EPA 560/5-85-003
July 1985
METHODS FOR ASSESSING EXPOSURE
TO CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Volume 3
Methods for Assessing Exposure from Disposal
of Chemical Substances
by
Leslie Coleman Adklns, Stephen H. Nacht, John J. Dorla,
Michael T. Christopher
EPA Contract No. 68-01-6271
Project Officer
Michael A. Callahan
Exposure Evaluation Division
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C. 20460
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PESTICIDES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed and approved for publication by the
Office of Toxic Substances, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The use of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute Agency endorsement or
recommendation for use.
111
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FOREWORD
This document 1s one of a series of volumes, developed for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Toxic Substances (OTS),
that provides methods and Information useful for assessing exposure to
chemical substances. The methods described 1n these volumes have been
Identified by EPA-OTS as having utility 1n exposure assessments on
existing and new chemicals 1n the OTS program. These methods are not
necessarily the only methods used by OTS, because the state-of-the-art 1n
exposure assessment 1s changing rapidly, as 1s the availability of
methods and tools. There 1s no single correct approach to performing an
exposure assessment, and the methods 1n these volumes are accordingly
discussed only as options to be considered, rather than as rigid
procedures.
Perhaps more Important than the optional methods presented 1n these
volumes 1s the general Information catalogued. These documents contain a
great deal of non-chem1cal-spedf1c data which can be used for many types
of exposure assessments. This Information 1s presented along with the
methods 1n Individual volumes and appendices. As a set, these volumes
should be thought of as a catalog of Information useful 1n exposure
assessment, and not as a "how-to" cookbook on the subject.
The definition, background, and discussion of planning exposure
assessments are discussed 1n the Introductory volume of the series
(Volume 1). Each subsequent volume addresses only one general exposure
setting. Consult Volume 1 for guidance on the proper use and
Interrelations of the various volumes and on the planning and Integration
of an entire assessment.
The titles of the nine basic volumes are as follows:
Volume 1 Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances
(EPA 560/5-85-001)
Volume 2 Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances 1n the
Ambient Environment (EPA 560/5-85-002)
Volume 3 Methods for Assessing Exposure from Disposal of Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-003)
Volume 4 Methods for Enumerating and Characterizing Populations
Exposed to Chemical Substances (EPA 560/5-85-004)
Volume 5 Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances 1n
Drinking Water (EPA 560/5-85-005)
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Volume 6 Methods for Assessing Occupational Exposure to Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-006)
Volume 7 Methods for Assessing Consumer Exposure to Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-007)
Volume 8 Methods for Assessing Environmental Pathways of Food
Contamination (EPA 560/5-85-008)
Volume 9 Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances
Resulting from Transportation-Related Spills
(EPA 560/5-85-009)
Because exposure assessment 1s a rapidly developing field, Its
methods and analytical tools are quite dynamic. EPA-OTS Intends to Issue
periodic supplements for Volumes 2 through 9 to describe significant
Improvements and updates for the existing Information, as well as adding
short monographs to the series on specific areas of Interest. The first
four of these monographs are as follows:
Volume 10 Methods for Estimating Uncertainties 1n Exposure Assessments
(EPA 560/5-85-014)
Volume 11 Methods for Estimating the Migration of Chemical Substances
from Solid Matrices (EPA 560/5-85-015)
Volume 12 Methods for Estimating the Concentration of Chemical
Substances 1n Indoor A1r (EPA 560/5-85-016)
Volume 13 Methods for Estimating Retention of Liquids on Hands
(EPA 560/5-85-017)
Michael A. Callahan, Chief
Exposure Assessment Branch
Exposure Evaluation Division (TS-798)
Office of Toxic Substances
v1
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by Versar Inc. of Springfield, Virginia, for
the EPA Office of Toxic Substances, Exposure Evaluation Division,
Exposure Assessment Branch (EAB) under EPA Contract No. 68-01-6271 (Task
11). The EPA-EAB Task Manager was Stephen Nacht, the EPA Program Manager
was Michael Callahan; their support and guidance 1s gratefully
acknowedged. Acknowledgement 1s also given to Elizabeth Bryan of
EPA-EED, who also took part In this task.
A number of Versar personnel have contributed to this task over the
three-year period of performance as shown below:
Program Management
Task Management
Technical Support
Editing
Secretarial/Clerical
Gayaneh Contos
Leslie Coleman Akdlns
John Dorla
Michael Christopher
Thompson Chambers
J. Randall Freed
Douglas D1xon
Juliet CrumMne
Shirley Harrison
Lucy Gentry
Donna Barnard
Patience Miller
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v11
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1x
LIST OF TABLES x11
LIST OF FIGURES XV
LIST OF APPENDICES xv1
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Purpose and Scope 1
1.2 Limitations 2
1.3 Overview - Potential for Exposure to Chemical Substances
from Waste D1sposal 3
2. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH 6
2.1 Integration with Other Exposure Scenarios 7
2.2 Framework for Estimating Releases 7
2.3 General Decision Trees for Stages 1 through V 10
2.3.1 Stage I Decision Tree - Estimating Releases
to Disposal 11
2.3.2 Stage II Decision Tree - Characterizing Waste
Stream Releases and Concentrations 13
2.3.3 Stage III Decision Tree - Allocating Waste Streams
to Disposal Practices 14
(1) Incinerator residues 19
(a) Background Information 19
(b) Stage III decision tree 23
(2) POTW sludge 25
(a) Background Information 25
(b) Stage III decision tree 27
(3) Wastewater 29
(a) Background Information 30
(b) Stage III decision tree 31
(4) Hazardous Waste 35
(a) Background Information 35
(b) Stage III decision tree 38
IX
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
(5) Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste 41
(a) Background Information 41
(b) Stage III decision tree 45
(6) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 46
(a) Background Information 46
(b) Stage III decision tree 49
2.3.4 Stage IV Decision Tree - Allocating Waste Streams
to Individual Disposal Sites 50
2.3.5 Stage V Decision Tree - Estimating Environmental
Releases from Disposal Sites 53
3. LANDFILLS 56
3.1 Background Information 56
3.1.1 Landfill Types and Operation 56
3.1.2 Environmental Releases from Landfills 57
3.1.3 Predicting Environmental Releases 60
3.1.4 Model Input Data 62
3.1.5 Additional Considerations for Modeling Chemical
Releases from Landfills 74
3.1.6 Estimating Emissions from Broad Geographical
Regions 82
3.1.7 Monitoring 82
3.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Landfill Sites - Stage IV
Decision Tree 83
3.2.1 Municipal Landfills 83
3.2.2 Industrial Nonhazardous Landfills 84
3.2.3 Hazardous Waste Landfills 85
3.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Landfills -
Stage V Decision Tree 86
3.3.1 Municipal Landfills 87
3.3.2 Industrial Landfills 89
4. LAND TREATMENT 91
4.1 Background Information 91
4.1.1 Types of Waste Treated 92
4.1.2 Environmental Impacts and Environmental Releases .. 95
4.1.3 Location of Sites 97
4.1.4 Estimating Environmental Releases 98
4.1.5 Model Input Data 100
4.1.6 Monitoring 104
4.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Land Treatment Sites -
Stage IV Decision Tree 104
4.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Land Treatment -
Stage V Decision Tree 106
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
5. SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS 110
5.1 Background Information 110
5.1.1 Types of Impoundments Ill
5.1.2 Environmental Releases from Surface Impoundments .. 115
5.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Surface Impoundments -
Stage IV Decision Tree 118
5.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Surface
Impoundments - Stage V Decision Tree 127
6. PUBLICLY OWNED TREATMENT WORKS (POTWs) 134
6.1 Background Information 134
6.1.1 General 134
6.1.2 Chemical Substances In POTW Effluent and Sludge ... 136
6.1.3 Predicting Releases of Chemical Substances
from POTWs 136
6.2 Allocating Wastewater to Individual POTWs - Stage IV
Decision Tree 140
6.3 Estimating Releases from POTWs - Stage V Decision Tree ... 142
7. INCINERATION 145
7.1 Background Information 145
7.1.1 General 145
7.1.2 Information Resources 147
7.1.3 Emissions and Products of Incineration 149
7.1.4 Estimating Emissions from Incineration 153
7.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Individual Incinerators -
Stage IV Decision Tree 154
7.3 Estimating Emissions from Incineration - Stage V
Decision Tree 157
8. DEEP-WELL INJECTION 161
8.1 Background Information 161
8.1.1 General 161
8.1.2 Information Resources Useful 1n Assessing the
Potential for Exposure from Injection Wells 166
8.1.3 Modeling Releases to Groundwater 166
8.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Individual Injection Wells -
Stage IV Decision Tree 167
8.3 Estimating Releases from Injection Wells - Stage V
Decision Tree 169
REFERENCES 172
xi
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Overview of Six Waste Treatment/Disposal Methods 4
Table 2. Characteristics of Municipal Incinerator Residue
from Two Studies 20
Table 3. Average Analysis of Water-Soluble Portion of Residue
from Selected Municipal Incinerators 21
Table 4. Chemical Analysis of Fly Ash Samples from a
Municipal Incinerator 22
Table 5. Average Characteristics of Sewage Sludge 26
Table 6. Current Nationwide Disposal Practices for POTW Sludge 28
Table 7. Populations Served by Wastewater Treatment Types 32
Table 8. Hazardous Waste: Possible Disposal Methods 37
Table 9. OSW Industrial Hazardous Waste Assessment Reports 39
Table 10. Industrial Solid Waste Production 42
Table 11. Sludge Generation by Manufacturing Industries 43
Table 12. Nonhazardous Industrial Solid Waste: Disposal Methods 44
Table 13. Composition and Analysis of an Average Municipal Refuse 47
Table 14. Municipal Solid Waste: Disposal Practices 48
Table 15. Characteristics of MSW Leachates Reported 1n
F1 ve Stud 1 es 59
Table 16. Precompiled Soil Parameters, SESOIL Data File 64
Table 17. Selected Data from the 1983 Waste Age Survey 66
Table 18. Landfill Size and Capacity Estimates 68
Table 19. Recommended Design Criteria for Disposal of Municipal
Sludge 1n Landfills 72
xn
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 20.
Table 21.
Table 22.
Table 23.
Table 24.
Table 25.
Table 26.
Table 27.
Off-Site Hazardous Landfill Area Utilized Annually
Commercial Off-Site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities
Offering LandfllUng Services 1n 1980 by EPA Region
Industrial On-Slte Landfills by State
Estimated Number of Industrial Landfills by Size
Category ,
Industrial On-S1te Landfill Acreage Used Annually ,
Municipal Landfill Acreage Used Annually ,
Landspreadlng Activity, Dry Weight
Commercial Off-Site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities
Page
. 75
76
77
78
80
81
93
Offering Land Treatment/Solar Evaporation Services In
1980 by EPA Region
Table 28.
Table 29.
Table 30.
Table 31.
Table 32.
Table 33.
Table 34.
Table 35.
Table 36.
Table 37.
Table 38.
Annual Land Treatment Application Rates,
Summary Statistics for Active Surface Impoundment
Sites Located 1n the SIA
Liner Data, Municipal Impoundment Sites
Distribution of Industrial Impoundment Sites by SIC Code.
Liner Data Industrial Impoundment Sites
Inventory of Pits, Ponds, and Lagoons from 1981 Waste
Age Survey
Sludge Generation Factors 1n Wastewater Treatment.,
Solids Content 1n Sludges 1n Relation to Treatment.
Commercial Off-Site Hazardous Waste Disposal Fac1l1lt1es
Offering Incineration Services 1n 1980
Emission Factors from Sludge Incineration.
Summary of Total Organic Chlorine (TOCI) Inputs and
Emissions at the Chicago Northwest Incinerator
96
103
112
114
116
117
121
138
139
148
150
151
XI 1 1
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
Table 39. Organic Compounds Quantltated 1n the Emission Media
for the Chicago Northwest Incinerator 152
Table 40. Classification and Types of Injection Wells 163
Table 41. Standard Industrial Classification of Injection Wells 164
Table 42. Commercial Off-Site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities
Offering Deep-Well Injection Services In 1980 by
EPA Reg 1 on 165
xiv
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Page
Important Disposal Patterns for Major Waste Types 5
Overview of Five-Stage Framework for Estimating
Environmental Releases from Disposal 8
Stage I and II Flow Chart 12
Summary of Stage III: Allocating Waste Streams to
Disposal Methods
15
Key for Determining Stage III Starting Point 17
Summary of Stage IV: Allocation of Waste Streams to
Individual Disposal Sites 51
Summary of Stage V: Estimating Environmental
Releases from Disposal Sites 54
xv
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page No.
GUIDE TO APPENDICES 183
APPENDIX A INFORMATION RESOURCE MATRIX: USEFUL
MODELS AND DATA BASES 189
APPENDIX B SUMMARY OF INFORMATION COLLECTED FROM STATE SOLID
WASTE AGENCIES 195
Exhibit B-l. Selected Reports on Waste Generation and Disposal
Prepared by State Solid Waste Agencies 197
Exhibit B-2. State Inventories of Disposal Facilities 198
APPENDIX C INFORMATION ON WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES OF SELECTED
INDUSTRIES 199
Table C-l. Summary of Hazardous Waste Generation and Disposal
1n 1980 for Selected Chemical Manufacturing and
Petroleum Refining Industrial Segments by EPA
Reg1 on 201
Table C-2. Hazardous Waste Constituents - Petroleum
Reref1n1ng (SIC 2992) 202
Table C-3. Disposal Practices - Petroleum Reref1n1ng 203
Table C-4. Hazardous Waste Constituents - Petroleum
Refining 204
Table C-5. Disposal Practices - Petroleum Refining 205
Table C-6. Disposal Practices - Organic Chemicals (SIC 2861,
2865, 2869, except 28694) 206
Table C-7. Hazardous Waste Treatment/Disposal Methods -
Selected Organic Chemical Plants 207
Table C-8. Hazardous Waste Treatment/Disposal Methods at
Selected Organic Chemical Plant Sites 208
APPENDIX D INFORMATION IN SUPPORT OF STAGE III 215
Exhibit D-l. The Hazardous Waste Data Management System
(HWDMS) 217
Table D-l. POTWs: Treatment Populations - Present and
Projected, Resident and Nonresident 219
Table D-2. POTWs: Average Domestic Flows by State - Present,
Projected, and Percent Change 222
xvi
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LIST OF APPENDICES (continued)
Page No.
Table D-3. State Solid Waste Agencies U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste 225
Table D-4. Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal
Process Codes Used 1n HWDMS 232
Table D-5. Information on Hazardous Wastes Listed by RCRA In
the Federal Register on May 19, 1980 234
Table D-6. Applicability of Available Incineration Processes
to Incineration of Hazardous Waste by Type 243
Table D-7. Compilation of HWDMS Data 244
Table D-8. Industries Subject to Effluent Limitation Guide-
lines and Pretreatment Standards 245
APPENDIX E AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON LANDFILLS AND LAND
TREATMENT 247
Table E-l. Estimation of U.S. Population 1n Environmentally
Sensitive Areas 249
Table E-2. Selected Data on Landfills from 1981 Waste Age
Survey 255
Table E-3. Input Data for SESOIL 259
Table E-4. Geographic Distribution, by Region and State, of
Hazardous Waste Land Treatment Sites 1n the U.S. .. 262
Table E-5. Industrial Classification and Location of Hazardous
Waste Land Treatment Facilities 264
Figure E-l. Areal Distribution of Land Treatment Facilities .. 270
Figure E-2. Size Distribution of Hazardous Waste Land
Treatment Facilities 271
APPENDIX F AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON GROUNDWATER 273
Table F-l. Computerized Groundwater Data Bases 275
Table F-2. Listing of State Geologists - 1983 276
Figure F-l. Concentration of Wetlands 1n the U.S 284
APPENDIX G AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS 285
Table G-l. Relation Between Surface Impoundment Assessment
(SIA) Rating and Raw Data 287
Table G-2. Relation Between SIA Earth Material Categories and
the Unified Soil Classification System 289
xvn
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LIST OF APPENDICES (continued)
Page No.
APPENDIX H AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON POTWs 291
Exhibit H-l. Needs Survey 293
Exhibit H-2. Industrial Facility Discharge File (IFD) 294
Table H-l. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants 1n POTW
Influents: Part 1 - Plants 1 to 40 295
Table H-l. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants In POTW
Influents: Part 2 - Supplemental Plants 51 to 60 . 298
Table H-2. Summary of Selected Influent Pollutant
Concentrations for POTWs 1 through 40 300
Table H-3. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants 1n POTW
Effluents: Part 1 - Plants 1 to 40 301
Table H-3. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants 1n POTW
Effluents: Part 2 - Supplemental Plants 51 to 60 . 303
Table H-4. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants 1n POTW Raw
Sludges: Part 1 - Plants 1 to 40 305
Table H-4. Occurrence of Priority Pollutants 1n POTW Raw
Sludges: Part 2 - Supplemental Plants 51 to 60 ... 307
Table H-5. Summary of Minimum Percent Removals Achieved by
Secondary Treatment 309
Table H-6. Median Percent Removals of Selected Pollutants
Through POTW Treatment Process 311
Table H-7. Summary of Priority Pollutant Occurrence 1n Sludge
When Not Detected 1n Influent 312
Table H-8. Summary of Treatment and Sludge Handling Processes
- Numbers of Plants and Associated Flow - United
States Totals 313
APPENDIX I AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON INCINERATION 317
Figure 1-1. Geographic Distribution of Sewage Sludge
Incinerators Proposed, Under Construction, or 1n
Operation, 1978 319
Table 1-1. 1981 Inventory of Resource Installations from
Waste Age Survey 320
Table 1-2. Inventory of Small Municipal Incinerators 335
Table 1-3. Inventory of Large Municipal Incinerators 1n
Operation 1n 1980 336
Table 1-4. Manufacturing Segment of the National Industrial
Incinerator Population by Use Category 337
Table 1-5. Hazardous Waste Incinerator Vendor Data for the
United States 338
Table 1-6. Summary of Emission Test Data from Municipal
Incinerators 344
Table 1-7. Summary of Emission Test Data from Liquid Waste
Incinerators 345
Table 1-8. Hazardous Wastes Rated as Good, Potential, or Poor
Candidates for Incineration by Appropriate
Technologies 346
xvm
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LIST OF APPENDICES (continued)
Page No.
Table 1-9. Trial Burn Summaries 362
Table 1-10. Potential A1r Pollutants from Hazardous Waste
Incineration 368
Table 1-11. Part 1: Heat of Combustion of Organic Hazardous
Constituents from Appendix VIII, 40 CFR Part 261 . 369
Table 1-11. Part 2: Ranking of Inc1nerab1l1ty of Organic
Hazardous Constituents from Appendix VIII,
40 CFR Part 261, on the Basis of Heat
of Combustion 374
Table 1-12. Hazardous Waste Incineration Processes and Their
Typical Operating Ranges 379
Table 1-13. Polycycllc Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Emissions
from Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators 1n
Mlcrograms per Kilogram of Refuse Charged 380
Table 1-14. Polycycllc Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Levels In
A1r Emissions, Solid Waste Residues, and Scrubber
Water Discharge from a Municipal Solid Waste
Incinerator 381
APPENDIX J AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON DEEP-WELL INJECTION 383
Table J-l. Compounds that have been Disposed of by Deep-well
Injection 385
Table J-2. Modified Thels Equation 389
Table J-3. Information on the Survey Waste Injection
Program (SWIP) 390
APPENDIX K USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS 393
Table K-l. Useful Conversion Factors 395
xix
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1 . INTRODUCTION
This report presents methods and supporting Information for
estimating environmental releases from the disposal of wastes. Companion
volumes provide procedures for assessing the following other exposure
scenarios: the ambient environment (Volume 2), drinking water (Volume
5), the occupational environment (Volume 6), consumer products (Volume
7), food (Volume 8), and transportation-related spills (Volume 9). An
Introduction to the entire methods development series 1s 1n Volume 1 and
recommended methods for enumerating and characterizing populations are
presented 1n Volume 4. The purpose, scope, and limitations of this
volume are discussed below, followed by an overview of the problem of
exposures to chemical substances from disposal. The methodological
framework 1s presented 1n Section 2, and applications of the methods to
selected waste disposal practices are presented 1n Sections 3 through 8.
1.1 Purpose and Scope
This document provides procedures for estimating environmental
releases from waste disposal activities used 1n exposure assessments
performed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (tPA) Office of
Toxic Substances (OTS) under the mandate of the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA). The present volume must be used together with Volumes 2, 5,
and 7, which deal with the ambient, drinking water, and consumer exposure
scenarios, respectively. Volumes 2 and 7 are used to develop Information
on quantities and characteristics of the subject waste. Starting with
this information, the present volume guides the assessor through the
assumptions, calculations, and estimations that are required to
characterize and quantify releases to air, land, and water. The assessor
must then return to Volumes 2 and 5 to relate these releases to ultimate
exposure, thereby completing the assessment. See Volume 1 for a
discussion of the nature and purpose of exposure assessments 1n general
as well as for a more detailed explanation of the Interrelations and
Integration of the various volumes.
A separate volume was created for the disposal setting because of the
need to develop a detailed Information base for what 1s assumed to be a
major source of environmental releases of toxic substances. This volume
fills a need 1n the discipline of exposure assessment because there
exists no comprehensive Information source covering the range of topics
and data sources that must be considered 1n estimating chemical releases
from waste disposal.
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Methods are developed to the greatest extent possible for six waste
treatment/disposal practices that have a great potential for
environmental contamination either because they handle relatively large
quantities of waste or because they have been known to release
significant quantities of toxic substances to the environment. These
practices are: landfllUng, land treatment, surface Impoundment,
municipal wastewater treatment, Incineration, and deep-well Injection.
Methods for estimating environmental releases resulting from storage of
wastes prior to disposal are not provided except 1n the case of storage
1n surface Impoundments. Similarly, with the exception of wastewater
treatment and Incineration, waste handling methods that are purely
treatment (as opposed to ultimate disposal) techniques were not Included
1n the volume. (Treatment consists of any process designed to change the
physical, chemical, or biological character or composition of a waste for
the purpose of making 1t safer for transport, amenable to recovery or
storage, or reduced In volume. Examples Include neutralizing a strong
add, degrading a chemical compound, or sterilizing Infectious waste.)
It should be emphasized that the scope of this report 1s limited to
methods leading to estimation of environmental releases from disposal
sites and that the companion volumes must be consulted 1n order to
complete the exposure assessment. See Volume 1 of this series for
guidance on this.
1.2 Limitations
This methodology represents the synthesis of a large body of
Information from a variety of sources. The five-stage framework approach
should be applicable to any waste treatment or disposal method. The
Information base represented 1n both the site-specific and the generic
data presented 1n this report 1s Hkely to expand 1n the next few years.
For the present, however, there are significant data and model gaps that
can be filled only by making assumptions and/or using predictive
techniques that are largely untested. Some of these assumptions can be
evaluated with respect to their uncertainty using a sensitivity analysis,
but other data and model gaps cannot presently be compensated for. For
Instance, the effect of other constituents 1n a waste matrix on the
chemical of Interest 1s very chemical-specific and little understood. A
related Issue 1s the problem of determining which new, potentially toxic
compounds may be formed during treatment or disposal of the subject
chemical and how fast they will be released from the waste matrix. This
can be answered only through further research. In the meantime, the user
will have to decide whether collecting detailed data 1n several stages of
the methodology 1s worthwhile 1f other stages cannot be accurately
quantified.
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1.3 Overview - Potential for Exposure to Chemical Substances from
Waste Disposal
The number of steps 1n the waste handling process varies
considerably, depending on the nature and source of the waste and
available waste handling methods. The disposal process for a consumer
product discarded 1n residential waste that Is taken to a landfill 1s
quite simple. However, the fate of the chemical constituents In that
consumer product may be complex, and some of a given chemical may end up
1n the air, some on land, some 1n groundwater, and some 1n surface
waters. The picture 1s even more complex for the chemical constituents
of a consumer product washed down a drain and routed to a sewage
treatment plant. Depending on the sewage treatment methods, portions of
the chemical may be discharged 1n the effluent and may end up 1n the air,
surface water, groundwater, or land. Another portion of the chemical may
be concentrated 1n the wastewater treatment sludge, which may also be
treated and disposed of 1n ways that result 1n releases to air, land,
surface water, and groundwater. An overview of waste disposal patterns
and the Interrelationship between the six waste treatment/disposal
practices examined 1n this volume 1s presented 1n Table 1 and graphically
1n Figure 1.
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
DEC 3 I 1985
OFFICE OF
PESTICIDES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5 - Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
Dear Mr. Tilley:
Earlier this year, the Office of Toxic Substances (OTS) had
issued the first six volumes in a continuing series of reports on
exposure assessment. We believe these reports will be helpful to
those engaged in risk assessment activities by providing a
catalog of useful information for exposure assessors. We are
enclosing a copy for your use.
Printing budget limitations have severely restricted the
number of copies we could have printed. Because there were less
than 30 copies available for distribution, and because we thought
these documents would be useful to a large number of people, we
are distributing the copies to libraries rather than individuals.
Individuals who wish to obtain copies can do so by purchasing
them through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS),
since there are no more copies available from OTS.
We will make every effort to include you on the mailing list
for future volumes.
Sincerely,
Michael A. Callahan, Chief
Exposure Assessment Branch (TS-798)
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2. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
The methods development series 1s designed to fulfill the
wide-ranging needs associated with assessing exposure from chemical
substances. Although tailored specifically for use 1n exposure
assessments required under TSCA, the approach should be applicable to all
types of exposure assessments that Include the disposal scenario. In
order to provide a useful tool for current and future studies, the method
has to be:
• Comprehensive, 1n that all possible waste types and disposal
methods can be evaluated using a consistent procedure.
• Flexible, so that 1t can be used for all kinds of assessments,
ranging from detailed site-specific studies to large-scale
nationwide assessments, and can be easily modified as new sources
of Information become available.
• Reliant on readily available sources of data.
• Amenable to the Input of site- and chemical-specific data, as well
as to generic data, algorithms, and models.
• Applicable to assessing exposure from waste-handling practices
that Include one or more steps (e.g., treatment prior to disposal).
Based on these criteria, a five-stage framework was developed for the
present volume which leads the user from source Information compiled from
a materials balance and the results of preliminary ambient and consumer
exposure assessments to the final estimation of environmental releases
from disposal sites. For each stage 1n the framework, a general
procedure was developed for estimating the output of that stage. These
procedures will be referred to as "decision trees." These general
decision trees were then tailored to those waste categories and disposal
methods considered to be the most significant sources of exposure to
chemical substances.
Section 2.1 provides an overview of how this volume fits Into a
complete exposure assessment. The five-stage framework 1s presented 1n
Section 2.2, and the general decision trees applicable to each of the
five stages are presented 1n Section 2.3. Finally, the applications of
this approach to the six disposal/treatment categories selected for
Investigation (landfills, land treatment, surface Impoundments, sewage
treatment plants, Incinerators, and Injection wells) are developed 1n
Sections 3 through 8.
-------
The procedures suggested 1n this volume are based on a review of
available literature and data bases, and contacts with EPA and state
solid waste agency personnel. A resource matrix summarizing Important
Information sources 1s given 1n Appendix A. Appendices B through J
contain summaries or sample data from Information resources that may be
useful 1n Implementing the suggested procedures. A 11st of useful
conversion factors 1s presented as Appendix K.
2.1 Integration with Other Exposure Scenarios
It cannot be overemphasized that this volume does not constitute a
self-contained exposure assessment method, but falls entirely within the
scope of the source analysis required for an ambient (or drinking water)
exposure assessment. This 1s true even when only disposal-related
exposure 1s being assessed. The Input to the disposal analysis 1s
quantitative and qualitative Information on the subject waste that must
be provided, at least 1n part, by procedures discussed 1n the companion
volumes on the ambient and consumer settings (Volumes 2 and 7,
respectively). The ultimate output of the disposal analysis consists of
quantitative estimates of releases, substance concentrations, and release
characteristics for the relevant disposal methods. This Information does
not by Itself constitute the desired output of a complete exposure
assessment; 1t 1s mere raw data which must be Input to an ambient (and/or
drinking water) analysis. It 1s these latter analyses which will
determine the subject chemical's fate and the ultimate environmental
concentrations to which receptors may be exposed. A separate population
analysis must also be conducted (see Volume 4). Consult the Introductory
volume to this series (Volume 1) for a more detailed discussion of how
the Individual volumes are used together to perform an Integrated
assessment.
This volume 1s designed to be useful for assessments of any scope and
depth, as explained In the following subsection. The desired scope and
depth of the assessment should be determined before the actual analysis
1s begun. However, the original scope and depth may have to be modified
1n the course of the assessment 1n response to unexpected data
limitations or other factors. See Volume 1 of this series for guidance
on these and similar planning Issues.
2.2 Framework for Estimating Releases
A five-stage framework for estimating chemical releases to air,
surface waters, groundwater, and land from disposal 1s presented as
Figure 2. The framework forms the foundation of this method by outlining
the major steps that must be taken to estimate releases from disposal
sites regardless of the disposal practice. The Input to the
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framework 1s Information on the waste that will be partially provided by
the ambient and consumer exposure scenarios and a materials balance. Two
types of output result from the Initial use of the framework. The first
consists (at least Ideally) of quantitative estimates of releases,
chemical concentrations, and release characteristics for ultimate
disposal methods, as discussed previously. The other output consists of
quantitative Information on secondary treatment residues that result from
waste treatment practices. The latter may serve as Input for another
Iteration of the framework to quantify releases from ultimate disposal of
the residues. Total estimated releases from all treatment and disposal
of the subject waste are used as Input to an ambient and/or drinking
water analysis to complete the assessment (see Volume 1).
The framework 1s organized as follows: Stage I Involves determining
the total mass of the chemical that 1s disposed of from a given source.
The source may be one or more Industrial plants, commercial users, or
consumer users.
Stage II entails estimating the mass and concentration of the
chemical 1n each waste stream, along with the characteristics of the
waste matrix 1n which 1t 1s Incorporated (e.g., municipal solid waste,
sludge). One source may produce several waste streams containing a given
chemical; for example, a consumer may flush a cleaning agent down a drain
and later discard Its container 1n the household garbage.
Stage III estimates the proportion of each subject waste stream that
1s disposed of by each available disposal method. If the source of the
waste stream 1s a single manufacturing plant, then 100 percent of the
waste stream may be disposed of by one method. If more than one source
contributes to the waste stream, or 1f the waste stream results from
consumer use, then more than one disposal method will probably be
Involved.
Stage IV 1s the quantitative estimation of how the subset of waste
handled by each disposal method 1s distributed among Individual disposal
sites. For example, Stage III may estimate that 80 percent of a given
waste stream 1s landfUled; Stage IV then estimates how much of the
landfllled portion of the waste stream 1s taken to each specific landfill
location. This stage can be omitted 1n assessments that do not require
site-specific data, as determined before beginning the assessment (see
Volume 1). The user should read the applicable decision tree for Stage
IV 1n any case, since It may provide options or alternatives depending on
the degree of s1te-spec1f1c1ty desired.
Stage V estimates environmental releases of the subject chemical from
the disposal sites enumerated 1n Stage IV. For assessments that are not
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site-specific, releases can be estimated for a statistically
representative sample of disposal sites or from one hypothetical site
that 1s designed to be representative of all sites. The Stage V decision
trees are designed to be useful for any of these alternatives; a general
discussion of the different approaches 1s presented briefly 1n Volume 1
of this series.
The user should note that the framework need not be followed 1n
sequence from Stage I to Stage V for all wastes. For example, 1f
Information has already been compiled on the quantity of waste handled by
each disposal method for a particular substance (the equivalent to the
output of Stage III), the assessor can start at Stage IV of the
procedure. Wastes that are products of waste treatment (such as
Incinerator residues) are characterized 1n Stage V of the treatment
analysis. These characteristics (mass of chemical, concentration of
chemical, and mass or volume of waste matrix or treatment residue) are
used as Input to Stage III 1n order to complete that estimation of
environmental releases. In the case of wastewater, a number of very
different treatment/disposal methods may be used sequentially on-s1te
(e.g., surface Impoundments, tanks, land treatment). Thus, the framework
from Stage III through Stage V may be repeated several times to estimate
total environmental releases from sewage treatment plants (POTWs).
The types of data required by the framework depend on the particular
stage and the waste type and disposal method of Interest. Data types
Include: (1) site-specific or chemical-specific data from a data base,
federal or state agency files, or a document; (2) general data compiled
from data bases or documents; (3) algorithms; and (4) models. In any
given step of a stage, the user may be limited to one of the above
because of availability, or may be presented with a choice based on the
scope, depth, and approach of the assessment (see Volume 1).
2.3 General Decision Trees for Stages I Through V
This section contains the general decision trees that were developed
for each of the five stages of the disposal framework. They outline the
factors that should be routinely considered when this method 1s used.
They are the basis for the detailed decision trees presented 1n
Sections 3 through 8, which are Individually tailored to each disposal
practice. Future expansions of this method to Include waste
disposal/treatment practices not examined 1n this report will be
facilitated If the general decision trees are used as guidance. Not
every step 1n the decision trees will apply to all wastes or disposal
practices. The wide variety of method applications and Information
sources make a single "cook book" approach to estimating environmental
10
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releases from disposal Impractical. Successful use of the methods
recommended 1n this report, therefore, depends on an understanding of the
following factors: (1) the relationship of each step to the desired
output; (2) the relationship between the various steps and stages; and
(3) an acquaintance with useful Information resources. Graphical
summaries of the major steps and key outputs are provided for each stage
1n the five-stage framework to orient the Inexperienced user. These
figures, as well as Figure 2 presented previously, should be consulted as
often as necessary to maintain perspective when applying the procedures
outlined 1n this report to practical exposure assessment problems.
The data required as Input for each stage generally consist of the
output of the previous stage, with the exception of residual wastes that
are produced by waste treatment (as opposed to disposal) methods. In
that case, the output of Stage V for the treatment process will become
the Input of Stage III of the disposal process.
The user should keep track of the quantitative uncertainty associated
with each step or estimate. Because of the limited nature of many of the
data, the estimate of uncertainty will be coarse and will be expressed as
an order of magnitude or a range of observed values. Obviously, the user
should perform a statistically based analysis of uncertainty 1f the data
warrant such an approach.
Stages I and II of the framework are based entirely on outputs from
the ambient and consumer exposure analyses (Volumes 2 and 7) and a
materials balance and are estimated only once (and 1n direct sequence)
for a given source of waste. Stage III 1s performed once for each waste
stream enumerated 1n Stage II. Stages IV and V are conducted once (and
1n direct sequence) for each disposal practice applicable to the waste
stream. (See Figure 2.)
2.3.1 Stage I Decision Tree - Estimating Releases to Disposal
A flow chart summarizing the steps 1n Stages I and II 1s presented 1n
Figure 3. The Input for this stage 1s derived from a materials balance
and the results of preliminary ambient and consumer exposure
assessments. Methods for analyzing the ambient and consumer settings are
presented 1n Volumes 2 and 7 of this series; a materials balance will
generally have been prepared prior to, or as part of, these analyses.
The typical materials balance may not provide sufficient resolution for
Stage I of a very detailed disposal analysis; 1n this case, engineering
expertise may be required to help predict waste characteristics and
quantities.
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List all likely sources of waste containing the subject
chemical, Including:
a. Industries Involved 1n primary and secondary production.
b. Commercial users.
c. Consumer users.
Data for 1 .a may be derived from a materials balance and
the results of a preliminary ambient exposure assessment
(Volume 2). For l.b and l.c, first enumerate the end products
containing the chemical, and then determine the potential for
use 1n the commercial/consumer sector. Relevant Information may
be obtained from the results of a preliminary consumer exposure
assessment (Volume 7), and, 1n the case of l.b, a materials
balance.
For each source/use listed 1n Step 1, estimate the amount of the
subject chemical disposed of annually, again based on a
materials balance and Information collected for the ambient and
consumer exposure analyses.
The output of Stage I should be a 11st of sources/uses of
waste containing the subject chemical and estimates of the
quantities of the chemical ultimately disposed of from each
source/use.
2.3.2 Stage II Decision Tree - Characterizing Waste Stream Releases
and Concentrations
A flow chart summarizing the steps 1n Stage II was presented 1n
Figure 3. The goal of this stage 1s to characterize the Individual waste
streams that are Included 1n the total waste quantities estimated 1n
Stage I. This must be done both quantitatively and qualitatively. The
Input for this stage will be derived from the same sources as the Stage I
Information; 1n fact, 1t may already have been compiled 1n order to
estimate the Stage I output. As 1n Stage I, engineering expertise may be
required.
For each source/use of the subject chemical listed 1n Stage I,
determine whether the resulting waste Is likely to be separated
Into different waste streams prior to disposal. If different
waste streams are combined prior to disposal, only the combined
waste stream need be considered. For each combined waste
stream, estimate the total annual quantity of the chemical
disposed of (kkg/year) and the total volume or mass of the waste
stream containing the chemical. In addition, 11st other known
physical/chemical characteristics of the waste matrix that are
relevant to disposal, Including other chemicals and minerals
present (and their concentrations) and the physical state (e.g.,
liquid, solid, sludge). This will provide a profile of each
waste stream that will be useful for Stage III determination of
likely disposal methods and Stage V estimates of releases.
13
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Consider the following:
• For Industrial wastes, this determination will be based
largely on a materials balance and engineering judgment.
• For the commercial use sector, the distribution of
discarded consumer products among various waste streams will
depend largely on the waste handling practices 1n use, which are
limited. For many commercial establishments, the wastes will be
aggregated Into one of two waste streams: sewage (I.e.,
wastewater) and solid waste. In addition, solid waste may
sometimes be separated Into more than one category based on size
and nature of wastes. In the absence of specific Information,
however, assume that commercial products are discarded 1n the
same waste streams as are consumer use products.
• For the consumer use sector, 1t can generally be assumed
that waste will be discarded 1n either of two waste streams:
wastewater or municipal solid waste. Their relative amounts may
be determined from Information on the use of the applicable
consumer product(s) compiled for the consumer exposure scenario
(Volume 7).
Quantitative Information on the lifetime of consumer
products and how much of the chemical substance 1s contained 1n
products at the time of disposal may have been compiled for the
consumer portion of the exposure assessment. Otherwise,
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) publications such as
Lahr and Gordon (1980) may be helpful. The output of Stage II
should Include the following for each waste stream from each
source of waste containing the subject chemical:
Name or description of waste stream
Annual loading of subject chemical (mass/year)
Volume of mass of waste matrix containing subject chemical
(quantity/year)
Destination of waste stream (I.e., land or sewers)
Relevant chemical/physical properties of waste stream
Information on the source of waste stream, Including
location and SIC Code, 1f relevant (from Stage I).
2.3.3 Stage III Decision Tree - Allocating Waste Streams to
Disposal Practices
The steps 1n this decision tree are summarized 1n Figure 4. This
stage 1n the disposal framework determines the disposal/treatment
practices likely to be employed for a given waste stream and estimates
the amounts of waste disposed of by each of the Identified practices.
14
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The Input to Stage III for a given waste stream 1s Information on the
source, waste generation rate (volume or mass per time), chemical
concentration, and physical state of the waste stream. Using this
Information and the decision trees provided 1n this section, the user
estimates the quantity of subject waste destined for each likely disposal
practice. The output of Stage III serves both as a starting point and as
a check point for the site-specific Stage IV estimates.
One feature of this approach 1s that 1t allows various levels of
refinement, depending on the needs and resources of a given exposure
assessment. An example 1s the method for arriving at Stage III
estimates. The preliminary Stage III estimates can be based on readily
available precompiled Information on regional or national disposal
practices. For exposure assessments that treat the disposal scenario
superficially, these "gross" estimates may be the end point of the
Investigation. In cases where a more refined estimate 1s desirable,
however, the user can take advantage of available site-specific data
suggested 1n the Stage IV methods, and use this Information to
re-evaluate the original Stage III estimates. Thus, the Stage III and
Stage IV estimates will often he Iterative and should be compared
carefully 1n order to produce compatible estimates of waste quantities
for all general practices and specific disposal sites.
The procedure for determining the disposal practice likely to handle
a given waste stream 1s organized by waste category. Six general waste
categories were selected to be addressed 1n this report. These are:
Incinerator residues, POTW sludge, wastewater, hazardous waste,
Industrial nonhazardous solid waste, and municipal solid waste.
Virtually all wastes of Interest 1n exposure assessments will probably
fit Into one of these categories. A key 1s provided below which should
be the starting point for the Stage III decision making. The Information
1n the key 1s summarized 1n a flow chart 1n Figure 5. Use the key or
Figure 5 to find the subsection that deals with the waste category to
which the waste stream of Interest belongs.
The text for each waste category Includes a general description of
the waste and of the usual disposal practices, followed by a decision
tree for estimating the quantity of the waste stream handled by each
disposal practice. If the user 1s unsure which category a particular
waste belongs 1n, then the texts for several possible categories should
be read. (In general, this problem 1s Hkely to arise only when one 1s
trying to decide whether a given Industrial waste 1s or 1s not hazardous.)
Two of the waste categories (Incinerator residues and POTW sludge)
are the products of other treatment/disposal processes. For these
wastes, the Input Information for Stage III will be provided by the Stage
V output for wastes that were treated 1n POTWs or Incinerators.
Appendix C contains Information on the waste disposal practices of the
organic chemicals, plastics, and petroleum refining Industries that will
be useful 1n Stage III. Appendix D provides Information on waste
disposal that will aid the user 1n Stage III decisions.
16
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The amounts of waste allocated to each disposal practice should add
up to the original estimate of the total quantity of the waste stream,
and the amounts of waste allocated to each site should add up to the
total quantity disposed of at all such sites. However, 1f total figures
and their component quantities were derived from separate sources, then
the sum of the components may not equal the Independently-derived totals,
and some numerical adjustments will have to be made. It 1s recommended
that the preliminary Stage III estimates be made for all applicable
disposal practices, followed by Stage IV site-specific estimates for each
disposal practice. At that point, all Stage III and Stage IV estimates
can be compared and the necessary adjustments made. Note that Stage III
can also be used as a screening tool for deciding whether or not exposure
from a given disposal practice 1s likely to be significant. Based on the
Stage III estimate and knowledge of general emission factors (1f
available), some disposal practices may be judged Insignificant and not
Investigated further.
Note that the following key and Figure 5 separate hazardous and
nonhazardous Industrial waste because the disposal sites and Information
sources are usually different. The symbol WA will be used to designate
the subject waste stream.
Stage III Key
If WA 1s ash, scrubber water, or fly ash from an
Industrial or municipal Incinerator, see Subsection (1),
Incinerator residues.
(b) If WA 1s a wastewater treatment sludge from a POTW, see
Subsection (2), POTW sludge.
(c) If WA 1s an Industrial waste stream (other than those
listed above), go to Step 2.
(d) If WA 1s a residential/commercial waste stream (other
than those listed above), go to Step 3.
If WA 1s an Industrial wastewater, see Subsection (3),
Wastewater.
(b) If WA 1s a hazardous waste, as defined by the Resource
Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA), see Subsection (4),
Hazardous waste.
(c) If W/\ 1s neither (a) nor (b), see Subsection (5),
Industrial nonhazardous solid waste.
(a) If WA 1s a residential/commercial wastewater, see
Subsection (3), Wastewater.
(b) If WA 1s a residential/commercial solid waste, see
Subsection (6), Municipal solid waste (HSW).
18
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(1) Incinerator residues. Background Information on the
secondary products of Incineration that require further treatment/
disposal Is presented 1n this section, followed by a decision tree for
estimating the probable disposal practice.
(a) Background Information. Incineration of waste produces
several kinds of releases besides the gases and partlculates that are
discharged directly Into the atmosphere. Residue composed of uncombusted
and Inert material, fly ash collected by air pollution control equipment,
and aqueous solutions from various sources are produced 1n varying
quantities during controlled Incineration. These wastes may contain
chemical substances that were 1n the Incinerated waste or were formed
during Incineration. Unfortunately, there 1s relatively little
quantitative or qualitative Information on the fate of chemical
substances 1n Incineration processes. It 1s clear, however, that the
following variables Influence the fate of toxic substances during
Incineration and, hence, the amounts contained 1n the residuals:
(1) physical and chemical characteristics of wastes; (2) design and
operation of Incinerators; and (3) design and operation of pollution
control equipment. These factors are discussed below for each product of
Incineration. See Section 7 for additional Information on Incineration.
Ash 1s the residue remaining after Incineration and Includes both the
bottom ash that remains 1n the combustion chamber and the fly ash that 1s
entrained 1n the exhaust gases leaving the Incinerator. In Incinerators
with effective air pollution control equipment, most of the fly ash 1s
captured and must be disposed of to land. If Incineration results 1n
complete combustion, the ash will consist almost exclusively of Inert
matter. In practice, however, Incomplete mixing of wastes 1n the
combustion chamber often occurs, resulting 1n Incomplete combustion.
Table 2 gives typical characteristics of residue from municipal
Incinerators. This table may provide useful generic data for a detailed
exposure assessment 1n which the amount of a chemical left 1n the residue
after MSW Incineration 1s of Interest. For Instance, 1f the consumer
product of concern 1s paper containing a toxic chemical, then one can
assume that no more than 1.8 percent of the residue will contain the
subject chemical. In one study of municipal Incinerators, unburned
combustibles ranged from 0.1 to 1.3 percent of the residue 1n four
Incinerators; 1n the fifth Incinerator, 35.8 percent of the residue was
unburned combustibles (Rubel 1974). (An overloaded furnace and the lack
of proper agitation contributed to the high value.) Approximately 6
percent to 10 percent of the residue from municipal Incinerators 1s water
soluble and therefore subject to leaching 1f Improperly disposed of on
land. Typical constituents 1n the water-soluble portion are presented 1n
Table 3. The fly ash from municipal Incinerators 1s also variable 1n
composition, the organic matter ranging from 5 to 30 percent of the
total. The chemical profile of fly ash from one municipal Incinerator 1s
given 1n Table 4.
19
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Table 2. Characteristics of Municipal Incinerator
Residue from Two Studlesa
Component Percent by weight
Ferrous metal 15.75
Magnetic flakes 3.80
Nonferrous metal 0.30
Glass over 1/4 inch 9.48
Ceramics, stones 1.51
Clinkers 24.11
Ash, nonmagnetic 16.10
Combustibles
Paper, wood, char 1.79
Putrescible (visual) 0.07
Bones, pits 0.03
In conveyor water 27.06
TOTAL 100.00
Material Percent by weight (range)
Metals 19-30
Glass 9-44
Ceramics, stones 1-5
Clinkers 17-24
Ash (exclusive of other materials listed) 14-16
Organic 1.5-9
aThe upper table Is based on the analysis from a 300-ton-per-day
continuous feed Incinerator. The data In this table are not meant to
represent average or typical residue compositions, but can be used as a
"first guess" in estimating residue composition.
The lower table presents typical ranges of values for the various residual
constituents.
Source: Rubel 1974.
20
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Table 3. Average Analysis of Water-Soluble Portion of Residue from
Selected Municipal Incinerators*
Constituent
Batch-feed incinerator1*
Continuous-feed incinerator'3
Hydrocarbon concentration
Alkalinity
Nitrate nitrogen
Phosphate
Chloride
Sulfate
Sodium
Potassium
Iron
6.1666
0.1156
0.0004
0.0002
0.1221
0.0813
0.04675
0.04230
0.0617
(92.9132)
(1.7418)
(0.0060)
(0.0030)
(1.8397)
(1.2250)
(0.7044)
(0.6373)
(0.9296)
9.1666
0.1865
0.0003
0.0004
0.0771
0.2447
0.197
0.048
0.015
(92.2602)
(1.8771)
(0.0030)
(0.0040)
(0.7761)
(2.4629)
(1.9828)
(0.4831)
(0.1510)
aThe water-soluble portion of residue is of interest because of the potential for water
pollution from residue landfill sites by leaching. Most residue constituents listed in
Table 2 may include a small water-soluble fraction.
''Percent by dry weight of total residue (water-soluble and Insoluble). Percent by
dry weight of water-soluble portion in parentheses.
Source: Rubel 1974.
21
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Table 4. Chemical Analysis of Fly Ash Samples from a
Municipal Incinerator8
Component Percent by weight
Organic 10.4
Inorganic 89.6
SI I lea as SI02 36.1
Iron as Fe20-j 4.2
Alumina as A^O-j 22.4
Calcium, as CaO 8.6
Magnesium as MgO 2.1
Sulfur as S03 7.6
Sodium and potassium oxides 19.0
aBased on samples from South Shore Incinerator In New York City. Other studies
have shown that f lyash can consist of an average of from 5 to 30? organic matter
and from 70 to 95$ Inorganic matter.
Source: Rube I 1974.
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Ash from sewage sludge Incineration 1s generally composed of Inert
matter. Ash from hazardous waste Incinerators, however, 1s considered
hazardous under RCRA regulations (see Section 2.3.3(4)) unless testing
shows otherwise. Although most ash of this type consists largely of
Inert compounds, the composition varies greatly. The relative proportion
of fly ash to bottom ash depends on the waste composition and the design
and construction of the hazardous waste Incinerator (Monsanto 1981).
Incinerator ash 1s generally disposed of on land; however, the exact
disposal patterns for various ashes have not been determined. The bulk
of municipal Incinerator ash 1s probably disposed of 1n landfills, as 1s
bottom ash from sewage sludge Incineration (Walker 1979). Fly ash 1s
disposed of 1n either lagoons (with effluent treatment) or landfills
(USEPA 1979a). Sludge Incineration ash 1s sometimes used as a
conditioning agent 1n sludge treatment processes. Bottom ash from the
Incineration of hazardous wastes can be disposed of 1n landfills approved
for hazardous wastes. The fly ash 1s usually disposed of with the
scrubber water, as explained below.
Water 1s used 1n various stages of the Incineration process and
usually becomes contaminated with dissolved and suspended matter,
requiring treatment prior to discharge (Rubel 1974). Scrubbers clean the
combustion gases by carrying wetted fly ash (which may contain small
amounts of organlcs) to the bottom of the scrubber. The fly ash and
scrubber effluent are discharged to lagoons or sanitary landfills (USEPA
1979a). In hazardous waste Incineration facilities, the scrubber
effluent (containing fly ash) 1s combined with the quench water (which
does not generally contain hazardous constituents), and treated on-s1te.
