EPA 560/5-85-006
August 1985
METHODS FOR ASSESSING EXPOSURE
TO CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Volume 6
Methods for Assessing Occupational
Exposure to Chemical Substances
by
H. Lee Schultz, G1na H. D1xon, Stephen H. Nacht,
Clay E. Carpenter, William Christie, Gayaneh Contos,
Purna Desal, James N. D1Clement1, John J. Dorla,
Walter A. Palmer, Kate Rlchter, David Sullivan, Patricia H. Wood
EPA Contract No. 68-01-6271
Project Officer
Michael A. Callahan
Exposure Evaluation Division
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C. 20460
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF PESTICIDES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Apencv
Region 5 Library (PL. 12J) " V
// west Jackson Boulevard 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed and approved for publication by the
Office of Toxic Substances, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The use of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute Agency endorsement or
recommendation for use.
m
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FOREWORD
This document 1s one of a series of volumes, developed for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Toxic Substances (OTS),
that provides methods and Information useful for assessing exposure to
chemical substances. The methods described 1n these volumes have been
Identified by EPA-OTS as having utility 1n exposure assessments on
existing and new chemicals 1n the OTS program. These methods are not
necessarily the only methods used by OTS, because the state-of-the-art 1n
exposure assessment 1s changing rapidly, as 1s the availability of
methods and tools. There 1s no single correct approach to performing an
exposure assessment, and the methods 1n these volumes are accordingly
discussed only as options to be considered, rather than as rigid
procedures.
Perhaps more Important than the optional methods presented 1n these
volumes 1s the general Information catalogued. These documents contain a
great deal of non-chem1cal-spedf1c data which can be used for many types
of exposure assessments. This Information 1s presented along with the
methods 1n Individual volumes and appendices. As a set, these volumes
should be thought of as a catalog of Information useful 1n exposure
assessment, and not as a "how-to" cookbook on the subject.
The definition, background, and discussion on planning of exposure
assessments are discussed 1n the Introductory volume of the series
(Volume 1). Each subsequent volume addresses only one general exposure
setting. Consult Volume 1 for guidance on the proper use and
Interrelations of the various volumes and on the planning and Integration
of an entire assessment.
The titles of the nine basic volumes are as follows:
Volume 1: Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances
(EPA 560/5-85-001)
Volume 2: Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances 1n the
Ambient Environment (EPA 560/5-85-002)
Volume 3: Methods for Assessing Exposure from Disposal of Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-003)
Volume 4: Methods for Enumerating and Characterizing Populations
Exposed to Chemical SuhsUrices (EPA 560/5-85-004)
Volume 5: Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances 1n
Drinking Water (EPA 560/5-85-005)
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Volume 6: Methods for Assessing Occupational Exposure to Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-006)
Volume 7: Methods for Assessing Consumer Exposure to Chemical
Substances (EPA 560/5-85-007)
Volume 8: Methods for Assessing Environmental Pathways of Food
Contamination (EPA 560/5-85-008)
Volume 9: Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances
Resulting from Transportation-Related Spills
(EPA 560/5-85-009)
Because exposure assessment 1s a rapidly developing field, Its
methods and analytical tools are quite dynamic. EPA-OTS Intends to Issue
periodic supplements for Volumes 2 through 9 to describe significant
Improvements and updates for the existing Information, as well as adding
short monographs to the series on specific areas of Interest. The first
four of these monographs are as follows:
Volume 10: Methods for Estimating Uncertainties 1n Exposure Assessments
(EPA 560/5-85-014)
Volume 11: Methods for Estimating the Migration of Chemical Substances
from Solid Matrices (EPA 560/5-85-015)
Volume 12: Methods for Estimating the Concentration of Chemical
Substances 1n Indoor A1r (EPA 560/5-85-016)
Volume 13: Methods for Estimating Retention of Liquids on Hands
(EPA 560/5-85-017)
Michael A. Callahan, Chief
Exposure Assessment Branch
Exposure Evaluation Division (TS-798)
Office of Toxic Substances
VI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by Versar Inc. of Springfield, Virginia, for
the EPA Office of Toxic Substances, Exposure Evaluation Division,
Exposure Assessment Branch (EAB) under EPA Contract No. 68-01-6271 (Task
10) and No. 68-02-3968 (Task No. 41). The EPA-EAB Task Managers for this
task were Stephen H. Nacht, and Greg Schweer, the EPA Program Manager was
Michael Callahan; their support and guidance 1s gratefully acknowledged.
A number of Versar personnel have contributed to this task over the
three year period of performance, as shown below:
Program Management
Task Management
Technical Support
Editing
Secretarial/Clerical
Gayaneh Contos
H. Lee Schultz
G1na H. D1xon
Clay E. Carpenter
William Christie
James N. DeClementl
Purna Desal
John J. Dorla
Walter A. Palmer
Kate Rlchter
David Sullivan
Patricia H. Wood
Juliet CrumMne
Barbara Malczak
Shirley Harrison
Donna Barnard
Lucy Gentry
vn
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
FOREWORD v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v11
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1x
LIST OF TABLES x11
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and Scope 1
1.2 Methodology Framework 1
1.3 Organization of the Report 4
2. Sources 5
2.1 Determining Chemical Manufacturing, Processing, and
Use Locations 8
2.2 Identifying Production and Use Processes and
Activities 8
2.2.1 Manufacturing 8
2.2.2 Processing 13
2.2.3 General Industrial Worker Activities 16
2.2.4 Activities of Wholesale and Retail Trade 19
3. MONITORING DATA 21
3.1 QA/QC Considerations 22
3.1.1 Sample Design 23
3.1.2 Sample Collection 23
3.1.3 Analytical Measurement Systems 24
3/1/4 Data Entry and Processing 24
3.2 Types of Monitoring 25
3.2.1 Personal/Breathing Zone Monitoring 25
3.2.2 Workplace or Area Monitoring 25
3.2.3 Biological Monitoring 25
3.3 Sample Collection Techniques 2b
3.3.1 Types of Samples 26
3.3.2 Employees Sampled 27
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page No.
3.4 Exposure Measurement Strategies 28
3.4.1 Sample Measurement 29
3.4.2 Length and Duration of Measurement 29
3.5 Available Information on Occupational Exposure 31
3.5.1 National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health 33
3.5.2 Occupational Safety and Health
Administration 36
3.6 Summary 38
4. ESTIMATING CONTAMINANT RELEASES IN THE OCCUPATIONAL
SETTING 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.1.1 Types of Contaminated Releases 41
4.1.2 The Mass Balance Approach 43
4.1.3 Estimating Releases 45
5. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EXPOSURE PATHWAYS 66
5.1 Workplace Air Contaminant Fate Processes 66
5.1.1 Indoor Transport Processes 66
5.1.2 Indoor A1r Contaminant Removal Mechanisms 65
5.1.3 Outdoor Airborne Contaminant Fate Processes... 71
5.2 Estimating A1r Concentrations 1n the Indoor
Occupational Setting 73
5.3 Estimating A1r Concentrations 1n the Outdoor
Occupational Setting 80
5.3.1 Ground Level Releases 81
5.3.2 Vent Releases 83
6. EXPOSED POPULATIONS ANALYSIS 85
6.1 Identification and Enumeration of Exposed
Populations 85
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page No.
6.1.1 Generic Identification and Enumeration Data ... 86
6.1.2 Specific Identification and Enumeration
Data 86
6.2 Population Characterization 87
6.3 Frequency and Duration of Occupational Exposure 88
6.3.1 Frequency and Duration 88
6.3.2 Workllfe 96
7. CALCULATING EXPOSURE 99
7.1 Introduction 99
7.2 Inhalation Exposure 100
7.3 Dermal Exposure 101
7.3.1 Exposure to a Film of Liquid Deposited on
the Skin 104
7.3.2 Immersion 1n Liquids Ill
7.4 Ingestlon Exposure 112
8. REFERENCES 113
APPENDIX A - PROCESSES AND EXPOSURE POTENTIAL 121
APPENDIX B - INFORMATION RESOURCE MATRIX 255
XI
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LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Table 2-1. References Used to Obtain a General Overview
of Chemical Manufacture 7
Table 2-2. Unit Processes Used In the Manufacture of
Organic Chemicals 9
Table 2-3. Information Resources for Synthesis Routes and
Their Diagrams 10
Table 2-4. Operations Used 1n Processing Industries and
Characteristic Types of Releases 14
Table 2-5. Specific Operations That Require Hoods and May
Lead to Occupational Exposure From Indirect
Process Releases 17
Table 3-1. Types of Measurement Samples to be Obtained for
Assessment of Occupational Exposure 30
Table 3-2. Guidelines for Comparing an Eight-Hour TWA
Standard 32
Table 4-1. Commercial Use Industries 62
Table 5-1. Mixing Factor (m) Values for 1000 ft3 Room ... 66
Table 5-2. Dynamical Shape Factor a (Ratio of Termal
Velocity of Equivalent Sphere to That of
Particle) 70
Table 5-3. Resuspenslon Factors for Various Room
Activities 72
Table 5-4. Occupational Indoor A1r Contaminant Estimation
Algorithms 74
Table 6-1. Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers on
Manufacturing Payrolls In 1979 89
Table 6-2. Average Weekly Hours of Workers 1n Nonmanufac-
turlng Industry In 1979 91
Table 6-3. Frequency and Duration of Occupational Exposure
for Specific Activities, Derived From a
Random Sample of PMNs 92
Table 6-4. Length of Working Life for Men and Women 97
Table 7-1. Summary of Human Inhalation Rates for Men,
Women, and Children by Act1vg1ty Group (m-Vhour) 102
Table 7-2. Film Thickness and Density of Selected Liquids
Under Various Experimental Conditions 106
Table 7-3. Experimentally Determined Values for Density
and Kinematic Viscosity for Six Selected Liquids. 109
Table 7-4. Surface Area of Body Regions 104
XII
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Figure 1-1. Framework for Occupational Exposure Assessment... 2
Figure 5-1. Gravatlonal Settling Speeds for Particles With
Density 5 gm/cm3 Near the Earth's Surface
(from Engelman 1968, as presented by Hanna and
Hosker 1980) 68
Figure 5-2. Theoretical Settling Velocities of Fibers 69
Figure 7-1. ICRP Model of Regional Respiratory Tract
Deposition as a Function of Particle Size 103
xm
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and Scope
Sections 4, 5, and 6 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
direct the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to assess human and
environmental exposure to toxic substances. TSCA Includes provisions for
EPA to obtain production and test data from Industry and to regulate both
new and existing substances, 1f necessary. This necessity 1s based on
the risk to those Involved 1n the manufacture, processing, distribution,
use, and disposal of the chemical.
Occupational exposure assessments have historically been limited by a
lack of complete and reliable data, resulting 1n large data gaps for some
worker populations. This document presents a generalized approach to
occupational exposure assessment. It specifically deals with assessment
of exposure occurring as a direct result of workplace activities;
exposure to outdoor workers that results from contaminants 1n the ambient
environment 1s not addressed 1n this report. For procedures appropriate
to the assessment of worker exposure to contaminants 1n the ambient
environment, the analyst 1s referred to Volumes 2 and 4 of this report
series, Methods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances 1n the
Ambient Environment (Freed et al. 1983) and Methods for Enumerating and
Characterizing Populations Exposed to Chemical Substances (D1xon et al.
1983), respectively.
1.2 Methodology Framework
The generalized approach to assessing worker exposure to chemicals 1n
the occupational environment 1s Illustrated 1n Figure 1-1. As the figure
shows, the first step 1n the analysis Involves determining which
occupational settings are sources of exposure to workers. This Includes
consideration of chemical manufacturing facilities (those facilities
where the chemical 1s produced) as well as Industrial, commercial, and
trade facilities that store, use, or handle the chemical or products
containing the chemical. This analysis 1s of critical Importance because
1t 1s the basis for determining the amount of chemical released to the
occupational environment and for Identifying and enumerating the exposed
population.
Upon completion of the source determination step, 1t will be useful
for the assessor to obtain relevant monitoring data. For occupational
exposure assessments, two types of monitoring data will be useful:
personal/breathing zone monitoring data and workplace monitoring data.
If no monitoring data are available, or 1f such data are available but
are not useful 1n the study because of (1) problems with data quality, or
(2) Inability to relate the monitored values to specific sources, the
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— — GIVEN — —
(SECTION 2)
SOURCE DETERMINATION.
IDENTIFY
COMMERCIAL
USE
ACTIVITIES
IS
ADEQUATE
MONITORING
DATA
AVAILABLE?
DEVELOP
MATERIALS
BALANCE AND
ESTIMATE
RELEASES FROM
EACH SOURCE
YES
(SECTIONS)
ANALYZE
ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPORT,
TRANSFORMATIOr
AND FATE
_::i::
ESTIMATE
CONCENTRATION!
IN WORKPLACE
I ^
(SECTION 7)
(SECTION 6) X* i
r— EXPOSED POPULATIONS ANA' vsis
1
' IDENTIFY
1 AND
| EVALUATE •*
WORKER
1 ACTIVITIES
1 ENUMERATE CHAR
| WORKERS IN WOP
• ACTIVITIES ACT
L_ -^^-
1
^
1
1
< 1
ACTERIZE '
KERSIN |
FIVITIES ,
1
_J
1 t
1 DETERMINE EXPOSED
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1 INGESTION RATE
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1
1
L
if
EXPOSURE CALCULAT
EVALUATE USI
AND EFFICACY
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OSURE FOR
CH WORKER
PULATION
1 '
i r
FIGURE 1-1. FRAMEWORK FOR OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
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assessor can develop an exposure estimate by progressing through the full
sequence of analyses Indicated 1n the figure. For each source of
exposure (or source category), a materials balance should be developed to
determine all sources of release of the chemical to the workplace
environment and to estimate the level of release from each source. In
addition, any chemical or physical processes that may affect the chemical
once 1t Is released should be considered 1n order to determine Its
potential for transport or transformation within the workplace.
The results of these two analyses, quantification of the level of
chemical release and a determination of the chemical's fate within the
workplace following release, provide a basis for estimating
concentrations of the chemical within specified media 1n the workplace.
These estimates of contaminant concentrations can then be used 1n
conjunction with data quantifying worker Inhalation rates, 1ngest1on
rates, and affected skin surface area to estimate the degree of potential
exposure.
The worker activity analysis step 1s useful 1n determining the amount
of air Inhaled, contaminant Ingested, or chemical contacted by the skin;
such factors are highly dependent on both the length of time the worker
spends 1n a contaminated area and the type of activity that he or she 1s
performing. Occupational exposure assessments also consider the effect
of protective measures used specifically to limit or reduce worker
exposure. Any protective measures (equipment and/or clothing) should be
Identified and their expected degree of effectiveness quantified. This
Information allows the assessor to adjust the exposure values to estimate
the actual level of exposure Incurred by workers using such measures.
The activity analysis Identifies those categories of workers that are
exposed as a result of each specific activity. This Information
directly Identifies exposed worker subpopulatlons. Once Identified, each
exposed subpopulatlon 1s then enumerated, or counted, to determine the
number of workers experiencing exposure In each activity category. The
exposed worker populations are also characterized by age and sex 1n order
to provide such additional Information as susceptibility to specific
toxic effects of certain classes of substances (e.g., mutagens or
teratogens with respect to pre- versus post-menopausal working women),
Inhalation rates, and skin surface area available for contact. Such
determinations will actually be executed 1n conjunction with the
calculation of exposure. Population characterization also Identifies
subpopulatlons that may experience a greater risk from a given level of
exposure than the population at large, because of the toxldty
characteristics of the contaminants.
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In some cases, workplace monitoring data or personal/breathing zone
monitoring data may be available for the chemlcal(s) and occupational
situations being assessed (see Section 3). In such cases, the assessment
process described above can be significantly streamlined, as 1s
Illustrated In Figure 1-1. As the name suggests, workplace monitoring
measures the ambient concentration of contaminants at particular
locations 1n the workplace. Personal or breathing zone monitoring
provides a more direct determination of contaminant concentrations to
which Individual workers are exposed than does workplace monitoring.
Therefore, 1f such data are available and determined to be of acceptable
quality, they can replace estimated concentrations that are based on a
materials balance and fate analysis. It 1s Important to note that
monitoring data can be used 1n conjunction with estimates of exposure
that are based on source strength when an exposure reduction/control
options analysis 1s conducted.
The analytical framework described above can be applied to assessment
of exposure to existing chemicals as well as to new chemicals (such as
those evaluated by EPA 1n the Premanufacturlng Notice, or PMN, assessment
process). For existing chemicals, monitoring data may be available,
thereby allowing a more direct analysis. Monitoring data will not be
available for some new chemicals.
1.3 Organization of the Report
As Indicated 1n Figure 1-1, the remaining sections of this report
address specific components of the occupational exposure assessment
process. Following this Introduction, Section 2 addresses determination
of sources of occupational exposure. The acquisition, application, and
limitations of monitoring data pertinent to occupational exposure
assessments are discussed In Section 3. Section 4 describes the
estimation of contaminant releases to the workplace and the development
of a source mass balance. In Section 5, contaminant transport and
transformation processes that may affect the fate of chemicals released
to the occupational environment are described, and means of calculating
(estimating) workplace contaminant concentrations resulting from
estimated releases are detailed. Section 6 deals with the
Identification, enumeration, and characterization of exposed worker
populations, and Section 7 addresses calculation of the level of exposure
experienced by workers. References used 1n developing this document are
presented 1n Section 8, which 1s followed by two appendices. Appendix A
provides Information on certain processes and Industries, Including
details on the organic chemical, lubricant, and plastics manufacturing
Industries. Appendix B 1s a general data source reference covering a
broad range of Information sources useful 1n conducting occupational
exposure assessments.
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2. SOURCES
Characterization of sources 1s a key step 1n performing an
occupational exposure assessment. Source Information Includes the amount
of the chemical produced, Its products, where and how 1t 1s produced and
used, and the releases of the chemical from production, transportation,
use, and disposal. In this report, the source analysis has been divided
Into two separate sections. This section discusses only the amount of
the chemical produced, Its products, and where and how 1t 1s produced and
used. The Intention of this section 1s to serve as an organizing tool
for the gathering and analysis of monitoring data (Information on
monitoring data 1s presented 1n Section 3). Section 4 discusses the
generation of release estimates, which are necessary to estimate
concentrations 1f monitoring data are not available.
The sources of exposure to a chemical 1n the occupational environment
are manufacturing, processing, trade, commercial use, transportation, and
disposal. Manufacturing Includes not only modifying raw materials to
produce an Intermediate or finished product but also the mining
(extraction) of raw materials (e.g., Iron ore). Processing 1s the
modification of a chemical or material from manufacturing to other
products; processing may Involve several Industries. Trade 1s the
distribution of products to commercial concerns or consumers. Commercial
use 1s the application of chemicals or products 1n a commercial or
business setting.
In the occupational setting, the two most Important routes of entry
of chemicals Into the body are Inhalation and chemical contact with skin
(dermal exposure). Although the gastrointestinal tract 1s a potential
site of absorption, the direct 1ngest1on of significant amounts of
chemicals 1s rare 1n occupational situations (Proctor and Hughes 1978).
The sources section 1n this document, therefore, emphasizes the potential
sources of the toxic chemical for Inhalation and dermal exposures. It
should be noted, however, that although relatively minor 1n magnitude
compared with Inhalation or dermal exposure, gastrointestinal exposure
can Indirectly occur 1n occupational settings as a result of Inhalation
of contaminant particles that are too large to penetrate to the alveoli
1n the lung. Such particles are removed from the respiratory system by
ciliary movement of the mucous 1n which they become trapped. This
contaminated mucous 1s then either eliminated from the body via
expectoration or swallowed. In the latter case, such contaminants do
become a gastrointestinal exposure problem. If the toxlcologlcal
properties of a given chemical differ depending on whether the chemical
1s Inhaled or Ingested, distinguishing the degree of exposure via each
route 1s critical to conducting an adequate exposure assessment. Section
7 of this report addresses means of calculating exposure to contaminants
Ingested either directly or Indirectly.
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In general, there are two broad categories of occupational releases,
both of which are very closely tied to worker activities and exposure.
These categories are direct releases and Indirect releases. Direct
releases are emissions that result 1n direct exposure to workers Involved
1n actlvltes that cause the release. Examples Include releases
associated with such activities as maintenance, cleanup, or sampling.
Indirect releases are emissions that result 1n Indirect exposure to
workers, such as process vent, fugitive, and storage emissions. For
example, a worker standing near a pumping operation can be Indirectly
exposed to emissions from a leaking pump seal.
Examination of the sources of a chemical substance 1n the
occupational environment requires the following major steps:
• Determine manufacturing, processing, and use sites.
• Identify manufacturing, processing, and use processes.
• Characterize worker activities.
• Estimate releases.
• Characterize the substance at the release point.
Characterizing worker activities 1s briefly discussed 1n this
section; 1t 1s discussed 1n detail 1n Section 4. Release estimates and
the characterization of the substance at the release point are also
discussed 1n Section 4. The remaining two steps are discussed below 1n
subsections 2.1 and 2.2.
To perform each of the above steps, assessors acquire Information
from the following general sources: direct measurements, review
articles, encyclopedias, scientific journal articles, basic research
reports, government publications, computerized bibliographic systems and
other guides to the published literature, EPA offices and other federal
agencies, state or International organizations, custodians of unpublished
materials (especially Industry contacts), and guides to research 1n
progress. The data sources applicable to the first two steps listed are
discussed 1n the following sections along with guidance on how they are
used.
The first step of this exposure assessment method 1s to review
readily accessible Information on the chemical. Some references are
suggested 1n Table 2-1; notice that these are mostly encyclopedias which
provide a general overview. Information that should be obtained 1n this
step Includes the type of chemical, Its physical state at ambient
conditions, the production volume, manufacturing (or mining) methods, and
the chemical's uses. If the chemical 1s a PMN chemical, this Information
should be obtained from the Premanufacturlng Notice or an analysis of
surrogates.
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Table 2-1. References Used to Obtain a General Overview
of Chemical Manufacture3
Title
Author/Date
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
(24 volumes)
Chemical Process Industries
Chemical and Process Technology
Encyclopedia
Faith, Keyes, and Clark
Industrial Chemicals
Riegel's Handbook of Industrial
Chemistry
Encyclopedia of Polymer Science
and Technology (16 volumes)
Modern Plastics Encyclopedia
Pesticide Manufacturing and Toxic
Materials Control Encyclopedia
Mineral Commodity Profiles
Kirk-Othmer 1978-1984b,
third edition0
Shreve 1967
Considine 1974C
Lowenheim & Moran 1975
Kent 1974
Gaylord and Mark 1964-
1976b'c
Agranoff 1980C
Sittig 1980C
Bureau of Mines 1980
(Annual Publication)
a The choice of which references to examine first can be decided in
part by the titles; the first five references are for general
chemicals while the last four references are for special products or
substances.
^Individual volumes in the series are published separately.
cRevised or updated editions of these publications should be consulted
as they become available.
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2.1 Determining Chemical Manufacturing. Processing, and Use Locations
Geographic location Information aids 1n the Identification of
applicable monitoring and population data; such site specific data are
usually the best available for use In occupational exposure assessments.
Volume 1 of this report series (Methods for Assessing Exposure to
Chemical Substances: Introduction; Versar 1984a) details the Information
sources to be used 1n this evaluation.
2.2 Identifying Production and Use Processes and Activities
2.2.1 Manufacturing
(1) Examining Manufacturing Processes. In general, processes used
to synthesize the chemical Include manufacturing processes or mining and
beneflclatlon operations. The unit processes used 1n the manufacture of
major organic chemicals and lubricants are listed 1n Table 2-2 and
discussed 1n Appendix A. Usually more than one direct synthesis route
exists. For example, there are two synthesis routes for the production
of cyclohexane: catalytic hydrogenatlon of benzene, which accounts for
approximately 85 percent of the cyclohexane capacity 1n the United
States, and separation from petroleum liquids, which constitutes the
remaining 15 percent (ITE 1980). All synthesis routes must be analyzed
because each route has a different exposure potential.
Table 2-3 presents references for Information on synthesis routes.
This Information can also be found 1n the Introductory chapters of other
published studies on the chemical. The first two sources of Information
are usually sufficient to find the synthesis routes for existing
chemicals. The other sources of Information on this table are used
primarily to construct the process flow diagrams for use 1n process mass
balance development (see Section 4). The assessor should check to see
whether the chemical or Its Industry has been reviewed by the government
agencies mentioned 1n part 2 of Table 2-3, especially the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Such publications will generally
present process flow diagrams. If the chemical 1s a new substance or a
low volume production chemical, such as a dye or a pigment, the process
flow diagram may be unavailable 1n the literature. In that case, a
specialty literature search (I.e., review of files that are not normally
searched) will be necessary. An example would be checking the patent
files, which often contain process information with diagrams. The
Information from different sources may not be totally consistent; this Is
usually because process variations occur within synthesis routes from
process to process.
The flow diagram shows points of potential release and exposure:
locations of vents, valves, and pumps; points at which water contacts the
process stream; and operations, such as grinding, that may release
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Table 2-2. Unit Processes Used in the Manufacture of Organic Chemicals
Alky!ation
Ami nation by ammonolysis
Amnoxidation
Carbonylation (oxo)
Condensation
Cracking (catalytic)
Dehydration
Dehydrogenation
Dehydroha1ogena t i on
Esterification
Ha1ogenation
Hydrodealkylation
Hydrogenation
Hydrolysis (hydration)
Nitration
Oxidation
Oxyhalogenation
Phosgenation
Polymerization
Pyrolysis
Reforming
Sulfonation
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participates. The physical state of emissions 1s an Important
determinant of the chemical's properties affecting exposure.
It should be known at this point whether the plant 1s Indoors or
outdoors, whether the process 1s batch or continuous, whether the system
1s open or closed, and whether the transfers are manual or mechanical.
These parameters determine some of the potential occupational exposure.
2.2.2 Processing
Processing Industries are those Industries that use the product from
manufacturing and further process, modify, or fabricate 1t to produce
either another Intermediate product (to be further processed or
fabricated Into a finished product by other processing Industries) or a
finished product. Table 2-4 lists some of the processes characterized 1n
Appendix A-4. Several steps may be Involved 1n manufacturing a finished
product. For example, production of a resin product might Involve the
following five manufacturing and processing steps: organic chemical
manufacturing, resin formulation, resin compounding, resin molding, and
resin decorating.
There are two categories of uses: consumptive and nonconsumptlve. A
consumptive use occurs when the chemical undergoes a chemical reaction to
form a new chemical. Nonconsumptlve uses are those where the chemical
does not react but remains Intact, e.g., as a solvent, a deodorizer, or a
pesticide (JRB 1980). Generally, subsequent processing Involving a
chemical that 1s used consumptively should be examined by the assessor 1f
leaching or off-gassing of residual, unreacted chemical 1s suspected, or
1f degradation of the new chemical to form the original chemical 1s
suspected. Examples are leaching of residual vinyl chloride monomers
from polyvlnyl chloride pipes or formaldehyde off-gassing from
partlcleboards due to hydrolytlc degradation of urea-formaldehyde resins
used as wood binders. If 1t 1s known that no additional releases of the
given chemical will occur from such uses, then no additional analysis 1s
necessary. All nonconsumptlve uses must be examined up to and Including
disposal.
The uses of the chemical should be determined 1n order to Identify
the type of processing that occurs after 1t 1s produced. For most major
chemicals, the references listed 1n Tables 2-1 and 2-3 should provide
that Information. However, a specialty literature search (usually via
DIALOG or ORBIT) may be needed to find obscure uses and to verify the
uses found 1n the references. Product formulations are usually trade
secrets; as a result, determining uses and corresponding amounts 1s
extremely difficult.
13
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Table 2-4. Operations Used in Processing Industries
and Characteristic Types of Releases
Process types
Contaminant type
categories
Contaminant examples (type)
Hot operations
Welding
Chemical reactions
Soldering
Melting
Holding
Burning
Gases (g)
Particulates (p)
(dust, fumes, mists)
Liquid operations
Painting
Degreasing
Dipping
Spraying
Brushing
Coating
Etching
Cleaning
Dry cleaning
Pickling
Plating
Mixing
Galvanizing
Chemical reactions
Solid operations
Pouri ng
Mixing
Separations
Extraction
Crushing
Conveyi ng
Loading
Bagging
Vapors (v)
Gases (g)
Mists (m)
Particulates
Chromates (p)
Zinc and compounds (p)
Manganese and compounds (p)
Metal oxides (p)
Carbon monoxide (g)
Ozone (g)
Cadmium oxide (p)
Fluorides (p)
Lead (p)
Vinyl chloride (g)
Benzene (v)
Trichloroethylene (v)
Methylene chloride (v)
1,1,1-Trichloroethane (v)
Hydrochloric acid (m)
Sulfuric acid (m)
Hydrogen chloride (g)
Cyanide salts (m)
Chromic acid (m)
Hydrogen cyanide (g)
TDI, MDI (v)
Hydrogen sulfide (g)
Sulfur dioxide (g)
Carbon tetrachloride (v)
Cement
Quartz (free silica)
Fibrous glass
14
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Table 2-4. (continued)
Contaminant type
Process types categories Contaminant examples (type)
Pressurized spraying
Cleaning parts Vapors (v) Organic solvents (v)
Applying pesticides Dusts (d) Chlordane (m)
Degreasing Mists (m) Parathion (m)
Sand blasting Trichloroethylene (v)
Painting 1,1,1-trichloroethane (v)
Hethylene chloride (v)
Quartz (free silica) (d)
Shaping operations
Cutting Dusts Asbestos
Grinding Beryl i urn
Filing Uranium
Hilling Zinc
Moldi ng Lead
Sawing
Source: Olishifski et al. 1979.
15
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After a substance's uses are Identified, the relevant processes
should be described. The processes employed In the conversion of the
products of manufacturing to other products are numerous. Appendix A-2,
Table 25, and Appendix A-4, 11st and characterize the processes used 1n
the manufacture of plastics as well as some general manufacturing steps.
Table 2-5 lists some unit operations with Indirect process releases that
have a high potential for exposing workers 1n the manufacturing
Industries.
2.2.3 General Industrial Worker Activities
It Is Important for exposure assessors to be familiar with general
Industrial worker activities as an aid 1n the selection of monitoring
data; detailed Information on the relationship between worker activities
and releases Is presented 1n Section 4.
The general worker activities associated with Industrial operations
(manufacturing and processing) Include the following:
1. Drumming of Liquids - Liquids are drained Into a drum by either
splash loading or subsurface loading. Splash loading 1s used
for most applications and typically leads to more emissions than
subsurface loading.
2. Drumming and Bagging of Solids - This operation can be either
manual or automated. Automated systems are only economical for
larger operations; they significantly reduce worker exposure.
3. Cleaning of Process Equipment - Cleaning of process equipment
Involves the removal of residual material from such equipment as
storage tanks, holding tanks, stills, reaction vessels, and
pipework. Although this Is generally a short-term activity, 1t
may result 1n significant levels of exposure.
4. Maintenance - Maintenance Involves the mechanical adjustment,
alteration, repair, or replacement of process equipment. These
operations may be performed externally to the process equipment,
through openings, or within process enclosures.
5. Sampling and Analysis - Sampling and analysis operations are
used to check the quality of products and Intermediates and to
check for material losses. A broad range of potential worker
exposure 1s possible because of the diverse procedures used
during sampling and analysis.
6. Supervising Equipment Operations - In manufacturing and
processing operations, engineers and technicians are needed to
monitor and control equipment. In most plants, process controls
16
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and monitors are automated and separated from the actual
equipment. In more manually operated plants, equipment 1s
generally situated to minimize direct worker exposure.
Consequently, only Indirect exposure should occur from equipment
supervision.
At this point, the exposure assessor should have a general knowledge
of the manufacturing and processing operations and worker activities
associated with the chemical of concern; this will be helpful 1n locating
monitoring data (see Section 3). If monitoring data are not available,
this Information will provide a starting point for estimating releases
from manufacturing and processing operations (see Section 4).
2.2.4 Activities of Wholesale and Retail Trade
The activities of workers 1n wholesale and retail trade can be
grouped 1n six classes: loading, storage, packaging, shelving,
demonstration, and sales. The activities may be sources of occupational
exposure 1n three possible ways:
• Accidental loss of product through package failure (e.g.,
loading, storage, shelving).
• Lack of packaging or Insufficient conta1ner1zat1on of product
with resultant atmospheric emissions (e.g., loading, storage).
• Direct contact with a product (e.g., loading, packaging,
demonstration).
The relationship between the activities of wholesale and retail trade
are explained 1n more detail 1n Section 4.
The activities of commercial use Include most workplace situations
outside manufacturing and trade; this sector 1s dominated by the service
Industries. The activities of this use category are not listed here
because they are so numerous and diverse; more Information on these
activities 1s presented 1n Section 4.
19
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3. MONITORING DATA
The assessment of exposure to a chemical substance should
quantitatively describe the level, duration, and frequency of human
contact with the substance, as well as the route of such exposure.
Quantitative estimates of exposure are generally based on monitoring data
or simulation models.
Where sufficient monitoring data exist, 1t may be possible to trace
the pathway of a substance from the point at which exposure occurs to Its
source. Limited monitoring data are also useful. They can Indicate the
quantity of a chemical at a particular location, at a specific point 1n
time. They can also be used to evaluate the validity of model-generated
estimates.
To be properly utilized, monitoring data must be placed 1n
perspective as to their validity. Even 1n situations where some data
have already been collected, supplemental data will often be necessary
because certain deficiencies 1n existing data will limit applicability
and reliability. Quality assurance/quality control measures used may be
unknown or Inadequate. Data may be obsolete because of changes 1n
operating conditions or control technologies. Therefore, before using
monitoring data, the assessor should ask the following questions:
• Are the data representative of current normal conditions, or do
they reflect obsolete conditions or temporary aberrations
resulting 1n high or low concentrations?
• Are the data accurate and precise? Were sampling and measurements
performed 1n the most appropriate manner?
• Does the sampling design result 1n statistically valid data?
• Where was the monitoring device located with respect to the
source(s)?
Data quality 1s a function of the accuracy, precision,
representativeness, comparability, and completeness of the data
collected. In general, data quality requirements (1n terms of
defens1bH1ty of the results obtained) 1n monitoring studies usually
Increase according to the Intended data use 1n the following sequence:
(1) screening studies to determine the presence or absence of pollutants;
(2) quantitative studies to determine concentrations of pollutants for
source characterization, analysis of environmental fate, and exposure
assessment; (3) quantitative studies to determine concentrations of
pollutants for use 1n development of control strategies; and (4)
quantitative studies to determine concentrations for the purpose of
supporting enforcement actions. It should be noted, however, that this
21
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hierarchy does not necessarily apply to the quantification level required
by these four use categories. For example, enforcement monitoring may
only require quantification of values over an action level, and the data
generated 1n such cases may thus not be detailed enough to support a
detailed exposure assessment.
Data quality aspects pertinent to the use of monitoring data In
occupational exposure assessment are discussed below 1n Section 3.1. In
addition, the type of monitoring conducted and the sample collection
techniques used also have a significant effect on how monitoring data are
Interpreted and exposure Is measured. Section 3.2 discusses the types of
monitoring used In the workplace; the following section (3.3) describes
commonly used sample collection techniques. Exposure measurement
strategies are delineated 1n Section 3.4, and Section 3.5 summarizes
readily available occupational monitoring data sources.
3.1 QA/QC Considerations
Whether newly generated data or existing data are used In an
occupational exposure assessment, the data must meet the quality criteria
dictated by their proposed use. In the case of new data, satisfying
quality requirements may be a rather straightforward undertaking. Data
quality goals 1n terms of precision and accuracy can be achieved by
adhering to a well-structured monitoring program designed from a
statistically sound sampling plan. Quality standards are prescribed In
relation to the research questions and study objectives; monitoring
activities are then organized and planned to ensure that these standards
are met. Detailed guidance for Implementing QA/QC procedures 1n the
design and conduct of monitoring studies can be obtained from USEPA 1980a
and USEPA 1980b.
Each of the potential data quality problems listed above should be
addressed before available data are applied to an occupational exposure
assessment. Evaluation guidelines to help determine the relative
significance of each of these problem Issues are presented 1n this
section. Existing data sets should be evaluated against these
guidelines, which pertain to:
• Sample design.
• Sample collection activities 1n the field.
• Data entry and processing.
The major consideration 1n evaluating existing monitoring data 1s the
motivating factor or objective for which the data were generated. To
address this consideration, this section assumes that documentation for
the data sets being evaluated 1s available; that Information relevant to
each major component of the study 1n which the data was developed can be
extracted; and that a QA/QC plan adequate to resolve any question of data
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quality 1s available. Without the appropriate documentation, a
discussion of existing data evaluation 1s futile, and the use of such
data will, at best, be limited.
3.1.1 Sample Design
This component requires an evaluation of the data's applicability to
the physical problem (research question) under Investigation and the
appropriateness of the collection/measurement systems or processes used.
The following questions should be answered:
• What were the specific research objectives for which answers were
sought through data development?
• Did the parameters monitored reflect the research objectives?
• Did the media 1n which the parameters were monitored reflect the
research objectives?
• Were the sampling methods proposed suitable for the media and
parameters monitored?
• Were QC elements such as 1nter-lab analyses and peer review of
analyses results Incorporated Into the design?
• Did the study attempt to correlate source and pathway monitoring
activities?
• Were sampling frequency and duration adequate and representative
of the conditions surrounding the research objectives?
• Was allowable survey error specified?
3.1.2 Sample Collection
Adherence to established protocols during sample collection should be
determined. The following questions should be answered:
• Were standard operating procedures employed?
• Were established sample collection, preservation, storage, and
transport protocols used?
• Were control, blank, and spiked samples provided?
• Were replicate samples provided?
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3.1.3 Analytical Measurement Systems
The laboratory procedures through which monitoring samples were
analyzed must be evaluated for adherence to established protocols. '¥
Specific questions that should be answered are:
• Were proper protocols used 1n the analysis of samples?
• Were standard operating procedures used?
• Were Issues surrounding the limits of detection addressed?
• Were positives confirmed by other means of analysis?
• Were Instruments calibrated accurately?
• Were results of blank, control, spiked, and replicate sample
analyses maintained?
• Were precision and accuracy determinations documented?
3.1.4 Data Entry and Processing
Evaluations of the data entry and processing aspects of the existing
data as well as of data documentation and review should be conducted.
Significant questions 1n this portion of the evaluation Include:
• Were data entry QC checks performed?
• Does the number of significant figures presented 1n the data set
correspond to the observed variance of the measurements?
• Were confidence Interval estimates made?
• Was sampling program documentation given peer review? Are results
available?
• Was an estimate of total sampling measurement error made?
From a pragmatic standpoint, 1t 1s likely that existing data will
often not meet the current QA/QC requirements for development of new
data. In such cases, the assessor should exercise extreme caution and
considerable professional Judgement 1n deciding to what extent (and for
what purpose) the data can be used.
