1977 at 163 acres of basins
processing 256 billion gallons of wastewater, while the third largest, the
Eastern Great Lakes region, peaks at 97 acres of basins and 152 billion
gallons of wastewater in the same year. During their peak years, the
fractions of the national total of primary metal industries unlined basins
for these three regions are Western Great Lakes 36 percent, Ohio River
26 percent, and Eastern Great Lakes 16 percent. From 1954 to its peak
year of 1973, the Western Great Lakes region is projected to have a seven-
fold increase in unlined basin acreage, from 33 acres to 226 acres. All
the other primary metals industries regions exhibit substantial increases
in acreage as well.
A similar situation is projected for wastewater secondary process-
ing in lagoons. During the Western Great Lakes region's peak year of
1975, Table 17 shows 39, 900 acres of lagoons. The Ohio River region
peaks at 29,400 acres in 1975 and the Eastern Great Lakes region at
17,400 acres in the same year. The balance of the regions show areas
totaling 27,200 acres for 1975.
At the infiltration levels for unlined basins and lagoons of 30 inches
per year assumed for this study, the Western Great Lakes region has in
its peak year a groundwater pollution potential of 565 acre-feet of waste-
water seepage from its unlined sedimentation basins and nearly 100,000
acre-feet from its lagoons. In their peak years, the Ohio River region
has an infiltration potential of 73, 900 acre-feet of wastewater and the
56
-------
PRIMARY METALS
Eastern Great Lakes region 43, 700 acre-feet. At the projected volumes
and acreages of unlined basin and lagoon wastewater treatment, over the
29-year projection period the Western Great Lakes region, which covers
about 2 percent of the continental United States land area, could absorb
more than 1 million acre-feet of wastewater through subsurface infiltration.
NATIONAL POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
Table 18 shows the nationwide volumes of wastewater and unlined
basin and lagoon acreages for the primary metals industries over the
1954—1983 projection period. The peak year for volume treated and area
covered by wastewater in unlined basins and lagoons is projected to occur
in 1975, with primary treatment of 947 billion gallons, secondary treat-
ment of 1,489 billion gallons, and an area coverage of 114,500 acres.
More likely of significance to groundwater pollution than these fig-
ures, however, which are so aggregated as to have their greatest value
in demonstrating a methodological approach, is the fact that about 75
percent of the total volume and coverage occurs in concentrated areas
of only three midwest regions of relatively limited extent. Given the
assumed industry growth rates, treatment practices, industry distribu-
tion, and absorption rates, over the 29-year projection period these areas
are subject to wastewater subsurface infiltration of up to 2.25 million
acre-feet with its long-term groundwater pollution implications.
COMPOSITION OF EFFLUENT
Several subprocesses of the primary metals industries generate
wastewaters which receive primary and secondary treatment. The major
subprocesses and their wastewater pollutants for the iron and steel indus-
try, which account for about 90 percent of the primary metals industries,
are identified in Table 19. Table 20 gives average concentrations of
most of the pollutants listed in Table 19.
57
-------
SECTION 4
t>
o
a
u
v>
T3
a>
.2
I
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"8
CO
a>
3 O
In
> 00
te *•
13
Is
4= o
s e
TJ O-
.E *•
O X
Q. O
• O
D u
co
_Q
o
co
00
*^™
fc
Os
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Os
fs?
Os
r™~
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>o
r—
^f
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O1*
**t
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rC
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^
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^
r—
s.
SO
CO
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•t
IO
SO
sO
>
CN
CO
"*
_
If)
IO
CN
"O
co
"8
s>
o
|_
^n u)
Total waste water <
(billions of gallon:
n
sO
Os
jx
Os
CN
CO
Os
_.
CO
Io
CO
K
r— •
IV
CN
CO
CO
S
£
JO
~% —
It
Volume treated in
sedimentation basi
of gallons)
S
CO
'O
s
•o
CN
s£>
SO
Qs,
*
co
•
IO
LQ
^*
CN
0
CN
CN
•~
C
m C
^ o
s J_
Area covered by v
unlined sedimenta
(hundreds of acres
CN
o
--
!
&
"*_
•~
CO
Os
Os
^
IO
SO
CN
10
co
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CN
CN
sO
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SO
c
8
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— ^-*
c c
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ll
ll
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s.
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10
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CN
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0) -—^
"o o)
||
Area covered by v
lagoons (hundreds
^~
r~
-a
o
"t"
co"
CN
-------
PRIMARY METALS
D)
C
Jj
O-
O)
c
3J
u
?1 §
._ Q ^C
° -8 ^
u'i^
O)
c
-D .-
— f~
O «/»
U 'E
JT
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o IE
'E
*£
—
£
ir>
I
TO
C
0
U
X! /
« /
o /
ct /
/
/
1 £
XXX X X X X
XX XX
XX X
XXXXX X XX
X X X X X X
XXX X>< X X XX
02- 02- ^ v ^ ^ v ^ •£* ^S- 02- ^ "^ ~^f *^
xxxxxxx
ix "«r "^r ^r 'uT
x>< xxxxx'x'xx' ><
W)
TJ
V
v. _9
= 2 -5
8 "5 -D
v* c
3 "8 .2 . , S E 1
1! > E -S -8 - « .° = -|
IsIliJIIslliJalSR
0)
o
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•*J X
O£ o
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59
-------
SECTION 4
Table 20. Average pollutant concentrations in steel industry sedimentation
basin and lagoon effluents (pounds per gallon).*3
Pollutant
Dissolved and/or
suspended solids
Iron
Ammonia
Oil
Cyanide
Zinc
Fluoride
Phenol
Chromium
Arsenic
Cadmium
Lead
Pickling sul fates
Sedimentation basins
6.9 x 10~4
8.5x 10"5
2.5 x 10"5
3.5 x ICf6
3o5x 10~6
3.5 x 10"6
8.35x 10"8
-8
1.35x 10
7.55x 10"7
Lagoons
9,2 x 10"4
3.3x 10"5
6. Ox 10"5
4o67x 10"5
2.33x 10"6
5.9 x 10~7
8.35x 10"8
-8
1.35x 10
1.60x 10~2
Note:
Data from References 2 and 1 1 .
60
-------
SECTION 5
THE PHOSPHATE ROCK MINING INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
The approach used for the phosphate mining industry departs from
that employed for the other three was tew at er-pro due ing industries exam-
ined. The analysis is more specific, because more detailed data were
available, and because it is concerned with a single wastewater treatment
practice in one limited area. Slime ponds are the treatment process and
the area is the western part of Polk County, Central Florida, where 64
percent of the phosphate rock production of the United States originated
in 1967. This analysis was made even more specific by concentrating
on the Noralyn mining operation of International Mineral and Chemical
Corporation, since Noralyn was considered typical of mining operations
in the rest of the county.