This wastewater may contain chlorides, fluorides, sulfltes, sulfates,
phosphates, bromides, and bromates 1n addition to the partlculate
matter. Treatment normally involves clarification, neutralization, and
dilution. Suspended solids are often removed 1n on-s1te settling ponds.
In sufficiently dry geographical areas, the scrubber wastewater can be
treated 1n evaporation ponds, after which the sludge may be taken to a
landfill for ultimate disposal. Alternatively, the wastewater may be
discharged to a POTW providing that national and local pretreatment
standards are met (Monsanto 1981).
(b) Stage III decision tree for Incinerator residues. The
Input to this stage will be the Information on amounts and subject
chemical concentrations 1n Incinerator residues that 1s the output of
Stage V for Incineration (see Section 7.3).
Because the amounts of toxic chemicals present 1n Incinerator residue
will often be very low and because there 1s little precise Information on
disposal practices for these wastes, the user should carefully evaluate
the expected loadings before expending considerable effort to proceed
with the method. One or all residual products may be discounted as
unworthy of further consideration as a potential source of human exposure.
23
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In this decision tree, the user evaluates the available Information
on the waste disposal practices used for Incinerator residues for the
various waste categories. Then the amount of the subject waste disposed
of by each likely practice 1s estimated.
Step 1. Determine which disposal practices are used for disposal of
Incinerator residues.
The available literature suggests that landfills and
surface Impoundments are the only practice currently used for
disposal of bottom ash. Quench waters and scrubber waters may
be treated by a variety of standard wastewater treatment
methods, Including lagoons; treated effluent may be discharged
directly to surface waters, to POTWs, or to evaporation ponds.
The sludge from storage lagoons 1s generally landfllled.
Step 2. Considering the available Information, estimate the percentage
of Incinerator residues that will be disposed of by each
practice.
The following guidance 1s based on limited Information. It
should be used only 1f more specific Information 1s not
available.
• Bottom ash. In the absence of quantitative Information to
the contrary, assume that all bottom ash from municipal and
sewage sludge Incinerators 1s landfllled. Assume that all
bottom ash from Industrial Incinerators 1s also landfllled,
unless the available Industry-specific documents on waste
disposal practices Indicate otherwise (see Table 8 under
"Hazardous Waste" (Subsection (4)). For ashes produced from
Incineration of Industrial hazardous waste, assume ultimate
disposal Is 1n a landfill designed for hazardous waste, unless
the above-mentioned documents suggest differently.
• Fly ash. The Information on fly ash disposal 1s so sparse
that any assumptions may be suspect. More fly ash than bottom
ash 1s probably treated or disposed of 1n lagoons. In the
absence of data to the contrary, 1t may be assumed that 50
percent 1s treated 1n lagoons and 50 percent 1s transported
directly to landfills for disposal. A significant portion of
the fly ash treated 1n lagoons may require ultimate disposal 1n
a landfill. Assume that fly ash from Incineration of hazardous
wastes 1s treated 1n lagoons or landfills designed for hazardous
wastes (see Subsection (4)).
24
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• Scrubber water and other wastewaters. For Incinerator ash
from POTWs (see Subsection (2)) and municipal Incinerators,
assume that the water 1s treated by the POTW. For Industrial
Incinerators, assume that the same proportion 1s treated on-s1te
as for other wastewaters of the same Industry (see Subsection
(3), Wastewater).
(2) POTW sludge. A description of the sources,
characteristics, and disposal practices associated with municipal
wastewater treatment sludge (POTW sludge) 1s presented here, followed by
a decision tree for estimating the amounts of sludge handled by the
various available disposal options.
(a) Background Information. The process of wastewater
treatment produces a sludge composed of the materials that settled from
the raw wastewater (such as sticks, organic solids, and rags), as well as
solids actually generated 1n the wastewater treatment process (such as
excess activated sludge or chemical sludge produced by advanced
treatment). Some typical constituents of sludges are given 1n Table 5.
In general, the sludge generation rate Increases with Increasing levels
of wastewater treatment, from primary to advanced wastewater treatment;
typical sludge generation rates as a function of total wastewater flow
and treatment level are presented 1n Table 34 1n Section 6.
When sludge 1s withdrawn from treatment processes, 1t 1s composed
largely of water (up to 97 percent) (Gulp 1979), some of which 1s removed
1n subsequent treatment. The primary purpose of sludge treatment
processes 1s to separate large amounts of water from solids; treatment
may Include the following:
t Conditioning - treatment of the sludge with chemicals or heat
so that the water can be easily separated.
t Thickening - separation of waste by gravity or flotation.
• Dewaterlng - further separation of water using vacuum
pressure or drying processes.
• Stabilization - digesting the organic solids so that they can
be handled or used as solid conditioners without causing a
nuisance or health hazard.
• Reduction - reduction of solids by wet oxidation processes or
Incineration.
See USEPA (1980g) for an 1n-depth description of various sludge
treatment and disposal methods. The final water content of treated
sludge will vary depending on the treatments used. The only treatment
25
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Table 5. Average Characteristics of Sewage Sludge
Material Combustibles (%) Ash (%) BTU/lb
Grease and scum 88.5 11.5 16,750
Raw sewage solids 74.0 26.0 10,285
Fine screenings 86.4 13.6 8,990
Ground garbage 84.8 15.2 8,245
Digested sewage solids
and ground garbage 49.6 50.4 8,020
Digested sludge 59.6 40.4 5,290
Grit 30.2 69.8 4,000
Source: RubeI 1974.
26
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process considered 1n detail 1n this volume 1s reduction by Incineration,
which usually requires a moisture content of less than 70 percent for the
combustion to be self-sustaining. (See Table 37 1n Section 7 for
Information on the typical moisture content of sludges treated by
Incineration.)
Sludge treatment and disposal can be a source of exposure to chemical
substances because of the tendency of sludges to accumulate metals and
nonvolatile organlcs that were present 1n the wastewater. An EPA study
of toxic chemicals 1n POTW wastewaters and sludges (Burns and Roe 1982)
has reported that numerous priority pollutants have been found 1n POTW
sludges at much higher concentrations than those measured 1n the Influent
wastewater (see Tables H-4 and H-7 1n Appendix H).
The major disposal practices used for POTW sludges and the amounts of
sludge handled by each practice are given 1n Table 6. Estimates vary,
however, depending on the method of estimation; for example, some authors
consider lagoons to be a disposal option, while others treat them as
storage facilities prior to ultimate disposal by landfUHng. Similarly,
Incineration 1s usually listed as a disposal practice (rather than a
treatment practice), with Uttle consideration given to the ultimate
disposal of the residues. For the purposes of this volume, the Needs
Survey (Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H) coupled with the Surface Impoundment
Assessment (SIA) data base (Section 5) and surveys of municipal sludge
Incinerators will generally be sufficient to determine both disposal
practices and the general locations of sludge Incinerators and lagoons.
There are no good sources of data on exact locations of landspreadlng
sites or landfills receiving POTW sludges, although reasonable
assumptions might be made based on the fact that 1t 1s expensive to haul
sludge great distances. The ultimate fate and exposure from sludge that
1s ocean-disposed or distributed for marketing will not be explored 1n
this method. Neither will such uncommon treatment practices as
composting, pyrolysls (thermal decomposition 1n the absence of oxygen),
and colndneratlon be discussed. As Table 6 Indicates, all of the
uncommon sludge disposal practices combined (Including disposal 1n
lagoons) handle only 12 percent of the POTW sludge generated.
(b) Stage III decision tree for POTW sludge. The user will
need the following Information on the subject sludge from the Stage V
output of the POTW analysis (Section 6.3): amount and sources of sludge
(Including geographic location), possible concentrations of chemical
substances, and other physical/chemical characteristics such as the
moisture content. Using this Information and Steps 1 and 2 below, the
disposition of the sludge to the various disposal methods can be
estimated.
27
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Table 6. Current Nationwide Disposal Practices for POTW Sludge
Disposal Method Percentage, by weight, I980a
Ocean disposal 4
Incineration 27b
Landspread on non-food chain land 12
Landspread on food chain land 12
Landfill 15b
Distribution for marketing 18
Other 12C
aBased on most recent estimates (personal communication with M. Flynn, EPA
Office of Solid Waste, September 24, 1981).
'-'Based on 1978 estimates, the bulk of the ash Is ultimately disposed of In
landfills (Walker 1979). If this Is still true, the landfllled estimate Is too
low.
cBased on 1978 estimates, the bulk of this category Is probably disposed of In
surface Impoundments (Walker 1979).
28
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Step 1. As a first cut, look at Table 6 to determine the major disposal
options and the quantities of sludge handled by each practice.
In a very general, nationwide exposure assessment, the figures
1n Table 6 may suffice. For accurate Information based on
site-specific data, however, go to Step 2.
Step 2. If a detailed exposure assessment 1s required, examine
site-specific data 1n order to estimate the amount of the
subject sludge disposed of by each practice.
A detailed exposure assessment that evaluates exposure on a
local or regional basis will require Information that was
compiled by the Needs Survey (Section 6 and Exhibit H-l 1n
Appendix H), which contains site-specific data for each POTW 1n
the U.S. Therefore, an accurate Stage III estimate of sludge
disposal practices will be based on the site-specific data
obtained 1n Stages IV and V of the POTW evaluation (Sections 6.2
and 6.3). This 1s a case where Stage III cannot be estimated
until Stage IV has been completed. One complete Needs
retrieval, providing both the site-specific data needed for
Stage IV and the summary statistics needed for Stage III, should
be conducted, as outlined 1n Section 6. The Needs Survey
contains detailed Information on the sludge treatment/disposal
practices at each POTW. Table H-8 1n Appendix H lists all of
the sludge treatment parameters used 1n the Needs Survey data
base. Summary statistics on the total wastewater flow produced
by each wastewater treatment process and treated by sludge
disposal practice are available from Needs. The user can apply
the sludge generation factors given 1n Table 34 1n Section 6 to
convert these flows to volumes of sludge. The final output of
Stage III should Include the total sludge volume, concentration
of chemical substance, and other physical/chemical
characteristics of the sludge disposed of by each practice of
Interest 1n the study area. The uncertainty 1n the quantitative
output of this step depends on the accuracy of the site-specific
Needs estimates and the sludge generation factors.
(3) Wastewater. This section contains the Information
necessary for determining how much of a given commercial, residential, or
Industrial wastewater will be treated at a municipal wastewater treatment
plant (POTW). Note that Industrial wastewater treated on-s1te 1s not
covered 1n this volume; rather this source 1s Included as a point source
1n Section 6.3 of Volume 2 (ambient exposure scenario). A general
discussion of wastewater 1s presented first, followed by the decision
tree.
29
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(a) Background Information. Wastewater 1s generally treated
and disposed of by entirely different practices from those used for solid
waste. Wastewaters can be grouped Into five categories based on their
origin: residential, commercial, Industrial, stormwater, and
groundwater. Only the first three categories are true waste streams.
Exposure to chemical substances 1n stormwater 1s considered 1n the
ambient exposure assessment volume (Volume 2). Groundwater seepage Into
sanitary sewers results when groundwater enters sewer pipes through
cracks or loose joints. Such seepage 1s most prevalent 1n older sewer
systems and does not generally contribute significant levels of toxic
chemicals to municipal wastewaters. Therefore, this process 1s not
treated explicitly 1n any of the volumes of this series. A brief
description of residential, commercial, and Industrial wastewaters and
the treatment/disposal practices most commonly applied to them 1s
presented below.
Residential wastewater comprises all wastes entering sewers from
homes. The primary source of chemical substances 1n residential
wastewater 1s probably consumer products that are washed Into drains from
bathtubs, sinks, and washing machines. Chemicals may also leach from
components of the plumbing system. Residential wastewater 1s generally
disposed of through municipal sanitary sewers or on-s1te septic
tanks/leachflelds. Some residential wastewaters are discharged directly
to land or surface waters. Commercial wastewaters originate from office
buildings and nonmanufacturlng Industrial facilities. Although much of
this waste 1s similar 1n composition to residential waste, significant
levels of toxic chemicals may be contributed by such Industrial sources
as film developers, testing laboratories, service stations, and dry
cleaning establishments. Some commercial wastes are treated on-s1te,
others are routed to POTWs, and some are discharged directly to surface
waters. The annual Needs Survey conducted by the Priority Needs Branch
of the EPA Office of Water Program Operations (see Exhibit H-l 1n
Appendix H) does not give a breakdown on the relative contributions of
residential and commercial wastewaters to POTWs; these two types are
combined under the "domestic" category.
Industrial wastewaters originate at manufacturing or processing
facilities and may consist of large volumes of water used 1n
manufacturing and processing Industrial products. Industries also
produce sanitary and nonprocess wastewaters. Industrial wastewaters may
be discharged either directly to surface waters with or without prior
on-s1te treatment, or Indirectly (I.e., to POTWs). (The distinction
between direct and Indirect discharge should be borne 1n mind throughout
the following discussion.) Industrial wastewaters may also be treated by
other means, such as on-s1te septic tanks/leachflelds, Injection wells,
or land treatment, and not discharged to surface waters at all. Special
30
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effluent guidelines governing the quality of effluents discharged to
surface waters have been developed for the 21 major Industries Identified
by the EPA as producing effluents containing significant amounts of toxic
substances; these Industries are listed 1n Table 0-8 1n Appendix D. In
addition, pretreatment standards regulating the quality of effluent
discharged to POTWs are being developed for these Industries.
Of the various disposal practices used for wastewaters, only the
disposal by municipal collection and treatment systems, Injection wells,
and land treatment are considered 1n detail 1n this volume. Exposure to
chemical substances via Industrial and commercial on-s1te wastewater
treatment with discharge to ambient waters (I.e., direct discharge) 1s
covered by Volume 2 of this methods development series. The potential
for exposure to chemicals as a result of leaching from septic tank waste
1s not discussed 1n this report.
Nationwide, about 73 percent of wastewaters treated by POTWs are of
domestic (residential or commercial) origin, the balance being
contributed by Industrial plants (USEPA 1981e). Seventy percent of the
U.S. population 1s served by POTWs (see Table 7). The extent of
Industrial wastewater treatment by POTWs varies, however, ranging from
treatment plants that receive no Industrial effluents to plants that are
operated Jointly by a sewage authority and an Industry, treating a large
volume of Industrial wastewaters. The degree to which Industrial
wastewaters are discharged to surface waters Indirectly (via POTWs)
depends on many factors, Including the treatment capability of the local
POTW, the nature of the Industrial wastewaters, cost considerations on
the part of both the Industry and the sewage authority, and federal and
state policy and regulations. The EPA has developed extensive
documentation for the Industrial wastewater treatment practices of the
21 major Industrial categories (see Volume 2, Section 6.3 of this methods
development series). These studies provide useful generic data on
Industries that can be used for exposure assessments when site-specific
Information 1s not available. As a result of the National Pollution
Discharge Elimination System (NPOES), however, site-specific Information
1s available for all facilities that discharge to surface waters. These
data are available 1n computerized form through several EPA data bases
Including the Permit Compliance System (PCS) and the Industrial
Facilities Discharge File (IFD), and can be used to extract both generic
Information on Industries and site-specific Information on permit holders.
(b) Stage III decision tree for wastewater. Ideally, the Input
to this stage will be Stage II estimates of wastewater flow,
concentration of the subject chemical 1n the wastewater, and related
Information on the source of the wastewater. In some cases, however, the
user may know only the quantity of the subject chemical discharged to
31
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Table 7. Populations Served by Wastewater
Treatment Types
Type of
treatment
Number of
persons (xiol)
Number of
POTWs
Percent of
total population
No treatment 67.1
Treatment but no discharge 3.6
to surface waters
Preliminary 2.3
Primary 37.3
Secondary 62.7
Advanced secondary 47.5
Tertiary 4.9
0
1,361
272
3,343
7,852
2,443
251
30.0
1.6
1.0
16.6
28.0
21.2
2.1
Source: USEPA 1981e.
32
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wastewater from a given source. In this stage, available Information
will be used to determine whether the subject wastewater will be treated
at a POTW, based on the source of the wastewater. Then the user will
estimate the actual amount of wastewater likely to be treated at POTWs.
An additional step for estimating the concentration of the chemical 1n
the wastewater 1s given for cases where concentration 1s needed but not
provided by the Stage II output.
Step 1. Estimate the proportion of the subject waste stream that will be
disposed of by POTWs. (See l.a for domestic wastewater and l.b
for Industrial wastewater.)
a. Domestic wastewater. For a nationwide exposure assessment
1t can be assumed that 70 percent of the U.S. population 1s
served by POTWs (Table 7). For assessments of regional or
statewide scope, consult the published annual summaries of the
technical Needs Survey data base (USEPA I981e). This presents,
among other things, the percentage of the resident population 1n
each state that 1s served by POTWs and the total domestic flow
treated by POTWs 1n each state; these data are also summarized
1n Appendix D, Tables 0-1 and D-2.
For detailed assessments where greater geographic
resolution 1s required, a computerized retrieval from the Needs
Survey data base 1s recommended (see Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix
H). This provides the same kind of data discussed above for
POTWs within small geographic areas (e.g., county, Congressional
district, sewer district). This retrieval can be conducted so
as to satisfy the requirements of the Stages IV and V decision
trees for POTWs as well, by requesting, 1n the same operation,
Information on the parameters listed 1n those decision trees
(see Sections 6.2 and 6.3).
b. Industrial wastewater. The likelihood that a given
Industrial wastewater will be treated at a POTW depends on the
Industry and the local sewage authority. Industrial wastewaters
may be treated by a POTW provided that the sewage authority has
given the plant a permit to discharge Indirectly. Industries
that are among the 21 major Industries (see Table D-8 1n
Appendix D) must meet pretreatment standards 1n order to be
permitted to discharge to a POTW. When site-specific data are
not required (as 1n the case where the exposure assessment 1s
general 1n nature), the wastewater disposal practices of the
Industry as a whole (or for the appropriate subcategory) can be
used as surrogate data 1f the Industry has been studied by the
Effluent Guidelines Division (EGD) of EPA. This Information can
33
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be obtained from various publications, such as the development
documents series, for the 21 major Industries. (See Section 6.3
of Volume 2 for a 11st of relevant EGO publications.) For
exposure assessments where site-specific Information Is
required, however, a computer retrieval from the IFD file 1s
recommended (see Exhibit H-2 of Appendix H). This will provide
Information 1n a single operation for both Stages III (for
wastewater 1n general) and IV (for POTWs); refer ahead to Stage
IV, Step 1 for POTWs (Section 6.2) for guidance.
Step 2. Estimate the concentration of the chemical of Interest 1n the
wastewater treated by POTWs, 1f 1t 1s not already provided by
available Information. (See 2.a for domestic wastewater and 2.b
for Industrial wastewater.)
a. Domestic wastewater. Concentration of the subject
chemical 1n domestic POTW Influent can be determined using
Tables D-l and D-2 1n Appendix D. Which table to use depends on
the type of data that was originally used (probably 1n Stage II)
to determine the total mass of the subject chemical 1n all
domestic wastewaters. If this estimate was based on the per
capita use of a product containing the subject chemical (e.g.,
mass of product used per person per day), then Table D-l should
be used, since 1t 1s based on population data. If the estimate
was based on the average concentration of the subject chemical
found 1n all domestic wastewaters (e.g., mg chemical per liter
of wastewater), then Table D-2 should be used, since 1t
represents directly the total amount of wastewater treated at
POTWs. Data from Tables D-l and D-2 can be used 1n the
following equations:
P = A x B (2-1)
F = P x 6W (2-2)
Q = P x Gc (2-3)
C = Q * F (2-4)
where
P = population contributing the subject wastewater to POTWs
A = population served by POTWs (from Table D-l)
B = fraction of population using a product containing the
subject chemical
F = flow of subject wastewater (volume/day)
Gw = per capita wastewater generation (from Table D-2) (Volume
per cap./day)
Gc = per capita disposal of subject chemical (mass per cap./day)
Q = total quantity of subject chemical routed to POTWs
(mass/day)
C = concentration of subject chemical 1n waste stream
(mass/volume).
34
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For a detailed assessment requiring geographic resolution beyond
the state level, a computerized retrieval of the parameters A
and 6W from the Needs Survey data base 1s recommended as Input
to Equations 2-1 through 2-4.
b. Industrial wastewater. The total mass of the subject
chemical released to wastewater should have been determined 1n
Stages I and II. The proportion of this chemical treated by
POTWs will also have been provided by Stages I and II, or else
by Step 1 above. The concentration of the subject chemical 1n
Industrial POTW Influent can then be calculated as follows, 1f
not already provided by the Stage II Information sources
(Equation 2-5).
C =
(2-5)
where
C = concentration
M = mass of chemical treated at POTWs
F = wastewater flow to POTWs from subject Industry
(4) Hazardous waste. Background Information on hazardous waste
1s presented below, followed by the Stage III decision tree for
allocating hazardous wastes to likely disposal methods.
(a) Background Information. Hazardous waste 1s defined by
Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR Part 261). To be
considered hazardous, a waste must be named 1n the 11st of specific
hazardous waste streams and chemicals provided 1n the cited regulation,
or 1t must exhibit one or more of certain specific characteristics which
Include 1gn1tab1l1ty, corroslvlty, reactivity, and toxldty. The
definition excludes household waste, agricultural waste returned to the
soil, and mining overburden returned to the mine site. It also excludes
all wastewater discharged directly or Indirectly to surface waters, since
this 1s regulated by other legislation. (It should be noted, however,
that, although hazardous waste 1s considered a solid waste by EPA
definition, a large part of 1t 1s physically 1n the liquid state.) About
20 percent of the total of 41.2 million wet metric tons (kkg) of
hazardous waste generated yearly 1s known to be specifically Included 1n
the EPA hazardous waste 11st (USEPA 1980f).
35
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Permits are required for the storage, treatment, and disposal of
hazardous waste under Subpart C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA). Permitting authority may be ceded to the state 1f EPA
determines the state's hazardous waste regulatory program to be
"substantially equivalent" to that of EPA (40 CFR Part 123.128).
Identifying the agencies that have Jurisdiction over the disposal of a
subject waste will facilitate the assessment procedure, since they may be
Important sources of relevant data (as discussed below). It 1s also
Important to be familiar with the regulations themselves, since they may
dictate performance standards or design/operational features of hazardous
waste disposal facilities; 1n the absence of reliable site-specific data,
these requirements can be used as Input parameters for various stages of
the assessment (assuming compliance with the regulations). Regulations
also Influence the generation and disposal patterns of hazardous waste by
their effect on the cost-benefit ratio of disposal options. The most
recent hazardous waste regulations were promulgated 1n July 1982 (USEPA
1982b). Nationwide trends relating to the generation and disposal of
such waste will be affected by any changes 1n these regulations.
Therefore, many estimates and assumptions Incorporated Into this volume
may have to be modified 1n the future.
Almost all Industries generate hazardous waste, but the chemical
Industry 1s the major source, contributing 60 percent of the total (USEPA
1980f). Other major contributors Include the primary metals, petroleum
and coal products, and fabricated metal products Industries. Generation
of hazardous waste within a region reflects the particular makeup of
Industry 1n that region. About 23 percent of hazardous waste 1s treated
off-site by commercial hazardous waste handlers (USEPA 1980b).
In general, half of all hazardous waste goes to surface Impoundments,
about 40 percent to landfills, and the rest to Incinerators, land
treatment, and Injection wells. Some treatment methods produce new
hazardous waste requiring ultimate disposal; these Include Incineration
producing toxic ash and wastewater treatment producing toxic sludge.
Possible disposal methods for the various types of hazardous waste are
summarized 1n Table 8. In some cases, e.g., Iowa and Kansas,
manufacturers apply to the state for permission to dispose of their
hazardous waste and are directed where to do so. Nevertheless, about
9 percent of the nation's hazardous waste may be Improperly diverted to
municipal landfills not designed for Its acceptance (Van Noordwyk 1980).
This practice may be especially common 1n areas with few or no permitted
hazardous waste disposal sites (USEPA 1980b).
36
-------
Table 8. Hazardous Waste: Possible Disposal Methods
Solid Waste
Landfll I
Incineration8
Sludge
Landf111
Incl neratlon9
Landspread
Surface Impoundment
Injection we I I
POTW
Liquid Waste
Landf 11 I
Incineration8
Surface Impoundment
Lands pread I ng
Injection we I I
aFor ultimate disposal of Incinerator ash, see Section 2.3.3(1).
37
-------
Major sources of data on hazardous waste generation patterns Include
the various RCRA background documents, available from EPA, and the series
of Industrial hazardous waste assessment reports produced for the EPA
Office of Solid Waste (OSW) (see Table 9). Additional sources of
Information are the reports on waste generation Issued by a number of
Individual states. A 11st of state reports obtained 1n this study 1s
given 1n Appendix B, Exhibit B-l. For additional Information, the state
agencies should be contacted; state solid waste agencies are listed 1n
Appendix 0, Table D-3.
A major source of Information on both generation and disposal of
hazardous waste 1s the Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS).
This data base 1s maintained by the EPA State Programs and Resource
Recovery Division of the Office of Solid Waste (OSW) and contains data
from RCRA permit applications. See Appendix 0, Exhibit D-l for a
discussion of HWDMS. A recent summary of the population of hazardous
waste sites listed 1n HWDMS by treatment/storage/dlsposal method 1s given
1n Appendix D, Table D-7. In addition, several states maintain their own
lists of permitted hazardous waste disposal sites.
(b) Stage III decision tree for hazardous waste. The Input to
this stage will be the volume or mass, chemical concentration, source,
and other physical/chemical Information for the subject waste stream,
derived from the output of Stage II. The following references will be
useful:
• RCRA background documents
• All OSW Industrial waste disposal assessments (see Table 9)
• Any relevant state surveys or reports (see Appendix D, Table D-3
and Appendix B)
• HWDMS data base
• Appendices C and D to this report.
The user will evaluate available Information on the disposal
practices used by the Industry that generates the waste as well as the
characteristics of the waste. This Information 1s used to estimate the
amount handled by each disposal practice.
Step 1. Determine the probable distribution of the subject waste
stream among disposal types, based on generic data.
Compile all relevant estimates from each reference source
above. List available estimates, and decide which to use
based on how recent the data are, the estimated reliability of
the data collection methods, or other factors. If
appropriate, estimates from different sources can be combined
and averaged. Estimates thus obtained may be sufficient for
38
-------
Table 9. OSW Industrial Hazardous Waste Assessment Reports
Industry
Metals mining
Textl les
Inorganic chemicals
Rubber and plastics
Pharmaceuticals
Paint and allied products
SIC
10
22
281
282,30
283
285
Organic chemicals, 286,2879
pesticides, explosives 2892
Petroleum refining
Petroleum re-reflnlng
Leather tanning and
finishing
Metal smelting and refining
Electroplating and metal
2911
2992
3111
33
3471
Prepared by
Midwest
Versa r,
Versar,
Foster D
Arthur D
Wapora,
Research Institute
Inc.
Inc.
. Snel 1, Inc.
. Little, Inc.
Inc.
TRW Systems
Jacobs Engineering Co.
•
• •
SCS Engineers, Inc.
Ca Ispan
Battel le
Corp.
Columbus Labs
Date
9/1976
6/1 976
3/1 975
3/1978
1976
9/1 975
1/1976
6/1 976
1977
1 1 /I 976
4/1977
9/1 976
EPA no.
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
132c
125c
104c
163C.1-4
508
119c
118c
129c
144c
131c
145C.1-4
136c
NTIS
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
PB
261
258
244
282
258
251
251
259
272
261
276
264
no.
052
953
832
070-073
800
669
307
097
267
018
169-172
349
finishing
Special machinery 355,357 Wapora, Inc.
manufacturing
Electronics components 367 Wapora, Inc.
manufactur I ng
Storage and primary 3691,3692 Versar, Inc.
batteries
4/1977 SW 141c PB 265 981
1/1977 SW 140c PB 265 532
1/1975 SW 102c PS 241 204
Source: Van Noordwyk 1980.
39
-------
exposure assessments that do not require great depth of detail
1n the disposal setting. For more detailed or site-specific
assessments, proceed to the following steps.
Step 2. Compile the names and locations of all facilities receiving
the subject waste stream.
This may be accomplished by conducting an HWDMS retrieval
for the geographic area of Interest (see Appendix D, Exhibit
D-l). Use the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code
for the Industry that generates the subject waste stream, as
well as the SIC code for commercial (off-site) waste handlers
(4953) or the commercial "tag" mentioned 1n Exhibit D-l.
Step 3. Confirm or correct the gross estimates from Step 1 using HWDMS
data.
The retrieval conducted 1n Step 2 provides only facility
names and locations. In order to determine the specific
treatment types employed at these locations, consult the
complete HWDMS printout of permit application data; this must
be consulted manually at the EPA Office of Solid Waste. It
lists the treatment, storage, or disposal practices used at a
given hazardous waste facility (process code), as well as the
proposed capacity, arranged by location (zip code). Use this
Information to confirm or correct the gross estimates from
Step 1. For example, 1f most generators of the subject waste
have on-s1te hazardous waste disposal capacity, 1t can be
assumed that all of their waste stays on-s1te and 1s treated
by the practice listed 1n their permit application.
Step 4. If data collected thus far are Insufficient, skip ahead to
Stage IV for the disposal practices of Interest; Information
obtained there may be applied to Stage III. In any case,
after Stage IV 1s completed, return to Stage III and make any
necessary adjustment. If the Stage IV procedures do not
provide the desired Information, estimate the quantity of
waste handled by each applicable disposal practice based on
available Information on the waste disposal practices of
similar Industries or on the relative proportions of different
types of hazardous waste disposal facilities available 1n the
area. Note that hazardous waste may be diverted to facilities
not permitted for 1t.
The output of this step will be a 11st of the disposal
practices likely to receive the waste stream of Interest and
estimates of the amounts of the waste disposed of by each
practice 1n units of mass/year.
40
-------
(5) Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. This category
Includes all nonhazardous (I.e., not designated as hazardous by RCRA)
solid waste materials from factories, processing plants, and other
manufacturing enterprises. It also Includes sludges and liquid wastes
not discharged to sewers. General Information on this waste category 1s
presented 1n (a), followed by the Stage III decision tree (b).
(a) Background Information. A total of 56.3 million metric
tons (kkg) of solid waste (hazardous and nonhazardous) are generated
annually (Table 10). The largest generators are the fabricated metals,
chemical, nonelectrical machinery, rubber, and plastics Industries. A
total of 8.4 million metric tons of Industrial sludge are generated
annually (Table 11); 90 percent of this 1s produced by three sources, the
nonelectrical machinery, chemical, and textile mills Industries. The
nonelectrical machinery Industry alone generates 50 percent of the total.
Industrial wastes are difficult to quantify because they are usually
of a unique character, peculiar to a specific Industry and often to a
specific plant. Typical wastes Include spent solvent; discharged
products, spills, and sweepings; unwanted by-products, fractions, or
residues from distillation or other processes; wastewater and cooling
tower sludges; and empty containers.
Solids are generally landfllled or Incinerated. Liquids may be
Incinerated, kept 1n surface Impoundments, or landspread; they may also
be drummed and landfUled, provided that the landfill possesses a
synthetic Uner and a leachate collection and recovery system (40 CFR
Parts 264-265). Sludges may be treated by any of these practices, as
well as by ocean dumping; occasionally, Industrial sludges are sent
directly to a POTW or are sold as soil conditioner or fertilizer.
Residue resulting from Incineration 1s discussed 1n Section 2.3.3(1).
Possible disposal practices for Industrial wastes are summarized In Table
12.
Treatment, storage, and disposal of nonhazardous solid waste are
regulated under Subtitle D of RCRA. In general, guidelines and
regulations governing nonhazardous solid waste are less stringent than
those governing hazardous waste.
To date, the disposal of nonhazardous Industrial waste has received
relatively little attention. Consequently, very few data quantifying the
relevant waste generation and disposal practices are available. Because
disposal problems are handled by the Individual firms, the exact
practices used for disposal are as varied as the Industries themselves.
In addition, wastes are often disposed of on-s1te, making assessment of
the disposal practices more difficult to quantify.
41
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Table 10. Industrial Solid Waste Production8
SIC
Code
22
23
24
25
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
1 ndustry
Textl le mill products
Apparel
Wood products
Furniture
Paper and allied products
Chemicals and allied products
Petroleum
Rubber and plastics
Leather
Stone, clay
Primary metals
Fabricated metals
Non-electrical machinery
Electrical machinery
Transportation equipment
Professional and scientific Instruments
Ml seel laneous manufacturl ng
Metric tons
per year
1,642, 105
2,412,150
4,581,679
1,004,846
2,134,034
6,817,586
203, 897
5,237,397
1,957, 157
3,443,644
3, 152,288
8,801,146
5,725,367
4,058, 142
3,728,091
805,628
572,971
aIncludes hazardous waste; excludes sludge.
Source: USEPA I980b.
42
-------
Table 11. Sludge Generation8 by Manufacturing Industries
SIC
Code
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Industry
Textl le-ml 1 1 products
Apparel
Wood products
Furniture
Paper and allied products
Printing, publishing
Chemicals and allied products
Petroleum
Rubber, plastics
Leather
Stone, clay
Primary metals
Fabricated metals
Non-electrical machinery
Electrical machinery
Transportation equipment
Professional and scientific Instruments
Metric tons
per year
1,147,334
0
0
0
6,441
0
1,964,814
363b
45,451
0
5,897
418,673
70,852
4,404,002
0
277,966
0
alncludes hazardous sludge.
'-'Estimate based on only one observation.
Source: USEPA I980b.
43
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Table 12. Nonhazardous Industrial Solid Waste: Disposal Methods
Solid Waste
Landfll I
Incineratlon3
Sludge
LandfllI
Incineration3
Landspreadlng
Surface Impoundment
POTWb
Injection wel I
Ocean
Liquid Waste, to Land
Landfil I
I nclneratlon3
Surface Impoundment
Injection wel I
Landspreading
aFor ultimate disposal of Incinerator residue, see Section 2.3.3(1).
''This practice Is not very widespread and will not be examined In detail
In the methodology.
44
-------
Since hazardous waste disposal 1s relatively well documented, and
nonhazardous waste 1s frequently disposed of 1n hazardous waste streams,
1t may be assumed that, 1n some cases, they are disposed of 1n a roughly
similar fashion. The sources of Information on Industrial waste
generation and disposal are the same as for hazardous waste, which are
described 1n Section 2.3.3(4).
(b) Stage III decision tree for nonhazardous Industrial
wastes. The same basic procedure 1s used to determine the likely
disposal practices for nonhazardous Industrial waste as for hazardous
wastes except that there 1s less Information on nonhazardous waste. The
following sources of Information should be used:
• RCRA background documents (see Subsection (4))
• All OSW hazardous waste assessments (see Table 9)
• Any relevant state surveys or reports (see Appendix D, Table D-3,
and Appendix B)
Step 1. Determine the probable distribution of the subject waste
stream among disposal types based on readily available
Information.
Compile all relevant estimates from each reference source
above. Most of the data 1n these surveys may pertain
specifically to hazardous waste; 1n the absence of better
Information, assume that nonhazardous waste 1s treated
similarly. List all available estimates and decide which to
use based on how recent the Information 1s, the reliability of
the data collection methods, or other factors. If
appropriate, estimates from different sources can be combined
and averaged.
Step 2. Determine whether 1t 1s likely that the subject waste stream
1s co-disposed with hazardous waste.
Co-disposal 1s likely when hazardous and nonhazardous
wastes are generated simultaneously or 1n a manner likely to
result 1n their mixing; 1t 1s then often not economically
advantageous to separate them. This Information may be
deduced from Information compiled 1n Stages I and II. If 1t
appears likely that the waste will be diverted to a hazardous
waste stream, conduct an HWDMS retrieval as described 1n
Section 2.3.3(4) for hazardous waste (see Appendix D,
Exhibit D-l).
45
-------
If data collected thus far are Inadequate, skip ahead to
Stage IV; Information obtained there can be applied to Stage
III. In any case, after Stage IV 1s completed, return to
Stage III and make any necessary adjustments.
Step 4. If the Stage IV procedures do not provide the desired
Information, estimate the quantity of waste handled by each
disposal practice based on the waste disposal practices of
similar Industries, or on the relative proportions of
different types of disposal facilities available 1n the area
(see Section 2.3.3(4) and Stage IV).
The output of this step will be a 11st of the disposal
practices likely to be used for the subject waste and
estimates of the amounts disposed by each practice 1n units of
mass/year. The uncertainty 1n these estimates may be high as
a result of the paucity of Information on nonhazardous waste
disposal practices.
(6) Municipal Solid Waste (HSW). This category Includes all
nonlndustrlal solid waste: residential, commercial/Institutional,
construction/demolition, and agricultural. General Information on MSW 1s
given 1n (a) followed by the Stage III decision tree 1n (b).
(a) Background Information. The typical composition of MSW
1s given 1n Table 13. A description of various types of MSW follows:
• Residential (domestic). This Includes all wastes generated by
normal household activities, Including food wastes, paper,
clothing, and manufactured objects, as well as yard waste
resulting from lawn and garden care. It also Includes wastes from
campgrounds, public access areas, and roadside rest stops. Toxic
substances may enter these waste streams by means of household
cleaning chemicals; paints; lawn and garden chemicals; and as
components of manufactured products such as plastics, batteries,
dyes 1n clothing, or paper. Nationwide, about 90 percent of
residential waste 1s landfllled and the rest 1s Incinerated
(Lacombe 1977). Wastes are hauled by public or private haulers or
transported by homeowners to municipal disposal sites.
0 Commercial/Institutional. These wastes are generated from a
variety of sources, such as: shopping centers, restaurants,
hotels, schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and automobile service
stations. They also Include street sweepings and refuse from
Utter baskets. Generators of commercial waste Include the
following employment groups: transportation, communications, and
utilities; wholesale and retail trade; finance, Insurance, and
46
-------
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47
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real estate; and services, schools, and hospitals. These wastes
are similar to residential wastes and are treated the same way,
although commercial generators probably use a larger proportion of
private haulers and private disposal sites. U.S. households and
commercial sources together generate more than 140 million tons of
solid waste annually (USEPA 1977).
• Demolition/construction. Waste types Include bricks, soil, rock,
concrete, and pipes, as well as brush and wood waste. Most of
this 1s used on-s1te as clean fill or 1n construction such as for
service roads. The rest 1s landfllled at municipal or Industrial
landfills. Special demolition landfills are rarely used.
Construction waste generation 1s seasonal, 1n keeping with the
nature of the Industry. The category also Includes materials
disposed of 1n "disaster" landfills, selected on a case-by-case
basis at the time of a particular disaster. These are used only
once and covered over. Toxic waste components Include preserved
wood, asphaltlc materials, and asbestos.
• Agricultural. This Includes wastes generated from raising and
harvesting animals, grains, fruits and vegetables, and other field
crops. It excludes food processing wastes, which are commercial.
The large majority of agricultural waste 1s returned to the land
on the farmslte. Manure and other livestock solid wastes from
feedlot and dairy operations are normally collected and stockpiled
on-s1te until they can be spread on and disked Into adjacent
acreage. Most crop residues are shredded or chopped and disked or
plowed back Into the topsoll. Some crop residues are removed for
burning and composting. The rest are probably landfllled. Toxic
components Include pesticides and fertilizers and their containers.
The disposal practices for MSW are summarized 1n Table 14.
Nationwide, 90 percent 1s landfllled and most of the balance 1s
Incinerated.
Table 14. Municipal Solid Waste: Disposal Practices
Landfill
Incineration
Recycling
Landspreadlng
48
-------
The only other options 1n use are resource recovery and
landspreadlng. The extent of resource recovery varies wldel^ from one
area to another. For a given location, the extent of resource recovery
of MSW can be estimated by examining the latest resource recovery survey
1n Waste Age Magazine (see Table 1-1 1n Appendix I), which gives the
locations and capacities of all resource recovery Installations 1n the
U.S. Nationally, no more than 6 percent of all waste 1s recycled (City
of Kalamazoo 1978). Landspreadlng of shredded municipal refuse Is
Insignificant nationally but may be the most Important disposal practice
for a given city, as 1n Odessa, Texas (Phung et al. 1977, 1978).
Average MSW generation per capita 1n the U.S. 1s currently 2.3 kg/day
and Increasing. By 1990, 157 million metric tons will be generated per
year, of which 16 million metric tons will be Incinerated and 141 million
metric tons landfllled (Gordon 1979). If effective resource recovery
programs are Implemented nationwide, at least as much waste from domestic
and commercial sources will be landfllled and Incinerated as today. If
the rate of recycling does not Increase, the amount of MSW going to
landfills will Increase by 15 percent (Gordon 1979).
(b) Stage III decision tree for MSW. The Stage III estimates
for MSW are simple and more accurate than parallel estimates for other
waste categories, because the MSW disposal options are limited. For the
most part, the user can assume that MSW 1s landfllled unless there 1s
Information to the contrary (e.g., the city of Interest has a municipal
Incinerator).
For assessments of broad geographic scope that do not require
site-specific data, assume that 90 percent of MSW 1s
landfUled and 10 percent Incinerated; then proceed directly
to Stage IV. If site-specific data are required, proceed to
Step 2 below.
Estimate the total MSW generated 1n the subject area based on
per capita estimates (see Section 3, Table 18) and census
data; this may be considered equivalent to the quantity
disposed of 1n that area.
Step. 3. Estimate the quantity of MSW Incinerated 1n the subject area.
Consult the Inventories of municipal Incinerators
(Appendix I, Tables 1-2 and 1-3) to see 1f any such facilities
are located 1n the subject area. If so, 11st these facilities
and their capacities.
49
-------
eo 4. Estimate the quantity of MSW recycled 1n the subject area.
Consult the latest Inventory of resource recovery
operations 1n Waste Age magazine (Appendix I, Table 1-1) to
see 1f any such facilities are located 1n the study area. If
so, 11st these facilities and their capacities.
Step 5. Estimate the quantity of MSW shredded and landspread 1n the
subject area.
Landspreadlng of shredded MSW 1s an uncommon practice
that can be Ignored when considering broad geographic areas;
however, 1t may be the major practice used for MSW disposal 1n
a given city. Contact the applicable state solid waste agency
for Information on the subject site.
Step 6. Estimate the quantity of MSW disposed of 1n landfills 1n the
subject area, based on estimates generated 1n Steps 2 through
5 above.
The quantity landfilled equals the total quantity
generated minus the quantities Incinerated, recycled, and
landspread.
2.3.4 Stage IV Decision Tree - Allocating Waste Streams to Individual
Disposal Sites
A flow chart summarizing the procedures 1n Stage IV 1s presented 1n
Figure 6. This stage of the framework Involves estimating the amount of
a waste stream disposed of at each site by each disposal practice. The
Input for this stage 1s the estimate, from Stage III, of the quantity of
the subject waste disposed of by each practice. However, 1f this
estimate was not based on site-specific data, then 1t should be used for
Stage IV calculations only 1f no better estimates are available. As
stated 1n the preamble to Stage III (Section 2.3.3), 1f site-specific
Information 1s available for Stage IV estimates, the output from Stage IV
can be used to correct the preliminary output from Stage III. Stage IV
(and Stage V) will be performed once for each disposal practice used for
a given waste stream. Because the exact format and supporting
Information from Stage IV will be different for each disposal practice,
the following decision tree should be used only as a guide to the format
of the decision trees tailored to each disposal practice. (Stage IV
decision trees adapted respectively to landfills, land treatment, surface
Impoundments, POTWs, Incinerators, and Injection wells are presented 1n
Section 3 through 8).
The degree of detail desirable 1n the Stage IV output depends on the
level of detail required for the modeling of environmental releases 1n
Stage V. Even for non-site-specific exposure assessments, the facility
"population" data obtained 1n Stage IV (I.e., number of facilities and
their capacities) may be required to develop a statistical profile for
extrapolating nationwide exposure from a select number of representative
disposal facilities. (See Volume 1 of this series for an explanation of
this approach.)
50
-------
1
<
LU
CC
a
>•
cc
3
C3
51
-------
Step 1. Determine whether disposal of the subject waste 1s limited to
certain subtypes of the disposal practice under consideration.
Consider the type and source of the waste stream and the
legal and practical constraints on the subject disposal
method. List the applicable subtypes and proceed to Step 2.
Step 2. If applicable, determine the proportional distribution of the
subject waste between on-s1te and off-site facilities.
This Information will be useful 1n determining which
Individual sites are likely to handle the waste (Step 3).
Consider the following 1n the absence of Information to the
contrary.
• Residential/commercial waste. If the waste derives from
consumer use, assume that 1t 1s disposed of off-site with MSW
unless 1t 1s discharged through the sewer system to POTWs.
• Industrial waste. If the waste derives from Industrial
operations, determine what percentage 1s disposed of with MSW,
what percentage 1s disposed of off-site by private waste
disposal businesses, and what percentage 1s disposed of
on-s1te. Take Into account whether the waste 1s a hazardous
waste, and use available Information on waste disposal
practices. No generic data 1n support of this decision are
currently available for nonhazardous Industrial waste.
• Wastewater. By definition, all domestic wastewaters routed
to POTWs are disposed of off-site. The percentage of
Industrial wastewaters discharged Indirectly (off-site) will
have been determined 1n Stage III.
Step 3. Identify the Individual facilities using the subject disposal
practice that are probable candidates for disposal of the
subject waste stream, based on Information derived from Steps 1
and 2 and available Inventories of facilities.
The output of this step for a detailed exposure assessment
will be a 11st of the sites and their locations. An estimate
of the total number of facilities 1n the population may suffice
for nationwide or regional exposure assessments that do not
require site-specific modeling of environmental releases.
52
-------
Ascertain whether Information exists on the capacity and
current operating characteristics for the sites listed 1n
Step 3. Use this Information along with available Information
on the disposal practices of the source of the subject waste to
estimate the amount of the waste stream disposed of at each
facility.
The output of Stage IV for exposure assessments requiring
site-specific estimates of environmental releases will be a
11st of candidate sites and the quantity of the subject waste
stream disposed of at each site. For exposure assessments that
do not require site-specific modeling, the output may be as
simple as the number of facilities and the average quantity of
the waste handled per facility, or as complex as a statistical
distribution of the population of facilities by waste quantity
handled.
2.3.5 Stage V Decision Tree - Estimating Environmental Releases from
Disposal Sites
A flow chart showing the Stage V procedures 1s presented 1n
Figure 7. This stage Involves estimating releases to the environment
from disposal, given the Stage IV estimates of the amount of waste
handled at each disposal facility. For maximum accuracy 1n exposure
assessments, Stage V release estimates should be made for each disposal
facility. In nationwide exposure assessments, however, 1t may be
Impractical to model releases from each site. This would be the case,
for example, where exposure from a substance disposed of 1n all municipal
landfills 1s being Investigated. In these assessments, releases can be
estimated from model environments representing the range of "typical"
disposal facilities and extrapolated 1n a statistically acceptable
fashion to a national scale. See Volume 1 of this series for a
discussion of this and other planning Issues.
Obviously, the Information compiled 1n Stage II on the physical/
chemical characteristics of the waste will be essential 1n this stage
because releases are partially determined by characteristics of the waste
containing the subject chemical. The following general decision tree 1s
a guide to the format of the decision trees for each disposal/
treatment practice. (Stage V decision trees tailored to landfills, land
treatment, surface Impoundments, POTWs, Incinerators, and Injection wells
are presented 1n Sections 3 through 8.)
Step 1. a. Identify the Important design and operating characteristics
of the waste disposal method that affect releases to the
environment.
53
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54
-------
b. Ascertain which of the parameters listed 1n l.a are known
for the s1te(s) of Interest based on accessible computerized
data or other In-house Information.
c. Identify which of the parameters listed 1n l.a but not l.b
can probably be obtained from existing files at regional EPA
off1ce(s) and/or state solid waste agencies.
a. Identify the available approaches for predicting
environmental releases based on design/operating
characteristics. If no approaches are available, then releases
cannot be estimated. Otherwise, choose the appropriate
approach and go to 2.b.
b. Determine what site-specific design/operating
characteristics are required for Input to the predictive
approach chosen 1n 2.a. Decide whether these are readily
available (see l.b). If not, determine whether there are
"surrogate" values that can be used 1n place of the
site-specific parameters. If there are no suitable Input data
available, two options exist: (1) collect data listed 1n l.c
or collect new data; (2) abandon the predictive effort. If
Input data are available, go to 3.
Using the chosen predictive method and Input data, estimate
releases of the subject chemical from each disposal site
receiving the subject waste. Alternatively, estimate releases
from one or more representative sites (actual or hypothetical)
and extrapolate these releases to a regional or national scale
(see Volume 1 of this series). Consider using the Inventory
compiled 1n Stage IV as a basis for this extrapolation.
The output of this step should Include estimates not only
of ultimate releases to environmental media, but also subject
chemical mass/concentration 1n any residues that may result
from the treatment/disposal practice. (Such residues Include
Incinerator ash and POTW sludge).
If monitoring data are available, compare with values
estimated 1n Step 3. If estimated releases and chemical
quantities 1n residues (1f any) do not correlate with measured
values, use best judgment to evaluate the discrepancy. If
applicable, calibrate the model and rerun. Information on the
subject chemical 1n treatment residues should be used as Input
to Stage III for an analysis of ultimate releases from the
residue. Then use the estimated releases as Input 1n the
analysis of environmental fate and pathways of the final
exposure assessment (see Volumes 1, 2, and 5 of this report).
55
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3. LANDFILLS
This section discusses the Information needed to estimate the
potential for environmental releases of chemicals from landfills, and
focuses on municipal, Industrial, and hazardous waste landfills.
Landfills are of particular Interest because they are a major collective
repository of wastes and have the potential to release toxic chemicals to
air and water. General background material about landfill types and
operation 1s given 1n Section 3.1. Decision trees based on this
Information are presented for Stage IV 1n Section 3.2, and for Stage V 1n
Section 3.3. There are major gaps 1n the state-of-the-art knowledge on
the behavior of chemical substances 1n landfllled wastes, which may
seriously limit the ability to estimate releases from landfills. On the
other hand, there 1s a considerable body of knowledge on the types and
amounts of wastes that are landfllled, as well as on landfill sizes,
capacities, and operating characteristics, which will be useful 1n
exposure assessments.
3.1 Background Information
This section presents some Information on landfills that will be
useful 1n conducting both site-specific and large-scale exposure
assessments. Included for discussion are (1) the difficulties caused by
having only very general Information on some types of landfills, (2) the
current state of the art 1n estimating environmental releases from
landfills, and (3) methods for estimating some site-specific Input
parameters likely to be useful 1n modeling these releases. Some
modeling-related considerations and Ideas on using the available
Information 1n large-scale assessments are also discussed.