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3.2 Types of Monitoring
Occupational exposure can occur from manufacturing, transportation,
storage, processing, disposal, or Industrial use of a chemical substance
or a material containing that substance. To determine exposure from a
chemical substance, two categories of air monitoring are generally used:
personal/breathing zone monitoring and workplace monitoring (area
monitoring or environmental surveillance). Biological contaminant body
burden monitoring 1s a third type of occupational exposure monitoring.
3.2.1 Personal/Breathing Zone Monitoring
Personal monitoring 1s the measurement of an employee's exposure to
airborne contaminants by a device worn by the person being sampled and
placed as close to the contaminant's route of entry to the human body as
possible. In breathing zone monitoring, a second person holds the
sampling device 1n the breathing zone of the person being sampled.
3.2.2 Workplace or Area Monitoring
Occupational environmental monitoring 1s the measurement of
contaminant concentrations 1n the workplace (which may or may not be
enclosed); measurement devices are placed close to the worker's normal
work area. Samplers are usually stationary and may remain 1n place for
an extended period of time.
3.2.3 Biological Monitoring
Biological measurements usually determine the concentration of a
specific agent 1n the blood, adipose tissue, or urine, although samples
of other biological material such as hair or nails may also be useful.
Such measurements represent the body burden of that agent and can be used
as a monitor of the worker's exposure to a specific substance.
Biological levels of a substance will Indicate the combined level of
worker exposure; they can be used to assess where excessive exposures
have occurred and when protection from further exposure 1s necessary
(P1otrowsk1 1977).
There 1s currently no straightforward way to relate body burden to
exposure, although work 1s underway to Identify and quantify such
relationships. There 1s similarly no method to determine the pathway
from which each Increment of exposure, measured by body burden, was
derived. Biological measurements are best used at present as a
qualitative Indicator that exposure has occurred.
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3.3 Sample Collection Techniques
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) health
regulations require that an employee's exposure be measured by any
combination of long-term or short-term samples that represent the
employee's actual exposure.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Manual of Sampling Data Sheets and Its supplement describe sampling
methods for nearly 30 substances. It 1s the only available compendium of
such methods. Most of these methods have been recommended to OSHA for
use 1n their compliance program. Except for a few compounds,
occupational exposure to these 30 substances 1s regulated by 29 CFR,
Part 1910.
3.3.1 Types of Samples
As mentioned above, the three basic types of occupational
environmental sample collection techniques are personal/breathing zone,
general area, and biological samples:
1. Personal/breathing zone - 1n personal monitoring, the sampling
device (a dosimeter) 1s directly attached to the employee (clipped
to the worker's collar or lapel, for example), who wears 1t
continuously during all work and rest operations. To obtain
breathing zone samples, the sampling device 1s simply held at the
"breathing zone" of the employee; the "breathing zone" 1s that air
that would most likely be Inhaled by that employee.
2. General area ("general air") - the sampler 1s placed 1n a fixed
location 1n the work area generally occupied by employees.
3. Biological samples - For occupational body burden monitoring
studies, breath, urine, and hair samples can be collected fairly
easily and without excessive Imposition on the persons sampled. A
subject's exhaled breath can be collected by a portable
splrometer, and the samples analyzed 1n the same fashion as other
air samples. Other possible body burden samples that can be
useful 1n occupational exposure assessments Include blood and,
where lactatlng mothers are Involved, mother's milk. However,
obtaining such samples 1s considerably more Invasive than 1s the
case for the sample types addressed above. Therefore, such data
may only be generated 1n occupational exposure verification
studies or for assessment of exposure to especially high risk
contaminants.
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For the determination of employee exposure, 1t 1s preferable to use
exposure data obtained by the personal or breathing zone methods; these
are direct methods. If exposure data obtained by the less direct
"general air" method are used, an analysis to determine how accurately
the general air data represent employee exposures should be Included.
This may be accomplished by comparison between general air and personal
or breathing zone samples to demonstrate equivalency, which 1s very
difficult (Leldel et al. 1977). If this analysis of equivalency 1s not
Included, use of "general air" data for exposure assessment may make the
estimates Inaccurate enough to allow only a screening level assessment to
be made.
3.3.2 Employees Sampled
Occupational monitoring data are often collected by OSHA or by
employers using OSHA's guidelines. Among those guidelines are
recommendations regarding which employees should be monitored. A
less-than-random choice 1n sampling strategy may Introduce biases 1n the
resultant data that must be taken Into account 1n an exposure assessment.
The following three categories of employee sampling are required by
OSHA:
(1) Maximum risk employee. Once exposure above the action level has
been Identified, OSHA requires that employers sample the "maximum risk
employee." Generally, the employee closest to the source of hazardous
material 1s selected to be at maximum risk. OSHA suggests that employee
mobility and work habits and air movement patterns be considered as well
(Leldel et al. 1977). These factors are difficult to evaluate and may be
neglected by most exposure samplers.
Monitoring data based on the maximum risk employees' exposure will be
skewed to the high end of the range of concentrations 1n the workplace.
It may be difficult to ascertain that the data were based on the maximum
risk employee. If such a determination 1s possible, 1t should be stated
that the exposure approximates worst-case conditions.
(2) Random sampling of a group of workers. If a maximum risk worker
1s not Identified for a given operation, random sampling of a group of
workers 1s performed. The objective of the method 1s to select a
subgroup of adequate size; the probability that the random sample will
contain at least one worker with high exposure will then be high. This
procedure 1s carried out by (1) determining the number of employees to be
sampled, then (2) randomly selecting the employees to be sampled (Leldel
et al. 1977). Data collected 1n this manner are fairly representative of
conditions throughout the workplace.
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(3) Sampling for periodic exposure. OSHA recognizes that
Infrequent exposure to toxic substances may occur during operations such
as process/product sampling or cleaning. Employers are required to
sample during those activities 1f they believe that significant exposures
are likely to occur. It may not be possible to distinguish such data
from other OSHA data.
3.4 Exposure Measurement Strategies
Although there 1s no "best" strategy applicable to all occupational
situations, some strategies are clearly better than others. Guidelines
are presented 1n this section to aid assessors 1n comparing data obtained
via alternative strategies.
The accuracy required of airborne concentration measurements 1n the
OSHA health standards considers (Leldel et al. 1977):
1. The random variations 1n the sampling device (repeatability of the
sampling device).
2. Random variations 1n the analytical procedure (repeatability of
the replicate analyses of a given sample).
3. Systematic errors 1n the sampling method (determinate errors or
bias 1n the collection technique).
4. Systematic errors 1n the analytical procedure (determinate errors
or bias 1n the analysis).
The term "accuracy" refers to the difference between a measured
concentration and the true concentration of the sample. It Includes both
the random variation of the method (referred to as precision) and the
difference between the average result from the method and the true value.
The accuracy of a sample collection method should generally have a
statistically-determined confidence level of at least 90 percent. To
gauge the accuracy of the sampling and analytical methods used 1n
obtaining exposure measurements, the following evidence should be sought:
1. The use of NIOSH-cert1f1ed detector tubes.
2. Field calibration procedures for sampling equipment.
3. The analysis of samples at a laboratory participating 1n an
Industrial hygiene quality control program, for example one
conducted by American Industrial Hygiene Association.
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Data collected under the auspices of NIOSH and OSHA can usually be
easily evaluated for accuracy. Exposure concentrations are usually
reported as 15-mlnute "celling standard" measurements or as an eight-hour
time-weighted average. Each 1s defined and discussed 1n the following
section.
3.4.1 Sample Measurement
Table 3-1 describes the four types of measurements taken to
determine exposure. Grab samples are taken when It 1s Impossible (due
to limitations 1n measurement methods, e.g., direct reading meters or
colorlmetrlc detector tubes) to collect either a single sample or a
series of consecutive samples whose total duration approximates the
period for which the standard 1s defined.
3.4.2 Length and Duration of Measurement
(1) Time-weighted average (TWA). To determine the time-weighted
average exposure of an employee, a detailed description of "where he Is
when" must be obtained. Typically, the employee may be exposed to
several different short-term concentrations during a workshlft due to
changes 1n job assignment, workload, ventilation, and Industrial
processes. The TWA evolved as a method of calculating dally or
full-shift average exposure by weighing the various short-term average
concentrations. This method 1s the equivalent of Integrating the
concentration values over the total time base of the TWA, which can be
determined by the following formula:
1 = r
I (TO • (CO (Equation 3-1)
1 = 1 = TWA
Ttotal
where
T^ = Duration of Incremental exposure.
C} = Concentration of a specific air contaminant during the
Incremental time period T1.
Ttotal = Total work time per shift; eight-hour workday.
Guidelines for comparing different exposure measurement strategies for
the TWA standard are presented 1n Table 3-2.
Occupational exposure variation (Intraday or Interday) of specific
work operations 1s practically Impossible to predict. Intraday and
Interday variations, as measured by the geometric standard deviation
(GSD), typically lie between 1.25 and 2.5 (Leldel et al. 1977, Ayer and
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Table 3-1. Types of Measurement Samples To Be Obtained
for Assessment of Occupational Exposure
Type of sample
Definition
Full period, single sample
measurement
Sample taken for the full period of
8 hours for the 8-hour TWA standard
and 15 minutes for a ceiling
standard.
Full period, consecutive
samples measurement
Several samples (equal or unequal
time duration) obtained during
entire period appropriate to the
standard.
Partial period, consecutive
samples measurement
Grab samples measurement
One or several samples (equal or
unequal time duration) obtained for
only a portion of the period
appropriate to the standard.
A number of samples taken for short
periods of time (less than 1 hour
each and generally only minutes or
seconds). Taken at random intervals
over the period of time for which
the standard is defined.
Source: Leidel et al. 1977
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Burg 1973). Exposure variation and the precision and accuracy of
sampling and analytical methods were taken Into consideration 1n
developing the guidelines by Leldel et al. (1977) presented 1n Table 3-2.
(2) Strategy for a celling standard. Samples obtained for the
determination of compliance with celling standards are treated 1n a
manner similar to that used with samples taken for comparison with TWA
standards. However, two Important differences should be noted.
First, the samples obtained for comparison with celling standards are
best taken 1n a nonrandom fashion. For example, available knowledge
relating to the area, Individual, and process being sampled should be
used to obtain samples during periods of maximum expected concentrations
of the substance.
Second, samples taken for comparison with celling standards are
usually taken for a much shorter time period than those obtained for
calculating TWAs. Measurements for celling standards should consist of
!5-m1nute samples obtained 1n an employee's breathing zone; alternatively,
consecutive samples totaling 15 minutes can be used. A minimum of three
measurements should have been obtained during one work shift to provide a
good estimation of the worker's exposure for that shift (Leldel et al.
1977).
3.5 Available Information on Occupational Exposure
It may be helpful to the exposure assessor to be aware of the various
exposure limits and standards 1n effect when monitoring data are
collected. For example, a recognized hazardous substance will be subject
to an occupational exposure standard; knowledge that such a standard
exists may lead to the Identification of useful Information that has been
gathered by a public agency such as NIOSH. The following organizations
are Involved with occupational exposure standards:
• American Conference of Government Industrial Hyg1en1sts (ACGIH) -
Can provide Information on Threshold Limit Values (TLVs),
Industrial ventilation guidance, and air sampling and analysis
Instrumentation. Background Information and the rationale
underlying the TLVs are also available.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI) - Can provide
Industry voluntary health and safety standards (as contrasted
against governmental mandatory standards). Background Information
and underlying rationale for such standards may be available 1n
some cases.
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Table 3-2. Guidelines for Comparing an Eight-hour TWA Standard
Type of measurement
Basis for ranking (in order of decreasing
desirability)
Full period,
consecutive samples
Full period, single
sample (one 8-hour
sample)
Partial period
consecutive samples
Grab sample
Yields narrowest confidence limits on exposure
estimate.
Two consecutive, full period samples (about 4
hours each for an 8-hour TWA standard) provide
sufficient precision and are recommended as the
"best" measurement to make.
Appropriate sampling and analytical method must
be available.
Major problem is how to handle the unsampled
portion of the period.
In reality, the measurements are valid only for
the duration of the period that the measurements
cover (as 6 out of 8 hours).
Professional judgment can be used to infer
exposure during unsampled period. Knowledge of
operations(s) is required.
Sampled portion of period should cover at least
70-80 percent of the full period.
Confidence on exposure estimate is very low, and
one has to have a low exposure average to
statistically demonstrate compliance.
Optimum number of samples to take is between 8
and 11 if employee's operation and work exposure
are relatively constant during the day. If
employee's operation and work exposure are not
constant throughout the day, then at least 8 to
11 grab samples should be taken during each
period of expected differing exposure.
It is desirable to choose the sampling periods in
a statistically random fashion.*
* Random sampling is sampling any portion of the work shift, each portion
having the same chance of being sampled as any other.
Source: Leidel et al. 1977
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• American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) - Develops Hygienic
Guides for specific chemicals. These contain chemical and
physical property Information, summaries of chemical toxldty
testing, summaries of recommended standards (NIOSH, etc.). and
reference sources for this Information.
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
Readily available data from NIOSH and OSHA are summarized 1n the
following sections.
3.5.1 National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
Much Information has been collected by NIOSH concerning employee
exposure to chemical substances. Of most Importance are:
1. Various reports dealing with exposure to substances in specific
work settings. These Include Health Hazard Evaluation Reports,
Industrywide Studies, and Control Technology Assessments. These
reports are prepared by NIOSH and Its contractors and Include
actual sampling and analysis data gathered 1n the workplace. In
order to most efficiently determine what documentation 1s
available through NIOSH concerning given occupational exposure
situations (chemlcal-spedf1c, plant-specific, Industry-specific),
the assessor should contact Mr. Rodger Tatken, NIOSH Technical
Information Branch, C1nc1nnatt1, Ohio, 513-684-8328.
The Health Hazard Evaluation (HHE) reports are developed at the
request of either employers or employees. They are based on
Information obtained by NIOSH through actual site visits.
Companies know when NIOSH will conduct such Inspections, and the
reports reflect the conditions observed by NIOSH Inspectors at the
time of the visit.* They contain a range of plant-specific and
chemical-specific Information Including a description of the plant
and Its workforce, an Identification of the products produced,
description of the health and safety program 1n force at the
plant, toxlcologlcal Information for the chemlcal(s) under
evaluation, the sampling and analytical methods used and
analytical results obtained, and conclusions and
recommendations.t
Personal communication between James (Jay) Jones, NIOSH, and L.
Schultz, Versar Inc., November 28, 1984.
^Personal communication between Thomas Bloom, NIOSH, and L.
Schultz, Versar Inc., November 28, 1984.
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Industrywide Studies are primarily ep1dem1olog1cal studies of the
effects of specific workplace chemicals throughout given
Industries. However, monitoring data generated by NIOSH In
developing these reports are presented, as 1s any existing
exposure Incidence Information generated by the Industry under
scrutiny.*
Control Technology Assessments are usually conducted on a
process-specific or Industry-specific basis, although occasionally
chemical-specific reports are also generated. These studies
evaluate the effectiveness of various types of exposure controls
used 1n actual workplace settings. In developing these documents,
NIOSH may conduct monitoring In the workplace to Identify the best
control technology for given situations. Process controls,
equipment controls (ventilation, etc.), and work practices are all
evaluated to varying degrees In these studies.
2. NIOSH Criteria Documents. Annually, about 24 criteria documents
are produced. They cover single chemicals, classes of chemicals,
physical agents, and Industrial processes, and they recommend
standards for occupational exposure. These documents, which are
probably the single best source of Information on occupational
exposure, are In-depth reviews of Information from the National
Occupational Health (NOHS) Survey (described below), other
Investigations carried out by NIOSH, and International scientific
literature. They consider both published Information and new
research findings and sometimes reveal that a hazard 1s more
severe than was initially thought.
3. The National Occupational Hazard Survey. This two-year field
study. Initiated 1n 1972, was Intended to describe the health and
safety conditions 1n the American work environment. A chief
concern was the determination of the extent of worker exposure to
chemical and physical agents. The survey Involved the examination
of 4,636 business establishments 1n 67 metropolitan areas selected
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as representative of the
nonagricultural businesses covered by the Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970. The survey identified approximately 8,000
chemical substances and physical agents as potential hazards.
Data In the NOHS system can be accessed based on chemical name,
product trade name, and generic product type to obtain
quantitative output that includes the product formulation, the
estimated number of plants wherein exposure occurs, and the
estimated number of people experiencing the exposure. Output
reports are aggregated to the national level based on the survey
data. Also, although this data base contains data for over 72,000
products, the product formulation data for approximately 1/3 of
these products are considered trade secrets by their producers,
and therefore the formulation data cannot be released by NIOSH.
*Personal communication between Thomas Bloom, NIOSH, and L. Schultz,
Versar Inc., November 28, 1984.
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Despite the fact that the NOHS data base has been useful for assessing
occupational exposure to chemical substances, 1t has several
characteristics that limit Its usefulness. Because the data were
collected 10 years ago, some may be obsolete. Additionally, the data
collection method relied to a large extent on the observations of a
surveyor, who Interviewed plant management and personnel and toured the
plant, noting the number of employees potentially exposed to chemical
substances. It 1s likely that some of the data reflect judgments by the
surveyor, even though the survey procedures were designed to minimize
subjectivity.
Furthermore, although over 4,500 different facilities were surveyed
and data were extrapolated to a nationwide scale, certain types of
facilities were excluded from the survey. Those excluded were
(1) classified, because of national security, (2) engaged in agricultural
production, (3) engaged 1n mining, other than oil or gas production, or
(4) private households.
Finally, some of the chemicals evaluated by the survey may no longer
be used or perhaps may be currently used at levels lower than those
reported by the survey.*
Despite Its limitations, the NOHS data base has been useful 1n the
Identification and quantification of occupatlonally exposed workers. A
similar survey, termed the National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES),
was Initiated In October 1980 with data collection beginning 1n November
of that year. As of early 1985, data acquisition efforts for this survey
had not been completed. NIOSH is still in the process of obtaining trade
name product formulation data from the bulsnesses surveyed. It 1s
specifically this portion of the data base that allows an effective data
retrieval for chemical exposure assessments, and 1t is now projected that
this final data acquisition/tabulation effort will be completed and the
data base made available to support such studies by spring of 1986. It
should also be noted that the list of facility types Included in NOHS was
varied somewhat in the NOES survey. For example, agricultural facilities
such as grain elevators and preparation services (I.e., facilities not
generally sited 1n a scattered fashion in rural areas) were added to the
survey. Conversely, certain financial institutions, most wholesale and
retail trade establishments, and state and local government facilities
were deleted from the study. Essentially the same guidelines used for
the NOHS survey were employed in the design of the NOES"*". (Contact
Mr. David Sundin, NIOSH, 513-684-4491, for information on the status and
availability of data from NOHS or NOES).
*Personal communication between S. Mallinger, OSHA, and P. Desai,
Versar Inc., February 1982.
^Personal communication between Dave Sundin, NIOSH, and L.
Schultz, Versar Inc., November 1984.
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NIOSH can also generate output 1n the form of maps which Illustrate
probable locations of occupational exposure for specific chemicals. The
maps allow the access of data from a variety of perspectives, and at
different levels of geographic resolution. The following 11st Identifies
the map types currently available:
• Distribution of potential exposure to selected chemical agents by
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code.
• Frequency distribution analysis.
• Distribution of facilities within specified SICs.
• Distribution of facilities where workers are potentially exposed
to selected chemical agents.
• Distribution of workers potentially exposed to selected chemical
agents.
• Distribution of workers potentially exposed to a group of
chemicals related to a specific health effect.
• Rank order listing of potential exposures by county.
• Listings of Industrial facilities 1n which potential exposure Is
expected.
3.5.2 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Monitoring for exposure In the workplace 1s performed for compliance
with the OSHA standards and is conducted both by employers and by OSHA
(Leidel et al. 1977). Although they have never required Industry to
supply monitoring data, OSHA does try to elicit such information
voluntarily. One can request this information from companies directly,
but companies are not obligated to provide it because it can be
considered confidential.*
OSHA inspections of manufacturing facilities can include the
following: (1) general scheduled inspection; (2) inspection 1n response
to an accident; (3) Inspection in response to a complaint; (4) a
follow-up to a previous inspection, and (5) monitoring inspection.
Information collected during an OSHA inspection includes the name and
address of the establishment Inspected; the date and type of Inspection;
the level of exposure and severity rating; the OSHA standard under which
the inspection occurred; the number of employees at the facility and the
number of persons exposed to the hazardous agent; and the SIC codes and
*Personal communication between S. Linhard, OSHA, and P. Desai,
Versar Inc., December 1981.
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corresponding job titles affected. The Inspection records and test
results are retained at the OSHA area office; these records represent a
good source of Independent measurements outside of Industry.
The Information collected by OSHA during their Inspections 1s
entered Into a computerized system, the Management Information System
(MIS). Information In MIS can be requested by anyone.* The health
effects data contained In the MIS are organized Into four reports (OHDS
1,2,3, and 4). Of these, OHDS 1,2, and 4 are useful 1n conducting
occupational exposure assessments. OHDS 1 Is an overall summary of
health effects by chemical. It summarizes sampling conducted and
presents results 1n comparison with the Permissible Exposure Level (PEL)
for the chemical under evaluation. OHDS 2 provides the same type of
Information as does OHDS 1, but 1t 1s organized on a SIC code basis.
OHDS 4 provides detailed reports of Individual Inspections. These
contain the actual sampling results obtained for given slte.t
Prior to 1979, there were several limitations 1n OSHA monitoring
data. The Inspection records were not In a standard format. Some
Inspection reports were very exact, describing the duration and levels of
exposure for each process step. Other reports provided little
Information on the process Involved or the resultant exposure. Actual
levels of exposure were not recorded; Instead, results were presented by
severity codes, only 1n ranges, and only when the OSHA standard was
exceeded. Also not recorded were the location of the exposure, the
number of employees exposed, or whether safety measures, such as
respirators, were used.
The monitoring data from state OSHA programs present some
difficulties In availability and utility. Information from the states
has to be requested from each state because the data are not
automatically channeled to the federal OSHA offices. Industries were not
uniformly monitored, and categories of violation (e.g., serious,
nonserlous, or repeat ratings) were not consistent. Information
concerning such violations was not recorded, rendering understanding of
an Inconsistency Impossible.a
When Inspections were conducted 1n response to a complaint, the
Inspection was directed at the complaint area and not at the entire
facility. Consequently, because about 80 percent of the Inspections
resulted from complaints (due to manpower limitations), the data were of
limited use for estimating exposure under "normal" conditions.
*Personal communication between C. Bascesta, OSHA, and P. Desal,
Versar Inc., November 1981.
^Personal communication between Bill WentUng, OSHA, and L.
Schultz Versar Inc., November 1984.
^Personal communication between S. MalUnger, OSHA, and P. Desal,
Versar Inc., February 1982.
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For the above-mentioned reasons, the OSHA monitoring data gathered
prior to 1979 were not conducive to Industry-wide extrapolation.
Significant changes made 1n 1979 by OSHA 1n the data base will facilitate
the extrapolation of monitoring Information to specific cases. Now
recorded are: the measured TWA, job titles of people sampled, the SIC
code, the exposure celling, whether a citation was Issued, and If so, for
what. These computerized results are now recorded In a standard format
and provide more accurate detail from 1979 forward. A sample printout 1s
provided 1n Appendix B.
In spite of this, 1t 1s still not always feasible to make
extrapolations to the whole of Industry from OSHA monitoring data. For
example, data on the tannery Industry are Incomplete. Furthermore,
although the specific process during which exposure occurs 1s recorded,
this Information 1s not entered 1n the computerized data base and thus 1s
not readily available.*
Other Information available from OSHA 1s contained 1n the OSHA Docket
Files. This Information consists of documents used as evidence for
establishing OSHA standards. Documents Include data from (1) Industry -
their comments on the proposed standards, data from health effects
studies, and results of their occupational sampling and monitoring
programs, and (2) trade unions or associations - their responses to
proposed standards, records of occupational disease, and estimations of
occupational exposure.
It Is apparent from the preceding discussion that although OSHA may
provide the best available occupational monitoring data, there are
limitations Inherent 1n their use. One problem Is that the data base 1s
far from complete; data are simply absent for many chemicals and
potential exposure situations. The data that are available generally
represent high exposures, and extrapolation throughout an Industry or
occupation can result 1n overestlmatlon of occupational exposure. These
problems, however, do not preclude the use of OSHA data. They simply
point out the Importance of using the data cautiously.
3.6 Summary
To assess occupational monitoring data for a given chemical, one
needs to proceed as follows:
• Locate or Identify exposure monitoring data, as measured 1n
typical occupational settings.
*Personal communication between C. Oliver, OSHA, and P. Desal,
Versar, Inc., December 1981.
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• Evaluate the obtained monitoring data 1n terms of their quality
(QA/QC), representativeness (regarding worker categories or
occupational situations), and appropriateness.
• Compare the data to any model projections that have been
generated.
Occupational exposure monitoring data can be obtained by (a)
searching the literature manually or on-Hne; (b) searching NIOSH
publications, e.g., criteria documents, walk-through surveys, support
documents for criteria standards; (c) searching OSHA records on
monitoring via the Management Information System (MIS) on-line;
(d) searching documents stored 1n the OSHA Docket Office, especially for
records of monitoring as submitted by Industry and trade unions; and
(e) searching the National Occupational Health Survey (and the National
Occupational Exposure Survey once 1t becomes accessible).
The evaluation of monitoring data quality and representativeness
should address the extent to which a set of data represents the actual
exposure of the worker. The following sections 1n this report should be
consulted to aid In the evaluation of monitoring data:
Section 3.3 Sample Collection Techniques
Section 3.4 Exposure Measurement Strategies
Section 3.5, Available Information on Occupational Exposure, should be
consulted for guidance 1n locating established standards and Information
on actual occupational exposure.
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4.0 ESTIMATING CONTAMINANT RELEASES IN THE OCCUPATIONAL SETTING
4.1 Introduction
Occupational exposure to chemical substances associated with
Industrial manufacturing, processing, distribution, and use of products
may result from chemical releases Into workplace or ambient air and from
direct contact with contaminated equipment, chemical substances, or
processed material. The following are categories of chemical releases
that may contribute to occupational exposure:
1. Releases from worker activities associated with Industrial
operations.
2. Releases from Industrial stacks, process vents, fugitive sources,
storage sources, and secondary sources 1n Industrial processes.
3. Releases from products during activities associated with wholesale
and retail trade.
4. Releases during commercial use of products.
This section discusses methods for estimating contaminant release
rates 1n the occupational setting. Section 4.1.1 discusses the
categories of chemical releases and their relations to potential
occupational exposure. Section 4.1.2 describes the general mass balance
approach to predicting contaminant releases 1n lieu of monitoring data.
Section 4.1.3 presents algorithms that can be used within certain
frameworks for estimating contaminant release rates from sources
associated with Industrial manufacturing, processing, distribution, and
use of products.
4.1.1 Types of Contaminant Releases
Generic worker activities associated with Industrial operations
Include drumming of liquids, drumming and bagging of solids, cleaning,
maintenance, and sampling and analysis. These generic activities, either
singly or 1n combination, are basic components of many broader Industrial
operations such as process troubleshooting; process development, which
may Include full-scale factory trials of new manufacturing procedures or
technologies; and equipment Installations. Chemical releases associated
with broader Industrial activities can be estimated by Integrating
predicted releases from all generic activities making up the overall
operation.
Chemical releases associated with generic worker activities are
generally short-term and periodic. Releases can lead directly to
Inhalation, 1ngest1on, and dermal exposures for the workers performing
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the activity and Indirectly to Inhalation and 1ngest1on exposures for
others 1n the workplace.
Chemical releases from Industrial stacks are dispersed 1n the ambient
air and thus primarily contribute to contamination of the ambient
environment rather than the workplace. Chemical releases from process
vents occur during the operation of the process and, depending on the
sizes and configurations of the vent and nearby buildings and structures,
may contribute significantly to contamination of workplace air due to
building wake effects (see Section 5 for discussion of this phenomenon).
Chemical contaminants from Industrial stacks and process vents generally
are passed through an emission control device (e.g., electrostatic
predpltators, flares, Incinerators) prior to discharge to ambient air.
These control devices may be quite effective In reducing volatile organic
compound (VOC) releases to ambient, and possibly workplace, air. See
Versar (1984b) for a detailed review of the efficiencies of combustion
control devices for process sources 1n the synthetic organic chemical
manufacturing Industry (SOCMI). See Freed et al. (1983) for methods to
assess exposure to chemical substances 1n the ambient environment.
Fugitive releases are principally emissions from leaks 1n the process
equipment and from defective, Inadequate, or worn seals 1n equipment such
as pumps, valves, and compressors. They occur as a result of normal
plant operations and are due to thermal and mechanical stresses.
Releases from fugitive sources are Initially releases to workplace air
and, subsequently, ambient air (I.e., fugitive releases 1n an Indoor
workplace eventually are exhausted to the atmosphere through
ventilation/exhaust ducts; fugitive releases 1n an outdoor workplace
Initially contaminate workplace air and, eventually, migrate Into ambient
air). Fugitive releases can be effectively controlled through leak
detection and repair (LOAR) programs and use of several mechanical
devices (e.g., seals, rupture disks). See Versar (1984b) for a summary
of efficiencies of fugitive emission control systems 1n the SOCMI.
Storage releases are breathing losses that are vented from fixed-roof
and floating-roof tanks used for storing volatile liquids. Storage tanks
are usually located outdoors. The releases from storage may contribute
to the overall plant area concentration.
Secondary releases are the emissions that result from the handling,
treatment, and disposal of aqueous, liquid, and solid wastes generated by
Industry (ITE 1980). These may result 1n occupational exposure to
workers around the treatment facility.
Releases from products during trade may occur as a result of package
failure during loading, shelving, or sales, or during handling of
unpackaged products. Workers engaging 1n wholesale and retail trade
activities may experience Inhalation exposure from the chemical releases
and dermal exposure from direct contact with a product.
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Commercial activities Include most workplace situations other than
manufacturing and trade; this sector 1s dominated by the service
Industries. The Individual activities are too diverse for listing. As a
group they generally Involve passive Inhalation exposure, which Includes
all exposures resulting from use of a product other than the active
exposure of the user during use (e.g., exposures of the user and
non-users following use activities).
4.1.2 The Mass Balance Approach
If accurate and reproducible workplace or personal breathing zone
monitoring data, which quantify the contaminant levels 1n workplace air
or the levels to which workers are exposed, are not available for
Industrial operations and related activities, then mass loadings of
chemical substances to workplace air (and, subsequently, the air
concentrations) must be estimated. Development of a mass balance
Involves prediction of a chemical's mass loadings to environmental media
and workplace air from all emission sources 1n Industrial manufacturing
and processing operations and related activities so that emissions to the
workplace can be quantified and distinguished from emissions to the
ambient environment.
A mass balance for assessing chemical releases to workplace air from
Industrial manufacturing and processing and related activities consists
of the steps outlined below. These steps comprise any mass balance
approach for predicting chemical loadings to air regardless of the
setting (I.e., workplace or ambient). However, an additional data
Integration component 1s requrled when estimating chemical loadings to
workplace air. The basic mass balance development steps Involve:
• Identifying all sources of chemical (primarily volatile organic
compound (VOC)) emissions to air 1n the process or activity.
Chemical emissions may be vapors or contaminated partlculates.
• Grouping emission sources Into categories (e.g., stacks, vents,
fugitives, storage) according to the nature of contaminant release
(e.g., continuous or Intermittent, process or activity related).
• Determining emission rates. For process sources, this step
Involves use of emission factors, which quantify mass loadings to
air per unit of production volume, available 1n the literature for
selected source categories 1n numerous Industrial processes;
production data for the process; and data on applicability and
performance of emission control devices. For Intermittent,
short-term releases associated with worker activities, this step
Involves prediction of the release rate during the activity, using
expressions based on chemical properties and characteristics of
the operation.
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• Determining constituent chemical release rates. For process
sources, this step Involves use of reported composition of
emission streams from source categories 1n Industrial processes
(which are available 1n the literature); or estimation of emission
stream compositions analyzing the process chemistry and unit
operations. For releases associated with worker activities, the
algorithms can be adjusted to predict releases of constituent
chemicals that are components 1n a solution.
• Determining total mass loadings of constituent chemicals. This
step Involves Integration of constituent chemical release rates
with production data. Short-term, Intermittent chemical release
rates associated with worker activities must be Integrated with
data on the frequencies and durations of activities (which depend
on production characteristics) to determine total loadings to air
over time.
Chemical releases to workplace air during worker activities
associated with Industrial production are short-term, Intermittent
releases; just as for process sources, mass loadings of VOC or other
chemicals for these worker activities depend on production volume and
process characteristics. However, total mass loadings are more difficult
to determine for worker activities than for process sources. Although
release rates can be predicted for worker activities based on the
physical and chemical properties of the chemical substance and the
characteristics of the process activity, total mass loadings from these
activities can be estimated only after the durations, frequencies, and
other parameters associated with the worker activities and the production
process are determined. For example, the frequencies, durations, and
Intensities of releases during maintenance activities at an Industrial
facility are highly dependent on, among other parameters, the degree of
automation of process technology and the throughput of the system. In a
modern petrochemical plant with high system throughput 1n continuous
production operations, highly automated process control systems may be
used to operate the process. Maintenance activities at this plant may
Involve breaking Into a production line during process operation to
repair an automatic control device. The duration and Intensity of
release associated with this activity may be much greater than a
maintenance activity conducted at a small batch producer of specialty
chemical products, where maintenance may Involve replacing a worn valve
during the downtime between process batches. Also, the frequency of
maintenance activities at the two plants may vary greatly and may be
difficult to predict. Thus, an additional data Integration component Is
Involved 1n the final step of a mass balance for predicting chemical
loadings to workplace air from emission sources associated with worker
activities.
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4.1.3 Estimating Releases
Chemical releases to the occupational setting, whether Indoors or
outdoors, may be direct or Indirect. Direct releases are those
Introductions of chemical contaminants Into workplace air which directly
result 1n exposure to the workers Involved 1n the activities that cause
the release. Indirect releases are those that affect workers not engaged
1n an activity that Itself causes the release. Emissions from process
vents as well as fugitive and storage emissions generally fall Into this
category. Note that from an exposure standpoint, a release may be
considered both direct and Indirect If 1t affects both classes of workers
(I.e., those Involved 1n the release-causing activity as well as those
not Involved).
Both direct and Indirect releases of chemical substances In the
workplace also may contribute to contamination of ambient air. If the
releases are to an Indoor workplace, they may be released to ambient air
by building exhaust and ventilation systems; 1f releases are to outdoor
workplaces, the contaminants Immediately become a component of the
ambient air.
Characterization of contaminant releases 1s of primary Importance 1n
assessing exposure to chemical substances 1n the occupational setting.
Such releases Increase the levels of contaminants In workplace air and
may lead to exposure of the worker performing the activity or of other
workers 1n the environs of the release. The following discussion centers
on algorithms that can be used to predict rates of releases to the
workplace. Input data required for estimating release rates using these
algorithms Include physical and chemical properties of the chemical
substance and characteristics of the activity or operation. These data
vary on a case-by-case basis; the algorithms should be used with
site-specific data Inputs. However, screening estimates of release rates
can be derived from the algorithms using Input data cited 1n Berman
(1982), which presents ranges of values, typical values, and worst-case
values of necessary Input parameters.
(1) Worker activities. The following are five categories of
worker activities associated with industrial manufacturing and processing
that may contribute to occupational exposure to chemical substances:
Drumming of liquids
Handling of bulk solids (e.g., bagging, weighing)
Cleaning of process components
Maintenance of process components
Sampling and analysis
Each type of worker activity may consist of several different operations
that have unique release characteristics. Algorithms are presented for
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use in predicting release rates associated with a particular operation.
Note that although this list includes the major categories of
occupational exposure-related activities, it is not all inclusive. For
example, workers sawing particle board containing urea-formaldehyde
resins may experience significant exposure. Other such situations are
expected to occur. Therefore, as this report can not address each
discrete exposure situation 1n detail, the assessor should consider other
potential routes of exposure in addition to those addressed here when
conducting an exposure assessment in an occupational setting.
(a) Drumming of liquids. In drumming, liquids are dispensed
through hoses draining a large reservoir of material (e.g., a reactor, a
holding tank). Manufactures do not usually drum liquid products from
industrial manufacturing operations; rather, the manufacturer ships the
liquid products by rail car or road tank car to distributors and
formulators who eventually drum the material for resale (Berman 1982).
Liquid may be fed into a drum either by splash loading or subsurface
loading. During splash loading, turbulence may be substantial because
the dispensing nozzle remains above the surface of the dispensed liquid.
In subsurface loading, turbulence 1s minimized by extending the
dispensing nozzle to the bottom of the drum to ensure that It remains
submerged during the filling procedure. For most applications drums are
splash loaded (Berman 1982).
During drumming of liquids, the major route of worker exposure Is
inhalation of contaminated air resulting from evaporation of bulk
liquid. Generation rates of contaminant depend primarily on the vapor
pressure and molecular mass of the liquid, the sizes of the drum and Its
access portal, the number of drums filled per unit time, and the
temperature at which transfer is conducted.
An expression for estimating release rates of contaminants from
volatilization of bulk liquid during drumming is reported in Berman
(1982). The expression can be derived from the ideal gas law and can be
tailored to predict release rates of chemical components of a bulk
liquid. The expression can be used for calculating release rates if the
following are assumed:
1. The system is at constant temperature and pressure.
2. The volume of vapor generated from volatilization of bulk liquid
(or components of the liquid) is proportional to the volume of
liquid drummed.
3. The gases behave ideally. The ideal gas law applies, and the
partial pressure of a gas above the liquid is proportional to the
vapor pressure of the substance.
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4. Henry's law applies for estimating partial pressures of components
of a bulk liquid.
The expression 1s as follows:
G = (MM) (P«) (f) (V) (r) (4-1)
(3600) RT
where
6 = constant rate of contaminant release from evaporation of
bulk liquid during drumming, grams per second
MW = molecular weight of chemical substance, grams per gram-mole
P° = vapor pressure of the pure contaminant at temperature T,
atmospheres
f = saturation factor; 1 for splash loading and 0.5 for
subsurface loading (Berman 1982)^
V(jrum = volume of a drum, cubic centimeters
r = filling rate 1n drums per unit time
R = universal gas constant; 82.05 (cubic centimeters)
(atmosphere)/(gram-moles) (degrees Kelvin)
T = temperature, degrees Kelvin
If the contaminant of Interest 1s only a component of a solution
being transferred, the release rate expression must be modified
slightly. For components, the vapor pressure of the pure substance, P°,
1s replaced by P1, which 1s the partial pressure of the component derived
as follows:
P1 = (H)(X) (4-2)
where
H = a Henry's law constant
X = mole fraction of the component
Substituting expression (4-2) Into (4-1), the following expression
for release rate 1s obtained:
G = (HW) (H) (X) (f) (V ) (r) (4-3)
(3600) RT
Whether operations use a passive drainage system that relies on
gravity feed or on active pumping system, drumming of liquids generally
Involves little splashing and spilling of material because of the small
size of a drum's orifice relative to the access portal on a large process
or storage tank. Thus, dermal contact with the liquid 1s not a probable
route of exposure 1f standard operating procedures are followed (Berman
1982).
that these values should be considered "worst-case" saturation factors for use when
data are unavailable. In practice, the analyst should invesi gate
data for use in this equation before applying these default
val ues .