The analysis also differs from those of the other three industries
in that it deals with a much less complex production process. Phosphate
rock is mined by shooting hydraulic guns at the phosphate matrix, thereby
breaking it up. Through the use of more water the phosphate is separated
from the clay, sand tailings, and other soil components. The waste pro-
ducts from the matrix, coupled with the water used to break it up and to
separate the phosphate, form a waste slime which must be settled. The
resultant sludge must then be disposed of. Slime ponds of two types —
"active" and "inactive" —are used for this purpose. Active ponds receive
slimy wastewaters and desedimented water is extracted from them for
reuse. The only function of the inactive ponds is the disposal of slime;
the wastewater is simply allowed to remain in them, resulting in a buildup
61
-------
SECTION 5
of sedimentation. Since the inactive ponds do not dry up, both types of
ponds present potential for groundwater pollution.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The Noralyn operation comprises approximately 20 percent of Polk
County's phosphate production. Noralyn and the other major phosphate
rock mining operations in Polk County are shown in Figure 3. The EPA
and the U.S. Bureau of Mines, which consider the Noralyn operation typi-
cal of the other mining operations in the county, have estimated that
Noralyn's production of slimy wastewater and use of acreage for its treat-
ment is about 20 percent of Polk County's phosphate operations. A com-
parison of the production output and slime treatment practices at Noralyn
and in Polk County as a whole is given in Table 21. The production capacity
Table 21. Phosphate rock slime ponds at the Noralyn operation, Bonnie, Polk County,
Florida and all Polk County, Florida phosphate plants (1967).
Item
Phosphate rock production capacity
(millions of tons)
Growth projection (% per year)
Slime production pec year (acre-feet)
Depth of ponds (feet)
Slime pond wastewater acreage0
Area per pond
Active ponds
Inactive ponds
Total ponds
Additional pond area per year
Noralyn operation
6°
(20% of Polk County)
5
16,000
30-40
400
2,000
1,600
3,600
200
Polk County
30.4°
(64% of United
States)
5
80, 000
30-40
400
10,000
8,000
18,000
1,000
Notes:
aReference 13.
"Reference 1.
From Reference 14.
62
-------
PHOSPHATE
- PHOSPHATE OP1RATION
IND - INDUSTRV RAILROAD
AC I - ATLANTIC COAST I INt RAILROAD
SAL- St ABOARD AIR L INt RAILROAD
Figure 3. Location map of Noralyn operations.
63
-------
SECTION 5
given in the table is from EPA, while the yearly output of slime for Nora-
14
lyn is taken from a U.S. Bureau of Mines report. The county-wide slime-
production estimates are derived from the Bureau of Mines figures for
Noralyn slime production.
The Bureau of Mines estimates that the typical area per slime pond
— including both active and inactive ponds —at Noralyn is 400 acres; this
figure was assumed to also be applicable to the other operations in Polk
County. Total active pond area at Noralyn was estimated by the Bureau
of Mines to be 2, 000 acres. A map of the Noralyn operation indicates that
in 1967 inactive ponds occupied about 80 percent as much area as the active
ponds, or 1,600 acres. This ratio was assumed to be typical of the other
phosphate mines in Polk County. Thus, for 1967, the base year of the
Bureau of Mines report, county-wide acreage of slime ponds was estimated
to be 10,000 acres for active ponds and 8,000 acres for inactive ponds.
The Bureau of Mines also estimates that one new 400-acre pond is
added at Noralyn every two years, making for an annual increase of 200
acres in ponds at Noralyn and 1,000 acres county-wide. This annual in-
crease in acreage was assumed to be applicable to the years 1966—1970.
However, aside from the need to build new ponds to accommodate the then-
current level of production as older ponds go out of service, the growth of
the industry itself must be considered as well. Reference 1 projects annual
growth of the phosphate rock mining industry at about 5 percent per year.
12 13
Since 1970 is the last year for which production figures were obtained, '
this growth rate is reflected in the 1971 — 1983 projections of Table 22.
13
EPA estimates of the production capacities of U.S. phosphate mines
were used to derive the 1966 — 1970 production of Polk County from Bureau
of the Census national production figures. The EPA estimates indicate
that in 1967 and 1968 Polk County accounted for about 64 percent of the pro-
duction capacity of the United States, and in 1969 and 1970 about 67 percent.
It was assumed that because of normal market competition, actual Polk
64
-------
PHOSPHATE
3
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65
-------
SECTION 5
County production was proportional to these percentages, ie, 64 percent
and 67 percent of the total U.S. production. The 67 percent production
figure was also used to project Polk County's 1971-1983 phosphate
production.
The past and projected production of the Noralyn operation was de-
rived as a residual of Polk County's production, based on the EPA and
Bureau of Mines estimates that Noralyn represents 20 percent of the
county's production. The derived 1967 Noralyn phosphate production of
5. 1 million tons and the Bureau of Mines estimated average annual addi-
tion of 200 acres of slime ponds to the Noralyn operation yielded a slime
pond area factor of 39. 2 acres per million tons of phosphate production.
This factor was used to calculate the cumulative 1971-1983 slime pond
acreages for both the county and Noralyn. It was also used to calculate
the annual additional slime pond acreages shown for national production.
The national slime pond area figures, of which only about one-third
represent phosphate production outside Polk County, carry with them a
further assumption. The slime ponds of the Noralyn operation at Bonnie,
Florida are estimated by the Bureau of Mines to be about 40 feet deep and
their restraining dams are built to conform to Bureau of Mines specifica-
tions. If phosphate slime ponds elsewhere in Florida and other parts of
the country conform to the same specifications, based on the Polk County
phosphate rock production rate of about 67 percent of the annual national
total, total U.S. slime pond coverage would approximate 31,000 acres in
1970 and 60,000 acres by 1983, assuming that mines outside Polk County
have the same ratio of active to inactive ponds as the Polk County mines.
COMPOSITION AND CONCENTRATION
OF SLIME EFFLUENT
The suspended solids content of wastewater in slime ponds, as -well
as the mineralogic and chemical composition of these solids, are of poten-
tial consequence to groundwater quality. The slime enters the ponds at a
solids concentration of 4 to 5 percent and quickly settles to 10 to 15 percent.
66
-------
SECTION 5
Table 23. Approximate mineralogic and chemical composition of
phosphate slime solids.0
Mineralogic weight composition
Carbonate fluorapatite
Quartz
Montmorillonite
Attapulgite
Wave Mite
Feldspar
Heavy minerals
Dolomite
Miscellaneous
Chemical
composition
P2°5
Si02
Fe2°3
A,203 .