3.1.1 Landfill Types and Operation
There are five types of landfills:
t Municipal landfills. These primarily handle municipal waste and
may be privately or publicly owned and operated. Municipal
landfills may also accept other types of waste, such as
nonhazardous Industrial, construction, and agricultural waste.
There are an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 active municipal
landfills 1n the U.S. (Petersen 1983, USEPA 1980f).
t Industrial landfills. About 23 percent of all Industrial plants
landfill on-s1te; there are presently about 76,000 on-s1te
Industrial landfills (USEPA 1980f). Industrial nonhazardous
waste disposed of off-site may also be handled at a municipal
site. Since most off-site landfills handle a variety of waste
types, no distinction will be drawn 1n this report between
municipal and Industrial (nonhazardous) off-site landfills.
56
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• Hazardous waste landfills. These differ from Industrial
nonhazardous landfills by having to meet more stringent
permitting, design, and operational criteria. There are about
500 on-s1te and 44 off-site hazardous waste landfills 1n the
U.S. (Table 21 1n Section 3.1.5; Table D-7 1n Appendix 0).
• Construction landfills. Most construction/demolition waste 1s
disposed of 1n municipal landfills. Only a few landfills
specialize 1n construction waste.
• Agricultural landfills. Agricultural waste not returned to the
soil 1s usually taken to municipal landfills. No Information 1s
available on strictly agricultural landfills.
Construction and agricultural landfills will not be considered
further 1n this report because they are not expected to be major
repositories for toxic substances subject to regulation (except for
asbestos from construction wastes); moreover, very Uttle Information 1s
available on these sites.
The three most common operational practices for landfills are the
area, ramp, and trench methods (Anon. 1981b). In the area method, wastes
are spread onto the existing ground surface, compacted, and covered with
earth from another source. This method 1s useful with depressions that
are to be filled as a landfill, or 1n building earthen structures above
the surface of the existing ground. The ramp (or progressive slope)
method 1s a variation of the area method. Here the earth cover 1s
excavated from the ground Immediately 1n front of the active working
face. In the trench method, a trench 1s excavated and wastes are placed
1n the trench, compacted, and covered with soil. The excavated earth can
either be used to cover the solid wastes 1n an adjacent trench or
stockpiled to cover the wastes 1n the trench being excavated. The volume
of waste covered with earth during each day's operation 1s referred to as
a cell or 11ft.
The trench method 1s the most common method used and 1s required by
some state regulations. Current use of the area and ramp methods 1s not
common. Calculations 1n this report will be based on the assumption that
all landfills use the trench method.
3.1.2 Environmental Releases from Landfills
(1) Leachate. Pollutant leachate 1s generated when water enters the
landfill, migrates through 1t, and picks up soluble materials from the
disposed waste, either original waste compounds or the soluble products
of biological and chemical degradation. Water can enter a landfill as
precipitation, surface runoff, or Infiltration of groundwater
(Pate! et al. 1979).
57
-------
Generation of leachate does not necessarily begin with the first
addition of water. Solid wastes act like a sponge and are capable of
storing about 135 to 270 l/m3 of material (1 to 2 gal/ft3) (Anon.
1981b). Leachate will be generated only after this storage capacity
(field capacity) 1s reached and more water 1s added. (In practice,
channels may form within the waste which allow the water to flow through
more quickly.) The time required for leachate generation 1s highly
variable and depends on local 1n situ conditions and rainfall
(Anon. 1981a).
Pollutant leachate may reach both groundwater and surface water, and
many examples of leachate pollution have resulted 1n the contamination of
water supplies or the habitats of aquatic life (CEQ 1981). The
composition of leachate 1s variable, because 1t 1s highly waste- and
site-specific. The chemical complexity of municipal solid waste (MSW)
leachate 1s Illustrated 1n Table 15. Leachate from hazardous waste 1s
even more waste-specific; no general figures can be compiled 1n a
meaningful manner. Leachate may react chemically with landfill lining
materials. Depending on the nature and concentration of constituents 1n
the leachate and the nature of the lining materials, leachate may damage
or cause failure of the Uner.
(2) Gases and dusts. Some of the decomposition products resulting
from the microblal degradation of solid waste are 1n gaseous form.
Although such degradation produces a variety of gases, methane and carbon
dioxide are the major gaseous products of landfill decomposition.
Migration of gas produced 1n a landfill may lead to a number of
environmental effects, ranging from odor problems to the accumulation and
explosion of methane (Patel et al. 1979). Theoretically, about 0.2 m3
of methane gas can be produced from each pound of waste (Anon. 1981b).
In addition to gaseous decomposition products, organic compounds In
landfUled wastes may volatilize and migrate from the soil to the
atmosphere. The continuous emission of these organic compounds, 1f they
Include toxic materials, may cause significant harm to public health and
the environment. Volatilization 1s a function of temperature, wind
speed, surface area, depth of burled waste, and waste characteristics.
Because the volatilization and degradation processes may be slow, the
emission of hazardous volatile organic compounds may persist for many
years. Gas generation rates at landfills have not been well studied, and
the extent of air contamination from these sites 1s largely unknown
(Shen 1981).
Landfills that are poorly designed and operated may also emit dusts
containing chemical substances.
58
-------
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3.1.3 Predicting Environmental Releases
Much of what 1s discussed 1n this section about groundwater models 1s
equally applicable to surface Impoundments (Section 5), modeling releases
from land treatment (Section 4), and deep well Injection (Section 8). To
avoid repetition, only salient points will be further discussed 1n
Sections 4, 5, and 8. All models discussed 1n this section are Included
1n Appendix A. The reader 1s also advised to see the companion volume on
assessing exposures from drinking water (Volume 5 of this methods
development series), since 1t contains a more detailed discussion of
groundwater modeling.
Environmental releases from waste disposal sites may be predicted by
the use of models. In general, the models are composed of concise
mathematical expressions that use a series of equations to express
relationships among various physical and chemical parameters 1n the waste
disposal system. Depending on the method of analysis and the accuracy
required, these models may range 1n structure from a few simple algebraic
equations solved manually to hundreds of complex differential expressions
which must be solved through the use of computers. An Important
consideration when deciding whether to use models 1s the level of data
needed. Often the amount of Information required by the model will
exceed that which 1s available for site-specific assessments. In this
case, a great deal of time and money may be required to allow for
accurate model output.
Although the development and use of models for hazardous waste
predictions have only recently received much attention, there are many
models available to the Investigator. A recent report (Weston 1978)
provides a compilation of the different types of models available for
possible use 1n groundwater evaluation studies. The U.S. EPA Office of
Solid Waste (OSW) (USEPA 1982a) reviewed approximately 400 models and
selected those which may be of most use for their risk analysis
requirements; some of these are mentioned below. However, even those
selected by OSW have limited capabilities; because of the numerous
factors affecting chemical fate at disposal sites, no single model 1s
capable of accounting for all variables. For this reason, most models do
not attempt to predict all aspects of a chemical's fate; they are usually
more specific 1n their objective.
Some general classifications for which several models are available
to choose from for particular modeling scenarios are: watershed
simulation models, release rate models, and solute transport models,
which are further divided Into unsaturated zone and saturated zone models.
60
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The watershed simulation models have to be operated after each storm
event to produce long-term simulations. Despite this, the results of
long-term simulations tend to be more accurate than those for short-term
simulations. An example of a useful model 1n this category 1s PRZM
(Pesticide Root Zone Model, developed by the EPA Office of Research and
Development), designed to model the transport of pesticides applied to
soils. Unfortunately, 1t does not take Into account the complexities
Involved 1n modeling landfills (I.e., the relation between landfill
structure, liners, and pollutant transport), and thus 1t 1s of limited
use.
Release rate models permit estimation of the quality and quantity of
leachate released from a site. Output from the release rate model 1s
used as Input for one of the solute transport models. There are at least
six release rate models documented 1n the literature (USEPA 1982a);
several others are under development by various researchers. One of
these models, called HELP (Hydrologlc Evaluation of Landfill Performance)
(Perrler and Gibson 1980), was developed specifically to evaluate
hazardous waste landfills. The program was developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, and allows rapid
estimation of the amounts of runoff, subsurface drainage, and leachate
that can be expected from different landfill designs and local climatic
conditions. The program requires site-specific cl1matolog1c, soil, and
landfill design data (Including specifications for multi-layer and lined
systems); default values can be assigned 1f these data are not available
(except design data). Another potentially useful release rate model 1s
one developed for the rapid assessment of groundwater contamination under
emergency response conditions (Don1g1an et al. 1983). This approach
makes use of easily-applied nomographs that are based on a transport-
convection equation and requires Input data similar to that needed for
other models. This model accounts for contaminant transport as well as
release, so that 1t Includes features of some of the transport models
described below. Additional models Include Release Rate Computations,
Post-Closure Liability Trust Fund (PCLTF), and DRAINMOD/DRAINCIL. More
Information on these models can be found 1n Volume 5 of this methods
development series.
Solute transport models predict the dispersion of contaminants from
the source. As mentioned above, they are capable of predicting chemical
fate either 1n the unsaturated zone or 1n the saturated zone; the
numerous hydrogeologlcal differences between the two zones prevent them
from being modeled together. Of the numerous transport models that have
been developed, many are only for specific applications; however, several
are more general 1n application and have been documented (USEPA 1982a)
and field-verified. Most of these models solve a transport-convection
equation 1n one, two, or three dimensions by a variety of methods (e.g.,
finite element methods, finite differences methods, or "random walk"
methods). Three of the more familiar models currently 1n use are SESOIL,
61
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the Seasonal Soil Compartment Model (Bonazountas and Wagner 1981),
ATI230, developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Yeh 1981), and the
Random Walk Solute Transport Model, developed by the Illinois State Water
Survey (PMckett et al.1981). Other models are described 1n another
reference (USEPA 1982a). SESOIL 1s of particular use because 1t 1s
designed to be "user-friendly" and 1s contained within the EPA Office of
Toxic Substances' Graphical Exposure Modeling System (GEMS). GEMS 1s a
computer system that Integrates environmental modeling functions to aid
environmental analysts 1n performing exposure assessments. SESOIL 1s not
currently tailored to estimating releases from landfills, however.
Volume 5 of this series provides a practical model application Involving
SESOIL and ATI230.
Models also exist for estimating air emission alone (Hwang 1982,
Shen 1981). Input parameters Include soil porosity, moisture content,
bulk density, cover thickness, molecular weight of the subject chemical,
temperature, and landfill area.
3.1.4 Model Input Data
Depending on the type(s) of model(s) chosen to simulate the actual
conditions at the site, the numbers and types of data required will
vary. A brief discussion of parameters required for release rate and
transport models 1s presented below, followed by recommended procedures
for obtaining some of the most common Input data.
Release rate models are generally divided Into three necessary
components, which respectively address leachate generation, constituent
concentrations, and leachate release rates from the site. Definition of
the primary factors affecting these components requires data such as
precipitation characteristics (amount, duration, and frequency), water
table elevation, evapotransplratlon rate, solar radiation, temperature,
humidity, soil profile, hydraulic conductivity, and pressure head.
Measurements or design characteristics of the landfill are also required.
Transport models which rely on some method of solving a series of
transport-convection equations require several physical and chemical
parameters as Input. These Include void ratio, porosity, moisture
content, hydraulic conductivity, dispersion-coefficients, Infiltration,
depth to groundwater, hydraulic gradient, aquifer thickness, boundary
conditions (e.g., areal extent of aquifer, presence of recharge
boundaries), and chemical characteristics of the contaminant
(e.g., adsorption coefficients).
Recommended procedures for obtaining climatic, soil, chemical, and
selected application-related geometric and application-specific data are
presented below.
62
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(1) Climatic data. For statistically related climatic Input,
parameters are compiled manually from cl1matolog1cal data sheets of the
National Weather Service office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). NOAA reports provide dally, monthly, and annual
summaries of cl1matolog1cal data for designated sites throughout the U.S.
Input parameters can also be compiled with the aid of a user-supplied
computer program, using the cl1matolog1cal data from NOAA which 1s
recorded on magnetic tape.
(2) Soil data. Required soil parameters can be derived from soil
maps and Information prepared by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS),
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Information 1s available on the soil
types of many (but not all) areas of the U.S., Identifying
characteristics of the soil profile to a depth of 1.5 m (five feet). The
SCS also prepares soil survey Interpretation sheets by soil series; these
tabulate significant soil engineering properties, Including
classification, permeability, water capacity, and pH for each major soil
horizon. They also provide depth to water table and to bedrock (1f less
than 1.5 m), hydrologlc group, suitability for various purposes, and
nature and degree of limitation for certain uses Including sewage lagoons
and sanitary landfills. Some models have the capability of assigning
default values 1n the event site-specific data cannot be found, e.g., for
typical soil categories and their associated parameters. These data can
be used as surrogate data when releases are being calculated for a broad
geographical area or when site-specific data are unavailable. Table 16
provides some examples of the surrogate soil data compiled for the SESOIL
model.
(3) Chemical data. Basic chemical parameters for the contaminants
of Interest can be obtained from standard reference manuals and/or
estimation techniques.
(4) Application-related geometric and application-specific data.
These data comprise a set of waste application-related geometric
parameters (e.g., area of disposal site, depth to groundwater), and
numerous application-specific parameters (e.g., pollutant loading, soil
moisture). These data are sometimes available through the applicable
state solid waste agency, at least for permitted sites. However, the
printed Inventories of disposal sites distributed by most states (see
Section 2.3.3) rarely contain this Information; 1t must be obtained
through a personal visit to the state agency and a manual search of their
files. An exception 1s California, which has a computerized data
retrieval system (see Appendix B).
The following discussion proposes methods for obtaining generic data
for non-site-specific applications; 1t will also propose methods for
63
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Table 16. Precompiled Soil Parameters, SESOIL Data File
Soil type
Clay
Clay-loam
SI Ity-Ioam
Sandy-loam
Soil
density
(g/crrr5)
1.32
1.32
1.32
1.32
Intrinsic
permeabl 1 Ity
(cm2)
1.0 x 10~10
2.8 x 10"10
1.2 x 10~9
2.5 x 10'9
Parameters
Pore connectivity
Index
(-)
12.0
10.0
6.0
4.0
Porosity
(-)
0.45
0.35
0.35
0.25
% Organ Ic
carbon
(?)
1.46
1.32
3.00
0.50
Source: Bonazountas et al. 1981.
64
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estimating average parameters for broad geographic regions. The actual
numerical estimates made here may be refined or replaced as the user
becomes familiar with the methodology and as new sources of data become
available.
Assumptions and estimates are based on Information obtained from
three EPA publications (USEPA 1979b, 1980b, 1980f) as well as from the
periodic updates of the Waste Age Survey (WAS). The survey has been
conducted on a more or less annual basis since 1974 by the editors of
Waste Age, a trade journal of the solid waste disposal Industry. The
survey contains Information on number, size, and classification of
municipal landfills as well as other variables. Unfortunately, the
recent surveys have been less comprehensive than the ones for previous
years. The 1983 survey gives only the number of landfills, the number of
sites with liners or monitoring wells, and the type of site ownership
(see Table 17). It also Includes some of the results of the 1981 and
1982 surveys for comparison. The 1981 survey, although comprehensive 1n
scope, was Incomplete, with fewer than half the states supplying data for
some of the most Important data categories. Selected useful data from
the 1981 WAS appears 1n Table E-2 1n Appendix E.
Each of the application-related parameters developed 1n this method
1s discussed below; useful landfill size and capacity estimates are
summarized 1n Table 18.
(a) Depth to groundwater. Depth to groundwater 1s one of the
Important Input parameters that 1s not readily available on a site-
specific basis, except by a manual search of the facility files of the
applicable state agency. Moreover, groundwater depth shows extreme
variation from one region to another and cannot be calculated from other
types of data. The groundwater depth parameter affects soil-moisture
distribution 1n the soil column and, consequently, pollutant fate
(transport and transformation). An approach for estimating groundwater
elevations when site-specific data are not available 1s given below.
The U.S. Geological Survey (US6S) maintains a number of computerized
data bases that contain water table levels on a site-specific basis,
based on latitude/longitude. One data base, the Ground Water Site
Inventory (GWSI), contains data from all 50 States and U.S. Territories.
The quality and quantity of data, however, vary markedly from state to
state. In addition to the nationwide data base, at least fourteen other
similar data bases contain data on one or more states (see Appendix F,
Table F-l, for a summary of these data bases). It 1s recommended that
the USGS state geologist or USGS district groundwater expert be contacted
when these data are required 1n the course of exposure analyses. A
current 11st of USGS state geologists 1s given 1n Table F-2, Appendix F.
65
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Table 17. Selected Data from the 1983 Waste Age Survey
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Mi nnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
No. of
landfills
in state
135
NA*
116
311
542
206
151
35
248
284
25
132
329
348
94
224
128
532
308
47
283
362
185
253
128
222
400
99
101
185
231
525
167
130
318
225
226
925
No. of
open
dunes
12
NA
28
78
40
32
36
4
55
6
9
42
42
191
0
1
34
532
45
0
81
150
60
133
2
16
1
52
26
5
0
56
1
0
54
66
28
94
No. to
be up-
graded
11
NA
27
NA
31
26
24
4
17
4
4
20
0
2
0
0
NA
95
NA
0
NA
0
0
10
1
13
0
10
0
1
0
38
0
NA
NA
60
3
75
No. of permits
for new
sites
2
NA
3
12
6
NA
0
0
15
48
2
11
43
14
5
27
17
NA
NA
2
2
20
2
19
6
5
3
4
0
NA
NA
NA
7
NA
6
40
11
3
No. of sites
with artificial
liners
0
NA
0
0
0
NA
0
1
8
0
NA
0
1
0
1
0
0
NA
2
1
NA
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
NA
NA
NA
1
0
NA
0
1
15
No. of sites
with monitoring
wells
110
NA
7
0
NA
NA
38
6
192
45
NA
8
186
44
56
NA
7
NA
28
47
NA
53
NA
4
45
17
15
4
1
NA
NA
NA
0
0
50
0
16
190
66
-------
Table 17. (continued)
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
No. of
landfills
in state
18
225
200
161
1075
296
92
209
136
127
1085
0
No. of
open
dumps
4
0
140
6
11
26
4
50
36
41
66
0
No. to
be up-
qraded
1
0
5
2
8
8
0
34
18
36
10
0
No. of permits
for new
sites
0
4
8
12
26
6
6
52
NA
NA
7
38
No. of sites
artificial
1 i ners
0
0
0
0
0
0
NA
0
NA
NA
0
0
No. of sites
monitoring
wells
14
55
12
53
58
1
NA
47
NA
NA
195
5
Totals
12,991
2396
598
494
37
1609
*NA means data not available.
Source: Petersen 1983.
67
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Table 18. Landfill Size and Capacity Estimates3
Parameter
Metric5
English
Industrial solid waste density
Municipal solid waste densityc
Landfill capacity (volume)
Landfill capacity (mass)
Industrial waste
Municipal wastec
Per capita waste generationd
Rural
Urban
U.S. average
Average trench depth
1 ,000 kg/m3
593 kg/m3
30,228 m3/ha
29,900 Wkkg/ha
17,850 Wkkg/ha
>1 kg/day
<4.5 kg/day
2.3 kg/day
10 m
(62.4 Ib/cu ft)
(37 Ib/cu ft)
(43,000 cu ft/acre)
(13,334 tons/acre)
(7,963 tons/acre)
(>2 Ib/day)
(<10 Ib/day)
(5 Ib/day)
(30 ft)
aBased on data and assumptions discussed in Section 3.1.4(4). See Table 19
for estimates specific to landfilling of municipal sludges.
fyjkkg = wet metric tons.
cBased on average in-place density of co-disposed municipal and industrial
wastes.
^On the basis of a 365-day year.
68
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Unless a site listed 1n these data bases 1s located close to the
disposal facility of Interest, 1t 1s advisable to compile the
computerized water table data from several sites 1n the area of Interest,
using latitude/longitude or any other geographic Information, such as
county name. Determine the average groundwater depth.
Sometimes the computerized data bases do not provide data for the
geographic area of Interest; sometime the precise locations of disposal
sites will not be known. Several alternative approaches are possible 1n
these cases. One approach 1s to base assumptions on the known pattern of
wetland and floodplaln distribution (see Figure F-l 1n Appendix F); one
can at least determine whether the water table 1n a given region 1s
relatively high or low, and select an arbitrary value or set of limiting
values on that basis. Alternatively, water table levels typical of
unllned surface Impoundments 1n the area could be used (see Section
5.3). Another general source of Information on groundwater 1s a
publication by USGS (USOI 1963), but 1t does not always provide water
table Information for a given region.
When the locations of disposal sites are not known, one approach Is
to estimate the distribution of landfill sites based on population
distributions for the subject area. Landfill acreage Is not distributed
evenly throughout a region, but 1s concentrated 1n areas of high
population density. This 1s certainly true of municipal landfills, and
to a lesser extent of Industrial landfills, despite the Increasing
tendency for Industry to develop 1n rural areas. After the relative
proportions of landfill acreage 1n wet and dry zones 1s calculated,
limiting values may be selected to represent the likely range of
groundwater depths for each zone. Table E-l 1n Appendix E provides
estimates of population distribution with respect to wetlands.
(b) Depth of unsaturated soil zones. Depending on the model used,
one or many separate unsaturated soil layers may be modeled. Landfill
layers, covers, and liners may therefore constitute separate "soil"
layers for the purposes of modeling. Simulations of landfills with
Impermeable clay liners or coarse solid wastes are possible with some of
the models now available. The following are default estimates of depths
of various discrete layers 1n landfills that may be useful 1n modeling:
• Average depth of fill material: 10 m (USEPA 1980f)
• Average depth of single cell: 2.5 m (USEPA 1980f)
• Depth of dally cover: 0.2 m; depth of final earth cover: 0.6 m (as
prescribed by most state regulations).
(c) Pollutant loading. Pollutant quantities originating from the
site may be Input to the model 1n several ways, depending on the model
69
-------
selected. If the pollutant 1s assumed to be present as a concentrated
mass, as 1n a landfill, a leaching rate from the waste must be
specified. If the pollutant 1s already mixed Into the soil, as 1n some
landspreadlng operations, the total pollutant concentration present In
the upper soil layer can be given.
Usually, 1t will not be possible to determine the leaching rate
directly. Although a number of studies estimate leaching rates of
various chemicals 1n soil (Rouller 1977, W1gh and Brunner 1979, Streng
1977, O'Oonnell et al. 1977), few, 1f any, data are available on leaching
rates of pollutants 1n the waste mass Itself, which 1s highly
chemical-specific. Until the state-of-the-art understanding of this
process 1s more refined, leaching rates from the waste mass will have to
be determined on a case-by-case basis. Unavailability of this
Information constitutes a major data gap.
(d) Area to be modeled. Assuming that the subject waste 1s disposed
of throughout the year, the area to be modeled will be equivalent to the
area of the landfill that 1s utilized annually. Landfill capacity and
rate of fill Information 1s rarely available except by manual search of
state files. Estimates must be derived from whatever data are available
on the basis of the assumptions discussed below. Estimates for landfill
area are presumed to apply equally to municipal and Industrial off-site
landfills.
The 1981 Waste Age Survey (Anon. 1981c, see Table E-2 1n Appendix E)
divides landfills Into six size categories according to capacity
expressed 1n tons per day (tpd). Most (76 percent) fall Into the
smallest size category (0-50 tpd, or 0-45 metric tons per day). It can
be assumed that these serve smaller populations 1n the rural areas, while
larger facilities serve more urbanized regions. Some rural areas
undoubtedly have Initiated regional systems, 1n which case the solid
wastes from these areas would be disposed of 1n a large capacity
landfill; however, for calculation purposes, 1t will be assumed that
rural landfills uniformly accept a maximum of 45 metric tons per day of
waste each.
The area of an urban landfill can be estimated by consulting the
Waste Age Survey for the relative size distributions of larger landfills
within the subject state (see Table E-2 1n Appendix E). In general, the
total regional municipal landfill area should be proportional to the
regional population distribution.
All on-s1te Industrial (hazardous and nonhazardous) landfills may be
assumed to fall Into the smallest size category (0-45 metric tpd) (USEPA
1980f).
70
-------
The above assumptions permit an estimate of the probable capacity of
a given landfill; however, they do not directly satisfy the modeling
Input requirement of "area to be modeled." To achieve this, one must
have an estimate of the waste capacity per unit landfill volume.
In general, four Interrelated factors Influence the amount of waste
that can be disposed of per hectare. These are (USEPA 1980b):
t The overall size of the landfill. This defines how much area
can be used for disposal and how much area must be used as
buffer around the disposal area. The smaller the landfill, the
greater the proportion of acreage which must be used as a buffer.
• The size of the trenches. A typical trench may have surface
dimensions of 30 by 60 m and have an average depth of 10 m.
• The percentage utilization within a trench. The percentage of
trench utilized for waste disposal depends on the materials
being disposed of and the spacing practices of the operator.
• The density of the material. There 1s significant variability
depending on the actual wastes being disposed of, discussed In
detail below.
Industrial (hazardous and nonhazardous) waste 1s usually a liquid or
sludge or a relatively dense, homogeneous solid. Therefore Its density
will be assumed to approximate the density of water, 1,000 kg/m3 (62.4
Ib/cu ft. or 8.34 Ib/gal), a commonly accepted assumption 1n the disposal
Industry (USEPA 1980b).
Municipal waste 1s considerably less dense; even after compaction and
mixing with co-disposed Industrial waste, the average density of total
mixed waste accepted by municipal landfills 1s estimated at 593 kg/m3
(37 Ib/cu ft) (USEPA 1979b).
The average capacity per acre of landfill 1s assumed to be 30,228
m3/ha (16,000 cu yd/acre); this estimate has been confirmed by Industry
representatives (USEPA 1980b). On this basis, 29,900 wet kkg/ha, of
Industrial waste occupies one hectare, and 17,850 wet kkg of municipal
waste occupies one hectare. See Table 19 for capacity estimates
pertaining specifically to landfllUng of municipal sludges.
Therefore, 1n the absence of site-specific Information, the following
equations can be used to determine the area of a given landfill utilized
for waste disposal 1n one year. Note that the formula for Industrial
waste assumes that such waste 1s generated continuously. If the subject
waste results from a batch manufacturing process, the necessary
adjustments should be made to reflect the smaller volume occupied by the
waste.
71
-------
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For landfills accepting only Industrial wastes:
kkg/day x 260 (dav/vr)* = hectares filled annually
29,900 kkg/ha
(3-1)
For landfills accepting municipal or mixed municipal/Industrial
waste:
kkg/dav x 260 (dav/vr)1
17,850 kkg/ha
hectares filled annually (3-2)
Occasionally, the exact amount of waste received by a given facility
may be reported 1n state-supplied Inventory data. A few states (e.g.,
Texas) provide data on the size of the population served by each
municipal facility. Using per capita waste generation estimates for the
subject population, one can convert "population served" Into "kkg/day of
waste generated," equivalent 1n this case to the amount of waste received
by the facility. Per capita waste generation ranges from about 1 kg/day
for rural populations to about 4.5 kg/day for urban populations. The
nationwide average 1s 2.3 kg per capita per day (City of Ann Arbor 1981;
NEMCOG 1980).
These numbers can be used 1n the following equation (note that
municipal waste generation 1s computed on the basis of a complete 365-day
year):
dally per capita
waste generation
365
population served
(3-3)
17,850 kkg/ha
hectares filled annually
Capacity data may also be expressed 1n terms of acre-feet (one
acre-foot 1s equivalent to 1,220 m3). This can be converted Into area
by assuming that average trench depth 1s 10 m. EPA's Hazardous Waste
Data Management System (HWDMS) provides capacity data 1n this form for
each hazardous waste landfill (see Section 2.3.3(4), Exhibit 0-1, and
Table D-4 1n Appendix D.). However, this figure represents the total
proposed area of the facility, which 1s not necessarily equivalent to
Represents the average number of landfill operating days per year,
73
-------
actual area. The reason 1s that permit applicants often claim for their
facility a larger area than they Intend to use Immediately, 1n order to
allow for future expansion. Assuming that the proposed area 1s Indeed
equivalent to operating area, the area filled per year can be calculated
on the basis of a presumed ten-year Hfespan for the average landfill
(USEPA 1979b). These calculations have a low confidence level because of
the many assumptions Involved.
An alternative method for estimating off-site hazardous landfill
areas 1s to consult Table 20. The total off-site hazardous landfill area
utilized annually 1n the subject EPA Region can be divided by the number
of hazardous landfills 1n that Region (see Table 21) to obtain an
estimate of the average area utilized 1n a single landfill. Despite the
wide variation 1n Individual landfill sizes, this method 1s probably more
accurate than the preceding one, since Table 20 1s based on actual
amounts of hazardous waste landfllled 1n one year and thus fewer
assumptions are Involved.
3.1.5 Additional Considerations for Modeling Chemical Releases from
Landfills
There are several parameters that may not be specifically considered
as Input data which must be taken Into account when landfills are
modeled. For large-scale exposure assessments where many landfills must
be considered, the number of landfills containing the chemlcal(s) of
Interest must be known. In addition, the presence of a Uner or leachate
collection system, the extent of waste preprocessing, and several other
factors should be known. Each of these factors 1s discussed below.
(1) Number of facilities. The total number of sanitary landfills
and open dumps 1n operation 1n 1983 1s given 1n Table 17 for each state.
The exact number of municipal landfills currently 1n operation 1s not
known. In 1976, the Waste Age Survey reported 15,821 sites; 1n 1977,
14,126 landfills were counted. There are two conflicting estimates for
1978, both based on estimated updates of the 1977 survey; these are
18,307 (USEPA 1979b) and 14,689 (USEPA 1980f). Sources of error and
uncertainty Include the Inadequacy of state-supplied data and the
Increasing rate of landfill closings. Future trends are difficult to
predict because of the changing regulatory climate.
Industrial on-s1te landfills (hazardous plus nonhazardous) are
estimated by state 1n Table 22 and by Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) code 1n Table 23.
74
-------
Table 20. Off-Site Hazardous Landfill Area Utilized Annually
EPA
Region
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Estimated total
waste disposed of,
thousand wet kkq
6
375
170
226
330
650
62
unknown
822
59
Total landfill
area3, hectares
0.2
12.5
5.7
7.6
11.0
21.7
2.1
-
27.5
2.0
Number of landfills
1
2
3
2
11
10
3
none''
10
2
Area per
landfill, ha
0.2
6.3
1.9
3.8
1.0
2.2
0.7
-
2.8
1.0
aDerived on basis of assumptions explained in text (Section 3.1.4(4)(d)). Assumed that typical
landfill capacity is 29,900 wet kkg per hectare.
''No permitted sites; the number of landfills improperly receiving hazardous waste is unknown.
Source: USEPA 1980b and Versar estimates.
75
-------
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76
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Table 22. Industrial On-Slte Landfills by State3
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
Cal 1 torn la
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawa 1 1
Idaho
II llnols
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Loul siana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Mich Igan
Minnesota
Ml sslsslppi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsy 1 vanla
Rhode Island
South Carol Ina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wl scons In
Wyoming
TOTAL
Number of landf II Is
1,150
74
469
652
8,648
638
1,580
125
2,218
1,694
151
275
4,580
1,890
805
691
723
845
432
757
2,497
4,412
1,372
608
1,514
201
382
91
313
3,625
211
7,693
1,985
104
4,488
756
1,093
4,368
660
871
116
1,236
3,480
300
190
1,029
1,221
411
1,998
84
75,705
Including hazardous waste landfills.
Source: US EPA I979b.
77
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Almost all Industrial on-slte landfills fall within the 0-50 tpd
(0-45 kkg/day) size category (Table 23). These are filled at the
approximate rate of one-half hectare per year (based on Equation 3-1).
The total on-s1te landfill area filled each year by each SIC group 1s
shown 1n Table 24; these estimates were obtained by applying the
conversion factor from Table 18 to Industrial waste generation data from
USEPA 1979b. The approximate area of municipal landfills used annually
1s estimated 1n Table 25 based upon the same assumptions applied to other
published data (USEPA 1977).
(2) Liners. A few models currently take Into account the effect of
natural or synthetic liners on pollutant migration. Others do not; this
may represent an Important gap 1n the ability to predict emissions from
landfills, depending on the particular model chosen.
Ideally, the bottoms of all landfills should be lined with an Imper-
meable membranous lining; the proposed regulations of many states and
current federal regulations make this mandatory for new sites. Existing
landfills may or may not be lined. In actual practice, the 1983 Waste
Age Survey (Peterson 1983) reported that only 37 out of nearly 13,000
municipal landfills 1n the U.S. currently operate with liners. In the
absence of specific Information for each site, age 1s perhaps the best
Indicator as to whether a liner 1s present. When considering regional
data, 1t 1s reasonable to assume that older nonhazardous and municipal
sites (ca. 10 years) are not lined. In the case of a specific site that
1s known to be lined, an assumption will have to be made as to the rate
of leakage or tearing. The Information resources Investigated 1n this
study provided no tools with which to estimate the leakage rate. The
effects of leachate on liner permeability are currently under study (Haxo
1976, 1979, 1980; USEPA 1983b). Since hazardous waste disposal sites
must meet more stringent operating and design criteria, many of them are
lined. Consult the regulations of the subject state; these may prescribe
layers of earth compacted to given specifications 1n lieu of synthetic or
natural clay liners.
(3) Leachate collection. RCRA hazardous waste regulations require
all new sites and existing sites that will be expanded to have some kind
of leachate collection system. This would affect release estimates,
reducing groundwater contamination to zero (at least theoretically) and
adding steps to the methodology, since collected leachate must Itself be
disposed of 1n some way. Leachate disposal options Include various
treatment methods, landspreadlng, and redrculatlon to active portions of
the fill. At the present time, however, only 26 out of approximately
12,000 municipal facilities are known to collect leachate (Anon. 1981c).
It 1s extremely unlikely that leachate 1s being collected at on-s1te
nonhazardous Industrial landfills.
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Table 24. Industrial On-Slte Landfill^ Acreage Used Annually
Total kkg/yr
disposed
SIC Code Industry (xlO6)
22
23
24
25
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Textile-mill products
Apparel
Wood products
Furniture
Paper and allied products
Chemicals and allied products
Petroleum
Rubber, plastics
Leather
Stone, clay
Pr imary metal s
Fabricated metals
Nonelectrical machinery
Electrical machinery
Transportation equipment
Professional and scientific
Instruments
Ml seel laneous manufacturing
3.7
12.7
17.7
4.8
3.2
11.8
0.91
0
0.36
8.5
3.5
15.7
67.5
0
5.3
3.1
7.9
Total TPYb
disposed
(xlO6)
4.1
14.0
19.5
5.3
3.5
12.9
1.0
0
0.4
9.3
3.8
17.3
74.2
0
5.8
3.4
8.7
Hectares
126
431
600
163
108
397
31
0
12
286
117
532
2,283
0
178
105
268
Acres
315
1,077
1,500
408
269
992
77
0
31
715
292
1,331
5,708
0
446
262
669
alncludes hazardous waste landfills.
^TPY = tons per year.
Source: Conversion factor from Table 18 applied to Industrial waste generation data from USEPA I979b.
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Table 25. Municipal Landfill Acreage Used Annually
EPA Reqion
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
Number of
landfills
1,122
936
930
1,611
2,973
2,706
1,277
1,206
890
1,038
Acres
190
1,340
1,130
1,930
3,550
3,240
1,530
1,440
1,070
1,250
Hectare
76
536
452
772
1,420
1,296
612
576
428
500
aBased on estimated total of 14,689 landfills (USEPA 1980f).
Source: Conversion factor for municipal landfill capacity (Table 18)
applied to 140 million tons municipal waste generated annually
in the U.S. (USEPA 1977) distributed regionally on
the basis of landfill size distribution by state (Anon. 1981c,
Waste Age Survey).
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(4) Preprocessing. The preprocessing of waste by shredding and/or
baling affects the production and composition of leachate and gas from
the waste, and would also affect the leaching rates of chemicals from the
waste. The nature and extent of these effects are still under
Investigation (Hentrlch et al. 1979; Elfert and Swartzbaugh 1977).
Currently, only 33 facilities reportedly mill, shred, or grind waste
(Anon. 1981c). These procedures are not applicable to most Industrial
waste.
3.1.6 Estimating Emissions from Broad Geographical Regions
The exact method of estimating environmental releases from broad
geographical regions will depend on the nature of the exposure assessment
and the models used; however, a general approach 1s outlined below. Data
on the soil, climatic, and other conditions available 1n the region of
Interest can be combined or averaged with the generic data compiled 1n
this report. From these data, one or more hypothetical landfills
embodying these parameters can be designed. An exposure assessment then
can be conducted using the hypothetical landfHl(s) as the source.
Alternatively, sets of high and low values can be selected to represent
the range of these variables, for which modeling of releases can then be
performed. In designing hypothetical landfills, site-specific
operational characteristics (e.g., capacity, depth of fill, density of
waste accepted) can be assumed to average out to the figures given 1n
Section 3.1.4(4).
3.1.7 Monitoring
Estimates of chemical releases and concentrations can be checked
against any available monitoring data. However, monitoring data are
uncommon and are limited to few, 1f any, toxic chemicals. About 12
percent of all functioning landfills are known to have monitoring wells
(Petersen 1983). Monitoring data at landfills may Include one or more of
the following types: leachate, groundwater, soil particles, or waste
composition. Monitoring data are also submitted to the applicable state
agency and to EPA regional offices 1n quarterly reports. These are not
available except by personal visit to the agency and a manual search of
their files. Additional data have been derived from physical models
representing scaled-down replicas of landfills (Elfert and Swartzbaugh
1977, Hentrlch et al. 1979, Streng 1977, Wlgh and Brunner 1979).
Extrapolation of monitoring data from one site to another 1s not
advisable because of the many variables which affect releases of
chemicals from a site, particularly site-specific physical,
cl1matolog1cal, and operating conditions (Weston 1978).
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3.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Landfill Sites - Stage IV Decision
Tree
Using available Information on the disposal practices used for
various types of wastes and the design and operating characteristics of
the different types of landfills, one can estimate the proportion of each
Individual waste stream that 1s likely to be disposed of at landfills 1n
the study area. Because site-specific Information 1s not readily
available for most landfills, considerable Individual judgment 1s needed.
For site-specific estimates, the output of Stage IV will be the
location of each landfill receiving the subject waste, and the quantity
of subject waste received by each landfill. For calculations of
environmental releases that apply to broad geographic areas where the
locations of Individual sites are Irrelevant, only the estimates of total
landfill population and of the amount of waste received by one or more
representative model landfills are necessary. Consult Section 3.1 for
suggestions on parameter values to use 1n nationwide or regional exposure
assessments.
For Stage IV determinations, consult the following sections:
For municipal landfills Section 3.2.1
For nonhazardous Industrial landfills Section 3.2.2
For hazardous waste landfills Section 3.2.3
3.2.1 Municipal Landfills
Step 1. Identify landfills that are probable candidates for disposal of
the waste stream of Interest and locate them on a map of the
study area.
Some states have compiled Inventories of municipal landfills
which 11st their locations (see Table B-l, Appendix B). For
states not listed 1n Appendix B, contact the state solid waste
agency, Table D-3, Appendix D, for this Information.
Step 2. Estimate the amount of the waste stream of Interest disposed of
at each facility (1n quantity/year). Consider the capacity and
operating characteristics of each facility (1f available) as
well as the distance from the source of waste.
The distribution of this waste stream among the candidate
sites will depend on the nature of the waste. For example, If
1t 1s a residential waste that 1s generated uniformly by the
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population, assume that Its distribution among landfills 1s
proportional to their relative capacities. If capacity
Information Is not available, assume that the average rural
landfill has a capacity of 0 to 45 kkg/day. Urban landfills are
larger, and the Waste Age surveys (Table E-2, Appendix E) should
be consulted to determine the most prevalent capacity range In
the states Included 1n the study area. Alternatively, 1f
population data are available for the area served by each
landfill, Equation 3-3 can be used to estimate landfill capacity
(see Section 3.1.4(4)(d)).
Step 3. If no Information 1s available for Step 2, assume that all of
the waste stream of Interest 1s disposed of within a few miles
of Its point of origin. The cost of hauling generally makes
long-distance transportation of waste economically unfeasible.
Allocate an amount of waste to each landfill on this basis, and
produce a 11st of landfills 1n the study area that Indicates the
estimated amount of waste handled at each site. Then, use
average cl1matolog1cal and geological data for estimating
releases In Stage V.
3.2.2 Industrial Nonhazardous Landfills
Step 1. Determine the percentage of the waste stream of Interest that
will be disposed of on-s1te versus off-site. This Information
will be a useful tool 1n Step 2.
References already consulted for Stage III may have provided
this Information. If no Information 1s available, proceed with
Steps 2 and 3 below; then deduce the probable proportion of on-
and off-site facilities based on the estimated numbers and
capacities of each (see Stage III). Assume that all waste
generated by facilities known to have on-s1te landfills 1s
disposed of on-s1te.
Step 2. Identify the landfills that are probable candidates for disposal
of waste stream of Interest.
To locate off-site facilities,
• Determine whether the subject state supplies facility
Inventories. (Table D-3 lists phone numbers of applicable
state agencies.) Consult these for locations; note whether
any distinction 1s drawn between municipal and off-site
Industrial landfills. Otherwise use the nationwide Waste Age
Surveys (see Tables 17 and 22) to get at least a rough Idea
of the number of potential Industrial landfills 1n the
state(s) of Interest.
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• Note that nonhazardous waste 1s often disposed of with
hazardous waste to avoid the expense of separating waste
streams. If this 1s likely to be the case with the waste
stream of Interest, conduct a HWOMS retrieval (Section
2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n Appendix 0.)).
Step 3. Estimate the amount of the waste stream of Interest disposed of
at each facility. The output of this step should be a 11st of
facilities and the estimated annual amounts of the waste
received by each facility.
Consider the capacity and operating characteristics of each
site (1f available) as well as the distance from the source of
waste. The cost of hauling generally makes long-distance
transportation of waste economically unfeasible. Therefore, the
waste 1s probably disposed of at the nearest facility of
sufficient capacity to accept 1t. If the exact location of the
facility cannot be determined, assume that the waste 1s disposed
of within a few miles of Its source of origin. Then, use
average cl1matolog1cal and geological data for the county for
calculations of Stage V releases.
3.2.3 Hazardous Waste Landfills
Step 1. Determine the percentage of the waste stream of Interest that
will be disposed of on-s1te versus off-site.
References already consulted for Stage III (Section 2.3.3(4))
may have provided this Information. If no Information 1s
available, proceed with Steps 2 and 3 below; then estimate the
probable proportion of on- and off-site facilities based on the
estimated numbers and capacities of each (see Stage III).
Assume that facilities with on-s1te capacity will treat and
dispose of the waste on-s1te, provided that their facilities can
handle the waste.
Step 2. Identify the landfills that are probable candidates for the
disposal of the waste stream of Interest.
a. Conduct a HWDMS retrieval to obtain facility locations
(see Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit 0-1 1n Appendix D). (This may
already have been done 1n Stage 3.) Be sure to Include off-site
commercial facilities 1n the retrieval.
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b. Contact the subject state (see Table D-3) to verify and
add to the 11st compiled 1n 2.a. Many states supply Inventories
of hazardous waste disposal sites, often specifying the exact
types of wastes treated. (Although HWDMS may also supply this
Information, the data are considered unreliable.) One useful
source of Information 1s the State of Kansas, which supplies a
11st of all commercial hazardous waste handlers 1n the Midwest
(see Exhibit B-2 1n Appendix B).
Step 3. Estimate the amount of the waste stream of Interest disposed of
at each facility (1n quantity/year). The output of this step
will be a 11st of facilities and the estimated annual amounts of
the waste stream of Interest received by each.
Consider the capacity and operating characteristics of each
candidate facility (1f known) as well as the distance from the
source of the waste. For facilities that are known to have
on-s1te landfills, assume that all of the waste 1s disposed of
there unless other on-s1te disposal methods are known to exist.
Otherwise, the waste will probably go to the nearest commercial
facility of sufficient capacity to accept 1t. Note that the
capacity reported by HWDMS 1s the proposed capacity, which may
not be the same as current operating capacity. See Sections
3.1.4 and 3.1.5 for suggestions on using capacity data. Note
that Information on types of waste accepted, 1f available
(obtained 1n Step 2), may eliminate some sites from
consideration. The amount of uncertainty 1n these estimates
will vary depending on the assumptions used, but will generally
be lower than for nonhazardous landfills.
3.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Landfills - Stage V
Decision Tree
Environmental releases will normally be estimated using a
mathematical model. In Stage V, the user evaluates available Information
on design/operating features of the landfills 1n the study area. This
Information, 1n conjunction with the Stage IV estimates of the amount of
waste received by each facility, 1s used as Input to the model to
estimate releases of chemical substances to air and groundwater.
Ideally, the output of Stage V will be the total annual quantity of the
subject wastes emitted to air, groundwater, and surface water from each
Individual landfill, or from statistically representative landfills 1n
the case of broad regional estimates. For the steps required by Stage V
for municipal landfills, see Section 3.3.1; for Industrial (hazardous and
nonhazardous) landfills, see 3.3.2.
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3.3.1 Municipal Landfills
Step 1. Select a model to estimate environmental releases of the waste
of Interest.
For nationwide or broad regional estimates, see Section
3.1.6. Estimated total municipal landfill area used annually 1s
summarized by EPA Region 1n Table 25. For site-specific
determination, see Step 2.
Step 2. Assemble the data necessary to run the model.
The following types of data will probably be required for most
relevant models.
• CUmatologlcal data
• Soil data
• Chemical data
• Geometric, application-specific data.
CUmatologlcal and soil data will be assembled from the data
sources detailed 1n Section 3.1.4. Chemical Information 1s
available from standard reference manuals. Geometric,
application-specific operational Information may be more
difficult to obtain.
Step 3. Estimate other operational parameters as needed for model Input.
a. Pollutant loading. Determine the proper format for the
pollutant quantities at the site that have been estimated 1n
Stage IV (Section 3.2) and compile these data. The manner In
which these data are Input to the model will depend on a number
of factors, especially on whether the waste mass 1s consolidated
or well-distributed. Consult Section 3.1.4(4)(c) for an
explanation of the factors Involved.
b. Depth to groundwater can be determined from statewide
computerized data bases, 1f they are available for the subject
states, or from one of the USGS data bases described 1n Section
3.1.4(a). In the absence of such data, a default value (or set
of limiting values) can be selected on the basis of the Surface
Impoundment Assessment (SIA) data base (see Section 5), soil
maps, wetland distribution data for the subject state (see
Section 3.1.4), or other general references.
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c. Depth of various soil zones. Section 3.1.4(4)(b) provides
default figures for depth of fill, earth cover, and similar
data. Unless there 1s Information to the contrary, assume that
no Uner or leachate collection system 1s present.
d. Landfill size (surface area). Individual landfill
capacity 1s occasionally Included 1n state-supplied Inventory
data. In the absence of site-specific data, assume that a rural
landfill has a capacity of 0-45 kkg/day. Urban landfills are
larger; consult the Waste Age Surveys (Tables E-2, Appendix E)
to ascertain the most common capacity range for larger
landfills within the subject state. To convert capacity Into
landfill volume, use Equation 3-2 (Section 3.1.4(4)(d)).
Landfill area 1s then calculated by dividing the volume by the
landfill depth (1f known; otherwise use an average depth of
10m.). This method should be reasonably accurate when the exact
landfill capacity 1s known. The amount of error Involved 1n
these estimates depends on whether site-specific or generic data
are used.
Facility Inventories of some states provide data on
populations served by each site. In this case, landfill area
can be estimated by Equation 3-3 (Section 3.1.4(4)(d)).
Step 4. Using the model of choice and the assembled Input data, estimate
environmental releases to air and groundwater for each landfill
receiving the waste stream of Interest.
Output should Include the following:
• Flux of the subject chemical entering the groundwater after
a given period of time.
• Flux of the subject chemical volatilizing from the soil
Into the atmosphere after a given period of time.
• Concentration of subject chemical remaining 1n each
designated soil zone after a given period of time.
Step 5. If monitoring data are available (which 1s highly unlikely),
compare them with the predicted concentrations of the chemical
of Interest.
-------
Comparison of monitoring data with release estimates requires
considerable expertise, because there are many variables that
complicate the comparison, Including problems related to lab
analysis and temporal and spatial variation 1n pollutant
concentration. If estimated concentrations do not correlate
with measured values, use best judgment to evaluate the
discrepancy. Estimated releases may be used as Input In the
analysis of environmental fate and pathways and 1n the final
exposure assessment, discussed 1n Volume 2 (for ambient
exposure) and Volume 5 (for drinking water exposures).
3.3.2 Industrial Landfills (Hazardous and Nonhazardous)
Estimation procedures for environmental releases are similar to those
for municipal landfills, with some additions.
Step 1. See Step 1 of Section 3.3.1. The total on-s1te Industrial
landfill area used annually 1s summarized by SIC code 1n
Table 24. Off-site landfill disposal of Industrial nonhazardous
wastes may be presumed to occur at municipal sites, except 1n
states that supply separate data for Industrial and municipal
sites.
Step 2. See Step 2 of Section 3.3.1.
Step 3. a. See Step 3.a of Section 3.3.1. Also, note the
following: In the case of manufacturing wastes, 1t 1s Important
to know whether the wastes are generated during a batch or
continuous process. (This Information may have been compiled
for the ambient exposure scenario.) This will determine whether
the subject pollutant will be concentrated 1n a few Individual
cells or spread more or less evenly through the landfill.
b. See Step 3.b of Section 3.3.1.
c. See Step 3.c of Section 3.3.1. Also, note that the
presence of liners and leachate collection systems will have to
be taken Into account.
d. See step 3.d of Section 3.3.1. Also, for hazardous waste
sites, the HWOMS provides data on the proposed facility
capacity. Care should be taken 1n using these data, however, as
this does not necessarily represent actual operating capacity.