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(b) Drumming and bagging of solids. Drumming and bagging of
bulk solids pose a great potential for Inhalation and dermal worker
exposure. The major source of contamination from bulk solids handling
operations 1s the generation of dust from the agitation of partlculate
material during transfer operations. Exposure can result from Inhalation
of resplrable airborne dust. Dermal exposure can result from airborne
dust that settles on and adheres to the skin and clothing of workers.
The level of dust released during drumming and bagging of bulk solids
depends on characteristics of the operations and properties of the solid.
Bagging and drumming operations for bulk solids may be manual,
automated, or any combination of the two. Fully automated systems tend
to be enclosed, well-ventilated operations where attendant exposure 1s
minimal. Berman (1982) stated that such systems are economical only If
the volume of material handled exceeds 100,000 pounds per year. For
smaller solids handling operations, many solids are bagged using semi-
automated procedures. A semi-automated operation may consist of a hopper
that automatically dispenses a predetermined quantity of material Into a
bag. The bag 1s then moved to a sealing station (e.g., a stapling
machine). After sealing, the bag 1s loaded for shipment.
Properties of the solid that are pertinent to the extent of dust
formation Include particle size, density, shape, and surface
characteristics and bulk properties such as size distribution, moisture
content, and extent of aeration.
An empirical relation correlating these parameters with the rate of
dust generation has not as yet been developed. As the experimental data
base expands, empirical methods for estimating dust generation rates will
be developed.
Limited monitoring data reporting concentrations of suspended
partlculates associated with bagging and related solids handling
operations are cited 1n Berman (1982). These data may be used as source
strengths 1n calculating Inhalation exposures; however, the fraction of
airborne partlculates that 1s resplrable must be estimated or assumed.
Alternatively, 1t 1s useful to note that dust standards developed by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration may be used to estimate
likely air concentrations 1n the absence of actual dust generation data.
(c) Cleaning. Short-term, but potentially significant,
contaminant releases may result from cleaning process equipment.
Cleaning operations usually require breaking of a production line or
dismantling of equipment.
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Cleaning Involves the removal of residual material from storage
tanks, holding tanks, stills, reaction vessels, pipework, and other
process equipment. The broad ranges of size, shape, accessibility, and
mobility of process equipment require a variety of cleaning procedures.
Effective cleaning procedures must address properties of the material to
be removed. Current general cleaning practices Include washing, solvent
rinsing, steam cleaning, and scraping and shoveling; these may be
performed Individually or In combination.
Process equipment must be purged of mobile material prior to
cleaning. Purging and opening of process equipment prior to cleaning can
be high exposure activities for Industrial workers.
(1) Purging. Contaminant releases associated with purging are
primarily a function of the physical state of the material to be purged.
Purging of gaseous materials requires sealed equipment so that, except
for fugitive emissions, releases likely are minimal. Liquid sludges or
residues are frequently drained by a trap into waste drums. Contaminant
release rates associated with this activity parallel those associated
with drumming of liquids (see expressions (4-1) and (4-3) for the
generation rate); however, the vapor released during purging may be
saturated because equipment 1s frequently heated to facilitate purging of
otherwise viscous residues. Solid residues that are sufficiently mobile
are purged from process equipment in a manner that can be approximated by
the conditions associated with bagging and drumming of solids (Berman
1982).
(11) Opening. Access required for cleaning 1s provided by
breaking of a line or opening of process equipment. If the compartment
to be opened 1s at ambient pressure, then the principal cause of
workplace contamination 1s diffusion of volatilized material from within
the compartment. If a positive pressure exists 1n the process equipment
to be opened, then the pressure gradient that exists when the line Is
opened will accelerate transport of the contaminant into workplace air.
The rate of contaminant release associated with the opening of
process equipment varies with time. The Initial release rate will be
maximum; the release rate will diminish with time (Berman 1982). This Is
because, unlike the saturated surface adjacent to a liquid, the surface
by the opening will not remain saturated. The rate at which saturation
at this surface 1s renewed is limited by the rate that the contaminant
Inside the enclosure will diffuse from residual material to the vicinity
of the opening. Thus, the Initial contaminant release rate from an
aperture represents an upper limit to the actual release rate.
The initial contaminant release rate from an aperture Is primarily a
function of the properties of the residual material and the size of the
opening or aperture. Just as evaporation 1s limited by diffusion away
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from a saturated Interface adjacent to the surface of a liquid, the
Initial contaminant release rate from an aperture Is limited by the
diffusion rate away from a saturated aperture surface. Thus, the Initial
contaminant release rate from an aperture 1s obtained from the following
relationship (Berman 1982):
G = (HM) (K) (A) (P°) (4-4)
(R) (T)
where
G = Initial contaminant release rate of contaminant, grams per second
MW = molecular weight of the contaminant, grams per gram-mole
K = gas phase mass transfer coefficient of the contaminant,
centimeters per second
A = area of the aperture, square centimeters
P° = vapor pressure of the contaminant, atmospheres
R = universal gas constant, (cubic centimeters) (atmospheres)/
(gram-mole) (degrees Kelvin)
T = absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin
The contaminant release rate obtained from expression (4-4)
corresponds to evaporation of bulk liquid or solids. If the contaminant
of Interest 1s only a component of a liquid or solids solution 1n the
residue, the release rate expression must be modified slightly. For
components, the vapor pressure of the pure substance, P°, 1s replaced by
P1, which Is the partial pressure of the component derived as previously
Indicated 1n expression (4-2).
Substituting expression (4-2) Into (4-4), the expression for
contaminant generation rate becomes the following:
G = (MW) (K) (A) (H)(X) (4-5)
(R)
(111) Water washing. Process equipment may be washed with
water to remove water-soluble materials and non-adhering partlculates.
Detergents are frequently added to Increase removal efficiency. The
contaminant release rate due to volatilization of residual material
decreases as water 1s added to an opened compartment because the residue
enters solution or suspension (Berman 1982). Thus, significant release
of contaminant associated with washing 1s only expected to occur during
purging and opening 1n preparation for washing. (See previous sections
4.l.3(l)c(1 and 11)). Also, a worker may experience direct dermal
contact with contaminanted equipment, solid residues, or contaminated
solutions during water washing of process equipment.
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(1v) Solvent rinsing. Materials not readily removed by water
washing may be cleaned using solvents other than water. In some cases,
the equipment 1s heated to Increase the solubility of residue. Assuming
that the solvent does not boll, which 1s reasonable since solvent vapor
would present a much greater hazard than vapor from residual material,
the maximum contaminant release rate (which corresponds to the Initial
release rate) 1s limited by the rate at which vapors diffuse Into the
workplace from a saturated aperture surface. Thus, the contaminant
release rate expressions (4-4) and (4-5) for opening of process equipment
are also applicable to solvent rinsing (Berman 1982).
(v) Steam cleaning. Nonvolatile solids that resist cleaning by
washing or rinsing are frequently removed using steam. During steam
cleaning, steam 1s delivered by hose to an Isolated section of process
equipment. Steam condenses on the walls of the vessel and the resulting
water, laden with residual material, 1s drained via a tap at the bottom
of the vessel. Contaminant releases associated with steam cleaning of
process equipment are likely to be small 1f steam cleaning follows other
cleaning measures (during which Initial significant releases of
contaminant occur) and the volatile components 1n the residue not removed
by the steam cleaning are minimal. If these conditions do not apply to
the steam cleaning operation, then expressions (4-4) and (4-5) (which
were developed for predicting contaminant release rates during opening of
process equipment) may be used to determine a reasonable upper limit to
contaminant release rates during steam cleaning (since these releases
likely will not be greater than the Initial contaminant releases that
occur when process components are opened).
(v1) Shoveling and scraping. Solid materials that cannot be
removed by other cleaning methods must ultimately be removed by manual
shoveling and scraping. Depending on the size of process equipment, a
worker can manually clean equipment either externally or Internally.
Usually, small process components are cleaned externally and large
process components are cleaned Internally.
Contamination of workplace air from vapor generated Inside a vessel
Is limited by diffusion through the access aperture. Thus, a maximum
contaminant release rate during external manual cleaning of small process
components can be estimated using expressions (4-4) and (4-5), which are
release rate expressions for opening of process equipment. However,
unlike during the Initial opening of a sealed compartment, a worker may
experience direct dermal contact with contaminated equipment or residual
material during external manual cleaning.
Workers may physically enter large process components such as storage
and holding tanks and reactor vessels. Generally, an Industrial worker
enters a process vessel to manually remove solid residual material still
remaining after completion of other cleaning methods (e.g., purging,
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water washing, solvent rinsing, steam cleaning). Much contaminant
release may occur during the precleanlng steps, before the worker enters
the vessel; however, air 1n the vessel may be saturated with vapor or
dust from residual material, particularly since ventilation 1n such
enclosures 1s poor (Berman 1982).
If the facility strictly adheres to a worker safety program, the
worker entering the vessel should be wearing a respirator (and other
protective equipment, such as special clothing and gloves to minimize
dermal contact). In this case, worker Inhalation exposure would be
reduced or eliminated depending on the efficacy of the protective
measures used (see Section 7.2). If the facility does not strictly
adhere to a worker safety program, then the worker may enter the vessel
without wearing a protective device. Assuming 1n the worst case that the
vessel air Is saturated with contaminant, then the maximum air
concentration of contaminant can be computed from the Ideal gas law with
the saturation vapor pressure of the chemical substance as the Input
pressure; the rate of contaminant release does not need to be estimated.
The Ideal gas law 1s:
PV = nRT (4-6)
where
P = pressure of gas
V = volume of gas
n = moles of gas
R = universal gas constant
T = temperature of gas
The number of moles of gas, n, 1s equivalent to m/MW, where m 1s the mass
of gas and MW 1s the molecular weight of the gas. Inputting P°, the
saturation vapor pressure of the liquid contaminant at temperature T, for
P and m/MW for n 1n expression (4-6), the following 1s obtained:
m = C (P°) (MW) (4-7)
V (R) (T)
where
m = mass of gas, grams
v = volume of gas, cubic centimeters
C = worst-case (saturation) concentration of contaminant 1n the
Interior of process component, grams per cubic-centimeter
P° = saturation vapor pressure of liquid contaminant at temperature
T, atmospheres
MW = molecular weight of the contaminant, grams per gram-mole
R = universal gas constant = 82.05 (cm3-atm)/(gram-mole) (°K)
T = absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin
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Dermal contact during Internal manual cleaning of a process component may
be excessive 1n the absence of protective clothing and other special
measures.
(d) Maintenance. Maintenance Involves the mechanical
adjustment, alteration, or repair of engineering equipment. The
following are examples of maintenance activities: replacing valve seals,
repacking stlrrer glands, repairing pipework and flanges, servicing
motors and pumps, and calibrating monitoring Instruments. Maintenance
operations can be classified Into the following groups:
• Those performed externally to process equipment.
• Those performed via access portals and other openings 1n process
equipment.
• Those requiring workers to enter process enclosures.
Operations 1n each group possess similar characteristics that are
pertinent to contaminant releases. These operations are Individually
discussed below.
(1) Operations performed externally to process equipment.
Maintenance operations that can be performed externally to process
equipment and do not require the breaking of any seals present little
potential for contaminant release to air. The only releases of
contaminant are fugitive emissions, which can be considered relatively
Insignificant. There 1s a potential for workers to dermally contact
chemical residues remaining on equipment due to poor cleaning practices.
Examples of maintenance operations 1n this category Include adjusting
Instruments, tightening bolts or seals, repairing pump motors, and
monitoring.
(11) Operations performed via access portals and other
openings. The majority of maintenance operations are performed via
access portals and other openings (e.g., replacing valves or flange
seals, repacking stlrrer glands, repairing or replacing pipework,
changing filters). Access required for these operations 1s provided by
breaking a line or opening process equipment. Thus, contaminant releases
associated with such operations are due to diffusion of residual vapors
through the access aperture Into the workplace.
Expressions (4-4) and (4-5) for contaminant release rates, developed
for releases during opening of process components, are also appropriate
for estimating release rates for maintenance activities performed via
access portals and other openings. They are applicable for release rate
estimations during changing of filters. However, rather than an open
aperture, filters represent a surface coated with material that
53
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volatilizes causing airborne contamination. As the material volatilizes,
the space adjacent to the surface becomes saturated with vapor. The
contaminant release rate to workplace air from filter changing 1s
therefore determined by the rate vapors will diffuse from such a
saturated layer (Berman 1982). To determine the contaminant release rate
associated with changing a filter, expressions (4-4) and (4-5) can be
used with the surface area of the filter (rather than an aperture size)
being substituted for the parameter "A."
Dermal contact may be significant for workers conducting maintenance
activities via access portals and other openings.
(111) Operations requiring workers to enter process
enclosures. Repair of Internal components or the Interior walls of large
process equipment such as tanks and reaction vessels frequently requires
maintenance workers to enter such compartments. Although workers In such
situations would generally be expected to use protective equipment such
as a respirator (see Section 7.1), that may not always occur. The
contaminant release rates associated with these maintenance activities
are not predicted 1n this report; rather, 1t 1s assumed that the
worst-case contaminant concentration (to which the worker may be exposed
when not wearing a respirator) Inside the equipment 1s represented by the
saturation concentration of the contaminant, just as for Internal manual
cleaning of process components discussed previously 1n Section
4.1.3(c)(v1). The saturation concentration of the contaminant 1n air can
be determined using the Ideal gas law with the contaminant's saturation
vapor pressure as the Input pressure. See expression (4-7) for guidance
on estimating saturation concentrations. The saturation concentration
can easily be attained during maintenance operations conducted Inside
process equipment because of poor ventilation 1n the enclosure and a
large contaminated surface area In the vessel's Interior (Berman 1982).
Dermal contact may be significant for a maintenance worker Inside a
process vessel.
(e) Sampling and Analysis. Sampling and analysis operations
Include a diverse set of procedures that present a broad range of
potential for worker exposure. Even In small Industrial manufacturing
operations, most sampling and analysis operations are performed by
automatic devices Incorporated directly Into process lines and
equipment. On-Hne sampling and analysis offer advantages such as
continuous monitoring capability, rapid results, and decreased labor
costs. Worker exposure associated with automated sampling and analysis
results primarily from fugitive emissions (Berman 1982).
Manual sampling and analysis, which may be common 1n small batch
operations and 1n processes requiring measurement of physical parameters
(e.g., specific gravity, viscosity, clarity, or suspended solids content)
pose potentially significant contaminant releases. Contaminant releases
54
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associated with manual sampling and analysis depend on the specific
procedures used and the physical state (e.g., solid, liquid, gas) of the
material being sampled. For example, sampling of gases requires use of
equipment that 1s attached directly to the production line to confine the
gas; except for fugitive emissions and a small volume of vapor released
when a sampling device 1s uncoupled, contaminant releases associated with
gas sampling should be minimal.
Sampling of liquids and solids may result In contaminant releases to
workplace air from volatilization of the material or diffusion of
saturated vapor. The former mechanism of contaminant release may
predominate 1f the sampled material lies 1n an uncovered vessel during
sampling (e.g., sampling by dipping a scoop or glass tube Into the liquid
to obtain a small quantity of liquid). The latter mechanism of
contaminant release may predominate if the vessel 1s sealed and a small
access portal Is opened for sampling.
Many factors (e.g., the duration of the sampling operation, the size
of the sampling access aperture, the volume of the sample, the molecular
weight of the chemical substance) determine the relative contributions of
direct volatilization and diffusion of saturated vapor to contaminant
releases during sampling operations. These factors vary on a
case-by-base basis.
The contaminant release rate associated with displacement of
saturated vapor during sampling Is derived from the Ideal gas law and
parallels that of drumming of liquids (see expressions (4-1) and (4-3) 1n
this section). The expression Is as follows (Berman 1982):
6 = (V) (P°) (HW) (4-8)
(r) (R) (T)
where
G = contaminant generation rate for displacement of saturated vapor,
grams per second
V = volume of the sampling container or dipper, cubic centimeters
P° = vapor pressure of the liquid, atmospheres
MW = molecular weight of the liquid, grams per gram-mole
r = filling time of sampling device, seconds per container
R = universal gas constant, 82.05 cm3-atm/gmole-°K
T = absolute temperature, °K
The contaminant release rate expression for volatilization of
residual material during sampling parallels the expressions developed for
estimating releases from volatilization during opening of process
equipment. The Initial release rate, which 1s the maximum release rate
that can be used as an upper limit, from the sampling access portal may
55
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be limited by the diffusion rate away from the saturated portal
"surface." Thus, the Initial contaminant release rate for volatilization
during sampling operations can be estimated using expressions (4-4) and
(4-5) 1n this section.
Berman (1982) used typical and worst-case values of parameters 1n the
contaminant release rate expressions for sampling operations to assess
the relative contributions to releases from volatilization and
displacement. Using parameter values typical of sampling operations In
expression (4-8), the following expression for release rate due to
displacement 1s obtained:
G = (6 x 10-*) P° (4-9)
where G and P° are as defined earlier. Using typical parameter values In
expression (4-4), the following expression for release rate due to
volatilization 1s obtained:
G = (0.14) P° (4-10)
where G and P° are as defined earlier. Since (0.14)P° 1s so much greater
than (0.0006)P°, 1t can be concluded that volatilization predominates
(and displacement can be Ignored) 1n typical sampling operations.
Using the reasonable worst-case values for parameters 1n expressions
(4-4) and (4-8), Berman (1982) obtained the following reduced expressions:
G = (7 x 10~2) P° (4-11)
for the release rate due to displacement and
G = (2.1) P° (4-12)
for the release rate due to volatilization. Thus, since (2.1)P° Is
significantly greater than (0.07)P°, 1t can be concluded that
volatilization predominates 1n these situations as well. Both
expressions (4-4) for volatilization and (4-8) for displacement should be
used when contaminant release rates during sampling operations are
estimated. Though it has been shown that volatilization may be the
predominant mechanism of contaminant release during sampling, the
relative contributions of the two mechanisms to the overall release rate
should be assessed on a case-by-case basis using site-specific data.
A simpler method for obtaining samples is via a tap. In this case,
sampled material is drained directly from sealed lines or a sealed vessel
Into a sample container. The resulting contaminant release 1s due to
volatilization as the material fills the sampling tube. The contaminant
release rate associated with tapping can be obtained using the
volatilization expressions (4-4) and (4-6) in this section.
56
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(2) Process sources. The following steps can be taken to quantify
chemical mass loadings to air from process emission sources (which
Include stack vents, fugitive sources, storage sources, and secondary
sources) 1n Industrial manufacturing and processing operations:
1. Identify all VOC emission source 1n the process from process
diagrams.
2. Group each VOC emission source Into appropriate source categories.
3. Obtain uncontrolled VOC emission factors for each process source
category. Versar (1983) has an abundance of useful Information on
industrial sources including emission factors, methods for mass
balance calculations, control technologies, process descriptions
and technologies, and economic factors. Appendices that accompany
Versar (1983) provide a resource 11st identifying other valuable
data sources, general process and industry-wide information, and
data bases useful in estimating emissions.
4. Determine controlled VOC emission factors for each process source
category. These factors are computed by multiplying the
uncontrolled VOC factors by the quantity one minus the efficiency
of the control device. Thus, control technologies must be
reviewed for applicability and performance. Useful sources 1n
this step include Versar (1983), SAI (1982), McDaniel (1983),
USEPA (1980c), USEPA (1980d), and USEPA (1984), and Versar (1984b).
5. Determine compositions of each VOC emission stream in the process
source categories. A useful source in this step is USEPA (1980e),
which cites compositions of VOC emission streams 1n selected
source categories and Industrial processes as determined from
monitoring. If composition data are not available in the
literature for particular streams of Interest, then the process
chemistry and unit operations should be analyzed to estimate
compositions.
6. Estimate controlled constituent chemical emission factors for each
source 1n the source categories. These values are computed by
taking the product of the controlled VOC emission factors and the
constituent chemical composition 1n the stream.
7. Aggregate the controlled constituent chemical emission factors
within each source category to obtain total chemical release
factors for each source category.
8. For each source category, multiply the controlled constituent
chemical emission factors by the production volume associated with
the process to obtain total controlled chemical release rates.
57
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Production volumes can be obtained from Industry contacts, SRI
(1984), and USITC (1984). Overall chemical releases for the
process can be determined by summing the release rates over all
source categories.
Process release sources continuously emit chemical substances to
ambient air. These releases may or may not significantly contribute to
contaminant concentrations 1n workplace air. Releases from vents could
contribute to workplace air concentrations through wake effects created
by structures 1n the vicinity of release. Section 5 discusses means of
estimating concentrations of contaminants resulting from releases
captured by building wakes. Fugitive releases Initially are to workplace
air and eventually diffuse or are carried to the atmosphere. Storage
releases essentially contaminate ambient air since storage tanks are
generally located outdoors 1n relatively Isolated areas which are readily
accessible by rail or motor carrier. Secondary releases may directly
contribute to workplace air contamination 1n the vicinity of the
treatment facilities and operations. The contribution of process
releases to workplace air concentrations can only be accurately assessed
by monitoring the contaminant levels 1n the air.
(3) Activities of wholesale and retail trade. The activities of
workers 1n wholesale and retail trade can be grouped 1n six classes:
loading, storage, packaging, shelving, demonstration, and sales. The
extent to which any of these activities are pertinent to potential
releases of contaminant to workplace air depends on the applications and
uses of the finished products.
(1) Loading. Finished products are shipped from the
manufacturing site to distributors, often wholesale traders. Loading (as
a trade activity) 1s defined as the removal of a product from a
transportation vehicle and the product's placement in a storage facility
for subsequent sale. This definition Includes the transition between
manufacturing and trade as well as between wholesale trade and retail
trade. It is a short-term activity with potential for direct releases of
contaminant to workplace air and for dermal contact.
Loading may Involve the handling of either bulk or packaged
material. The degree of containment of a product will largely determine
whether loading 1s a source of contaminant release. Accidents during
loading may be another source of contaminant release to the workplace.
(11) Storage. Loading of a product is usually followed by some
period of storage. The storage area may be a separate warehouse facility
or a section of a retail store. As in the case of loading, the degree to
which storage may be a release source depends on the degree of
containment or packaging of a product. Unlike loading, storage may be a
long-term activity. Release of chemicals Into the area may lead to
58
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accumulation of atmospheric contaminants over the long term, and storage
facilities may not be designed with adequate ventilation for pollutant
removal. Storage may also refer to the time a product resides 1n retail
Inventory (or on the shelf).
(111) Packaging. Packaging may be done at the manufacturing
site; this can Involve the packaging of bulk materials for ease of
transpor- tatlon or the packaging that accompanies a product through
retail trade. Wholesale traders may take bulk shipments of goods and
package them 1n "trade name" wrappings. It 1s through this activity that
contaminant release may occur 1n the trade sector.
(1v) Shelving. Shelving Involves the transfer of goods from
storage to an area accessible to potential buyers. Shelving may be a
source of contaminant release through accidental loss of product due to
container failure (e.g., breakage of glass jars).
(v) Demonstration. Sale of an Item may Involve a demonstration
of Its use. For such a demonstration to be effective, 1t should closely
mimic the consumer's use of the product. See Versar (1984c) for methods
of estimating releases during consumer use of products.
(v1) Sales. "Sales" refers to the transfer of goods from the
trade sector to the consumer or commercial user. The activities that are
a part of selling vary widely with the product, but In all cases the sale
Is consummated 1n a short period of time. Sales may be a source of
contaminant release through accidental loss of product (as 1n shelving).
The activities of wholesale and retail trade may be sources of
contaminant release to workplace air 1n two possible ways:
• Accidental loss of product through package failure (loading,
shelving, sales).
• Lack of packaging or Insufficient conta1ner1zat1on of product with
resultant atmospheric emissions (loading, storage).
Also, direct contact with a product during packaging, contact resulting
from package failure (leakage) during loading or demonstration, and other
related activities can result 1n dermal occupational exposure.
Estimation of contaminant release rates from package failure requires
three data Inputs:
1. Product formulation
2. Volume of product 1n each discrete package
3. Package failure rate
59
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Product formulation data can be obtained from Gosselln (1976), the NIOSH
NOHS/NOES survey data bases (see Section 3), Bennett 1933-1981, economic
data bases, and patent literature.
The volume of a product contained 1n each package can be determined
1n two ways. The first, direct observation, 1s preferred for consumer
products; the Investigator can simply go to a sales outlet and check
product labels. Esoteric products not easily found on retail shelves can
be quantified by contacting the producer or specialized merchants. The
type of package can be determined 1n the same manner.
Failure rates of packages are not readily available. The wide
variety of packages used (e.g., glass jars and bottles, plastic bags,
tubes) have different failure rates. However, packaged materials are
finished goods, and the economics dictate minimization of the failure
rate.
Contaminant release rates as a result of package failure can be
estimated using the following expression:
G=FrxVxFcxN (4 13)
or
G=FrxmxFcxN (4-14)
where
G = contaminant release rate due to package failure, grams or cubic
centimeters per unit time
Fr = fraction of chemical 1n product formulation, fraction of total
product mass or volume
V = volume of product In each container, cubic centimeters product
per container
Fc = failure rate of containers, number of failed containers per unit
time
N = total number of containers
m = mass of product 1n each container, grams product per container.
Expression (4-13) gives an aggregate mass loading or volume of
contaminant Into workplace air from package failures over a period of
time. Site-specific data on standard operating protocols and capacities
for conducting these activities are needed to assess contaminant releases
from certain finished products on a case-by-case basis. Monitoring the
air levels 1n workplaces during wholesale and retail trade activities 1s
the preferred method for obtaining contaminant source strengths for
calculating occupational exposures.
60
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(4) Activities and processes of commercial use. The activities
of commercial use Include most workplace situations outside manufacturing
and trade; this sector 1s dominated by the service Industries. Table 4-1
lists the Industrial classifications Included 1n this category.
The actual activities within each commercial use Industry are so
diverse that they cannot be listed. Use data for a chemical and Its
products must be obtained from producers, distributors, and wholesale or
retail dealers of the product to generate a comprehensive 11st of
commercial users.
The methods for estimating releases from the active use of commercial
products presented 1n Versar (1984c) are applicable to most commercial
use situations. However, these and other methods for estimating
contaminant releases should address the physical and chemical properties
of the product; the purpose of, and activities related to, product use;
and product use patterns. Methods need to accommodate these and other
relevant data and should be validated to ensure proper use and accurate
results. In the absence of complete and valid prediction methods,
monitoring data gathered during active use of commercial products provide
the only viable means of obtaining contaminant concentrations 1n air for
use 1n calculating occupational Inhalation exposures.
61
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Table 4-1. Commercial Use Industries*
Agricultural services
Building construction - general contractors and operative builders
Construction other than building construction - general contractors
Construction - special trade contractors
Hotels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places
Personal services
Business services
Automotive repair, services, and garages
Miscellaneous repair services
Motion pictures
Amusement and recreation services, except motion pictures
Health services
Educational services
Miscellaneous services
Justice, public order, and safety
*These designations refer primarily to the consumer industry.
Source: OMB 1972.
62
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5. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EXPOSURE PATHWAYS
The single route of exposure significantly affected by environmental
fate processes In the occupational setting Is that of exposure to
airborne contaminants. While direct exposure to raw materials, process
streams, or waste streams may be significant, the contaminant
concentrations to which workers are exposed 1n these situations are
determined by process parameters and are usually not modified by
environmental fate mechanisms.
Section 4 provides methods for estimating the rate of contaminant
release to the air from sources typical to the workplace. These release
rates can be used In conjunction with algorithms describing significant
air fate processes to obtain estimates of workplace air contaminant
concentrations. Section 5.1 discusses fate processes affecting
contaminants 1n the occupational setting. Means of calculating
(estimating) workplace concentrations of such contaminants are presented
In Sections 5.2 and 5.3. Procedures are presented for contaminant
concentration estimation 1n two workplace settings: Indoor and outdoor.
In this context, outdoor workplace settings are considered to be those
wherein a worker 1s exposed to contaminants caught by a building's wind
wake. An example would be loading dock workers when the loading dock Is
located below a rooftop vent releasing contaminants to the outside air.
For situations where workers are located outside and away from buildings
or other structures that can cause a building wake effect but within
reasonable proximity to contaminant release sources, the only reliable
method of determining the concentration of chemicals to which exposure
occurs 1s by monitoring. Note that this section does not address
estimation of contaminant concentrations offslte 1n the ambient
environment. Such procedures are presented 1n detail 1n Volume 2 of this
report series (Freed et al. 1983).
5.1 Workplace A1r Contaminant Fate Processes
For the purposes of this presentation, air fate processes are
categorized Into two groups below: those physical transport mechanisms
that affect the movement of airborne contaminants from the source to the
receptor and those physical and chemical mechanisms that remove airborne
contaminants from workplace air.
5.1.1 Indoor Transport Processes
Two physical transport mechanisms, convection and diffusion, account
for the movement of airborne pollutants 1n an Indoor air space. The
former mechanism predominates 1n rooms with significant air movement,
while the latter 1s significant only 1n static Indoor air environments.
63
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Although both of these mechanisms can significantly affect the
concentration of airborne pollutants at different locations within a
room, theoretical relationships describing these effects and estimating
air pollutant concentration differentials at selected spatial and
temporal Intervals are not available. Concentrations and exposure are
usually estimated through use of room-wide average air concentrations as
a function of time. The following discussions of the effects of
diffusion and convection are provided for the purpose of permitting a
qualitative assessment of concentration profiles within a room.
(1) Diffusion. Diffusion describes the movement of gaseous
pollutants from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration; 1t progresses at a rate dependent on room air temperature
and pressure and on pollutant-specific physical and chemical properties
(Treybal 1968). When conservative pollutants (I.e., those that do not
readily degrade) are released from a finite source, the ultimate result
of diffusion 1s a homogeneous pollutant concentration throughout the air
of a room, where final pollutant concentration 1s a function of (1) the
mass of pollutant released Into the room and (2) room volume. When the
source of the pollutant Is In excess, final room air concentration 1s a
function of (1) partitioning of the pollutant among gaseous and other
media or (2) the air saturation concentration of the pollutant.
Prior to the establishment of homogeneous conditions, when pollutant
releases are constant, or when dealing with nonconservatlve pollutants,
air pollutant concentrations resulting from diffusion usually decrease
with distance from the source.
(2) Convection. Convectlve currents transport both gaseous and
partlculate pollutants. Convection within a room results 1n air mixing,
while convectlve transport associated with air movement Into or out of a
room results 1n room ventilation. The effect of these processes on room
air concentrations are Interrelated, as discussed below.
The effect of mixing, or convectlve transport within an Indoor space
due to air circulation or turbulence 1s to distribute airborne pollutants
to those areas within the room which are affected by convectlve
currents. The degree of distribution and concentration of pollutants at
selected points Is dependent on (1) directional patterns and velocities
of air currents with relation to source locations, (2) aerodynamics of
the room, and (3) the room's Internal obstructions to air flow.
In ventilated rooms, mixing affects the efficiency of ventilation
systems In removing airborne pollutants. Maximum ventilation efficiency
occurs under theoretically perfect mixing conditions, in which mixing is
complete and instantaneous and air pollutant concentrations are always
homogeneous throughout the room. Because in practice mixing processes
are not Instantaneous and affect some areas of a room less than others,
64
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the efficiency of ventilation processes 1n a given room Is reduced by a
room-specific mixing factor. This mixing factor 1s usually determined
empirically through tracer gas studies and 1s a function of room size,
activity, and ventilation system configuration (Clement 1981). Typical
mixing factors for a 1,000 cubic foot room are presented In Table 5-1.
The use of mixing factors 1n estimating room air pollutant concentrations
1s described 1n the following subsection.
5.1.2 Indoor A1r Contaminant Removal Mechanisms
Mechanisms that effectively remove airborne contaminants from Indoor
air fall Into three categories: convectlve transport (I.e., ventilation),
gravitational settling, and chemical degradation. Of the three,
ventilation 1s usually the predominating mechanism; ventilation removal
rates usually limit the room air residence time of airborne pollutants to
under 2.5 hours (Versar 1984d), an Interval often too brief for
significant chemical decay or settling processes to take place.
Ventilation Is also the only process of these three which Is usually
accounted for 1n the calculation of room air pollutant concentrations.
The following discussion briefly describes the manner 1n which each of
these removal processes affects room air contaminant concentrations.
Basic expressions Illustrating the Interrelationship of these processes
and contaminant concentrations are also presented. M6
(1) Ventilation. The effect of ventilation on room air
contaminant concentrations 1s a function of ventilation rates, room
volume, and mixing within the room. Ventilation 1s usually expressed 1n
units of exchanges per hour, where one exchange represents the
Infiltration of a volume of external air equal to the volume of the
room. Typical exchange rates range from 0.5 per hour to 4 per hour
(Versar 1984d), and suggested exchange rates for occupational settings
range as high as 20 per hour (Versar 1984d, from ANSI/ASHRAE recommended
commercial ventilation rates).
In cases where Indoor contaminant releases are Instantaneous and
external air 1s free of pollutants, ventilation reduces the concentration
of pollutants In room air over time following a pollutant release. Room
air pollutant concentration as a function of time can be estimated by the
following equation (Versar 1984d, from Porter 1983):
C = (P/V) e -m(Q/V)t (5_1)
where C = room air pollutant concentration at time t (g/m3)
P = mass of pollutant Initially released to room air (grams)
V = room volume (m3)
m = mixing factor
Q = ventilation air Infiltration rate (m3/hr)
t = time from pollutant release event (hours)
*Note that the following expressions for estimating workplace air contaminant concentrations
address equilibrium concentrations within the entire room. In reality, however, workers often are'
exposed to localized concentrations in the inroediate vicinity of the release source (i.e., the
"effected volume"). Such local concentrations will significantly exceed those estimated for large
workplace air volumes in equilibrium. Similarly, for exposure-related activities of short
duration (e.g., less than 2 to 3 hours), development of time-weighted concentration values will
more accurately reflect the actual exposure situation. When data allow, therefore, calculation of
time-weighted, effected volume concentrations may provide the most accurate exposure estimates.
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Table 5-1. Mixing Factor (m) Values for 1000 ft3 Room
Air supply system Mixing factor
Perforated ceiling 0.5
Trunk system with anemostats (central system 0.33
controlled by pressure differentials)
Trunk system with diffusers (central system 0.25
with forced-air blowers)
Natural draft with ceiling exhaust fans 0.16
Infiltration and natural draft 0.10
Source: Clement 1981.
66
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In the case of a constant, steady-state pollutant release from an
Internal source and pure air ventilation from outside of the room, the
room air concentration 1s a function of the ratio of the release rate to
the ventilation rate, and of time. This function 1s represented by the
following equation (Versar 1984d, from Porter 1983):
C = G/Q - (G/Q) e -m(Q/V)t (5_2
where G = pollutant release rate (g/hr) and all other nomenclature
remains as defined above. The functions described 1n Equations 5-1 and
5-2 are taken Into account 1n the methods for calculating room air
concentrations presented 1n Section 5.3.
(2) Gravitational settling. The Importance of gravitational
settling as a removal mechanism depends upon the size range of
partlculates released to air and the rate of ventilation 1n the room.
Settling occurs at a velocity related to particle size and becomes
significant for all particles of 5 ym or larger (Hanna and Hosker
1980). However, because ventilation usually limits Indoor air
contaminant residence time to less than 2.5 hours, only particles with a
relatively high settling velocity are removed by this mechanism at a
significant rate 1n the occupational setting.
Note that gaseous pollutants can also adsorb to airborne
partlculates, resulting 1n their removal from the air phase due to
gravitational settling. The rate of removal of gaseous contaminants by
this mechanism Is a function of particle quantity and adsorptlve surface
area per volume of air; particle settling rates; and contaminant-specific
adsorption and desorption coefficients.
Particle settling velocities are a function not only of particle
size, but also of particle shape, density, and orientation to the
vertical direction of travel. Figure 5-1 presents settling velocities of
spherical particles of 5 pm or larger, assuming particle density of 5
gm/cm. Estimates of settling velocity for particles of density other
than 5 gm/cm^ can be made by multiplying the velocity obtained from
Figure 5-1 by the ratio: subject particle density * 5 gm/cm. Settling
velocities of nonspherlcal particles can be obtained by dividing the
settling velocity of a particle of equivalent radius obtained from Figure
5-1 by the dynamical shape factor presented 1n Table 5-2. The radius
equivalent of a nonspherlcal particle 1s obtained from the equation:
radius equivalent = [3 x (subject particle volume)/4n]1/3 (5-3)
Settling velocities for fibers are presented 1n Figure 5-2.
In practice, gravitational settling 1s usually moderated to some
extent by turbulent or rising convectlve currents created by room
;e that these equations do not internalize consideration of various processes that may tend to
>ve contaminants from indoor air (i.e., "extinction" factors such as adsorption, absorption, or
lical transformation). As a result, its application will result in considerable overestimation
xmtaminant concentrations when such processes are in effect. If data from which extinction
:ficients can be calculated are available for contaminants under evaluation, such coefficients
ild be integrated into equations 5-1 and 5-2 to allow development of more accurate
:entration estimates.
-------
LU
QC
103
5
^ 2
E
•J" 102
Q
LU
LU c
0. b
w
2
101
5
10°
10°
Ml
I ' ' I ""I \ rM
101 2 5 102
RADIUS (urn)
103
Figure 5.1. Gravitational settling speeds for particles with
density 5 gm/cm3 near the earth's surface (from
Engelman 1968, as presented by Hanna and Hosker 1980)
68
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101
pi » 2.6 a/cm3
Tj-1.8x10'4gcm"1»«c.'1
9» 981 em
— — FIBER AXIS VERTICAL
— — FIBER AXIS HORIZONTAL
10
,-1
o
o
UJ
10
-2
10
-3
0.1
10
FIBER LENGTH, urn
100
500
Figure 5-2. Theoretical Settling Velocities of Fibers
Source: Sawyer and Spooner (1978).
69
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Table 5-2. Dynamical Shape Factor a (Ratio of Terminal
Velocity of Equivalent Sphere to That of Particle)
Shape3 Ratio of axes
Ellipsoid
Cylinder
Cylinder
Cylinder
Cylinder
Two spheres touching
Two spheres touching
Three spheres touching,
Three spheres touching,
Three spheres touching,
Four spheres touching,
Four spheres touching,
as triangle
in line
in line
in line
in line
4
1
2
3
4
2
2
-
3
3
4
4
1.28
1.06
1.14
1.24
1.32
1.10
1.17
1.20
1.34
1.40
1.58
1.56
a In all cases, long axis is assumed to be oriented horizontally.
Source: Hanna and Hosker (1980), from Chamberlain (1975).