CaO
MgO
C°2
F
LOI (1,OOOC)
BPL
Percent
20-25
30-35
20-25
5-10
4-6
2-3
2-3
1-2
0-1
Typical analyses
9.06
45.68
3.98
8.51
14.00
1.13
0.80
0.87
10.60
19.88
Range
9-17
31-46
3-7
6-18
14-23
1-2
0-1
0-1
9-16
19-37
Note:
aFrom Reference 14.
67
-------
PHOSPHATE
Further concentration, even after years of settling, never exceeds 25 to
35 percent solids. Therefore, a solids concentration in slime of 10 per-
cent was assumed for active ponds, and 30 percent for inactive ponds.
The particular ponds at Noralyn contain an average of about 20 percent
14
solids content in the slime. Their mineralogic and chemical composi-
tion is given in Table 23.
The infiltration rate of slime waste-water ponds into underlying
groundwater aquifers is assumed to be the same as that described for the
other industries' sedimentation basins and lagoons: 30 inches per year.
On this basis, Polk County is presently subject to underground infiltration
of about 64,000 acre-feet of water per year from its slime ponds. At the
projected rate of industry growth, the infiltration in Polk County alone
could approximate 100, 000 acre-feet per year by 1983. On a national
basis, the infiltration may approach 150, 000 acre-feet per year by 1983,
with about 75 percent of this in Polk County and other parts of Florida,
assuming that the industry production distribution does not change greatly.
68
-------
SECTION 6
AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION
INTRODUCTION
National fertilizer consumption increased 1.8 times during the 16-
year period from 1954, when 22 million tons were consumed, to 1970,
when 40 million tons were consumed. A similar margin of growth is ex-
pected between 1970 and 1985, when consumption of 74 million tons is
anticipated. Harvested cropland treated with fertilizer shows a less dra-
matic increase over the same time span, as 123 million acres were fer-
tilized in 1954, 153 million acres in 1970, and 180 million acres are anti-
cipated in 1985. Per-acre application of fertilizer to fertilized harvested
cropland is expected to more than double during the 31-year period between
1954, when 0. 18 tons were applied per fertilized acre, and 1985, when 0. 41
tons per acre are anticipated. Currently, approximately one-quarter of
a ton per fertilized acre is the average volume applied in the United
States.
The Continental United States (excluding Alaska) is divided by the
U.S. Bureau of the Census into the nine fertilizer consumption regions
shown in Figure 4. Among these nine regions the largest historical and
projected consumers of fertilizer and fertilizers of harvested cropland
are the South Atlantic region, the East North Central region, and the
West North Central region. The East and West North Central regions
are also the largest holders of cropland in corn and wheat, which occupy
more fertilized acreage than any other crops in the country. The South
Atlantic region, the Pacific region, and the New England region apply the
greatest volumes of fertilizer per acre fertilized.
69
-------
SECTION 6
SOURCE- U.S. Bureau of Census, 19M
Figure 4. Fertilizer-consuming regions of the United States.
The most common constituent of commercial fertilizer consumed
in the United States is nitrogen. Also present in large proportions are
phosphorus and potash, and in lesser quantities several metals, sulfur,
calcium sulfate, boron, and sulfuric acid.
COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS
Table 24 is taken from a United States Department of Agriculture
publication, Commercial Fertilizers, Consumption in the United States.
The table lists the 1969 and 1970 U.S. consumption and the 1970 regional
consumption of the five most common materials found in commercial fer-
tilizers, and mixtures of these materials. Mixtures, -which are made up
primarily of nitrogen, phosphate and potash materials, accounted for
over one-half of total consumption, while "phosphate materials" and "po-
tash materials" individually comprised approximately 7 percent and 6
percent, respectively. Nitrogen materials comprised approximately 28
percent of total consumption, making it the most widely used individual
15
70
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FERTILIZERS
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71
-------
SECTION 7
fertilizer material of the five listed in the table. The three primary
nutrient materials —nitrogen, phosphates and potash—individually and in
mixtures accounted for approximately 95 percent of fertilizer consump-
tion in the country in 1969 and 1970.
The other two fertilizer materials, "natural organic materials" and
"secondary micronutrient materials, " accounted for 1.4 percent and 3.4
percent, respectively, of national consumption in 1969 and 1970.
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
Fertilizer Consumption
A straightforward approach was used in estimating fertilizer con-
sumption for the projection period. Historical (1954-1970) data were
taken from USDA's Agricultural Statistics. Nonagricultural uses of
commercial fertilizer were ignored in the analysis because no data on
such consumption could be found. Projected yearly national fertilizer
consumption was assumed to be equal to yearly national fertilizer indus-
try production, which was projected using the University of Maryland
Bureau of Business and Economic Research industry output forecasts.
These forecasts project the following output growth rates for the national
fertilizer industry:
Period Percent/Year
1971-1975 5.11
1976-1980 3.86
1981-1985 3. 17
Projected 1971-1985 regional fertilizer consumption estimates were de-
rived by assuming that the regional distribution of total national fertilizer
consumption that existed in 1970 would remain unchanged through 1985.
The 1970 ratio of fertilized harvested cropland acreage to nonfertilized
harvested cropland acreage in each region was assumed to represent the
*"Natural organic materials" used were equal to only about 7 to 8 percent
of the manure produced in beef cattle feedlots during the same period
(see Section 7).
72
-------
FERTILIZERS
maximum percentage that would benefit from fertilization, and thus re-
main unchanged through the 1971-1985 projection period. While this
assumption may be arguable, it has little effect on the methodology em-
ployed. Projected ratios of nonfertilized to fertilized cropland could
easily be varied for later years if available data indicated changing trends.
Fertilized Harvested Cropland Acreage
Data on the number of acres that were treated by fertilizers in
1954-1964 were taken directly from 1959 United States Census of Agricul-
17 18
ture and 1964 United States Census of Agriculture. Regional data for
1969 were not available, but the national figure for that year was obtained
from Statistical Abstracts, 1972 and the regional distribution was as-
sumed to be the same as that for 1964. The regional and national acreage
figures for these years are given in Table 25.