Note that Equations 3-1 and 3-3 assume that the subject waste 1s
being generated continuously. In cases where the waste results
from a batch manufacturing process, the necessary adjustments
89
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should be made to reflect the smaller volume occupied by the
waste. ( A similar adjustment will be necessary when pollutant
loading 1s estimated; see Step 3.a above). When the subject
pollutant 1s disposed of only a few days a year, note that the
average depth of a single cell, representing one day's
accumulation of waste received, 1s about 3 meters.
Step 4. See Step 4 of Section 3.3.1.
Step 5. See Step 5 of Section 3.3.1.
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4. LAND TREATMENT
This section presents methods for evaluating exposure to chemical
substances from land treatment. There 1s sometimes little site-specific
Information on land treatment, with the exception of hazardous waste land
treatment sites and some municipal waste sites. Therefore, the kinds of
data available will be more suited to nationwide large-scale exposure
assessments than to more detailed assessments, unless site-specific
Information 1s collected. Some generic data to support such assessments
were developed 1n this methods development effort. The background
material on which the methods are based 1s given 1n Section 4.1, followed
by the Stage IV and Stage V decision trees 1n Sections 4.2 and 4.3,
respectively.
4.1 Background Information
Soil 1s a natural environment for the deactlvatlon and degradation of
many waste materials through physical, chemical, and microbiological
processes. Land treatment 1s a disposal technique by which liquid wastes
or sludges are mixed with the surface soil to promote these processes,
particularly microblal decomposition of the organic fraction. If the
land treatment site 1s managed properly, the treatment processes
described below can be carried out repeatedly on the surface of a
disposal site. In practice, sludges or wastewaters are either hauled or
piped directly from the treatment plant or from an Interim storage or
evaporation lagoon to the disposal site. The sludges are applied to the
land by spraying, spreading, or subsurface Injection. The field may then
be disked or plowed by conventional farm cultivation equipment.
Nutrients or other soil amendments may be added to Increase biological
activity, and the soil/waste mass may be mixed periodically to maintain
aerobic conditions.
The process of land treatment appears to work 1n a wide range of
climatic conditions; however, warm, humid climates offer the most
favorable conditions since blodegradatlon of the organic fraction 1s
enhanced with adequate moisture and high temperatures. Land cultivation
has been used 1n cold and dry climates, but the waste degradation rates
under such conditions are relatively slow. Many sites are located 1n
relatively wet areas, occasionally within a few meters of the water table
(so that pooling may occur). These are examples of poor site selection;
besides Increasing contamination potential, excessively wet conditions
hinder proper mixing of soil and waste.
Landspreadlng promotes the aerobic decomposition of organic waste.
This reduces Its volume, prevents the formation of unwanted gases, and
minimizes the Intensity of leachate problems. The site may be returned
91
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to almost any other land use, often Including agriculture. Active land
treatment sites are often used for growing crops. Possible disadvantages
of this method Include the need for relatively large tracts of land,
long-term release of waste to the atmosphere and groundwater, Impact on
vegetation grown on the site, and uptake of chemical substances by
food-chain crops (Ross and Phung 1978).
The EPA Office of Solid Waste (OSW) has recently published a
technical resource document on hazardous waste land treatment which 1s
the most comprehensive and up-to-date source available on land treatment
1n general (USEPA 1983a). That document Includes a survey of hazardous
waste land treatment sites as well as general Information on recommended
practices. Other sources Include a state-of-the-art study sponsored by
the EPA's Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory (Phung et al.
1978), and various research reports (Berkowltz et al. 1980, Phung et al.
1977, and Ross and Phung 1978). Nationwide, 221 facilities have applied
for Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) permits for the land
treatment of hazardous waste (Table D-7 1n Appendix 0), and a recent
survey located 197 operating facilities (USEPA 1983a).
4.1.1 Types of Waste Treated
Several types of wastes are treated by landspreadlng. This Includes
wastewaters and sludges from Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs),
wastewaters and sludges from private Industries (Including some hazardous
wastes), and municipal solid waste. Current land treatment practices for
each of these wastes are discussed below; estimates of the volumes of
waste landspread by a few Industries are provided 1n Table 26.
(1) POTW wastewaters. POTW effluents are sometimes landspread
(usually after secondary treatment). About 600 communities 1n the U.S.
use this practice, which 1s most prevalent 1n arid or semi-arid areas
(Culp 1979).
There are three basic approaches to land treatment of liquid POTW
effluent: Irrigation, overland flow, and Infiltration-percolation. In
the Irrigation method, wastewater 1s applied to land by fixed or moving
sprinklers or by surface spreading. In the overland flow system,
wastewater 1s sprayed over the upper edges of sloping terraces and flows
down the hill through grass and vegetation; the runoff wastewater 1s
diverted Into collection channels. The Infiltration-percolation method
1s primarily a groundwater recharge system whereby wastewater (after
secondary treatment) 1s put Into spreading basins so that 1t can
percolate Into the ground. This method does not attempt to recycle
nutrients through crops.
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Table 26. Landspreading Activity, Dry Weight
Current volume
Activity kkq/yr
Textiles 5
Petroleum 50
Pulp and Paper Negligible
Leather 24
Food Processing
- dairy products 120
- breweries 3
- wineries 217
- canned and frozen foods 400
- feedlots 62,000
Municipal wastewater treatment
- to food chain land
- nonfood chain land
- giveaway/sale
Total except feedlots
TOTAL
Note: The estimates in this table were taken directly from the source,
thus do not reflect more recent data provided in Table 6 (Section
2.3.3 (2) and in the recent OSW survey of hazardous waste land
treatment sites (USEPA 1983a).
Source: USEPA 1979b.
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(2) POTW sludge. Nationwide about 24 percent of the POTW sludge
generated 1s applied to land, one half of which 1s landspread on food
chain land (see Table 6 1n Section 2.3.3(2)).
Several cities apply liquid sludge to cropland. Larger cities may
pump the sludge through pipelines to the disposal site. The city of
Chicago ships POTW sludge by barge to strip-mined land 200 miles away to
restore the land to agricultural uses. In most cases, however, sludge Is
transported by tank truck. Economic considerations usually prohibit the
hauling of sludge more than a few miles from the point of origin (Phung
et al. 1978).
Sludge may be dewatered and dried and applied to land as a soil
conditioner. The dty of Denver plows dry sludge cake Into the ground at
a nearby disposal site. Nationwide, approximately 18 percent of the POTW
sludge 1s distributed for marketing (Table 6 1n Section 2.3.3(2)). For
example, Houston sells Us dried sludge to a contractor 1n Florida to
fertilize a citrus grove. Milwaukee markets bagged heat-dried POTW
sludge through large distributors 1n all 50 States and some foreign
countries. It 1s presently Impossible to track the ultimate Individual
disposal sites of wastes distributed 1n this manner.
(3) Industrial wastewaters. Some land treatment of wastewaters has
been practiced by the food processing, pulp and paper, textile, tannery,
wood preserving, and pharmaceutical Industries. At most locations, the
practice 1s primarily used for wastewater treatment, rather than for land
reclamation, so that little or no effort has been made to Incorporate
wastewater Into the soil (Ross and Phung 1978). Table E-5 1n Appendix E
provides a nationwide breakdown of the number of hazardous waste land
treatment sites by Industry, based on a survey reported 1n USEPA 1983a.
That survey did not differentiate between sites receiving Industrial
wastewaters and sites receiving Industrial sludges.
(4) Industrial sludges. Land-treated Industrial sludges are either
organic (e.g., oil refinery, paper and pulp, and fermentation residues)
or treated Inorganic wastes (e.g., steel mill sludge) containing low
concentra- tlons of extractable heavy metals. When the sludge 1s applied
to agricultural land, 1t 1s primarily for disposal. The sludge 1s also
used as soil amendment.
Among Industrial sludges, oil refinery wastes are disposed of most
extensively by this method. (Of the 197 hazardous waste land treatment
sites Identified 1n the OSW-sponsored survey (USEPA 1983a), 101 received
petroleum refinery wastes. Types of oily waste disposed of Include
cleanings from crude oil, slop emulsion, separator bottoms, and drilling
muds. The sludge 1s applied to the land by spreading 1t to a depth of
about 7 to 20 cm and disking 1t Into the soil. Mixing Intervals vary
from once per week over several weeks to twice per year. The practice 1s
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strictly for disposal; no crops or vegetation other than weeds grow at
the sites (Ross and Phung 1978). Disposal 1s usually on-s1te. See Table
E-5 1n Appendix E for a listing by Industry of the number of hazardous
waste sites. As stated above, this table does not distinguish between
Industrial sludges and Industrial wastewaters.
An Increasing number of off-site commercial operators are treating
wastes, especially hydrocarbons, by landspreadlng. Some hazardous waste
1s landspread at commercial facilities, often after treatment 1n solar
evaporation ponds. Table 27 shows (by EPA Regions) quantities of waste
treated 1n off-site commercial facilities.
It has been estimated that only about 3 percent of all Industrial
sludge and wastewater 1s suitable for disposal by land treatment (Ross
and Phung 1978).
(5) Landspreadlng of municipal solid refuse. Although this practice
1s uncommon at the present time, a program for landspreadlng shredded
municipal refuse has been Instituted by the City of Odessa, Texas. About
one fourth of Odessa's refuse 1s currently being disposed of 1n this
manner; the goal of the project 1s to landspread 90 percent of the city's
refuse. The primary purpose of the undertaking 1s for land reclamation.
So far, 130 ha (50 acres) of the 610-ha (1,500 acres) site 1s being so
utilized. Application rates are approximately 220 kkg tons per hectare
(100 tons/acre). Whether other cities have similar programs 1s unknown.
No significant Increase 1n nationwide landspreadlng of municipal refuse
1s expected (Phung et al. 1977, 1978).
4.1.2 Environmental Impacts and Environmental Releases
There 1s a growing body of Information on the extent of environmental
contamination from land treatment of waste. It 1s somewhat limited
partly because Impacts are chronic rather than acute; pollutants may move
slowly and take decades to leach through soil Into groundwater. The
previously mentioned OSW technical resource document (USEPA 1983a) 1s the
most comprehensive source available on the processes associated with
environmental releases from land treatment sites.
Wastes applied to surface soils are susceptible to surface runoff
from precipitation, although some sites contain drainage control
facilities. Flood problems are occasionally reported and are due to poor
site selection (Phung et al. 1978).
Groundwater quality may be Impaired 1f leachate penetrates to
aquifers. Waste pretreatment can reduce the potential for this problem.
The waste load applied to the soil can be regulated by pretreatment,
process modification, or the addition of soil amendments (USEPA 1983a).
Most organic compounds are eventually decomposed by soil microorganisms.
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Table 27. Commercial Off-Site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities
Offering Land Treatment/Solar Evaporation Services in 1980* by EPA Region
EPA Region
Number of
facilites
Amount of
waste handled,
thousands of wet
metric tons
Percentage of off-site
wastes handled c
Percentage of
total wastes
handled**
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
0
0
1
1
le
3
0
0
6
1
TOTAL
13
0
0
MA
_b
MA
117b
0
0
345
75
537
0
0
NA
_b
NA
11.4b
0
0
64.5
21.6
8.8
0
0
NA
_b
NA
l.lb
0
0
12.2
7.5
1.3
NA - Data not available
alnc1udes both land treatment and solar evaporation because the two practices are often
closely related. Evaporation ponds are often used for physical separation and dewatering,
which is followed by application of the sludges to the land.
bData for Regions IV and VI were combined to protect confidential information.
Percentage of all off-site handled waste that is land-treated.
•^Percentage of all hazardous waste generated in the Region that is land-treated off-site.
Currently inactive (7/81)
Source: USEPA 1980b. USEPA 1983a.
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Unless the soil 1s overloaded with toxic substances, land treatment Is
not Hkely to pose a serious threat to groundwater quality (Ross and
Phung 1978). Early detection of leakage through a properly designed and
maintained monitoring system remains the best way to prevent serious
contamination (USEPA 1983a).
Environmental releases to the air may result from landspreadlng
activities. Wastewaters and sludges may volatilize on exposure to the
atmosphere, Impairing air quality 1n the disposal area. Volatilization
may result 1n a release to the air, although much of the readily volatile
fraction would have come off during waste handling prior to delivery to a
disposal site. Subsurface Injection of the waste or mixing 1t with soil
can alleviate these problems, but 1t may not eliminate them (Ross and
Phung 1978).
Probably the most significant potential human health hazard 1s the
uptake of chemical waste by food-chain vegetation. Long-term effects of
land treatment on crop quality and the food chain are not known. Toxic
metal accumulation 1n particular may pose a serious threat.
If a soil 1s burdened with more waste than 1t can absorb, 1t may
become anaerobic, resulting 1n nuisance odors and failure of the system
to degrade the organic matter effectively. Furthermore, unless the
wastes are decomposed to nonharmful products, the soil zone receiving the
wastes could eventually become overloaded. As a result, disposal
activities at the site would have to be terminated, rendering the site
unusable for alternative purposes for many years (Ross and Phung 1978;
USEPA 1983a).
4.1.3 Location of Sites
In a detailed exposure assessment, Individual sites should be located
before releases are estimated. This Is not always possible, however,
because of the lack of reliable Information on land treatment sites that
receive other than hazardous wastes.
On-s1te Industrial facilities by definition are located at the
manufacturing plant. Hazardous waste land treatment facilities, both
on-s1te and off-site can be Identified by a retrieval from the Hazardous
Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) (see Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit
D-l 1n Appendix D).
The OSW survey of hazardous waste land treatment sites reported 1n
USEPA 1983a, however, contains more Information on Individual sites than
does the HWDMS data base.
For each site 1n the U.S. the following data were collected:
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Name and address of facility
EPA ID number
Phone number and contact
Size (acres)
Type (by RCRA hazardous waste code) and amount of waste (tons/yr)
Industry description and SIC code
Additional available miscellaneous Information
The user must consult USEPA 1983a for this site-specific Information,
which was too voluminous to Include 1n this report. Summary data from the
survey, however, are Included 1n Appendix E of this report. Figure E-l and
Table E-4 summarize the geographic distribution of hazardous waste land
treatment sites 1n the U.S. Table E-5 lists the location of all known sites
by Industry (Including SIC code).
Fields used for off-site landspreadlng of nonhazardous Industrial and POTW
wastes may be disposal facilities as such, operated by municipalities or
commercial commercial disposal firms, or they may be privately-owned farmland
whose primary purpose 1s crop production. In neither case are they likely to
be listed 1n state-supplied facility Inventories. If the sites are not
listed, 1t may be reasonable to assume that they are located close to the
source of the waste, since long-distance transportation of wastewaters and
sludge 1s not economically feasible. Environmental release estimates can then
be based on general cl1matolog1cal and soil data for the entire county.
There 1s currently no way to determine the ultimate disposal site of
sludge that 1s dewatered and distributed for marketing.
4.1.4 Estimating Environmental Releases
The general discussion 1n Section 3.1.3 on modeling releases from land
disposal sites 1s applicable to land treatment sites. Models used to estimate
releases from land treatment sites should take Into account the reduction 1n
chemical concentrations over time due to blodegradatlon and chemical and
photochemical degradation. Environmental releases from land treatment sites
can be predicted by several models, Including the Pesticide Root Zone Model
(PRZM) and SESOIL. A description of SESOIL 1s Included here to Illustrate 1n
general the Issues and procedures associated with modeling environmental
releases from land treatment sites. An example of a practical application of
SESOIL 1s Included 1n the companion volume on assessing exposures from
drinking water (Volume 5).
SESOIL was developed by M. Bonazountas of A.D. Little, Inc., (ADL) of
Cambridge Massachusetts and 1s a mathematical model for long-term
environmental pollutant fate simulations that describes water transport,
pollutant transport/transformation, and soil quality. It may be used to
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predict leachate contamination of groundwater as well as gas emissions to the
atmosphere (Bonazountas and Wagner 1981). SESOIL has been applied to several
waste disposal practices, Including Industrial landspreadlng (Bonazountas et
al. 1981) and the disposal of burled solvent drums (Wagner and Bonazountas
1981).
SESOIL 1s designed to be used to estimate environmental releases on a
site-specific basis as well as across broad regions or nationwide (using
hypothetical or "average" environments). Model simulations are based on a
three-cycle rationale, the water cycle, sediment cycle, and the pollutant
cycle. The water cycle takes Into account rainfall, Infiltration,
exf1ltrat1on, surface runoff, evapotransplratlon, groundwater runoff, snow
melt, and Interception. The sediment cycle Includes sediment resuspenslon due
to wind and sediment washload due to rain storms. The pollutant cycle
characterizes convection, diffusion, volatilization, adsorptlon/desorptlon,
chemical degradation, complexatlon of metals, biological actions, hydrolysis,
oxidation, and nutrient cycles. The user has the option of running the model
on one of four different levels of spatial and time variations.
Typical outputs of SESOIL Include:
• Temporal and spatial pollutant concentration distributions 1n
so1l-a1r, soil-moisture, and on soil particles of the soil
compartment.
• Leachate migration 1n the unsaturated zone.
• Pollutant migration (releases) from the unsaturated soil zone to the
air.
Aside from predicting chemical distributions 1n the unsaturated zone,
other SESOIL outputs Include hydrologlc relationships among precipitation,
surface runoff, Infiltration, evapotransplratlon, soil moisture and
groundwater runoff. Concentrations are reported according to the level of
application.
An advantage 1n using SESOIL for modeling of the unsaturated zone 1s that
1t can be used with Input and output data files that have been developed to
support Its use. (Table 16 1n Section 3 provides a subset of the SESOIL soil
data file.) SESOIL can provide a detailed mechanism, with a high degree of
accuracy, to model contaminants 1n the unsaturated zone with minimal effort.
The results can also be used as Input Into a model designed for the saturated
zone.
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4.1.5 Model Input Data
Table E-3 In Appendix E lists all the Input data that may be required to
run the SESOIL model. (Not all the parameters are required for most
applications.) There are five classes of Input data: cl1matolog1cal, soil,
chemical, application-related geometric, and application-specific.
Soil. cUmatologlcal. and chemical data can be obtained as described
previously for landfills. The range of possible parameter values may be
slightly narrower than for landfills, however, because the soil and climate
must be conducive to blodegradatlon. Some Information related to these
parameters 1s provided below, followed by a discussion of Information related
to selected geometric, application-specific characteristics.
Land treatment sites are usually relatively flat, with slopes less than
1 to 5 percent. The soils at these sites vary over a wide range of texture
and permeability. One site, for example, started operating 1n beach sands,
although eventually the drilling muds being disposed of there significantly
changed the texture of the surface soil (Phung et al. 1977). In general, land
treatment sites should not be established on extremely deep, sandy soils
because waste migration to groundwater may result. The best soils for land
treatment Include; loam, silt loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silt clay, or
sandy clay (USEPA 1983a).
The nature and extent of on-s1te vegetation will affect the evapotranspl-
ratlon rate and hence the environmental release rate. Land preparation
generally entails scarification of the surface to expose as much soil area as
practical. Vegetation 1s usually removed, but the smaller bush and grass may
be left 1n place to be mixed with the waste. Grasses 1n the disposal plot
will become established 1f the plot 1s left Idle for some time.
Many sites are farmed extensively, being used for wheat, corn, or other
crops. Active land treatment sites are frequently used for turf farming
(Berkowltz et al. 1980).
The range of possible c!1matolog1cal parameter values may be slightly
narrower than for landfills, because warm, humid, climates offer the most
favorable conditions for blodegradatlon. Figure E-l 1n Appendix E shows that
the land treatment sites are generally located 1n the south, southeast, and
west.
Among the required application-related geometric and application-specific
parameters for modeling are several parameters that were Investigated or
suggested for use 1n the methodology. These parameters Include the following:
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• Depth to groundwater
• Depth of various soil zones
• Surface area of the site
• Pollutant loading
Estimation of the depth to groundwater and the depth of the soil zones was
discussed 1n the section on landfills (Section 3.1.4 (4)). The discussion
applies equally well to land treatment sites, with the following
modification: the layer of waste Incorporation at land treatment sites
usually will be considered the upper unsaturated soil layer for the purposes
of modeling. The depth of this layer may range anywhere from a few
centimeters to 60 centimeters.
The surface area of land treatment sites Is not always available and must
sometimes be estimated. The surface area of hazardous waste land treatment
sites (In acres) was tabulated 1n the recent OSW survey (USEPA 1983a).
Surface area 1s also available 1n the HWDMS as "proposed capacity" (1n
hectares). Proposed capacity, however, 1s not necessarily equivalent to the
area actually used for waste treatment; area data from the HWDMS may be used
as an upper limit. For Industrial facilities for which no Information on
surface area 1s available, a "typical" surface area might be estimated from
the data 1n the OSW survey. Figure E-2 1n Appendix E gives the size
distribution of land treatment facilities 1n that survey. Although the
facility sizes range from 0.005 (.002 ha) to 1668 acres (675 ha), the median
size 1s only 13.5 acres (5.5 ha), and the distribution 1s skewed towards the
small facilities. If necessary, the user can obtain a similar estimate for
the Industry or region of Interest by examining the survey data for the sites
of Interest (1n USEPA 1983a). It seems reasonable to assume that land
treatment sites treating nonhazardous Industrial waste will have similar
surface area distributions as those sites treating hazardous wastes.
Surface area for municipal wastewater treatment plants can be estimated
based on the fact that they need an estimated 40 to 240 ha (100 to 600 acres)
per mgd (million gallons per day) capacity (Gulp 1979). The plant capacity Is
available from the Needs Survey data base as discussed 1n Section 6 and
Exhibit H-l and Table H-8 1n Appendix H.
In the absence of more reliable Information, the surface area of a land
treatment site can be calculated as shown 1n Equation 4-1 1n cases where the
application rate, the quantity of waste applied per unit area, and the
frequency of application are known or can be estimated.
S = A__ (4-1)
B x C
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where
S = surface area of site
A = quantity of waste (mass per year)
B = application rate (mass per surface area per application)
C = frequency of application (times per year)
There are difficulties 1n compiling data for equation 4-1. Application
rates may not be known, and there 1s Insufficient Information at this time to
estimate average application rates for many types of waste. Annual land
treatment application rates (equivalent to B x C 1n Equation 4-1) Identified
1n the literature reviewed 1n this study, not Including the results of the OSW
survey (USEPA 1983a), are given 1n Table 28. A better source of generic data
might be the OSW survey (USEPA 1983a); typical annual waste application rates
for the land treatment facilities considered representative of the wastes of
Interest 1n an exposure assessment can be compiled from the survey data. The
lowest economically feasible application rate 1s 10 kkg/ha/yr (USEPA 1979b);
this may be taken as a lower limit 1n the absence of other data. It may also
be difficult to supply a value for "quantity of waste." Application rates are
sometimes expressed 1n terms of total liquid volume; to fit 1n Equation 4-1,
the quantity of waste must be expressed 1n units compatible with the units
used for the application rate. Ideally, total waste stream volume and
chemical concentration will be supplied by Stage III estimates, from which the
chemical loading (1n terms of mass) can be calculated. To further complicate
estimations, sludge quantity may be expressed as either wet or dry weight,
making direct comparison Impossible 1f the solids content 1s not known. The
solids content of sludge as applied appears to average about 5 percent to
7 percent, but may be as high as 20 percent (Berkowltz et al. 1980, Phung et
al. 1978, Ross and Phung 1978). Sludge that has previously been stored 1n an
evaporation basin will have a higher solids content.
The frequency of application 1s also highly variable, ranging from
several times dally for municipal wastewater to once every few years for
certain types of waste (USEPA 1983a). There appears to be no published
Information on which to base reliable estimates of this parameter, and the
confidence level for any assumptions made 1s low.
The model Input parameters of surface area and pollutant loading are
closely Interrelated. An accurate estimate of pollutant loading requires
reliable Information of the application methods used, 1n addition to accurate
estimates of the waste application rate. Wastewaters are not usually plowed
Into the ground, but sludges may be plowed or Injected to a depth ranging from
a few centimeters to 60 cm (Berkowltz et al. 1980). When wastes are
Incorporated Into the soil, the depth of Incorporation may be taken as the
upper soil zone for a model such as SESOIL, and the loading expressed as the
pollutant concentration 1n that zone. If waste 1s applied without
102
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Table 28. Annual Land Treatment Application Rates3
Waste stream kkg/ha
Leather manufacturing wastes 800
Mun Icl pal/ industr ial wastewater treatment sludge 140-230^
Plastics manufacturing 50-70
Petroleum ref in Ing
Oily wastes and drilling muds 9,500-15,000
API separator sludge 2,000
aFlgures based on one or a few observations; not a statistically
representative sample.
^Reported application rates range as low as 1 kkg/ha (USEPA 1980g).
Source: Berkowitz et al. 1980, Phung et al. 1978, Wetherold et at. 1981,
Gulp 1979.
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Incorporation, the Infiltration rate Into the soil must be specified. This
may not be known, and will be a significant data gap. The depth of waste
Incorporation Into the soil will also be needed If pollutant loading 1s to be
estimated from monitoring data concentration 1n soil rather than from known
waste application rates.
In the case of multiple applications to the same surface within a year,
the timing of the repeat applications must be known to estimate total
environmental releases accurately. This Information can be obtained only by
direct contact with the waste generator or disposal site manager. If 1t 1s
not available, 1t will be a significant data gap.
4.1.6 Monitoring
Monitoring data for chemical substances released from land treatment
sites are generally not available 1n readily accessible (I.e., computerized)
form. There are a few published studies that assess environmental releases
from land treatment, notably the previously mentioned technical resource
document on hazardous waste land treatment (USEPA 1983a) and Wetherold et al.
(1981). Hazardous waste land treatment sites have to be monitored under the
RCRA technical land disposal regulations published 1n Interim final form 1n
1982 (USEPA 1982c); however, this monitoring data will be accessible only by
manual retrieval from EPA Regional offices. Additional monitoring data may be
available from applicable state agencies.
4.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Land Treatment Sites - Stage IV
Decision Tree
In this stage the user will attempt to enumerate the specific land
treatment sites that will receive the waste and the amounts treated at each
wasteslte. In practice this will be difficult for many land treatment sites
because of the paucity of site-specific data. There are methods of estimating
the amounts treated per site, however, 1n the absence of site-specific
Information, which are presented 1n the decision tree. The first step 1n the
decision tree 1s to narrow down the possible land treatment sites to those
that are likely candidates for the waste. This 1s done by considering various
waste categories separately. Then the quantity of waste tested Is estimated
for each site using all available site-specific and generic Information.
Step 1. Identify and 11st the land treatment facilities that are probable
candidates for disposal of the waste of Interest.
a. Hazardous wastes. Examine the summary survey data from USEPA
1983a presented 1n Figure E-l and Tables E-4 and E-5 1n Appendix E of
this report to Identify land treatment sites 1n the geographic area
of Interest that potentially treat the waste stream of Interest. Be
104
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sure to examine the sites listed under SIC code 49 (for commercial
waste disposal facilities) 1n addition to the sites listed under the
Industrial SIC code of waste generator. Consult the site-specific
survey data (Table 2 1n Appendix A of USEPA 1983a) for additional
Information on candidate sites, 1f any. This Information may be
supplemented with a Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS)
retrieval (see Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n Appendix 0 of this
report). Printouts available at the EPA Office of Solid Waste (OSW)
11st all hazardous waste land treatment facilities within a given
area and their capacities (arranged by zip code and waste facility
Identification number).
b. Nonhazardous Industrial waste. Contact the applicable state
solid waste agency (see Table D-3 1n Appendix 0). Most states will
supply Inventories of waste disposal sites (often Incomplete or
limited to permitted sites). Unfortunately, few states regulate land
spreading of nonhazardous materials, and such facilities are rarely
Included 1n state Inventories. In addition, consider the possibility
that the waste of Interest 1s disposed of 1n an on-s1te hazardous
waste land treatment facility Identified 1n Step l.a, above. If no
Information 1s available, proceed to Step 2.b.
c. POTW wastewaters and sludges. It may not be possible to
determine the location of off-site land treatment facilities for
POTW sludge, since many such sites are privately owned farms using
the sludge as fertilizer for crops. Even publicly or commercially
owned and operated POTW sludge landspreadlng facilities may not be
listed 1n state-supplied Inventory lists. Contacting POTWs that are
known to land treat wastewaters and sludges (from the Needs Survey
data base, see Sections 2.3.3(3) and 6, and Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix
H) may provide Information on the locations of Individual sites. If
no Information 1s available, see Step 2.b.
Step 2. Estimate the amount of waste disposed of at each facility (1n mass
or volume per year).
a. References already consulted for Stage III may have provided
Information on the percentage of the waste stream that 1s disposed
of on- and off-site. For on-s1te Industrial land treatment
facilities (for hazardous or nonhazardous waste) Identified 1n Steps
l.a or l.b above, assume that the total quantity of waste generated
on-s1te 1s disposed of on-s1te.
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In cases where the Industrial waste 1s likely to be disposed of at
commercial land treatment facilities Identified 1n Steps l.a or l.b,
assume that the total quantity of waste generated by a given source
1s disposed of at the nearest commercial facility. The quantity of
POTW wastewater applied to land at a given POTW will be given by the
Needs Survey data base retrieval (see Step l.c). The quantity of
sludge applied to land at a given POTW can be estimated from sludge
generation factors provided 1n Table 34 1n Section 6. (The quantity
of sludge generated 1s one output of Stage V for POTWs, Section 6.3.)
b. If data for Steps l.b or l.c and/or Step 2.a are not
available, proceed as follows. Consult the Needs Survey data
retrieval (Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H) to find out whether
significant amounts of local sludge are known to be dried and
shipped out of the area; 1f this 1s the case, 1t cannot be tracked
further. If this 1s not the case, note that the cost of hauling
makes 1t economically 1nfeas1ble for nonhazardous sludge to be
transported 1n the wet state very far from the site of generation.
Therefore, 1t can be assumed that all of the waste 1s landspread
close to the point of origin, and Stage V environmental release
estimates can be based upon generalized cl1matolog1cal, soil, and
geological data for the county.
4.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Land Treatment - Stage V
Decision Tree
In Stage V, environmental releases from land treatment sites 1n the study
area will be estimated using a mathematical model such as PRZM or SESOIL. In
cases where there 1s adequate site-specific Information, the model can be run
for each site using the appropriate Input parameters. In many exposure
assessments, however, many parameters will have to be estimated using methods
presented 1n Section 4.1, and below. In such cases one or more model land
treatment sites representative of the land treatment sites of Interest can be
created and used 1n conjunction with available land treatment site population
Information.
Step 1. Select an appropriate model for estimating environmental releases.
Environmental releases to air, groundwater, and surface water will
be calculated using a model such as PRZM or SESOIL. For nationwide
or broad regional environmental releases estimates, consult Section
3.1.6 1n addition to the following steps.
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Step 2. Identify Input requirements.
The following types of data will probably be required for any
relevant model:
• CUmatologlcal data
• Soil data
• Chemical data
• Geometric, application-specific data
CUmatologlcal and soil data are available from standard data
sources as described 1n Section 3.1.4. Chemical Information 1s
available from standard reference manuals. Geometric application-
related and application-specific Information may be more difficult
to obtain. As stated previously, the effort 1n this report focused
on developing a few of the previously undeveloped and d1ff1cult-to-
acqulre parameters that are amenable to generic data. See Step 3
for suggestions on estimating the following parameters:
• Groundwater level (Step 3.a)
• Surface area of the site (Step 3.b)
• Pollutant loading (Step 3.c)
• Depths of soil zones (Step 3.d).
Step 3. Estimate relevant application-related and application-specific
parameters, wherever appropriate.
a. Depth to groundwater can be determined from statewide
computerized data bases when these exist; see Section 3.1.4. In the
absence of such data, an arbitrary value (or set of limiting values)
can be selected on the basis of the Surface Impoundment Assessment
(SIA) data base, soil maps, wetland distribution data for the subject
state (see Section 3.1.4), or other general references.
b. Surface area of the site may be available from the OSW Survey
(USEPA 1983e), an HWDMS retrieval, or Information 1n state solid
waste agency files for hazardous waste land treatment sites. See
Section 4.1.5 for a detailed discussion of these sources of
Information. If site-specific data on surface area are not
available, determine whether data are available to estimate surface
area using Equation 4-1 (Section 4.1.5). If this 1s not possible,
consider using the median surface area for hazardous waste sites In
the U.S. 5.5 ha (13.5 acres), or consider computing the median size
for the region or Industry of Interest 1n the assessment, using the
data In Table 2, of Appendix A of USEPA 1983a.
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The approach discussed above 1s also recommended for land treatment
sites receiving nonhazardous wastes.
The recommended approach for estimating the surface area of land
treatment sites handling POTW wastewater, 1n the absence of
site-specific data, 1s to multiply the facility capacity (mgd) by a
value within the lower and upper limits of the range of application
rates reported 1n Section 4.1 x .4 (40-240 ha/mgd). The surface area
of sites receiving POTW sludges can be estimated 1n a similar manner,
using the quantity of sludge generated (from Stage V of the POTW
analysis or Table 34; Section 6) and the estimated application rate
(140 - 230 kkg/ha, see Table 28 1n Section 4.1.5) 1n Equation 4-1
(see Section 4.1.5).
c. Pollutant loading (which will be based on the Stage IV
estimate) can be expressed 1n several ways, depending on the nature
of the disposal operation. For land treatment, 1t can generally be
assumed that the pollutant 1s well-mixed Into the soil, and pollutant
loading can be expressed 1n terms of mass/area. The mass/area can be
estimated using available Information on waste application rates, as
discussed 1n Section 4.1.5. If Input data are measured concentra-
tions 1n the soil at a land treatment site, then the area and depth
of waste Incorporation (see Step 3.d) can be used 1n conjunction with
the chemical concentration to calculate pollutant mass.
d. Depth of soil zones will be determined using the same
references that were mentioned for landfills 1n Section 3.1.4(4)(b),
with the exception of the layer of waste Incorporation. Wastes may
be plowed or Injected to a depth ranging from a few centimeters to
60 centimeters. The layer of Incorporation will usually constitute
the upper unsaturated soil layer.
Given the foregoing limitations, reliable environmental releases
estimates may not be possible. If sufficient data have been
compiled, proceed to Step 4; 1f not, proceed to Step 5.
Step 4. Using the model of choice, estimate environmental releases from each
site receiving the waste; the chemical concentration 1n each soil
layer can also be estimated 1f desired.
The output of this step will be the following:
• Flux or mass/area of subject chemical entering groundwater after
the modeled period of time.
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• Flux or mass/area of subject chemical volatilizing from the
upper soil layer to the atmosphere after the modeled period of
time.
• Concentration and mass of the subject chemical 1n each soil
layer after the modeled period of time.
• Mass/area of the subject chemical lost due to surface runoff.
Step 5. If monitoring data are available, compare these with predicted
concentrations. If estimated concentrations do not correlate with
measured values, use best Judgment to evaluate the discrepancy. If
the Input data are Insufficient to use a model, monitoring data (1f
available) may be the only available means of estimating
environmental releases. Estimated environmental releases may be used
as Input 1n the analysis of environmental fate and 1n the final
exposure assessment, as discussed In Volumes 2 and 5 of this report.
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5. SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS
This section contains the Information that will be the basis for the
Stage IV and Stage V estimates for treatment, storage, or disposal of
wastes 1n surface Impoundments. Surface Impoundments receive a large
part of the Industrial and municipal liquid wastes generated 1n the U.S.
Considerable site-specific Information on Impoundments 1s available;
however, estimating releases 1s difficult because of uncertainty 1n the
amounts of wastes 1n Impoundments and the movement of pollutants Into and
through the groundwater. A discussion of general Information on surface
Impoundments 1s presented 1n Section 5.1. This text 1s the basis for the
Stage IV and Stage V decision trees given 1n Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
5.1 Background Information
A surface Impoundment 1s a natural topographic depression, man-made
excavation, or diked area formed primarily of earthen materials designed
to hold liquid wastes or wastes containing free liquids. Impoundments
may serve the purpose of treatment, storage, or disposal of liquid
wastes, and Include holding, storage, settling, and aeration pits, ponds,
and lagoons. Depending on their design and purpose, surface Impoundments
may lose liquids by one or more of the following processes: discharge to
surface waters, evaporation, and Infiltration/percolation. Impoundments
which do not discharge to surface waters are called nondlscharglng
Impoundments even though losses occur through seepage and volatilization.
A very common type of Impoundment 1s the settling pond, which 1s used
to separate solids from liquids with or without the addition of chemicals
to accelerate coagulation and precipitation. Many settling ponds are
periodically dredged to restore them to original capacity. Other
Impoundments are designed specifically to permit seepage Into the
underlying aquifer. Impoundments that are not designed for seepage may
serve as holding or evaporation ponds and are sometimes lined. See USEPA
1978 for a comprehensive description of uses and designs of Impoundments
1n the U.S.
The size of Impoundments varies from a few tenths of an acre to
hundreds of acres, and depths vary from 0.6 m (2 feet) to more than 9 m
(30 feet) below the land surface. Depending on the function,
Impoundments may be operated Individually or may be Interconnected so
that flow moves from one Impoundment to another (Acurex 1980).
The EPA classifies surface Impoundments Into one of five categories,
depending on the origin and the type of wastes: municipal (I.e., water
treatment, municipal sanitary landfill, and sewage treatment),
Industrial, agricultural, mining, and oil and gas brine pits. Municipal
110
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sanitary landfill Impoundments, sewage treatment plants, and Industrial
Impoundments will generally be of greatest Interest because these are the
types of facilities that are most likely to receive toxic wastes subject
to regulation under TSCA; only the data pertaining to these types will be
presented here. Fortunately, more Information 1s available for these
sites than for other types of Impoundments. However, the procedures
developed here could also be applied to agricultural, mining, oil and
gas, and water treatment Impoundments. Table 29 presents a summary of
the estimated number of active Impoundments of each category.
Most of the readily available Information on surface Impoundments
comes from state agencies and the Surface Impoundment Assessment (SIA)
conducted by the EPA Office of Drinking Water pursuant to Section
1422(b)(3)(c) of the Safe Drinking Water Act. The culmination of this
effort 1s several preliminary summary reports (Geraghty and Miller 1978,
S1lka and Swearlngen 1978, USEPA 1980e) and a computerized data base
containing data on the numbers, locations, and potential effects on
groundwater of Impoundments 1n the U.S., using a rating system described
1n S1lka and Swearlngen (1978). Because of funding limitations, the SIA
compiled data for only 80% of the Industrial sites, 55% of the sewage
treatment sites, and 83% of the municipal sanitary landfill Impoundment
sites nationwide (see Table 29); therefore, site-specific Information 1s
not available for many Impoundments. Furthermore, since the SIA was
based on unverified secondary sources of data, 1t will be suitable as
source Information only for large-scale exposure assessments where errors
1n or absence of site-specific data will not significantly skew the
overall results. Some of the Information 1n the SIA 1s confidential;
therefore, retrievals may not give the owner or name of some facilities.
Obviously, additional site-specific data would be necessary for exposure
assessments where site-specific estimates of chemical releases are
required. Other useful sources of Information on surface Impoundments
Include the Needs Survey (Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H) and the references
on hazardous and Industrial waste disposal mentioned 1n Sections 2.3.3(4)
and 2.3.3(5) and documented 1n Appendix C and Table D-5 of Appendix D.
5.1.1 Types of Impoundments
Municipal sanitary, sewage treatment, and Industrial surface
Impoundments serve different purposes and receive different kinds of
waste streams. A brief summary of relevant features of each of these
categories follows:
(1) Municipal sanitary landfill Impoundments. The SIA located 179
sites containing approximately 446 Impoundments. Of the located sites,
149 were assessed. No description of the Impoundments 1n this category
was given 1n the reports published to date, but 1t 1s assumed that these
111
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Table 29. Summary Statistics for Active Surface
Impoundment Sites Located In the SIA
Category
Industrial
Mun lei pal
Agr 1 cultural
M I n 1 ng
Oil and gas brine pits
Other
TOTAL
Number of
located
sites
10,819
19,116
14,677
7,100a
24,527a
1,500
77,739
Number of
assessed
sites
8,193
10,675
6,597
1,448
3,304
327
30,544
Number of
located
Impoundments'3
25,749
36,179
29,167
24,451
64,951
5,745
176,242
aThe number of mining and oil and gas brine pit sites is not necessarily
related to actual ownership and may be different than the actual
number of lega! sites. The number of located Impoundments would be a
closer approximation for these two categories.
"Some sites have more than one surface Impoundment.
Source: USEPA 1980e.
112
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sites generally receive partially dehydrated sludges from POTWs. Only
29.5% of the assessed sites had liners; the types of liners used are
given 1n Table 30. Based on an EPA estimate, the typical size of this
type of Impoundment 1s about 1 ha (2.5 acres) (USEPA 1979b).
(2) Municipal sewage treatment Impoundments. This type of
Impoundment may be used to treat, store, and dispose of wastewater as
well as sewage sludge. Based on the Needs Survey (see Exhibit H-l 1n
Appendix H), the SIA located 18,189 sewage treatment plants with a total
of 34,356 Impoundments. Of the located sites, 10,043 were assessed, and
22.8% of the assessed Impoundments were lined (Table 30) (USEPA 1980e).
A variety of types of surface Impoundments are associated with the
storage, treatment, and disposal of wastewaters. These Impoundments may
be lined or unllned and may represent minor or major components of large
treatment and waste disposal systems; they may also be the sole
component. In primary treatment systems, Impoundments may be used for
temporary storage, settling or disposal of wastewater by percolation and
evaporation. In conventional secondary treatment plants, Impoundments
may be used only for storage and settling; Impoundments may be the
principal components of systems that consist mainly of anaerobic and
aerobic waste-stabilization ponds. Another type of Impoundment used 1n
secondary treatment 1s the temporary holding or storage pond for disposal
of effluent after secondary treatment. In some tertiary treatment
plants, effluents are passed through shallow polishing ponds. In many
wastewater treatment systems, wastewater 1s ultimately discharged to
streams rather than disposed of by evaporation or seepage (USEPA 1978).
Impoundments at sewage treatment facilities are also used for the
treatment, storage, and disposal of municipal sewage sludge. They are
commonly used for temporary storage of sludge prior to ultimate disposal,
for sludge stabilization prior to land application, or as permanent
disposal for liquid, dewatered, heat-dried or composted sludge (USEPA
I980a). Shallow rectangular Impoundments with permeable sand bottoms are
sometimes used for drying municipal sewage sludge. These "drying beds"
may or may not have underdralns for leachate control. Impoundments that
receive partly dehydrated sludge are usually covered and abandoned after
being filled (USEPA 1978). Approximately 11% of the sewage sludge
produced 1n 1978 was disposed of 1n such lagoons (USEPA 1980f). Table 6
1n Section 2.3.3(2) presents more recent estimates on sewage treatment
Impoundments.
The size of sewage treatment Impoundments varies, but one EPA pub-
lication assumed that the typical area 1s 1 ha (2.5 acres) (USEPA
I979b). Oxidation ponds are generally 0.9 to 2.4 m deep, aerated lagoons
are 2.4 to 4.6 m deep, and anaerobic lagoon systems are 3.6 to 5.2 m deep
(USEPA 1978).
113
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*
to
•i-
c
E
O
J
ID
CL
7j
C
3
•t
ID
ID
O
u
C
o'
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(D
ID
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ID c
O —
U —
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-------
(3) Industrial Impoundments. Many Industries treat, store, or
dispose of liquid wastes 1n Impoundments. The design and function of
Industrial Impoundments varies widely by Industry. Industrial
Impoundments are typically used for evaporation, aeration, oxidation,
recycling, Infiltration, stabilization, settling, disposal, and storage.
Stabilization ponds are very common waste treatment systems at Industrial
plants. In some plants auxiliary ponds serve for polishing (I.e., final
treatment) and temporary retention of effluents from conventional
activated sludge systems before discharge to streams. Ponds may also
receive scrubber water and ash residues (See Section 2.3.3(1) and USEPA
1978).
The size of Industrial Impoundments varies widely. One EPA document
assumed that 95% of all Industrial facilities are approximately 1 ha
(2.5 acres), the remaining 5% being 20 ha (50 acres) (USEPA 1979b).
These figures, together with the range of depths presented 1n the
description of municipal sewage treatment Impoundments form the basis for
design estimates when site-specific data are not available or desirable.
The SIA located 10,819 Industrial sites containing a total of 25,749
Impoundments. Of the 8,243 assessed sites, only 27.6% were lined (USEPA
1980e). See Tables 31 and 32 for the breakdown of surface Impoundment
populations and Uner characteristics by SIC Code. A recent compilation
of HWOMS application data (Table D-7 1n Appendix 0) Indicates that
nationwide there are 1,366 facilities that treat or store hazardous
wastes 1n surface Impoundments and 360 that dispose of hazardous wastes
by surface Impoundments.
5.1.2 Environmental Releases from Surface Impoundments
Chemical substances treated, stored, or disposed of 1n waste
Impoundments may be released to air, surface water, and groundwater over
time. Releases to air may occur via volatilization of organic gases and
fugitive dust. Surface waters may be contaminated by permitted
effluents, by sudden releases when dikes are breached or lagoons are
washed out during periods of high surface runoff, or by leached
contaminants. Finally, surface Impoundments without properly designed
containment and leachate collection systems may cause contamination of
groundwater resulting 1n human exposure through the consumption of well
water or through seepage of groundwater Into basements and subsequent
volatilization of toxic substances (Acurex 1980). The Information
resources reviewed 1n the course of developing this methodology did not
Include any models designed specifically to estimate environmental
releases from surface Impoundments. See Section 3.1.3 for a general
discussion on predicting environmental releases from land disposal sites.
115
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Table 31. Distribution of Industrial Impoundment Sites by SIC Code
SIC
Code
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40-47
491
492
493
496
4953
517
554
721
7542
1389
07
TOTAL
Type facl 1 Ity
Food
Tobacco
Textile mil Is
Apparel
Lumber and wood
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied products
Printing and publishing
Chemical and allied products
Petroleum and allied products
Rubber and misc. plastics
Leather products
Stone, clay and glass products
Pr Imary metal s
Fabricated metals
Mach Inery
Electric and electronic
Transportation equipment
Instruments
Misc. manufacturing
Transportation
Power plants
Gas production and dlst.
Combination elec/gas
Steam supply
Industrial refuse sites
Petroleum bulk terminal
Service stations
Cleaning establishments
Car washes
Oil field services
Agricultural services
Located
sites
2,162
6
268
15
373
23
421
18
1,514
696
156
34
723
599
686
174
210
217
47
235
320
593
250
39
17
199
65
50
261
59
276
93
10,819
Located
Impoundments
5,160
11
536
13
781
35
1,349
24
4,577
1,984
252
104
1,343
1,480
1,416
294
391
510
92
359
516
1,671
543
81
35
602
141
65
381
72
764
167
25,749
Assessed
sites
1,708
5
210
10
294
20
288
15
1,276
537
129
31
630
444
513
141
177
152
36
120
238
301
62
36
13
161
46
44
129
48
96
83
8,243
Source: USEPA 1980e.
116
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Table 32. Liner Data Industrial Impoundment Sites
SIC
Code3
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40-47
491
492
493
496
4953
517
554
721
7542
1389
07
TOTAL
Total Sites
Liner Data
1,337
4
151
6
257
14
253
12
1,012
446
114
27
498
402
453
113
154
131
30
105
187
375
49
34
13
135
41
44
109
39
92
78
7,715
Total
Unl Ined
981
4
112
5
165
10
153
11
647
319
91
22
386
275
357
75
112
98
22
89
129
243
32
26
11
90
33
41
105
35
73
62
4,814
Linerb
2-3-4-15
299
0
24
1
84
3
75
0
222
103
12
3
80
85
62
24
20
22
3
11
43
102
9
7
1
33
8
2
3
3
10
12
1,366
Llnerb
5-6-7
24
0
4
0
6
1
3
1
44
18
6
1
24
17
12
6
8
5
1
3
9
11
3
0
1
6
0
1
0
1
3
0
219
Membrane
Llnerb
8-14
33
0
11
0
2
0
22
0
99
6
5
1
8
25
22
8
14
6
4
2
6
19
5
1
0
6
0
0
1
0
6
4
316
Percent
1 ined
26.7
0.0
25.9
16.7
35.8
28.6
39.6
8.4
36.1
28.5
20.2
18.6
22.5
31.6
21.2
33.7
27.3
25.2
26.7
15.3
31.1
35.2
34.7
23.6
15.4
33.4
19.6
6.9
3.7
10.3
20.7
20.6
27.6
Percent
unl Ined
73.3
100.0
74.1
83.3
64.2
71.4
60.4
91.6
63.9
71.5
79.8
81.4
77.5
68.4
78.8
66.3
72.7
74.8
73.3
84.7
68.9
64.8
65.3
76.4
84.6
66.6
80.4
93.1
96.3
89.7
79.3
79.4
72.4
aSee Table 31 for key to SIC codes.
bSee Table 30 for key to liner types.
Source: USEPA 1980e.
117
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5.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Surface Impoundments - Stage IV
Decision Tree
In this stage, the user will evaluate available Information on the
disposal practices of the subject waste generators, the types of
Impoundments 1n the study area, and the waste characteristics 1n order to
enumerate the Impoundments that are likely to receive the subject waste
stream. The waste stream will be allocated to Individual sites using
criteria tailored to the source and nature of the waste. The confidence
1n these estimates will vary depending on the source of the waste and the
types of Impoundment.
Step 1. Determine whether disposal of the subject waste stream will be
limited to certain types of surface Impoundments.
As discussed 1n the Introduction to surface Impoundments, a
variety of Impoundment designs are 1n use at both municipal and
Industrial sites. Because of data limitations, 1t was not
possible to develop a rule for estimating the types of
Impoundments that can be found at a given site 1n the absence of
site-specific Information. Therefore, this Information will
have to be obtained from computer retrievals of the SIA, Needs
Survey, and HWOMS data bases, as described below. These data
bases can be used as a source of both generic and site-specific
Information on Impoundment type.
If applicable, determine the proportional distribution of the
subject waste stream between on-s1te and off-site facilities.
This knowledge will be helpful 1n Step 3, when Identifying
Individual Impoundments that are probable candidates for
disposal of the wastes.