70
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activity or ventilation. Such convectlve currents can counteract
gravitational settling, and reverse deposition to dry surfaces through
resuspenslon. The effect of resuspenslon on room air concentration has
been widely studied (USEPA 1983). Table 5-3 presents the ratio of room
air concentration (gm/nr*) to surface concentration (gm/m^), due to
resuspenslon from various workplace activities. (Data 1n this table were
compiled by Sehmel (1980) from the various sources Indicated.) As the
data 1n this table Indicate, resuspenslon of deposited partlculate
contaminants must be considered an additional source of airborne
pollutants In the occupational settling. Concentrations of partlculate
pollutants 1n room air Indicated 1n Table 5-3 apparently represent those
resulting from the net particle movement due to the processes of settling
and resuspenslon.
(3) Chemical degradation. Chemical degradation 1s of
Importance in the occupational setting only for those contaminants known
to be relatively reactive. Again, because the room air residence time
Interval between pollutant release and removal via ventilation 1s usually
limited, (e.g., usually less than 2.5 hours (Versar 1984d)), only those
chemical reactions that occur rapidly can be expected to affect room air
concentrations.
The most Important reactions of organic compounds 1n the atmosphere
are with the hydroxyl radical and with ozone (Hendry and Kenly 1979). A
third process that has been shown to be Important 1n the Indoor setting
1s that of rapid degeneration of reactive pollutants on contact with
typical Indoor surfaces and materials, (Sutton, Nodolf, and Maklno 1976,
Meyer 1983, as reviewed by Versar 1984d).
Unfortunately, only limited data are available regarding the rates of
these reactions 1n Indoor air. Rates for ozonatlon and reaction with the
hydroxyl radical In the atmosphere are available for many compounds from
several sources; their application to the Indoor setting 1s uncertain
because of the differences 1n air flow, temperature, humidity,
availability of ozone or OH, and availability of sunlight, between the
Indoor and outdoor air environments.
Estimated values or methods for estimating contaminant atmospheric
half-lives based on chemical reaction rates are presented by Hendry and
Kenly (1979), Lyman Reehl and Rosenblatt (1982); and Versar (1980).
5.1.3 Outdoor Airborne Contaminant Fate Processes
Those fate processes that are significant 1n transporting or removing
air contaminants 1n the Indoor occupational setting (as outlined 1n the
foregoing subsections) are also the mechanisms most significant 1n the
outdoor occupational environment. Again, convectlve removal 1s usually
the predominant mechanism limiting residence time of pollutants 1n
71
-------
Table 5-3. Resuspension Factors for Various Room Activities
Activity
Resuspension
factor
(g/m)
Reference
(as cited by
Sehmel 1980)
Vigorous sweeping
Walking, 36 steps/min
Walking
Machining
Fan in operation
Walking, 14 steps/min
No movement
- 3x10
-6 -5
5x10 - 5x10
" - lxlO~2
IxlO"3 - 7xlO~3
3x!0"5 - 2xlO~4
-6 -5
1x10 - 1x10
2x10
Mitchell and Eustler (1967)
Jones and Pond (1967)
Calc. from Brunshill (1967)
Carter (1970)
Stewart (1967)
Jones and Pond (1967)
Jones and Pond (1967)
Source: Sehmel (1980).
72
-------
outdoor workplace air; removal via gravitational settling or chemical
degradation can be considered significant only for contaminants with high
particle density or those that are highly reactive In the atmosphere.
Diffusion Is not usually a significant transport mechanism 1n the outdoor
air environment because of the Infrequency and short duration of static
air conditions. The manner 1n which convectlve currents affect air
contaminant movement within and removal from the outdoor workplace 1s
described 1n detail 1n Section 5.3.
5.2 Estimating A1r Concentrations 1n the Indoor Occupational Setting
Chemical releases to Indoor workplace air may contribute to
occupational Inhalation exposure by Increasing gaseous contaminant air
levels and by Introducing resplrable partlculates Into the air. The
contaminant air concentrations resulting from Industrial, trade, and
consumer use releases must be estimated when personal or workplace
monitoring data are not available. This section (see Table 5-4) presents
theoretical algorithms from Berman (1982) that can be used to predict
contaminant concentrations In Indoor occupational settings. These
concentration algorithms complement the algorithms presented 1n Section 4
for estimating release rates associated with Industrial worker
activities. For all Industrial worker activities associated with
significant contaminant releases to air (other than those for which
saturation levels of contaminants 1n air are attained), the predicted
contaminant concentrations 1n workplace air associated with the activity
are directly proportional to the contaminant release rates estimated to
occur during the activity.
The concentration algorithms 1n Table 5-4 are valid for use only
within a simplified estimation framework that has the following features:
1. An Indoor occupational setting Includes hangars or shelters that
are relatively Isolated from conditions of the outdoor climate.
See Section 5.3 for predicting contaminant concentrations for
releases to outdoor occupational settings. See Volume 2 of this
series (Freed et al. 1983) for predicting contaminant
concentrations for releases to ambient air.
2. Contaminant concentrations are predicted as average room-wide air
concentrations rather than concentrations 1n the Immediate
vicinity of the release source. Actual contaminant air
concentrations near the release source, which the worker
performing the activity or residing 1n the vicinity of release may
Inhale, can only be quantified from personal monitoring.
3. Of the three mechanisms for removing airborne contaminants from
Indoor air (ventilation, chemical degradation, and gravitational
settling), ventilation Is the only process that 1s accounted for
1n calculating room air contaminant concentrations (see Section
5.1).
73
-------
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Legend for Table 5-4
C Average steady state concentration of contaminant 1n workplace
air, parts per million (ppm).
G Constant steady state release rate of contaminant to air, grams
per second (g/sec).
EG Summation of contaminant release rate G over all sources of a
specific type (e.g., drumming operations) present 1n the
workplace, grams per second (g/sec).
Q Ventilation rate In the workplace, cubic feet per minute
(ft3/m1n).
m A mixing factor that quantifies the effectiveness of ventilation
air 1n removing airborne contaminants from the workplace,
dlmenslonless.
MW Molecular mass of contaminant, grams per gram-mole (g/gmole).
P° Vapor pressure of the pure contaminant, atmospheres (atm).
T Absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin (K).
R Universal gas constant, 82.05 (cubic cent1meters)(atmospheres)
(gram-mole) (degrees Kelvin)
f* A saturation factor that quantifies the extent to which the
saturation concentration of the contaminant 1n workplace air 1s
attained, dlmenslonless.
Berman (1982) presented the saturation factor f to quantify the extent
to which saturation 1s attained for contaminant releases to workplace
air during drumming of liquids; however. It can be used to quantify
the degree of saturation attained for contaminant releases to air from
any source or during any activity. If f 1s equal to 1, then the
partial pressure of airborne contaminant vapor 1s equivalent to the
vapor pressure of the pure contaminant liquid at the temperature of
the operation or activity; the workplace air 1s then saturated with
contaminant vapor.
78
-------
4. Predicted contaminant concentrations 1n room air are steady state
concentrations. The steady state concentration of a contaminant
1n Indoor air 1s that concentration at which the rates of
contaminant removal by ventilation and contaminant release by the
source equilibrate and remain constant. The contaminant
concentration 1s directly proportional to release rate and
Inversely proportional to ventilation rate; when the rates of
contaminant generation and removal equilibrate, then the
contaminant air concentration remains constant at an average
steady state value.
Nonsteady state conditions are those 1n which the rate of
contaminant generation or removal varies with time (e.g., a brief.
Intermittent contaminant release that Introduces a finite mass of
contaminant Into the air). Theoretical expressions for predicting
concentrations at selected spatial and temporal Intervals have not
been developed. For nonsteady state cases, the steady state
models were modified by Berman (1982) to Incorporate a diminished
mixing factor m (which measures the effectiveness of ventilation
air 1n removing airborne contamination). The m factor 1s assumed
to be Its minimum value of 0.1, which corresponds to poor mixing
and thus higher contaminant air concentrations than those
estimated for steady state conditions.
For situations 1n which a worker performs an activity Inside of a
process enclosure, the source of contaminant release 1s assumed to
be 1n excess, and saturation concentration 1s assumed to be
attained.
5. To compute predicted values of contaminant air concentrations,
values of Input parameters should be determined on a case-by-case
basis using site-specific data. Required Input data Include
physical and chemical properties of the contaminant;
characteristics of the process equipment, operation, and activity;
and characteristics of ventilation 1n the area where the operation
or activity 1s performed, Berman (1982) presents ranges, typical,
and worst-case values of Input parameters which can be used to
determine screening values of contaminant release rates and
resulting air concentrations.
6. Accurate estimates of air concentrations must account for the
relationship between the time when the release occurs and the
worker's exposure period. For example, 1f 1t 1s assumed that a
worker conducts an activity In which a contaminant 1s released at
a constant rate Into workplace air for a fixed duration, then the
average contaminant concentration that may be Inhaled by the
worker can be determined only 1f the duration that the worker
remains 1n the release area Is known. This average concentration
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does not necessarily correspond with the steady state contaminant
concentration. The average contaminant concentration that a
worker may Inhale will be greater 1f the worker remains 1n the
release area for only one hour following release as opposed to
eight hours following release, since ventilation dilution effects
become more predominant 1n the latter case. Time-weighted average
(TWA) concentrations may have to be computed to obtain accurate
estimates. Just as when estimating contaminant release rates, the
user should follow an additional step before estimating the source
strength to which a person In an occupational setting 1s exposed.
This step Involves Integrating predicted contaminant air
concentrations with site-specific data on the nature of release
and worker procedures.
5.3 Estimating A1r Concentrations In the Outdoor Occupational
Setting
Dispersion modeling 1s commonly used to estimate concentrations of
air pollutants 1n the ambient air. Typically a Gaussian model Is used to
represent transport and dispersion of emissions as a function of release
specifications (e.g., stack height, exhaust temperature, stack diameter,
or flow rate) and meteorological conditions such as wind speed, wind
direction, atmospheric stability and mixing height. Most Gaussian
modeling 1s applied to receptors 1n the range of 200 m to 50 km.
Modeling 1s generally used to estimate concentrations off the
property boundary of a source; for those applications, exposures to the
general public are evaluated. However, workers at the source can be
exposed to concentrations substantially higher than those offslte. As
mentioned above, Gaussian modeling 1s not generally considered to be
appropriate within 200 m of a source because of the statistical
assumptions Inherent 1n this approach regarding the distribution of
concentration within a plume.
Occupational exposures are usually best characterized by monitoring,
because of the uncertainty 1n predicting concentrations 1n the short
range. Whenever workers may be exposed to high risk associated with air
pollutants, 1t 1s recommended that a monitoring plan be developed to
characterize these exposures. However, for any given situation, 1t may
be difficult to know whether monitoring 1s needed. Whether personal
sampling or workplace monitoring 1s performed, the cost of these programs
can be high. The following approach provides conservative
screening-level estimates of long-term occupational exposures to on-s1te
(outdoor) workplace air pollutants.
There are numerous reasons why 1t 1s not possible to accurately
estimate concentrations 1n the short range (defined for the purpose of
this task to be 0 to 200 m from a source). Highly variable
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concentrations can be encountered from complex flows around obstructions,
and plume dimensions are relatively small 1n relation to turbulent eddies
that disperse the pollutants. The problem 1s much too complicated to
expect predictions that are within a factor of 2 to 3, as would typically
be the case for long-term averages further downwind of a source, e.g.,
500 to 2000 m. This approach yields conservative assumptions (I.e.,
overestimates of expected Impacts) because of these uncertainties. In
this manner, one should be able to estimate long-term concentrations with
reasonable confidence that the values will not exceed actual long-term
average concentrations. If these estimates suggest unacceptable risk,
personal monitoring would be the logical follow-up option to complete the
analysis.
There are basically three types of releases that could be expected 1n
occupational settings: stack releases, vent releases, and groundlevel
releases associated with waste piles, disposal, etc. Estimates are
provided for releases from the last two categories, I.e. vent and ground
level releases. Stack releases are not considered because maximum
Impacts from elevated releases generally occur off the property boundary
and are thus best considered as an ambient exposure problem. These
emissions should be evaluated by standard modeling practices. For stack
releases, we are referring to release points that are not expected to be
entrained 1n building wakes for any routine meteorological conditions.
For example, stack heights of 2 1/2 times the height of nearby
obstructions would typically be considered elevated releases under all
conditions. If there 1s any question regarding elevated release versus
entrained release, 1t 1s recommended that the vent release equation (see
Section 5.3.2) be used to characterize ambient exposures at the workplace.
5.3.1 Ground Level Releases
It 1s difficult to characterize the horizontal and vertical growth of
a plume within the first 200 m from a source. However, the most feasible
approach 1s to make conservative, simplifying assumptions, and for
screening estimates, the following 1s assumed:
1. Annual average estimates are made.
2. An average wind speed of 2 m/sec 1s assumed to conservatively
represent annual average wind speed.
3. It Is assumed that wind direction flow 1s uniform around the
compass. However, 1n order to develop conservative estimation,
frequency of flow towards the affected receptor Is assumed to be
20 percent.
4. It 1s assumed that all releases can be represented by a sector
average approach, I.e., the horizontal distribution of
concentration along each arc Is uniform within each sector.
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5. The vertical dimension of the plume 1s conservatively bounded at
2 m for all receptors from 0 to 200 m. In addition, 1t 1s assumed
that uniform concentrations exist along the vertical plane for
each downwind distance evaluated.
6. Concentrations displayed below are normalized to a release of
1 gm/sec, I.e., Indicated values, when multiplied by actual
emission rates 1n gm/sec, will yield estimates of actual ambient
concentrations.
7. It Is assumed that all emissions occur from one point. The
equation for this model 1s as follows:
C = (1.0 x 106 uq/qm) (0.20) (5-4)
(sin 22.5°) (R) (H) (u)
where
C = concentration (ug/m3) normalized to an emission rate of
1 gm/sec
H = height into which plume is uniformly mixed (m)
R = downwind distance from source (m)
u = annual average wind speed (m/sec) = 2 m/sec.
Estimated normalized concentrations are as follows:
Predicted Annual Average Concen-
Downwlnd Distance From tratlon Normalized to Release of
Source (m) 1 gm/sec (ug/m3)
10 13,066
20 6,532
30 4,355
40 3,266
50 2,614
60 2,178
70 1,866
80 1,634
90 1,451
100 1,306
As stated above, these estimated normalized annual average
concentrations with distance from the release source can be multiplied by
the actual emission rate to estimate the outdoor workplace air
concentrations resulting from the release. These estimates are
considered conservative mainly because of the assumption that the
vertical extent of the plume is limited to 2 m. It is Implied in this
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assumption that once the plume reaches the breathing level (I.e., 2 m) ,
further growth 1s zero. It 1s necessary to be this conservative because
of the great uncertainty 1n accurately characterizing this term. The
annual average wind speed of 2 m/sec and a frequency factor of 20 percent
flow towards affected receptors are also considered to be conservative
assumptions.
5.3.2 Vent Releases
For releases from rooftop vents or low-level stacks located adjacent
to or on buildings, building downwash of the pollutants 1s an Important
factor for two main reasons. First, effluents are rapidly brought to
ground level rather than being directly transported offslte; this can
produce localized maximum concentrations. Second, the vigorous turbulent
mixing 1n the lee of the building can produce substantial Initial
dispersion to reduce concentrations.
The cavity zone 1n the lee of an obstruction can extend 2 to 3
building heights downwind (Hanna, Brlggs, and Hosker 1982). The
turbulent wake of a building, on the other hand, can be distinguished 5
to 20 building heights downwind (Slade 1968). Therefore, there are three
zones to evaluate when considering Impacts, I.e., cavity zone, wake zone,
and the zone outside the wake zone for which routine modeling procedures
are generally applied. For the purposes of occupational exposure
screening, only estimates for the cavity zone will be made. This
limitation 1s made to simplify the analysis, and because maximum Impacts
would be expected 1n this zone.
Although gradients 1n concentration have been observed adjacent to
release points 1n a cavity zone (Slade 1968), for all practical purposes,
1t 1s reasonable to assume that effluents are rapidly and thorougly mixed
within the cavity zone. If this assumption 1s made, the following
equation can be used to estimate concentrations within the cavity zone
(derived from Hanna 1982):
Kc (1.0 x 106) (freq) (5_5)
A u
where
C = concentration (ug/m^) normalized to a release rate of
1 gm/sec
Kc = dlmenslonless concentration coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of the building
u = average wind speed at rooftop (m/sec)
freq = frequency of flow towards affected receptor.
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For conservative estimates, 1t was assumed that u = 3 m/sec and the
frequency of flow toward the quadrant being evaluated 1s 75 percent
(I.e., 0.75). The coefficient Kc has been reported to range from 0.2
to 2.0. The conservative extreme of 2.0 was used for these
calculations. The following estimates were made based on this model:
Building Area Predicted Concentration Normalized
(m?) to Release of 1 gram/sec (ug/m3)
100 5000
300 1667
500 1000
750 667
1000 500
1500 333
3000 167
5000 100
The above estimates are assumed to apply within the cavity zone and
to apply out to a distance of 2 x A. It 1s stressed that the estimates
provided 1n this section are rough, screening-level estimates. Actual
annual average concentrations would be expected to be lower for most
sites. However, depending on site specifics, 1t 1s possible that actual
concentrations could be higher than these predictions. Some typical
onslte factors that can affect the Initial dilution of the plumes
released from the ground level sources are:
• Physical dimensions of the area or line source.
• Surface roughness and mixing due to the wind flow being obstructed
by storage piles, resulting 1n greater dilution of the plume.
• Thermal convection due to heat releases or losses from the
facility, also aiding 1n the diffusion.
• The alignment of the sources 1n relationship to the wind, such
that the total concentration 1s enhanced.
Therefore, judgment should be used when the results are Interpreted on a
case-by-case basis.
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6. EXPOSED POPULATIONS ANALYSIS
Studies of populations exposed 1n the occupational environment
comprise the following elements:
• Identification of exposed populations
• Enumeration of detailed subpopulatlons
• Characterizing populations with respect to physiologic-dependant
parameters
• Determining the frequency and duration of a population's exposure
Exposed population Identification Involves the categorical
determination of worker populations potentially exposed 1n a given
workplace situation. Once broadly defined 1n the population
Identification step, Individuals 1n discrete exposed subpopulatlons are
quantified (counted) 1n the population enumeration analysis. In
practice, population Identification and enumeration, both of which are
addressed 1n Section 6.1, are often carried out concurrently, with the
same data sources providing requisite Input for both analyses.
Characterization of exposed populations, briefly discussed 1n Section
6.2, follows the Identification and enumeration steps. It Involves the
evaluation of worker age and sex factors which Influence various
physiologic-related parameters, such as Inhalation rate and skin surface
area, and which are necessary to calculate the degree of exposure
experienced per exposure event. Exposed populations analysis concludes
with determination of factors that define the duration of exposure events
and event frequency. This 1s discussed In Section 6.3.
6.1 Identification and Enumeration of Exposed Populations
Identification of exposed populations requires a knowledge of the
spatial and temporal concentration gradients 1n the workplace and the
activity patterns of the potentially exposed workers. The purpose of
population Identification should be borne 1n mind at this point 1n the
occupational exposure assessment. Those workers Identified as exposed
populations will subsequently be enumerated. The form of worker
population data should thus be considered during this step; 4-d1g1t SIC
designations and specific occupations (job titles) are the most common
form by which workers are enumerated. Estimates of occupatlonally
exposed populations may also be based on site-specific and process-
specific employment data.
In occupational exposure assessments, two types of population
Identification and enumeration data will be required: generic data and
specific data. Generic data Include data which Identify and/or enumerate
potentially exposed populations by SIC code or by occupation and
Industry. Specific data Identify workers who are Involved 1n
exposure-related activities. The determination of worker activities
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conducted at facilities being evaluated (see Section 4) often provides
the most critical Input to the Identification and enumeration of exposed
populations. When accessible, worker activity data can supply detailed
Information on categories of workers conducting specific activities In
the workplace that will cause exposure, as well as on the number of
Individuals conducting such activities at Individual facilities or
facility types. The following sections address each of these population
Identification/enumeration approaches.
6.1.1 Generic Identification and Enumeration Data
(1) Populations Identified and enumerated by SIC code. The
Industries producing, processing, and using a chemical substance are
often Identified by 4-d1g1t SIC designations. Many of the data sources
discussed 1n Section 2 of this report are based on the SIC reporting
system. However, Identification and enumeration by SIC code provide only
a broad-scale determination of potentially exposed populations because,
in. reality, only a portion of the total employment may be affected.
Populations exposed 1n the workplace can also be Identified through
monitoring data. The OSHA surveys and NIOSH/NOHS data discussed In
Section 3 are based on 4-d1g1t SIC codes. Monitoring data provide direct
Identification of exposed populations. OSHA monitoring data also
Identify exposed workers by specific job title, often enabling a more
precise enumeration of the affected group.
(2) Populations Identified and enumerated by occupation and
Industry. A method of worker Identification and enumeration that
provides greater resolution than the SIC code approach 1s the use of
detailed occupation and Industry Information (job titles). This method
entails systematically following a chemical substance through commerce,
from production to retail sale, and listing the Industries and
occupations coming Into contact with the substance. The Industry-0ccupat1<
(1-0) matrix directory 1n Dlxon et al. (1983) can be used as a guide In
this procedure. In addition. Information published by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS 1981) and the Bureau of Census (1984) also provides
data highly useful In Identifying and enumerating exposed worker
populations. Also, monitoring data may 11st exposed populations by job
title.
6.1.2 Specific Identification and Enumeration Data
The best data for Identification and enumeration of exposed
occupational populations specify populations by particular activities
conducted 1n the workplace. Such data constitute critical Input to the
successful development of an occupational exposure assessment, because
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only by determining the relationship between workplace activities and
workplace contaminants can the degree of exposure be quantified with any
confidence. Unfortunately, such data are limited, and there exists no
single comprehensive data base detailing exposure related worker
activities. Two general sources of these data do exist, however. As
described 1n Section 4, worker activities that lead to exposure can be
considered to fall Into the following generalized categories:
• Handling of bulk liquids and solids
• Cleaning and maintenance
• Sampling and analysis
Based on process mass balance analysis, the expected occurrence of these
worker activities can be estimated for specific processes and varying
process throughputs. Often the mass balance analysis, therefore, can
supply requisite data for the Identification and enumeration of exposed
worker categories to support an activity-specific exposure analysis.
Examination of a random sample of Premanufacturlng Notices (PMNs)
conducted 1n 1982 also Identified reported worker activity categories
that can result 1n exposure. The full 11st of such activities Identified
during the PMN review effort Included:
Sampling for quality control
Cleanup of components
Waste disposal
Sampling and analysis
Materials transfer
Manufacture, processing, and use (general)
As review of this 11st reveals, PMN data Indicate that practically all
categories of worker activities could potentially lead to exposure. This
realization underlines the fact that a process mass balance approach to
occupational exposure assessment will often be required to discern the
types of exposure related worker activities that pertain to the
particular Industries and processes under evaluation.
6.2 Population Characterization
Population characterization Involves determining the age and sex
distribution of the exposed worker populatlon(s). Age and sex Influence
the average ventilation rate, the rate of food and water Intake, and the
body area subject to dermal exposure, any of which can affect the level
of exposure actually experienced. In addition, population
characterization Includes determining those groups within the exposed
population which, because of the specific health effects of some
pollutants, would experience a higher risk than the average population as
a result of a given level of exposure. Indeed, the health effects of the
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contaminants under evaluation will often dictate the need for population
characterization. For occupational exposure assessments, women of
chlldbearlng age will often constitute the high risk group of concern.
While most studies will consider only the exposed population as a whole
and not disaggregate discrete high risk subpopulatlons, 1n certain cases
such detailed population analysis may be warranted. For example, 1f a
chemical substance 1s determined to be teratogenlc, enumeration of women
of chlldbearlng age would be required.
6.3 Frequency and Duration of Occupational Exposure
The frequency and duration of exposure to a chemical substance are
Important components of the final calculation of exposure. Frequency and
duration are separate elements, but are so closely related they will be
treated together 1n the following discussion.
The frequency of exposure refers to how often an activity leading to
exposure occurs. The duration of occupational exposure can be defined 1n
two ways: (1) the discrete period of time during which an Incidence of
exposure occurs, and (2) the length of time the exposure-related job 1s
held by an Individual. The frequency and duration of occupational
exposure 1s related to the nature of the process, activity, or occupation
1n which the worker 1s engaged; Individual work patterns, not easily
generalized, may also affect these parameters. Section 6.3.1 contains
the available data on frequency and duration of occupational exposure.
Section 6.3.2 deals with the concept of "workllfe," the number of years a
person 1s employed.
6.3.1 Frequency and Duration
Ideally, the frequency and duration of exposure 1n Industry should be
related to activity or process data. The nature of a process (I.e.,
whether batch or continuous) and the 1nterm1ttency of activities, (e.g.,
materials transfer and sampling), are Important determinants of exposure
frequency and duration (see Section 4). Such factors should be taken
Into account when monitoring strategies are devised, so that requisite
data will be obtained for use 1n developing an exposure assessment or 1n
refining a previously developed assessment.
In cases where worker exposure 1s continuous, the use of general
frequency and duration data 1s Indicated. The frequency 1s therefore
constant at once per day or week, and the duration 1s the number of hours
worked per day or week. Table 6-1 lists the average number of hours
worked weekly by production employees 1n the various manufacturing
Industries 1n 1979. These data can be used 1n Heu of assuming a
standard 40-hour workweek.
The data presented 1n Table 6-1 can be further refined by two
additional data elements:
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Table 6-1. Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers on
Manufacturing Payrolls in 1979
Title SIC Hours worked
Durable goods
Lumber and wood products
Furniture and fixtures
Stone, clay, and glass
Primary metal products
Fabricated metal products
Machinery, except electrical
Electric and electronic equipment
Transportation equipment
Instruments and related products
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
24
25
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40.8
39.5
38.6
41.5
41.4
40.8
41.8
40.3
41.2
40.8
38.9
Non-durable goods - 39.3
Food and kindred products 20 39.9
Tobacco manufacture 21 38.0
Textile mill products 22 40.3
Apparel and other textile products 23 35.2
Paper and allied products 26 42.6
Printing and publishing 27 37.5
Chemicals and allied products 28 41.8
Petroleum and coal products 29 43.8
Rubber and miscellaneous plastic
products 30 40.5
Leather and leather products 31 36.5
Source: BLS 1980.
89
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• A certain amount of paid time on the job may be spent 1n breaks
for meals or other nonwork activities. Labor laws can be
consulted to determine mandated scheduling and duration of breaks,
etc. This time can be subtracted from the durations presented 1n
Table 6-1.
• Few persons actually work 5 days a week, 52 weeks per year. The
number of operating days for a plant 1s a better Indicator of days
worked per year. Vacation and lost work days (due to Illness or
Injury) can also be estimated. A total absenteeism rate of 3.5
hours per hundred hours worked (BLS 1980) can be used as a
correction factor.
The preceding discussion 1s geared toward frequency and duration of
production workers' exposure. Data obtained as described 1n Sections 2
and 3 should Indicate whether nonproductlon workers are continuously
exposed, 1n which case Table 6-2 provides the best available duration
data. Intermittent exposure of workers (such as those walking through
the plant area) should be approximated. No generic data are currently
available to aid 1n this estimation; should those populations be
Identified as possibly receiving significant exposure, a duration value
such as one hour per day might be used as a plausible worst-case
estimate. Table 6-2 lists available data on hours worked 1n
nonmanufactuMng Industry such as wholesale trade and commercial use.
A factor to be considered 1n estimating the frequency and duration of
exposure 1s the seasonal nature of some activities, although such
seasonallty may vary or be unimportant depending on the geographic focus
of the exposure assessment. If the substance under assessment 1s, for
example, a component of a garden fertilizer, retailers may only deal with
1t for six months of the year. The duration of a retailer's exposure to
the garden fertHzer component would therefore be 30.7 hours per week for
24 weeks per year. Other seasonal activities Include some agricultural
services, construction, and amusement and recreation services.
Exposure frequency and duration data obtained from the previously
mentioned random sample of PMNs (see Section 6.1.2) are presented 1n
Table 6-3. It 1s not possible to correlate either production volume or
chemical use with exposure frequency or duration, but some
generalizations about activities can be made:
• Sampling activities can be assumed to last approximately 5 minutes
per sample. Thus, from the PMN data presented 1n Table 6-3, 1t
can be Inferred that roughly 24 sampling events occur 1n a normal
workday.
• Material transfers can be assumed to last approximately three to
five minutes each. The total number of events per workday depends
on the Industry, as reflected 1n Table 6-3.
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Table 6-2. Average Weekly Hours of Workers in
Nonmanufacturing Industry in 1979
Occupation Hours worked
Retail sales persons 30.7
Wholesale sales persons 38.8
Hining (production workers) 43.0
Construction workers 36.9
Transportation and public utilities 39.9
Finance, insurance, and real estate 36.3
Service workers (unspecified) 32.7
Source: BLS 1980.
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Table 6-3. Frequency and Duration of Occupational Exposure for
Specific Activities, Derived from a Random Sample of PMNs
Production
Activity Product volume (kkg/yr)
Sampling Anti-rust additive
Emulsifier
Cleaning Anti-rust additive
Pigment
Emulsifier
Miscellaneous
Transfer Coating
Lube oil additives
Pigment
Photographic
component
Emulsifier
Surfactant
Plastic
Miscellaneous
350,000
115,000
350,000
12,250
12,250
12,000
115,000
2,000
150,000
90,000
4,540,000
80,000
430,000
900,000
8,600
50
30
11,000
500,000
300,000
16,000
4,000
4,540,000
70,000
15,000
10,000
16,000
Exposure duration
and frequency
(hr/day)
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
8
1
2
0.5
0.5-2.5
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
8
2
(day/yr)
13-18
14-22
13-18
5
5
8
14-22
2
150
30
150
4
250
35
28
1
50-150
150
200
50
10
20-40
250
5
10
6
5
92
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Table 6-3. (continued)
Activity
Product
Production
volume (kkg/yr)
Exposure duration
and frequency
Disposal Coating 400,000
1,000,000
350,000
250
120,000
125,000
Automotive
products 3,000,000
27,200
Surfactant 300,000
Miscellaneous 50,000
50,000
1,400,000
10,000
Manufacture Coating 200,000
400,000
500,000
100,000
720,000
1,000,000
400,000
33,000
350,000
454
250
492,000
3,585,000
80,000
50,000
450,000
120,000
35,000
125,000
80,000
500,000
300,000
450,000
(hr/day)
1
1
<1
8
1
1
3
3
1
6-8
8
1-8
1
8
8
8
3
6
1
6
6
<1
8
8
4
8
6
8
6
1
6
8
10
8
8
8
(day/yr)
260
10
80
8
10
252
312
300
50
24
10
1-10
6
30
260
120
30
89
10
14
7
80
60
8
80
250
9
15
18
10
5
252
7
15
5
120
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Table 6-3. (continued)
Activity
Product
Production
volume (kkg/yr)
Exposure duration
and frequency
Electrodeposition
chemicals
Adhesives
Pigment
Photographic
component
Emulsifier
Automotive
products
Surfactant
1,750,000
1,000,000
45,000
1,500,000
144,000
2,000
4,000,000
1,500,000
27,216
4,540,000
300,000
150,000
4,500,000
5,000
5,000
100,000
30
50
908
45,000
45,000
200,000
16,000
3,000,000
27,200
1,600,000
500,000
(hr/day)
8
5
6
8
1-2
1
1
8
1
8
6
1
1
8
8
8
8
5
1
1
1
8
4
1-4
1-4
6
8
(day/yr)
150
4
6
22
30
40
4-32
100
200
77
7
11
150
250
250
75-100
2-6
1
20-35
10
10
140
96
312
300
7
5
94
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Table 6-3. (continued)
Activity
Product
Production
volume (kkg/yr)
Exposure duration
and frequency
Resin
(unspecified)
Plastic
Miscellaneous
300,000
2,500
350,000
4,540,000
50,000
300,000
650,000
1,400,000
100,000
110,000
1,500
25,000
8,000
14,000
260,000
4,540
10,000
4,000
(hr/day)
8
8
4
4
8
8
6
3-8
8
5
8
8
6
3
8
2
2
8
(day/yr)
200
24
20
50
10
100-200
13
62-250
20
20
20-25
50
5
36
330
10
6
2
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• Cleaning operations generally last from one to two hours.
• Disposal exposures may range from less than one to eight hours In
duration.
• The duration of manufacturing exposure depends on the nature of
the process. Both batch and continuous manufacturing may result
1n eight hours of exposure per worker per day (I.e., continuous
exposure during a full 8-hour shift); the number of operational
days varies.
The generalizations above can be used to estimate frequency and duration
of exposure. Alternatively, the assessor can consult Table 6-3 and
choose the most applicable data, I.e., that matching the activity,
product, or volume of the chemical being assessed. This approach should
be used with care, since the data base 1s limited.
6.3.2 Workllfe
Occupational exposure assessments of substances suspected to be
carcinogenic or to have other latent effects often require an estimate of
the length of employment in the exposure situation. It 1s not possible
to estimate the period of time worked by any Individual In a particular
job or Industry; 1t may range from a day to over 40 years. The best
available data simply estimate the total number of years men and women
work (see Table 6-4). These data can be used directly to project
exposure 1f one assumes that an Individual holds the same job for his or
her entire life. It should be noted that "workllfe expectancy" 1s
declining for men; this 1s attributed to earlier retirement made possible
by Increased benefits and the second paycheck earned by a growing number
of working women (Fullerton and Byrne 1976).
96
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Table 6-4. Length of Working Life for Men and Women
Expectancy at birth in years
1940
1950 1960
1970
Men
Life expectancy
Work expectancy
Nonwork expectancy
Women
Life expectancy
Work expectancy
Nonwork expectancy
Women's worklife as a
percent of men's worklife
61.2
38.1
23.1
65.7
12.1
53.6
65.5
41.5
24.0
71.0
15.1
55.9
66.8
41.1
25.7
69.6
40.3
29.3
73.1 74.7
20.1 22.3
53.0 52.4
31.6 36.3
48.6
57.3
Source: Fullerton and Byrne 1976
97
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7.0 CALCULATING EXPOSURE
7.1 Introduction
Inhalation and dermal contact constitute the main routes of exposure
1n occupational settings, with Inhalation exposure being the more common
of the two. The subsections below present equations for calculating
exposure via both of these routes. In addition, Ingestlon exposure can
result from (1) Inhalation of non-resp1rable contaminated partlculates
(see Section 2), (2) deposition 1n the mouth via hand-to-mouth contact,
or (3) settling of airborne particles on the Ups. This section,
therefore, also addresses means of calculating exposure due to
contaminant Ingestlon.
Calculation of exposure basically Involves combining knowledge of the
level of contamination of a given medium with consideration of the degree
of worker contact with the medium. Thus, for non-occupational exposure
assessments, this calculation takes Into account not only contaminant
concentrations but also pertinent Inhalation rates, Ingestlon rates or
area of skin exposed, and the frequency and duration of exposure events.
However, 1n assessing occupational exposure, one should also consider the
use of protective measures.
Although data quantifying contaminant concentrations 1n environmental
media can generally be used directly to estimate exposure to receptors 1n
most exposure assessment situations, this will not necessarily be the
case 1n occupational analyses. Industry 1s well aware of many of the
dangers posed by handling or processing chemical substances, and workers
1n Industrial or commercial settings will often have the option or may be
required to use protective equipment and/or clothing to reduce or
eliminate their exposure to the substances with which they work. Thus,
for any given occupational exposure assessment, the exposure reduction
achievable through use of protective measures must be considered.
Basically this analysis will Involve addressing the following questions:
• What type of protective measures are used (e.g., protective
equipment such as respirators or protective clothing)?
• What 1s the relationship between the length of time workers use
the protective measure and the length of time they are 1n a
contaminated environment within the workplace?
• What 1s the effectiveness of the protective measures 1n reducing
the level of exposure experienced by the workers?
Selection of protective equipment or clothing 1s often very
situation-specific. Information describing protective equipment and
clothing appropriate for specific types of exposure can be obtained from
99
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the literature and from Industry sources. Appendix B presents a
bibliography of literature sources on protective clothing (adapted from
USEPA 1982). While the source materials listed 1n this appendix
primarily pertain to pesticides, these references also supply a
significant degree of Insight Into the types of protective measures
generally available to Industry. Direct Industry contact may yield the
best and most current Information describing the types of protective
clothing and equipment used 1n specific situations. The type of
protective measure used will generally be a function of the type of
exposure potential Involved (I.e., Inhalation, dermal contact, etc.), and
the type of activities that are likely to bring workers Into contact with
toxic chemicals. The material from which the protective equipment or
clothing 1s made will depend primarily on the physical/chemical
properties of the materials to be handled.
Once the questions previously listed have been answered, data
quantifying the degree of protection afforded by each pertinent
protection measure can be used to estimate worker exposure. This Is
accomplished by adjusting (reducing) estimates of the amount of chemical
with which workers are likely to come Into contact by an amount equal to
the degree of protection provided by each measure. If use of protective
measures Is voluntary rather than mandatory, the degree of actual use In
the workplace may not be well documented. In such cases 1t will be
beneficial to calculate a range of worker exposure reflecting both the
exposure that results when no protective measures are taken as well as
that which results when protective clothing and/or equipment 1s used
throughout the exposure period.
The degree of protection provided by protective clothing,
respirators, etc., can be factored Into the exposure equations presented
below as the protection factor (P). When empirical data on the
efficiency of such devices are not available, 1t may be convenient to
assume a generic protection factor of 0.1 to 0.01 to represent an assumed
efficiency of 90 or 99 percent, respectively.
7.2 Inhalation Exposure
The standard equation for calculating Inhalation exposure 1s as
follows:
IHX = IR x DU x FQ x C x P (7-1)
where
IHX = Inhalation exposure (mg/yr)
IR = Inhalation rate (m3/hr)
DU = duration of exposure event (hours)
FQ = frequency of exposure (events per year)
C = Indoor air concentration of a given constituent (mg/m3)
P = protection factor.
100
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Inhalation rate (IR) 1s expressed 1n m3/hr; values for different
levels of activity are summarized 1n Table 7-1. The protection factor
(P) accounts for the use of a respirator (see Section 7.1). The
frequency and duration parameters are discussed 1n Section 6.
This equation can be modified for chemicals present 1n the air as
partlculates, to account for the partitioning of particles between the
gastrointestinal tract and the lungs as a function of particle size.
Total exposure to partlculates calculated by Equation 7-1 can be
differentiated Into pulmonary exposure (IHXp) and gastrointestinal
exposure (IHXS) using Equations 7-2 and 7-3, respectively. This
partitioning of Inhalation exposure 1s an option that may be worthwhile
for chemicals whose effects depend on the mode of entry Into the body.
IHXD = IR x DU x FQ x C x RF x P (7-2)
IHXg = IR x DU x FQ x C x NRF x P (7-3)
where
RF = resplrable fraction, which 1s the weight fraction of all
Inhaled particles deposited 1n the pulmonary airspaces.