Data for fertilized harvested cropland acreage for years subsequent
to 1969 were not available, so projections for 1970-1985 were made using
a series of three steps. The first step was to obtain the number of acres
in total harvested cropland acreage, as shown in Table 26. The figures
in Table 26 for 1975 to 1985 result from an assumption that essentially all
of the acreage in idle cropland in 1964-1969 will be put to use as harvested
cropland by 1975 because of population increases and national policies aimed
at increased food production. As an example, the 1975 — 1985 harvested
cropland acreage in Table 26 for the East North Central region is approxi-
mated as 64 million acres, based upon the following historical data from
the table:
Acreage
C ropland 1964 1969
Harvested 56,400,000 54,000,000
Idle 8,420,000 10,400,000
Total 64,820,000 64,400,000
73
-------
SECTION 6
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74
-------
FERTILIZERS
Table 26. U.S. cropland acreage harvested and cropland acreage idle or in cover
crops, 1954-1985 (thousands of acres).0
Region
New England
harvested
idle
Middle Atlantic
harvested
idle
South Atlantic
harvested
idle
E.N. Central
harvested
idle
W.N. Central
harvested
idle
E.S. Central
harvested
idle
W.S. Central
harvested
idle
Mountain
harvested
idle
Pacific
harvested
idle
United States
harvested
idle
1954b
3,050
NA
12,000
NA
23, 400
NA
61,200
NA
136,000
NA
20,000
NA
43,900
NA
23, 700
NA
14,600
NA
337,000
19,000
1959°
2,380
NA
11,000
NA
21,400
NA
60,400
NA
131,000
NA
18,100
NA
41,800
NA
24,800
24, 800
NA
14,300
NA
325,000
33, 000
1964d
2,060
398
10,000
1,850
18,500
4,920
56,400
8,420
118,000
18,000
15,200
4,160
37,300
7,410
22,500
4,710
13,200
1,760
293, 000
51,600
1969e
1,640
226
9,070
1,480
20,400
4,650
54,000
10,400
114,000
19, 100
15,300
4,240
38,700
6,320
34, 600
2,788
13,700
1,440
287, 000
50,700
1970f
1,610
NA
9,140
NA
17,000
NA
54,200
NA
116,000
NA
15,300
NA
38,100
NA
23,900
NA
13,600
NA
288, 000
NA
19759
2,000
-
11,000
-
23, 000
-
64,000
-
132,000
-
20,000
-
45,000
-
26,000
-
15,000
-
338, 000
-
19809
2,000
-
11,000
-
23,000
-
64,000
-
132,000
-
20,000
-
45,000
-
26,000
-
15,000
-
338, 000
-
19859
2,000
-
11,000
-
23,000
-
64,000
-
132,000
-
20,000
-
45,000
-
26,000
-
15,000
-
338, 000
-
Notes:
°For 59 principal crops CUSDA, 197016
b 16 f 16
USDA, 1955 USDA, 1972
°USDA, 1961 91975-1985 projections assume that all idle crop-
NA N t A '1 bl 'anc' acre°9e becomes harvested acreage by 1975.
The second step in obtaining the fertilized acreage for 1970 through
1985 was to calculate the ratio of fertilized harvested cropland acreage to
total harvested cropland acreage, as shown in Table 27, for 1954 through
1969- Although some modifications could be made for 1970-1985 regional
75
-------
SECTION 6
Table 27. Ratios of fertilized harvested cropland acreage to total harvested cropland
acreage by region, 1954—1985.
Region
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North Central
West North Central
East South Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
United States
1954°
.28
.51
.89
.51
.19
.76
.27
.14
.48
.36
1959°
.42
.52
.87
.53
.27
.71
.32
.20
.65
.41
1964°
.47
.53
.93
.59
.37
.76
.55
.29
.84
.52
1969a
.61
.60
.87
.63
.40
.78
.55
.29
,84
.54
1970b
.61
.60
.87
.63
.40
.78
.55
.29
.84
.54
1975b
.61
.60
.87
.63
.40
.78
.55
.29
.84
.54
1980b
.61
.60
.87
.63
.40
.78
.55
.29
.84
.54
1985**
.61
.60
.87
.63
.40
.78
.55
.29
.84
.54
Notes:
Ratios based on Tables 25 and 26.
Projections assume that 1969 ratio remains unchanged.
trends in cropland fertilization from the 1954—1969 ratios, for this analysis
it was assumed that the 1970—1985 ratio of fertilized to unfertilized crop-
lands would remain the same as for 1969.
The final step was to multiply the ratios of Table 27 by the projected
number of acres in total harvested cropland for 1970—1985 for each region.
This yielded the projected number of acres of fertilized harvested cropland
for 1970-1985 given in Table 25.
REGIONAL CONSUMPTION OF FERTILIZERS
Table 28 shows regional fertilizer consumption for 1954-1985. The
consumption figures for 1954 through 1970 are census data. The 1975,
1980, and 1985 figures are projections based on fertilizer industry growth
rates from Reference 1 and 1970 regional distributions of consumption.
76
-------
FERTILIZERS
Table 28. Fertilizer consumption in the United States by region, 1954—1985
(thousands of tons).
Region
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
E.N. Central
W. N. Central
E.S. Central
W.S. Central
Mountain
Pacific
United States
1954°
440
1,630
6,580
4,520
2,180
2,940
1,370
425
2,200
22,300
1959b
409
1,500
6,620
4,780
2,870
2,960
1,530
588
3,240
24, 500
1964°
458
1,530
7,230
6,130
4,850
3,080
2,730
923
3,990
30, 900
1969d
359
1,500
7,750
8,240
8,560
3,290
4,010
1,430
4,100
39,200
1970d
360
1,570
7,780
8,760
9,120
3,360
4,170
1,500
4,220
40,800
1975e
460
2,010
9,970
11,230
11,690
4,310
5,350
1,920
5,410
52, 300
1980e
560
2,440
12,070
13,600
14,150
5,210
6,470
2,330
6,550
63, 300
1985e
660
2,860
14, 190
16,000
16,630
6,130
7,600
2,740
7,700
74,400
Notes:
°USDA, 195616
bUSDA, 1961 16
CUSDA, 196616
dUSDA, 197216
Incorporates fertilizer industry growth projections from Reference 1; regional distribution
based on 1970 distribution.
As the table indicates, the South Atlantic region, the East North Central
region, and the West North Central region have used, and are expected to
use, more tonnage of fertilizer from 1964 to 1985 than any of the other
six regions. Of these three, the West North Central region had the highest
consumption level in 1970 and is projected to maintain that status through
1985.
As may be noted from Table 25, the East and West North Central
regions have the largest shares of fertilized acreage in the country, and
the South Atlantic region the fourth largest. The two tables appear to
show a fairly consistent, positive relationship between the volume of fer-
tilizer consumed in a given region and the cropland acreage treated with
77
-------
SECTION 6
fertilizer. The smallest consumer of fertilizer, the New England region,
has the least fertilized acreage, while the second and third smallest con-
sumers, the Mountain region and the Middle Atlantic region, also have
the second and third fewest fertilized acres. There is some variation
within the remaining four regions, but the relationship between the two
variables is generally positive.