The degree of on-s1te versus off-site disposal 1n Impoundments
varies depending on the type of waste. Separate procedures for
estimating on- versus off-site disposal are given below for
wastewaters, POTW sludges, hazardous waste, nonhazardous
Industrial solid waste, and Incinerator residue. In general,
however, off-site versus on-s1te disposal 1n surface
Impoundments can be estimated 1n one of two ways: (1) using
waste-specific or Industry-specific generic Information and (2)
using site-specific Information.
a. Wastewaters. All municipal and Industrial wastewaters
treated at POTWs that use Impoundments for treatment, storage,
and disposal are by definition disposed of off-site. Therefore,
the percentage of wastewaters treated off-site will already have
been determined 1n Stage III. It will be more difficult to
determine the extent to which surface Impoundments are Involved
118
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1n the treatment of the Industrial wastewaters that are treated
on-s1te because this Information 1s not always available. The
only direct source of Information on Impoundments associated
with Industrial wastewater treatment 1s the Surface Impoundment
Assessment data base (SIA). As stated previously, however, this
data base 1s not complete.
b. POTW sludges. Surface Impoundments used for the storage
or disposal of POTW sludges will generally be located at the
POTW facility.
c. Hazardous wastes. The percentage of the waste treated,
stored, or disposed of 1n surface Impoundments on-s1te can be
very roughly estimated by examining waste-specific or Industry-
specific disposal patterns reported 1n available documents
listed 1n Section 2.3.3(4). (See Appendix C and Table 0-5 1n
Appendix D for examples of the kind of Information available 1n
these documents.) Table 27 1n Section 4, compiled from USEPA
1980b, suggests that actual disposal of hazardous wastes 1n
off-site facilities may be restricted to only 11 facilities
nationwide, all of which occur 1n EPA Regions IV, VI, IX, or X.
These facilities handle only 1.3% of the hazardous wastes
generated. Industry-specific Information contained 1n other
documents, presented 1n Appendix C and Table 0-5 1n Appendix 0,
can be used 1n conjunction with Table 27 to decide whether 1t 1s
likely that the waste will be disposed of 1n off-site
Impoundments. For Instance, 1f Table 27 Indicates that there 1s
no commercial hazardous waste facility using a lagoon for
treatment, storage, or disposal 1n the vicinity of a
manufacturing plant producing a waste that Is usually disposed
of via surface Impoundments, 1t can be assumed that the waste Is
handled on-s1te. Other sources of this Information are the
Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) (see Section
2.3.3(4) and Exhibit 0-1 In Appendix 0) and the SIA data base.
Retrievals from these data bases can Indicate three things:
(1) whether there 1s an Impoundment on-s1te at a given location,
(2) what percentage of facilities of a certain type (e.g.,
manufacturers of organic chemicals) have on-s1te Impoundments,
and (3) what percentage of commercial hazardous waste disposal
facilities 1n the area of Interest use surface Impoundments for
treatment, storage, or disposal. The site-specific and generic
data derived from these data bases should be used to supplement
the above-mentioned documents.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid wastes. No known sources of
compiled Information exist on the degree to which this type
119
-------
of waste 1s disposed of off-site 1n surface Impoundments, except
for the Inventory of Impoundments compiled by Waste Age magazine
(see Table 33). Until better data are available, H 1s
suggested that the same data sources be used as for Industrial
hazardous wastes. The SIA should be particularly helpful
because 1t will generally Indicate whether or not an Impoundment
1s located on-s1te, regardless of whether the facility has filed
an application for hazardous waste handling. The SIA may also
be useful as a source of generic data 1f a retrieval 1s done for
the SIC code of Interest.
e. Incinerator residue. If Impoundments are used for the
storage or disposal of Incinerator wastes, 1t can generally be
assumed that the Impoundment will be located near the site of
Incineration.
Step 3. Based on the Information 1n Steps 1 and 2 and available
Inventories of disposal facilities, Identify the Impoundments
that are probable candidates for disposal of the subject waste.
Consider the obvious constraints Imposed by the geographic area,
the applicable types of Impoundments, and the disposal practices
of Industry for the waste stream of Interest.
All of the Information needed for this step will be available
through the computer retrievals of the SIA and HWDMS data bases
1n addition to general documents on Industrial disposal
practices. Separate decision trees are presented below for each
of the different waste categories.
a. Hastewaters. The Information compiled for POTWs from the
Needs Survey data base (see Sections 2.3.3(3) and 6 and Exhibit
H-l 1n Appendix H gives some Indication of whether surface
Impoundments are used to treat, store, or dispose of wastewaters
based on the treatments used at a given POTW. For Instance, the
use of stabilization ponds, aerated lagoons, sludge lagoons, air
drying lagoons, and seepage lagoons 1s always associated with
surface Impoundments. Additional Information can be gleaned
from knowledge of the wastewater treatment methods used at the
POTWs of Interest (given 1n the Needs Survey retrieval).
However, the extent to which Impoundments are used for storage
and 1n conjunction with types of wastewater treatment other than
those listed above 1s not always clear based on the Needs Survey
computer retrieval. For this reason, the Needs Survey data
should be supplemented using site-specific data retrieved from
the SIA data base for municipal sewage treatment Impoundments.
Even with the SIA data, however, there will not be site-specific
120
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Table 33. Inventory of Pits, Ponds, and Lagoons from 1981 Waste Age Survey
EPA Region/
State
Region #1
Connecticut
Maine
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Rhode Island
Vermont
Number of pits, ponds,
and lagoons Identified
In EPA's SIAa
1,200
453 e 173 sites
1,962
-
45
-
Number of pits,
ponds, and
lagoons owned and operated
by the Industry
site they are
610
177
1,962
-
45
-
upon whose
located3
Region #2
New York
Delaware
New Jersey 1,027
Puerto Rico 379
Virgin Islands
Region #3
District of Columbia 0
Maryland
Pennsylvania 33,401
Virginia
West Virginia
unknown
379
l,645(+ 19,702 % oil & gas wells)
Region #4
Alabama
Florida 5,681
Georg i a
Kentucky 340
Mississippi 3,300
North Carolina 5,717
South Carol I na
Tennessee 1,500
Region #5
Illinois 8,000
Indiana 2,688
Michigan
Ohio 14,000
Minnesota 3,365
Wisconsin 1,717
5,681
3,200
unknown
648
8,000
unknown
1,500
415 impoundments
614
121
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Table 33. Inventory of Pits, Ponds, and Lagoons from 1981 Waste Age Survey
(continued)
EPA Region/
State
Reg Ion #6
Arkansas
Loul si ana
New Mexico
Texas
Oklahoma
Region #7
Iowa
Kansas
Ml ssour 1
Nebraska
Region #8
Colorado
Montana
Utah
Wyoming
North Dakota
South Dakota
Region #9
Ar izona
Cal 1 fornla
Hawa 1 1
Nevada
Region #10
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Wash I ngton
Guam
Number of pits, ponds,
and lagoons Identified
In EPA's SIAa
2,000
2,881
2,101
3,842
4,524
-
3,398
-
600
1,900
-
660
-
-
-
552
-
-
923
-
-
714
1,047
102
Number of pits, ponds, and
lagoons owned and operated
by the Industry upon whose
site they are located9
unknown
916 Ind./IOI Mun./l,
863 oil/gas
702 + 15,761
3,458
466
-
263
-
100
unknown
-
unknown
-
-
-
unknown
-
-
unknown
-
-
714
466
102
TOTALS
109,839
69,490
aBlank denotes information not available at the time of the survey. The
SIA data base has a more up-to-date listing.
Source: Anon. 1981 c, Waste Age. Land Disposal Survey.
122
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data for all surface Impoundments because not all municipal
Impoundments were Included 1n the SIA. Furthermore, the SIA
assessments do not always Indicate the type of lagoon.
Therefore, 1t 1s recommended that the Investigator consider
using Needs survey and SIA retrievals to develop generic data on
the type of Impoundments likely to be associated with various
types of wastewater treatment as described below. If fairly
accurate generic data are desired, the municipal Impoundment
data from the SIA can be aggregated according to treatment
(available through the Needs Survey retrieval). For example,
the SIA municipal Impoundment data for all secondary POTW plants
using activated sludge (as Indicated by the Needs Survey data)
can be analyzed to extract generic data on the average number
of Impoundments per site, the average surface area of the
Impoundments, and the type of Influent (primary, secondary,
sludge, etc.). These generic data can be used for POTW plants
for which the site-specific Impoundment data 1n the SIA are not
sufficient to characterize the Impoundments. The level of
detail and accuracy required by the exposure assessment will
dictate whether the time spent comparing the SIA and Needs
Survey Information 1s justifiable.
b. POTW sludge. The Needs Survey retrieval sometimes
provides Information on whether a given POTW disposes of Its
sludge on- or off-site and usually lists the treatment/disposal
method used. The utility of the Needs Survey data base 1n
determining sludge-handling practices at POTWs was discussed 1n
Section 2.3.3(2). Use the Needs Survey retrieval to compile a
11st of POTWs that appear to use Impoundments 1n the sludge
handling process. The fact that the Needs Survey does not
always Indicate whether the POTW sends Its sludge to another
facility for handling does not constitute a major data gap,
because most POTWs that treat wastewater on-s1te also have a
means of handling their own sludge (USEPA 1981e).
c. Hazardous wastes. The determination of surface
Impoundments likely to receive the waste of Interest will be
based on the site-specific Information 1n the SIA and HWDMS data
bases 1n addition to the general Information on Industry-wide
disposal practices assembled In Stage III, and the Information
compiled 1n Step 2. First, assemble all site-specific
Information retrieved from the HWDMS and the SIA data bases
(this will already have been done 1n Step 2). Check to see
which of the sites of Interest have on-s1te surface Impoundments
and which off-site commercial disposal facilities use surface
Impoundments for treatment, storage, or disposal. Evaluate the
Information on disposal practices for wastes similar to the
subject waste (see Table 9 1n Section 2) and other Information
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listed 1n Appendix C and Table D-5 1n Appendix 0. From this
material, compile a 11st of the sites which have surface
Impoundments that are likely candidates for receiving the waste.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid wastes. As stated 1n
Step 2, there are no known documents that contain useful
Information on the nonhazardous Industrial waste practices of
Industries. Therefore, the Investigator should rely heavily on
the SIA data base for Information on which sites might use
on-s1te Impoundments for treatment, storage, or disposal of
wastes. This Information should be supplemented with the
generic Information on Industrial waste practices presented 1n
Stage III (and Appendix C and Table 0-5 1n Appendix D), under
the untested assumption that Industries will treat similar
wastes 1n similar ways, regardless of whether the wastes are
hazardous. Some Individual judgment will be necessary 1n
deciding which off-site Impoundments are likely candidates for
the subject waste.
A retrieval from the SIA data base of all Industrial
Impoundments 1n the area of Interest may provide the
Investigator with some clues as to which have off-site
facilities. For example, the name of the owner and auxiliary
Information on the types of wastes handled may Indicate whether
any commercial disposal facilities 1n the area operate
Impoundments. Assuming that hazardous waste practices are
similar to nonhazardous waste practices, 1t 1s unlikely that
off-site disposal In Impoundments Is very common. An exception
to the rule may be off-site disposal of nonhazardous Industrial
wastewater treatment sludges via off-site POTW sludge handling
facilities. This 1s not a widespread practice, however;
currently only five POTWs, located 1n California, Delaware,
Louisiana, and Texas, handle such sludges (USEPA 1981e). A
Needs Survey data base retrieval could provide site-specific
data on these facilities, 1f required.
e. Incinerator residue. See Section 2.3.3(1) for Information
on disposal of ash 1n lagoons. If ash 1s disposed of 1n lagoons
(which may not be readily determined), assume that the lagoon
will be at the site of the Incinerator. The Incinerators that
have on-s1te lagoons may possibly be Identified by comparing the
data from the SIA data base retrieval with Incinerator
Inventories (see Appendix I, Tables 1-2, and 1-3). Assume that
the Incinerators with on-s1te lagoons use them for ash
disposal.
Step 4. Quantify the amount of the subject waste handled by each
disposal site Identified 1n Step 3.
Check to see whether there 1s Information on the capacity and
current operating characteristics (e.g., types of wastes
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handled) for the sites listed 1n Step 3. If so, use this
Information 1n conjunction with available Information on the
disposal practices of the source(s) of the waste disposed of at
each facility to allocate wastes to each site. If not, allocate
the waste according to some other method (e.g., equal
distribution to all candidate sites). The output from Stage IV
for assessments requiring site-specific estimates of
environmental releases will be a 11st of candidate sites and the
amounts of the subject waste disposed of at each site. The
primary sources of data for this step are the SIA, HWDMS, and
Needs Survey data bases. Additional useful generic Information
can be derived from previously cited documents pertaining to
surface Impoundments. Separate discussions on how to allocate
amounts of waste to Individual sites are presented below for
wastewaters, POTW sludges, hazardous wastes, nonhazardous
wastes, and Incinerator ash.
a. Wastewaters. For all of the municipal Impoundments listed
1n Step 3, one can obtain the current POTW plant flow from the
Needs survey data base retrieval. This Information, coupled
with any available site-specific data relating to capacity given
1n the SIA, will provide a basis for estimating the maximum
amount of waste treated, stored, or disposed of at the
Impoundment of Interest. See Section 6.2 to find out how to
estimate how much wastewater 1s treated at a given POTW. This
represents the maximum amount of the waste that might be
treated, stored, or disposed of In the POTW surface
Impoundments. Based on additional generic or site-specific data
retrieved from the SIA data base, this maximum estimate can 1n
some cases be refined to reflect the amount that 1s really being
handled by the surface Impoundments. In most cases, however,
the Investigator will have to assume that all of the wastewater
treated at the POTW will pass through or be disposed of 1n the
Impoundments.
b. POTW sludge. Using the 11st of POTWs that are likely
candidates for the treatment, storage, or disposal of sludge 1n
surface Impoundments (Step 3) 1n conjunction with site-specific
Information from the SIA data base, the percentage of the waste
that goes Into Impoundments can be estimated, as described
below. The Needs Survey data will Indicate which sludge
disposal practices are used and thus will provide Information on
the type of Impoundments used and whether they are for
treatment, storage, or ultimate disposal. The site-specific SIA
data will sometimes augment the Needs Survey Information by
giving the number of surface Impoundments, the type of waste
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(e.g., sludge, wastewaters), and the purpose of the Impoundment
(whether 1t 1s for treatment, storage, or disposal). If the
site-specific SIA data are Insufficient to determine the number
of Impoundments Involved 1n sludge handling, use Individual
Judgment based on the Needs Survey data to estimate how much of
the sludge 1s handled 1n surface Impoundments, and whether the
Impoundments are used for treatment, storage, or disposal.
c. Hazardous wastes. The allocation of hazardous wastes to
Individual Impoundments will be based largely on data retrieved
from the HWDMS data base supplemented by Information from the
SIA data base. Use the 11st of probable sites compiled 1n Step
3 as the basis for the allocations. Data from the HWDMS
retrieval will Indicate which plants have on-s1te Impoundments
that handle hazardous wastes. Unless competing hazardous waste
handling methods are practiced on-s1te, assume that all of the
on-s1te generated waste 1s handled 1n the surface
Impoundment(s), providing that the capacity of the Impoundments
(given 1n the HWDMS retrieval) 1s sufficient to handle 1t. In
the case where other disposal methods are available on-s1te (as
Indicated by the HWDMS retrieval) review the available
documents on waste disposal for the Industry of Interest (see
Section 2.3.3(4), the tables 1n Appendix C and Table D-5 1n
Appendix D), paying particular attention to the disposal methods
commonly used for similar wastes. If some of these methods are
also available on-s1te, then use best judgment to allocate the
waste between treatment 1n surface Impoundments and the other
waste handling methods.
If any off-site commercial hazardous waste facilities with
surface Impoundments were listed 1n Step 3 as probable
candidates for receiving the waste, then use best judgment to
allocate the waste to the most appropriate site. As stated
previously, however, off-site surface Impoundments are not often
used for handling the hazardous wastes from most Industries.
After the Initial allocation of subject waste quantities to
Individual surface Impoundments 1s complete, be sure to evaluate
these estimates 1n light of the original Stage III estimates for
all disposal methods, as suggested 1n Section 2.3.3.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. Use the 11st of
probable Impoundment sites from Step 3. Proceed as for
hazardous wastes, except that the SIA rather than the HWDMS will
be the major site-specific source of data. Because there will
not always be site-specific Information on competing
treatment/storage/ disposal methods for nonhazardous wastes
(unless there are data on landfills, etc., provided by the
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states), 1t will be more difficult to evaluate the likelihood
that the subject waste 1s handled on-s1te by methods other than
surface Impoundments. Considerable Individual judgment will be
required 1n this step. In general, however, assume that all of
the waste generated on-s1te 1s handled by Identified on-s1te
Impoundments 1f the subject waste 1s similar to wastes
frequently handled by this method.
e. Incinerator residue. Based on the Information presented
1n Section 2.3.3(1), 1t 1s reasonable to assume that all of the
Incinerator residue generated on-s1te 1s disposed of on-s1te.
Therefore, 1n the absence of Information to the contrary, assume
that Incinerator sites with on-s1te surface Impoundments dispose
of all of the Incinerator residue 1n the Impoundments.
5.3 Estimating Environmental Releases from Surface Impoundments -
Stage V Decision Tree
This stage Involves the estimation of releases to air, surface
waters, and groundwater from surface Impoundments. First, the user
characterizes the design/operating features of the subject Impoundments
with respect to parameters that affect releases. Then, these site-
specific parameters are used In conjunction with the waste Input (from
Stage IV) as Input parameters 1n an appropriate model(s) to estimate
releases. This study Identified no comprehensive models tailored to
estimating releases to all environmental media from surface
Impoundments. For large-scale assessments, the SIA data base can be used
to generate generic data on typical or representative sites together with
data on the number of facilities. See Volume 1 of this series for a
discussion of this approach to exposure assessments.
Step 1. a. Identify and 11st the Important design and operating
characteristics of surface Impoundments that affect releases to
the environment.
A number of design factors of surface Impoundments affect
their ability to release chemical substances to the air,
groundwater, and surface waters. The most Important of these
are listed below.
• Liner. The potential for groundwater contamination Is
largely a function of the type and condition of Uner used
(1f any). In order to function properly, the Uner must be
compatible with the Impounded wastes and free of defects.
Breaks or leaks 1n liners will obviously result 1n escape of
Impounded wastes Into the soil beneath the Impoundment,
Increasing the potential for contamination of groundwater.
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Currently there are no statistics on the probability of liner
leakage as a function of Uner type and age. For detailed
discussions of the complex relationship between liners,
Impounded wastes, and seepage, see USEPA (1983b), Stewart
(1978), and Acurex (1980).
• Cover. Surface Impoundments with covers will generally allow
less volatilization than those without covers. Although no
statistics were found on the percentage of Impoundments with
covers, the available literature suggests that the use of
covers 1n active surface Impoundments 1s very rare.
• Surface area. The nature of volatilization and seepage 1s
such that the surface area of the Impoundment affects
releases; therefore, the larger the area, the greater the
emission rate of volatile compounds.
• Thickness of the unsaturated zone. The unsaturated zone Is
the depth from the base of the Impoundment to the water
table. The potential for the contamination of groundwater
may Increase with decreasing thickness of the unsaturated
zone, because pollutants attenuate to varying degrees as they
migrate down through the unsaturated zone.
• Type of subsoil 1n the unsaturated zone. This factor 1s an
Important determinant of the potential for groundwater
contamination because pollutant attenuation depends In part
on the characteristics of the soil, Including sorptlon
character and permeability.
• Thickness of the saturated zone. This parameter affects the
ability of the groundwater to transmit water.
• Type of earth material 1n the saturated zone. This parameter
also affects the ability of the aquifer to transmit
groundwater.
• Amount of freeboard (I.e., vertical distance between level of
liquid and top of berm or dike) 1n the sides of the
Impoundment. An Impoundment with considerable freeboard will
have a lower probability of flooding onto adjacent areas
during periods of heavy precipitation than one with little or
no freeboard. The amount of freeboard 1s also related to the
maximum surface area of the Impoundment.
• Effluent to surface waters. Obviously, an Impoundment that
discharges continuously or Intermittently to surface waters
has the potential to contaminate the receiving stream.
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It should be stressed that the preceding 11st Includes only
the most Important parameters; the Interaction of these factors
creates a complex problem 1n predicting releases that has not
been solved to date.
b. Determine which of the parameters listed 1n Step l.a are
known for the sites of Interest based on accessible computerized
data or other readily available Information.
The SIA data base Includes some of the relevant parameters on
a site-specific basis for those surface Impoundments for which a
complete assessment was conducted (see Section 5.1). However,
when the data base was created, some parameters were grouped
Into categories for the purpose of rating the sites as to
potential for groundwater contamination, and the "raw" data were
not Included 1n the data base. Therefore, the data can only be
extracted as ranges. The following 1s a summary of the data
(SUka and Swearlngen 1978). Refer to Tables G-l and G-2 1n
Appendix G for the relation between the rating and the raw data.
• Thickness of the unsaturated zone. This parameter 1s
classified Into one of five categories ranging from 1 m to
greater than 30 m.
• Earth material for unsaturated zone category. This parameter
1s classified Into one of three categories ranging from
material with a permeability of 2 gpd/ft2 to 0.02 gpd/ft2.
• Thickness of saturated zone. This parameter 1s placed 1n one
of three categories ranging from 3 to 30 m.
• Liner. The assessments often Include Information on whether
a Uner 1s present and on the type of Uner. Liner types
Include: clay, modified bentonlte, chemically modified clay,
concrete, asphalt, metal, polyethylene, plastldzed PVC,
butyl rubber sheeting, chlorinated polyethylene.
• Size. Another auxiliary parameter that 1s sometimes Included
1n the site-specific assessments 1s the size of the
Impoundment. The Information sources reviewed for this
methodology were not clear as to whether the size 1s reported
as area, capacity, or depth. Surface areas may be estimated
1f capacity and depth are known or estimated.
The following parameters are sometimes available 1n accessible
form from sources other than the SIA data base:
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• Capacity. For hazardous waste Impoundments the capacity will
be listed on the RCRA hazardous waste treatment/storage/
disposal (TSD) permit application (see Section 2.3.3(4) and
Exhibit 0-1 1n Appendix D) and will be entered 1n the HWDHS
data base.
• Effluent characteristics. If the surface Impoundment has a
NPOES permit (see Exhibit H-2 1n Appendix H) to discharge
Into surface waters, the effluent volume may be available 1n
the Industrial Facilities Discharge (IFD) file (see Section 6
and Exhibit H-2 1n Appendix H). However, 1f the facility has
other outfalls 1n addition to the surface Impoundment
outfalls, 1t may not be clear from the IFD printout which
flow corresponds to the surface Impoundments.
c. Decide which of the parameters listed 1n Step l.a but not
Step l.b (I.e., parameters that are useful but not readily
available) can be obtained from existing files at regional EPA
offices and state solid waste agencies.
All parameters listed 1n l.a are sometimes available from
agency files. The RCRA Part B permit application may contain
much of the site-specific Information related to pollution
potential for hazardous waste surface Impoundments. However,
there are presently no plans for computerization of the
Information contained 1n these applications, so these data will
generally have to be retrieved manually from the EPA regional
offices. Many of the parameters may be Included 1n state permit
files, depending on how comprehensive the state's records are.
See Section IX of USEPA 1978 for a summary of state policies and
regulations regarding surface Impoundments.
Step 2. a. Select the most appropriate model for predicting releases
based on design/operating characteristics of the surface
Impoundments and the characteristics of the Impounded wastes.
The Ideal model for predicting environmental releases from
surface Impoundments would be multimedia and would Incorporate
the biological, chemical, and physical processes that occur
within the Impoundment, such as blodegradatlon and sorptlon; 1t
would also Include provisions for the effect of Uners on
releases to groundwater was Identified 1n the Information
resources consulted 1n developing this volume. No such model,
was Identified 1n the Information resources consulted to develop
this volume, although the SESOIL model developed by Arthur D.
Little Inc. for the EPA Office of Toxic Substances Is
potentially adaptable for this purpose. See Section 3.1.3 of
this report and Volume 5 of this methods development series for
a more detailed discussion of modeling considerations.
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A set of equations for estimating releases to air from surface
Impoundments 1s presented 1n Hwang (1982). These equations
consider the following parameters:
• Chemical properties of the Impounded substance
• Concentration of the substance
• Surface area of Impoundment
• Overall mass transfer coefficient (based on the equilibrium
constant, the liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient, and the
gas-phase mass transfer coefficient).
This model estimates the release rate 1n grams per second.
The most difficult parameter to estimate when using this model
1s the concentration, which 1s not usually available for
existing facilities and difficult to estimate accurately 1n
proposed facilities.
b. Determine which site-specific design/operating parameters
are required to predict releases from surface Impoundments;
consider whether there are "default" values for these parameters
that can be used 1n the absence of site-specific data.
Estimating releases from surface Impoundments generally requires
numerous cl1matolog1cal, soil, chemlcal-spedf 1c, and
site-specific data. The following procedures provide guidance on
how to acquire data for a few parameters for which generic data
have not been previously compiled.
t Surface area of the Impoundment (m^). When site-specific
Information on the area of the Impoundment 1s not available
(either 1n the SIA or EPA/state files) assume that the
average area of most Impoundments 1s 1 ha (2.5 acres).
Alternatively, do a retrieval of the SIA data base to obtain
representative capacity data for the appropriate type of
Impoundment (e.g., municipal sewage treatment, Industrial,
etc.) that can be used as surrogate data. Obviously, 1f the
capacity (volume) and the depth of the Impoundment are
available on a site-specific basis, the area can be
calculated, thus avoiding the need for surrogate values.
• Depth to groundwater (m). As stated previously, this will be
roughly available through the rating system for surface
Impoundments that were Included 1n the SIA data base (see
Section 5.1). For those that were Included, there are at
least two options: (1) Go to the sources of original data
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recommended 1n the SIA documentation (USEPA 1978), or (2)
retrieve relevant data for other surface Impoundments 1n the
vicinity of the s1te(s) of Interest, and use those data to
estimate the depth of the unsaturated zone.
• Depth of the upper, middle, and lower soil zones. The data
1n the SIA are not sufficiently detailed to deduce
differences between the various soil layers; therefore,
unless site-specific data can be obtained manually from state
or EPA files, or from sources mentioned 1n USEPA (1978),
assume a uniform unsaturated soil layer, with no
distinguishable upper, middle, or lower soil zones.
• Total volume of Impounded liquid wastes. Volume data can be
calculated from the depth and surface area on a site-specific
basis from the SIA or HWDMS data bases (assume capacity =
volume). Alternatively, 1f resources permit, capacity
Information could be obtained manually from state or EPA
permit files. If no site- specific data are available, use
surrogate data obtained by a computer retrieval (SIA or
HWDMS) of capacity data for Impoundments expected to be
similar to the Impoundment(s) of Interest. As a last resort,
calculate volume, assuming that the area 1s 1 ha (2.5 acres)
and that the depth 1s within the range given below, depending
on the type of Impoundment (USEPA 1978). If the type of
Impoundment 1s not known, one may assume a depth of 3.8 m,
which 1s midway between the lowest and highest values listed.
Aerated lagoon: 2.4-4.6 m
Oxidation pond: 1.9-2.4 m
Anaerobic lagoon: 3.5-5.2 m
• Concentration of subject chemical substance 1n the Impounded
liquid (mass/volume). This parameter can be estimated using
knowledge of the mass of the chemical substance 1n the
Impounded waste (from Stage IV) 1n conjunction with the total
volume of Impounded wastes (see above). A simple dilution
calculation can be used, as follows (Equation 5-1).
C = M (5-1)
V
where
C = concentration of subject chemical 1n Impounded waste
M = mass of chemical 1n Impounded waste
V = total volume of Impounded waste.
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• Pollutant loading 1n each soil zone (mass/area). This
parameter, which will be required by any applicable model,
will be based on the concentration of the subject chemical 1n
the Impoundment, which will 1n turn be based on the output of
Stage IV, Step 4 (waste volume and concentration) and the
total volume of Impounded wastes (determined as above). The
exact method of deriving pollutant loading will depend on the
model requirements and on whether the Impoundment 1s lined.
In the cases where monitoring data exist for the
Impoundment(s) of Interest, this data can be used 1n place of
estimated concentration.
Step 3. Estimate releases to air, surface waters, and groundwater from
each surface Impoundment handling the subject waste, using an
appropriate model. The exact output of this effort will depend
on the model(s) selected.
If monitoring data are available, compare with predicted
concentrations. If estimated concentrations do not corroborate
measured values, use best Judgment to evaluate the discrepancy.
If applicable, calibrate the model and rerun. See Volumes 1, 2,
and 5 of this series for guidance on completing the exposure
assessment.
Very few monitoring data are available for surface
Impoundments. Monitoring data for some sites are Included In
the auxiliary Information 1n the SIA data base; a retrieval from
that data base would Include such data when they exist.
However, these data are highly variable with regard to both
quality and quantity. Monitoring of surface Impoundments 1s
required under RCRA. Unfortunately, there are no plans to
computerize this data, which 1s available only through
Individual states or EPA regional offices.
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6. PUBLICLY OWNED TREATMENT WORKS (POTWs)
Public sewage authorities collect and treat residential, commercial,
and Industrial wastewaters, as well as groundwater seepage and storm
waters. Their capabilities range from collection without treatment to
collection with advanced wastewater treatment. Exposure to chemical
substances from POTWs can occur via the discharge of treated or untreated
municipal wastewaters to surface waters or to groundwater, by
volatilization of chemicals during treatment, and through treatment and
disposal of sludges. Background Information on POTWs 1s given 1n Section
6.1. Section 6.2 comprises the Stage IV decision tree, and Section 6.3
discusses Stage V. Information on computer retrievals of POTW data 1s
Included 1n Section 6.1. In general, there 1s considerable Information
available on the location and design of POTWs, less Information on
chemical Inputs to POTWs, and limited tools for predicting releases of
specific chemicals from POTWs. Some monitoring data are available.
6.1 Background Information
Information on municipal wastewater treatment by POTWs, occurrence of
chemicals 1n sludges and wastewaters, and tools for estimating
environmental releases are discussed below. This section provides the
Information base for the Stage IV and Stage V decision trees.
6.1.1 General
A variety of treatment types are currently 1n use at municipal treat-
ment plants (POTWs) nationwide. Regardless of the treatment type,
however, POTWs usually operate 24 hours per day. Wastewater treatment
plants can be categorized Into the following general classes, depending
on the degree of treatment: preliminary, primary, secondary, and
tertiary. Effluents discharged from plants that have preliminary
treatment are considered "raw" wastewater. Preliminary treatment
Includes comminution, screening, and grit removal. Primary treatment
goes beyond this to remove most settleable solids. For regulatory
purposes, 1t 1s defined as producing effluent that does not meet
secondary treatment standards; conventional primary treatment generally
provides preliminary treatment plus primary sedimentation. Advanced
primary treatment Includes some biological treatment as well (Culp 1979).
Secondary treatment consists of preliminary plus biological processes
with no additional process except disinfection. Biological processes
include treatment by trickling filters, activated sludge, and rotating
biological contactors. Advanced secondary treatment consistently
provides effluents with low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (24-10 mg/1)
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and the removal of nutrients, phosphorous, and/or ammonia. Tertiary
treatment 1s defined 1n terms of the effluent BOO and the removal of
nitrogen; tertiary plants must consistently produce effluent with a BOD
less than 10 mg/1 and have specific processes that can remove more than
50 percent of the total nitrogen present 1n the Influent wastewaters
(Gulp 1979).
Finally, the "no discharge" category Includes lagoon systems designed
for evaporation and/or Infiltration. To a lesser degree, wastewaters 1n
this category are treated by recycling, reuse, spray Irrigation, or
groundwater recharge. Surface Impoundments are associated with many
wastewater treatment processes and may be used for storage, treatment, or
disposal (USEPA 1981e).
By mandate of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), there
1s a large body of readily available data on municipal wastewater
collection and treatment that will aid 1n the assessment of exposure to
toxic pollutants from this source. In particular, the annual Needs
Survey conducted by the Priority Needs Branch of the EPA Office of Water
Program Operations provides a wealth of both site-specific and generic
data 1n the form of computer retrievals and publications. The national
summary of municipal wastewater treatment presented 1n Table 7 1n
Section 2.3.3(3) 1s derived from the 1980 Needs Survey (USEPA 1981e). A
total of about 97,117,000 m3/day of wastewater was treated by POTWs 1n
1980.
Of the 30 percent of the U.S. population not served by public sewage
authorities, the majority 1s probably served by on-s1te septic tanks or
leachflelds; however, the Needs Survey does not give this Information.
This report does not consider disposal of wastewaters on-s1te.
Nationwide, about 83 percent of wastewaters treated by POTWs are of
domestic (residential or commercial) origin, the balance being
contributed by Industrial plants (USEPA 1981e). The extent of Industrial
wastewater treatment by POTWs varies widely from locality to locality,
ranging from treatment plants that receive no Industrial effluents to
plants that are operated jointly by a sewage authority and an Industry,
treating a large volume of Industrial wastewaters. The degree to which
Industrial wastewaters are discharged Indirectly (I.e., via POTWs to
surface waters) depends on many factors, Including the treatment
capability of the local POTW, the nature of the Industrial wastewaters,
cost considerations on the part of both the Industry and the sewage
authority, and federal and state policies and regulations. The EPA 1s
developing pretreatment standards applicable to a number of Industries
that discharge to POTWs.
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6.1.2 Chemical Substances 1n POTW Effluent and Sludge
Metallic and nonvolatile organic compounds 1n the Influent wastewater
to POTWs can accumulate 1n the sludge. The extent of this accumulation
depends on the chemical properties of the substance, Its concentration 1n
the Influent stream, and the design and operating characteristics of the
plant. A portion of the more volatile organic chemicals 1s lost to the
atmosphere during treatment processes. The balance of the chemical Is
generally discharged with the plant effluent to surface waters (and
sometimes groundwater). Some toxic substances, most notably several
chlorinated hydrocarbons, are formed during the treatment process (Burns
and Roe 1982); other substances may undergo blotransformatlon (USEPA
1979c). The Effluent Guidelines Division (EGO) of EPA has undertaken a
study of priority pollutants 1n POTW Influent, effluent, and sludge,
based on sampling of 50 different plants (Burns and Roe 1982). The
results provide Information on removal efficiencies of the priority
pollutants detected. Tables H-l through H-7 1n Appendix H give the
summary statistics from the study, Including concentrations of priority
pollutants 1n Influent, secondary effluent, and raw sludge, as well as
percent removal by various treatment methods. In the absence of more
reliable data, these results can be used as surrogate data to estimate
removal efficiencies of other compounds with similar chemical properties.
6.1.3 Predicting Releases of Chemical Substances from POTWs
Some attempts have been made to model POTW processes, but this study
has not Identified any validated models that can accurately predict
releases to air, water, and sludge based on Influent concentration for
the range of available wastewater and sludge treatment processes. The
Monitoring and Data Support Division (MOSD) of the EPA Office of Water
Regulations and Standards has developed a POTW model that might be
adaptable to the needs of some exposure assessments. This model predicts
the releases of priority pollutants to surface waters and to sludge based
on the following variables: (1) known or estimated Influent
concentrations and flow; (2) estimated removal efficiency; and (3)
estimated loss through volatilization. The removal efficiencies are
based on the POTW study of Burns and Roe 1982. This model 1s already
connected with the Industrial Facilities Discharge (IFD) file (see
Section 2.3.3(3) and Exhibit H-2 1n Appendix H), which facilitates
modeling of the aquatic transport and fate. The model 1s very limited,
however, 1n that: (1) 1t does not model releases to air; (2) 1t predicts
aqueous effluent releases for only priority pollutants; and (3) 1t models
only one treatment configuration (typical secondary treatment). Ideally,
a POTW model for exposure assessments would predict toxic substance
concentrations and total waste volume for releases to air, effluent
water, and sludge, based on treatment (Including sludge treatment). It
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would take Into account the Inhibitory effects that high concentrations
of certain toxic chemicals have on treatment efficiency and would
consider the wastewater of Interest 1n the context of the total Influent
flow to the POTW.
In the absence of a model, there are some available data that may be
used to predict environmental releases. The Needs Survey (described 1n
detail In Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H) contains site-specific Information
on flows, treatment type, and populations served, and can be accessed by
computer. The Needs Survey report (USEPA 1981e) provides the per capita
domestic wastewater generation rate which 1s 479 I1ters/cap1ta/day
nationwide. (Domestic wastewater Includes both residential and
commercial wastewaters.) The Needs Survey provides both site-specific
Information and generic data. Together with the sludge generation
factors given 1n Table 34, these data can be used to estimate effluent
flow, as well as volume of sludge generated at a particular plant. The
removal efficiencies and concentrations of some chemical substances 1n
the sludge and POTW effluent may be very roughly estimated using the data
1n Tables H-l through H-7 1n Appendix H for priority pollutants and
possibly for chemicals that are structurally similar to the priority
pollutants studied. The typical moisture and solids content of a sludge
after various treatments can be estimated from data 1n Table 35.
Finally, as a result of the National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES), some site-specific Information on flow and concentrations
of toxic chemicals 1n effluent 1s available for all major Industries that
discharge to POTWs. The flow and Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) codes of plants belonging to one of the 21 major Industries (see
Table D-8 1n Appendix 8) that discharge Indirectly are available from the
Industrial Facilities Discharge (IFD) file (see Appendix H), along with
the NPDES permit number of the POTW to which they discharge. Thus, for
any given POTW, the Identity of the major Industrial contributors 1s
readily available; conversely, for a known plant, the POTW to which 1t
discharges (1f any) 1s easily learned.
The EPA Office of Toxic Substances (OTS) 1s sponsoring a project to
tabulate frequency distributions of (1) POTW plant flows, (2) receiving
stream flows, and (3) dilution factors for all POTWs 1n the IFD data
base. These frequency distributions will be Invaluable tools 1n
nationwide exposure assessments Involving releases of chemicals from
POTWs.
Monitoring data on POTW effluents and sludges are not available for
many plants, and any available data will usually be limited to priority
priority pollutants. The POTW study conducted by EGD (Burns and Roe
1982) contains site-specific monitoring data for 50 "typical" POTWs 1n
the U.S. It also provides data on the reduction of priority pollutants
137
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Table 35. Solids Content in Sludges in Relation to Treatment
Sludge treatment
Solids
content %
Comments
Raw primary sludge
after thickening
Raw secondary activated
siudge
after thickening
Sludge stabilization
(aerobic or
anaerobic digestion)
Dewatering
in sandbeds
1-3
0.5-1
3-6
See comment
45
Vacuum fIIter
15-30
Conditioning, which occurs
prior to thickening or de-
watering, does not change
solids content appreciably.
Pressure f iItratIon
40-50
Converts 50% of organic
solids to liquid and gas
forms.
Occurs after digestion.
After 6 weeks of drying
solids, content may be as
high as 85-90?. In the
past, was the most popular
method of dewatering.
After this process, sludges
can be placed in landfills,
landspread, or Incinerated.
Currently, the most popular
method of dewatering.
Not widely used in U.S.
Source: Gulp 1979.
139
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effected by Individual treatment processes. The Permit Compliance System
(PCS), a computerized data base maintained by the EPA Office of Water
Enforcement and Permits, contains effluent sampling data for the major
NPDES permit holders, Including major municipal treatment plants.
However, data are generally limited to conventional and selected priority
pollutants. Limited additional data may be 1n the NPDES files at EPA
regional offices or 1n the corresponding state agency files. Some of the
states that have their own NPDES programs may have computerized data
bases containing effluent Information for permits.
6.2 Allocating Wastewater to Individual POTWs - Stage IV Decision
Tree
The output of the Stage IV decision tree depends on the scope and
depth of the assessment. At the greatest level of detail, 1t will
provide a 11st of all POTWs that are probable candidates for disposal of
the subject wastewater, together with their Individual capacities and
current operating characteristics. For more general assessments, 1t will
provide for each POTW treatment configuration of Interest estimates of
(1) the typical quantity of the subject waste stream treated per plant
and (2) the number of plants (1f needed 1n the exposure assessment). The
latter Information may be provided on a nationwide basis or may be
limited to the POTWs of a specific region or those receiving the
wastewaters of a specific Industry segment (Identified by SIC code).
There 1s a considerable body of fairly reliable data for this
decision tree. Note that 1n the case of detailed assessments requiring
computer retrievals, Stage IV will usually be performed along with the
Stage III decision tree for wastewater as a single Integrated operation.
In order to evaluate the potential for environmental releases from
treatment, storage, and disposal of wastewaters 1n surface Impoundments,
deepwell injection, or land treatment of wastewater, the user will have
to consult the Information 1n Sections 4 and 5, as well as this section.
Keep 1n mind that the Information on how a POTW treats Its wastewaters
and sludges and on the characteristics and quantities of waste generated
will come from this section. In order to find out what happens to toxic
chemicals 1n wastewaters that are landspread, placed 1n surface
Impoundments, or deep-well Injected, see Sections 4, 5, and 8,
respectively.
Step 1. List the POTWs that are probable candidates for disposal of the
subject wastewater together with their capacities and current
operating characteristics. (See l.a for domestic,wastewaters
and l.b for Industrial wastewaters.)
140
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a. Domestic wastewaters. If the assessment 1s nationwide 1n
scope, then all of the POTWs 1n the U.S. are to be considered.
Instead of compiling a 11st, consult Table 7 for a breakdown of
the nation's POTWs by treatment types. Alternatively, use the
data compiled by OTS on the frequency distribution of POTW flows
1n the U.S. (see description 1n Section 6.1).
For assessments of regional or statewide scope, consult the
annual summary of Needs Survey data base (USEPA 1981e). This
provides POTW flow rates and treatment type breakdowns for each
state. Summaries from the Needs Survey of the treatment
populations and domestic flows by state are provided 1n Tables
D-l and D-2 1n Appendix 0.
For assessments requiring site-specific data, a computer
retrieval from the Needs Survey data base 1s recommended
(Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H). This can provide not only the
proportion of the subject wastewater treated by POTWs (the usual
output of Stage III for wastewater), but also (1) a 11st of the
Individual POTWs 1n a specified county, sewer district, or other
local area; (2) the capacity and current flow of each listed
POTW; and (3) the type and level of wastewater treatment
employed at each listed POTW. Thus, a single retrieval should
suffice for both stages. At the same time, data may be
retrieved on treatment methods employed for sludges (see Step 2).
b. Industrial wastewaters. If the assessment 1s nationwide
1n scope and the Industry 1s widespread, then almost all of the
POTWs 1n the U.S. are to be considered. Therefore, Instead of
compiling a 11st, consult Table 7 for a breakdown of the
nation's POTWs by treatment types.
If greater geographic resolution 1s required, a computer
retrieval from the IFD data base 1s recommended (see Exhibit H-2
1n Appendix H). In this case, Stages III (for wastewater) and
IV (for POTWs) are usually performed together as one operation.
For Industry-wide assessments, the data base may be accessed by
SIC code; a geographic limitation can be superimposed on this 1f
desired. The retrieval will Identify each receiving POTW with
data on flow. For Information on all POTWs receiving Industrial
wastewaters 1n a given area, the user can specify the area and
the SIC code 4952, which pertains to POTWs. This will Identify
each Industrial plant which discharges to each POTW, and will
provide flow data-. A Needs Survey data base retrieval can then
be conducted for Information on treatment types employed.
141
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For new "hypothetical" plants that are likely to discharge to
POTWs (based on the available EGD documents on Industrial
wastewater practices or other Information), the candidate POTWs
can be chosen by examining both the IFD and the Needs Survey
retrievals. The Needs Survey retrieval will 11st all of the
POTWs 1n the area. The IFD will show which area POTWs are
already receiving Industrial wastes; 1n the absence of better
Information, assume that these plants will be able to handle the
new plant's effluent as well.
When conducting Needs Survey retrievals, do not forget to
Include a request for Information on sludge treatment methods
employed (see Step 2).
Step 2. Determine the methods of sludge treatment employed by subject
POTWs. Acquisition of sludge treatment Information actually
constitutes part of the Stage III decision tree for POTW sludges
(Section 2.2.3(2)). It 1s Included here as a reminder to
request sludge treatment Information when conducting a Needs
Survey retrieval as directed 1n Step 1 above.
6.3 Estimating Releases from POTWs - Stage V Decision Tree
In this stage, the user estimates releases to surface waters from
POTW effluents based on knowledge of Influent concentrations and plant
design/operating conditions. The output of this stage 1s a compilation
of releases (mass per unit time), chemical concentrations (mass per mass
or mass per volume), and flow (volume per unit time) associated with
aqueous discharges from POTWs. Releases to air from POTWs may also be
estimated 1n Stage V, provided that reliable monitoring data or
estimation methods are available. In order to estimate releases from
land treatment, surface Impoundment, or deep-well Injection of POTW
wastewaters, the user 1s referred to the Stage V decision trees for those
disposal methods.
A detailed decision tree has not been developed for this stage, since
the lack of a generally useful model precludes the accurate estimation of
releases. The Stage V output should also Include estimates of the
quantity of POTW sludge and of the quantity of the subject chemical 1n
the sludge. (This Information 1s Input for the estimation of
environmental releases associated with disposal of the sludge, starting
with Stage III.)
Step 1. Identify and 11st the significant POTW design and operating
characteristics that affect environmental releases of chemical
substances.
142
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The type of wastewater and sludge treatment components, and
the plant design capacity 1n relationship to actual quantity of
wastewaters treated are the key factors that determine
environmental releases of chemicals from POTWs.
Step 2. Determine which of the parameters listed 1n Step 1 are known for
the s1te(s) of Interest based on accessible (e.g., computerized)
data.
Information on wastewater and sludge treatment components and
on current design and operating capacity 1s available 1n
computerized form from a Needs Survey retrieval where
site-specific data 1s required. For regional or large-scale
exposure assessments where exposure estimates for a large
geographical area (e.g. nationwide) will be based on
extrapolation from one or more "typical" plants, design and
operating capacity from such typical plants can be extracted
from the annual Needs Survey summary (e.g., USEPA 1981e) or from
a Needs Survey retrieval for the region of Interest. See Table
H-8 1n Appendix H for a listing of the treatment components
Included 1n the Needs Survey and Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H for a
description of the scope and utility of the Needs Survey. Note
that the Information required for this step should be
coordinated with other Information needed from the Needs Survey
so that only one retrieval 1s necessary (see Sections 2.3.3(2),
2.3.3(3) and 6.2).
Step 3. Identify a suitable approach for predicting environmental
releases based on design/operating characteristics.
The only model Identified 1n this study as potentially useful
1n estimating chemical releases from POTWs Is the POTW model
developed by the Monitoring and Data Support Division (MSDS) of
the EPA Office of Water Regulations and Standards (see Section
6.1.3 for a discussion of the scope and limitations of this
model). The MDSD POTW model may be useful 1n exposure
assessments of priority pollutants (or of analogous chemicals)
1n cases where the model POTW (based on a typical plant with
secondary treatment) adequately represents the POTWs of Interest
1n the assessment. In the case of exposure assessments for
which the MDSD model 1s not suitable, data allowing estimation
of the partitioning of the chemical or a suitable analog among
aqueous effluent, sludge, and air should be procured. The only
such source of data Identified 1n this study Is the Burns and
Roe (1982) report which 1s limited to priority pollutant (see
Tables H-l through H-7 1n Appendix H).
143
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Step 4. Using the available predictive approach, estimate the releases
to water and to sludge of the chemical from each POTW of
Interest 1n the assessment. (Chemical releases to air from
POTWs are not usually evaluated 1n exposure assessments, because
they are assumed to result 1n Insignificant exposure.)
Step 5. Compare estimates from Step 4 with available monitoring data, 1f
any. If estimates and monitoring data do not agree, re-evaluate
the predictive methods and repeat the analysis, 1f necessary.
Step 6. Use the estimates of sludge generated as Input to Stage III
(Section 2.3.3(2)) and complete the analysis of environmental
releases from disposal of the sludge.
Step 7. Complete the exposure assessment using Volumes 1, 2, and 5 of
this methods development series. POTW effluents are usually
treated as a point source 1n the analysis of environmental fate.
144
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7. INCINERATION
Incineration 1s the controlled burning of wastes resulting 1n their
thermal destruction. Toxic gases and partlculates may be emitted to the
air during Incineration, and Incinerator residues require ultimate
disposal to land and surface water. Considerable Information 1s
available on the location and design of Incinerators. However, this
study Identified no validated model for estimating environmental releases
of a range of chemicals from Incinerators or for predicting the chemical
composition of Incinerator residues. Thus, there will be considerable
uncertainty 1n the Stage V estimates until an appropriate predictive
approach 1s developed. Background Information on this method 1s
presented 1n Section 7.1, followed by the Stage IV and Stage V decision
trees 1n Sections 7.2 and 7.3. For Information on the ultimate disposal
of and environmental releases from Incineration residues, see Section
2.3.3(1).
7.1 Background Information
This section presents Information that 1s the basis for the Stage IV
and Stage V decision trees on Incineration. This Includes discussions of
the types and numbers of Incinerators, Important Information resources on
Incineration, emissions and by-products of Incineration, and approaches
to estimating environmental releases.
7.1.1 General
Incineration 1s currently used as a waste treatment method for
municipal sludge, municipal solid waste (MSW), and Industrial wastes
(hazardous and nonhazardous). Some Incinerators are designed for some
form of resource recovery, most often steam production. The advantages
of Incineration as a waste treatment technique are that the waste volume
1s considerably reduced and the resulting residues are largely Inert.
Disadvantages Include the expensive air pollution control equipment and
high energy requirements necessary for compliance with regulations Issued
under the Clean A1r Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA).
Four classes of Incinerators have been defined for regulatory
purposes: municipal, sewage sludge, Industrial, and hazardous waste
Incinerators. (Hazardous waste Incinerators are actually a subset of
Industrial Incinerators.) Industrial boilers sometimes burn
refuse-derived fuel (RDF), which may contain toxic chemicals. However,
they are not currently subject to federal regulation, and little 1s known
about their operating characteristics or the types of waste they burn.
Industrial boilers will not be considered further 1n this report;
however, an Inventory of municipal waste-fired boilers 1s presented 1n
145
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Appendix I, Table 1-1. Certain other methods of thermal waste treatment
are not yet widely used 1n the U.S. and will not be discussed 1n this
report. These Include wet air oxidation, flash drying, and pyrolysls.
Each major category of Incinerators 1s discussed below.