NRF = nonresplrable fraction, which 1s the weight fraction of all
Inhaled particles deposited 1n the head or tracheobronchlal
regions.
Equations for calculating RF and NRF are presented 1n Volume 7 of this
methods series (Versar 1984c). These equations require supporting data
on particle size distribution. Since such data 1s rarely available, NRF
and RF can be estimated by using the ICRP model presented as Figure 7-1,
provided that data 1s available on particle mass median diameter.
Results using this model are not as reliable as those using actual size
distribution data, however.
7.3 Dermal Exposure
Despite the relative simplicity of most dermal exposure calculations,
dermal exposure presents some conceptual difficulties that are not
associated with Inhalation or 1ngest1on exposure. Exposure 1s defined as
the amount of substance contacting the receptor and available for
absorption. Absorption occurs when the substance crosses a physical
barrier to penetrate the tissues of the receptor. "Contact" merely
Implies that the substance has touched the body of the receptor.
"Availability" Indicates that the substance has reached (but not crossed)
the absorptive barrier. In the case of Inhalation and 1ngest1on, the
substance 1s taken Into a body cavity (mouth, lungs) prior
101
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Table 7-1. Summary of Human Inhalation Rates for Hen, Women
and Children by Activity Group (m3/hour)a
Hen
Women
Resting Light
0.42 1.5
0.41 10.5
Heavy Maximal
(exercise)
2.6 6.7
1.5 5.4
a Derived from average lung ventilation values at different levels of
activity as a function of age and sex, presented in reference man
(ICRP 1974).
102
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PARTICLE MASS MEDIUM DIAMETER
Figure 7-1. ICRP Model of Regional Respiratory Tract
Deposition as a Function of Particle Size
Source: Meyer (1983)
103
-------
to absorption. Therefore, the substance 1s made available by swallowing
or Inhaling, and the quantity to which the receptor Is exposed Is
equivalent to the quantity Inhaled or swallowed. In the case of dermal
exposure, the substance contacts only the outer surface (skin) of the
receptor and 1s not taken Into the body until Is has penetrated the skin
(I.e., after It has been absorbed). This makes 1t difficult to define
"exposure" when the receptor 1s 1n contact with large ambient volumes of
liquids or gases, or with a small portion of a large solid surface.
The sections that follow delineate methods for use 1n estimating
workplace dermal exposure via three pathways: (1) exposure to a film of
liquid deposited on the skin; (2) exposure to dusts and powders deposited
on the skin; and (3) exposure of skin to chemical substances contained In
or adhering to solid matrices. A method for assessing exposure during
Immersion of skin 1n liquids Is not presented. The major problem with
attempting to assess exposure during Immersion of skin 1n liquids 1s that
the portion of the entire mass of the chemical substance 1n the solution
that 1s 1n contact with the receptor 1s not known. Obviously, the skin
of the receptor 1s not 1n contact with the entire volume of the
solution. Attempts to assess exposure for this pathway without taking
Into consideration parameters needed to estimate absorbed dose may not be
very meaningful .^
7.3.1 Exposure to a Film of Liquid Deposited on the Skin
Most significant, quantifiable dermal exposure Involves liquid films
on the skin. This may result from spills, brief Immersion (e.g., of a
hand) followed by rapid withdrawal so that a film remains, or by touching
a wet surface. It may also occur by exposure to airborne droplets,
provided that the spray 1s sufficient to form a continuous film when 1t
hits the skin.
Exposure 1s usually expressed as mass per year. For each exposure,
the assessor determines the amount of substance deposited on the skin on
the basis of (1) estimated volume of liquid deposited and (2) estimated
concentration of subject chemical 1n the deposited liquid. This,
multiplied by the number of annual exposures, yields total mass per
year. Since exposure 1s by direct physical contact, no fate or transport
related parameters are Involved.
The product obtained by multiplying (1) the area of skin likely to be
exposed during ordinary contact by (2) the film thickness 1s an estimate
of the volume of liquid on the skin. This parameter 1s Independent of
the quantity of liquid Initially contacted, since most liquid spilled on
the skin will drip off Immediately and not be available for absorption.
The film thickness of a liquid can be determined using the following
equation:
*Refer to Versar (1985) for a discussion of contaminant dose estimation using chemical-specific
absorption rate data. It is recognized, however, that data quantifying chemical flux across huma
skin from concentrated, dilute, or mixed solutions is sparse at best. Also, the method presented
in Versar (1985) does not take into account time-dependent absorption, and its application is thu
further constrained.
104
-------
2
Film thickness (cm) = amount of liquid retained on skin (mg/cm )
density of liquid (g/cm3 x 1000 (mg/g)
Values of amount of liquid retained on skin for six selected liquids are
presented 1n a study to assess exposure resulting from retention of
chemical liquids on hands (Versar 1984f). In this study, the retention
of selected liquids on the hands of human volunteers was measured under
five conditions of exposure. The five conditions Included: (1) Initial
uptake; (2) secondary uptake; (3) uptake from handling a rag; (4) uptake
from spill clean-up; and (5) uptake from Immersion of a hand 1n a liquid.
Initial uptake, secondary uptake, and uptake from handling a rag all
Involve contact by an Individual with a rag saturated with a liquid for
which adherence to the skin was being determined. The test for Initial
uptake, a rag saturated with liquid was rubbed over the front and back of
both hands for the first time during an exposure event. To test for
secondary uptake, as much liquid that adhered to the skin during Initial
uptake was removed as was possible using a clean rag. A rag saturated
with the liquid was then rubbed over the front and back of both hands for
the second time during an exposure event. To test for uptake from
handling a rag, a rag saturated with a liquid was rubbed over the palms
of both hands for the first time during an exposure event 1n a manner
simulating handling of a wet rag. In the test for uptake from Immersion,
an Individual Immersed one hand 1n a container of luquld, removed the
hand, then allowed the liquid to drip from the hand back Into the
container for 30 seconds (one minute for cooling oil). In the test for
uptake from spill cleanup, an Individual used a clean rag to wipe up 50
m1ll1l1ters (ml) of liquid poured onto a plastic laminate counter top.
For each exposure condition, the quantity of liquid retained on the
hands was determined (1) Immediately following the exposure condition,
(2) after a partial wipe, and (3) after a full wipe (except 1n the cases
of uptake by Immersion and uptake from spill cleanup). A partial wipe
refers to a light, quick wipe with a clean rag. A full wipe refers to a
thorough, complete wipe with a clean rag.
The six liquids used 1n this study were selected to represent a broad
range of kinematic viscosities. The liquids used were (1) mineral oil,
(2) cooking oil; (3) water-soluble oil (bath oil), (4) oil/water emulsion
(50:50, water:water-soluble oil), (5) water, and (6) water/ethanol
(50:50). Table 7-2 presents values of film thickness for these six
liquids under each of the five exposure conditions Immediately following
exposure, after a partial wipe, and after a full wipe. Many types of
liquids were not Included 1n this study. To assess dermal exposure to
105
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Table 7-2. Film Thickness Values of Selected Liquids
under Various Experimental Conditions (10~3 cm)
Mineral Cooking Bath Oil/ Water Water/
oil oil oil water ethanol
Initial uptake
Initial film thickness of 1.62 1.63 1.99 2.03 2.34 3.25
liquid on hands
Film thickness after 0.69 0.68 0.76 1.55 1.83 2.93
partial wipe
Film thickness after 0.18 0.14 0.18 1.20 1.72 2.51
full wipe
Secondary uptake
Initial film thickness 1.43 1.51 1.80 1.60 2.05 2.95
liquid on hands
Film thickness after 0.47 0.53 0.51 1.19 1.39 2.67
partial wipe
Film thickness after 0.14 0.11 0.12 0.92 1.32 2.60
full wipe
Uptake from handling a rag
Initial film thickness 1.64 1.50 2.04 1.88 2.10 4.17
of liquid on palms
Film thickness after 0.44 0.34 0.53 1.21 1.48 3.70
partial wipe
Film thickness after 0.13 0.01 0.21 0.96 1.37 3.58
full wipe
106
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Table 7-2. (continued)
Mineral
oil
Cooking
oil
Bath
oil
Oil/ Water
water
Water/
ethanol
Uptake from immersion
Estimated initial film 5.88
thickness of liquid on hand
Estimated film thickness 1.49
of liquid remaining after
partial wipe
Uptake from Spill Cleanup
Estimated initial film 1.23
thickness of liquid on hand
Estimated film thickness 0.55
of liquid remaining after
partial wipe
11.28 12.06
1.59 1.51
0.73 0.89
0.51 0.48
9.81
2.42
4.99
2.14
6.55
2.93
1.19
1.36
107
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films deposited on the skin for liquids that are not listed 1n this
table, 1t 1s suggested that one use as a default value data for film
thickness for the liquid listed 1n the table that most closely resembles
the liquid being assessed. Two physical properties that may be used to
compare liquids are kinematic viscosity and density. The experimentally
determined values for density and kinematic viscosity for the six liquids
used 1n the study to assess exposure from retention of liquids on hands
are presented 1n Table 7-3. Note that the error from using default
values as values of film thickness for liquids not listed 1n Table 7-2
may be considerable. In the study to assess exposure from retention of
liquids on hands, the relationship between kinematic viscosity and mass
of liquid retained per cm2 of skin was examined. Although liquid
retention was found to Increase with kinematic viscosity, the data did
not support a functional relationship between these two parameters.
Additional liquids need to be examined to determine whether such
functional relationship exists between these two parameters.
The basic equation for exposure via a liquid film 1s as follows:
DEX = WF x DSY x AV x T x FQ x P (7-4)
where
DEX = annual dermal exposure (mg/yr)
WF = weight fraction of chemical 1n mixture (unltless)
DSY = density of formulation frog/cm**)
AV = available skin area (cm2)
T = film thickness (cm)
FQ = frequency (exposure events/yr)
P = protection factor
The density factor (DSY) 1s required to convert the units. Note that
"ml" 1s taken to be equivalent to cubic centimeters. The density 1s
presumed to be that of the subject chemical, unless 1t 1s an Ingredient
of a mixture. In that case, the density of the mixture can be presumed
to be the density of the principal solvent. Similarly, the weight
fraction parameter (WF) 1s necessary only when the substance 1s contacted
as an Ingredient of a mixture.
Available skin area (AV) depends on the operation being performed.
Routine spills will probably be to one hand. Maintenance activities that
Involve touching wet surfaces may Involve the palm only. More extensive
spills are not predictable occurrences. Surface areas of body parts are
given 1n Table 7-4.
108
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Table 7-3. Experimentally Determined Values for
Density and Kinematic Viscosity for
Six Selected Liquids
Liquid
Mineral oil
Cooking oil
Bath oil
Bath oil /water
Water
Water/ethanol
Density (g/crn^)
0.8720
0.9161
0.8660
0.9357
0.9989
0.9297
Kinematic viscosity (cSt)
183.0
65.4
67.2
4.19
1.02
2.55
Source: Versar 1984f.
109
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Table 7-4. Surface Area of Body Regions
Percent
of total
surface
Body region area
Total body, adults
Head and neck
Face
Neck
Scalp
Arms (both, including
hands)
Outstretched palm and
fingers
Hands (each 2.251)
Front of trunk
Back of trunk
Breast area, back and
front
Peri neum
Lower abdomen, front
and back
Trunk excluding upper
chest
Lower limbs (each 181)
Foot
Lower leg to mid-calf,
each leg
Mid-calf to mid-thigh,
each leg
Upper thigh, each leg
Total body, 10-year old
child3
Total body, preschool
averaged'*
100
9
3
3
3
18
1
4.5
18
18
3
1
6
24
36
3
6
6
6
100
100
Generic
Surface area (crn^)
Hen Women Average Adult
18,000
1,620
540
540
540
3,240
180
810
3,240
3,240
540
180
1,080
4,320
6,480
540
1,080
1,080
1,080
9,610
49,030
16,000
1,440
480
480
480
2,880
160
720
2,880
2,880
480
180
960
3,840
5,760
480
960
960
960
9,610
49,030
17,000
1,530
510
510
510
3,060
170
765
3,060
3,060
510
180
1,030
4,080
6,120
510
1,020
1,020
1,020
-
Reference
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
1
3
aAge of 10 selected as average for school-aged children because these children are about
midway in surface area between infants and adults. Data from ICRP 1974.
bAverage of surface area of infants, 1, 2, 3, and 4 year olds. Corresponds to the
surface area of a child about 18 months old. Data from ICRP 1974.
Source: 1. ICRP 1974
2. Berkow 1924, 1931.
3. JRB 1983
110
-------
The protection factor (P) 1s explained In Section 7.1. It should be
noted that Equation 7-4 1s limited to cases where the film 1s continuous
and of a constant, predictable thickness. The equations may overestimate
exposure via a liquid spray where the droplets do not flow together to
form a continuous film, and 1t may underestimate exposure to such
substances as paints and adheslves that are formulated specifically to
adhere to surfaces. The latter may form layer upon layer on the skin so
that final thickness 1s not predictable.
7.3.2 Exposure to Dusts and Powders
Exposure to dusts and powders 1s conceptually similar to exposure to
liquid films, since 1t Involves the deposition of a limited quantifiable
amount of product on the skin. Calculation of exposure 1n both cases
uses essentially the same parameters, with "dust adherence" roughly
analogous to "film thickness." However, dust adherence 1s expressed
directly as mass per unit skin surface and does not require a density
factor to convert volume to mass.
Unfortunately, data on dust adherence to skin 1s limited. Data
generated by the Toxic Substance Control Commission of the State of
Michigan Indicate the following (Harger 1979):
• Vacuum cleaner dust sieved through an 80-mesh screen adheres to
human hands at 3.44 mg/cm2.
• Dust of the clay mineral kaolin adheres to hands at 2.77 mg/cm2.
• Commercial potting soil adheres to hands at 1.45 mg/cm2.
The conditions of the experiment were not reported. Since the research
was performed to support predictions of occupational exposure to the
chemical MBOCA, and since occupational contact 1s likely to yield maximum
saturation of the skin, 1t will be assumed that the experimental
conditions were designed to encourage maximum adherence (Versar 1982).
However, 1t 1s not known which physical or chemical properties of a
powdered substance determine the extent of Its adherence to skin;
therefore, 1t 1s not possible to predict the extent to which the three
substances tested may represent substances commonly encountered 1n the
occupational environment.
Until more data become available, the value for vacuum cleaner dust
may be used as an upper limit. Substances that are I1poph1l1c or
surfactant, or that tend to clump 1n the presence of skin moisture, can
adhere to a greater extent.
Ill
-------
The following equation can be used to calculate dermal exposure to
dusts.
DEX = WF x AV x FQ x DA x K (7-5)
where
DEX = exposure (mg/yr)
WF = weight fraction of chemical 1n material contacted (unltless)
AV = available skin area (cm2)
FQ = frequency (events/year)
DA = maximum dust adherence (see above), (mg/cm2)
K = arbitrary factor, unltless, ranging from 0 to 1 to express
fraction of maximum adherence expected 1n a particular case.
7.4 Ingestlon Exposure
Two types of Ingestlon exposure are likely to occur 1n the
workplace. The first 1s Ingestlon as a subset of Inhalation exposure,
I.e., the gastrointestinal deposition of Inhaled airborne partlculates
too large to be respired. This 1s discussed 1n Section 7.2 (see Equation
7-3). The other type of exposure follows from Initial dermal exposure.
In this situation, a chemical that has been deposited on the skin 1s
transferred to the mouth area and accidentally Ingested. The magnitude
of such exposure would depend on (1) the magnitude of the Initial dermal
exposure; (2) the extent to which this 1s transferred to the mouth area;
and (3) the extent to which the chemical 1s then taken Into the mouth
(e.g., by licking the Ups). The second and third requirements are
virtually Impossible to quantify. (It 1s assumed that obviously
contaminated hands would not be directly placed Into the mouth, although
employees working with highly toxic substances have been known to handle
food or cigarettes without washing their hands.)
Dermal exposure may lead to Ingestlon exposure more directly 1n very
dusty environments where dust 1s deposited directly on the face. As a
reasonable worst-case, 1t can be assumed that the entire quantity of dust
that covers the Ups 1s Ingested. This can be estimated using the dermal
exposure Equation 7-5. The surface area of the Ups has been estimated
to be 7 cm2 (Versar 1984e). These types of Ingestlon exposure are not
possible when the employee wears a respirator.
It should be noted, however, that differentiation between
1nhalat1on/1ngest1on or dermal/1ngest1on exposure may not be necessary 1n
all cases. Such exposure 1s only Important 1n those situations where the
health effects or absorption of a chemical depend on the exposure route.
112
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115
-------
Kline CH. 1978b. Kline guide to the plastics Industry - Industrial
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116
-------
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117
-------
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118
-------
Versar. 198*a. Methods for assessing exposure to chemical substances:
Introduction. Prepared for Office of Toxic Substances. U.S.
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August, 1985.
119
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APPENDIX A
PROCESSES AND EXPOSURE POTENTIAL
METHODS FOR ASSESSING OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
TO CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
A-l. SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS MANUFACTURE
A-2. PLASTICS MANUFACTURE AND PROCESSING
A-3. LUBRICANTS AND HYDRAULIC FLUIDS PROCESSING
A-4. GENERAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
121
-------
Table of Contents
Page No.
APPENDIX A-l - SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS MANUFACTURE 131
1.0 ALKYLATION PROCESSES 132
1.1 Description of Discharge 132
2.0 AMINATION BY AMMONOLYSIS 135
2.1 Description of Discharges 135
3.0 AMMOXIDATION 135
3.1 Description of Discharges 140
4.0 CARBONYLATION 140
4.1 Description of Discharges 140
5.0 CONDENSATION 144
5.1 Description of Discharges 144
6.0 CATALYTIC CRACKING 151
6.1 Description of Discharges 154
7.0 DEHYDRATION 154
7.1 Description of Discharges 154
8.0 DEHYDROGENATION 154
8.1 Description of Discharges 157
9.0 DEHYDROHALOGENATION 157
9.1 Description of Discharges 162
10.0 ESTERIFICATION 162
10.1 Description of Discharges 162
11.0 HALOGENATION 166
11.1 Description of Discharges 166
123
-------
Table of Contents (Continued)
Page No.
12.0 HYDRODEALKYLATION 169
12.1 Description of Discharges 169
12.1.1 Benzene 169
12.1.2 Napthalene 169
13.0 HYDROGENATION 172
13.1 Description of Discharges 172
14.0 HYDROHALOGENATION 172
14.1 Description of Discharges 177
15.0 HYDROLYSIS AND HYDRATION 177
15.1 Description of Discharges 179
16.0 NITRATION 183
16.1 Description of Discharges 183
17.0 OXIDATION 183
17.1 Description of Discharges 186
18.0 OXYHALOGENATION 186
18.1 Description of Discharges 193
19.0 PHOSGENATION 193
19.1 Description of Discharges 193
20.0 POLYMERIZATION 196
20.1 Description of Discharges 196
20.2 Production Process - Polyvinyl Chloride by
Polymerization 201
21 .0 PYROLYSIS 201
21.1 Description of Discharges 205
124
-------
Table of Contents (Continued)
Page No.
22.0 REFORMING (STEAM) - WATER GAS REACTION 206
22.1 Description of Discharges 206
23.0 SULFONATION AND SULFATION 209
23.1 Description of Discharges 209
APPENDIX A-2 - PLASTICS MANUFACTURE AND PROCESSING 212
APPENDIX A-3 - LUBRICANTS AND HYDRAULIC FLUIDS PROCESSING 238
APPENDIX A-4 - GENERAL MANUFACTURING PROCESS 245
125
-------
List of Tables
Page No.
Table 1 Alkylatlon Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 133
Table 2 Am1nat1on Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 136
Table 3 Ammox1dat1on Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 138
Table 4 Carbonylatlon Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980... 141
Table 5 Condensation Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 145
Table 6 Catalytic Cracking Products and Their Manufacture
in 1979 152
Table 7 Dehydration Products 155
Table 8 Organic Chemicals Manufactured by Dehydrogenatlon 158
Table 9 Dehydrohalogenatlon Products and Their Production
1n 1979 161
Table 10 Ester1f1cat1on Products 163
Table 11 Halogenatlon Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 167
Table 12 Organic Chemicals Manufactured by Hydrodealkylatlon 170
Table 13 Hydrogenatlon Products and Their Production 1n 1979 174
Table 14 Hydrohalogenatlon Products and Their Manufacture 176
Table 15 Hydrolysis Products and Their Production 1n 1980 180
Table 16 Nitration Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 184
Table 17 Oxidation Products and Their Production 1n 1979 187
Table 18 Oxyhalogenatlon Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1979. 191
Table 19 Phosgenatlon Products and Their Manufacture 1n 1980 194
Table 20 Organic Chemicals Manufactured 1n Polymerization 197
Table 21 Organic Chemicals Manufactured by Pyrolysls 202
Table 22 Reforming Steam-Water Gas Products and Their
Manufacture 1n 1980 207
126
-------
List of Tables (Continued)
Page No.
Table 23 Sulfonatlon and Sulfatlon Products and Their
Production 1n 1979 210
Table 24 SIC Codes Applied to the Plastic Products Industry 213
Table 25 Description of Processes Employed 1n the Production
of Plastic Parts 214
Table 26 Potential for Occupational Exposure During
Plastics Processes 222
Table 27 Evolution of Carbon Monoxide 1n the Upper Part of
the Processing Temperature Range (PPM) 226
Table 28 Carbon Monoxide Evolution 1n the Melting and Processing
Temperature Range of Various Plastics 227
Table 29 Evolution of Aldehydes from Heated Polyoleflns 1n A1r.. 228
Table 30 Evolution of Certain Gases From Plastics At the
Maximum Recommended Processing Temperature 229
Table 31 Atmosphere Analyses Near Plastics Processing
Machinery 230
Table 32 Description of Processes Employed In the Assembly,
Finishing, and Decoration of Plastics Parts 233
Table 33 Potential Inhalation Exposure From Manufacture of
Lubricants 242
Table 34 Potential Dermal Exposure From Manufacture of
Lubricants 243
127
-------
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
List of Figures
Generalized process flow diagram for manufacture
of alkylated organic compounds
Generalized flow diagram of amlnatlon plant,
General ammox1dat1on process ,
A typical carbonylatlon process
A generalized flow diagram of a condensation
process
A typical flow diagram for fluid catalytic cracking...
Page No.
134
137
139
142
150
153
Proposed ethanol manufacturing process by
dehydration of ethanol 156
Typical dehydrogenatlon process 159
160
Flow diagram for vlnylldene chloride from
1,1,2-tr1chloroethane
Manufacture of dimethyl terephthalate by
ester1f1cat1on
Halogenatlon of hydrocarbon
Benzene production by hydrodealkylatlon,
A typical hydrogenatlon process
A typical hydrohalogenatlon process: manufacture of
vinyl chloride from acetylene and hydrogen chloride..
General hydrolysis process
Process flow diagram for manufacture of nitrobenzene..
Process flow diagram for model plant of uncontrolled
malelc anhydride manufacture by benzene oxidation
165
168
171
173
178
182
185
190
Figure 18 Manufacture of trlchloroethylene by oxychlorlnatlon... 192
128
-------
List of Figures
Page No.
Figure 19 Flow diagram for d11socyanate production 195
Figure 20 Process flow diagram for the manufacture of polyvlnyl
chloride 199
Figure 21 A typical pyrolysls production process 204
Figure 22 Generalized flow diagram of a reforming (steam) -
water gas process 208
Figure 23 Flow diagram for the manufacture of methyl
methacrylate 211
Figure 24 Manufacture of lubricants from petroleum 241
129
-------
APPENDIX A-l
Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacture
INTRODUCTION
This appendix 1s organized Into 23 categories that correspond to the
23 major large-volume synthetic organic chemicals manufacturing Industry
(SOCMI) "unit process" components that carry out the fundamental
synthesis reactions, e.g., halogenatlon, alkylatlon.
It provides a description of each unit process with available release
data. With regard to Its utility 1n occupational exposure assessments,
this material Is broadly useful 1n supporting development of a materials
mass balance for a given chemical process, and 1s specifically useful for
Identifying waste streams to which workers 1n on-s1te Industrial waste
treatment facilities may be exposed.
131
-------
1.0 ALKYIATION PROCESSES
Alkylation is the introduction of an alkyl radical to an organic
compound by substitution or addition. The most common alkylation products
are ethylbenzene and cumene. Other products and their 1980 production are
found in Table 1. Figure 1 is a generalized process flow diagram for an
alkylation process.
1.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from the alkylation processes occur as fugitive and partic-
ulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid residues. The major
sources of air contamination are: 1) feedstock emissions and 2) volatile
by-products.
Wastewaters may be released from within the process if process
operating conditions require. They may also occur from washdown of process
vessels, or they may be formed during chemical reactions. These waste
streams contain caustic and caustic-catalyst fines, and feedstock lead
(from the lead alkyIs process) will result from distillation column bottoms
and product settling basins.
fugitive gaseous - may occur from valves, flanges, pump seals,
emissions compressor seals, pressure relief valves, drains,
and cooling towers.
reactor - gaseous releases may occur at the reactor vent.
caustic scrubber - liquid 'waste may occur from caustic wash.
feedstock - gaseous releases may occur from the column vent.
stripper - sludge may be released as wastewater from the
column bottoms.
purification - gaseous releases may occur from the column vent.
columns - liquid wastes may be released in the column
bottoms.
Specific releases from alkylation processes are addressed in Versar
(1982).
132
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TABLE 1. ALKYLATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 1980
Product
Acetic acid
Alkyl benzenes
A Ikyl benzenes
( 1 1 near)
Alkyl benzenes
{ 1 1 near)
Benzene,
xylenes
p-tert-Butyl phenol
Cumene
Ethyl benzene
N-lsopropyl-
N'-phenol-p-
-phenylenedlamlne
Amount"
(kkg)
NA
94,347
87,090
157,850
NA
NA
1,932,304
3,516,611
NA
Feedstock
n-Eutenes
Benzene
Propylene tetramer
Benzene
Linear o let Ins
Benzene
Linear paraffins
Toluene
Phenol
Isobutene
Benzene
Propylene
Benzene
Eth yl ene
p-Ch 1 oron 1 trobenzene
An 1 1 1 ne
Acetone
Other Required
Processes
Oxidation
None
None
Dehydrogenatlon
None
None
None
None
Deh yd r oh a 1 ogenat 1 1
Hydrogenatlon
Lead alkyls
p-nonyl phenol
Phenol,
acetone
Pyrome11111c deanhydrlde
Styrene
2,4-xylenol
>259,455 Ethyl chloride
(Alkyl chlorides)
147,690 Phenol
Propylene trlmer
1,436,255 Benzene
Propylene
NA 1,2,4-trlmethyl benzene
(pseud ocumene)
3,263,686 Benzene
Ethyl ene
NA p-cresol
Methyl chloride
None
None
Acid cleavage
Hydrolysis
Ox IdatI on
Ox IdatI on
Deh ydrogenat I on
None
•SRI lists amounts In plant capacities. For this table, the capacities were
multiplied by 0.8.
Source: Herrlck et a I. 1979a; SRI 1981.
133
-------
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134
-------
2.0 MINATION BY AMMONOLYSIS
The formation of amine by reacting ammonia with organic compounds is
the process of amination by ammonolysis. Many products of amination, such
as methylamines, ethylamines, aniline and ethyline diamines,are listed in
Table 2 with their 1980 production amounts. A generalized process flow
diagram of an amination by ammonolysis process is presented in Figure 2.
2.1 Description of Discharges
Basically, all amination processes produce the same type of emis-
sions. Feedstock excess ammonia that does not get recycled is always a
discharge to be considered. Organic feedstock that does not completely
convert, approximately 1%, usually goes to waste and/or recycle. With a
final yield of 95%, final product fugitive emissions and waste organic
product from side reactions make up about 5% of the aminated products
(Cocuzza et al. 1979, Habermann 1979, Klabunde 1979). Some of this may be
recycled, but like the feedstocks, the exact amount that is emitted and
does not get recycled is unknown. Also, solid catalyst fines are present
in the wastewater of all amination processes except for ethanolamine and
for ethylene diamine produced from ethylene dichloride, but the amount is
unknown.
Specific releases from amination by ammonolysis processes are
presented in Versar (1982).
3.0 AMMDXIEftTIOtq
Ammoxidation is a process in which nitriles are formed by the reaction
of ammonia in the presence of air or oxygen with olefins, organic acids, or
the alkyl group of alkylated aromatics. The major products made by ammoxi-
dation processes are listed in Table 3 with their 1980 production amounts.
Figure 3 presents a generalized process flow diagram for ammoxidation proces-
ses. More detailed explanations are provided in Versar (1982).
135
-------
TABLE 2. AMINATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 1980
Product
Aniline
Benzene
Amount
(kkg)
NA
NA
Feedstock
Phenol
Benzene sulfon
Other Required
Processes
yl chloride
sulfonamide
p-Chlorobenzene
sulfonamide
NA
p-Chlorobenzene
Sulfonyl chloride
Dimethyl -
formamide
Ethanol amines
Ethanol amines
Ethyl en edi ami ne
Ethyl enedi ami ne
Hexamethyle-
nediamine
Hexamethyle-
netatramine
Methyl amines
Urea
NA
194,138
NA
72,575*
NA
145,150
54,068
134,989
2,580,759
(total )
Dimethyl ami ne
Methyl formate
Ethylene oxide
Ethanol
Ethylene dichloride
Monoethanolamine
Adipic acid
Formaldehyde
Methanol
Carbon dioxide
Condensation
Dehydration
Source: Herrick et al. 1979a; SRI 1981.
*Feedstock not specified.
136
-------
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137
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TABLE 3. AMMOXIDATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 1980.
Product
Acrylon1tr1le
Ad1pon1tr1le
Amount
(kkg)
760,221
NA
Feedstock
propylene
adlplc add
butadiene
Other Required
Processes
halogenatlon
Benzon1tr1le
NA
toluene
Hydrogen cyanide
439,803 methane
IsophthalonltMle NA
n-xylene
Phthalon1tr1le
NA
o-xylene
Pyr1d1ne, NA
beta-p1co!1ne
Terephthalon1tr1le NA
acetaldehyde
formaldehyde
methanol
p-xylene
condensation
Source: Herrlck et al. 1979a; SRI 1981.
138
-------
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139
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3.1 Description of Discharges
In addition to feedstocks and product emissions, the hydrocarbon
solvent added to the quench column usually contributes to reaction
emissions. In the case of hydrogen cyanide and acrylonitrile productions,
sulfuric acid is added to neutralize; this and the resulting side reaction
forming ammonium sulfate add to the pollutants from the reaction section.
Products from side reactions are also present in emissions. Other nitriles
besides the desired product are usually formed, with hydrogen cyanide the
most common. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxides are also
produced and released as off-gases (lights). Most of the off-gases go to
an incinerator of greater than 99% efficiency or to recycle (Hydrocarbon
Processing 1973); however, there can be leaks. Antimony, molybdenum, or
iron particles may be found in the final wastewater because the catalyst is
usually an oxide of one or a combination of these metals (Barnett and Dewing,
Doihyj et al., Hosier and Baillie, Norton and Bushick).
4.0 CARBONYLATION
Carbonylation, or the Oxo reaction, is the addition of carbon
monoxide to an organic compound. Small carbonylic acids, alcohols, and
aldehydes are prepared by carbonylation. These products are listed in
Table 4 with their 1981 production amounts. Figure 4 is a flow diagram for
a typical carbonylation process.
4.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a carbonylation process will occur as fugitive and
particulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid residues. The
major sources of contamination are gaseous emissions from the vents on the
reactors which pull off the gaseous by-products and solid emissions
resulting from the disposal of the bottoms product from the heavy ends
distillation column.
140
-------
Table 4. Carbonylation Products and Their Manufacture in 1980
Amount
kkg
Feedstock1
Other Required
Processes'
acid
s (C7-C]3)
565, 5262
aldehyde
•crylate
hexanol/
al echo I
ral dehyde/
I alcohol
acid
formate
acid
413, 68I4
488, 0704
NA3
125,1934
same as n-Butanol
II8,2984
98.3404
27.2I64
Met ha no I
Carbon Monoxide
Oleflns
Carbon Monoxide
Propylene
Carbon Monoxide
Acetylene
Ethanol
Carbon Monoxide
Propylene
Carbon Monoxidej,
Propylene
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide
Sodium Hydroxide
Carbon Monoxide
(Methanol Recycled)
None
None
Hydrogenatlon
None
Hydrogenat Ion
Hydrogenatlon
Hydro! ysls
Condensation
Hydro I ys I s
Herrlck et al. 1979.
SRI 1981.
Assumes 80% of capacity Is produced.
Klrk-Othmer (1980) states that 34 to 37J of al I acetic acid Is manufactured by methanol
carbonylatlon. This value Is 35.5K of the total.
SRI 1981.
Does not give amounts produced, but lists producers.
SRI 1981.
Assumes that 30% of capacity Is produced and also assumes that the amount produced was by
carbonylatlon. Capacities may Include corresponding Iso- or n- compounds; for example,the
amount of n-butyral dehyde produced may Include I so-butyal dehyde.
141
-------
olefin
off gas
iso-aldehyde
light ends
+-
iso-alcohi
n-alcoh<
•»
][ heavy end
bottoms
treatment
n-aldehyde
0X0 Catalyst Distillation
Synthesis Recovery
Hydrogenation
Distillation
Figure 4. A typical carbonylatlon process
Source: Adopted from Hydrocarbon Processing, 1973.
142
-------
fugitive gaseous
emissions
compression
carbonylation
reactor
cooling and
condensing
purification
product
separation
may occur frcm valves, flanges, pump seals,
compressor seals, pressure relief valves, drains,
and cooling towers.
fugitive emissions will occur, especially at
compressor seals.
liquid wastes will result when flushing the
compressors and when the oil used to grease the
compressors leaks out.
pollutants will be released from the off-gas vent
on the reactor.
condensers, partial condensers, and heat exchang-
ers cause contaminated liquid waste streams and
vent off-gases.
gas scrubbers, degassers, and water washes create
large contaminated liquid waste streams and large
gaseous waste streams.
distillation columns (both conventional and
extractive distillation) cause fugitive and
intermittent air emissions, solid bottoms products
to be disposed, and contaminated liquid wastes
containing products and extractive solvents.
steam generation - contaminants are released during operation and at
and cooling blowdown.
tower operation
All carbonylation reactions release volatile organic compounds
(VDCs). VOCs include organic chemicals which, when emitted to the
atmosphere, participate in photochemical reactions producing ozone. VDCs
are emitted not only to the air, but also to the land and water.
Quantification of releases is presented in Versar (1982).
143
-------
5.0 CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process where two or more organic chemicals
combine to form a main product, usually with the separation of water or
some other low-molecular-weight compound. Very diverse groups of organic
chemicals are made from condensation reactions. Table 5 lists the 55
organic chemicals manufactured by condensation and figures for their produc-
tion in 1980. Figure 5 shows a generalized flow diagram for a condensation
process. Specific processes with their releases are discussed in Versar
(1982).
5.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a condensation process will occur as fugitive and
particulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid residues. The
major sources of gaseous emissions are from the reactor by-product vents,
the column vents on distillation columns, and releases during storage and
handling. Since most condensation reactions yield water as a product of
the reaction, a contaminated water stream will be discharged to wastewater
treatment. Other liquid emissions will occur from disposal of spent
scrubbing liquids and other solvents. Solid residues will result if a
by-product of the reaction is a low molecular weight solid such as salt
(NaCl), which is separated from the other products but contaminated to the
same degree as the water of reaction. This solid product may be used
elsewhere or disposed of. Another source of solid residues is the bottoms
product of the heavy ends distillation column.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) will be emitted since the conden-
sation products and reactants are organic compounds. Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) have been defined by USEPA as organic compounds which,
when emitted to the atmosphere, undergo photochemical reactions producing
ozone. Most every organic chemical is a volatile organic compound (VOC).
Also included as condensation products are pesticides. The emissions
during their manufacture should be carefully monitored and controlled when
possible.
144
-------
TABLE 5, CONDENSATION PRODUCTS AND TKE!R MANUFACTURE IN 1980
Amount''^
J&a)
Other Required
Processes.
inhydride 726,000'
c acid NA3
lobenzenearsonlc acid)
sulfonyl chloride NA3
(dlphanyl) 25.4002
11 A 330,200'
chloride NA3
dehyde MA-5
a I cohol
eil dehyde
dlphenyl- 26.8004
roethane
-trlchloro-2,2-bl s-
orophenyl) ethane](DOT)
lorophenoxyacetlc- 5,800^
,4-D)
Ichl orophenoxy) .NA3
Ic acid (2,4-DP)
hloropheny IsuI tone NA
amine NA3
guan I dine NA3
heny I hydrazlne NA3
o benzene)
methane-4-41- 209,000'
anate ! (methy lene-
heny I i socyanate)!
Acetic scld
An ! Una
Arsen'c acid
Senzene
Chlorosul fon ic acid
Bonzene
Phenol
Ethy !ene oxlija
^4onocfI loroecat ic ac'd
C.-Chlo"oprcp Jor'c acid
2,4-Dich ! orcoh-enol
Moloch i oro&enzene
Sui '••;'• -'T: oxide
An M ! tse
Ar. ! 1 1 is
C;r-i Ic ocid
Ni ".ro
An i .