Table 29 shows fertilizer application per fertilized cropland acre
for 1954-1985. The application figures are derived by dividing past and
projected tonnage for each region (Table 28) by the acreage treated (Table
25). Nationwide, per-acre application increased by 50 percent between
1954 and 1970. As projected, a 50 percent increase over 1970 per-acre
fertilized application occurs by 1985. The heaviest per-acre usage occurs
in the South Atlantic region with 0.68 ton per acre projected for 1985. The
second heaviest application—0. 57 ton per fertilized acre—is projected for
the Pacific and New England regions in the same year. The West South
Central region shows the lowest per-acre application—0. 30 ton— for 1985.
Table 29. Fertilizer application per fertilized cropland acre, 1954—1985 (tons).
Region
New England
Middle Atlantic
South Atlantic
East North Central
West North Central
East South Central
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
United States
1954
.51
.27
.31
.15
.08
.19
.12
.13
.32
.18
1959
.41
.26
.35
.15
.08
.23
.12
.12
.35
.18
1964
.48
.29
.42
.19
.11
.27
.13
.14
.36
.20
1969
.36
.27
.44
.24
.19
.28
.19
.21
.36
.25
1970
.37
.29
.45
.26
.20
.29
.20
.23
.38
.27
1975
.40
.31
.48
.28
.22
.31
.21
.24
.40
.29
1980
.48
.38
.58
.34
.27
.37
.26
.29
.49
.35
1985
.57
.44
.68
.40
.31
.44
.30
.35
.57
.41
Source: Tables 25 and 28.
78
-------
FERTILIZERS
Seasonality of fertilizer use varies widely within and among regions,
and may be of considerable significance in estimating the impact of ferti-
lizer use on groundwater quality. The use of a given amount of fertilizer
in a single application during a year may have different implications for
infiltration, for instance, than smaller applications of the same amount of
fertilizer distributed throughout the year. In addition, weather conditions
in different seasons in which the fertilizer may be applied might signifi-
cantly affect the potential pollution from fertilizer use.
Although seasonality of use is recognized here as an important issue,
it has not been incorporated into this demonstration analysis: first, be-
cause readily available figures (eg, from the USDA Statistical Reporting
Service ) are for fertilizer purchases by quarters, which may differ dras-
tically from fertilizer use, and second, because the published data were
for regions, a level of aggregation much too gross to be of real use since
weather, soils, crops, growing cycles, etc, may vary in different parts of
a region. Were this demonstration study to be pursued further with more
complete and less aggregated data, it might be possible to identify the pol-
lution potential of specific crops because of fertilization and irrigation
practices associated with them, particularly if the rainfall, groundwater
table level, and soil percolation characteristics of an area were also
known.
NATIONAL FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION
Table 30 summarizes Tables 25 through 29 and indicates national
historical and projected patterns of consumption and fertilizer application.
As the table indicates, from 1954 to 1970, fertilizer consumption increased
by 1. 8 times. From 1970 to 1985 the same total increase of 1. 8 times is
expected, although a declining rate of yearly growth is anticipated.
The change in harvested cropland acreage has been much different
from that of fertilizer consumption, in that the former shows a steady
decline from 1954—1969 . By 1970, however, an increase of one million
79
-------
SECTION 7
acres over the 1969 figure is evident. Based on the assumption that from
1975 to 1985 all available cropland will have become harvested cropland,
338 million acres are projected to fall within this category during those
10 years. This represents an acreage similar to that of 1954.
Unlike the decline in total harvested cropland, the historical data
presented in Table 30 on fertilized harvested cropland exhibit a steady
increase from 1954 to 1969. * The ratio of fertilized to total harvested
cropland also increased steadily from 1954 to 1969, but because of the
assumption that the ratio had stabilized by 1969-1970 no increase is pro-
jected beyond these years.
Table 30 shows an historical increase in per-acre application of
fertilizer to fertilized cropland such that in 1970 nearly 50 percent more
fertilizer was applied per acre than in 1954. Since the number of acres
treated by fertilizer is expected to stabilize by 1975, and yet the consump-
tion of fertilizer is expected to continue to increase, per-acre application
is also expected to continue to increase. Table 30 projects a steady in-
crease in per-acre application from 1970 to 1985 to approximately two-
fifths of a ton per fertilized acre in 1985. This is approximately one and
one-half times the quantity used per acre in 1970, and more than double
the amount applied per acre in 1954.
*A slight drop is shown from 1969 to 1970 because the 1970 regional esti-
mates were based on USDA data, rather than projections, of total harvested
cropland (see Table 25). When these data were combined with projections
of the 1970—1985 constant ratio of fertilized to total harvested cropland
acreage (see Table 26), the result was a slight regional decline which was
reflected in the national total.
80
-------
FERTILIZERS
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ertilizer consumpi
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-------
SECTION 7
BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
The USDA estimates that approximately 1.39 billion tons of cattle
19
wastes were generated in the nation in 1969. Of this total only about
5 percent was deposited in feedlots, but the environmental threat of wastes
concentrated on feedlots is disproportionately large relative to total cattle
waste. The Congressional Research Service states, in reference to the
environmental threat from cattle wastes, that the major "... concern
is not with the droppings from grazing animals in pasture lands, but with
feedlot production. " The brief analysis performed in this study, using
estimates of cattle feedlot marketings and population from 1962 through
1983, yields projections of the amount of waste generated in cattle feedlots
and acreage devoted to feedlots. The waste and acreage projections for
1983 are more than 30 percent greater than the 1969 levels. Most wastes
deposited by beef cattle in feedlots are eventually removed. These wastes
may be spread on'cropland or pastures, or may be temporarily stacked
in or near the feedlot, then spread or bagged to be sold. However, the
wastes are generally not prevented from remaining in contact with the
ground in the feedlot for at least a brief period.
Particularly when the feedlot is covered, a "pack" of manure forms
which becomes essentially impermeable. When the pack is allowed to dry
and crack, or if the manure is scraped off down to the surface of the soil,
direct infiltration through the area of the feedlot becomes important as a
potential source of groundwater pollution.