(1) Municipal Incinerators. Municipal Incinerators are defined as
Incinerators that burn at least 50 percent municipal solid waste. Their
numbers have decreased 1n the last decade because of the high cost of air
pollution control equipment and energy. The total national solid waste
disposal capacity of Incinerators decreased by 40 percent between 1971
and 1976 (Helfand 1979a). In 1972, there were 193 Incinerator plants,
and 1n 1977 there were only 103 Incinerator plants with 252 furnaces and
a total solid waste disposal capacity of about 36,000 kkg/day. More
recent surveys of municipal Incinerators are presented as Tables 1-2 and
1-3 1n Appendix I of this report. These Indicate that there are
currently only 90 small municipal Incinerators (capacity less than 45
kkg/day) and 46 large municipal Incinerators (capacities between 48 and
1,450 kkg/day). (Although the data do not specify whether 1t 1s plants
or furnaces that are enumerated, 1t 1s most likely that the figures refer
to plants.)
Four types of furnaces are used for Incineration of MSW: vertical
circular, multlcell rectangular, rectangular, and rotary kiln furnaces.
The rectangular furnace 1s the most common type (Helfand 1979a). When
these furnaces are properly operated, the following temperatures are
typical of various stages In the Incineration process:
• Temperature of gases immediately above burning wastes:
1150°-1370°C
• Temperature of gases when they leave combustion chamber:
760°-980°C
• Temperature of gas entering stack: less than 540°C
Municipal Incinerators are routinely operated for periods of from 8
to 24 hours a day for 5 to 7 days a week. One survey showed that 53
percent operated 24 hours a day and 36 percent operated 8 hours a day.
The current trend 1s toward 24-hour operation (Rubel 1974).
Several kinds of emission control devices used are on municipal
Incinerators. Incinerators constructed between 1955 and 1965 generally
used mechanical cyclone collectors, which have particulate removal
efficiencies of 60 to 80 percent. Other emission control systems
Installed Included various scrubber techniques and electrostatic
predpltators (ESP).
(2) Sewage sludge Incinerators. Disposal of municipal wastewater
treatment sludge by Incineration is the most common method of handling
these sludges (see Table 6 1n Section 2.3.3(2)). Sewage sludge
146
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Incinerators are defined as those that burn more than 50 percent sewage
sludge (Helfand 1979b). In 1979, 1t was estimated that 240 municipal
sewage sludge Incinerators were 1n operation. The majority (80 percent)
of the plants have multiple hearth furnaces (MHF) which burn an estimated
85 to 90 percent of the Incineration sludge (Helfand 1979b, USEPA
1979a). Most of the remaining sewage sludge Incinerators are fluldlzed
bed reactors (a relatively new technology). Electric (Infrared)
Incinerators are even newer and are used by about nine plants (Helfand
1979b). Thirty- eight states have at least one sludge Incineration
facility. Figure 1-1 1n Appendix I presents the geographic distribution
of sewage sludge Incinerators 1n 1978. Sewage sludge Incinerators
generally use sludge that has at least 20 percent solids. Multiple
hearth Incinerators have capacity ranging from 91 to 3600 kg/hr of dry
sludge with operating temperatures ranging from 700°C to 1100°C. Gas
temperatures may exceed 760°C 1n the combustion zone.
Scrubber equipment has been the traditional air pollution control In
sewage sludge Incinerators. Control technology 1n place today Includes
Venturl scrubbers 1n series with cyclonic mist eliminators, Impingement
type scrubbers, or multiple series of perforated plate Impingement
scrubbers. No plants employed baghouse or electrostatic predpltators 1n
1978, but these are expected to be used 1n the future (Helfand
1979b).
(3) Industrial Incinerators. This category of Incinerators has been
defined by the EPA as any combustion unit used 1n the process of burning
a nongaseous Industrial waste stream (Including hazardous waste) which
does not recover any heat for a useful purpose (USEPA 1980d). By this
definition, an Industrial waste stream means any waste stream that 1s
composed of more than 50 percent by weight of waste generated at a
manufacturing establishment or collected by a resource recovery
establishment. Industrial Incinerator designs 1n use Include single
chamber, multiple chamber, rotary kiln, rotary hearth, multiple hearth,
liquid Injection, conical, and fluldlzed bed units. Commercial off-site
Incineration facilities generally use the rotary type and operate 24
hours per day.
The total estimated population of Incinerators used by manufacturing
Industries 1s given 1n Table 1-4 1n Appendix I. Table 1-5 presents an
up-to-date Inventory of all hazardous waste Incinerators, a subset of
Industrial Incinerators. (Because hazardous waste Incinerators are a
subset of the Industrial Incinerator population, the Incinerators listed
1n Table 1-5 are probably also Included 1n Table 1-4.) Table 36 presents
a 11st of commercial (off-site) hazardous waste Incinerators.
7.1.2 Information Resources
Information on the number of Incinerators 1n each category comes
from a variety of sources. Incinerators that are considered major
sources (emitting 100 tons/year of a criteria pollutant) are listed 1n
147
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Table 36. Commercial Off-site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities Offering
Incineration Services In I960
EPA Region
1
II
1 II
IV
V
VI
VII
VII 1
IX
X
Number of
facllltes
3
1
1
7
6
6
0
0
1
0
Amount of
waste hand led,
thousands of
wet kkg
23
26
48
65
97
98
0
0
40
0
Percentage of off -site
wastes handled3
7.7
4.0
7.9
7.1
7.3
9.5
0
0
7.5
0
Percentage of
total wastes
handled6
2.1
0.83
1.1
0.62
1.5
0.93
0
0
1.4
0
TOTAL
25
398
6.6
0.97
Percentage of all off-site handled wastes Incinerated.
Percentage of all hazardous wastes generated that are handled by off-site Incinerators.
Source: USEPA I980b.
148
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the National Emissions Data System (NEDS) data base (see Appendices A and
C of Volume 2 of this report). Hazardous waste Incinerators are entered
Into the Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) data base (see
Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n Appendix D). Tables 1-2 through 1-5
1n Appendix I present Inventories prepared by EPA. Commercial
Incinerators other than those handling hazardous wastes have not been
well studied and are not considered here.
Information on environmental releases from Incinerators 1s available
from sources mentioned 1n Section 7.1.3, and from air data bases listed
1n Volume 2, Appendix A of this methods development series.
7.1.3 Emissions and Products of Incineration
Incineration produces a number of by-products, Including gases and
partlculates (fly ash) emitted to the air, scrubber water and other
wastewater, and bottom ash. The disposal methods and characteristics
associated with the ash and waste-water are discussed 1n
Section 2.3.3(1). The air releases depend on the kind of waste, the
design of the Incinerator, and the pollution control equipment. The
partlculate matter that 1s not trapped by the pollution control device
becomes an air release. The following 1s a summary of typical fly ash
collection efficiencies of different control devices (Rube! 1974):
Settling: 0 to 31 percent
Multlcyclone: 30 to 80 percent.
Tangential Inlet cyclones: 30 to 70 percent
Scrubber: 80 to 95 percent
Electrostatic predpltator: 90 to 97 percent
Fabric filter: 97 to 99 percent
Typical air emission factors from sewage sludge Incineration are
given 1n Table 37. Tables 1-6 and 1-7 1n Appendix I present typical
emission factors from municipal and Industrial Incinerators. Tables 38
and 39 give a summary of the data collected during this study on
environmental releases from municipal Incinerators. Because of the
limited nature of these data, they are not necessarily typical of
municipal Incinerators 1n general. Chemical reactions Inside
Incinerators are quite complex; some organic chemical species are
transformed to other species 1n the process. In addition, the toxic
constituents 1n municipal solid waste vary regionally. Emission factors
cannot be estimated reliably unless the toxic concentrations In the waste
feed are measured.
The amount of ash produced by Incineration depends on the type of
waste and the type of Incinerator. Incineration of sewage sludge
typically produces a residue that 1s about 40 percent by dry weight of
149
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150
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Table 38. Summary of Total Organic Chlorine (TOCI) Inputs and
Emissions at the Chicago Northwest Incinerator3
Standard
Mean deviation
Refuse Input
Feed rate, kg/hr 17,200 1,440
TOCI cone, ng/g 590 1,180
TOCI Input, mg/hr 9,800 18,700
Emissions
Combined ash
Mass flow, kg/hr 4,500 800
TOCI cone., ng/g 8.1 7.6
TOCI emissions, mg/hr 35 34
Flue gasc
Mass emissions, dscm/hr 86,780 6,830
TCCI cone., ng/dscm 3,200 3,500
TOCI emissions, mg/hr 285 327
Percent of TCCI emissions
Combined ash 13 12
Flue gas 87 12
Overall Destruction Rate of TOCI, jCd 97
aThirteen samples taken over a 13-day period. The Chicago Northwest
Incinerator Is a continuously operating municipal incinerator with a
furnace temperature of 1,160°F. The total weight reduction through
Incineration ranges from 52 to 65%.
^Includes bottom ash and electrostatic preclpltator (ESP) ash.
cFlue gas collected at the ESP outlet.
dThls study assessed measurement errors of TOCI by adding known amounts
of two surrogate compounds, dg-naphthalene and d^ 2~cnrysene5 to speci-
mens before chemical analysis. Total percent recoveries for the surro-
gates were low. Recoveries for dg-naphthalene were In the range of
10-50?, and recoveries for d^-chrysene were typically 30-60?. If the
percent recoveries are Indicative of the recovery rate for TXI , then TOCI
concentrations are underestimated.
Source: MR I 1981.
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Table 39. Organic Compounds Quant I fated In the Emission Media
for the Chicago Northwest Incinerator8
Phenanthrene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
1 , 3-D 1 c h 1 orobe n zene
1 , 4-D 1 ch 1 oroben ze ne
1,2-D Ichlorobenzene
1 ,2,3-Tr Ichlorobenzene
1,2,4-Tr ichlorobenzene
1,3,5-Tr Ichlorobenzene
Tetrac hi oroben zene
Hexach 1 orobenzene
Dlchlorophenol
Tr Ichlorophenol
Tetrachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
Dlbenzof uran
PCBs
Dlmethylphthalate
Dlethy Iphthalate
Dl-n-butylphthalate
Buty 1 benzy 1 phthal ate
Bis (2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate
Flue gas outlet
emission rate,
mg/hr
9.2 - 28
2.2 - 4.4
6.6 - 8.0
ND
ND
ND
4.0 - 12
17 - 48
15 - 40
54 - 120
4.0 - 22
22 - 54
98 - 160
96 - 140
14 - 36
5.8 - 11
1.1 - 7.8
Combined ash
emission rate,
mg/hr
_
ND - 78
ND - 56
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND - 400
ND
54 - 260
ND
420 - 3,000
aSee Table 38 for Information on this study. ND denotes that the
compound was not detected. Blank denotes sampling not performed.
Composite refuse extracts were not analyzed so no destruction efficiency
can be determined.
Source: MRI 1981.
152
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the original dry weight of the sludge (Walker 1979). The typical ash
content of MSW 1s given 1n Table 13 1n Section 2.3.3(6). The ash 1n the
study reported 1n Table 38 was 26 percent of the waste feed by weight.
7.1.4 Estimating Emissions from Incineration
No validated models that predict emissions of a variety of chemical
substances from Incinerators based on waste constituents and on facility
design and operating factors were Identified 1n this study. The quantity
and composition of the by-products depend on a number of factors,
Including type of waste, moisture content of waste, residence time of
waste, operating temperature, degree of mixing, excess air, waste feed
rate, mode of waste Input, and type of pollution control equipment. The
EPA Office of Solid Waste 1s currently undertaking studies that may
culminate 1n some standard emission factors that can be used to estimate
toxic emissions. Work 1s also underway to characterize the operating
conditions of existing hazardous waste Incinerators and to develop models
for predicting mass balances for Incinerated chemical substances; this
work 1s being sponsored by the EPA Office of Research and Development
(ORD) 1n Cincinnati. Meanwhile, a model that has recently been developed
by ORO for determining the destruction efficiency of hazardous wastes 1n
boilers (Wolbach 1982) 1s potentially adaptable to Incinerators as well.
Numerous sampling studies of Incinerator emissions are also 1n progress.
Until there 1s a suitable model, however, estimates of emissions will
have to be based on evaluation of available monitoring and test burn
data.
A large amount of trial burn data will probably be generated as a
result of recently promulgated regulations regarding the Issuance of
hazardous waste Incineration permits under RCRA (USEPA 1981c, 1982b).
Permit applicants must specify the waste feed mixtures they Intend to
burn. The permit then specifies for each mixture a principal organic
hazardous constituent (POHC) which must be destroyed or removed as
required by the applicable performance standard. The applicants must
conduct trial burns and submit to EPA the calculated destruction and
removal efficiency (ORE) for these POHCs. They must also supply
sufficient Information to determine whether the POHCs are primarily
destroyed through combustion or are removed either by air pollution
control equipment or by partitioning Into the bottom ash. (The applicant
1s not required to provide a detailed mass balance, however.) Detailed
data are also required on the average, maximum, and minimum temperatures
1n the combustion zone and the air feed rate. Unfortunately, while these
data will be available through the various EPA regional offices, they
will not be easily retrievable; plans to enter these data Into a
computerized data base have been Indefinitely postponed. Meanwhile, a
report summarizing most of these data 1s being prepared under the
sponsorship of EPA-ORD 1n Cincinnati.
153
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Currently feasible approaches for estimating environmental releases
from Incinerators are presented 1n the Stage V decision tree (Section
7.3). Once emission factors are known (or estimated), the dispersion of
releases to the ambient air may be modeled using the procedure for point
sources outlined 1n Volume 2 of this report. EPA has recently published
a document that provides guidelines on how to model the environmental
fate of environmental releases from hazardous waste Incinerators and
Includes Information on suggested screening mechanisms (USEPA 1981a);
this report should be consulted by users of this methods development
series.
7.2 Allocating Haste Streams to Individual Incinerators - Stage IV
Decision Tree
The procedure for estimating the amount of a waste that 1s handled at
each receiving Incinerator 1s presented 1n this section. First, the user
determines what subpopulatlon of Incinerators might handle the waste.
Knowledge of the waste characteristics and whether disposal will be on-
or off-site 1s helpful here. Then the user estimates the amount of the
waste treated at each of the candidate facilities. The Information base
for this decision tree 1s fairly comprehensive for all but nonhazardous
Industrial waste Incinerators.
The Input to this stage 1s the Stage III estimate of waste quantity
and chemical concentration produced per unit time, and Information on the
source of the waste. The output of Stage IV 1s a 11st of candidate
Incinerator sites and estimates of the quantity of the subject waste
treated at each site.
Step 1. Determine whether the disposal of the subject waste will be
limited to certain types of Incinerators. The output of this
step will be a 11st of the types of Incinerators that are
candidates for disposal of waste.
a. Municipal solid waste. MSW 1s generally burned 1n
rectangular furnaces. Other types Include vertical circular,
multlcell rectangular, rectangular, and rotary kiln.
b. Municipal sludge. Sewage sludge will generally be
Incinerated 1n a multiple hearth Incinerator, although sometimes
fluldlzed bed or electric Incinerators are used (see Section
7.1.1).
c. Hazardous wastes. Check Table 1-8 1n Appendix I to see
whether disposal will be limited to certain types of hazardous
waste Incinerators. Knowledge of the physical and chemical
nature of the waste 1s essential here.
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d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. Industrial waste may
be burned 1n single-chamber, multiple-chamber, rotary kiln,
rotary hearth, multiple hearth, liquid Injection, conical, and
fluldlzed/ bed Incinerators. See Table 1-8 1n Appendix I to
narrow the possibilities further.
Step 2. If applicable, determine the percentage of the waste that will
be disposed of on-s1te versus off-site. This knowledge will be
useful 1n Identifying the population of Incinerators that 1s
likely to receive 1t (Step 3).
a. Municipal solid waste. By definition, disposal of MSW
occurs off-site; therefore 100 percent of the subject waste will
be disposed of off-site.
b. Municipal sludge. Sludge Incinerators are usually located
at or near the POTW; an exception 1s the case where one POTW
sends sludges to another for treatment. Assume that 100 percent
of the subject waste 1s disposed of on-s1te.
c. Hazardous wastes. Most hazardous wastes that are
Incineration rated are treated on-s1te. (There are
approximately 400 hazardous waste Incinerators 1n the U.S., only
25 of which are commercial off-site facilities, see Section
7.1.1.) For Industry-specific Incineration practices, consult
Information on Incineration 1n Appendix C and Table D-5 In
Appendix D.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. The available
Information suggests that there are few, 1f any, nonhazardous
off-site commercial Incineration facilities. Therefore, assume
that 100 percent of the subject waste will be Incinerated
on-s1te. This assumption could be confirmed by comparing an
HWDHS retrieval with a National Emissions Data System (NEDS)
data base retrieval to see whether all Incinerators not In the
HWDMS data base are on-s1te. Information on the NEDS data base
1s Included 1n Appendix A of Volume 2 of this methods
development series.
Identify the Incinerators that are probable candidates for
treatment of the waste based on Information 1n Steps 1 and 2
above and available Inventories (computerized or otherwise) of
disposal facilities. The output of this step will be a 11st of
all of the candidate Incinerator sites 1n the study area.
a. Municipal solid waste. See the current Inventories of
municipal Incinerators 1n Tables 1-2 and 1-3 1n Appendix I.
These Inventories give the location of each Incinerator (by dty
and state). Incinerators located 1n the study area are
candidates for treatment of the subject waste.
155
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b. Municipal sludge. Based on the Needs survey data base
retrieval, all of the POTWs that treat sludges by Incineration
1n the study area will be known (see Sections 2.3.3(2) and 6,
and Exhibit H-l 1n Appendix H). The Needs survey retrieval will
also Indicate the type of Incinerator on-s1te. These will be
the candidate facilities for treatment of the subject waste.
c. Hazardous waste. The facilities 1n the study area that
Incinerate hazardous wastes will be known from the Hazardous
Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) retrieval (see Section
2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n Appendix D). (Be sure to check with
OSW to cull the Incorrect entries from the HWDMS retrieval
before using this Information.) If the generator(s) of the
subject waste have on-s1te Incinerators, these incinerators are
candidates for disposal. Commercial hazardous waste facilities
may also be candidates 1f no Incinerators are on-s1te. Note
that hard-to-treat hazardous wastes must sometimes be shipped
across several states to commercial Incineration facilities. If
you think that the generator of the subject waste transports the
waste to a commercial facility, assume that the nearest
commercial facility with an appropriate Incinerator will handle
this waste.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. Assume that all
generators that have Incinerators on-s1te are candidates for
treatment of the subject waste. Note that Industrial on-s1te
Incinerators that are not major sources will not be listed In
NEDS, thus may not be Identifiable.
Step 4. Determine whether there 1s Information on the capacity and
current operating characteristics for the sites listed 1n Step
3. If so, use this Information along with available Information
on the disposal practices of the generators of the waste to
estimate the amount treated at each Incinerator. The output of
this step will be a 11st of all candidate Incinerators with the
estimated amount of the waste treated at each 1n units of mass
per time.
a. Municipal solid waste. The capacities of most municipal
Incinerators are given 1n Tables 1-2 and 1-3, Appendix I.
Assume that the candidate Incinerators are operating at full
capacity unless there 1s Information to the contrary.
b. Municipal sludge. Assume that all of the subject waste
generated on-s1te 1s treated on-slte.
c. Hazardous waste. The capacity of candidate Incinerators
will be given 1n the HWDMS retrieval. Assume that all of the
waste generated at a given location 1s treated 1n the on-s1te
156
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Incinerator (1f such exists). Likewise, assume that waste from
a given source that 1s shipped to off-site Incinerators will be
created at one commercial facility, unless the amount generated
exceeds the capacity of the off-site Incinerator.
d. Nonhazardous Industrial solid waste. Use the same assump-
tions as 1n Step 4.c.
7.3 Estimating Emissions from Incineration - Stage V Decision Tree
The goal of this stage 1s to estimate and characterize releases of
chemical substances to air from Incinerators. In addition, the
quantities of Incinerator residues must be estimated as well as the
chemical concentrations therein. First, the user Identifies the
parameters that affect emissions and tries to obtain site-specific values
for as many as possible. Then the user chooses an approach for
estimating emissions using the available Information on the
design/operating conditions of the Incinerator 1n conjunction with
knowledge of the Influent waste. The estimates of chemicals emitted to
air are Ideally used as Input to an appropriate model of environmental
fate, and the estimates of the residues are used as Input 1n Stage III
(Section 2.3.3(1)). The decision tree below provides alternate methods
for estimating environmental releases from Incinerators 1n the absence of
a validated model. However, the output of this Stage will not be very
accurate until accurate emission factors and reliable models are
available. Several ongoing EPA projects may provide some of the
predictive capacity that Is presently lacking for estimating
environmental releases from Incinerators.
Step 1. Identify suitable approaches for predicting emissions based on
available Input data and degree of detail and accuracy required.
Relevant design and operating characteristics usually required
as Input are summarized below 1n (a) with their expected current
availability. Prediction methods are summarized 1n (b) with
their Information requirements.
a. The following design and operating characteristics
slgnlfl- cantly affect the emissions from Incinerators.
Numerous other factors Influence emissions, but their effects on
emissions are even more difficult to describe or quantify than
those listed below:
• Temperature
• Residence time
• Excess air
• Completeness of mixing
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• Type of pollution control
t Waste feed rate
• Method of waste Input
• Degree of atomlzatlon for liquid wastes
Operation temperatures, residence time, completeness of
mixing, and method of waste Input are not generally Included 1n
currently available Inventories and data bases. NEDS and other
air data bases (see Appendix A of Volume 2 of this report)
contain Information on the type of pollution control at sites
that are Included 1n the data base. Incinerator capacity or
general Information on waste feed rate 1s available through
NEDS, HWDMS, and the various Inventories (see Table D-5 1n
Appendix D and Tables 1-2 and 1-3 1n Appendix I). Stack
parameters, exit velocity, and facility location are available
1n the NEDS and other air data bases for sites listed 1n those
data bases.
A report summarizing site-specific operational features of
hazardous waste Incinerators 1s currently being developed under
EPA-ORD sponsorship; however, this report 1s not currently
available.
Currently no available Information summarizes the
site-specific data on Incinerators on a regional or local level.
Some state agencies may have such Information 1n their files.
The RCRA Part 8, treatment/storage/dlsposal TSD permit
applications for hazardous waste Incinerators that will be
submitted to the EPA will probably Include most of these
parameters, as well as trial burn data. However, this
Information 1s not expected to be readily accessible 1n the near
future.
b. Currently, there are no well-developed, validated
algorithms or models for predicting emissions of chemicals from
Incinerators. Gaseous and partlculate emissions depend on the
completeness of combustion, which 1s a function of the physical
and chemical characteristics of the waste 1n addition to design
and operating conditions. The chemical processes that occur
within Incinerators are not well understood; therefore, without
trial burn data or monitoring data, 1t 1s difficult to predict
chemical emissions. Furthermore, the Incomplete combustion of
one class of chemicals (such as chlorophenols) may lead to
emissions of another class of chemical (such as dloxlns). The
lack of predictive capability extends to the chemical
characterization of ash, scrubber water, and quench water. A
model developed for EPA-ORO may be adaptable for this purpose.
This model estimates the ability of an Industrial boiler to
achieve a given destruction efficiency for organic wastes
(Wolbach 1982). However, until this or a similar model has been
validated for Incinerators, the user must have recourse to one
of the following prediction methods.
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• Use trial burn data, If available, to predict combustion
efficiency for a given chemical. A summary of currently
available trial burn data 1s given 1n Table 1-9 1n Appendix
I. For more details on Individual trial burns see Corlnl et
al. (1980). Trial burn data submitted to EPA by applicants
for hazardous waste incineration permits may also be
available through the appropriate EPA regional office. If
data from several trial burns (with different temperatures
and residence times) are available, a graph of operating
conditions versus combustion efficiency can be plotted and
used to roughly estimate combustion efficiency under untested
operating conditions. However, there is considerable
uncertainty in this approach. Note that this approach
requires at minimum a knowledge of operating temperatures and
residence time. If these parameters are not known, typical
operating conditions for the type of incinerator of Interest
could be used as surrogate data. Some typical operating data
are given 1n Section 7.1.1. Additional operating data are
given In Table 1-12 In Appendix I.
• Using available monitoring data on the chemical of interest,
compile as many of the following parameters as possible:
ranges of emission factors, removal efficiencies, and
measured concentrations. Tables 38 and 39 (Section 7.1)
present an example of how this was done for a few chemical
substances. Use these values as Indicators of the typical
behavior of the chemicals for which there are data, in the
absence of belter information. For example, the destruction
rate for total organic chlorine (10C1) given in Table 38
might be applied to any specific chlorinated organic
(providing that one takes into account the uncertainty
expressed in footnote (d) to that table). Note that the
amount of ash produced can be estimated for municipal solid
waste and sewage sludge (see Section 7.1.3). This approach
requires data on typical design/operating conditions of the
incinerators for which there is monitoring information.
• Qualitatively compare the ease of incineration of one
chemical for which there is no Incineration data with another
compound for which there is trial burn, test burn, or
monitoring data. Because the ease of incineration is
correlated with heat of combustion, chemicals can be ranked
by incinerability if their heats of combustion are known.
Table 1-11 1n Appendix I provides the heats of combustion for
hazardous wastes listed under Appendix VIII, 40 CFR Part
?61. Again, this is a very crude estimation method because
the correlation between ease of incineration and heat of
combustion has not been extensively tested (USEPA and MITRE
159
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1983). This approach requires knowledge of the heats of
combustion for the chemical of Interest and the chemical to
which 1t will be compared. Operating temperatures and
residence time are also useful In the qualitative comparison.
• For hazardous wastes, 1n the absence of more reliable
Information, assume a 99.99 percent destruction and removal
efficiency for principal organic hazardous constituents
(POHCs) of the waste feed, as required by RCRA regulations
(USEPA 1981C).
Using the chosen predictive method and Input data, estimate
emissions from each disposal site receiving the subject waste.
The output of this step will be a 11st of the Incinerators with
an emissions estimate for each 1n units of mass per time.
Depending on the predictive approach, the output may Include
concentration and flow.
Step 3. Compare the predicted results from Step 2 to any monitoring
data that may be available. If predictions do not correlate
with measured values, use best judgment to evaluate the
discrepancy. If applicable, calibrate the model and rerun.
Then use the estimated emissions as Input 1n the analysis of
environmental fate and pathways and the final exposure
assessment, as described 1n Section 5.3 of Volume 2 of this
report.
For a complete exposure assessment of Incinerator air
emissions, stack parameters, exit velocity, geographic
coordinates, and emissions may be used as input parameters in an
atmospheric transport model, such as ATM-SECPOP, to model
concentrations of the chemical to which various receptors
located downwind from the release point may be exposed.
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8. DEEP-WELL INJECTION
Deep-well Injection 1s a waste disposal method that Involves Injecting
liquid wastes Into a permeable rock layer below the surface 1n geologic basins
which may be confined above and below by relatively Impervious rock. Improper
design or operation can cause contamination of groundwater 1n other aquifers,
resulting 1n human exposure to chemical substances. Background Information on
this disposal method 1s given 1n Section 8.1, followed by the Stage IV and
Stage V decision trees (Sections 8.2 and 8.3). Information 1s now available on
the locations of Injection wells and the wastes handled by each well from the
Federal Underground Injection Reporting System (FURS), a new computerized data
base operated by the Office of Drinking Water at EPA. Estimating releases to
groundwater from deep wells 1s very difficult and subject to considerable
error.
8.1 Background Information
This section contains general Information on deep-well Injection, followed
by discussions of (1) the Important sources of possible wastes and (2)
approaches to estimating releases to groundwater.
8.1.1 General
The governing principle behind deep-well Injection 1s to dispose of a
maximum quantity of wastes (Including those that are hard to treat, toxic,
hazardous, and Innocuous) at minimum cost and Impact to the environment.
Liquid wastes are usually Injected Into rock formations that are below and
Isolated from fresh water aquifers. Theoretically, a properly selected
reservoir can safely contain the Injected wastes, as long as the waste volume
does not exceed the available volume of the reservoir and Injection pressures
do not exceed critical formation pressures (Wiles 1978). However, there 1s a
controversy about whether 1t 1s really possible to predict the final
disposition of Injected wastes; there are numerous site-specific and general
data gaps regarding saline aquifer chemistry and the chemical and micro-
biological reactions within the receiving aquifer. Relationships between
waste components, structural geology, mineralogy, and other variables that
determine the persistence of Injected compounds are not well understood.
Deep-well Injection 1s used for a wide variety of liquid wastes ranging
from domestic wastewaters and sewage sludge to hazardous and radioactive
wastes. The EPA estimates that there are as many as 650,000 Injection wells
1n the U.S., 85 percent of which are located 1n the following 22 states:
Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Mexico, New York,
Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming (USEPA
1981b).
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EPA classifies Injection wells 1n five categories for the purpose of
regulation; these categories are listed 1n Table 40. The classification
system 1s based on the zone of Injection (which depends on whether wastes are
Injected above, Into, or below aquifers bearing potable water) as well as the
source and type of waste. The Injection wells that are likely to be of
Interest for chemicals assessed under TSCA are 1n Classes I and IV and
constitute a very small fraction of the total population of Injection wells.
(The vast majority of Industrial Injection wells are In Classes II and III,
which comprise wells used 1n oil and gas production and mining,
respectively.) A recent survey (USEPA 1980g) Indicates that only about 268
operating Industrial and municipal wells are 1n Classes I and IV. These are
further classified as follows: II, Industrial disposal well; 1M, municipal
disposal well; and 4H, hazardous facility Injection. Class 5W may also be of
Interest, but Includes septic tanks and cesspools used for multiple dwellings
(1t does not Include single family residential waste disposal systems).
A summary of Injection wells by Industry category for Classes II, 1M, and
4H 1s presented as Table 41. Note that most of the wells are operated by the
petrochemical, petroleum refining, and oil and gas extraction Industries.
Table 41 also gives typical well depths for this group. Most of these
Injection wells are on-s1te; only nine off-site commercial hazardous waste
Injection wells were Identified 1n a recent EPA study, all of which are In
Regions V and VI (see Table 42). Nationwide, about 2 percent of the hazardous
wastes generated are disposed of by deep-well Injection (Table 42).
Many kinds of wastes are suitable for deep-well Injection. Table J-l 1n
Appendix J lists all chemicals known to have been Injected. Hazardous
materials which are persistent 1n the environment are not recommended for this
disposal method because the long storage period required to reduce the hazards
to an acceptable level Increases the chances that the waste will escape as the
result of system failure or migration of fluids. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are
not suitable for disposal by deep-well Injection (USEPA 1980b). A recent
study suggested that the following chemicals are also unacceptable for
deep-well Injection (Wiles 1978):
Acroleln
Arsenic and arsenic compounds
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Carbon dlsulflde
Cyanides
01az1non and other pesticides
Fluorides
Hydrocyanic add
Hydrofluoric add
Hexavalent chromium compounds
Mercury and mercury compounds
NHrophenol
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Table 40. Classifications and Types of Injection Wells
Well Code Class/Type Primary Function of Injection Wells
Class I Industrial, municipal, and nuclear storage wells that inject below
deepest underground source of drinking water
lla Industrial disposal well
lMa Municipal disposal well
IX Other Class I welIs
Class II Oil and gas production and storage-related injection wells
2A Annular injection well
2D Produced fluid disposal well
2H Liquid hydrocarbon storage well
2R Enhanced recovery injection well
2X Other Class II welIs
Class III Special process injection wells
36 In situ gasification wells
3M Solution mining well
3S Sulfur mining well by Frasch process
3D Uranium mining well
3X Other Class III welIs
Class IV Hazardous facility wells that inject into or above an underground source
of drinking water
4Ha Hazardous facility Injection
Class V All other wells that Inject into or above an underground source of
drinking water
5A Air conditioning/cooling water return well
58 Salinity barrier well
5D Storm water drainage well
5F Agricultural drainage welI
5G Other drainage wells
5H Gaseous hydrocarbon storage welI
5R Recharge welI
5S Subsidence control well
5Wa Waste disposal well
5X Other Class V welIs
5N Nuclear waste disposal or storage well
5T Geothermal well
aLikely to be of most interest in exposure assessments conducted by the EPA Office of Toxic Substances.
Source: EPA Form 7500-48 (11-79).
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Table 41. Standard Industrial Classification of injection Wells
(268 Wei Is)
1 ndustry
MINING (9.3?)
10 Metal mining
12 Coal
13 Oil and gas extraction
14 Non-metallic mining
MANUFACTURING (80.6?)
20 Food
26 Paper
28 Chemical and allied products
29 Petroleum refining
32 Stone and concrete
33 Primary metals
34 Fabricated metals
35 Machinery - except electronics
38 Photographies
TRANSPORTATION, GAS, and SANITARY SERVICES
47 Transportation service
49 Sanitary service
50 Wholesale trade - durable
55 Auto dealers and service
OTHER (0.4?)
72 Personal service
Depth3
0 - 1,000
1,001 - 2,000
2,001 - 3,000
3,001 - 4,000
4,001 - 5,000
5,001 - 6,000
6,001 - 7,000
7,001 - 8,000
8,001 +
No. of we I Is
2
1
17
5
6
3
131
51
1
16
3
1
3
(9.8?)
1
23
1
1
1
WELL COMPLETION DEPTHS
(262 Wei Is)
No. of wel Is
20
56
33
34
39
44
18
12
3
Percentage
0.7
0.4
6.4
1.9
2.2
1.1
48.9
19
0.4
5.9
1.1
0.4
1.1
0.4
8.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
Percentage
7.6
21.4
12.6
12.8
14.8
16.7
7.2
4.8
1.2
aUnits were not given in source, but they are probably feet.
Source: USEPA 1980g.
164
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Table 42. Commercial Off-site Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities Offering
Deep-well Injection Services in 1980 by EPA Region
No. of
EPA Region facilities
1 0
II 0
III 0
IV 0
V 1
VI 8
VII 0
VIII 0
IX 0
X 0
TOTAL 9
Amount of
waste handled
(thousands of
wet kkg)
0
0
0
0
152
635
0
0
0
0
788
Percentage
of off-site
waste handled3
0
0
0
0
11.4
61.7
0
0
0
0
13.0
Percentage
of total
waste handled'3
0
0
0
0
2.3
6.0
0
0
0
0
1.9
Percentage of total off-site handled waste treated by deep-well Injection.
^Percentage of total waste generated in region that is disposed of at off-site Injection wells.
Source: USEPA 1980b.
165
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8.1.2 Information Resources Useful 1n Assessing the Potential for
Exposure from Injection Wells
Injection wells will be closely regulated under new federal and state
regulations. EPA 1s requiring the states to develop programs to prevent
contamination of groundwater by Injection wells for the Underground Injection
Control (UIC) program brought about by the Safe Drinking Water Act. As a
result of the concern over the potential for groundwater contamination from
Injection wells, there 1s considerable site-specific Information on existing
wells. Under the UIC program, a new computerized data base 1s available to
keep track of Injection wells. This data base 1s called the Federal
Underground Injection Reporting System (FURS) and contains data on Injection
wells 1n the U. S. This data base lists all wells and Includes Information on
the location, operational status, and well class for states that do not have
an approved UIC program. Because the class 1s somewhat Indicative of the
types of waste that 1t receives (see Table 40), this Inventory will be useful
1n exposure assessments. Also, Region VI already has Its own computerized
Injection well data base, which contains detailed site-specific data. Until
the UIC program 1s fully operative, hazardous waste Injection wells (Class IV)
will have to submit RCRA permit applications. Therefore, the Hazardous Waste
Data Management System (HWDMS) (see Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n
Appendix D) contains Information on the location, SIC Code, and proposed
capacity for hazardous waste Injection wells. State agencies are currently
the best source of site-specific geological, hydrologlcal, and design data for
Injection wells not located 1n Region VI. These data will generally have to
be retrieved manually.
8.1.3 Modeling Releases to Groundwater
See Section 3.1.3 for a general discussion of modeling groundwater
contaminated from waste disposal sites and Volume 5 of this methods
development series for more Information on groundwater modeling. The modeling
of groundwater contamination via deep-well Injection 1s even more difficult
than for previously mentioned land disposal methods because of the
considerable difficulty and expense Involved with obtaining Information to run
such models. As 1n most cases Involving groundwater models, the assistance of
a hydrogeologlst will be required. Should accurate and concise Information be
a necessity, then the assistance of a company such as GeoTrans Inc., Reston,
Virginia, which specializes 1n groundwater studies, may be required.
The EPA has developed an approach to regulating Injection wells that has
the potential to serve as a coarse screening tool 1n determining which wells
may present the greatest risk of groundwater contamination. The regulations
prescribe that a "zone of endangerment" be designated for each Injection
well. Zone of endangerment 1s defined as the theoretical circular area
(centered on the well) 1n which the pressures 1n the Injection zone may cause
166
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the migration of the Injection and formation fluid Into an underground source
of drinking water (USEPA 1981d). If this radius could be accurately
determined for any Injection well (which 1s questionable), then the potential
for contamination of groundwater supplies could be estimated qualitatively. A
modified This Equation that can be used to calculate the zone of endangerment
1s given as Table J-2 1n Appendix J. Computation of the zone of endangering
Influence requires the following parameters:
Hydraulic conductivity of the Injection zone (length/time)
Thickness of the Injection zone (length)
Time of Injection (duration/time)
Storage coefficient (dlmenslonless)
Injection rate (volume/time)
Observed original hydrostatic head of Injection zone (length),
measured from the base of the lowest Underground Source of Drinking
Water (USDW)
• Hydrostatic head of the USDW (length), measured from the base of
the lowest USDW
t Specific gravity of the fluid 1n the Injection zone (dlmenslonless)
These parameters are representative of the parameters commonly used 1n
groundwater modeling. When considering whether to Issue a permit to an
applicant, EPA or the responsible state agency will review available
site-specific data on the number and location of all wells, surface waters,
springs, mines, quarries, location of USDWs, residences, roads, and geology 1n
the zone of endangerment. These same parameters, which will be available In
agency files, should be considered when the potential for exposure from a
given Injection well 1s assessed, because the primary route of exposure will
be via drinking or other contact with water from USDWs. Determining the
appropriate groundwater models for site-specific estimates of emissions from
Injection wells 1s beyond the scope of this methodology and will best be left
to the modelers. Good sources of Information on the multitude of available
groundwater models Include the EPA Ground Water Models Clearinghouse, a
computerized data base that provides summaries of the Important features of
300 models (see Appendix A) and a groundwater model review report by the EPA
Office of Solid Waste (USEPA 1982a). See Section 8.3 for Information on a
model that has been used to approximate pollutant migration from Injection
wells.
8.2 Allocating Waste Streams to Individual Injection Wells -
Stage IV Decision Tree
In this stage, the available Information on the locations of Injection
wells of the class appropriate for the waste stream of Interest will be
reviewed, 1n order to select the Individual wells likely to receive the waste
stream of Interest. Then the amount of the waste stream of Interest disposed
of 1n each candidate well will be determined. The body of Information upon
which these decisions are made 1s extensive.
167
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J_. Determine whether disposal of the waste will be limited to certain
classes of Injection wells. The output of this step will be a
11st of the relevant classes.
Consider the characteristics of the waste and Its origin. The
classification and type of Injection well receiving the waste will
depend on the nature and source of the waste. Consult Table 40 to
determine the class of well appropriate for disposal of the waste.
If there 1s uncertainty over which type of well 1s appropriate,
consult USEPA 1981d for a more complete description of the well
classification system.
_2. If applicable, determine the percentage of the waste that will be
disposed of on-s1te versus off-site. The output of this step will be
the 11st of well classes compiled 1n Step 1 to which the percentage
of on-s1te versus off-site disposal has been added for each well
class. This Information will be useful 1n Identifying wells that are
candidates for disposal of the waste (Step 3).
Municipal disposal wells will be, by definition, off-site, but are
probably located at or near a treatment works POTW. Waste disposal
Injection wells will also be off-site, since they are usually the
repository for wastewaters from multiple dwellings. Most Industrial
Injection wells are on-s1te. The only off-site commercial facilities
known to exist are those few that handle hazardous wastes (see
Table 42).
For site-specific Information on whether disposal will be off-site,
conduct a retrieval of the (FURS) and see whether any of the
generators of the waste stream of Interest have Injection wells
on-s1te. Supplement this with a Hazardous Waste Data Management
System (HWDMS) retrieval (see Section 2.3.3(4) and Exhibit D-l 1n
Appendix D). If the Information from these two sources 1s
Insufficient, contact the agencies responsible for the Underground
Injection Control program (UIC) 1n the state(s) of Interest. Assume
that all generators with on-s1te wells that are classified
appropriately will dispose of the waste on-s1te 1f 1t 1s suitable for
Injection (see Section 8.1). Otherwise, use best judgment to
determine whether the waste might be disposed of 1n off-site
Injection wells, based on knowledge of the waste disposal practices
of the Industry for similar wastes.
Note that some generators of d1ff1cult-to-treat hazardous wastes
have to ship them across the U.S. for disposal 1n commercial
Injection wells. One novel use of the HWDMS 1n this regard would be
to conduct a retrieval of all hazardous waste Injection wells,
requesting the auxiliary data on waste codes treated. Even though
these data are considered unreliable for quantitative purposes (see
Section 2.3.3(4)), they will provide general Information on the kinds
of wastes that a given facility might accept for deep-well Injection.
168
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Step 3. Based on the Information 1n Steps 1 and 2, and available Inventories
(computerized or other) of disposal facilities, Identify the
Injection wells that are candidates for the disposal of the waste.
The output of this step will be a list of the candidate Injection
wells.
The FURS retrieval combined with the HWDMS retrieval and
Information from state agencies will provide a 11st of all on-s1te
Injection wells. The Needs survey data base retrieval (see Sections
2.3.3(3) and 6, and Exhibit H-l and Table A-8 1n Appendix H) will
Indicate which POTWs use this disposal method. Assume that all
generators with on-s1te wells of the appropriate class will dispose
of the waste on-s1te. Consider the discussion 1n Step 2 In deciding
which off-site wells may receive the waste.
Determine whether there 1s Information on the capacity and current
operating characteristics for the candidate sites listed 1n Step 3.
Use this and any other relevant Information to estimate the amount of
the waste that will be disposed of at each facility 1n units of
mass/time. The output of Stage IV will be the Step 3 11st to which
Individual amounts of d1sposed-of waste have been added for each
Injection well.
Assume that all of the waste generated at a given source will be
disposed of 1n one Injection well, unless 1t exceeds the capacity of
the well. Capacities of hazardous waste Injection wells will be
given 1n the HWDMS retrieval. Additional Information on capacity may
be available from the state agencies 1n charge of the UIC program.
8.3 Estimating Releases from Injection Wells - Stage V Decision Tree
This decision tree presents the available approaches to estimating the
releases of the chemical substance to groundwater from deep-well Injection.
As stated previously, the modeling of contamlnent migration from Injection
wells 1s very difficult and probably best performed by hydrogeologlsts. Many
variables that affect the contamination potential are either little under-
stood or difficult to quantify on a site-specific basis.
Step 1. a. Identify the Important design and operating characteristics
of Injection wells that affect releases to groundwater.
See Section 8.1.3 for the 11st of parameters that govern
thephyslcal behavior of Injected fluids. In addition to these
factors, the type of casing and cementing used 1n constructing the
well 1s critical because 1t must prevent the movement of fluids Into
or between other sources of drinking water. Therefore, 1t must be
able to withstand all of the normal stresses associated with use,
Including Injection pressures, corroslveness of Injected fluid, and
fluctuating temperatures.
169
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b. Determine which of the parameters listed 1n 1.a are known for
the sites of Interest based on accessible computerized data or other
readily available data.
Information on most of the parameters discussed 1n Step l.a will be
available 1n the application submitted to the EPA (or to the
responsible state office) after the UIC program 1s operable, but 1s
not generally available 1n computerized form at this time. The EPA
Region VI data base probably contains most of the Important data
already.
c. Identify which of the parameters listed 1n l.a can be obtained
from existing files at regional EPA offices and responsible state
solid waste agencies when not available from the sources listed 1n
l.b.
Many state agencies responsible for permitting Injection wells,
especially those states that have numerous Injection wells, will
probably have most of these data 1n their files. Some of these data
have also been collected for Industrial wells 1n EPA surveys (see
Reeder et al. 1977b) and can be obtained from such reports.
a. Identify and 11st the approaches that are available for
predicting environmental releases based on the design/operating
characteristics of the wells.
As discussed 1n Sections 3.1.3 and 8.1.3, numerous groundwater
models have been developed. The Land Disposal Division of the EPA
Office of Solid Waste 1s developing a set of test problems for
evaluating new mathematical models of saturated zone leachate
migration with respect to their utility 1n predicting pollution
migration from land disposal and Injection wells. They have used a
model program called SWIP (Survey Waste Injection Program) developed
by USGS (Mercer et al. 1981). This model was developed to
Investigate problems associated with the disposal of wastes 1n deep
wells and 1s applicable for modeling the transport of momentum,
energy, and contaminant mass 1n porous media associated with
deep-well Injection or other sources. Appendix J-3 presents a
summary of this model. While other models may also be applicable for
use 1n injection wells, this model 1s used here as an example of the
input requirements. Modeling of deep wells 1s highly complex, and
model selection is beyond the scope of this methodology.
b. Identify the site-specific design/operating characteristics
required for Input by the model of choice. Determine whether these
data are readily available. If not, determine whether there are
surrogate values that can be used 1n place of the site-specific
parameters.
170
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As an example of the data elements that may be required, the
following 11st gives Input parameters that are used for various
solutions available using SWIP:
Aquifer thickness (length)
Aquifer compressibility (assumed 0.0/ps1 1n one test problem)
Porosity (unltless)
Water unit weight (62.4 Ib/ft3)
Water compressibility (0.00ll5/ps1)
Hydraulic conductivity (length/time)
Initial pressure (ps1)
Wellbore radius (length)
Reservoir exterior radius (length)
Effective molecular d1ffus1v1ty (area/time)
Velocity (length/time)
The parameters needed 1n SWIP will generally be available 1n
standard references and state and EPA files once the UIC 1s operable;
many state agencies may already collect the requisite Information.
Because of the highly site-specific nature of groundwater hydrology,
1t 1s generally thought that the magnitude of error Introduced by
attempting to use surrogate data renders predictions based on
surrogate data of little use. (Even with accurate site-specific
data, groundwater models make simplifying assumptions that may not be
warranted.) Note that this model does not describe biological or
chemical processes associated with deep-well disposal.
Input the data Into the chosen model and run the model to produce an
evaluation of chemical releases.
If an appropriate model 1s applied correctly and accurate
site-specific data are available, the groundwater model can provide
various types of output data, the most Important of which are
contaminant concentrations that may lead to or be a drinking water
source.
Step 4. If monitoring data are available, compare them with the model
predictions to test the accuracy of the model application.
One possible source of data 1s the UIC program which will require
Installation and periodic sampling of monitoring wells. These
monitoring data will be submitted to the state agencies 1n charge of
the authorized state UIC programs. However, 1t 1s not known whether
these data can be retrieved 1n a computerized format.
171
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News, July 23, 1981. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
USEPA. 1981c. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Incinerator standards
for owners and operators of hazardous waste management facilities; Interim
final rule and proposed rule. Fed. Reglst., January 23, 1981, 7666-7691.
USEPA. 1981d. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Water programs;
consolidated permit regulations and technical criteria and standards; state
underground Injection control programs. Fed. Reglst., June 24, 1980, 45:42472.
USEPA. 1981e. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Water Program
Operations. The 1980 Needs survey - conveyance, treatment, and control of
municipal wastewater, combined sewer overflows, and stormwater runoff.
Summaries of technical data. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. EPA-430/9-81-008.
USEPA. 1982a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Solid Waste.
The establishment of guidelines for modeling groundwater contamination from
hazardous waste facilities. Preliminary groundwater modeling profile.
Discussion Draft. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
USEPA. 1982b. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The hazardous waste
management system. Fed. Reglst., June 24, 1982, 46: 27520-27535.
USEPA. 1982c. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The hazardous waste
management system permitting requirements for land disposal facilities. Fed.
Reglst., July 26, 1982, 47: 32274-32388.
USEPA. 1982d. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Post-closure liability
trust fund model development. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. As seen 1n: Versar 1983.
USEPA. 1983a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response. Hazardous waste land treatment. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. SW-874.
USEPA. 1983b. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response. Lining of waste Impoundment and disposal facilities,
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. SW-870.
USEPA and MITRE. 1983. Guidance manual for hazardous waste Incinerator
permits. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of
Solid Waste (Note: report scheduled to be published 1n August 1983.)
178
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Van Noordwyk HJ. 1980. Quantification of municipal disposal methods for
Industrially generated hazardous wastes. In: USEPA. Treatment of hazardous
waste. Proc. 6th annual research symposium. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-600/9-80-011.
Versar Inc. 1983. Theoretical evaluation of sites located 1n the zone of
saturation. Draft final report. Chicago, IL: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Contract No. 68-01-6438.
Wagner J, Bonazountas M. 1981. Burled halogenated solvent simulations via
"SESOIL." Draft report. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Contract No. 68-01-6271.
Walker JM. 1979. Overview: costs, benefits and problems of utilization of
sludges. Proceedings 8th National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management,
Information Transfer. Silver Spring, MD.
Wetherold RG, Rosebrook DD, Cunningham EW. 1981. Assessment of hydrocarbon
emissions from land treatment of oily sludge. In: USEPA. Land disposal:
hazardous waste. Proc. 7th annual research symposium. Cincinnati, OH:
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. EPA-600/9-81-002b.
W1gh RO, Brunner DR. 1979. Leachate production from landfllled municipal
waste - Boone County field site. In: USEPA. Municipal solid waste: land
disposal. Proc. 5th annual research symposium. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-600/9-79-023a.
Wiles CW. 1978. Assessment of deep well Injection of hazardous waste. In:
USEPA. Land disposal of hazardous wastes. Proc. 4th annual research
symposium. Cincinnati, OH: Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-600/9-78-016.
Wolbach CD. 1982. Prediction of destruction efficiencies. Environmental
Progress 1(1):38-41.
Yeh GT. 1981. AT123D: Analytical transient one-, two-, and
three-dimensional simulation of waste transport 1n the aquifer system. Oak
Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Environmental Sciences Division
Publication No. 1439. ORNL-5601.
179
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APPENDICES
181
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GUIDE TO APPENDICES
These appendices provide Information Intended to supplement "Methods
for Assessing Exposures from Disposal of Chemical Substances," Volume 3
of the series "Methods for Assessing Exposures to Chemical Substances."