Fomi
P "ioscs
PyroIys!s
Nbne
None
Dahydrogenat ion
None
Am I not Ion by ammonolysis
Hydrohal ogsnat ion
H/drogsnj t ion
rialoosnat ion
Halogenat Ion
Dehydrohaiogenatlon
None
None
tone
Hydrogenat Ion
Phosgenat ion
145
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Product
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl carbonate
Ethylene glycol ethers
Ethylene glycol monoethyl
ether
Ethyl ether (dl ethyl ether)
2-Ethylhexanol
Amount1'2
(kkg) Feedstock
94, 300 ' Acetal dehyde
NA3 Ethylene oxide
Carbon dioxide
Alkyl alcohols
Ethylene glycol
555, OOO5
Ethylene oxide
Ethanol
23, 200 ' Ethanol
125, 2001 Acetal dehyde
Butyral dehyde
Other Required
Processes
None
None
None
None
None
Hydrogenat Ion
Ethyl parathlon
(parathlon)
Formic acid
Heptenes
HexamethyIenetetramlne
Isophorone
Isoprene
(2-m«thy1-1,3-butadlene)
Isoprene
Isoprene
Isoprene
27,200
54,400
54,000
NAJ
143,300
0,0-Dlmethyl phosphoro-
Thlonochlorldate
Sodium nltrophenoxlde
Carbon monoxide
tmethanol recycled)
Butylenes
PropyIene
Ammonia
Forma Idehyde
Acetone
Propylene
Acetone
Acetylene
Formaldehyde
Isobutylene
Formaldehyde
Hydrogen chloride
I sobuty lene
Halogenatlon
Carbony I at Ion
Hydrolysis
None
Am I nation by ammonoly
None
Cracking
Dehydration
Hydrogenat ion
Cracking
HydrohalogenatIon
Pyrolys i s
146
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
py i-N'-pheny 1-
lenedlamlne
)
3x1 de
snlne
Amount '»2
(kkg)
NA3
54.4001
NA3
NA3
Feedstock
Acetone
An 1 1 1 ne
p-Chloron 1 trobenzene
Dlcyandlamlde
Urea
Acetone
Aero la In
Other Required
Processes
Alkylatlon
Dehydrohal ogenat Ion
Hydrogenat Ion
Pyro 1 ys 1 s
Pyro 1 ys 1 s
Dehydration
Hydrogenat Ion
•2-butanol
lyl alcohol)
•3-butyn-2-o I
•4-chlorophenoxy-
icld (MCPA)
NA3
iy I -4-ch I orophenoxy) NA3
c acid (MCPP)
5-ethylpyrldlne (MEP) NA3
-2-plcolIne)
obuty 1 ketone
83, 800
rath Ion (0,0-dImethyI 23.2004
ophenyl phosphoro-
1-pentene
2-naphthylamlne
NA
Cyanic acid
Methyl mercaptan
Acetone
Acety lene
Acetone
Acetylene
o-Cresol
Monoch loroacetlc acid
O-ChloropropIon Ic acid
Acetaldehyde
Ammonla
Acetone
Hydrogen
0,0-AlmethyI phosthlono-
chlorldate
Sodium p-n I trophenox Ide
Propylene
An I I Ine
2-naphthol
Hydrogenat Ion
None
Hal ogenat Ion
Dehydrohalogenation
Amlnatlon by ammono 1 ys 1 s
Dehydration
Hydrogenat Ion
Halogenat Ion
None
None
147
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Product
Amount1'2
(kkg)
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
OxalIc acid
Pentaerythrltol
p-Pheny I phenol
(4-hydroxydlphenyI)
beta-ProploIactone
Propylene carbonate
Pyrldlne
beta-Pi col Ine
64,600
Polyethylene terephthalate 435,4001
NA
NA
21.800
Tetrahydrofuran, 57.3001
2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylIc
dlanhydrlde
Tetramethy Ithluram NA3
dlsulflda (thlram)
Iblstdlmethylthlocarbamoyl )-
dlsulfldel
2,4,5-TrIchI orophenoxyacetIc 6,6004
acid (2,4,5-T)
Zlneb
(zinc ethyleneblsdlthlo-
car ba mate)
800^
Sodium formate
Acetaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Benzene
Cyclohexanone
Dimethyl terephthaI ate
Ethylene glycol
Formaldehyde
Ketone
Carbon dioxide
Propylene oxide
Acetaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Methanol
Furan
Malelc anhydride
Ammonia
Carbon dlsulfIde
01 me thy lamina
Hydrogen peroxide
Acetic acid
2,4,5-TrIchlorophenol
Carbon dlsulfide
Ethylene dlamlne
Zinc sulfate
PyroIysIs
Cannlzzaro reaction
DehydrogenatIon
Polymerization
None
None
Ammoxldatlon
Oxidation
Oxidation
HalogenatIon
None
148
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Amount' »*
(kkg)
1.7002
methyldlthlo-
ite)
Feedstock
Carbon dlsulf Ids
Dlmethy lam Ine
Zinc sulfate
Other Required
Processes
None
Herrick et al. 1979a.
SRI 1981. Assume 80% of capacity Is produced and also assume that the amount produced was by condensation.
USITC 1979.
SRI 1981. Does not give amounts produced, but lists producers.
USITC 1975.
White 1980b. Most of the 555,000 kkg were produced by a different reaction - the reaction of y|ena ox)de
: oxide and alcohols.
149
-------
01
oo
to
o
4-J
in
O
o
3
•a
o
M
a
at
OO 4-1
C -H
I -H >-l
f. rH 3
00 -H &
•H O
.£5 .£> 'f-1
rH £>
in
o
o
o
E
i_
0>
o
•o
a>
o>
150
-------
fugitive gaseous
emissions
Preheating the
reactants
Furnaces
Reactors
Product cooling -
Product
purification
may occur from valves, flanges, pump seals,
compressor seals, pressure relief valves, drains,
and cooling towers.
if steam evaporators or heat exchangers are used,
the steam will become contaminated.
the combustion gases will be contaminated with
incomplete combustion product and oxides of
nitrogen (NC^).
hydrocarbon and coke particulate emissions will
occur when decoking the furnace.
fugitive emissions will occur from reactors when
the catalysts or packing are regenerated; this
will create an intermittent gaseous or liquid
waste stream.
quench waters or solvents will become contaminated
because they come in direct contact with the
products.
if centrifuges are used, absorbers and caustic and
water scrubbers will have contaminated liquid
waste streams.
steam generation - contaminants are released during operation and at
and cooling blowdown.
tower operation
6.0 CATALYTIC CRACKING
Catalytic cracking is the thermal decomposition of an organic
compound in the presence of a catalyst and in the absence of air. The
process is mainly used to create gasoline, C3~C4 olefins, and isobutane
by selective decomposition of heavy distillates. Chemicals that are
produced by catalytic cracking other than gasoline are listed in Table 6.
A typical flow diagram for the catalytic cracking process is given in
Figure 6.
151
-------
TABLE 6. CATALYTIC CRACKING PRODUCTS1 AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 19792
Product
Isoprene
Isoprene
Isoprene
Amount
(kkg)
248, 561 3
NA
NA
Feedstock
propyl ene
amyl enes
isobutylene and
Other Processes
Required
condensation
none
condensation
Perchloroethylene and NA
trichloroethylene
Perchloroethylene and NA
trichloroethylene
Perchloroethylene 350,640
and trichloroethylene
Vinyl chloride
monomer
Vinyl chloride
monomer
Vinyl chloride
monomer
Vinyl chloride
monomer
108,8624
254,0124
NA
formaldehyde
ethylene dichloride
acetylene
any G£ chlorocarbon
acetylene
ethylene
naptha
1.823.4404 ethylene
halogenation
halogenation
halogenation
halogenation
halogenation
dehydrohalogenation
halogenation
oxyhalogenation
halogenation
oxyhalogenation
Sources:
iHerrick et al. 1979a.
2USITC 1979.
^Total production from all manufacturing processes.
4SRI 1981. Assumed 80% of nameplate capacity.
NA - Not available.
152
-------
SJ
153
-------
6.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical catalytic cracking process will result as
fugitive emissions from pressure relief valves, vents, seals, and equipment
leaks. Catalyst regeneration causes intermittent emission of carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and coke and catalyst fines. It is assumed that
spent catalyst is landfilled. Other discharges are discussed in the dehy-
drohalogenation and the dehydrogenation sections.
7.0 DEHYDRATION
The dehydration process involves the production of alkenes from
alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water. Dehydration products,
including ethylene, are listed in Table 7. Production for 1980 could not
be determined frcm the available literature. Figure 7 presents the
generalized process flow diagram for a dehydration process.
7.1 Description of Discharges
Dehydration is part of some major manufacturing processes such as
those for urea, isoprene, methyl isobutyl ketone, and mesityl oxide. An
extensive literature search and a telephone conversation with E.G. Herrick
(September 22, 1981) revealed that dehydration is not used as an indepen-
dent process in the United States. A process such as ethylene manufacture
from ethanol is used in countries with abundant fermentation materials but
limited hydrocarbon resources (Kirk-Othmer 1980). Because dehydration is
not common as an independent process, no emission data were available.
Specific release values are identified in Versar (1982).
8.0 EEHYDROGENATION
The process of dehydrogenation is a chemical reaction whereby the
reactants lose hydrogen. The organic chemical classes concerned are
(1) aldehydes, (2) ketones, which are prepared by dehydrogenating alcohols,
and (3) olefins, which are prepared from their saturated hydrocarbons.
154
-------
TABLE 7. DEHYDRATION PRODUCTS
Product
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
Ethylene
Isoprene
(2-Methyl-l,
3-butad1ene)
Mesityl oxide
(isopropylidene
acetone)
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Morpholine
Urea
Ethyl alcohol
Acetone
Acetylene
Acetone
Acetone
Hydrogen
Diethanolamine
Ammonia
C02
None
Condensation
Hydrogenation
Condensation
Condensation
Hydrogenation
None
Ami nation
Source: Herrick et al. 1979a.
155
-------
ETHYLENE
PRODUCT
REACTOR
ETHANOL
AIR
W W w W
REGENERATOR
AIR
HtATER
FUEL
FRESH
CATALYST
Figure 7. Proposed ethanol manufacturing process by dehydration of ethanol
Source: U.S. Patent.
156
-------
Table 8 lists the organic chemicals that are manufactured by dehydrogen-
ation (Herrick et al. 1979a). A typical dehydrogenation process diagram
is presented in Figure 8.
8.1 Description of Discharges
fugitive emissions- occur from valves, flanges, pump seals, compressor
seals, pressure relief valves, drains and cooling
towers.
dehydrogenation - pollutants are released when regenerating and
section purging the catalyst beds as air emissions, waste-
water, and spent catalysts. Also air emissions
occur from leaks in the reactors.
product cooling - using condensers, partial condensers and oil
quenches results in contaminated liquid waste
streams and vent gases.
product purifi- - using caustic scrubbers, degasser and water washes
cation results in contaminated liquid waste streams.
product separation- absorbers, strippers and fractionating columns
(both extractive and conventional distillation)
result in fugitive and intermittent air emissions,
solid tarry matter in bottoms at blowdown, contam-
inated liquid wastes containing products, and
extractive solvents.
steam generation - contaminants released during operation and at
:cooling towers blowdown.
Quantification of releases is presented in Versar (1982).
9.0 DEHYDI^ALOGENATICN
In the process of dehydrohalogenation, a hydrogen atom and a halogen
atom are removed from one or more feedstocks to obtain a new chemical. In
commercial operation, the halogen atom is usually chlorine. A typical
dehydrohalogenation train includes a reactor and a purification system.
Figure 9 is a typical process flow diagram. Ihe principal organic
chemicals manufactured by dehydrohalogenation are listed in Table 9.
157
-------
TABLE 8. ORGANIC CHEMICALS MANUFACTURED BY DEHYDROGENATION
Amount
Product (kkg)
Acetaldehyde
Acetone
Linear alkyl benzenes 102.3
Blphenyl 26.4
Butad 1 ene )
> 325.0
Butad 1 ene )
Cyclohexanone 396.9
2-lsoamylane
1 soprene }
> 248.6
1 soprene )
Methyl ethyl ketone \
Methyl ethyl Ketone f
Phenol Insignificant atnts.
p-Phenyl phenol
Plperylene
Propylene 6440.4
Styrene •.
( 3394.8
Styrene )
Xylenes, mixed
Feedstock
Ethyl alcohol
Isopropyl alcohol
Benzenes
Linear paraffin
Benzene
n-Butane
Butene-1
Butene-2
Cyc 1 ohexano l/cyc 1 ohexane
1 sopentane
1 sopentane
Tertiary amylenes
Butene-1
Butene-2
»«c-Butyl alcohol
Cyc 1 ohexane
Benzene
Cycl ohexane
n-Pentene
Propane
Benzene
Ethylene
Ethyl benzene
Naphtha
Other Required
Processes
None
None
Alkylatlon
Condensation
None
None
None
None
None
None
Hydro 1 ysls
None
Ammoxldat Ion
Condensation
None
None
Alkylatlon
None
None
Source: Herrick et al. 1979a; SRI 1979a.
158
-------
ocess
on
dehydroge
ca
yp
gure 8
973
ss
Source: Hy
159
-------
0)
o
JC.
o
I
CM
O
J-
o>
o
I—
f
o
>
c
•r-
>
i-
O
14-
E
o
o>
O)
160
-------
TABLE 9. DEHYDROHALOGENATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR PRODUCTION IN 1979'»
Amount
(kkg)
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
chlorophenoxy) MA
ilc acid (2,4-DP)
iyl-N»-phenyl-p- 28.436*
inedlamine
iy |-4-chl orophenoxy) NA
ilc acid (MCPP)
mate res Ins 127,800^
orlde monomer (VCM) 2.925.0004
orlde nononer (VCM) 2.925.0004
orlde monomer (VCM) 2.925.0004
chloride
orlde monomer (VCM) 2.925.0004
ie chloride
98.0003
Oi*chloroproplon Ic acid
(2,4-Dlchlorophenol)
acetone
an 11 Ine
p-chIoronItrobenzene
OchloropropIonic acid;
4-chlorocresol
blsphenol A
phosgene
acetylene
ethane
chlorine
ethylene
chlorine
ethylene dlchlorlde
naphtha
chlorine
vinyl chloride
condensatIon
alkylatlon
condensation
hydrogenatlon
condensation
phosgenatIon
polymerization
halogenatlon
oxyhalogenatlon
halogenatlon
oxyhalogenatlon
none
halogenatlon
oxyhalogenatlon
halogenatIon
'Herrlck 1979.
2USITC 1979.
3SRI 1981, 80? of January 1, 1981 capacity.
4Chemlcal 4 Engineering News, August 3, 1981, 1980 nroductlon.
5IT Enviroscience 1980, 80t of 1979 reported capacity.
> all substituted p-phenylenedI amine .
ahydrohalogenatIon Is not always the major method of production of these chemicals.
161
-------
9.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical dehydrohalogenation process occur as fugitive
emissions, as reactor off-gases, as column wastes, as catalyst recovery
residue, and as storage and handling emissions.
Fugitive - pressure relief valves, pump seals, compressor
seals, drains, and cooling towers.
Process - reactor off-gases.
Purification - column vents, column waste streams, filter
residue, and catalyst recovery residue.
Storage and - vents from feed tanks, product tanks, and loading.
Handling
A quantification of releases from dehydrohalogenation is presented in
Versar (1982).
10. ESTERIFICATTON
A carboxylic acid is converted into an ester when heated with an
alcohol in the presence of a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid or
hydrogen chloride. The process, called esterification, can be batch on
continuous, liquid- or vapor-phase. Organic chemicals manufactured by
esterification and their amounts produced in 1980 are listed in Table 10.
Figure 10 describes a general process flow diagram of an esterification
process.
10.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from an esterification process will occur as fugitive and
particulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid residues. The
major sources of contamination are (1) gaseous emissions from the vents on
feed tanks and purification columns which pull off excess feedstock and
by-products and (2) liquid emissions in waste streams from the reactor and
purification column continuing excess feedstock, catalyst, and by-products.
162
-------
TABLE 10. ESTERIFICATION PRODUCTS
Product
Amount*
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
Acrylic acid &
acrylate esters
n-Butyl acetate
714,136
63,503
propylene
alcohols
acetic acid
oxidation
n-Butylbenzyl
phthalate
Di-n-butyl
phthalate
Diethyl phthalate
Dlheptyl phthalate
Di isodecyl
phthalate
Dimethyl phthalate
Dimethyl
terephthalate I
Dimethyl {
terephthalate '
Di-n-octyl phthalate
Dioctylphthalate
(2-ethylhexyl
phthalate)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1,542,214
(feedstock not
specified)
NA
NA
n-butyl alcohol
benzyl alcohol
n-butyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
n-butyl alcohol
phthalate anhydride
ethyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
heptyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
isodecyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
methyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
methyl alcohol
terephthalic acid
methyl alcohol
p-xylene
phthalic anhydride
n-octyl alcohol
2-ethylhexyl alcohol
phthalic anhydride
oxidation
163
-------
Table 10. (Continued)
Product
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl acetoacetate
Ethyl aery late
Isopropyl acetate
Amount*
94,347
NA
NA
19,958
Feedstock
acetic acid
ethyl alcohol
acetic acid
ethyl alcohol
acetic acid
Other Required
Processes
pyro lysis
oxidation
Methyl acetate
NA
Methyl acetonacetate NA
Methyl methacrylate 413,676
Methyl methacrylate
NA
p-Oxybenzoic acid a p- NA
Oxybenzoic butyrate
Polyethylene 257,640
terephthalate (barrier resins)
177,808 (film)
Triacetate polymer NA
(cellulose triacetate)
Tributyrin NA
(glyceral tributyrate)
isopropyl alcohol
acetic acid
methyl alcohol
acetic acid
acetone
hydrogen cyanide
methyl alcohol
isobutylene
methyl alcohol
butyl alcohol
carbon dioxide
phenol
ethylene glycol
terephthalic acid
acetic acid
eel lul ose
n-butyric acid a
glycerol
pyrolysis
hydrocyanation
hydrolysis
sulfonation
oxidation
carboxylation
polymerization
Source: SRI 1981; Herrick et al. 1979.
*SRI lists amounts in plant capacities. For this table, the capacities
were multiplied by 0.8.
164
-------
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IA
o
H
c
o
•o
o
O)
CO
"(0
O.
O>
t-
o>
=>
-l->
o
UJ
o
<
O '
UJ
O
a
ee
u
>-
cc
v>
ee
a
a.
<
X
UJ
-------
Fugitive gaseous - may occur from valves, pump seals, compressor
emissions seals, pressure relief valves, and drains.
Feed tank - gaseous excess feedstock will be released through
a vent on the mix tank.
Purification - excess feedstock and by-products are released
column through vents in the gaseous form, and in the
liquid form they are washed out in a waste stream
along with catalyst fines.
Heavy ends column - a sludge containing by-products, catalyst fines,
and additives is removed from the heavy ends
column to waste disposal (usually a landfill).
11.0 HALOGENATION
Halogenation is the process of reacting a hydrocarbon with a halogen
gas. Direct chlorination to form chlorocarbons is the most widely used
halogenation process. Table 11 lists major halogenation products and their
1980 manufacture. Manufacture of halocarbons by direct halogenation
involves three basic steps: (1) halogenation, (2) absorption, and
(3) separation (Figure 11).
11.1 Description of Discharges
Among the discharges, fugitive and routine, the feedstock hydrocar-
bons and chlorine are usually present. The product halocarbon is emitted
at most discharge points, along with heavier and lighter halogenated hydro-
carbon by-products. The heavies produced are mostly drawn off in the final
wastewater of the distillation column(s). Hydrogen chloride, which is
generated during halogenation, is among the emissions from the HC1
scrubber. If a neutralizer is employed in the process, excess sodium
hydroxide and sodium chloride by-product are exited in the bottoms of the
neutralizer column or drawn off from a filter. Tars and carbon solids are
present in the final distillation column bottoms waste, and if a catalyst
is used, catalyst fines such as mercuric chloride or antimony trichloride
will also be present.
166
-------
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WATER
OR DILUTE
CAUSTIC
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE
©
O"
CONDENSER
HYDROCARMHR
CHLORINE
REACTOR
Y
WASTE
TO Ha
RECYCLE
©
WATER
OR OIIUTI
CAUSTIC
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COOLER
• tSEO IF CAUSTIC WASTE NOT SEPARATED
M WATER WASH-EXCEPTION- VCM PROCESS
•• FU6ITIVE EMISSION POINTS
Y
CAUSTIC
OR
WATER
WASTE
TO HCI
RECYCLE
©
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE
CAUSTIC
OR
WATER
WASTE
TO HO
RECYCLE
fa
Figure 11. Halogenatian of Hydrocarbon.
Source: Kahn and Hughes 1979.
-*• PRODUCT
1
FILTER*
OR
SEPARATOR
OR
OEHYORATOR
1
5
T
WASTE
©
168
-------
Quantification of releases from halogenation processes is found in
Versar (1982).
12.0 HYDRQDEAIKYLATION
Hydrodealkylation is the process by which a methyl or larger alkyl
groups are removed from hydrocarbon molecules and replaced by hydrogen
atoms. Benzene and naphthalene are produced by this process. Table 12
presents the chemicals produced, other processes required, and the
feedstock required for the hydrodealkylation process. Figure 12 is a flow
diagram for benzene production by the hydrodealkylation process.
12.1 Description of Discharges
Descriptions of discharges are provided for the two major alkylation
manufacturing processes, i.e., benzene and naphthalene.
12.1.1 Benzene
Waste streams originate from periodic catalyst regeneration,
fugitive emissions from valves and pump seals, discarding spent clay,
operating power generation and cooling water systems, gas compressors, and
process heaters. Catalyst regeneration in the Detol Process involves
occasional burning of coke deposits in a preheated inert gas with con-
trolled quantities of air. Descriptions of the Hydeal process indicate
that about 1% of aromatics in the feed may be converted to heavy aromatics
such as biphenyl, methyl biphenyls, and fluorene through condensation of
aromatic nuclei. These heavy aromatics will most likely be found in the
waste stream.
12.1.2 Napthalene
Fugitive emissions of hydrocarbons to the air are expected from
distillation units, vents, pumps, seals, and flanges. For processes which
use catalysts, catalyst decoking operations can be expected to release
particulates, sulfur oxides, and carbon monoxides to the atmosphere.
Atmospheric emissions are also expected from process heaters and cooling
water treatment.
169
-------
TABLE 12. ORGANIC CHEMICALS MANUFACTURED BY HYDRODEALKYLATION
Other Processes
Required
Amount kkg
Product Feedstock for 1979
None
None
None
None
None
Benzene
Light hydrocarbon
Benzene
Benzene
Benzene
Napthalene
Aromatic mixtures
Hydrogen
Coke oven IIght oil
To Iuene
Xylenes (mixed)
AlkyInapthalenos
NA
NA
1,498,400
NA
74,102
Source: Herrick et al. 1979a.
170
-------
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171
-------
Solid waste consists of spent catalyst and acid treated clay
used in purification. The usual method of disposal is by landfill. It is
possible that some of the sorbed materials are toxic and could be mobilized
into the environment by leaching of the landfill.
13.0 HYDRCX5ENATION
Hydrogenation is the unit process in which hydrogen is added to
various compounds.
The hydrogenation processes are similar. The major operations are a
catalytic reactor and a purification system. Figure 13 is a typical pro-
cess diagram. The principal organic chemicals manufactured by hydrogena-
tion are listed in Table 13.
13.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical hydrogenation process occur as fugitive
gaseous emissions, as vent gases, in wastewater, and as catalytic residue.
Fugitive - pressure relief valves, pump seals, compressor
seals, and drains.
Reactor - off-gases from reactor vents.
Purification - vents from distillation columns, bottoms from
distillation columns.
Storage and - vents from feed tanks, product tanks, and loading.
Handling
Secondary - residue from catalytic recovery.
Releases from hydrogenation processes are quantified in Versar (1982).
14.0 HYDROHALOGENATION
Hydrohalogenation is the process in which a halogen atom is added to
an organic compound with a halogen acid, e.g., hydrogen chloride, acting as
the halogenating agent. Table 14 presents chemicals produced, other
172
-------
OS H
P* c/2
(/I
0)
o
o
C
o
•0
C
o
1.
•o
W
o
o
H
CO
W
W
17:
-------
TABLE 13. HYDROGENATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR PRODUCTION IN 1979
Product
Adi port Itrl le
m-Amlnophenol
p-Amlnophenol
Aniline
1,3-bls(amlnomethyl)
cyclohexane
n-Butanol
n-Butyral dehyde
Caprolactam
Croton aldehyde
n-Butyral dehyde
n-6utyl alcohol
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexy lamlne
Cyclohexy lamlne
3,3'-Dlchlorobenzldlne
dl hydroch 1 or Ide
2-Ethy Ihexanol
n-Butanol
1 so butyral dehyde
2-Ethy Ihexanol
Hexamethy 1 ened 1 am 1 ne
Amount
( kkg)
NA
NA
NA
310,402
NA
344,924
427,791
425,428
NA
427,791
344,924
1,091,376
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
344,924
NA
NA
NA
Feedstock
but ad 1 ene
nitrobenzene
nitrobenzene
nitrobenzene
Isophtha Ion Itrl le
propy lene
carbon monoxide
toluene, ammonia
acetal dehyde
benzene
phenol
an 1 1 In*
nitrobenzene
1 -ch lor o-2-n 1 tr o-
benzene
carbon monoxide
propy lene
acetal dehyde
ad 1 pon 1 tr 1 1 e
Other Required
Processes
ammoxldat Ion
halogenat Ion
hydrolysis
sulfonatlon
acid rearrangemei
none
none
carbony latlon
(oxo)
acid rearrangemei
oxldat Ion
condensation
dehydration
none
none
none
benz Idene
rearrangement
carbony latlon
(oxo)
condensation
none
174
-------
Table 13. (Continued)
uct
methyl ened lamina
Amount
( kkg)
NA
Feedstock
ad 1 pic acid
ammon 1 a
Other Required
Processes
ammoxldatlon
azobenzene (sym- NA
N'-dlphenylhydrazlne)
>uty I a I coho I
NA
nitrobenzene
propylene
condensation
carbonylatlon
(oxo)
rene (2-methyl- 246,589
3-butadlene)
opropyl-N'-phenyI- NA
phenylenedlamlne
•thlonlne NA
thyl-2-butanol NA
yl Isobutyl ketone NA
Itol (1,2,3,4,5,6- 115,167
xanehexol)
ane dllsocyanate (TDD 309,170
0/20-2,4-2,6-TDI)
lenedlamlne
NA
acetone
acetylene
acetone
an 11Ine
p-ch I oron Itrobenzene
acroleln
cyanic acid
methyI mercaptan
acetone
acetylene
acetone
corn sugar or
corn syrup
phosgene
to Iuene
IsophthalonltrIle
condensatIon
dehydration
alkylatlon
condensatIon
dehydrogenatIon
condensation
condensat Ion
condensat Ion
dehydration
none
nitration
phosgenatlon
none
•ces: Herrick et al. 19791; USITC 1979.
175
-------
TABLE 14. HYDROHAL06ENATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE
Product
Choi in* chloride
Ethyl chloride
Isoprene
Methyl bromide
Methyl chloride
1,1, 1-Tr 1 chl oroethane
Vinyl chloride monomer
Amount
(kkg )
26,1002
264, OOO2
248,560«2
16.6403
209, 9002
324, 9002
108.8601
Feedstock
ethyl ene oxide
trl methyl amlne
ethy len«
forma 1 dehyde
1 sobuty lene
methanol
methanol
vinyl chloride
acety lene
Other Required
Processes
ami nation by
ammonol ysls,
condensation
condensation
pyrol ysls
halogenatlon
Source: Herricketal. 1979a.
'SRI 1981.
2USITC 1979.
3USITC 1977.
•Assumes 100$ by pyrol ysls.
176
-------
processes required, required feedstock, and production volumes for products
that can be manufactured by the hydrohalogenation process.
A typical hydrohalogenation process (the manufacture of vinyl
chloride monomer using hydrogen chloride and acetylene as feedstock) is
shown in Figure 14.
14.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical hydrohalogenation process will result as
fugitive emissions from process pumps, compressor seals, process valves,
pressure relief valves, cooling towers, and drains. When process pressures
are higher than cooling water pressures, VDC can leak into the cooling and
escape as a fugitive emission from the cooling towers (White 1980b). Pollu-
tants are also released from purging catalyst beds and catalysts regenera-
tion. Waste is also generated from the removal of spent catalysts. The
disposal of catalyst residue in landfills and the combustion of organic
wastes are sources of emissions.
Production separation and purification result in fugitive and inter-
mittent emissions, and heavy polymeric matter (Faith et al. 1965). Emis-
sions can occur when wastewater from process sources is sent to wastewater
treatment systems and the VDC is desorbed.
Specific releases from hydrohalogenation are quantified in Versar
(1982).
15.0 HYDROLYSIS AND HYDRATION
Hydrolysis is the process by which an organic feedstock is reacted
with water to form one or more new chemical compounds. The reaction occurs
at moderately high temperatures and pressures, 150 to 500°C and 60 to 100
atm, respectively. Ihe reactor is usually a catalytic bed, containing
ion-exchange catalysts such as phosphoric acid in diatomaceous earth or
177
-------
K
II
Is
i!
o
0>
o o>
0) O
O i-
o -o
i- >>
C
O
c c
0) O>
O>r-
O >»
i— •(->
(O O)
.c u
o to
•o E
>> o
o>
o. >-
>» o
< u
4)
CJ
8
I
178
-------
catalytically active silicic acid. Hydrolysis products and their 1980
production levels are found in Table 15.
A typical hydrolysis process is shown in Figure 15.
15.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a hydrolysis process will occur as fugitive and
particulate gaseous emissions and liquid wastes. The major sources of
contamination are (1) gaseous emissions from vents on the reactor,
scrubber, and distillation columns which pull off excess feedstock and
by-products, (2) cooling water contamination from mixing in the condensers
with the distillation column overhead, and (3) liquid emissions in waste
streams from the final product purification system containing excess
feedstock and by-products.
Fugitive gaseous - may occur from valves and process pumps; are
emissions released from contaminated cooling water supply.
Reactor - gaseous excess feedstock will be released through
a vent on the reactor.
Separator - excess feedstock and by-products are released
through vents in the gaseous form.
Scrubber - excess feedstock and by-products are released
through vents in the gaseous form, and in the
liquid form they are washed out in a waste stream
Dehydration - excess feedstock and by-products are released
through a vent in the gaseous form.
Light ends column - light impurities are released in the gaseous form
through a vent.
Final product - excess feedstock and by-products are released
column through a vent in the gaseous form, and in the
liquid form they are washed out in a waste stream.
Specific releases from this process are quantified in Versar (1982).
179
-------
TABLE 15. HYDROLYSIS PRODUCTS AND THEIR PRODUCTION IN 1980
Product
Amount*
(kkg)
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
Acetic acid, methanol
Acrylamlde
Alcohols, mixed linear sulfate
ammonium salt
sodium salt
trIethanolamina salt
unspecified salts
A Iky I benzene sulfonate
m-Amlnophenol
sec-Butyl alcohol }
sec-Butyl alcohol )
Eplchlorohydr In
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether
Ethy lene glycol
Ethy lene oxide, ethylene glycol
Formic acid, sodium formate
Formic acid
Glycerin
Acetic acid
Glycerine (glycerol)
711,233
54,431
NA
Methyl acetate
Aery I on I tr I le
Fatty alcohols, sulfur
trIoxide
NA
NA
Alky I benzenes, sulfur
trloxlde
Nitrobenzene
Butylene
299,371 (feedstock
not specified) Butane-1/butene-2
170,551
Ally) chloride, hypo chlorous
acid
sulfonatlon
sulfonatlon
hydrogenat Ion
sul fonatfon
sul fonation
chlorohydrInatI
NA
23,224
1,952,262
2,414,926
27,215
27,215
14,515
14,515
36,287
Ethylene
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene
Carbon monoxide, sodium
hydroxide
Carbon monoxide (methanol
recyc led)
AMyl alcohol, per acetic
acid
Peracet Ic acid
Propylene » Al |y|
chl or Ida > Eplchlorohydr In
oxidation
carbony lat Ion
carbony lat Ion
condensat Ion
epoxldatlon
chl orohydr 1 na
hal ogenatlon
180
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
h
>yl alcohol )
>yl alcohol '
acld(cl s-1 ,2-ethy lene-
>oxyl Ic acid)
e thy Ike tone
methacrylate
Amount*
(kkg)
1,025,119
NA
252,197
413,676
Feedstock
propy lene
propy lene
malelc anhydride
butene-1/butene-2
acetone, hydrogen cyanide.
Other Required
Processes
sul fonatlon
dedhydrogenat Ion
esterl f Icatlon
»r
I-ho I
ilorophenol
, acetone
me glycol
II hydroxy propane)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1,416,297
1,909,805
315,700
methane I
naphthalene
hexachIorobenzene
monochIorobenzene
benzene, sulfurlc acid
benzene, hydrogen chloride
benzene, propy lene
propy lene oxide
hydrocyanat Ion
sul fonatlon
sul fonatlon
sulfonatlon
oxyhalogenatlon
acid cleavage
alky lat Ion
oxidation
me oxide
me oxide
trlchlorophenol
533,425
NA
533,425
NA
propy lene
tert-butyl alcohol
(recycled chlorine)
propy lene, chlorine solution
benzene, methanol, sodium
hydrox fde
chlorohydrl nation
hal ogenation
chlorohydrlnat Ion
hal ogenation
: SRI 1981; Herrick et al. 1979a.
Ists amounts In plant capacities. For this table, the capacities were multiplied by 0.8.
The production data shown do not necessarily Imply that hydrolysis In combination with the other required
processes Is the only product manufacturing train In commercial use.
181
-------
PftOCESS M,0-»
ETHYLENE
VENT
\+ 1
95%ETHANOL ANHYDROUS
ETHANOL
Figure 15. General hydrolysis process,
1) heater
2) reactor
3) separator
4) cooler
5) scrubber
6) dlstlIlation column
7) dehydrator
182
-------
16.0 NITRATION
Nitration is the process in which nitrogen is introduced into a
hydrocarbon by the use of nitric acid.
Table 16 lists the principal organic chemicals manufactured by
nitration. Figure 16 shows a nitration process sequence, the manufacture
of nitrobenzene from nitric acid and benzene.
16.1 Description of Discharges
Emissions from a typical nitration process are released to the three
media of air, land, and water at different stages in the process.
Reactor - volatile organic emissions, nitrogen oxide
emissions, and sulfuric acid fumes.
Washer/Neutralizer- nitrobenzene, nitrated phenols, sodium sulfate,
and sodium carbonate combined in the wastewaters;
purges of volatile organics.
Sulfuric acid - purges of nitrogen oxide, sulfuric acid fumes, and
regeneration acid volatile organics.
Product Upgrading - purges of volatile organics from condensers;
possibility of nitro-substituted aromatic
compounds in the heavy ends.
Storage Vessels - storage of feedstock and product result in
volatile organic compounds emissions.
Fugitive Emissions- occur from valves, flanges, pump seals, compressor
seals, pressure relief valves, drain, and cooling
towers.
Secondary - occur from the handling and disposal of process
Emissions waste liquid.
Specific releases are quantified in Versar (1982).
17.0 OXIDATION
The unit process of oxidation is the chemical reaction of organic
compounds with oxygen to introduce one or more oxygen atoms into the
compound, and/or to remove hydrogen atoms from the compound.
183
-------
TABLE 16. NITRATION PRODUCTS1 AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 19802
Product
o-Am1nophenol
4,6-Din1tro-o-cresol
2,4-Dinitrophenol
2 ,4-01 ni trotol uene
2,4-(and 2,6)
D1n1trotoluene
Nitrobenzene
o-N1trophenol
p-Nitrophenol
^-Nitrophenol
o-N1trotoluene
p-N1trotoluene
Toluene diisocyanate
(80/20 2,4=2,6-101)
Amount
(kkg)
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
610,176
NA3
29,056
NA3
NA3
NA3
(TDI) 259,688
Feedstock
Phenol
Cresol
Phenol
Toluene
Toluene
Benzene
Phenol
Phenol
Toluene
Toluene
Toluene
Phosgene
Toluene
Other Required
Processes
Ami nation by
reduction
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Hydroge-
natlon
Phosge-
natlon
Sources: l. Herrick et al. 1979a.
2. SRI 1981. Production levels are assumed to be 80% of plant
nameplate capacity. It may not be assumed, however, that the
products are solely manufactured by a nitration process.
3. SRI 1981. No quantitative data are available. However, a
list of manufacturers 1s provided.
184
-------
a>
c
c
0)
O
i.
0)
U
(O
U
O
rtJ
v.
£
a.
a>
U
o
00
I
-------
Table 17 presents the principal organic chemicals manufactured by
oxidation. Figure 17 is an oxidation process diagram for the production of
maleic anhydride.
17.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical oxidation process occur as fugitive gaseous
emissions, as vent gases, in wastewater, and as catalyst residue.
Fugitive - occur from process valves, process pump seals,
relief valves, compressor seals, drains, and
cooling towers.
Process - occur from reactor off-gases.
Separation and - occur from scrubber vents, scrubber wastewater,
purification and distillation vents.
Storage - occur from feed, intermediate, and product
storage.
Handling - occur from transfer of organics.
Secondary - occur from catalyst residue.
Specific releases are quantified in Versar (1982).
18.0 OXYHALOGENATION
In the oxyhalogenation process, a halogen acid is catalytically oxi-
dized to the halogen with air or oxygen. Commercial applications of the
process use oxychlorination in which chlorination is accomplished by
catalytically oxidizing hydrogen chloride to chlorine with air or oxygen
(see Table 18 and Figure 18).
186
-------
TABLE 17. OXIDATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR PRODUCTION IN 1979
*•
Id
Id
Id
acid
Id
Ic ac Id
:ld
«*
Id
,tars
d
d
one
Id
alcohol
im
im
on*
alcohol
Amount
(kkg)
479.9061
1,481.044
1,481,044
1,481,044
NA
1,481,044
NA
478, 0911
36,553
NA
NA
NA
275,788
NA
328, 7202
682, 1603
682, 1603
18.8971
34,946
NA
428,828
428,828
739, 2004
Feedstock
ethyl en e
n-butenes
1 Ight naphtha
acetaldehyde
n-butane
p-x ylene
benzene
propylene
hydrocarbons
prop ylene
prop ylene
a 1 coho 1 s
cyclohexane
cyclohexyl alcohol
anthracene
to 1 uen e
Isobutane
cyclohexane
toluene
cyclohexane
Other Required
Processes
none
alkylatlon
none
none
none
none
cracking
none
ester 1 f Icatlon
none
none
none
none
none
Beckmann rearrangement
oxidation
acid rearrangement
hydrogenatlon
none
187
-------
Table 17. (Continued)
Product*
Dimethyl tar aphtha late
Ethyl acrylata
Ethyl an* ox Id*
Ethyl an a ox Ida/
ethyl ana gl ycol
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formic acid
Fumarlc acid ( trans- 1,2-
athylana dlcarboxyllc
61 year In*
Isophthal tc acid
Malelc anhydride
Malelc anhydride
Malelc anhydride
Mathyl methacrylate
Pal argon Ic acid
Caprolc acid
Azallac acid
Pal argon Ic acid
Undecanolc acid
Trldecanolc acid
Amount
(kkg)
653,6005
143,328
8,6I85
8,6185/2,144,866
2,708,479
2,708,479
W
8,I655
23,078
acid)
47,2006
NA
146,614
146,614
146,614
422,241
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Feedstock
methanol
p-xylene
ethyl alcohol
propylene
ethyl ene
ethyl one
methanol with silver catalyst
methanol with metal oxide catal
dimethyl ether
light hydrocarbons
benzene
propylene
ro-xylene
butadiene (and other C4 hydro-
carbons)
benzene
butene-1, butene-2, butadiene
(If present)
Isobutylene, methanol
ol Is (tal 1 , red, soybean)
a-olef Ins
Other Required
Processes
ester If lea 1
ester 1 flea-
none
hydrol ysls
none
yst none
none
none
Isomer Izat
none
none
none
none
none
ester If Icai
ozonol ysl s
ozonol ys Is
188
-------
Table 17. (Continued)
Amount
(kkg)
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
1,315,715
782,254
36,553
NA
36,553
cumene
benzene, propylene
cyclohexane
acid cleavage
acid cleavage
alkylatlon
deh ydrogenat Ion
anhydride
anhydride
215,459s
215,4595
dlanhydrlde NA
5-benzenetetra-
I Ic-1,2,4,5-d(anhydride)
acid NA
Ic acid NA
altc acid 1.051.2003
rofuran, NA
tetracarboxyl Ic NA
ride
hylthluram NA
de (thluram)
•thylthlocarb-
Isulftdel
tic anhydride NA
benzene-tr Icarboxyl Ic
,2-anhydrlde)
naphthalene
o-xylene
pseudocumene
cycl Ic olef Ins
p-xylene
f uran
malelc anydrlde
ammonla, carbon
dlsulfIde,
d Imethylamlne,
hydrogen peroxide
pseudocumene
none
al kylatlon
al kylatlon
ozonol ys Is
none
condensation
condensation
none
Hedley et al. 1979a, USITC 1980.
xldatlon Is not always the major method of production of these chemicals.
tdatIon processes have more than one product.