82
-------
FEEDLOTS
Rainfall and process water from feedlots (that used for manure)
flushing or washing) may be caught and treated in holding basins, ponds,
or lagoons. When these facilities are in place, infiltration of pollutants
into the ground is the major potential threat to groundwater. When feed-
lots are not adequately equipped with such facilities, and particularly
when they are not properly protected by diversion structures to prevent
surface drainage from passing through the feedlot, runoff waters will
carry wastes either to a low point in the surrounding terrain or to surface
streams, or both. The potential contamination of groundwater is then
related to the wasteloading and the location of wastewaters, from which
contaminants may infiltrate into groundwater.
EPA's regulations proposed in September 1973 specify the best
practicable technology currently available, and thus required by 1977, as
that which will prevent discharge of pollutants to navigable waters except
when rainfall exceeds a 10-year 24-hour event as established by the U.S.
Weather Bureau. Effluent limitations representing the best available
technology economically achievable, required by 1983, are to prevent
discharge of pollutants to navigable waters except when rainfall exceeds
a 25-year 24-hour event. Currently, however, " . . . . Waste production
by our domestic animals is equivalent to that of a human population of 1. 9
billion. Sewage treatment facilities for this livestock are infinitesimal
. . . . " This statement is supported by Reference 21, which indicates
that only 9 of 46 beef-producing States had regulations directly dealing
•with feedlot construction or operation in 1972.
For statistical purposes, the United States is divided into eleven
beef cattle feedlot production regions (Figure 5), of which the Corn Belt
and the Northern Plains are the largest producers. From 1962 to 1972,
and projected through 1983, each of these two regions had more beef ani-
mals in feedlots, generated greater amounts of beef cattle waste, and had
more acreage devoted to feedlots than any other regions of the country.
83
-------
SECTION 7
Western Stoles
22
Source: US DA
Figure 5. Cattle feeding regions.
The greatest concentration of cattle on feedlots, and thus the greatest
density in waste deposits per acre, occurs in two other regions, California
and Arizona.
Table 31 lists the constituents present in beef cattle wastes which
may affect groundwater quality. Nitrogen comprises 3. 1 to 9.8 percent
of total solids, potassium 1. 7 to 3. 8 percent, and phosphorus 0. 3 to 1.7
percent, with other constituents occurring in lesser amounts.
The only reliable data source for the beef cattle industry appears to
be the Federal government, which did not record the capacity of feedlot
operations until 1962. Thus, the time span of this analysis covers 1962
to 1983, as 1962 is the earliest date for which a usable record of feedlot
activity is available. The primary references consulted were the Envi-
24
ronmental Protection Agency and the United States Department of Agri-
culture. ' ' The University of Maryland's Bureau of Business and
Economic Research meat industry forecasts were used as the basis for
projecting growth in cattle feedlot operations.
84
-------
FEEDLOTS
Table 31 „ Cattle waste characteristics in terms of 1000 pounds live weight.
Waste constituents
BOD5 (Ibs/day)
BOD_ (Ibs/day of volatile solids)
Reaction rate constant (log.-)
BOD^COD (%)
Nitrogen (total Kjeldahl)
(% TS)
(Ibs/day)
Phosphorus (% TS)
Potassium (% TS)
Calcium (% TS)
Magnesium (% TS)
Zinc (% TS)
Copper (% TS)
Iron (% TS)
Manganese (% TS)
Sodium (% TS)
Beef cattle
a
1.7
0.45
0.14
38
6,2
0.30
L7
2.27
1.16
0.47
0,01
-
0.08
0.01
0.09
b
-
0.252
-
-
9.8
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
c
1.02
0.28 -0.32
-
31 -40
3.1
1.35
3,0
0.8
0.65
-
0.0005d
0.03
-
-
Notes:
Values obtained by EPA
b 23
Average suggested values by Taiganides (1971)
Calculations based on tabulated values by Loehr (1968)
rl 9*}
For dairy cattle; no value given for beef cattle.
APPROACH
Assumptions
Projecting the growth of the beef cattle industry and its attendant
waste deposits required assumptions on the size range of feedlot cattle,
85
-------
SECTION 7
size trends, seasonality of industry production, and projected regional
distribution of the industry. While these factors could be varied by time
and region (or some smaller geographic area) in a more detailed study of
this type, for this demonstration analysis they -were treated uniformly for
all regions and periods.
The weight range of beef cattle on feedlots in the Amarillo, Texas
area was taken to be representative of feedlots in the rest of the country.
Cattle enter Amarillo feedlots at 550 to 650 pounds and leave weighing
25
1, 000 to 1, 110 pounds. This average weight-range per head is treated
as unchanging throughout the 1962-1983 analysis period.
Like the other industries studied, facility requirements for a given
annual output—in this case feedlot area required—are a function of seasonal
production schedules. Information from Agricultural Statistics, 1972
22
and Cattle Feeding in the United States on cattle and calves on feed at
the beginning of each quarter indicates that production rates are substan-
tially the same for most regions throughout the year.
In projecting regional cattle feedlot production for 1972 — 1983 the
distribution was assumed to be the same as for 1971, the latest year for
which data were available.
Method of Analysis
Data for the number of animals marketed from beef cattle feedlots
for the years 1962 through 1968 were taken directly from USDA, Cattle
22
Feeding in the United States. Data for 1971 were taken from EPA's
24
National Animal Feedlot Wastes Research Program and USDA's Agri-
cultural Statistics, 1972. Beef cattle industry growth projections
for 1973 through 1983 were based upon projections by the University of
Maryland's Bureau of Business and Economic Research. These were:
86
-------
FEEDLOTS
Period Percent/Year
1971-1973 2.61
1974-1975 3.02
1976-1978 2.67
1980-1983 2.38
The amount of waste deposited on feedlots was estimated by multi-
plying the number of cattle marketed from feedlots by an average figure
for waste produced per animal during its feedlot residence.
oo o/L ?*7 ? Q
A variety of estimates ' ' ' were obtained on the volume of
manure generated by feedlot cattle. These ranged from 4. 5 tons per year
per 1000 pounds of live steer weight to 11. 7 tons per year per 1000 pounds
of live steer weight; an average value of 8. 1 tons per year per 1000 pounds
of live steer weight was used. Since cattle enter feedlots at about 600
pounds, and leave at about 1100 pounds, 850 pounds was taken as a typical
weight of feedlot cattle during feedlot residence. Thus, a figure of 6. 9
tons of manure per year per animal was used in the calculations. Since
feedlot residence is about 5 months, the 6.9 tons per year figure was
multiplied by 5/12 to obtain an estimate of 2. 88 tons of manure deposited
per animal during its feedlot residence.
Table 32 shows the number of fed cattle marketed by region and by
year for the period 1962—1983. Multiplying the number of animals pro-
cessed through feedlots by 2. 88 tons per animal during feedlot residence
yields tons of cattle waste deposited in feedlots by region for the years
covered by the projection period. These figures are shown in Table 33.