The format herein Is organized Into eleven appendices (Appendices A
through K) based on subject matter. The appendices comprise a wide range
of Information resources Including lists of useful contacts at state and
federal agencies, sample data on waste generation rates and quantities of
wastes handled by various disposal practices, sample Inventories of
existing disposal facilities, generic data on design and operation of
disposal facilities, data on emission factors, and Information on useful
data bases and models.
The appendices assembled herein are Intended to acquaint the user
with key Information resources that may be useful 1n assessing exposures
to chemicals resulting from disposal. They are not meant to be the sole
or even the major Information resource for such exposure assessments; the
body of Information of potential use 1n assessing exposures from disposal
1s far too large and varied to Include here. Rather, these appendices
should be used to supplement the Information resources described 1n the
main text when Information needed for a given exposure assessment 1s
needed.
Many of the sample tables Included 1n the appendices were reproduced
from the original source with little or no modification so that the user
might become familiar with the content, presentation, and limitations of
available Information resources. In many cases, the user will have to
consult the original source to Interpret or expand upon the data given In
the appendices.
A description of the kind of Information provided 1n each appendix 1s
provided below.
Appendix A. This appendix summarizes the models and data bases that
are discussed 1n the methodology. The data bases are expected to be
Important tools 1n evaluating exposure from disposal of chemical
substances. Because the state of the art 1n model development does not
generally meet the predictive needs of this methodology, the models 1n
Appendix A are not necessarily suitable for exposure assessment at the
present time.
183
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Appendix B. This appendix (Tables B-l and B-2) 1s a summary of
published Information on waste generation collected from selected state
solid waste agencies 1n the course of developing these methods. Although
these reports were only collected from a sampling of states, they are
expected to be representative of the kinds of Information available from
all states. As might be expected, the amount of Information maintained
by state solid waste agencies varies markedly. Depending on the state,
Information on one or more of the following topics may be available:
• Locations of disposal sites
• Kinds and quantities of wastes accepted
• Types and quantities of Industrial wastes generated
• Information on on- versus off-site disposal
« Analyses of Industrial waste streams.
Thus, state solid waste agencies may provide useful generic and/or
site-specific data for assessing environmental releases from disposal,
particularly for Stages II, III, and IV. See Table 0-3 for a 11st of the
state solid waste agencies.
Appendix C. This appendix 1s a collection of compiled data on waste
generation and disposal 1n the chemical manufacturing and petroleum
refining Industries. Table C-l presents a summary of the total
quantities of hazardous waste generated and the quantities disposed of
off-site for the plastics, Industrial organic chemicals, petroleum
refining, and petroleum re-ref1n1ng Industries. This table 1s followed
by more detailed Information on these Industries, Including typical waste
constituents, and quantities of wastes handled by various disposal
practices. These tables provide generic Industry-specific data that are
useful 1n estimating overall waste quantities (Stages I and II), and
likely disposal methods (Stage III) for Industrial solid wastes. In
addition, these generic data can be helpful 1n allocating quantities of
waste to Individual disposal sites (Stage IV). For Instance, 1f Appendix
C Indicates that the Industry of Interest generally uses on-s1te
landfills, we can assume that all solid waste generated on-s1te 1s
disposed of 1n on-s1te landfills and allocate waste quantities
accordingly. The user should be aware of the following when using
Appendix C:
(1) Although the Information 1n these reports 1s generally the most
comprehensive published material available, the data may not
represent the current waste disposal "picture."
184
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(2) Information similar to the data 1n Appendix C 1s available for
all Industries listed 1n Table 9 of this report.
Appendix D. This appendix 1s a collection of Information from
sources that are useful 1n determining the likely disposal methods for a
given type of waste containing chemical substances (Stage III). It
should be stressed, however, that useful Information sources for Stage
III will also be found 1n the other appendices. Exhibit 0-1 summarizes
pertinent features of the Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS)
data base, which provides useful Input to Stage III and Stage IV
procedures for hazardous wastes. Tables D-l and D-2 provide useful
generic data for determining how much wastewater will be treated by
POTWs. Table 0-3 1s a 11st of appropriate state solid waste agencies
which should be consulted for state-specific waste disposal Information.
Table D-4 gives the treatment/storage/dlsposal codes used 1n the
Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) data base; an HWDMS
retrieval may be an Important source of Stage III Information. Table D-5
1s a summary of typical disposal practices for most of the Individual
hazardous waste listed under RCRA. Table D-6 provides Information useful
1n determining whether a given hazardous waste 1s likely to be
Incinerated and 1n determining Incinerator types. Table D-7 summarizes
selected HWOMS data on the disposal of hazardous waste. Finally, D-8
lists the Industries subject to effluent guidelines and pretreatment
standards. Knowledge of pretreatment standards may be useful when
estimating the contribution of toxic chemicals to POTWs from Industries.
Appendix E. This appendix 1s a collection of data related to waste
disposal 1n landfills and by land treatment, which will be useful 1n
Stages IV and V and for modifying first-cut Stage III estimates. Table
E-l 1s a summary of the U.S. population distribution 1n relation to
wetlands (environmentally sensitive areas). This Information could be
used 1n the absence of better data to roughly estimate the proportion of
landfill acreage located 1n areas with high water tables on a statewide
or nationwide basis. (This would be useful Stage V Information for the
modeling of emissions from landfills 1n large-scale exposure
assessments.) Table E-2 presents Information on the relative
distribution of landfills of varying capacities as well as Information on
the number of landfills with National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permits by state. Table E-3 1s a summary of the Input
data requirements for the SESOIL model. Tables E-4 and E-5 summarize the
geographic distribution and Industrial classification, respectively, of
hazardous waste land treatment facilities Identified 1n a recent survey.
These data, together with the map of land treatment facilities provided
1n Figure E-l, are essential Input to Stage IV and Stage V procedures for
land treatment facilities. Figure E-2 1s a bar graph summary of the size
distribution of land treatment facilities that can be used to extrapolate
generic data on land treatment capacity when site-specific data are
either not available or not required.
185
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Appendix F. This appendix presents auxiliary Information on
groundwater that may be useful 1n the Stage V modeling of chemical
releases from landfills, land treatment sites, surface Impoundments, and
Injection wells. Table F-l 1s a 11st of computerized groundwater data
bases that provide Information on depth of water table for various areas
of the U.S. Table F-2 1s a 11st of state groundwater geologists, who
are useful contacts when detailed Information on groundwater 1s required
for modeling purposes. Figure F-l provides a gross picture of the
distribution of wetlands nationwide. In the absence of better
Information, this map may serve as a source of very general Information
on relative depths of groundwater.
Appendix G. This appendix provides Information on surface
Impoundments useful 1n Stage V. Tables G-1 and G-2 give the relation
between characteristics of the saturated and unsaturated soil zones
beneath surface Impoundments and the SIA (Surface Impoundment Assessment)
rating system. This Information will be useful 1f a SIA data base
retrieval 1s conducted to obtain data necessary for modeling.
Appendix H. Appendix H 1s a compilation of Information on POTWs that
may be helpful 1n predicting emissions of chemical substances 1n the
absence of a suitable POTW model. Exhibits H-l and H-2 provide summary
descriptions of the Needs Survey and IFD data bases, both of which may be
useful 1n estimating chemical releases from POTWs. Tables H-l through
H-7 summarize the data on priority pollutants 1n POTW waste streams from
the most comprehensive study available (Burns and Roe 1982). Tables H-l
through H-4 give the results of sampling data for priority pollutants at
representative secondary POTWs; the media sampled Include POTW Influent,
secondary effluent, and raw sludge. Tables H-5 and H-6 summarize the
treatment efficiencies of priority pollutants by the secondary treatment
method. Table H-7 provides data on typical concentrations of priority
pollutants 1n POTW sludge when not detected 1n Influent (which gives some
Indication of the tendency of pollutants to be concentrated 1n sludge).
Table H-8 lists the wastewater and sludge treatment methods that are
Included 1n the Needs Survey data base; this Information will be useful
1n designing a Needs Survey retrieval for Stages III through V.
Appendix I. A considerable body of data on Incineration 1s
represented 1n this appendix, which will be useful 1n Stages III through V.
Figure 1-1 and Tables 1-1 through 1-5 provide Information on numbers
and/or locations of various types of Incinerators 1n the U.S. Tables
1-6, 1-7, 1-9, 1-10, 1-13, and 1-14 give data on air releases for
selected chemicals that exemplify the kind of data that will be useful 1n
the absence of a suitable model for predicting emissions from
Incineration. Table 1-8 rates the Incineration potential of RCRA-Hsted
186
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hazardous wastes and gives the suitable Incinerator types for each waste;
this Information win be useful 1n Stage III and 1n Stage IV. Table 1-11
lists the heats of combustion for RCRA-l1sted hazardous constituents;
these data can be used 1n "gross" Stage V emissions estimates, as
discussed 1n Section 7.3. Table 1-12 presents the typical operating
ranges (which may be needed 1n Stage V models) for various types of
hazardous waste Incinerators.
Appendix J. Some Information on waste disposal by deep-well
Injection 1s compiled 1n Appendix J. Table J-l lists compounds that are
known to have been disposed on 1n Injection wells; this Information may
be useful 1n Stage III determinations. Table J-2 presents the modified
Thels equation, which may be useful 1n Stage V estimates. Finally, Table
J-3 gives a summary of the SWIP model.
Appendix K. A 11st of conversion factors that may be useful 1n
conducting the procedures recommended 1n this volume 1s presented 1n
Appendix K.
187
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APPENDIX A
INFORMATION RESOURCE MATRIX: USEFUL
MODELS AND DATA BASES
189
-------
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APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF INFORMATION COLLECTED FROM STATE SOLID WASTE AGENCIES
195
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Exhibit B-l. Selected Reports on Waste Generation and Disposal
Prepared by State Solid Waste Agencies*
The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency distributes a report
entitled the "Illinois Industrial Waste Survey" (1980) summarizing the
results of a multlvolume study. The report summarizes quantities of
waste types generated by each SIC group 1n the state, the percent
distribution of waste types to different disposal methods (on-s1te and
off-site), and other data.
The Michigan Energy Administration, Department of Commerce,
distributes four reports analyzing waste stream composition and
quantities received by municipal landfills 1n different regions of the
state. Total quantities and per capita estimates are provided.
The Kansas Department of Health and Environment distributes a report
entitled "A Survey of Hazardous Waste Generation and Disposal Practices
1n Kansas" (two volumes plus summary), listing the waste types for each
Industry and quantities disposed of by each method.
The Delaware River Basin Commission (West Trenton, N.J.) distributes
a summary report of their "Industrial Exotic Waste Program Findings,
Conclusions, and Recommendations" (1979), analyzing Industrial waste
streams and disposal practices 1n New Jersey. The report Includes a 11st
of all facilities 1n the area known to accept Industrial waste.
*Th1s 11st 1s based on a limited sampling of state solid waste agencies.
This Information 1s provided 1n order to acquaint the user with the kind
of Information sometimes available on the state level.
197
-------
Exhibit B-2. State Inventories of Disposal Facilities*
The California State Solid Waste Management Board maintains a
computerized data retrieval system whereby one may determine types and
volumes of waste disposed, site-specific operational characteristics of
facilities, and their names and locations. Use of this data base should
supply most of the data requirements for the methodology for any site 1n
California.
The Missouri Department of Natural Resources distributes a report
entitled "Facilities for Solid Waste Disposal and Processing" listing
contacts 1n state regional offices, names and locations of all permitted
sanitary landfills, processing facilities and transfer stations for
resource recovery, and permitted special waste disposal facilities. This
state also distributes "Facilities Available to Missouri Industry for
Hazardous Waste Management", listing hazardous waste landfills,
Incinerators, treatment, and recycling facilities.
The Kansas Department of Health and Environment distributes a
"Directory of Sanitary Landfills, Solid Waste Transfer Stations, and
Collectors In Kansas." The May, 1981 Issue not only lists names and
locations of all permitted facilities but also total quantity of solid
waste received by each facility for 1978, 1979, and 1980. Kansas also
distributes "A Survey of Resource Recovery Markets and Hazardous Waste
Management Facilities" listing names and locations of each such facility
1n the state, 23 waste exchanges throughout the country, addresses and
phone numbers of solid waste agencies for all states, trade associations
and other sources of Information and assistance, and a 11st of all
hazardous waste disposal facilities 1n 18 states 1n the Midwest.
The Kentucky Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Protection distributes a 11st of names and locations of all permitted
landfills and sanitary landfills 1n the state.
*Th1s 11st 1s based on a limited sampling of state solid waste agencies.
This Information 1s provided 1n order to acquaint the user with the kind
of Information sometimes available on the state level.
198
-------
APPENDIX C
INFORMATION ON WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES
199
-------
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203
-------
Table C-A. Hazardous Waste Constituents - Petroleum Refining
Waste types and hazardous constituents
Waste types
Constituents
Leaded gasoline sludge
Cooling tower sludge
Crude tank bottoms
Dissolved air flotation (OAF) float
Exchanger bundle cleaning sludge
Slop oil emulsion solids
Once-through cooling water sludge
Waste b1o sludge
Storm water silt
Spent lime from boiler feedwater
treatment
Kerosene filter clays
Nonleaded tank bottoms
API separator sludge
Lube oil filter clays
FCC catalyst fines
Coke fines
Neutralized hydrofluoric acid
alkylatlon sludge
Organic lead vapors, phenols, and heavy metals
Heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
011 and heavy metals
011 and heavy metals
011 and heavy metals
011 and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Heavy metals
Heavy metals
Oil and heavy metals
Source: Van Noordwyk 1980.
204
-------
Table C-5. Disposal Practices - Petroleum Refining
Industrial hazardous waste quantities by disposal method
Mg/year, 1977 (wet basis)
Method
Onslte
Offsite
Landfill
Lagoon
Landspread
Incinerate
Totals
355,000
284,000
334,000
40,000
1,013,000
Total petroleum refining Industry
Mg/year, 1977 (wet basis)
Public
428,000
• * •
... j
... i
428,000
hazardous waste:
Off site
107,000
289,000
4,000
400,000
1,840,000
Source: Van Noordwyk 1980.
205
-------
Table C-6. Disposal Practices - Organic Chemicals
(SIC 2861, 2865, 2869, except 28694)
Industrial hazardous waste quantities by disposal method
Mg/year, 1977 (wet basis)
Method
Quantities
Ons He Offs1te'a
Landfill 483,000 113,000
Incineration 2,250,000 51,000b
Controlled (699,000) . . .
Uncontrolled (1,550,000) . . .
Deep well 6,540,000 . . .
Biological treatment/lagoon 565,000 . . .
Recovery 267,000 . . .
Landfarm NAC ...
Totals -10,100,000 164,000d
Total organic chemicals Industry hazardous waste:
10,300,000 Mg/year. 1977 (wet basis)
Predominantly private except for minor portions
(<20X) disposed of legally, Illegally, or unknowingly
In municipal landfills and/or Incinerators
^Largely controlled (>90X) due to regulations which
contract Incinerator operations must satisfy to
destroy a variety of wastes
(;Not available
"The amount given here is believed to be low. The
actual quantity disposed of offslte Is believed to be
between 5 and 15 percent of the total.
Source: Van Noordwyk 1980.
206
-------
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-------
Table C-8. Hazardous Waste Treatment/Disposal Methods
at Selected Organic Chemical Plant Sites3
Individual Hazardous Waste Stream Disposal Process
Liquid tars, still bottoms and
process residues
Liquid tars and oils (still
bottoms)
Liquid tars (still bottoms)
Waste water, condensate
Liquid tars
Liquid tars and oils
Liquid, tars and oils
Liquid, tars and oils
Liquid, oils (distillation
residue)
Semi-solid phenolic wastes
Solid, spent activated carbon
Liquid process wastes (phenols,
alcohols, etc.)
Liquid, dispersed in water
organlcsl with metal catalyst
Liquid, mixed process waste
slurry 1n water
Liquid tars, reactor byproduct
Liquid tars, byproduct
Liquid organic wastes
Solid organic wastes and trash
Fluid residues
Fluid residues, miscellaneous
Sludge, filter residues
Solid reactor residues
Incineration, uncon-
trolled, energy
recovery
Landfill
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Landfill
Landfill
Landfill
Landfill
Landfill
Landfill, drummed
Recovery
Incineration,
controlled
Incinerator
controlled'
Landfill, drummed
Deep well
Incinerator,
uncontrolled
Incinerator,
uncontrolled
Contractor landfill
Contractor landfill
Incineration,
uncontrolled,
energy recovery
Landfill
Landfill
Actual Quantity,
metric tons/yr
17.800
300
300
7,600
50
140
90
50
50
70
Not Available
1,600
| 21,800
254,OOO4
1.800
500
200
200
14.100
1,600
360
160
208
-------
Table C-8. (Continued)
Individual Hazardous Waste Stream Disposal Process
Solid residual pitch
Solid, spent metal oxide
catalyst
Fluid, reactor residue
Fluid, reactor recycle
Fluid, still heads
Solid, spent metal catalyst
Liquid (thick), reactor residue
Semi-solid residue
Liquid, wash water waste
Liquid, activated sludge from
wash water waste
Liquid, activated sludge, tar
Liquid, activated sludge
Solids, filter residues
Liquid reaction waste
Liquid purification waste
Liquid activated sludge from
water-phase wastes
Liquid still bottoms
Liquid still bottoms
Liquid, contaminated steam
condensate
Liquid, contaminated wash water Deep well Injection
Landfill
Recovery and
byproduct sales
Incineration,
uncontrolled,
energy recovery
Recovery and
recycle
Incineration,
uncontrolled,
energy recovery
Landfill
Activated sludge
and lagoon5
Incineration,
controlled
Incinerator,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Deep well Injection
Deep well Injection
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Deep well Injection
Liquid, activated sludge from
aqueous chloroaromatlc wastes
Liquid, activated sludge from
aqueous chloroaromatlc wastes
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Actual Quantity,
metric tons/yr
630
60
170
60
130
14
680
16
1,000
90
4
36
70
22.700
11
5
800
800
90
30
20
80
209
-------
Table C-8. (Continued)
Individual Hazardous Waste Stream Disposal Process
Liquid still heavy ends
Liquid, phenolic contaminated
wash water
Liquid, activated sludge from
wash water waste
Liquid still bottoms
Liquid, reprocessing tars
Liquid, neutralization products
Liquid, scrubber waste
Semi-solid, filter cake
Liquid, still bottoms
Liquid, wash water
Liquid, activated sludge from
wash water waste
Liquid, contaminated condensate
Liquid, activated sludge from
contaminated condensate
Semi-solid, filter cake
Liquid, wash-down wastes
Liquid, activated sludge from
wash-down wastes
Solid, spent 1on exchange resin
Solid, spent charcoal
Solid, wastes/residues
Incineration,
controlled
Activated sludge
and lagoon
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
controlled
Deep well Injection
Incineration,
controlled (salt
ash to industrial
outfall)
Landfill
Incineration,
controlled (salt
ash to industrial
outfall)
Activated sludge
and lagoon
Incineration,
controlled
Activated sludge
and lagoon
Incineration,
controlled
Landfill
Activated sludge
and lagoon
Incineration,
controlled
Landfill
Thermal regeneration
(recovery)
Incineration,
uncontrolled
Actual Quantity,
metric tons/yr
500
90
3
70
200
6,000
400
280
1,100
600
100
20
4
500
100
20
1
50
riot Available
210
-------
Table C-8. (Continued)
Individual Hazardous Waste Stream Disposal Process
Liquid, activated sludge from
wastewater
Liquid, neutralized A1 salt
solution
Liquid wastes, toxic
Liquid, oil sludge from waste
water
Solid, catalyst residue,
N1 compounds
Solid, catalyst residue,
Cr compounds
Solid, catalyst residue,
S1C compounds
Liquid, distillation residue
Solid, catalyst residue,
N1 compounds
Solid, catalyst residue,
Cr compounds
Solid, catalyst residue,
S1C compounds
Fluid, aromatic residues
Solid, spent catalyst, Sb salt
Solid, spent catalyst,
Cu and oxides
Solid, spent catalyst (mol-sieve)
Liquid, viscous
Solid, spent catalyst,
N1 compounds
Solid, spent catalyst,
Cr compounds
Evaporation (spread
on farm land)
Contractor deep
well, landfill and
incineration
Contractor disposal
Contractor disposal
Recovery (N1 - 100%)
Recovery (Cr - 100%)
Recovery
Incineration,
uncontrolled
energy recovery
Recovery (N1 - 100%)
Recovery (Cr - 100X)
Recovery
Incineration,
uncontrolled
energy recovery
Landfill
(encapsulated)
Recovery (Cu - 100%)
Landfill
Incineration,
uncontrolled
energy recovery
Recovery (N1 - 100%)
Recovery (Cr - 100%)
Actual Quantity,
metric tons/yr
Not Available
Not Available
Mot Available
Not Available
2,700
3
<1
20
260
20
3
5
8,200
20
i
211
-------
Table C-8. (Continued)
Individual Hazardous Waste Stream
Solid, spent catalyst,
SIC compounds
Solid, spent catalyst,
Co compounds
Solid, waste Na metal
Fluid, organic residue i
Fluid, organic cyclic gums i
Liquid, dryer waste, Ca salts
Liquid, dryer waste, Ca salts
Liquid, activated sludge
Solid, filter wastes
Liquid, vent scrubber wastes
Liquid, tar dump
Liquid, organics/acld
Liquid, residues
Semi-solid, chlorinated
hydrocarbon heavies
Semi-solid, lead compound
sludge
Fluid, reactor byproduct
Solid, copper compound residues
Solid, Cr compound residues
Disposal Process
Recovery
Incineration,
uncontrolled,
energy recovery
Landfill
Incineration,
uncontrolled
energy recovery
Deep well injection
Deep well Injection
Incineration,
controlled
Incinerator
Activated sludge
and lagoon'
Activated sludge
and lagoon'
Activated sludge
and lagoon'
Activated sludge
and lagoon'
Deep well Injection
Recovery furnace
Incineration,
controlled,
energy recovery
Recovery
Recovery
Actual quantity,
metric tons/yr
20
1
300
9,000
14
5
230
4
6,500
45
2,300
90
13,600
9,100
1,600
3
1
212
-------
Table C-8. (Continued)
Q
Composite Hazardous Waste Streams Disposal Process
Actual Quantity,
metric tons/yr
4
5
10
14
23
4
5
5
Liquid hazardous waste
streams
Liquid hazardous waste
streams
Liquid hazardous waste
streams
Liquid hazardous waste
streams
Solid hazardous waste
streams
Liquid or solid hazardous
waste streams
Liquid or solid hazardous
waste streams
Liquid or solid hazardous
waste streams
Recovery
Incineration,
controlled
Incineration,
uncontrolled
Landfill
Landfill
Lagooned
Contractor
Incineration
Contractor landfill
2,350
3,860
10,000
1 ,1009
5.8009
Not Available
2,100
4,700
1. 90% organlcs.
2. Metal recovered from Incinerator ash.
3. About 0.5% organlcs in water.
4. Highly dangerous compound - 700 metric tons/year.
Moderately dangerous compound - 600 metric tons/year.
5. Salts to outfall.
6. Soluble salts to industrial outfall, silicates to landfill
7. Salts to industrial outfall.
8. Data composited to protect proprietary information.
9. Includes 800 metric tons stored hazardous wastes.
aThis table provides the reader with general information on common
disposal methods for various types of wastes, based on a survey
of organic chemical plants.
Source: TRW 1975.
213
-------
APPENDIX D
INFORMATION IN SUPPORT OF STAGE III
215
-------
Exhibit 0-1. The Hazardous Waste Data Management System
(HWDMS)
The Hazardous Waste Data Management System (HWDMS) maintained by the
EPA State Programs and Resource Recovery Division of the EPA Office of
Solid Waste (OSW) provides a computerized means of tracking permit
applications for the treatment/storage/dlsposal (TSD) of hazardous
waste. The system can be accessed by SIC code to obtain the names and
locations of all facilities within an Industry group that have applied
for permission to treat, store, or dispose of any hazardous wastes. A
complete printout of permit application data 1s available at the EPA
Office of Solid Waste, arranged by zip code. This must be consulted
manually. For each location, the printout provides the type of hazardous
waste facility (I.e., landfill, Incinerator, etc.) and Its proposed
capacity. See Table D-4 1n Appendix D for a 11st of the TSD process
codes and capacity units 1n the data base. The system can also Identify
waste stream types and volumes handled by each on-s1te disposal practice,
but these data are considered unreliable by OSW staff and thus are
useless at the present time. Both on- and off-site facilities are listed
and 1n the near future, HWDMS will Incorporate a "tag" that distinguishes
between on- and off-site facilities. A recent summary compilation of
hazardous waste sites Included 1n the HWDMS data base 1s provided as
Table D-7 1n Appendix D.
The HWDMS 1s most useful 1n Stages III and IV. For Stage III, 1t can
determine what kind on on-s1te facilities are available 1n the geographic
area of Interest 1n order to confirm or correct data obtained from other
sources. This can be accomplished by requesting a printout of the names
and locations of all hazardous waste TSD facilities 1n the study area.
More detailed Information on these facilities can then be obtained by
examining the printout of permit application data (by EPA Region)
available at OSW. For Stage IV, the system will supply actual locations;
commercial (off-site) waste handlers may be located by using the
commercial "tag"; 1t 1s not known at this time whether these facilities
can be extracted using the waste disposal SIC code (4953). Plants
lacking on-s1te facilities may be assumed to dispose of hazardous waste
at the nearest off-site facility possessing the requisite treatment type
in the absence of better Information.
Note the following caveats:
• The EPA staff has not had the time to verify the application data
before entering 1t 1n the HWDMS. SIC codes and TSD Information
may not accurately reflect the actual plans of the facility. As
EPA reviews applications, however, appropriate corrections will be
made 1n the applications and the data base.
217
-------
• Because the application Information 1s submitted 1n advance of
operations, the proposed facilities and types of wastes treated
may not be representative of the current conditions. For example,
a proposed Incinerator may not be built, and the 11st of wastes
handled Includes all wastes that might be treated.
• Many unnecessary and misleading entries are Included 1n the data
base. For example, gas station owners 1n some areas thought that
they had to apply for a ISO permit, and many corporate
headquarters mistakenly applied for a ISO permit, even though no
hazardous waste 1s handled on-s1te. Therefore, any retrieval
should be examined carefully and discussed with OSW Staff.
218
-------
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224
-------
Table D-3. State Solid Waste Agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste
Labama
Ifred S. Chipley/ Director
{.vision of Solid Waste and
Vector Control
apartment of Public Health
bate Office Building
Dntgomery, Alabama 36104
TS 8-534-7700
?F (205) 832-6728
Laska
Lchard Stokes
alid Waste Program
apartment of Environmental
Conservation
Duch 0
aneau, Alaska 99811
aattle FTS Operator 399-0150
FF (907) 465-2635
nerican Samoa
andy Morris, General Manager
ater, Sewer and Solid Waste
Division
apartment of Public Works
ago Pago, American Samoa 96799
irerseas Operator (Comm. Call)
ri zona
ahn H. Beck, Chief
jreau of Sanitation
apartment of Health Services
LI North 24th Street
loenix, Arizona 85008
PS 8-765-1160
j-F (602) 255-1160
rkansas
Dice Hughes, Acting Chief
alid Waste Control Division
apartment of Pollution Control
and Ecology
. O. Box 9583
JOl National Drive
ittle Rock, Arkansas 72219
TS Operator 740-5011
PF (501) 561-7444
California
Jerry Prod, Chairman
State Solid Waste Management Board
P. O. Box 1743
1020 9th Street
Sacramento, California 95808
FTS 8-552-3330
OFF (916) 322-3330
Dr. Harvey Collins, Chief
Hazardous Material Management Section
Department of Health Services
714 P Street
Sacramento, California 95814
FTS 8-552-2337
OFF (916) 322-2337
Colorado
Orville F. Stoddard
Department of Health
4210 East Eleventh Street
Denver, Colorado 80220
FTS Operator 327-0111
OFF (303) 320-8333
Connecticut
Charles Kurker, Director
Solid Waste Management Programs
Department of Environmental Protectior
122 Washington Street
Hartford, Connecticut 06106
FTS 8-641-3672
OFF (203) 549-6390
Russell L. Brenneman, President
Connecticut Resource Recovery
Authority
Suite 1305
60 Washington Street
Hartford, Connecticut 06115
OFF (203) 549-6390
225
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
Delaware
T. Lee Go, Chief
Solid Waste Section
Department of National Resources
and Environmental Control
Edward Tatnall Building
Dovejr, Delaware 19901
FTS Operator 487-6011
OFF (302) 678-4781
District of Columbia
Malcolm Hope
Department of Environmental
Services
415 12th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20004
FTS 8-727-5701
OFF (202) 727-5701
Florida
Ralph Baker, Acting Environmental
Administrator
Solid Waste Management Program
Department of Environmental
Regulation
Twin Towers Office Building
2600 Blair Stone Road
Tallahassee, Florida 32301
FTS 8-946-2011
OFF (904) 488-0300
Georgia
Moses N. McCall, III, Chief
Land Protection Branch
Environmental Protection Division
Department of Natural Resources
Room 822
270 Washington Street, S.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
OFF (404) 656-2833
Guam
Dr. 0. V. Natarajan, Admin.
EPA, Government of Guam
P. O. Box 2999
Agana, Guam 96910
Overseas Operator (Commercial
Call) 646-8863
Hawaii
Ralph Yukumoto
Environmental Health Division
Department of Health
P. O. Box 3378
Honolulu, Hawaii 96801
Calif. FTS Operator 556-0220
OFF (808) 548-6410
Idaho
Jerome Jankowski, Acting Chief
Solid Waste Management Section
Department of Health and Welfare
Statehouse
Boise, Idaho 83720
FTS 8-554-2287
OFF C208) 384-2287
Illinois
John's.More, Manager
Division of Land and Noiaa Pollutio
Control
Environmental Protection Agency
2200 Churchill Drive
Springfield, Illinois 62706
FTS Operator 956-6760
OFF (217) 782-9882
Indiana
David Lamm, Acting Chief
Solid Waste Management Section
Division of Sanitary Engineering
State Board of Health
1330 West Michigan Street
Indianapolis, Indiana 46206
FTS 8-336-0200
OFF (317) 633-0200
Iowa
Charles C. Miller, Director
Air and Land Quality Division
Department of Environmental Quality
Henry A. Wallace Building
900 East Grant
Des Moines, Iowa 50319
FTS 8-841-8853
OFF (515) 841-8853
226
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
ansas
harles H. Linn, Chief
olid Waste Management Section
epartment of Health and
Environment
opeka, Kansas 66620
TS Operator 752-2911
FF (913) 862-9360 Ext. 297
entucky
orman Schell, Director
ivision of Hazardous Materials
and Waste Management
epartment for Natural Resources
and Environmental Protection
apitol Plaza Tower
rankfort, Kentucky 4Q601
TS 8-351-6716
FF (502) 564-6716
ouisiana
ea^Jennings, Director
ffice of Science, Technology
and Environmental policy
. 0. Box 44066
aton Rouge, Louisiana 70804
TS Operator 687-0770
FF (504) 689-6981
. Roy Hayes, Jr., Administrator
olid Waste & Vector Control Unit
ealth and Human Resources
Administration
. 0. Box 60630
ew Orleans, Louisiana 70160
TS Operator 682-5137
FF (504) 568-5137
aine
on Howes, Chief
ivision of Solid Waste
Management Control
ureau of Land Quality
epartment of Environmental
Protection
tate House
ugusta, Maine 04333
TS 8-868-2111
FF (207) 289-2111
Maryland
Robert Schoenhofer, Chief
Planning Section
Department of Natural Rasources
Water Resources Administration
Tawes State Office Building
Annapolis, Maryland 21404
FTS 8-920-3311
OFF (301) 269-3821
Massachusetts
William Gaughan, Director
Bureau of Solid Waste Disposal
Department of Environmental
Management
Room 1905
Leverett Saltonstall Building
100 Cambridge Street
Boston, Massachusetta 02202
OFF (617) 727-4293
Solid Waute Regulatory
Anthony Cortese
Division of Air and Hazardous
Materials
Department of Environmental
Quality Engineering
600 Washington Street, Room 320
Boston, Massachusetts 02111
OFF (617) 727-2658
Hazardous Waste Regulatory
Hans Bonne
Industrial Waste Section
Division of Water Pollution Control
Department of Environmental Quality
Engineering
110 Tremont Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02108
OFF (617) 727-3855/6587
Michigan
Mr7 William G. Turney, Director
Environmental Protection Bureau
Department of Natural Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
Box 30028
Lansing, Michigan 48909
FTS 8-253-7917
OFF C517) 373-7917
227
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
Minnesota
Louis Briemhurst, Acting Director
Division of Solid Waste
Pollution Control Agency
1935 West Country Road, B-2
Roseville, Minnesota 55113
FTS 8-776-7315
OFF (612) 296-7315
Mississippi
Jack M.McMillan, Director
Division of Solid Waste
Management and Vector Control
State Board of Health
P. O. Box 1700
Jackson, Mississippi 39205
FTS 8-490-4211
OFF (601) 982-6317
Missouri
Robert M. Robinson, Director
Solid Waste Management Program
Department of Natural Resources
State Office Building
P. O. Box 1368
Jefferson City, Missiouri 65102
FTS Operator 276-3711
OFF (314) 751-3241
Montana
Dwane L. Robertson, Chief
Solid Waste Management Bureau
Department of Health and
Environmental Sciences
1424 9th Avenue
Helena, Montana 59601
FTS 8-587-2821
OFF (406) 587-2821
Nebraska
Maurice A. Bill Sheil, Chief
Solid Waste Division
Department of Environmental
Control
State House Station
P. 0. Box 94877
Lincoln, Nebraska 68509
FTS 8-541-2186
OFF (402) 471-2186
Nevada
H. Laverne Rosse, Program Director
Solid Waste Management
Division of Environmental Protectio:
Department of Conservation and
Natural Resources
Capital Complex
Capitol City, Nevada 89701
FTS Operator 470-5911
OFF (702) 885-4670
New Hampshire
Thomas L. Sweeney, Chief
Bureau of Solid Waste
Department of Health and Welfare
State Laboratory Building
Hazen Drive
Concord, New Hamsphire 03301
FTS 8-842-2605
OFr (603) 271-2605
New Jersey
Beatrice Tylutki, Director
Solid Waste Administration
Division of Environmental Protectic
P. 0. Box 1390
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
FTS 8-477-9120
OFF (609) 292-9120
New Mexico
Dan Torres, Head
Solid Waste Management Unit
Environmental Improvement Division
P. 0. Box 968
Crown Building
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87503
FTS 8-476-5271
OFF (505) 827-5271
Jon Thompson, Chief
Community Support Division
Health and Environmental Departmen
P. 0. Box 968
Crown Building
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87503
FTS 8-476-5271
OFF C505) 827-5271
228
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
iw York
irman H. Nosenchuck, Director
.vision of Solid Waste Mgmt.
Apartment of Environmental
Conservation
i Wolf Road
bany, New York 12233
'S 8-567-6603
'F (518) 457-6603
Carolina
srry Perkins , Head
ilid Waste and Vector Control
ipartment of Human Resources and
Division of Health Services
O. Box 2091
deign, North Carolina 27602
'S 8-629-2111
T (919) 733-2178
>rth Dakota
srald Knudsen , Director
.vision of Waste Supply and
Pollution Control
spartraent of Health
100 Missouri Avenue
.smarck, North Dakota 58505
?S Operator 783-4011
T (701) 234-2366
do
maid E. Day, Chief
:£ice of Land Pollution Control
ivironmental Protection Agency
O. 1049
>lumbus, Ohio 43216
'S 8-942-8934
T (614) 466-8934
.lahoma
A. Caves, Director
idustrial and Solid Waste
Division
ipartment of Health
0. Box 53551
irtheast 10th & Stonewall Sts.
;lahoraa City, Oklahoma 73105
'F (405) 271-5338
Oregon
Ernest A. Schmidt, Administrator
Solid Waste Management Division
Department of Environmental Quality
1234 S.W. Morrison Street
Portland, Oregon 97205
FTS Operator 423-4111
OFF (503) 299-5913
Pennsylvania
William C. Bucciarelli, Director
Division of Solid Waste Management
Department of Environmental Resources
Fulton Building, 8th Floor
P. O. Box 2063
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
FTS 8-637-7381
OFF (717) 787-7381
Puerto Rico
Santos Rohena, Associate Director
Environmental Quality Board
Office of the Governor
Box 11488
Santurce, Puerto Rico 00910
D.C. FTS Operator 967-1221
OFF (809) 735-5140, Ext. 263/4
Rhode Island
John S.Quirin, Jr., Chief
Solid Waste Management Program
Department of Environmental Management
204 Health Building
Davis Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02908
OFF (401) 277-2808
Lou David, Jr., Executive Director
Rhode island Solid Waste Corporation
30 Pike Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
OFF (401) 831-4440
South Carolina
Hartsill wlTruesdale, Director
Solid Waste Management Division
Department of Health and Environmental
Control
J. Marion Simras Building
2600 Bull Street
Columbia, South Carolina 29201
FTS 8-677-5011
OFF (803) 758-5681
229
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
South Dakota
Joel Smith, Director
Air Quality and Solid Waste
Management
Department of Environmental
Protection
Office Building No. 2
Pierre, South Dakota 57501
FTS Operator 783-7000
OFF (605) 224-3784
Tennessee
Tom Tiesler, Director
Division of Solid Waste Mgmt.
Bureau of Environmental Services
Department of Public Health
Capitol Hill Building
Nashville, Tennessee 37219
FTS 8-853-3424
OFF (615) 741-3424
Texas
Jack C. Carmichael, Director
Solid Waste Division
Department of Health
1100 West 49th Street
Austin, Texas 78756
FTS 8-734-7271
OFF (512) 458-7271
Jay Snow
jay
Sol
.id Waste Branch
Department of Water Resources
1700 North Congress
P. O. Box 13246
Austin, Texas 78711
FTS 8-734-5011
OFF (512) 475-6625
Trust Territories
Nachsa Siren, Chief
Environmental Health Division
Department of Health
Office of the High Commissioner
Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands
Saipan, Trust Territories 96950
Overseas Operator (Comm. call)
Manuel A. Sablan, Director
Office of Planning and Budget Affairs
Commonwealth of Ilo. Marinas Islands
Office of the Governor
Saipan, Trust Territories 96950
Overseas Operator (Commercial Call)
Utah
Dale Parker, Chief
General Sanitation Section
State Division of Health
44 Medical Drive
Salt Lake City, Utah 94113
FTS Operator 588-5500
OFF (801) 533-5145
Vermont
Richard A. Valentinetti, Chief
Air and Solid Waste Programs
Agency of" Environmental Conservation
State Office Building
Montpelier, Vermont 05602
FTS 8-832-3395
OFF (802) 828-3395
Virgin lsla_nd_s_
Sammy E. Harthman, Jr.
Project Coordinator
Solid Waste Planning Office
Department of Public Works
Government of the Virgin Islands
Charlotte Amalie
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801
OFF (809) 774-7880
Virginia
William F. Gilley, Director
Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management
Department of Health
109 Governor Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
FTS 8-936-5271
OFF (804) 786-5271
230
-------
Table D-3. (Continued)
Washington
Duane Wegner, Director
Land Disposal Division
Department of Ecology
Olympia, Washington 98504
FTS 8-434-6883
OFF (206) 753-6883
West Virginia
Dale Parsons, Director
Disposal Planning
Department of Health
1800 Washington Street, E
Charleston, West Virginia 25305
FTS 8-885-2987
OFF (304) 348-2987
Wisconsin
Robert M. Krill, Director
Bureau of So.\id Waste Management
Department of Natural Resources
Box 7921
Madison, Wisconsin 53707
FTS Operator 8-366-3538
OFF (608) 266-2621
Wyoming
Charles Porter
Solid Waste Program Supervisor
Department of Environmental
Quality
State Office Building, West
Cheyenne, Wyoming 82002
FTS 8-832-9752
OFF (307) 328-9752
231
-------
Table 0-4. Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Process Codes Used in HWOMS
Process
Process Appropriate units of measure
Code for process design capacity
Storage:
Container (barrel, drum, etc.) SOI
Tank S02
Waste file 503
Surface impoundment S04
Pi sposal:
Injection well 079
Landfi11 080
Land application 081
Ocean disposal 082
Surface impoundment 083
Treatment:
Tank T01
Surface impoundment T02
Incinerator T03
Other (Use for physical, chemical, T04
thermal or biological treatment
processes not occurring in tanks,
surface impoundments or incinerators.)
Gallons or liters
Gallons or liters
Cubic yards or cubic meters
Gallons or liters
Gallons or liters
Acre-feet (the volume that
would cover one acre to a
depth of one foot) or
hectare-meter
Acres or hectares
Gallons per day or liters per
day
Gallons or liters
Gallons per day or liters per
day
Gallons per day or liters per
day
Tons per hour or metric tons
per hour; gallons per hour or
liters per hour
Gallons per day or liters per
day
232
-------
Table D-4. (continued)
Unit of
Unit of measure measure code
Gallons G
Liters L
Cubic yards Y
Cubic meters C
Gallons per day U
Liters per day V
Tons per hour D
Metric tons per hour W
Gallons per hour E
Liters per hour H
Acre-feet A
Hectare-meter F
Acres B
Hectares Q
Source: EPA Form 3510-3.
233
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Table D-7. Compilation of HWDMS Dataa
Type of hazardous
waste facility
Number of facilities by EPA Region
Facilities that store
or treat H.W., but
have other processes
Facilities that only
store or treat H.W.
II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Total
756 1348 907 1647 1974 1117 345 165 853 55 9167
536 1015 641 1128 1419 668 248 88 650 44 6437
Facilities that incin-
erate H.W.
54 73 76 105 112 101 26 16 33 1 597
Facilities that treat
or store H.W. in surface
impoundments
Facilities that dispose
of H.W. by:
89 122 107 294 196 370 36 54 94 4 1366
Landfill
Injection Well
Surface Impoundment
Land Application
Ocean Disposal
Disposal Total
35
5
24
4
0
68
49
10
15
11
10
95
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1
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6
0
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94
12
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124
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115
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20
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3
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1
0
8
531
151
360
221
16
1280
aNote that these numbers represent the number of valid applications which may
not be equal to the number of sites currently in operation.
Source: Anon. 1982, Hazardous Waste News.
244
-------
Table D-8. Industries Subject to Effluent Limitation
Guidelines and Pretreatment Standards
Industry
Adhesives and sealants
Aluminum forming
Battery manufacturing
Coil coating
Copper forming
Electric and electronic components
Foundries
Inorganic chemicals
Iron and steel manufacturing
Leather tanning and finishing
Metal finishing
Nonferrous metals
Nonferrous metals forming
Ore mining
Organic chemicals, plastics,
synthetic materials
Pesticides
Petroleum refining
Pharmaceuticals
Plastics molding and forming
Porcelain enameling
Pulp and paper
Steam electric
Textile mills
Timber products processing
245
-------
APPENDIX E
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON LANDFILLS AND LAND TREATMENT
247
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O m
"71
o"
§ 7.
i r
1" 1
^ (U
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o' "~-
U Q-
'o *o
0 0
CC CC
260
-------
Table E-3. (Continued!
ed)
3
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261
-------
Table E-4. Geographic Distribution, by Region and State, of Hazardous
Waste Land Treatment Sites in the U.S.
Region Regional Office Number of facilities
VI
IV
IX
VIII
V
VII
X
II
1 1 1
1
Dallas, Texas
Atlanta, Georgia
San Francisco, California
Denver, Colorado
Chicago, Illinois
Kansas City, Missouri
Seattle, Washington
New YorK City, New York
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Boston, Massachusetts
58
45
19
18
16
15
12
8
7
0
State or territory Number of faclllth
Texas 29
California 18
Louisiana 13
Oklahoma 11
Ohio 9
Alabama 8
Kansas 8
Washington 8
Florida 7
Georgia 7
Mississippi 7
Montana 6
North CarolIna 6
WyomIng 6
South CarolIna 5
Missouri 4
Puerto Rico 4
Co Iorado 3
Illinois 3
Kentucky 3
New Mexico 3
Utah 3
Arkansas 2
Indjana 2
Iowa 2
New Jersey 2
Maryland 2
Minnesota 2
Pennsylvania 2
Tennessee 2
Virginia 2
Alaska 1
DeI aware 1
Guam 1
Idaho 1
Michigan I
Nebraska 1
262
-------
Table E-4. (Continued)
State or territory Numbar of foci I I ties
N«w York 1
Oregon I
Virgin Island* 1
American Samoa 0
ArIzona 0
Common***Itti of the Northern Marianas 0
Connecticut 0
District of Columbia 0
Hawaii 0
Maine 0
Massachusetts 0
Nevada 0
New Hampshire 0
North Dakota 0
Rhode Island 0
South Dakota 0
Vermont 0
West Virginia 0
Wisconsin 0
Source: USEPA 1983a.
263
-------
Table E-5. Industrial Classification and Location of Hazardous Waste Land
Treatment Facilities
SIC Cod* Rag Ion
025
1321
1389
203
2067
222
229
249
2491
2600
2611
2621
2819
2821
2834
2851
2865
2869
Poultry Feed
Natural Gas Proc.
01 1 1 Gas Services
Fruit Processing
Chewing Gum Manu.
Weaving Ml 1 Is, Synthetics
Misc. Textile Goods
Misc. Wood Products
Wood Preserving
Paper & Al 1 led Products
Pulp Mil Is
Paper Mills
Industrial Inorganic
Chemicals
Plastics, Materials A Resins
Pharmaceutical Preparations
Paints 4 Al 1 led Products
Cycl Ic Crudes 4
Intermediates
Industrial Organic Chemicals
IV
VI
IX
IV
IV
IV
IV
III
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
VI
VI 1
X
V
V
VI
VI
V 1
VI
VI
IV
IV
VII
IX
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
V!
State
Tennessee
Louisiana
Cal 1 torn la
Florida
Florida
Florida
Georgia
Maryland
Georgia
North Carol Ina
South Carol Ina
Morth Carol Ina
Alabama
Alabama
Mississippi
Mississippi
Texas
Missouri
Washington
Michigan
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Texas
Texas
Tennessee
Georgia
Iowa
Cal Ifornla
Arkansas
Arkansas
Louisiana
Loul si ana
Ok 1 ahoma
Texas
Land farm Facl 1 Ity
Arapahoe Chemicals Inc.
Gulf 01 1 Corp.
IT Corp. - Benson Ridge Facility
Ben Hill Griffin, Inc.
Hoi ly HI 1 1 Fruit Products Co.
Orange Co. of Florida, Inc.
Wm. Wrlgley, Jr. Co.
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Southern Mills Inc. Senola Dlv.
Flnetex Inc. - Southern Olv.
Sandoz Inc. Martin Works
U.S. Industries, Inc.
Brown Wood Preserving Co., Inc.
T. R. Ml 1 ler Co., Inc.
Coppers
Pearl River Wood Preserving Corp.
Kerr-McGee Chemical Corp.
Kerr-McGee Chemical Corp.
Boise Cascade/Paper Group
Simpson Paper Co.
Simpson Paper Co.
Texaco USA (Dlv. of Texaco Inc.)
American Petroflna Co. of Texas 4
Cosden Oil 4 Chemical
Shel 1 01 1 Co.
Relchold Chemicals
Union Carbide Corp.
Arapahoe Chemicals Inc.
Glldden C4R Dlv. of SCM Corp.
Landfill Service Corp.
En v Ire mental Protection Corp. -
Wests Ide Disposal Farm
Arkansas Eastman Co.
Arkansas Eastman Co.
Chevron Chemical Co.
Exxon Co. USA Baton Rouge Refinery
Conoco Inc. Ponca City
Calanese Tract K
264
-------
Table E-5. (Continued)
SIC Cod*
Region State
Landfarm Facility
2869
2873
2874
2875
2879
289
2892
29
2911
Industrial Organic Chemicals VI
(continued) VI
VII
IX
Nitrogenous Fertilizers VI
VII
VII
Phosp hat 1 c Pert 1 1 1 zers VII
Fertilizers, Mixing Only IX
X
Agricultural Chemicals IV
Misc. Chemical Products IV
IV
Explosives IV
VII
Petroleum Production IV
IV
VII
IX
Petroleum Refinery 1
1
1
1 1
II
II
II
II
IV
IV
IV
IV
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Texas
Texas
Missouri
Cal 1 torn la
Texas
Iowa
Missouri
Iowa
Cal Ifornla
Washington
Georgia
South Carol Ina
South Carol Ina
Alabama
Missouri
Alabama
Mississippi
Nebraska
California
New Jersey
New Jersey
Virgin Islands
Delaware
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Virginia
V 1 rg 1 n 1 a
Alabama
Georgia
Mississippi
Mississippi
II 1 Inols
Indiana
Indiana
Minnesota
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Ohio
Relchold Chemical s
Union Carbide Corp.
Syntex Agribusiness Inc.
Shell Oil Co. -Martinez Manu.
Complex
Comlnco American Inc. Camex
Operations
Chevron Chemical Co.
Atlas Powder Co., Atlas Plant
Chevron Chemical Co.
Environmental Protection Corp. -
Wests Ide Disposal Farm
Phillips Pacific Chemical Co.
Union Carbide Agricultural Co. Inc.
Abco Industries Inc.
Carolina Eastman Co. (01 v. of Eastman
Kodak)
Hercules, Inc.
Atlas Powder Co., Atlas Plant
Plantation Pipeline Co., HE Facility
Plantation Pipeline Co.
Offutt Air Force Base
Union 01 1 Co. of CA - Santa Maria
Refinery
Exxon Refinery
Texaco U.S.A.
Hesi Oil Virgin Islands Corp.
Getty Refining & Marketing Co.
Chevron U.S.A., Inc.
Arco Petroleum Products Co.
Amoco 01 1 Co.
Hercules, Inc.
Hunt Oil Co., Tuscaloosa Refinery
Amoco 01 1 Co. Savannah Refinery
Amerada Hess Corp.
Rogers Rental & Landfill - Exxon
Marathon 01 1
Indiana Farm Bureau Coop. Assoc.
Rock Island Refining Corp.
Koch Refinery
Fondessey Enterprise LF Site 12
Fondessey Enterprise LF Site S3
Fondessey Enterprise LF Site H
Gul f 01 1 Co. U.S.
Sunoco Ref Inery
Standard 01 1 Co.