1967, production In 1964.
980d, 801 of 1976 capacity of both products.
980d, 801 of 1978 capacity.
980d, 801 of 1979 capacity of both products.
965, production in 1963.
60d, 80% of 1977 capacity.
189
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190
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Table 18. Oxyhalogenation Products1 and Their Manufacture in 19792
Product
Ethyl ene dlchlorlde
Perch loroethylene
Tr 1 ch 1 oroethy 1 ene
Phenol
Vinyl chloride monomer
Vinyl chloride monomer
Vinyl chloride monomer
Amount
(kkg)
5,350,000
350,640
144,892
36,5523
NA
1.823.4404
NA
Feedstock
Ethyl ene
Any C2
Chlorocarbon
mixture
Benzene, HCI
Ethane
Chlorine
Ethylene
Chlorine
Naptha
Chlorine
Other Required
Processes
none
Halogenatlon
Catalytic cracking
Hydro lysl s
Dehydroha 1 ogenat Ion
Halogenatlon
Dehydroha 1 ogenat Ion
Halogenatlon
Dehydroha 1 ogenat Ion
Halogenatlon
ources:
Herrick et al. 1979a.
USITC 1979. Total production from all processes.
Includes all phenol produced with the exception of phenol from cumene, production, coke ovens,
and gas-retort ovens.
SRI 1981. Production levels are assumed to be 80J of plant nameplate capacity.
191
-------
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tn
192
-------
18.1 Description of Discharges
Oxyhalogenation manufacturing process emissions usually consist of
hydrocarbons. These nay be feedstock, inpurities in the feedstock,
products, and by-products.
Emissions from two typical oxyhalogenation manufacturing processes
may be classified under the headings of fugitive, process, secondary, and
storage and handling:
Fugitive - occur from pressure relief valves, flanges, pump
emissions seals, valve steams, and compressors. When process
pressures are higher than cooling water pressure,
VDC can leak into the cooling water and escape as
a fugitive emission from the cooling tower.
Process - from absorber vents which release inert gases from
emissions the oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, and other
feeds; drying column releases or non-condensable
gases; and neutralizer vents.
Secondary - from wastewater containing VOC in the waste treat-
emissions ment system and from the combustion of tars in the
incinerator.
Specific releases from this process are quantified in Versar (1982).
19.0 PHOSGENATION
Phosgenation is the process in which phosgene reacts with an amine
to form an isocyanate or in which phosgene reacts with an alcohol to form a
carbonate.
Table 19 lists the chemicals produced by phosgenation. Figure 19 is
a flow diagram for diisocyanate production by the phosgenation process.
19.1 Description of Discharges
Waste streams will contain fugitive emissions from valves, gas
compressors, wastewater treatment systems, and cooling water systems.
193
-------
TABLE 19. PHOSGENATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 1980+
Product
Amount
(kkg)
Feedstock
Other Required
Processes
Dlpheny lmethane-4,4'dl Isocyanate 260,816
(methy lane bls(4-pheny 11 socyanate)]
(MOD
Polycarbonate resins
Toluene dl I socyanate (TDD I
80/20, 2,4,-2,6-TDI
151,953
324,318
An 11 Ine
Formaldehyde
Phosgene
Blsphenol A
Phosgene
Phosgene
Toluene
None
Dehydrogenatlon
PolymerIzatIon
Hydrogenat Ion
Sources: Herrick et al. 1979a.
SRI 1981.
tLevels of manufacture are based on plant nameplate capacities with unspecified production
194
-------
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oo
195
-------
Emissions to the atmosphere can be expected from distillation unit vents,
pump seals and flanges, and catalyst incineration. Solid waste will
include polymeric residue as a result of product purification.
White (1980c) reports that phosgene is ^99% of the estimated uncon-
trolled VOC emissions associated with the solvent recovery and TDI produc-
tion distillations.
Specific emissions for this process are quantified in Versar (1982).
20.0 POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is the process where simple molecules, i.e., mono-
mers, are reacted to form polymers.
The organic chemicals most frequently made by polymerization and
their amounts produced in 1979 are listed in Table 20. A polymerization
reaction is illustrated in Figure 20.
20.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from the polymerization processes occur as fugitive and
particulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid residues. The
major sources of air contamination are: 1) the emissions of raw materials
or monomers, 2) emissions of solvents or other volatile liquids during the
reaction, 3) emissions of sublimed solids (such as phthalic anhydride in
alkyd resin production), and 4) emissions of solvents during storage and
handling of thinned resins (USEPA 1977). Wastewater may emanate from
within the process where it was required for the process operating condi-
tions; it may be formed during the course of chemical reactions; or it
may be used in washdcwn of process vessels, area housekeeping, utility
blowdown, and other sources such as laboratories (USEPA 1974 ). Solid
residues will result from precipitates of separation and purification
processes and bottoms products of distillation columns.
fugitive gaseous - may occur from valves, flanges, pump seals,
emissions compressor seals, pressure relief valves, drains,
and cooling towers.
196
-------
TABLE 20. ORGANIC CHEMICALS MANUFACTURED IN POLYMERIZATION1
Annual Production
(kkg 1979)2
Reactants
Other Required
Processes
•sins
rlle-butadlene-
reslns (ABS)
In
propy I ene
•r resins
vinyl acetate
ar resins
resins (Nylon
resins (Nylon
" 1
66) )
lene3
lene-acrylonltrlle (NBR)
as
late resins
jprene (neoprene)
resins (saturated)
resins4 (unsaturated)
gIycoIs
glycols
517,856
567,665
217,595
176,389
131,091
9,281
73,253
83,163
267,660
536,036
830,497
aery I on ItrIle
acrylonltrlle
butadiene
styrene
blsphenol A
eplchlorohydrln
ethylene or
propylene
ethylene
vinyl acetate
ca pro I act urn
adlplc acid
hexamethylene dlamlne
butad I ene
ac ry I on I tr 11 e
butadiene
buten e-1/buten e-2
blsphenol A
phosgene
chloroprene
gIycoIs
polybaslc acids
styrene
g I yco I s
styrene
unsaturated dibasic acids
ethylene oxide
propyIene oxide
ethyl«ne oxide
propylene oxIde
a IcohoIs
dehydrohalo-
genatlon
phosgenatIon
197
-------
Table 20. (Continued)
Products
Polyethylene (low density)
Polyethylene (high density)
Annual Production
(kkg 1979)2
3,393,853
2,234,543
Raactants
ethy lone
ethy lene
Other Req
Process
Polyethylene terephthalate
Polyethylene terephthalate
PoIyIsobutyIene
PoIyIsocyanate
Cls-polylsoprene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polystyrene (high Impact-
rubber modified)
Polyvlnyl acetate
Polyvlnyl alcohol resins
Polyvlnyl chloride resins
Polyvlnyl chloride-
acetate copolymer
Polyvlnyl chloride-vinyl I dene
chloride copolymer resins
Propylene tetrainer
Styrene-butadlene resin
(SBR)
Urea-formaldehyde resin
172,847
129,264
9,908
1,641,766
624,918
ethyIene glycol
terephthalIc acid
dimethylterephthalate
ethylene glycol
Isobutene
butenes
organic dlchlorldes
sodium cyanate
-
1,734,513
1,062,650
682,268
410,135
75,591
2, 817.4815
-
Isoprene
propy lene
styrene
po 1 ybutad 1 ene
styrene
vinyl acetate
vinyl alcohol
vinyl chloride
vinyl acetate
vinyl chloride
vinyl chloride
vinylIdene chloride
propylene
styrene
butad I ene
bluret
formaldehyde
urea
ester If I
condense
pyroIysI
^Source: Herricketal. 1980.
2Source: USITC, Synthetic Organic Chemicals; 1979
^Solution and emulsion polymerization
4Annual production Includes polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, and other saturated
polyester resins
^Value Includes polyvlnyl chloride copo I voters 198
-------
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199
-------
Reactants and - gaseous releases may occur from fractionating
solvent puri- columns and driers.
f ication
- liquid wastes may occur from caustic and water
washes and driers.
- emissions occur during storage and transport of
monomers and solvents from vents in tanks and
leaks in liquid transport.
Reaction and - reactants are released from vents on polymeriza-
product concen- tion reactors.
tration
- effluent waters from centrifuges are contaminated
with reactants and products.
- solid effluents from settlers are disposed of.
Blending and - addition of stabilizers may contaminate as the
solvent removal results of spillage.
- solvent removal involves centrifuges, distillation
columns, and liquid-liquid extraction which
results in contaminated effluent waters, fugitive
and intermittent air emissions, solid bottoms
product, and liquid wastes containing extraction
solvents.
Drying and - air emissions occur from drying towers, baggers,
packaging and dust collectors.
- solid residues are collected from screeners, which
eliminate oversized particles, and as losses due
to spillage
- oil and grease are released from lubricating
extruders.
A characteristic of some polymerization processes is that the solid
resins products are sold as pellets (chips), molding powder, protective
coatings, or as latex resin. The treatment after polymerization varies
with each use. No further wastes are generated if the resin is sold in
latex form because no further processing is required. Protective coatings
200
-------
go to agitated thinning tanks which release a liquid waste caused by spills
and washout. Resins for Holdings are dried and crushed into Holding powder
which release air and solid emissions. Pellets are formed by drying and
cutting,usually in a screw-extruder, and then are passed through a dust
collector and an oversized screener. The wastes occur as air emission,
liquid wastes, and solid residues. The liquid wastes result because oil
and grease used as lubricants are released. Solid residues result from the
oversize screening process. Air emissions are released from the extruders
and the dust collectors. Sometimes the pellets are processed further in a
fiber spinning process. Air, liquid,and solid emissions may occur.
Another characteristic of the polymerization processes is that
monomers slowly polymerize in the pipelines, especially in the monomer
recovery system pipelines. These lines must be cleaned out periodically,
and the polymers are scrapped.
20.2 Production Process - Polyvinyl Chloride by Polymerization
Vinyl resins rank second in production to polyethylene. More emis-
sion data are available on the production of polyvinyl chloride (FVC) than
polyethylene. Vinyl chloride monomer is one of the EPA'si29 priority pol-
lutants; ethylene is not a priority pollutant. Therefore, the manufactur-
ing process described in detail with emission points for this section will
be the process for the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride by polymerization
of vinyl chloride monomer: an addition reaction.
21.0 PYROLYSIS '
Pyrolysis, also known as cracking, is the decomposition of chemical
compounds by heat alone.
The organic chemicals that are manufactured by pyrolysis are listed
in Table 21. A typical pyrolysis production process is presented in
Figure 21.
201
-------
Table 21. Organic Chemicals Manufactured by Pyrolysis
Amount
Product (kkg )
Acetic anhydride 727, 7552
Acetylene 137, 1682
N-butyl aery late MA
Cyanurlc acid
Cyanurlc acid \
Sodium dlchloro Isocyanurate \ NA3
Trichloro Isocyanurlc acid j
Ethyl acetoacetate MA3
Ethyl ene
Propylene 13,564,215'
Hydrogen
Pyrolys Is gas
Hexachlorocyclopentadlene MA3
Isoprane 248, 560 '
Ketene dlmer (dlketene) NA3
Melamlne ) 54,4322
Melamlne )
Methyl acetoacetate NA3
Naphthalene 74, I031
Oxal Ic acid NA3
Phenothlazlne NA3
Feedstock
Acetic acid
Light hydrocarbons
Acetic acid
Urea
Caustic soda
Chlorine
Urea
Acetic acid
Ethanol
Butane
Propane
Ethane
Naptha
Gas oil
Pentane
Formal dehyde
Hydrogen chloride
Isobuty lene
Acetic acid
Urea
Dlcyandl amide
Acet Ic acid
Isopropanol
Coal tar
Petroleum heavy
aronatlcs
Sodium formate
01 phenylamlne
Sulfur
Other Required
Processes
Condensation
None
None
None
Hal ogenatlon
Esterlflcatlon
None
Hal ogenatlon
Condensat Ion
Hydrohal ogenatlon
None
Condensat Ion
Condensat Ion
Esterlf Icatlon
None
Condensation
None
Pol yl socyanate
Organ Ic dlchlor Ides
Sod I urn cyanate
PolymerIzatIon
202
-------
Table 21. (Continued)
roduct
py lene
Amount
kkg Feedstock
6,440,1>59] Propane
Butane
Naphtha
Gas oil
Other Required
Processes
None
irce: Herrick et al. 1979a.
urce: USITC, Synthetic Organic Chemicals, 1979.
Assumes 100? of products were made by pyrolysis.
jrce: SRI 1981.
Assumes 80? of capacity Is produced and also assumes the amount produced was by pyro lysis.
jrce: SRI 1981.
Does not give amounts produced, but lists producers.
203
-------
2
»
CL
U
•r-
Q.
CM
CD
8
204
-------
21.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical pyrolysis process occur in wastewater, as
fugitive gaseous emissions, and in solid residues.
fugitive
emissions
pyrolysis
section
product cooling
product
purification
separation of
products and
by-products
cooling tower
and boiler
blowdown
- occur from valves, flanges, pump seals, compressor
seals, pressure relief valves, drains, and cooling
towers (Wetherhold et al. 1981).
- combustion gases from a gas-fired furnace.
- hydrocarbon and coke particulate emissions when
decoking the furnace.
- contaminated water from steam generation.
- contaminated quench water or oil that comes in
direct contact with the products in the quench
towers.
- contaminated cooling water from leaks in heat
exchangers.
- product contaminants are removed by caustic
scrubbers, oil scrubbers, gas scrubbers, or
absorbers which will have liquid waste streams
containing these contaminants.
- gas scrubbers generally vent or flare pollutants
to air.
- strippers, fractionation columns; the undesired
bottoms product will have to be disposed of or
recycled.
- operation of the steam generation and cooling
water systems produces the major portion of
wastewater from pyrolysis units.
Specific releases are quantified in Versar (1982).
205
-------
22.0 REFORMING (STEAM) - WATER GAS REACTION
The reforming (steam) - water gas reaction refers to reacting steam
and methane to make water gas (which consists of carbon monoxide, hydrogen ,
arri carbon dioxide) and then converting water gas into methanol.
Table 22 lists the various pressures and reactants used to produce
methanol and amounts produced. Figure 22 is a generalized flow diagram of
the steam reforming-water gas reaction.
22.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from the reforming (steam) - water gas reaction occur as
fugitive and particulate gaseous emissions, liquid wastes, and solid resi-
dues. The major sources of contamination are purge vent gases, regenera-
tion gases, spent catalysts, and water from the purification section.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted.
Fugitive gaseous - may occur from valves, flanges, pump seals,
emissions compressor seals, pressure relief valves, drains,
and cooling towers.
Desulfurization
of reactants
Steam reforming
of reactant
Compression
Catalytic
converter
Cooling and
condensing
- release of hydrogen sulfide, methane, and steam
will occur during regeneration of the desulfuri-
zation column.
- spent catalysts will be landfilled.
- emissions will occur, especially during regener-
ation.
- spent catalysts will be landfilled.
- fugitive emissions will occur especially at
compressor seals.
- liquid wastes will result when the compressors are
flushed and when the oil used to grease the
compressors leaks out.
- emissions may occur, especially during
regeneration.
- spent catalysts will be landfilled.
- a purge vent gas from the vapor-liquid separator
is the largest process emission.
206
-------
TABLE 22. REFORMING STEAM-WATER GAS PRODUCTS AND
THEIR MANUFACTURE IN 1980
Amount8 Other Required
Products kkg Feedstock
Methanolb
Methanolb
Methanolc
Methanolc
Methane lc
Methanolc
Naphtha
1,276,000
Natural Gas
Naphtha
2,850,000 Natural Gas
Liquified Petroleum
Naphtha
Dimethyl Ether Carbon dioxide
Processes
None
None
None
None
None
Total 4,126,000
Source: Herrick et al. 1980.i
"Source: SRI 1981
These amounts are 80 percent of the capacities reported in SRI 1981.
A density of 49.3 ib/ft3 (0.792 g/cm3) was assumed. The ratio of
production by high pressure to that by low pressure was obtained from
White 1980b.
bHlgh pressure process.
cLow pressure process.
207
-------
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\
4
1
[i
00 (0
e c
•HO)
§c -o
o c
O)
4->
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E
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E
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208
-------
Distillation - vents on the distillation columns and flash tank
section will emit products and by-products.
- a water waste stream will be removed and treated.
Specific releases for this process are quantified in Versar (1982).
23.0 SULFONATION AND SULFATION
Sulfonation is the process by which the sulfonic acid group
(•S020H), the corresponding salt (-SC^O-), or the fulfonyl halide
(•SC^OX) is attached to a carbon or a nitrogen atom. Sulfation
involves the placement of an 'OSC^OH group on carbon when sulfating an
alkene or of an 'Sf^OH group on oxygen when sulfating an alconol or a
phenol.
The principal organic chemicals manufactured by sulfonation and
sulfation are listed in Table 23. Figure 23 is the flow diagram for the
manufacture of methyl methacrylate.
23.1 Description of Discharges
Releases from a typical sulfonation or sulfation process occur in
wastewater, as vent gases, and as fugitive gaseous emissions.
Fugitive - occur from valves, flanges, pump seals, compressor
seals, pressure relief valves, drains and cooling
towers, and storage tanks.
Sulfonation/sul- - neutralization crystals.
fation section
- vent gases from columns and wastewater from
columns.
Specific releases for this process are quantified in Versar (1982).
209
-------
TABLE 23. SULFONATION AND SULFATION PRODUCTS AND THEIR PRODUCTION IN 1979
Product
Alkyl benzene
sulfonates
m-Aminophenol
Methyl methacrylate
Amount
(kkg)
295,025
NA
418,893
Feedstock
Alkylbenzenes,
sulfur trloxlde
Nitrobenzene
Acetone
Other Required
Processes
Hydrolysis
Hydrogenatlon
Hydrolysis
Esteriflcation
monomer
2-Naphthol NA
Phenol 36,263
Alcohol, mixed 110,865
linear sulfated
-.ammonium salt
-,sodium salt
-,tr1ethanolam1ne salt
-.unspecified
Sec-Butyl alcohol NA*
Ethoxylsulfates NA
Isopropyl alcohol 855,169
Hydrogen cyanide
Methanol
Naphthalene
Caustic soda
Benzene
Caustic soda
Sul fur 1c add
Fatty alcohols,
sulfur trioxlde
Butylene
Ethoxylates,
sulfur trloxlde
Propylene
Hydrocy a nation
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
None
Hydrolysis
Source: Herrick et al. 1979a; USITC 1980.
Note: Sulfonatlon is not always the major method of production of these
chemicals.
210
-------
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iifHv.
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I i
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o
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M
211
-------
APPENDIX A-2
Plastics Manufacture and Processing
Introduction
Occupational hazards in the plastics processing industry can
generally be delineated into: 1) exposure to toxic chemicals,
2) injuries caused by mechanical or electrical machinery or accidents,
and 3) fires. These hazards are discussed in the plastics Industry
Safety Handbook, prepared by the Society of plastics Industry, 1973.
The plastics processing industry is vast and complex, due to an
overlapping of activities within the industry. Although SIC 3079,
Miscellaneous Plastics Products, is the SIC classification that most
closely approximates the plastics processing industry, various
plants classified under SIC groupings also manufacture plastics
products (see Table 24).
A minimum of 6,000 companies in the United States produce basic
materials; process or fabricate plastics into products or parts; or
finish these goods by decoration or other means. It is impossible
to estimate the number of companies using plastics that are customers
for these materials and serives. Quite often, there is an overlapping
of functions between industry and market, that is, the customer;
automotive and packaging companies are among the largest processors
of plastic products and parts. Similarly, an overlapping of functions
within the industry exists; materials manufacturers also process
and finish (Frados 1977).
The plastics processors, who turn the materials into secondary
products, component parts, or finished end-products, are involved
with several plastics processing methods; these are described in
Table 25.
Basically, the potential sources of occupational exposures to
toxic chemicals during plastics processing are:
1. Splashes of chemicals on skin and eyes when resins are
handled.
212
-------
TABLE 24. SIC COOES APPLIED TO THE PLASTIC PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
SIC Code Title
3021 Rubber and plastics footwear
3041 Rubber and plastics hose and belting
3079 Miscellaneous plastics products
3451 Screw machine products (produced on a
job order basis
3479 Coating, engraving, and allied services
not elsewhere classified
3728 Aircraft parts and auxiliary equipment
3963 Buttons
3944 . Toys and amusement, sporting, and
athletic goods
3714 Motor vehicle parts and accessories
213
-------
TABLE 25. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN THE PRODUCTION OF PLASTIC PARTS
Process Resin(s) Processed
Process Description
Blow
molding
Thermoplastics
Extrusion Thermoplastics
Injection Thermoplastics 4
molding thermosets
Blow molding is used to make hollow objects, including bottle;
drums, and toys. The resin is first extruded or injection
molded into a thin cylinder called a parison. The parison is
engaged in the mold and expanded to the configuration of the
mold by compressed air forcing it against the mold faces. th«
molded part is cooled in the mold by cooling jackets and
conveyed out of the mold. As the product gets more complex,
it is sent to secondary stations for cropping, separating
flash from the product, skiving, reaming, milling, drilling 01
decorating, printing, and labeling.
The molding powder or pellets are fed to a screw extruder
which is heated externally by steam jackets. The molding
powder or pellets are forced by a helical screw against the
heated cylinder wall where they are replasticized to form a
continuous plastic. At the end of the extruder, the
continuous plastic is shaped by a die into rods, sheets, or
tubes. When the products are ejected, they are soft and hot,
and carried on conveyor belts or troughs until they have
cooled sufficiently to handle. Cooling is accomplished by ai
blasts or water baths.
The molding powder or pellets are placed in a hopper which
feeds a small amount into a heating chamber. The heat supply
in this chamber may be either direct (electric heater) or
indirect (heated oil or steam-in jackets). In the heating
chamber, the powder or pellets are converted to a molten
viscous state. This viscous liquid is then forced under high
pressure through a nozzle into a mold (injected into a mold).
Once in the mold, the plastic cools to a solid shape.
Non-contact cooling water is circulated through channels in
both the injection equipment and product mold. The mold is
then opened and the finished piece is ejected from the press.
For thermosets, the cooling process is omitted and the produc
is cured in the mold under heat and pressure. The machines
are self-contained.
214
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TABLE 25. (Continued)
Process Resin(s) Processed
Process Description
npression Thermosets
Iding
nsfer Thermosets
ding
endering Thermoplastic*
Compression molding is the most common method of molding
thermoset plastics. The molding powder or pellets are placed
in open mold cavities, and the face of the mold is pressed
down. Pressure and heat are then applied for a specified
amount of time for curing and shaping of the product. Hold
heating is accomplished by steam, gas, oil, electronic coils,
or electric cartridge element. The processes are usually
fully automated. Automatic compression-molding presses
perform all of the routine molding processes of thermosetting
plastics: measuring the charge of the molding powder or
preforms, preheating it, loading into cavities, closing the
mold, opening it for breathing (gas expulsion), closing it for
a predetermined curing period, opening it and ejecting the
finished pieces, blowing the flash from the cavities and
plungers, and repeating the cycle over again.
Transfer molding is similar to compression molding, in that
the thermoset plastics are cured in the mold under heat and
pressure. The molding pellets or powder are first placed in a
pressure chamber and heated to a plastic state by contact with
the heated surface of the pressure chamber. The plastic then
flows through a narrow passage, which may be heated, and is
forced into a hot, closed molding cavity. High pressure and
heat are applied to the filled cavity to set (cure) the formed
plastic material. The finished article is ejected from the
mold cavity and air-cooled.
Calendering is used to process thermoplastics into sheeting or
film, and to apply a plastic coating to textiles or other
supporting materials. The process involves passing the film
or sheeting between a series of 3 or 4 large, heated revolving
rollers, which squeeze the material between them into a sheet
or film. Process cooled at 340°F.
215
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TABLE 25. (Continued)
Process Resin(s) Processed
Process Description
Casting Thermoplastics &
thermosets
Coating Thermoplastics &
thermosets
Foam
processing
A liquid monomer-polymer solution is poured into an open or
closed mold, where it finishes polymerization into a solid.
Film and sheet can also be cast directly into a flat, open
mold, casting onto a sheet or belt, or by precipitation in a
chemical bath. In comparison to molding, pressure is not
required, the starting material is usually a liquid, and the
liquid is often a monomer, rather than the polymers used in
molding. Casting of PVC film involves forming a solution of
the film ingredients, casting the solution on a suitable
substrate, evaporating the solvent, and winding the resultant
film on rolls.
Thermosets and thermoplastics may be used as coatings for
metals, wood, paper, fabric, leather, glass, etc. Methods ma
include: knife or spread coating, spraying, roller coating,
dipping, and brushing. Calendering of a film to a supporting
material is considered a form of coating. Powder plastics ar
coated by fluidized bed coating and electrostatic spray
coating. In the formor, the object is heated and dipped in a
dense-phase fluidized bed of powdered resin; the resin adhere
to the heated object, which is finished by further heating.
Foam plastic parts are manufactured by many processes:
casting, calendering, coating, rotational molding, blow
molding, injection molding, and extrusion. Host commonly,
blowing agents are incorporated in the resin and are
subsequently decomposed under heat to generate the gases
needed to create the cellular structure and for various
controls to accommodate thy foaming action. When polystyrent
beads are used to produce cups, picnic dishes, etc., the
"steam-chest" molding method causes the beads to expand and
fuse together.
216
-------
TABLE 25. (Continued)
Process Resin(s) Processed
Process Description
ninating Thermosets
ational Mainly thermo-
ding plastics; some
thermosets
ction
action
ding
Thermoplastics &
thermosets
High pressure and temperature are often used in lamination.
The thermosetting plastics are used to bind the reinforcing
materials that comprise the body of the finished product; the
reinforcing materials may be cloth, paper, wood, or glass
fibers and the products may be flat sheets, rods, or tubes.
In producing flat sheets, impregnated sheets are stacked
between 2 plates and subjected to high heat and pressure; the
process cures the plastic and produces a single material. For
producing tubing, resin-treated reinforcing sheets are
wrapped, under tension and/or pressure around a heated rod,
and subsequently cured in the oven. In producing formed
shapes, the reinforcing material is cut into pieces, and
fitted into the mold to cure under heat and pressure.
Intended primarily for manufacture of hollow objects, it
involves the placement of a polymer into a warm mold,
which is rotated in an oven about 2 axes. During heating if
the polymer is powdered material, a porous skin is formed on
the mold surface; this gradually melts as the cycle progresses
to form a homogeneous layer. When molding a liquid, the
material flows and coats the mold surface until it gels, at
which time flow ceases. After cooling, the molds are opened
for removal of the molded parts.
Also termed liquid injection molding, this process has been
primarily for molding polyurethane elastomers or foams into
products - solid integral skins and cellular cores. Two or
more pressurized reactive streams are impinged together under
pressure in a mixing chamber; the resultant mixture is
injected, under low pressure, into the mold where the reaction
begins and continues until the liquid mixture solidifies into
the product.
217
-------
TABLE 25. (Continued)
Process Resin(s) Processed
Process Description
Thermo-
f ormi ng
Sintering
Plastisol
processing
Thermoplastic
sheet
Reinforced Thermoplastics
plastics thermosets
processing
The material is heated (225 - 325°F) until softened; the hot
and flexible material is forced against mold contours by
mechanical or pneumatic means, and the products are cooled.
Granules of the raw plastic are first compacted under
pressure, then fused by application of heat. Once fused, they
are further formed by heat and pressure.
Plastisols are dispersions of homopolymers and copolymers of
vinyl chloride in conventional polyvinyl chloride
plasticizers. Temperatures required for fusion are 300 -
400°F for homopolymers and 250 - 300°F for copolymers.
Further heating of the polymer produces a gel and fuses the
ingredients into a homogeneous melt which becomes a continuous
solid upon cooling. Plastisols are processed by 1) dipping,
2) slush molding, 3) rotational molding, 4) spread coating,
5) cavity and in-place molding, 6) spraying, 7) pressure
molding, and 8) strand coating.
Reinforced plastics are composites in which resins, as binding
material, are combined with reinforcing materials, usually
fibers. These composites can be injection molded,
rotationally molded, extruded, or cold stamped. Unique to
reinforced plastics are processes such as pultrusion, for
making continuous shapes, by pulling resin-impregnated fibers
through shaping dies and curing operations (a counterpart to
thermoplastic extrusion) and filament winding, for making
cylindrical shapes by winding resin-impregnated fibers around
a mandrel, curing the part and removing the mandrel.
* Thermoplastic resins can be repeatedly softened by heat, reshaped, and then cooled to regain
their solid state. Thermoset resins, once solidified and cured (polymerized), cannot be
remelted without polymer degradation.
Sources: Agranoff 1980-1981.
Kline 1953.
218
-------
2. Accidental flash contact.
3. Accidental dust contact during cutting or machining
operations.
4. Inhalation of oxidation or pyrolysis products.
5. Inhalation of materials from fugitive leaks in processing
equipment.
6. Inhalation of gases escaping from opening or closing the
molds.
7. Inhalation of gases escaping from loading or unloading
operations.
.8. Inhalation of gases released during the cooling process.
9. Unexpected sudden release of pressure in pipelines
containing chemicals.
10. Entry into reactors, where there may be high vapor
concentrations.
The plastics processors are the mainstay of the industry. They
turn the plastics materials into secondary products, e.g., film,
sheet, rod, tube, etc., component parts,or finished end-products.
Processors can be classified according to whether they are
processing on a custom basis for end-users, "custom processors," or
whether they represent captive (in-house) production facilities for
manufacturers who use plastics parts in large volume, "captive
processors." Plastics processors can also be classified, more
specifically, according to the type of processing they employ
(Frados 1977).
To assess the occupational exposure in the plastics processing
industry, three factors must be considered. These are:
1. The plastic material itself, the modifying agent used and
its toxicity.
2. The operating parameters of the processing techniques
employed.
3. The degree of automation of the processes employed.
219
-------
Of the three, the last, the degree of automation, is the most
difficult to generalize or characterize, due to rapidly increasing
automation encountered in the plastics industry. Nevertheless, the
degree of automation remains an important factor in the
determination of employee exposure in the industry. It is plausible
to generalize that the greater the degree of automation, the less
the potential for occupational exposure to toxic chemicals during
plastics processing, as less worker contact is involved. Manually
operated equipment is still in use in the plastics industry,
especially by small companies.
Some resins pose health hazards due to their inherent makeup
during processing operations. Examples are urea-formaldehyde and
melamine-fonnaldehyde resins. During processing, these partially
cured resins will undergo complete curing, accomplished by elevated
temperatures and pressures, and accompanied by the liberation of some
free formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is highly irritating to the eyes,
nose,and throat, and it is important that adequate ventilation be
provided in the occupational setting. Exposure to formaldehyde may
also occur during machining and cutting operations, when resin dust
is produced (Society of the Plastics Industry 1973).
In contrast, polyethylene resins are physiologically inert in
themselves. If adjuvants, i.e., antioxidants, are used and if they
are physiologically active (extractable by body fluids), it is their
toxicity that must be considered (Society of the Plastics
Industry 1973).
The operating temperatures at which plastics are processed are
very close to the degradation temperature of the resin(s) employed.
Therefore, the operating temperature during a process is entirely
dependent on the resin employed.
Some process operations pose more of a potential for
occupational exposure than others. For example, during compression
molding of thermoset resins, specifically, melamine, urea, or
220
-------
phenolics, a condensation-polymerization reaction occurs in the
molds. This results in the formation of by-product gases/ which
must be vented during molding to prevent the formation of bubbles or
distortions in the end products. Whereas transfer and injection
molds have vents, compression molds are opened during curing to
release these by-product gases (see Table 26). if the work area is not
adequately vented, there exists a large potential for exposure
to possibly noxious fumes during compression molding
(Agranoff 1980-1981).
Operating parameters are important in assessing occupational
exposure, because even relatively inert materials, when sufficiently
heated in excess of the appropriate processing range, may pose a
potential for hazard. For example, polyethylene, at sufficiently
high temperatures, will pyrolyze, yielding materials which are
irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract (Society of the
Plastics Industry 1973). The following section further discusses
exposure to noxious materials during plastics processing.
Possible Exposure to Noxious Fumes During Processing
Most plastics are normally processed within the temperature
range of 140 - 340°C; within this range, especially at the upper
end of the range and depending on the polymeric material and the
fabrication process, fumes and gases are very often observed. The
fumes can include carbon monoxide, formaldehyde,and acrolein, and
are generally low in concentrations, except at the very top of the
temperature range. These fumes are adequately removed by
appropriate precautionary measures, such as vents.
While some of the fumes are produced or formed by pyrolysis,
others are formed by oxidation. It is also possible that there may
be a release of impurities, either from the plastic material, or
from one or more of the additives. The fumes released will differ
from one plastic to another, but almost all will release carbon
monoxide in the temperature range of 140 - 340 C during
221
-------
TABLE 26. POTENTIAL FOR OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE DURING PLASTICS PROCESSES
Plastics Process
Exposure Potential
Compression
molding
• Potential for exposure to flash, to vapors, and the material
itself3.
• Once ejected from the mold, the finished product is hot and
residual gases from insufficient curing will be released and may
pose a potential for inhalation exposure.
• Potential for exposure to particulate emissions when molds are
loaded with molding powder or pellets.
• Potential for exposure during "breathing the mold" when the mold
is opened to release the by-product gases formed during curing.
It is not known if the process is vented.
• Inhalation exposure to gases released due to leaks in equipment.
Transfer
molding
Blow molding
• Potential for exposure exists when venting by-product gases
during curing, if the work area is not properly ventilated.
• Once ejected from the mold, the finished product is hot; any
residual gases from insufficient curing will be released.
• The pressure chamber, transfer channels, and molding chamber may
have leaks through which residual gases may pass.
• Particulate emissions may occur when loading the pressure chamber
with molding powder or pellets.
• Potential for exposure to closing dies, to flash, to heat, and to
the material itself3.
• When the compressed air exits, the mold may contain some residual
gases.
• Potential for exposure to formaldehyde gases may exist when
conveying the parison to the mold, when conveying the product out
of the mold, especially if it is hot, and when initially
conveying the molding pellets or powder to form the parison
(particulate emissions).
• Residual gases may be released due to leaks in the molding
equipment.
• Potential for exposure to spew of molten plastic3.
222
-------
TABLE 26. (Continued)
Plastics Process
Exposure Potential
Extrusion
• If cooling is by air blasts, exposure to gases is possible.
• Potential for exposure when the molding powder or pellets are
conveyed from the hopper to the extruders (particulate emissions)
or when the hot product is conveyed to the cooling area.
• Potential for exposure to gases from leaks in the extruder.
Injection
molding
• Potential for exposure to gases when molds are opened, especially
thermosets. By-product gases from curing will be released.
• Gases may escape through leaks in the heating chamber and molds
and may pose a potential for exposure.
• Particulate emissions may occur when the molding powder or
pellets are added to the hopper.
Casting
• Requires controlled heating and thus operation is usually
completely enclosed.
• Casting of PVC film may involve exposure to solvent.
Coating
• During spraying, atomized plastic particles present hazards due
to toxic and explosive characteristics of the materials;
ventilation is required.
• Amount of material lost during spraying operations is three times
that actually deposited. High inhalation exposure potential).
Foam
• The potential for inhalation exposure to the gases released upon
heating exists.
• Exposure to gas during aging of product is possible.
Laminating
• Dermal contact with liquid varnishes or resins poses potential
for exposure, especially when pressure is applied.
• If work area is not properly ventilated, the potential for
exposure to solvents released during curing exists.
223
-------
TABLE 26. (Continued)
Plastics Process Exposure Potential
Potential • Potential for exposure exists if molds are not sufficiently
molding cooler; cooling is claimed to be the most ignored portion of the
entire cycle.
Reaction • Potential for exposure exists if the mold is opened before
injection complete curing has occurred.
molding
Thermoforming • Potential for exposure exists if the molds are not sufficiently
cooled.
Sources: Society of the Plastics Industry 1973.
Frados 1976.
Modern Plastics Encyclopedia 1980-1981.
224
-------
processing. Aldehydes can also be released from certain polymeric
materials. The concentrations of these fumes to which workers would
be exposed, in the absence of proper ventilation, are dependent on
workers' positions in relation to the source of the fumes, i.e.,
processing equipment (Edgerley 1981).
Edgerley (1981) reported that carbon monoxide evolved at
temperatures from about 200°C and above, when 12 polymeric
materials were tested. In his experiments, Edgerley was careful to
point out that while the 'onset of CO* temperature is exceeded by
the maximum recommended temperature in many cases, it does not mean
that oxidative pyrolysis was taking place to any serious extent (see
Tables 27 and 28). Evolution of formaldehyde from polyethylenes
tested increased with temperature to a maximum at or above 280 C,
whereas evolution of acrolein was significant above 140°C(see Table 29)
Above this tenperature, a rapid increase in the rate of evolation
was reported.
Gases other than carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and acrolein can
also be released during plastics processing; benzene may evolve in
the case of certain polymers containing aromatic ring structures.
Table 30 presents information on the gases evolved from plastics
manufacture, along with their concentrations and TLV.
Results of atmospheric sampling tests performed close to certain
types of plastics processing equipment are presented in Table 31.
Sampling devices were placed close to points where polymers emerged
into the open air, and also in the operator's work area. The
presence of carbon monoxide, acrolein, and formaldehyde was
confirmed, especially at the high end of the processing temperature
range at or near the point at which the polymer emerges into the
air. As adequate ventilation was provided, the potential for
exposure was diminished.
In addition to the evolution of gases during plastics
processing, the exothermic nature of the oxidation of organic
polymers to carbon monoxide poses the potential for problems in
225
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TABLE 27. EVOLUTION OF CARBON MONOXIDE IN THE UPPER PART OF THE PROCESSING TEMPERATURE RANGE (PF
Polymer
LD Polyethylene
HD Polyethylene
EVA (4* VA)
Polypropylene
PVC
Polystyrene
PMMA
Polycarbonate
PET
Nylon 6 6
ABS
Wood (fir)
200°C
0
20
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
250°C
50
30
100
90
40
10
0
0
0
20
0
120
260°C
50
50
100
100
50
20
0
0
0
30
0
250
270°C
50
50
120
150
100
20
0
0
40
30
0
500
280°C
70
60
160
250
100
20
10
0
50
30
0
2000
290°C
120
90
180
410
100
30
40
0
80
30
0
3800
300°C
210
100
410
550
100
30
70
0
100
50
0
4600
310°C
390
100
800
700
110
40
80
0
120
50
20
5000
320°C
800
100
5000
950
no
40
80
0
150
70
20
2700
330°C
3000
150
6000
1100
no
50
100
20
190
70
30
1300
340°C
5000
130
7000
1100
120
70
100
20
230*
80
30
150
350°C
5400
50
6000
800
120
100
90
20
300
200
30
150
400°C
250C
1200C
250C
15(
12C
80C
3(
24(
160(
HOC
12(
40C
Source: Edgerley 1981.