Using as typical a 5-month feedlot residency of the cattle marketed,
and since feedlot activity appears to be fairly constant through the year,
the average population in feedlots can be approximated by multiplying
cattle marketed (Table 32) by 51'12. The resulting figures are given in
Table 34.
87
-------
SECTION 7
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88
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FEEDLOTS
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SECTION 7
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10 . •*
-------
FEEDLOTS
The area occupied by beef cattle feedlots was calculated by multi-
plying the number of cattle on lots in each region by an estimate of the
square footage normally allotted per head. Four estimates on square
footage of feedlot area per head were obtained. These were:
•fc
• Arizona: 130-150 sq ft per head
• Corn Belt: 200 sq ft per head"1"
• Northern Plains: 200 sq ft per head"1"
• California:
29
— N. California: 50—212 sq ft per head
— S. California: 130-150 sq ft per head*
— California Mean: 135 sq ft per head.
These four regions represent over one-half of the beef cattle feedlot
production in the United States for 1971, and are projected to represent
the same share in 1983.
No data were found on the regions which comprise the remainder
of the beef cattle feedlot industry in the United States. One source**
suggested a national average area per feedlot head of 200 square feet.
This figure was used to calculate the feedlot areas of the remaining re-
gions for which estimates were not available.
The areas of feedlots for 1962-1983 are computed in Table 35 from
the feedlot area per head estimates and the beef cattle feedlot population
figures of Table 34.
*Personal communication with Donald Addis, feedlot farm advisor, Uni-
versity of California, Riverside Agricultural Extension, September 1973.
^Personal communication with Professor Garrett, University of California
at Davis, Agricultural Department, September 1973.
**Dr. James Elam, feedlot management and cattle nutrition consultant,
Santa Ynez, California, September 1973.
91
-------
SECTION 7
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FEEDLOTS
SUMMARY OF BEEF CATTLE FEEDLOT ACTIVITY
Table 33 shows that the two leading feedlot regions of the country,
the Corn Belt and the Northern Plains, generated 15 million tons and 9
million tons of manure deposits, respectively, in 1962. By 1983, the
former is expected to be generating 26 million tons per year, and the
latter 25 million tons per year. Over the entire projection period, the
national total increases from about 43 million tons per year to 101 million
tons per year.
Table 35 shows that in 1971, and projected through 1983, the four
areas with the greatest amount of land covered by beef cattle feedlot wastes
are the Corn Belt, the Northern Plains, the High Plains, and Colorado.
For the entire 21-year period, the two highest ranking regions are, again,
the Corn Belt, with a feedlot area of 10, 000 acres in 1962 and a projection
of 17,000 in 1983, and the Northern Plains, with 6,000 acres in 1962 and
a projection of nearly 17, 000 acres in 1983.
Based on waste deposits of 6. 9 tons per year per head and the per-
head area allotment estimates given earlier, the feedlot acreages of
Table 35 are subject to about 1, 500 tons of waste deposits per year per
acre, with the exception of the Arizona and California regions. Assum-
ing that feedlots are used to full capacity, Arizona region feedlots receive
annual deposits of about 2, 150 tons per acre and California region feedlots
slightly more, about 2,200 tons per acre.
Table 36 summarizes Tables 32 through 35. As may be noted, about
15 million head of cattle went through feedlots in the United States in 1962.
The number had increased by more than 10 million by 1971, and is pro-
jected to increase to approximately 2 1/3 times the 1962 production by
1983. The amount of waste generated follows the same pattern of change
over this 21-year period. In 1962, 43 million tons of beef cattle waste
material were deposited in feedlots, increasing to 74 million tons by 1971.
Again, the 1962 figure is expected to more than double by 1983, when 101
93
-------
SECTION 7
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94
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FEEDLOTS
million tons are projected. To view the problem in a slightly different
context, those feedlots in existence in 1962 will have accumulated over
31,000 tons of waste per acre by 1983.
The above amounts of waste deposits occupy increasing acreage in
feedlot operations in the country over the 1962 to 1983 period. Assuming
a national average feedlot animal population of 200 square feet per ani-
mal, about 27,000 acres were utilized as feedlots in 1962, 47,000 acres
in 1971, and 64, 000 acres, or 100 square miles, are projected for 1983.
No attempt was made to assess the pollution potential of cattle feed-
lots in this demonstration study, but a few generalized observations can
be made. The two leading feedlot regions, the Corn Belt region and the
Northern Plains region, form a rough grain farming and livestock-growing
continuum that extends easterly from the south central part of the Northern
Plains region, traverses the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, and termi-
nates in the western part of Ohio (see Figure 6). Rainfall in the two regions
ranges from moderate in the west to abundant in the east.
Source: US DA
' ClIlU I«t4»| tint r«,rtl.nl I
bt ml >•!••• •( <«'ll« ftj
Figure 6. Cattle feeding areas.'
95
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SECTION 7
The industry output growth projections, feedlot acreage, and per
head per year waste deposit estimates used indicate that over the 21-year
projection period, more than 0. 8 billion tons of cattle feedlot wastes will
have been deposited in these two regions. This represents about one-half
the total U. S. cattle feedlot waste deposits during the projection period
in an area that is less than 15 percent of the total U.S. area; ie, a re-
gional concentration of about six times that of the rest of the country.
While important, the three factors of rainfall, waste deposit ton-
nages, and areal extent do not wholly determine the groundwater pollution
threat, which depends also on many other factors such as waste deposit
control and disposal practices (if any), concentrations of feedlot activities
within the regions, local topography and water table characteristics, soil
porosity and sorption characteristics, and groundwater withdrawal rates.
96
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REFERENCES
1. Almon, Clopper, 1985 Interindustry Forecasts of the American
Economy, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University
of Maryland (1973).
2. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, "Industrial Waste
Profile No. 1, Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills, " FWPCA No. I. W. P.
-1, 100 p. (September 1967), "Industrial Waste Profile No. 3, "Paper
Mills Except Building," FWPCA No. I. W. P. -3, 65 p. plus app. ,
"Industrial Waste Profile No. 5, Petroleum Refining, " FWPCA No.
I.W.P.-5, 51 p. plus app. (November 1967), The Cost of Clean Water;
Volume III. Washington, B.C., U.S. Government Printing Office (1967).
3. U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Subject Statistics: Water Use in Manu-
facturing, " j^96_3_C_ejisja^_o^_M^mfa^ture_s_, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, MC63(1)-10, 174 p. , U.S. Government Printing Office (1966).