Standard 01 1 Co. (Ohio)
265
-------
Table E-5. (Continued)
SIC Ood« Region
2911 Petroleum Refinery VI
(continued)
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
State
Arkansas
Louisiana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Louisiana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Lou I s 1 ana
Louisiana
New Mexico
Oklahoma
Ok 1 ahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
Kan. is
Kansas
Kansas
Kansas
Kansas
Kansas
Kansas
Kansas
Ml ssourl
Land farm Facility
Tosco Corp.
Cities Service Co.
Conoco Inc., Lake Charles Refinery
Exxon Co. U.S.A. Baton Rouge Refinery
Gulf 01 1 Co. - U.S.
Gulf Oil Corp.
Marathon 01 1 Co. LA Refining Olv.
Murphy 01 1 Corp.
Plantation Pipeline Co.
Shel 1 Oil Co.
Texaco U.S.A. (Dlv. of Texaco Inc.)
Shel 1 01 1 Co. Inc.
Basin Ref Inlng Inc.
Champ 1 1 n Petro 1 eum Co .
Conoco Inc. Ponca City
Hudson Refinery
Kerr-McGee Refinery Corp.
Sun Petroleum Products Co.
Texaco U.S.A. (Dlv. of Texaco Inc.)
Tosco Corp. - Duncan Refinery
Vlckers Petroleum Corp.
American Petroflna Co. of Texas &
Cosden Oil & Chemical
Amoco 01 1 Co. Land Farm
Arco Petroleum Products Co.
Champ 1 In Petroleum Co.
Coastal States Petroleum Co.
Cosden Oil
C--own Central Petroleum Corp.
Exxon Co. - Baytown Refinery &
Chemical
Gulf Coast Waste Authority
Mobl 1 01 1 Corp.
Phi 1 1 Ips Petroleum
Shell Oil Co. Odessa Refinery
Slgmor Refining Co.
Southwestern Refining Co. Inc.
Sun Oil Co. of Pennsylvania
Sveeney Refinery & Petrochem. Compl.
Taxaco Inc. - Amarlllo
Texaco Inc. - Pt. Arthur
Winston Refining Co.
CRA, Inc. - Phllllpsburg
CRA, Inc. - Coffeyvll le
Derby Refining Co.
Getty Refining & Marketing Co.
Kansas Industrial Waste Facility, Inc.
Mobil 01 1 Corp.
Pester Refining Co.
Total Petroleum, Inc.
Amoco Oil Co., Sugar Creek Refinery
266
-------
Table E-5. (Continued)
SIC Cod*
tog Ion State
Landfarm Facility
2911 Petroleum Refinery VII Colorado
(continued) vil Montana
V 1 1 Montana
VII Montana
VII Montana
VII Montana
V 1 1 Utah
VII Utah
V 1 1 Utah
VII Wyoming
VII Wyoming
VII Wyoming
VII Wyoming
VII Wyoming
IX California
IX California
IX Ca 1 1 torn 1 a
IX California
IX California
IX California
IX California
IX California
IX California
X Oregon
X Washington
X Washington
X Washington
X Washington
Gary Ref In ing Co.
Conoco Oil Refinery
Conoco Land farm
Exxon Billings Refinery
Farmers Union Central Exchange/Cenex
Phil lips Great Pal Is
Amoco 01 1 Co. SLC Tank Farm
Husky 01 1 Co. of Delaware
Phillips Petroleum Woods
Cross Refinery
Amoco Pipeline Tank Farm
Husky ON Co. of Delaware
Little America Refining Co.,
Sinclair Oil Corp.
Wyoming Refining Co.
Chevron U.S.A.
Environmental Protection Corp
Easts Ide Disposal Farm
Environmental Protection Corp
Wests Ide Disposal Farm
IT Corp. - Ben Id a
IT Corp. - Martinez
IT Corp. - Montezuma HII Is
Inc.
• —
• —
IT Transportation Co. - Imperial
Shell Oil Co., Martinez Manu.
Union Oil of Cal Ifornia
Chem-Securl ty Systems, Inc.
Arco Petroleum Products Co.
Mob I 1 01 1 Corp.
Shel 1 01 1 Co.
Texaco U.S.A. (01 v. of Texaco
Camp 1 ex
. Inc.)
2969 Ind. Organic Chemicals
IX California Environmental Protection Corp. -
WestsIde Disposal Farm
3011 Pneumatic Tire Manu.
VI
Oklahoma
Dayton Tire 4 Rubber Co.
3317 Steel Pipe 4 Tubing Manu.
VI
Texas
Quanex Corp. Gulf States Dlv.
3471 Plating & Polishing IV
VI 1
348 Ordnance & Accessories IV
IV
X
X
North Carolina Neuse River Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Iowa
Florida
Kentucky
Guam
Idaho
Landfill Service Corp.
01 In Corp.
Lexington - Blue Grass
Anderson AFB
Omark Industries, Inc.
Depot Activity
3483 Ammunition
VI
Texas
Lone Star Army Ammunition Plant
349 Misc. Fabricated
Metal Products
IV Alabama Rellable Metal Products, Inc.
VI New Mexico 01 man Heath Co.
3496 Misc. Fabricated Wire
Products
IV
VI
Gaorgla
Texas
Gilbert 4 Bennett Manu. Corp.
Roman Wire Co.
267
-------
Table E-5. (Continued)
SIC Code Region
3496
3533
3589
3621
3641
3662
3679
3743
3999
4441
4463
49
4953
4990
5171
7694
7699
8221
Fabricated Pipe & Fittings
01 1 Field Machinery
Service Industry Machinery
Motors & Generators
Electric Lamps
Radio & TV Communication
Equipment
Electronic Components
Ra 1 1 road Equ 1 pment
Manufacturing Industries
Marine Terminal
Marine Cargo Handling
Geothermal Energy Production
Refuse Systems
Refuse Col lection & Disposal
Petroleum Terminal
Armature Rewind Shop
Repair & Related Services
Col leges & Universities
IV
VI
IV
IV
IV
IV
IX
IV
IX
IV
II
IV
IV
VI
VI
IX
IX
IX
IX
III
V
VI
VI
VI
VI
IX
IX
IX
IX
IX
IX
VI
VI 1 1
VI 1 1
VI 1 1
State
Florida
Ok lahoma
Georgia
South Carol Ina
Mississippi
North Carolina
California
Florida
California
Alabama
New York
Kentucky
Kentucky
Lou 1 s 1 ana
Louisiana
Ca 1 1 f orn 1 a
Cal If orn la
Cal If orn la
California
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Louisiana
Louisiana
Texas
Texas
Ca 1 1 f orn 1 a
Cal If orn la
Cal If orn la
Cal If orn la
Cal If orn la
Cal If orn la
Louisiana
Montana
Montana
Colorado
Land far* Facility
Armco, Inc.
Lee C. Moore Corp.
General Electric Co.
General Electric Co.
American Bosch Electrical Products
General Electric Co.
The Grass Valley Group, Inc.
Tropical Circuits, Inc.
Hughes Research Laboratories
Evans Transportation Co.
Borden Chemical A&C Division
Borden Chemical A&C
General Electric Co.
Conoco Inc., Lake Charles Refinery
Texaco U.S.A. (Dlv. of Texaco Inc.)
IT Corp. - Benlcla
IT Corp. - Monte zuma Hills
IT Corp. - Martinez
IT Transportation Co. - Imperial
G.R.O.W.S. Inc. Landfl II
Cecos
Rol 1 Ins Environmental Services
Shreveport Sludge Disposal Facility
Gulf Coast Waste Disposal Authority
Waste Disposal Center
Casmal la Disposal
Chemical Waste Management, Inc.
IT Corp. - Benson Ridge Facility
M. P. Disposal Co., Inc.
Sfml Valley Sanitary Landfill
Oakland Scavenger Co.
Texaco U.S.A. (Dlv. of Texaco Inc.)
General Electric Co.
General Electric Co.
Colorado State University
268
-------
Table E-5. (Continued)
SIC Cod*
9711 National Security
Region
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
VI
VIII
X
State
Alabama
Florida
North Carolina
North Carol Ina
South Carol Ina
Tennessee
N»« Mexico
Colorado
Washington
Land farm Facility
Maxwal 1 AFB
Tyndal 1 AFB
XVIII Airborne Corps & Fort
Seymour Johnson AFB
Shaw AFB
Bragg
McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base
White Sands Missile Range
U.S. Army
Yak 1 ma Firing Center
Source: USEPA 1983a.
269
-------
CO
0)
•H
•H
a
§
ed
CU
M
H
13
a
0
O
•H
3
•H
4J
CO
•H
O
•H
CT)
I
I
W
3
60
•H
n)
CO
oo
CTv
W
CO
CU
O
M
O
CO
270
-------
CO
0)
•H
•H
O
I
4-1
1-1
H
to
Cti
CD
3
O
n)
N
cO
O
•H
4J
5
•H
M
4J
Q)
N
•H
CO
I
w
a)
(-1
60
•H
etf
CO
00
w
C/3
0)
O
M
g
271
-------
APPENDIX F
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON GROUNEWATER
273
-------
Table F-1. Computerized Groundwater Data Bases
Name
Geographic coverage
USGS contact/telephone number
iround Water Site Inventory (GWSI)
Ugh Plains Regional Aquifer System
Analysis (AQUIFERS)
ansas Water Level File (KWL)a
.nnual Observation Well File (AOWF)
lew England District Ground Water Level
Data Base (NEGWL)3
orthern High Plains File (NHP FILE)
ebraska Registered Well File (NRWL)
ebraska Water Level File (NWLF)
ydrogeology Subfile (HY)
Imbres Basin (MB FILE)
evada Test Site and Vicinity Well
Inventory (NTSWI)
an Juan Development
ater Level Subfile (WL FILE)
All of U. S.
Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska,
New Mexico, Oklahoma,
South Dakota, Texas, Wyoming
Kansas
New Mexico
Entire New England USGS
District
Northern High Plain Area of
New Mexico
Nebraska
Nebraska
Long Island, New York
MImbres Basin, New Mexico
Part of Southern Nevada and
nearby California
San Juan Basin In Northwest
New Mex ico
Long Island, New York
Kathy Hunt/703-860-6871
Richard Lucky/303-234-6017
Jesse McNelI Is/913-843-0701
James Hudson/505-766-2011
Robert Wakelee/617-223-2822
John McLean/505-766-2810
Donald SchlId/402-471-5082
Donald Schl Id/402-471-5082
George Hawkins/516-938-8830
John McLean/505-766-2810
Richard K. Waddel 1/303-234-211 5
Peter Frenzel/505-768-2810
George W. Hawkins/516-938-8830
Data is included In the GWSI.
•uirce: USD I 1979.
275
-------
Table F-2. Listing of State Geologists - 1983a
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Dr. Ernest A. Mancini
State Geologist &
Oil & Gas Board
Supervisor
(Ernie)
Dr. Ross G. Schaff
State Geologist
(Ross)
Dr. Larry D. Fellows
State Geologist
(Larry)
Mr. Norman F.
Di rector
(Bill)
Wi 11 i ams
Dr. James F. Davis
State Geologist
(Jim)
Mr. John W. Rold
Director &
State Geologist
(John)
Geological Survey of Alabama
P.O. Drawer 0
University, Alabama 35486
(205) 349-2852
FTS Direct
Division of Geological and
Geophysical Surveys
3001 Porcupine Drive
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 274-9686
FTS Direct
Bureau of Geology & Mineral -
Technology
845 N. Park Avenue
Tucson, Arizona 85719
(602) 621-7906
FTS Direct
Arkansas Geological Commission
3815 West Roosevelt Road
Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
(501) 371-1488
FTS 740-5011 (Operator)
Department of Conservation
California Division of
Mines & Geology
1416 Ninth Street, Room 1:341
Sacramento, California 95814
(916) 445-1923
FTS Direct
Colorado Geological Survey
1313 Sherman Street
Room 715
Denver, Colorado 80203
(303) 866-2611
FTS Direct
276
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Dr. Hugo F. Thomas
Director &
State Geologist
(Hugo)
Dr. Robert R. Jordan
State Geologist
(Bob)
Mr. Charles W. Hendry, Jr.
Chief
(Bud)
Dr. William H. McLemore
State Geologist
(Bill)
Mr. Robert T. Chuck
Manager-Chief Engineer
(Bob)
Dr. Maynard M. Miller
Chief
(Maynard)
Dr. Robert E. Bergstrom
Chief
(Bob)
Dr. John B. Patton
State Geologist
(John)
277
Department of Environmental
Protection
Natural Resources Center
165 Capitol Avenue, Room 553
Hartford, Connecticut 06106
(203) 566-3540
FTS Direct
Delaware Geological Survey
University of Delaware
101 Penny Hall
Newark, Delaware 19711
(302) 738-2833
FTS Direct
Bureau of Geology
903 West Tennessee Street
Tallahassee, Florida 32304
(904) 488-4191
FTS Direct
Georgia Geologic Survey, Rm. 400
19 Martin Luther King Drive, S.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
(404) 656-3214
FTS Direct
Department of Land & Natural
Resources
Division of Water & Land
Development
P.O. Box 373
Honolulu, Hawaii 96809
(808) 548-7533
Bureau of Mines & Geology
University of Idaho Campus
Moscow, Idaho 83843
(208) 885-7991
FTS 554-1111 (Operator)
Illinois State Geological Survey
615 East Peabody Drive, Room 121
Champaign,'Ill-inois 61820
(217) 344-1481
FTS Direct
Indiana Geological Survey
Department of Natural Resources
611 N. Walnut Grove
Bloomington, Indiana 47405
(812) 335-2862
FTS Direct
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Mr. Donald L. Koch
Director & State
Geologist
(Don)
Dr. William W. Hambleton
Director & State
Geologist
(Bill)
Dr. Donald C. Haney
Director &
State Geologist
(Don)
Dr. Charles G. Groat
Director & State
Geologist
(Chip)
Dr. Walter Anderson
Director & State
Geologist
(Walt)
Dr. Kenneth
Director
(Ken)
N. Weaver
Mr. Joseph A. Sinnott
State Geologist
(Joe)
278
Iowa Geological Survey
123 North Capitol
Iowa City, Iowa 52242
(319) 338-1173
FTS Direct
Kansas Geological Survey
1930 Avenue A, Campus West
The University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66044
(913) 864-3965
FTS Direct
Kentucky Geological Survey
University of Kentucky
311 Breckinridge Hall
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
(606) 257-5863
FTS Direct
Louisiana Geological Survey
Department of Natural Resources
Box G, University Station
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893
(504) 342-6754
FTS Direct
Maine Geological Survey
Department of Conservation
State House, Station 22
Augusta, Maine 04333
(207) 289-2801
FTS Direct
Maryland Geological Survey
The Rotunda
711 West 40th Street, Suite 440
Baltimore, Maryland 21211
(301) 338-7084
FTS 922-3311 (Operator)
Department of Environmental
Quality Engineering
Division of Waterways4
1 Winter St., 7th Floor
Boston, Massachusetts 02108
(617) 292-5690
FTS Direct
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
Mr. R. Thomas Segal!
State Geologist
(Tom)
Dr. Matt S.
Director
(Matt)
Walton
Mr. Alvin R. Bicker
Director &
State Geologist
(Al)
Dr. Wallace B. Howe
Division Director &
State Geologist
(Wally)
Dr. Edward C. Bingler
Director & State
Geologist
Mr. Vincent H. Dreeszen
Director
(Vince)
Mr. John H. Schilling
Director &
State Geologist
(John)
279
Geological Survey Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Stevens T. Mason Building
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, Michigan 48909
(517) 373-1256
FTS Direct
Minnesota Geological Survey
2642 University Avenue
St. Paul, Minnesota 55114
(612) 373-3372
FTS Direct
Mississippi Geological, Economic
& Topographical Survey
P.O. Box 5348
Jackson, Mississippi 39216
(601) 354-6228
FTS Direct
Department of Natural Resources
Division of Geology & Land
Survey
P.O. Box 250
Roll a, Missouri 65401
(314) 364-1752
FTS Direct
Montana Bureau of Mines &
Geology
Montana College of Mineral
Science & Technology
Butte, Montana 59701
(406) 496-4181
FTS 585-5011 (Operator)
Conservation & Survey Division
The University of Nebraska
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588
(402) 472-3471
FTS Direct
Nevada Bureau of Mines &
Geology
University of Nevada
Reno, Nevada 89557-0088
(702) 784-6691
FTS 598-6011 (Operator)
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
New Hampshire
Dr. Robert I. Davis
State Geologist
(Bob)
New Jersey
New Mexico
Mr. Frank Markewlcz
Acting State Geologist
(Frank)
Dr. Frank E. Kottlowski
Director
(Frank)
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Dr. Robert Fakundiny
State Geologist & Chief
(Bob)
Mr. Stephen G. Conrad
Director &
State Geologist
(Steve)
Dr. Don L. Halvorson
State Geologist
(Don)
Mr. Horace R. Collins
Division Chief &
State Geologist
(Buzz)
Department of Resources A
Economic Development
117 James Hall
University of New Hampshire
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
(603) 862-1216
FTS 834-7011 (Operator)
New Jersey Geological Survey
Division of Water Resources CN-02*
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
(609) 292-2576
FTS Direct
New Mexico Bureau of Mines
& Mineral Resources
Campus Station
Socorro, New Mexico 87801
(505) 835-5420
FTS Direct
New York State Geological Survey
State Science Service, Room 3140
Cultural Education Center
Albany, New York 12230
(518) 474-5816
FTS Direct
Division of Land Resources
Department of Natural Resources
& Community Development
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, North Carolina 27611
(919) 733-3833
FTS Direct
North Dakota Geological Survey
University Station, Box 8156-582C
Grand Forks, North Dakota 58201
(701) 777-2231
FTS 783-5771 (Operator)
Ohio Division of Geological
Survey
Fountain Square
Building B
Columbus, Ohio 43224
(614) 265-6605
FTS Direct
280
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Dr. Charles J. Mankln
Director
(Charlie)
Dr. Donald A. Hull
State Geologist
(Don)
Dr. Arthur A. Socolow
State Geologist
(Art)
Rhode Island
Mr. Daniel
Chief
W. Varin
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Mr. Norman K. Olson
State Geologist
(Ole)
Mr. Merlin J. Tipton
State Geologist
(Tip)
Mr. Robert E. Hershey
State Geologist
(Bob)
281
Oklahoma Geological Survey
The University of Oklahoma
830 Van Vleet Oval, Rm. 163
Norman, Oklahoma 73019
(405) 325-3031
FTS 736-4011 (Operator)
Department of Geology &
Mineral Industries
1005 State Office Building
Portland, Oregon 97201
(503) 229-5580
FTS Direct
Bureau of Topographic A
Geologic Survey
Department of Environmental
Resources
P.O. Box 2357
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
(717) 787-2169
FTS Direct
Statewide Planning Program
265 Mel rose Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02907
(401) 277-2656
South Carolina Geological
Survey
Harbison Forest Road
Columbia, South Carolina 29210
(803) 758-6431
FTS-Direct
South Dakota Geological Survey
Science Center
University of South Dakota
Yermillion, South Dakota 57069
(605) 624-4471
FTS 782-7000 (Operator)
Department- of Conservation
.Division of Geology
701 Broadway
Nashville, Tennessee 37203
(615) 742-6691
FTS Direct
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State
Name & Title
Address & Telephone No.
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Dr. W. L.
Di rector
(Bill)
Fisher
Ms. Genevieve Atwood
Di rector
(Genevieve)
Dr. Charles A. Ratte
State Geologist
(Chuck)
Dr. Robert C. Milici
State Geologist
(Bob)
Mr. Raymond Lasmanis
State Geologist &
Supervisor
Dr. Robert B. Erwin
Director & State
Geologist
(Bob)
Dr. Meredith E. Ostrom
State Geologist &
Director
(Buzz)
Bureau of Economic Geology
The University of Texas at Austin
University Station
Box X
Austin, Texas 78712
(512) 471-1534
FTS 729-4011 (Operator)
Utah Geological & Mineral Survey
606 Black Hawk Way
Salt Lake City, Utah 84108
(801) 581-6831
FTS Direct
State Office Building
Agency of Environmental
Conservation
Montpelier, Vermont 05602
(802) 828-3365
FTS Direct
Virginia Division of Mineral
Resources
P.O. Box 3667
Charlottesville, Virginia 22903
(804) 293-5121
FTS 937-6011 (Operator)
Division of Geology & Earth
Resources
Department of Natural Resources
Olympia, Washington 98504
(206) 459-6372
FTS-Direct
West Virginia Geological &
Economic Survey
P.O. Box 879
Morgantown, West Virginia 26507
(304) 594-2331
FTS 923-1511 (Operator)
Wisconsin Geological &
Natural History Survey .
University of Wisconsin Extension
1815 University Avenue
Madison, Wisconsin 53705
(608) 262-1705
FTS Direct
282
-------
Table F-2. (Continued)
State Name & Title Address & Telephone No.
Wyoming Mr. Gary B. Glass Geological Survey of Wyoming
State Geologist & P.O. Box 3008
Executive Director University Station
(Gary) Laramie, Wyoming 82071
(307) 742-2054, 766-2286
FTS 328-1110 (Operator)
Puerto Rico Mr. Ramon M. Alonzo Servicio Geologico de Puerto
Rico
Dept. de Recursos Naturales
Apartado 5887
Puerta de Tierra
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00906
(809) 723-2716
aprovided by the U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
283
-------
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284
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APPENDIX G
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS
285
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287
-------
Table G-l. (Continued)
Step 2. Rating of the Ground Water Availability
GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING CATEGORY
Earth
Material
Category
Unconsol i dated
Rock
Consol 1 dated
Rock
Representati ve
Permeabi 1 i ty
2
in gpd/ft
In cm/sec
1
Grave] or sand
Cavernous or
Fractured Rock,
Poorly Cemented
Sands tone ,
Fault Zones
>2
-k
1 1
Sand with i 50*
clay
Moderately to
Well Cemented
Sandstone ,
Fractured Shale
0.02 - 2
-6 -It
10 -10
III
Clay with < 50%
sand
Si 1 tstone,
Unf ractured
Shale and other
Impervious Rock
< 0.02
-6
RATING MATRIX
Thickness fc 30
of Saturated
Zone 3-30
(Meters*
53
6A
5A
3A
3C
1C
2E
IE
OE
aThis table is provided so that the user will understand the relationship
between SIA ratings (available in the SIA data base) and key earth material
parameters. See text (Section 5) and Silka and Swearingen 1978, for
more information.
Source: Silka and Swearingen 1978.
288
-------
Table G-2. Relation Between SIA Earth Material Categories
and the Unified Soil Classification System
Step 1
Earth Material Category
(and Step 1 Designation)
Unified Soi1
Class i fi cation
System Designation
Permeabi1ity
Range (cm/sec)
Gravel (I)
Medium to Coarse Sand 0)
Fine to Very Fine Sand (II)
GW, GP
SW, SP
SW, SP
Permeable
> 10"1* cm/sec
Sand with $15% Clay, Silt (III) GM, SM, SC
Sand with >15* but £50% Clay (IV) GM, SM, ML
Semi-permeable
7 -6
10"* to 10 cm/sec
Clay with <50* Sand (V)
Clay (VI)
OL, MH
CL, CH, OH
Relatively Imperme-
able
< 10~° cm/sec
aThis table is provided so that the user will understand the relationship
between SIA ratings (available in the SIA data base) and key earth material
parameters. See text (Section 5) and Silka and Swearingen 1978, for more
information.
Source: Silka and Swearingen 1978.
289
-------
APPENDIX H
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON P01WS
291
-------
Exhibit H-l. Needs Survey
This survey 1s conducted annually by the Priority Needs Branch of the
Office of Water Program Operations of EPA 1n order to comply with the
provisions of Section 205(a) and 516(b)(2) of the Clean Water Act of
1977. This survey collects design and operating characteristics for all
of the municipal sewage treatment facilities 1n the nation and stores the
data 1n computer retrievable form. The following characteristics are
available for each facility:
• Scope of collection and treatment (e.g., wastewater collection
only; wastewater collection, treatment, and sludge treatment
onslte; handling, treatment, and disposal of sludge generated by
other facilitates).
• Resident and nonresident population served and population not
receiving treatment.
• Actual and designed dally flow (thousands of cubic meters per day).
• Average dally domestic flow and average dally Industrial flow.
• Level of treatment (preliminary, primary, secondary, etc.).
• Treatment and disposal methods of the liquid line (e.g., trickling
filter, land treatment of primary effluent, activated carbon).
See Table H-8 1n Appendix H for a 11st of all treatment parameters
1n the data base.
• Treatment and disposal methods of the sludge line (e.g., aerobic
digestion, compositing, Incineration - multiple hearth,
landfill). See Table H-8 for a 11st of all treatment parameters
1n the data base.
Data may be retrieved from the Needs Survey data base for all
facilities 1n a given state, county, congressional district, Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA), zip code, or sewage authority
jurisdiction. The choice of geographic designators 1n an exposure
assessment will depend on how detailed and accurate the study must be.
In most retrievals, all of the bulleted parameters are desirable because
they are Important pieces of Information for Stages III, IV, and V. One
carefully planned retrieval can provide data for all three stages 1n one
step. There 1s no user's manual for this system, but the EPA staff In
charge of Needs Survey retrievals has many program already written,
several of which would serve the purpose of exposure assessments with
little or no revision.
For more details on the Needs Survey data base, see the latest annual
technical report available from the EPA Office of Water Program
Operations (Washington, D.C.).
293
-------
Exhibit H-2. Industrial Facility Discharge File (IFO)
This data base 1s maintained by the Monitoring and Data Support
Division (MDSD) of the Office of Water Regulations and Standards. The
IFD file 1s useful 1n estimating exposure from chemical substances 1n
wastewater because 1t provides Information on the Industrial contributors
to a given POTW. For each POTW, this data base will give the following
for each Industrial contributor belonging to one of the 21 major
Industrial categories listed 1n Table D-8:
• NPDES number, 1f any
• Facility name
• SIC codes (two most Important codes)
• Type of discharge
• Flow (thousands of gallons per day).
The data for all POTWs 1n a state, county, or river basin can be
retrieved by requesting SIC Code 4952 (which pertains to POTWs). This
type of retrieval can be a source of both site-specific and generic
data. It may be useful 1n determining whether a new Industrial plant
might discharge to a local POTW because 1t can verify whether the POTWs
1n the area accept Industrial waste. Because a comprehensive 11st of all
contributing wastewaters can be obtained 1n this way for a particular
POTW, this data base 1n the prime candidate for use 1n conjunction with a
POTW model for exposure assessments. This data base 1n currently used as
Input to the POTW model used by the MDSD (see Section 6.1).
Another useful retrieval from the IFD file 1s by SIC code of the
Industry of Interest or for the geographic area of Interest. For each
existing Industrial plant, this retrieval will give the following:
• NPDES permit number of each receiving POTW
• Total Indirect flow (thousands of gallons per day)
• Indirect discharge type.
These data will allow a direct estimate of wastewaters routed to
Individual POTWs where site-specific Information 1s desirable for
existing Industrial plants. This retrieval will also be useful 1n
situations where the Investigator 1s confronted with the problem of
trying to guess whether any effluent from a new Industrial plant will be
routed to a local POTW, because a general picture of the current
wastewater disposal practices of the Industry (and for the geographic
area) can be obtained from the printout.
The one drawback of the IFD data base 1s that 1t 1s only about 75 to
80% complete. Therefore, 1t may not Include all of the POTWs or
Industrial plants of Interest 1n a given exposure assessment.
294
-------
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Table H-8. Summary of Treatment and Slude Handling Processes -
Numbers of Plants and Associated Flow - United States Totals3
Treatment processes
Liquid line
Pumping, raw wastewater
Preliminary treatment - raw screen
Preliminary treatment - grit removal
Preliminary treatment - comminutors
Preliminary treatment - others
Scum removal
Flow equalization basins
Preaeration
Primary sedimentation
Trickling filter - rock media
Trickling filter - plastic media
Trickling filter - redwood slats
Trickling filter - other media
Activated sludge - conventional
Activated sludge - high rate
Activated sludge - contact stabilization
Activated sludge - extended aeration
Pure oxygen activated sludge
Bio-disc (rotating, biological filter)
Oxidation ditch using mechanical aerators
Clarification using turf settlers
Secondary clarification
Biological nitrification - separate stage
Biological nitrification - rod and nit.
Biological denitrification
Post aeration (reaeration)
Microstrainers - primary
Hicrostrainers - secondary
Sand filters
Mix-media filters (sand and coal)
Other filtrations
Activated carbon - granular
Activated carbon - powdered
Two stage lime treatment or raw wastewater
Two stage tertiary lime treatment
Single stage lime treatment of raw wastewater
Single stage tertiary lime treatment
Recarbonation
Number of plants'5
b
8,996
b
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75
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413
416
5,301
2,647
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40
1,208
1,977
68
179
553
42
1,647
151
274
24
561
28
75
1,340
230
43
21
5
13
17
25
53
26
Total flow (thousands
cubic meters per day)b
b
110,935
24,165
b
2,593
22,674
10,928
23,715
102,657
20,841
1,816
905
322
75,001
3,681
12,124
5,665
9,650
1,910
1,297
414
13,813
3,279
5,168
498
8,550
2,514
2,315
9,746
8.328
1,061
1,175
341
285
295
749
1,605
1,162
313
-------
Table H-8. (Continued)
Treatment processes Number
Liquid line (continued)
Neutralization
Alum addition to primary
Alum addition to secondary
Alum addition to separate stage tertiary
Ferri -chloride addition to primary
Ferri -chloride addition to secondary
Ferri-chloride addition to separate stage tertiary
Other chemical additions
Ion exchange
Breakpoint chlori nation
Amnonia stripping
Dechlori nation
Chlorination for disinfection
Ozonation for disinfection
Other disinfection
Land treatment of primary effluent
Land treatment of secondary effluent (30/30)
Land treatment of intermediate effluent
Stabilization ponds
Aerated lagoons
Outfall pumping
Outfall diffuser
Effluent to other plants
Effluent outfall
Other treatment
Recalci nation
Sludqe handling methods
Aerobic digestion - air
Aerobic digestion - oxygen
Composting
Anaerobic digestion
Sludge lagoons
Heat treatment
Chlorine oxidation of sludge (purifax)
Lime stabilization
Wet air oxidation
Air drying
of plants
16
73
262
66
42
165
31
89
2
10
8
182
7,737
22
6
77
496
169
5,665
1,166
260
71
12
12,636
539
29
2,960
46
16
4,286
604
163
36
65
51
6,688
Total flow (thousands
cubic meters per day)**
164
2,989
6,302
1,778
1,256
4,496
352
4,214
204
203
302
2,628
81,587
1,107
3,458
82
2,975
343
12,609
4,926
11,874
5,081
231
109,496
6,278
2,399
17,823
608
2,907
78,701
14,550
12,999
1,515
3,011
3,172
49,724
314
-------
Table H-8. (Continued)
Treatment processes
Sludge handling methods (continued)
Dewatering - mechanical - vacuum filter
Dewatering - mechanical - centrifuge
Dewatering - mechanical - filter press
Dewatering - others
Gravity thickening
Air flotation thickening
Incineration - multiple hearth
Incineration - fluidized beds
Incineration - rotary kiln
Incineration - others
Pyrolsis
Co- incineration with solid waste
Co-pyrolysis with solid waste
Co-incineration - others
Landfill
Landspreadi ng of liquid sludge
Landspreadi ng of thickened sludge
Trenching
Ocean dumping
Other sludge handling
Digest gas utilization factilities
Miscellaneous
Control /lab, maintenance buildings
Fully automated using digital control
Fully automated using analog controls
Semi automated plant
Manually operated and controlled plant
Package plant
Semi -package plant
Custom boilt plant
Imhoff tanks
Septic tanks
Electrodialysis
Reverse osmosis
Pressure filters
Seepage lagoons
Rock filters
Polymer addition to liquid stream
Polymer addition to sludge stream
Number of plants
1,115
209
102
29
709
199
306
19
8
13
2
5
6
0
5,918
1,178
925
8
49
260
186
8,204
40
77
10,476
4,398
1,724
1,945
11,201
318
b
0
0
3
321
1
9
8
Total flow (thousands
cubic meters per day)b
51,460
12,931
3,657
1.748
38,864
15.020
26.599
1.249
236
1,075
97
140
14
0
66.930
11,536
15,514
1,247
11,699
12,574
10,664
100,540
6,463
5,029
108,381
8,894
1,882
6,608
119,439
327
13
0
0
28
78
0
954
b
315
-------
Table H-8. (Footnotes))
aTable H-8 surnnarizes the inventory of unit processes that was compiled during the 1980 Needs
Survey, including liquid line, sludge line, and miscellaneous processes and types of controls.
In each category the total number of processes is listed along with an associated total flow. The
total flow was compiled using the present design flow of the treatment facility using the
process. A unit process is defined to mean the complete process. For instance, activated sludge
includes the aeration basin, associated blowers and other integral mechanical equipment,
and the secondary clarifier, which is not listed separately. Multiple or parallel processes
are counted as one process for any single facility. For example, if a facility has four aerobic
digesters, the number of aerobic digesters counted in ths summary is one, not four. Therefore,
the Number column denotes the number of plants using that rocess.
''Numbers in original document were illegible.
Source: USEPA 1981e.
316
-------
APPENDIX I
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON INCINERATION
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Table 1-2. Inventory of Small Municipal Incinerators
No. of
Manufacturer Units
U.S. Smelting 2
(FarrijBr,
Saokatrol )
Kelley 1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
Consuut 2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
-1
2.
8
1
e
3
8
2
2
2
4
2
2
1
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
4
Total 90
Location
Crossvllle, TN
Nottingham, NH
Candla, NH
Bridgewatar, NH
Meredith, NH
Canterbury, NH
P1ttsf1eld, NH
Klttery, ME
Harpswell, ME
Auburn, NH
Stuttgart, Ark.
Augusta, Ark.
Tahlequah, OK
Donaldsonvllle, LA
Rayne, LA
Plaquenlne, LA
Kensett, AR
Skaneateles, NY
Osceola, AR
Cleveland, OK
Pahokee, PL
Orlando, FL
Refugio, TX
BelUngham, WA
Terrell, TX
Hot Springs, AR
Bentonvllle, AR
Hope, AR
S1loa» Springs, AR
Blytheville, AR
Wr1ghtsv1lle Beach, NC
Tahlequah, OK
County of Coos, OR
North Little -Rock, AR
Port Orange, FL
Atkins, AR
Wilton, NH
Lltchfield, NH
Wolfeboro, NH
County of Coos, OR
Sales, VA
Total Existing Capacity
Capacity/Unit
Year of
kg/day (tons/day) Installation
27,215
8,165
12,701
12,701
12,701
8,165
12,701
21,772
12,701
12,701
27,215
19,958
27,215
27,215
27,215
27,215
14,515
27,215
27,215
19,958
19,958
27,215
19,958
11,793
16,329
27,215
27,215
27,215
19,958
16,329
27,215
27,215
27,215
22,679
27,215
15,422
27,215
19,958
16,329
27,215
22,679
1,969,488
(30)
(9)
(14)
(14)
(14)
(9)
(14)
(24)
(14)
(14)
(30)
(22)
(30)
(30)
(30)
(30)
(16)
(30)
(30)
(22)
(22)
(30)
(22)
(13)
(18)
(30)
(30)
(30)
(22)
(18)
(30)
(30)
(30)
(25)
(30)
(17)
(30)
(22)
(IB)
(30)
(25)
(2, in)
76
75
76
76
76
77
77
77
77
78
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
75
75
77
77
77
77
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
Heat
Recovery
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Source:
Information provided by Ron Myer, EPA Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards.
335
-------
Table 1-3. Inventory of Large Municipal Incinerators
in Operation in 1980
State
Unit location
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Florida
Hawaii
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Massachusetts
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Utah
Virginia
Wisconsin
Ansonia, Stanford, New Canaan
East Hartford, Bridgport
SUR Center #1
Orlando, Dade County
Honolulu (Waipaho)
Chicago (N.W.)
East Chicago
Louisville
Shreveport
Baltimore, Baltimore
Saugus, Fall River, Braintree,
Framingham, E. Bridgewater
St. Louis (S. First St)
St. Louis (Grand St)
Red Bank
Huntington, Oyster Bay, Tonawanda,
Lackawanna, New York City (Betts),
New York City (South Brooklyn), New
York City (Green Point), Hempstead,
Brooklyn (S.W.)
Lakewood
Harrisburg, Philadelphia (E.
Central), Philadelphia (N.W.),
Shippensburg, Nashville, Weber
County
Nashville
Weber County
Newport News, Norfolk Navy Public
Works, Portsmouth
Sheboygan, Waukesha
Source: Information provided by
and Standards.
Ron Myer, EPA Office of Air Quality
336
-------
Table 1-4. Manufacturing Segment of the National Industrial
Incinerator Population by Use Category
Use
Volume
reduction
Toxicity
reduction
Resource
recovery
TOTAL POPULATION
Waste
stream
Solid
industrial
process
Wood
Trash
TOTAL
Volume reduction
Solid
industrial
process
Liquid
industrial
process
Sludge
TOTAL
Toxicity reduction
Copper wire
Electric motors
X-ray film
Steel drums
Brake shoes
Other
TOTAL
Resource recovery
Units in
nation
620
260
620
1500
170
420
50
640
400
1000
100
40
40
130
1700b
3800a
Population figures given are maximums of expected range.
This figure does not equal the sum of its components because
it is rounded to 2 significant figures.
Source: USEPA 1980d.
337
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Table 1-10. Potential Air Pollutants from Hazardous Waste Incineration
Hazardous waste
Organic materials containing:
1. C, H. 0 only
2. Cl
3. Br
4. F
5. S
6. P
7. N
8. C, N
Materials containing some
inorganic components:^
1. Nontoxic minerals only,
e.g., Al, Ca, Na
2. Toxic elements including
metals, eg., PB, As, Sb
1
Air pollutants
Thermal NOx
HC1
HBr
HF
SO*
PaOs
NOx
CH~ compounds
Particulate matter
Particulate matter
n
Volatile species
Likely
Quench
tower St
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X
X
X
X
X
X
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: rubber
c
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*Based on complete destruction (i.e., oxidation) of hazardous waste.
NO* produced from atmospheric nitrogen at high temperatures (about 1,100"C) in the
incinerator.
CNO» is not normally controlled. Special scrubbers have been developed for NOx con-
trol in special circumstances.
Alkaline scrubbers are required for efficient SOx control.
6Special high efficiency scrubbers are needed to collect phosphoric acid mist.
A portion of the inorganic components may be removed as bottom ash from the
incinerator.
^Certain elements from volatile species (e.g., ASaO3) that condense out in the
exhaust gas as the temperature falls. They can be collected in the gas phase by
special scrubbers or as particulate matter at low temperatures by normal particulate
control equipment.
Source: Monsanto 1981.
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to
378
-------
Table 1-12. Hazardous Waste Incineration Processes
and Their Typical Operating Ranges
Process
Temperature
range, °F (°C)
Residence time
Rotary kiln
Liquid injection
Fluidized bed
Multiple hearth
Coincineration
Starved air combustion/pyrolysis
1,500 to 2,900
(820 to 1,600)
1,200 to 2,900
(650 to 1,600)
840 to 1,800
(450 to 980)
Drying zone
600 to 1,000
(320 to 540)
Incineration
1,400 to 1,800
(760 to 980)
300 to 2,900
(150 to 1,600)
900 to 1,500
(480 to 820)
Liquids and gases, seconds;
solids, hours
0.1 to 2 seconds
Liquids and gases, seconds;
solids, longer
0.25 to 1.5 hours
Seconds to hours
Tenth of a second to
several hours
Source: Monsanto 1981.
379
-------
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380
-------
Table 1-14. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Levels in Air
Emissions, Solid Waste Residues, and Scrubber Water
Discharge from a Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator3
Compound
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Benzo(a)anthracene +
Stack Gases
& Parti culates
yg/kg refuse
2.5
6.8
3.1
Solid Waste
Residue
yg/kg refuse
12.4
10.5
36.6
Scrubber
Water Discharge
yg/kg refuse
0.14
0.12
0.15
Benzo(b)fluoranthene +
benzo(k)fluoranthene
benzo(j)fluoranthene
1.4
62.5
0.032
ueii£.u\ a i \iy r CMC T
benzo(e)pyrene
Perylene
Benzo(ghi )perylene
Indeno(l ,2,3-cd)pyrene
Coronene
0.09
0.77
1.8
0.77
0.2
31.5
17.5
10.0
<2.1
<4.3
0.032
0.030
0.007
<0.002
<0.002
Incinerator rated at 2.5 kg/s, continuous feed, utilizing a wet scrubber
followed by an electrostatic precipita tor for particulate control.
Other characteristics: rocking bar-type grate with burning rate 0.101
kg/s-m2; primary air = 15-20% excess of theoretical, secondary air =
0-70% excess; stack gases » 10.9 m3/s (dry) at 293 K, 1 atmosphere;
residue = 0.7 kg/s at 23% average moisture content; scrubber water
discharge = 0.58 liters/s (input water totalling approximately 0.28
yg/1 of the indicated PAH compounds).
Source: USEPA 1980c.
381
-------
APPENDIX J
AUXILIARY INFORMATION ON DEEP-WELL INJECTION
383
-------
Table J-l. Compounds that have been Disposed of by Deep-well Injection
Chemical
Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone
Acetylene
Acrolein
Adi pic Adic
Adiponitrile
Allyl Alcohol
Aluminum Oxide
Amides
Anmonia
Ammonium Chloride
Ammonium Chroma te
Ammonium Di chroma te
Anmonium Hydroxide
Ammonium Nitrate
Anmonium Thiocyanante
Amyl Alcohol
Aniline
Arsenic Trioxide
Benzene
Benzoic Acid
Boron
Boron Chloride
Butane
Butanol
Butyl Disulfide
Butyl Mercaptan
Butyl Phenol
Butyric Acid
Cadmium
Cadmium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium Oxide
Caprolactum
Carbon Disulfide
Chlorine
Chloroform
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
385
-------
Table 0-1. (Continued)
Chemi cal
Chromic Acid
Copper Chloride
Cresol
Cumene
Cumene Hydroperoxide
Cyclohexane
Diazinon
Diethylstilbestrol
Dinitrobenzene
Oinitrotoluene
Dioxane
Diphemyl Amine
Epichlorohydrin
Ethane
Ethers
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Disulfide
Ethylene
Ethylene Glycol
Ethyl Mercaptan
Ethyl Phenol
Ferric Chloride
Ferrous Chloride
Ferrous Sulfate
Formaldehyde
Formic Acid
Glycerin
Gold Chloride
Hexamethy1enedi ami ne
Hexanol
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen Cyanide
Hydrogen Peroxide
Magnesium Oxide
Mercury
Mercuric Chloride
Mercuric Diatrmonium Chloride
Mercuric Nitrate
386
-------
Table J-l. (Continued)
Chemical
Mercuric Sulfate
Methane
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Cellulose
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Mercaptan
Methyl Methacrylate
Nitric Acid
Nitrobenzene
p-Nitrophenol
Phenol
Phosphorous Oxychloride
Phosphorous Pentachloride
Phosphorous Trichloride
Polyvinyl Alcohol
Potassium Chromate
Potassium Dichromate
Potassium Sulfate
Propanol
Propargyl Alcohol
Propylene Oxide
Radium - 226
Silica
Silicon Tetrachloride
Silver Chloride
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chromate
Sodium Oichromate
Sodium Ferrocyanide
Sodium Fluoride
Sodium Formate
Sodium Hypochlorite
Sodium Monoxide
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrite
Sodium Sulfate
Sodium Sulfite
Stannic Oxide
387
-------
Table 3-1. (Continued)
Chemical
Sulfuric Acid
Terephthalic Acid
Thorium - 230
Toluene Diamine
p-Toluic Acid
Uranium
Urea
Valeric Acid
Vanadium Pentoxide
Vinyl Acetate
Xylene
Xylenol
Zinc Oxide
Source: Reederetal. 1977a.
388
-------
Table J-2. Modified Theis Equation
4T1KH ( hw - hbo x
. ;. , .' '. ; ' 2.3 Q
P'
"?..,'"
r » • Radius of endangering influence froia injection well
(length)
K ' » Hydraulic conductivity of the injection zone
(length/time)
fl .. «* Thickness of the injection zone (length)
t .•„•••',.«• Time of injection (time)
S * Storage coefficient (dimensionless)
Q. » Injection rate (volume/time)
ty>o * Observed original hydrostatic head of injection
zone (length) measured from the base of the lowest
' * i ~ i
underground source of drinking water
nw a Hydrostatic head of underground source of
drinking water (length) measured from the
base of the lowest underground source of drinking
water
* Specific gravity of fluid in the injection zone
(dimensionless)
T) » 3.142 (dimensionless).
389
Source: USEPA 19Sid.
-------
Table J-3. Information on the Survey Waste
Injection Program (SWIP)
USE: The SWIP model is applicable for modeling the transport of
momentum, energy and contaminant mass in porous media due to deep
well injection or other sources.
DEVELOPED BY: INTERCOM? Resource Development and Engineering, Inc. and
INTERA, Inc.
DEVELOPED FOR: U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division
REFERENCE; INTERCOMP, Inc., 1976, A Model for Calculating Effects of
Liquid Waste Disposal in Deep Saline Aquifer, Part I and II,
U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations
76-61, June, 1976.
INTERA, Inc., 1979, Revision of the Documentation for a
Model for Calculating Effects of Liquid Waste Disposal in
Deep Saline Aquifers, U.S. Geological Survey,
Water-Resources Investigations 79-96, July 1979, 73 p.
ASSUMPTIONS: • Fluid flow in the aquifer can be described by Darcy's
law for flow through a porous medium.
• Fluid density can be a function of pressure, temperature
and contaminant concentration. Fluid viscosity can be a
function of temperature and concentration.
• The waste or contaminating fluid is totally miscible
with the 1n-place fluid.
• Hydrodynamic dispersion is described as a function of
fluid velocity.
• The energy equation can be described as "enthalpy in -
enthalpy out » change in internal energy of the system."
This is rigorous except for kinetic and potential energy
which have been neglected.
• Water table conditions in an unconfined aquifer can be
approximated by no capillarity and no residual water
saturation (specific retention).
• Contaminant reaction can be described by a first order
reaction - similar to radioactive decay.
• Contaminant adsorption on rock surfaces can be described
by linear adsorption isotherms.
• Aquifer properties vary with position-porosity,
permeability, thickness, depth, specific heat and
adsorption distribution coefficient.
• Boundary conditions allow natural water movement in the
aquifer, vertical recharge in the uppermost layer; heat
losses to the adjacent formations, and the location of
injection, withdrawals and observation wells anywhere
within the aquifer system.
390 .
-------
Table J-3. (Continued)
APPROXIMATING METHOD; t Finite-difference
SOLUTION TECHNIQUES;
e Reduced bandwidth direct
• L2SOR
GEOMETRY; • 1-, 2-, or 3-d1mens1onal Cartesian
• Cylindrical
OPTIONS; Steady or transient flow
Solute transport
Heat transport
Wellbore
Heterogeneous and/or anlsotroplc media
Confined and/or water-table conditions
Recharge and/or wells
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS; • Specified value
• Specified flux
• Aquifer Influence function
Source: Mercer et al. 1981.
391
-------
APPENDIX K
USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS
393
-------
Table K-l.
ton, short x
inch (in) x
centimeter x
feet (ft) x
meter x
mile (mi) . x
kilometer x
U. S. gallon (gal) x
cubic meter x
cubic feet (ft 3) x
cubic meter x
acre-foot (ac-ft) x
cubic meter x
hectare x
square meter x
hectare x
acre x
Hydraulic Conductivity
gpd/ft2 x
cm/sec x
Darcy x
Darcy x
Useful Conversion
0.907
2.54
0.3937
0. 3048
3. 2808
1. 009
0 621
0. 0038
264. 17
0. 0283
35.314
123. 53
0. 0008
10, 000. 0
0. 0001
2.471
0.4047
-5
4. 72 x 10
3
21. 2 x 10
18.2
-4
8.58x 10
Factors
= metri
= centi
= inch
= mete]
= feet
= kilom
= mile
= cubic
= U.S. |
= cubic
= cubic
= cubic i
= acre-f
= square
= hectari
= acre
= hectare
= cm/sec
= gpd/ft2
= gpd/ft2
= cm/sec
395
-------
REPORT DOCUMENTATION ^REPORT NO. 2.
PAGE EPA 560/5-85-003
. Title and Subtitle
Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances -
Volume 3: Methods for Assessing Exposure from Disposal of
Chemical Substances
/Authors Leslie Coleman Adkins, Stephen H. Nacht,
John J. Doria, Michael T. Christopher
'. Performing Organization Name and Address
Versar Inc.
6850 Versar Center
Springfield, Virginia 22151
2. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
Exposure Evaluation Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
3. Recipient's Accession No.
5. Report Date
7/85
6.
8. Performing Organization Rept. No.
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
Task 11
11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No.
(o EPA 68-01-6271
(G)
13. Type of Report & Period Covered
Final Report
14.
5. Supplementary Notes
EPA Project Officer was Michael A. Callahan
EPA Task Manager was Stephen H. Nacht
S. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)
This report, which is part of a series of volumes on exposure assessment,
presents methods for estimating environmental releases of chemical substances from
disposal sites. These release estimates must be used in conjunction with procedures
given in Volume 2 (ambient exposure category) and Volume 5 (drinking water exposure
category) in order to complete the exposure assessment. A five-stage methodological
framework outlines the major steps that must be taken in order to estimate releases
from disposal by landfilling, land treatment, surface impoundment, municipal
wastewater treatment, incineration, and deep-well injection. The methods are
applicable to chemical substances in all of the following waste categories:
municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste (hazardous and nonhazardous), municipal
wastewater, wastewater treatment sludges, and incinerator residues. The report
provides guidance on information resources useful in completing each step and also
discusses data gaps and limitations in predictive capability. Sample data and
summaries of information resources are included in appendices.
Document Analysis a. Descriptors
b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
Exposure Assessment/Disposal
Toxic Substances/Waste Treatment
c. COSATI Field/Group
Availability Statement
Distribution Unlimited
19. Security Class (This Report)
Unclassified
20, Security Class {This Page)
unclassified
21. No. of Pages
412
22. Price
ANSI-Z39.18)
See Instructions on Reverse
OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
(Formerly NTIS-35)
Department of Commerce
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