4. U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Subject Statistics: Water Use in Manu-
facturing, " J_96j7_C^sji£_^f_J^ajiufacture_£, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, MC67(l)-7, 361 p., U.S. Government Printing Office (1971).
5. Allan, L. , Kaufman, E. K. , and Underwood, J. , "Pollution in the
Pulp and Paper Industry, " Paper Profits, Council on Economic Prior-
ities, New York, N. Y., Cambridge, Mass., and London, England,
504 p. (1972).
6. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering; Collection. Treat-
ment and Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 782 p. (1972).
7. Russell, C.S., Residuals Management in Industry: A Case Study of
Petroleum Refining, Resources for the Future, Inc., Johns Hopkins
University Press, 193 p. (1973).
8. Environmental Protection Agency, The Economics of Clean Water.
1972-Volume I Report, 157 p. , Volume II, Data and Technical Appen-
dices, 695 p., Volume III, 108 p. , Washington, D. C. , U.S. Government
Printing Office (1970).
9. Federal Water Pollution Control Agency, The Economics of Clean
Water —Volume I, Detailed Analysis, 168 p. , Volume III, Inorganic
Chemical Industry Profile, 467 p., Washington, D. C.,U. S. Government
Printing Office (1970).
97
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REFERENCES
10. Reid, G.W., et al, Evaluation of Wastewater from Petroleum and
Coal Processing. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Re-
search and Monitoring, 205 p. (1972).
11. Cannon, James S., et al, Environmental Steel— Pollution in the Iron
and Steel Industry, Council on Economic Priorities, New York, N. Y. ,
522 p. (1973).
12. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States.
1972. (93rd edition), Washington, D. C. , 1017 p. (1972).
Ibid, 1969 (90th edition).
13. Battelle Memorial Institute, Inorganic Fertilizers and Phosphate
Mining Industries —Water Pollution and Control, Richland, Washing-
ton, 1202 FPD 09/71, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Monitoring, 225 p. (1971).
14. Boyle, J. R., Waste Disposal Costs of a Florida Phosphate Mining
Operation, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., Bureau of
Mines Circular No. 8404, 24 p. (1969).
15. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Commercial Fertilizers, Consump-
tion in the United States, Fiscal Year Ended June 30. 1970, Statistical
Reporting Service, Crop Reporting Board (1971).
Ibid, Fiscal Year Ended June 30. 1969 (1970).
Ibid, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1968 (1969).
16. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1955, U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Ibid, 1956, I960. 1961, 1966. 1970. and 1972.
17. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1959. United
States Census of Agriculture. Vol. II, "General Report, Statistics by
Subject," (1959).
18. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1964 United
States Census of Agriculture, Vol. II, Chapter 9, "Irrigation, Land
Improvement Practices, and Use of Agricultural Chemicals, " (1964).
19. Hagen, Carl A. , Questions and Answers on Environmental Pollution
Related to Livestock Pollution, United States Congressional Research
Service, Library of Congress, TP 450 USA, 71-223 EP (August 4, 1972).
20. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil and Water Conservation Research
Division, Wastes in Relation to Agriculture and Forestry, Miscella-
neous publication #1065 (March 1968).
21. "Energy Needed to Manage Animal Waste. " Electrical World, p. 70-
73 (Sept. 2, 1972).
22. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Cattle
Feeding in the United States, Agricultural Economic Report #186 (1971).
98
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REFERENCES
23. Ngoddy, Patrick O. (principal investigator), Closed System Waste
Management for Livestock. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Monitoring (June 1971).
24. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental
Research Center, Office of Research and Monitoring, National Ani-
mal Feedlot Waste Research Program, U.S. Government Printing
Office (1973).
25. "From Ranch to Table-Why Beef Comes High, " U.S. News & World
Report, p. 25-26, 31 (Sept 24, 1973).
26. Acker, Duane, Animal Science and Industry, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1971).
27. Loehr, R.C. Pollution Implications of Animal Wastes —A Forward-
Oriented Review, Report of FWPCA, Robert S. Kerr Research Center
(1968).
28. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Co-operative State Research Service,
Science Review (Vol. 9, No. 1, 1st Quarter 1971).
29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Re-
search Series, Evaluation of Beef Cattle Feedlot Waste Management
Alternatives (Nov 1971).
99
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
1. Report No.
3. Accession No.
w
4. Title
POLLUTED GROUNDWATER: ESTIMATING THE
EFFECTS OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES,
7. Author(s)
John F. Karubian
5. Report Date
6. July 1974
8. Performing Organization
Report NQ-GE74TMP-17
10. Project No.
9. Organization
General Electric—TEMPO
Center for Advanced Studies
Santa Barbara, California
11 Contract/Grant No.
EPA 68-01-0759
12. Sponsoring Organization
13. Type of Report and
Period Covered
15. Supplementary Notes
Environmental Protection Agency report number
EPA-600/4-74-002, July 1974. 139 pages.
16. Abstract
Presents a method for estimating kinds, amounts, and trends of groundwater pollu-
tion caused by man's activities. Describes preliminary research for a number of
examples: unlined earthen basins and lagoons used by the pulp and paper industry,
petroleum refining, and primary metals industries; phosphate mining wastewater
ponds; agricultural fertilizer use; and beef cattle feedlots. Relies primarily on cen-
sus data, other statistical data, and descriptions of production processes used. Es-
timates past and projected volumes and areas covered by potential pollutants so that
geohydrological analysis can be used to estimate the infiltration potential of pollutants
Results are not definitive but intended only to illustrate use of the methodology for
geographical areas of interest. (W.E. Rogers— TEMPO)
178. OescriPtors*Farm wastes, *lndustrial Wastes, #Waste Water (pollution), *Water Pollu-
tion Control, *Water Pollution Sources,
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Groundwater, Liquid Wastes, Management,
Organic Wastes, Pollutants, Water Pollution, Water Pollution Effects, Water Pollu-
tion Treatment
17b. Identifiers
Feedlots (Pollution), Fertilizer (Pollution), Petroleum Refining (Pollution),
Phosphate Mining (Pollution).
17c. COWRR Field* Group
05B, 05D
18. Availability
19. Security Class.
(Report)
20. Security Class
(Page)
21. No. of
f*g6s"\. '
22 Price ^
W.. ' ^
Send To.
" -" r* *' * •*' ^' ' 'v< *'" * *~ '• %
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC TNFORM)mON CENTER
U.S. bEPARTHENTjOF-TH^INjER.!*}*. -.««
i WASHINGTON, -OX. 2034O , , . . . ,.
Abstractor Institution ,,-',• V •, , . . -
WRSIC 102 (REV. JUNE 1971)
G P O 488-935
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