226
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LE 28. CARBON MONOXIDE EVOLUTION IN THE MELTING AND PROCESSING TEMPERATURE RANGE OF VARIOUS PLASTICS
ial Tm
(°C)
iyethylene 110 - 130
yethylene 120 - 140
ft VA) 90
•opylene 176
.yrene
irbonate
258
6 6 265
Tg Compression
(°C) Molding (°C)
90 - 105 140 -
150 -
50 -
170 -
75 - 105 140 -
100 130 -
90 - 105 150 -
150 150 -
88 - 120 165 -
220
230
150
235
220
205
220
325
235
Injection Extrusion
Molding (°C) (°C)
205 -
150 -
120 -
205 -
165 -
165 -
165 -
250 -
290 -
270 -
195 -
290
315
220
290
195
260
260
345
315
325
275
220 -
150 -
150 -
220 -
150 -
190 -
205 -
230 -
230 -
270 -
200 -
310
340
220
310
210
255
260
290
320
330
235
Onset of CO
Evolution
200
200
220
200
240
240
280
330
280
200
310
CO can Reach
500 ppm (°C)
375
375
305
290
450
380
never
410
375
355
420
ocessing temperatures were obtained from the Modern Plastics Encyclopedia 1978.
: Edgerley 1981.
227
-------
0.3 (0.2)
0.3 (0.2)
0.7 (0.6)
0.5 (0.4)
0.5 (0.4)
0.6 (1.3)
1.9 (1.5)
0.6 (0.5)
1.5 (1.2)
0.7 (0.6)
0.5 (0.4)
0.7 (0.6)
0.6 (0.5)
0.6 (0.5)
0.6 (0.5)
TABLE 29. EVOLUTION OF ALDEHYDES FROM HEATED POLYOLEFINS IN AIR
Formaldehyde (TLV 3.0 mg/m3 or 2.0 ppm)
17QOC 200°C 24QOC 280<>C 320°C 360<>C
LDPE 0.1 (0.1)
HOPE -- --
PP -- --
Acrolein (TLV 0-25 mg/m3 or 0-0 ppm)
170°C 200°C 240°C 280°C 320°C 360°C
LDPE None detected at these temps. 0.0 (0.4) 0.9 (0.8) 02.8 (5.5)
HOPE -- — 0.4 (0.2) 0.6 (0.3) 3.6 (0.5) 4.4 (0.9) 4.6 (2.0)
PP -- - 0.0 (0.04) 0.0 (0.04) 0.2 (0.0) 0.6 (0.3) 0.7 (0.7)
The concentrations are in mg/m3 for lOg polymer averaged over 50 urn.
The equivalent, in parts per million, appears in parentheses. All tests
were carried out with a 5 sample in an unstated shallow well in a heated
steel plate.
Source: Edgerley 1981.
228
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TABLE 30. EVOLUTION OF CERTAIN GASES FROM PLASTICS AT THE HAXIHUH
RECOMMENDED PROCESSING TEMPERATURE
Temperature
Polymer (°C) Gas
Pol yvinyl chloride
Polycarbonate
PET
Nylon 6.6
Acrylonitrile/
Butadiene
Styrene (ABS)
Polystyrene
EVA (4 percent VA)
EVA (28 percent VA)
205
345
345
325
275
260
220
220
Hydrogen chloride
Benzene
Benzene
Benzene
Hydrogen cyanide
Ammonia
Nitrous fumes
Hydrogen cyanide
Ammonia
Nitrous fumes
Styrene
Benzene
Styrene
Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Acetic acid
Vinyl acetate
Concentration
(ppm)
120
2
trace <1
trace <1
-60
trace 0.5
1
5
trace < 0.5
<50
trace < 1
trace < 50
<5
<5
25 ppm
<5
TLV
(ppm)
5
10
10
10
10
25
25
10
25
5
100
10
100
10
10
10
10
Source: Edgerley 1981.
229
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TABLE 31. ATMOSPHERE ANALYSES NEAR PLASTICS PROCESSING MACHINERY
Processing
Machinery
Die
Plastic Temperature
Idling, Cleaning, etc.
(ppm)
During Normal Running (ppm)
Very Close to Fuminc
Near Die Operator's Area3 Equipment
113.mm Extruder LD Polyethylene 220
280
Extruder
coater (paper
coating)
Film making
LD Polyethylene 295
300
318
320
Polypropylene 220
50. mm Extruder Nylon 6.6
300
Carbon monoxide 30 Carbon monoxide 5
Formaldehyde 0.7
Acrolein 0.02
Carbon monoxide 70
Formaldehyde 1.1
Acrolein 0.1
Carbon monoxide 0
Carbon monoxide 1 Carbon monoxide 0
Carbon monoxide 30 Carbon monoxide 0
Formaldehyde 0.2
Acrolein 0.01
Carbon monoxide 10
Ammonia 6-10
Removal of screw:
Carbon monoxide 2i
Formaldehyde 2.0
Acrolein 0.2
Die retracter:
Carbon monoxide 4
Formaldehyde 0.1
Die retracted:
Carbon monoxide 7
(mean, peaks to 2
Formaldehyde 0.5
Acrolein 0.1
Removal of screw**
Carbon monoxide 1
HCN, ammonia both
aTaken at nose height as near as judged reasonable.
bAfter purging with polypropylene.
Source: Edgerley 1981.
230
-------
occupational settings. This is because once the reaction has
started, the rate can increase expontentially due to a rise in
the temperature. Consequently, in situations where heat cannot be
readily removed, polymer plastics caught on die-lips or on a hot
knife will rise in temperature and will generate more gaseous
oxidation products than might be expected (Edgerley 1981).
231
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Third Tier Manufacture
Finishing, decorating, and assembly of plastics end products are
accomplished either in-house, by the plastics processor, or by
companies specializing in various finishing techniques. Such a
specialty may be the metallizing of plastics products to impart a
chrome-like appearance, or the large volume printing of plastics
film and sheet (Frados 1977). Finishing methods employed in the
plastics industry are described in Table 32.
Hazards encountered in the finishing, assembly,and decoration of
finished plastics products are often similar to those encountered
during the processing of plastics. This is especially true of
finishing and assembly, as these do employ the application of heat.
This exposure to hazardous gases/vapors is certainly possible, if
adequate ventilation is not provided in occupational settings.
Decoration of finished and assembled parts involves use of a
variety of chemicals to impart different touches to the end
product. Chemicals such as "fiber-reactive" disperse dyes,
etchants, and adhesives are used, and worker exposure to these
chemicals is possible if protective measures are not employed.
Certain decoration techniques such as in-mold decoration are
performed during the processing_encountered in second tier
manufacture. Here,a product emerges from the mold completely
decorated.
232
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TABLE 32. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN THE ASSEMBLY, FINISHING,
AND DECORATION OF PLASTICS PARTS
Adhesive
bonding
Electromagnetic
bonding
Friction
joining
Most often the most efficient, economical, and durable method of
plastics assembly.
1. Elastomeric adhesives used to assemble elastomers.
Solvent-based, applied by spray or brush. Require ventilation
to eliminate solvent hazards.
2. Thermoplastic resins used with other plastics. Solvent-based or
applied to parts as melts at elevated temperatures.
3. Thermosetting resins are most versatile, durable, and
environmentally resistant adhesives. Curing involves heat or
mixture of two components. Single component, room-temperature
curing systems are growing rapidly in use. Automated glue-guns
or pressure time applicators.
4. Miscellaneous adhesive types are available as water-based
systems.
Methods
1. Brushing - labor-intensive.
2. Dipping - difficult with solvent cements.
3. Roll coating - efficient for uniform coating of areas.
4. Spraying - rapid method for large areas, also imparts
preciseness to small areas. Requires venting and operator
protection.
5. Stencil/screening - not suited to solvent-type adhesives.
6. Pressure - time applicators impart preciseness to small area
application. Can be factored into automated production lines.
Based on induction heating; magnetic materials develop heat loss
when subjected to high frequency alternating current source.
Equipment consists of induction generator, water-cooled copper work
coils, fixturing, and electromagnetic material.
Heat for melting plastics materials is generated by friction. With
parts held under pressure, one part is made to move relative to the
other; sufficient thermal energy is generated to form a melt
layer. One part has to be thermoplastic. Movement of the part can
be rotational (spin welding) or rapid back-and-forth displacement
of limited amplitude (vibrational welding).
233
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TABLE 32. (Continued)
Magnetic
heat
sealing
Mechanical
fastening
Radio frequency
seali ng/embossi ng
Thermal sealing/
bonding
Thermal sealing/
Radio freuqency (RF) magnetic fields are utilized to melt a
thermoplastic layer containing heat-generating powder, situated
between two bodies to be joined. Heat generation by a ceramic
powder, i.e., magnetic iron oxide, which responds to the RF
magnetic field. Powder can be incorporated into molded component
to be sealed into hot melts, liquid adhesives, etc.
Used to join plastic to plastic, plastic to metal, or to join
dissimilar plastic materials. They are made from metal, plastic,
or a combination. Screws, nuts, inserts, rivets, and sheet metal
screwreceivers are examples of mechanical fasteners.
RF energy is used to heat materials that are poor conductors of
electricity (dielectrics). When used in conjunction with some
mechanical device to apply pressure, the sealing, embossing, or
flow molding of these materials is accomplished. Equipment
consists of RF generator, a press to provide pressure while the RF
energy is applied, and tooling to direct or apply the energy in the
desired areas or patterns.
Method of joining two parts through the direct application of heat
or through the generation of frictional heat by gross motions of
the parts; pressure also used.
Film sealing methods
1. Hot-bar sealers, temperature of the bar, pressure, and dwell
time are all interrelated.
2. Rotary sealers, used for continuous machine-direction seals; a
modification of the hot-bar sealer.
3. Bank seals, consists of two moving metal loops, working together
and forming a nip into which film layers are fed.
4. Impulse sealers, a version of the bar sealer.
Thick part joining
1. Hot plate joining, edges pressed against plates until melt is
formed, then pressed together and cooled. Manual or automatic.
234
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TABLE 32. (Continued)
Automatic
2. Rotary joining, stations provided for clamping, heating,
joining, and cooling and unloading. Manual or automatic.
3. Groove joining, used to join flat sheets of plastic to the end
of a plastic pipe.
4. Hot gas welding, uses gaseous heat source to melt the areas of
plastics to be joined and a plastics welding rod.
Ultrasonic Becoming preferred method for plastics assemble; parts are clamped
or scanned under vibrating horn. Highly localized frictional
heating results as plastic joint or horn interfaces, resulting in a
thin layer of molten plastic, which subsequently solidifies upon
cooling.
Decorating and Printing
Dyeing and
printing
Electroplating
Embossing
Flock coating
Aqueous system and "disperse" class of textile dyes used. Dye bath
is from 150 - 200°F. Parts are degreased, placed in dye bath,
removed, rinsed, and dried. Exposure may occur by contact with
dyes.
Chemical etchants used to bond the metal deposits on plastic
surface. Preplating treatment involves application of a conductive
coating, cleaning with acidic, alkaline, or even a neutral
detergent. Etchants are usually strongly acidic, oxidizing
solutions often containing high concentrations of chromium trioxide.
Thermoplastic sheet is textured with a pattern imparted by an
embossing roll pressing against a backup roll under controlled
preheating and postcooling conditions. Process parameters involve
1) product compounding and related properties, 2) sheet thickness,
3) preheat temperature, 4) embossing roll design, and 5) postemboss
cooling.
The system is a continuous web line incorporating letoff, knife
overoll coaster, flock machine, vacuum blanket, curing oven,
cooling station, vacuum brush, and rewind. Final procesing phase,
curing and drying, involves temperatures from 275 to 325°F of
plastisol adhesives.
235
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TABLE 32. (Continued)
Hot stamping
In-mold decoration
Ion plating
Painting
Printing
Sputtering
A dry one-step process, it is versatile and uses heat and pressure
to transfer a pigmented material to the plastic. Processing
equipment consists of coated film, hot stamp press, and heated
platen with a die or roller. Most hot stamping foils and decals
transfer at temperatures between 250 - 375°C within one second.
Thermoplastics can be decorated by insertion of printed film in an
injection mold prior to closing, and then injecting a molding
compound compatible with the film material. Thermosets are
decorated by first going through a normal compression molding cycle
and interrupting before the cure is complete. The foil or overlay
is then placed in contact with the partially cured piece, the mold
is closed, opened for de-gas, and re-closed for proper cure.
Traditional ion plating is a natural outgrowth of sputtering. By
combining a high-rate evaporation source with an ionized cloud of
argon gas, the evaporated particles become ionized. Gasless ion
plating involves application of a high rate evaporation source, in
combination with an RF field and a die bias.
Methods: 1) dip coating, 2) die dyeing - often automated, 3) flow
coating, similar to dip coating; parts are racked on a spindle or
bar which is rotated while lacquer is applied.
Most common are flexography and gravure. Flexography prints by
transferring images from a flexible, raised printing plate onto a
smooth transfer roll, which carries the impression onto a web of
plastics. Gravure transfers ink from cells etched or engraved in a
metal cylinder onto material to be printed. The cells pick up the
highly volatile liquid ink from a fountain; a doctor blade then
wipes excess ink from the roller before the actual printing stop is
performed.
New water pollution-free method of vacuum plating decorative
plastics requiring corrosion-resistant properties. Base coats are
applied by spraying or flow-coating, and are baked at 175 to 250°F.
Sputtering is performed in a vacuum chamber, but unlike
conventional vacuum metalizing, the metal is not melted or
evaporated. Sputtered metal atoms, knocked off by the impact of
ionized atoms, are ejected from the target and deposited on the
plastic part.
236
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TABLE 32. (Continued)
Vacuum metalizing Metal or other material is deposited on plastic material. Aluminum
is used to impart lustrous finish to objects. Vacuum metalizing
chamber is the heart of the process. Four steps are involved;
loading, base coating, vacuum coating, and top coating. Base
coating seals pores and reduces outgassing, Outgassing increases
with temperature rise and diminishing absolute pressure. Parts are
baked in connection or infrared ovens.
Machining Used in place of molding. Involves turning, drilling, end milling,
face milling, power bank sawing, and tapping. Machining can also
be performed with lasers.
Source: Agranoff 1980-1981.
237
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APPENDIX A-3
Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids
Introduction
This industry comprises two parts: petroleum refining and synthetic
lubricant manufacture. The former is addressed here. Synthetic
lubricant manufacture is a subset of the organic chemicals industry/
discussed in Section 1 of this Appendix.
Processes
The processes herein are actually steps, and all are required to
produce lubricants from petroleum.
DESALTING
Removal of inorganic salts by chemical for electrostatic methods. Crude
oil salts foul heat exchangers, corrode distillation units, and increase
furnace coking.
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION
Crude oil is separated into light products and other fractions. These
are sent elsewhere for further processing (straight-run gasoline,
naphtha, white-water distillate, and fuel oil). Atmosphere tower bottoms
(reduced crude) is charged to the vacuum tower for further distillation.
VACUUM DISTILLATION
Separates the wax distillate and cylinder stock at a low temperature so
as not to decompose or crack the lubricating fractions. Fuel oil is a
by-product of vacuum distribution. The wax distillate is charged to the
dewaxing unit and the cylinder stock is charged to the deresin/deasphalt
unit.
238
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DERESINING/DEASPHALTING
Propane solvent is used to deresin and/or deasphalt the cylinder stock.
Asphalts occur as asphaltene crudes. Resins occur in parafin or
low-alsphaltic cylinder stocks. The propane solvent is recovered and
reused.
DEWAXING
Solvent dewaxing with MEK and toluene is the most common approach to
dewax lube oils. MEK crystallizes the wax within the oil and toluene
dissolves the oil. The wax is removed through solvent injection and
chilling. Both wax solution and oil solution are distilled to remove,
recover, and reuse the solvent. Dewaxing the wax distillate results in
neutral stock (^ SAE motor oil). Dewaxing the cylinder stock results
in bright stock (^ SAE 70 motor oil).
Dewaxing results in oil-free wax and wax-free oil.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Solvent extraction removes compounds that cause low viscosity indexes.
Typically, chlorex, nitrobenzene, phenol, furfural, or benzene are used
with SO-. The solvent is removed, reclaimed, and reused from the
improved oil (raffinate) and the extract.
FILTRATION
Bauxite is the typical filter medium used to remove undesirable asphalts
and resins not previously removed in the deasphalting/deresining step.
Piltration is also used as a simple finishing step. The bauxite is
vashed with naphtha, steamed, and then regenerated by burning of the
adsorbed material and reused. Some refiners use hydrogen and a catalyst
(Lydrocracking) instead of bauxite filtration to improve the quantity and
juality of the lubricating oil.
239
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BLENDING/ADDITIVES
Additives are used according to the severity of the operating conditions
for which the lube oil is intended and the quality of the base lube oil.
Additive functions include: antioxidant, anticorrosive, antirust,
extreme pressure, antifoam, antiwear/ viscosity improver, pour pt. temp.
depressant, detergent, dispersant, antisquawk, and antichatter.
A general process flow diagram of lubricant manufacture is presented in
Figure 24.
Exposure Potential
Tables 33 and 34 sumnarize the exposure potential of each process,
and the rank indicates the relative significance of each source.
240
-------
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• u
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-------
TABLE 33. POTENTIAL INHALATION EXPOSURE FROM MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICANTS
Priority
Unit Operation
Type of Exposure
Atmospheric Distillation
leaks, pressure relief vents
Vacuum Filtration
regenerating bauxite filters
with naphtha and steam
hydrocarbon and participate emissions
Dewaxing
flue gas used to dry filter cakes
hydrocarbon and particulate emissions
Deasphalting or Oeresining
extractive distillation
leaks, pressure relief vents
Dewaxing
distillation to separate out solvents
leaks, pressure relief vents
Solvent Extraction
distillation columns
leaks, pressure-relief vents
Vacuum Distillation
pressure relief vent
minor pince pressure will be monitored
Inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation
242
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TABLE 34. POTENTIAL DERMAL EXPOSURE FROM MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICANTS
Priority
Unit Operation
Type of
Exposure*
Desalter
large water waste containing impurities
Vacuum Filtration
washing bauxite filter with naphtha
contaminated naphtha
Dewaxing
washing filter cake with toluene
contaminated toluene
Dermal
Dermal
Dermal
Bottoms of any fractionating towers containing
residuals
Dermal
Dewaxing
spent extracting solvent and leaks
toluene
Dermal
Solvent Extraction
spent extracting solvent and leaks
Deasphalting or Deresining
spent extracting solvent and leaks
propane
Vacuum Distillation
barometric condensers used to create
a vacuum
water will be contaminated with
oil
Dermal
Dermal
Dermal
Blending and Packaging
highly automated
spillage of additives
Dewaxing
sent to landfill
scraping out heat exchanger tubes
Dermal
Dermal
243
-------
TABLE 34. (Continued)
Type of
Priority Unit Operation Exposure*
2 Deasphalting or Deresining Dermal
solid waste-asphalts and resins
may be reused to make fuel oil
3 Dewaxing Dermal
wax filter cake will be used elsewhere
very valuable
4 Vacuum Filtration Dermal
contaminated spent bauxite filters
sent to landfill
5 Bottom products from distillation columns Dermal
may be landfilled
contains heavy residues
May have inhalation exposure also depending on volatility of the liquids.
244
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APPENDIX A-4
General Manufacturing Processes
Introduction
Processes inherent to all manufacturing industries can only be very
generally characterized. The wide variety of processes and equipment in
use necessitates a generic approach to evaluation of these exposure
sources. When using these definitions to evaluate specific processes/
try to make common-sense associations. For example, exposure via dyeing
may be likened to wet mixing and open-surface tanks.
Processes
Abrasive blasting. Abrasive blasting equipment may be automatic or it
may be manually operated. Either type may use sand, steel shot, or
artificial abrasives. The dust levels of workroom air should be
examined to make certain that the operators are not overexposed.
Abrasive machining. An abrasive machining operation is characterized
by the removal of material from a workpiece by the cutting action of
abrasive particles contained in or on a machine tool. The workpiece
material is removed in the form of small particles and, whenever the
operation is performed dry, these particles are projected into the
air in the vicinity of the operation.
Assembly operations. Improper positioning of equipment and handling of
work parts may present ergonomic hazards due to repeated awkward
motion resulting in excessive stresses.
Bagging and handling of dry materials. The bagging of powdered
materials (such as plastic resins, paint pigments, pesticides,
cement, and the like) is generally accompanied by the generation of
245
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airborne dusts. This occurs due to the displacement of air from the bag
spillage, and motions of the bagging machine and the worker. Conveying,
sifting, sieving, screening, packaging, or bagging of any dry material
may present a dust hazard. The transfer of dry, finely divided powder
may result in the formation of considerable quantities of airborne dust.
Inhalation and skin contract hazards may be present.
Drying ovens. Much of the equipment used for drying purposes is also
used for "curing/" i.e., the application of heat to bring about a
physical or chemical change in a substance. The first major category
includes direct dryers in which hot gases are in direct contact with
the material and carry away any vaporized substances to be
exhausted. Limited-use class includes radiant-heat and
dielectric-heat dryers. The operation of the former is based on the
generation, transmission, and absorption of infrared rays. The
latter rely on heat generation within the solid when it is placed in
a high-frequency electric field. Oven vapors (sometimes including
carbon monoxide) are often released into the workroom, as are a
variety of solvents and other substances found in the drying or
curing products.
Gas furnace or oven heating operations (annealing/ baking, drying,
etc.). Any gas or oil fired combustion process should be examined
to determine the level of by-products of combustion that may be
released into the workroom atmosphere. Noise measurements should
also be made to determine the level of burner noise.
Coating operations. Whenever a substance containing volatile
constituents is applied to a surface in an industrial environment,
there is obviously potential for any vapors evolved to enter the
breathing zones of workers. If the volatiles evaporate at a
sufficient rate and/or the particular operation is such that workers
must remain in the immediate vicinity of the "wet" coating, these
vapors may result in excessive exposures.
246
-------
Ceramic coating. Ceramic coating may present the hazard of airborne
dispersion of toxic pigments plus hazards of heat stress from the
furnaces and hot ware.
Fabric and paper coating. The coating and impregnating of fabric and
paper with plastic or rubber solutions may involve evaporation into
the workroom air of large quantities of solvents.
Crushing and grinding. Size reduction refers to the mechanical
reduction in size of solid particulate material. Two of the
principal methods of achieving size reduction are crushing and
grinding/ but the terms are not synonymous. Crushing generally
refers to a relatively slow compressive action on individual pieces
of coarse material ranging in size from several feet to under one
inch. Grinding is performed on finer pieces and involves an
attrition or rubbing action as well as interaction between individual
pieces of material. Pulverizing and disintegrating are terms related
to grinding. The former applies to an operation producing a fine
powder; the latter indicates the breakdown of relatively weak
interparticulate bonds, such as those present in caked powders. Dry
grinding operations should be examined for airborne dust/ noise/ and
ergonomic hazards.
Srinding operations. Grinding, crushing/ or comminuting of any
material may present the hazard of contamination of workroom air due
to the dust from the material being processed or from the grinding
wheel.
>ry mixing. Mixing of dry material may present a dust hazard and
should take place in completely enclosed mixers whenever air sampling
indicates excessive amounts of airborne dust are present.
247
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Welding - gas or electric arc. Welding operations generally involve
melting of a metal in the presence of a flux or a shielding gas by
means of a flame or an electric arc. The operation may produce gases
or fumes from the metal, the flux, metal surface coatings/ or surface
contaminants. Certain toxic gases such as ozone or nitrogen dioxide
may also be formed by the flame or arc. If there is an arc or spark
discharge/ the effects of radiation and the products of destruction
of the electrodes should be investigated. These operations also
involve hazards of high potential electrical circuits of low internal
resistance.
Electron beam welding. Any process involving an electric discharge in
vacuum may be a source of ionizing radiation. Such processes include
electron beam equipment and similar devices.
Forming and forging. Hot bending/ forming/ or cutting of metals or
nonmetals may have the hazards of lubricant mist, decomposition
products of the lubricant, skin contact with the lubricant, heat
stress (including radiant heat), noise, and dust.
Materials handling, warehousing. Work areas should be checked for
levels of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen arising from
internal combustion engine fork-lift operations.
Metalizing. Uncontrolled coating of parts with molten metals presents
hazards of dust and fumes of metals and fluxes in addition to heat
and nonionizing radiation.
Molten metals. Any process involving the melting and pouring of molten
metals should be examined to determine the level of air contaminants
of any toxic gas, metal fume, or dust produced in the operation.
248
-------
Open-surface tanks. Open-surface tanks are utilized by industry for
numerous purposes. Among their applications can be included the
common operations of degreasing, electroplating, metal stripping, fur
and leather finishing/ dyeing, and pickling. An open-surface tank
operation is defined as "any operation involving the immersion of
materials in liquids, which are contained in pots, tanks, vats, or
similar containers." Excluded from consideration in this definition,
however, are certain similar operations such as surface-coating
operations and operations involving nolten metals for vAiich different
engineering control requirements exist.
Paint spraying. Spray painting operations should be examined for the
possibility of hazards from inhalation and skin contact with toxic
and irritating solvents and inhalation of toxic pigments. The
solvent vapor evaporating from the sprayed surface may also be a
source of hazard, because ventilation may be provided only for the
paint spray booth.
Plating. Electroplating processes involve risk of skin contact with
•v
strong chemicals and may present a respiratory hazard if
mist or gases from the plating solutions are dispersed into the
workroom air.
Pouring stations for liquids. Wherever "volatile" 'substances are
poured from a spout into a container, some release of contaminants
can be expected. In the paint and other coatings industries,
solvents may be released when the contents of mills or mixers are
poured into portable change cans. While ladles and change cans can
be covered while being moved through a workplace, they must of
necessity be open at the points where they are filled or discharged.
249
-------
Punch press, press brake, drawing operations, etc. Cold bending,
forming, or cutting of metals or nonmetals should be examined for
hazards of contact with lubricant, inhalation of lubricant mist, and
excessive noise.
Vapor degreasing. The removal of oil and grease from metal products
may present hazards. This operation should be examined to determine
that excessive amounts of vapor are not being released into the
workroom atmosphere.
Wet grinding. Wet grinding of any material may produce possible
hazards of mist, dust, and noise.
Wet mixing. Mixing of wet materials may present hazards of
solvent vapors, mists, and possibly dust. The noise levels produced
by the associated equipment should be checked.
This information was extracted from Olishifski et al. 1979.
Exposure Potential
Process Types: o Hot Operations
o Liquid Operations
o Solid Operations
o Pressurized Spraying
o Shaping Operations
250
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword 259
How to use the matri x 260
Information resource matrix 261
(1) Annual Occupational Injury and Illness Survey 265
(2) Bibliographic Retrieval Service 267
(3) Chemical and Process Technology Encyclopedia 269
(4) Chemical Economics Handbook 270
(5) Chemical Engineering 271
(6) Chemical Engineering and News 272
(7) Chemicals 1n Commerce Information System 273
(8) Chemical Plant Data 275
(9) Chemical Substances Information Network 276
(10) Chemical Week 280
(11) Cross-Sectional Industrial Studies 281
(12) Directory of Chemical Producers 282
(13) Economic Information Systems 283
(14) Employment and Earnings 289
(15) Energy Data System 291
(16) Environmental Chemical Data and Information Network 293
(17) Chemical Substances Regulated by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration 297
(18) Ep1dem1olog1cal Studies Program System 299
(19) Establishment Registration Support System 300
(20) Handbook of Labor Statistics 302
(21) Hazardous Waste Site Tracking System 303
(22) Health and Environmental Effects Data Base System 305
(23) Health Effects Evaluation Data Base System 307
(24) Industrial Process Evaluations 308
(25) Industry Week 310
(26) International Registry of Potential Toxic Chemicals 311
257
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
(27) K1rk-0thmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 321
(28) Lockheed Dialog Information Retrieval Service 322
(29) Multimedia Assessment of Inorganic Chemicals 326
(30) National Electronic Injury Survey System 328
(31) NIH/EPA Chemical Information System 330
(32) National Occupational Hazard Survey 334
(33) Occupational Hazard Exposure Registry 338
(34) Occupational Related Disease Case Registry 339
(35) Organic Chemical Producers Data Base 340
(36) Outcome Studies of Workers 1n Selected Industries and
Occupations 342
(37) Pesticides Analysis Retrieval and Control System 343
(38) Pesticide Document Management System 344
(39) Pesticide Indlcent Monitoring System 346
(40) Risk Analysis International Journal 349
(41) Statistical Recordkeeplng System 350
(42) System Development Corporation Search Service 351
(43) Synthetic Organic Chemicals - U.S. Production and Sales 356
(44) Waste Characterization Data Base 358
(45) NIOSH Criteria Documents 360
(46) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Data Base 365
(47) Bibliography of Protective Clothing Data 368
258
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Foreword
This appendix has been specifically developed to support the conduct
of occupational exposure assessments. It 1s not Intended to be
all-inclusive or state-of-the-art 1n Its coverage. It 1s Intended to be
a preliminary guide to Information sources. No control was possible over
the accuracy and/or timeliness of the 47 resources contained within this
compilation beyond what 1s provided 1n the Individual resource excerpts
and abstracts. An attempt was made to weed out obviously out-of-date or
Irrelevant Information sources. For the purpose of this product, an
Information resource has been defined loosely as any source of
Information and/or data and Includes but 1s not limited to:
data bases
bibliographic retrieval systems
non-bibliographic retrieval systems
standard reference manuals
encyclopedias
Journals and books
The major sources used to compile these two volumes Include:
• USEPA, EPA Environmental Data Base and Model Index-Draft
Directory. May 1981. Office of Planning and Management,
Information Clearing House, EPA.
• USDC, A Directory of Federal Statistical Data Files. March 1981.
Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Dept. of
Commerce. PB 81-133175.
• USEPA, Environmental Information Systems Directory.
January 1976. Office of Planning and Management, EPA. PB 251 170.
• USDHHS, Environmental Health - A Plan for Collecting and
Coordinating Statistical and Ep1dem1o1og1c Data. DHHS Publication
No. (PHS) 80-1248. Office of Health Research, Statistics, and
Technology; National Center for Health Statistics, Public Health
Service; Dept. of Health and Human Services.
259
-------
How to Use this Matrix
The matrix 1s arranged with the Information Resources on the vertical
axis and the descriptive parameters on the horizontal axlx. The numbers
of the Information Resources correspond to the Individually tabbed
excerpts and abstracts 1n the accompanying support package.
A bullet (•) Indicates that Information on that particular
descriptive parameter can be found 1n that particular Information
Resource. An open circle (o) Indicates that Information on that
particular descriptive parameter might possibly be found 1n that
particular Information Resource or that Information might be extrapolated
from other Information 1n that resource.
Neither the EPA nor the Contractor assumes any responsibility for the
Information contained within the Individual excerpts or abstracts of the
47 Information resources. Sole responsibility lies with each contact for
each Individual resource. Use of trade names does not warrant
endorsement by either the EPA or the Contractor.
260
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Are You
Looking
For:
LAURA KASSEBAUM
Manager, New Product Development
BUS
Bibliographic Retrieval Services. Inc
611 Cameron Street. Alexandria. VA 22314
703-548-4005
Online Database Service?
Current Awareness Service?
Private Database Service?
Online Catalog Service?
Online Retrieval Software?
266
-------
An
Introduction
to
BBS
BRS was established in 1976 to provide in-
novative and cost-effective online information
retrieval services and technology to a national
user community.
By introducing lower connect hour rates, group
membership plans and subscription access, BRS
quickly became the system of choice for online
users in academic, government, and special
libraries throughout the United States, Canada,
and Europe.
In addition to the BRS Online Search Service for
commercially available databases, BRS also of-
fers a comprehensive private database service,
a sophisticated SDI service, online searching of
card catalogs, and lease or purchase plans for its
highly specialized retrieval software programs.
BRS is the only online vendor that provides this
full range of online products and services, exten-
ding its technology to many diverse applications
within the library and information community.
Let BRS help you meet all your information
needs!
267
-------
DATABASES AVAILABLE FROM BRS
Databases currently available from BRS were selected for quality and wide appeal and have been carefully
tured for maximum searching efficiency In addition to those files currently available, BRS will continue to mak
databases available online according to user demand
DATABASES CURRENTLY AVAILABLE FROM BRS
(June, 1980)
DATABASE
AGRICOLA
ALCOHOL USE/ABUSE
BIOSIS PREVIEWS
BOOKSINFO
CA CONDENSATES
CA SEARCH
COMPUTER AND CONTROL
ABSTRACTS
DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS
DRUGINFO
ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ABSTRACTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
STATEMENTS
ERIC
EXCEPTIONAL CHILD
EDUCATION RESOURCES
FEDEX
GPO MONTHLY CATALOG*
INFORM
MANAGEMENT CONTENTS
MEDLARS
MEDOC
NAL SERIALS
NARIC
NIMIS
NIMH
NTIS
PAIS
PHARMACEUTICAL
NEWS INDEX
PHYSICS ABSTRACTS
POLLUTION ABSTRACTS
PREDICAST PROMT**
PSYCHOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SOCIAL SCIENCE
CITATION INDEX
SSIE
US PATENTS
PRODUCER
National Agricultural Library (NAL)
Hazelden Foundation
BioSciences Information Services
Brodart. Inc
Chemical Ab'.lmr.ts Survico
Chemical Abstracts bervice
Institution of Electrical Engineers
London, England
University Microfilms
University of Minnesota College of
Pharmacy
Institution of Electrical Engineers
London, England
Information Resources Press
National Institute of Education
Council for Exceptional Children
U.S Department of Energy
U.S Government Printing Office
Data Courier. Inc.
Management Contents, Inc
National Library of Medicine (NLM)
Eccles Health Sciences Library
University of Utah
National Agricultural Library
National Rehabilitation Information
Center
Nat'l Center of Educational Media
and Materials for the Handicapped
National Institute of Mental Health
National Technical Information Service
Public Affairs Information Service
Data Courier, Inc
Institution of Electrical Engineers
Data Courier, Inc
Predicasts, Inc
American Psychological Association
Institute for Scientific
Information
Smithsonian Science Information
Exchange
Pergamon International information
Corporation
SUBJECT AREA
Agriculture
Alcoholism
Biological sciences
800,000 books in print
Ohfimi.slry
Chemibtry
Computer & control
engineering
Multi-disciplinary
Drug Abuse
Electrical & Electronic
engineering
Environment
Education
Exceptional child education
Energy Statistics
Government publications
Business
Business
Medicine, nursing, dentistry
Government documents in
health sciences
NAL serial records
Rehabilitation literature
Instructional materials for
education of handicapped
Mental health ana related
information
Government reports, all areas
All social sciences
Drug industry news
Physics
Pollution
Business and economics
Psychology
Social Science
Physical, social engineering
ana life sciences
All patents registered
through U S Patent Office
BRS COVERA
ONLINE/OFFL1
1975 + / 1970-7^
total online (196
1978 + /1970-77
loial online
n ,1 /l!)70-7(i
i unlme (19i
1 977 + /1 970-71
total online (18(
total online (19f
1 977 + / 1970-71
total online (19
tolai online (191
total online (I9i
total online (19
total online (19
total online (19
total online (19
1978 + /1966-'
total online (19
total online
total online (19
total online
total online (19
1 975 +/ 1970-7
total online (1£
total online (1£
1977 + /1970-;
total online (1£
total online (1£
total online (1£
1977 + /1972-;
total online (1 J
total online (li
"These (ties are scneduiea (of avaiiaoiiitv Dv 3rd Quane' i960
"An oiner Preflicast aaiaoases are scneauiea lor 3'a Qoaner 1980
268
-------
chemical
and process
technology
encyclopedia
editor-in-chief
Douglas M. Considine
Consulting Engineer, lot Angefei, California
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
New York St. Louis San Francisco London
Diitseldorf Johannesburg Kuala Lumpur
Sao Paulo Singapore Toronto
Montreal Mexico Sydney
Panama New Delhi
269
-------
30
CEH
The Chemical Economics Handbook (CEH) 1s a multi-volume loose-leaf boo
concerned with the economic status and progress of the world's chemical
Industries. Participants (subscribers) are kept Informed regarding the pres
and future status of raw materials, primary and Intermediate chemicals, chem
product groups, the chemical Industry, and those aspects of other Industries
the total economy that are relevant to the chemical Industry. Emphasis is
placed on future markets, both 1n terms of quantities and economies of cheml
cals produced/consumed and the technological requirements of future demand.
Sections of the CEH are: Introduction; Index; Economic Indicators; Ma
of Current Indicators; Industry; Chemicals. The main body of CEH is made up
Reports and Data Sheets concerning Individual chemicals or groups of enemies
Data Sheets are summaries including data on chemical production, sales,
consumption, price, manufacturing processes, producing companies, plant
locations, plant capacities, imports, exports, and sources used. Yearly grc
rates can be extrapolated and compared using the standardized graphs and a
special protractor, included with each CEH set.
Reports contain detailed analytical sections on topics covered by Dat«
Sheets. CEH Reports are written by subject specialists and reviewed by coT
borating experts in the chemical Industry, market researchers, or product
managers.
A "Manual of Current Indicators" section reporting recent economic st
tisties 1s updated and reissued every other month.
CEH contains chemical industry economic Indicators such as product gn
curves, production quantities, inventory data, price, and export/import rat
Plant locations, capacities and other data are gathered and updated
occasionally. Specialized volumes deal with specific industries such as
pesticides.
Access;
CEH is available from SRI International, Memlo Park, CA.
Cost:
Hard copy is available for $7,500-9,000 depending on the number of sp
cialized volumes desired. Computer tape with data listed therein are avail
Monthly indexes for the main body of the handbook and for the specialized v
umes are available at a subscription cost.
270
-------
A McGRAW- HILL PUBLICATION
AUGUST 27 1979
Ding fugitive emissions
271
-------
-------
DRAFT
51700904
Chemicals in Commerce Information System
raym: CICIS
.a sampled to generate data: No specific media
s of data collection/monitoring: chemical manufacturing and production data
t base status: Operational/ongoing
31ACT: The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) provides EPA with authority to
ilate commercial chemical substances, which pose unreasonable risk to man and the
.ronment. CICIS supports this effort. Information maintained are chemical,
it, and production volumes. It contains cnemacals manufactured or imported in
U.S., what chemicals are manufactured or imported at a given site, where plants
located, and their names. There are data for about 55,000 cnemicals in CICIS,
.uding the approximately 700 in the clearinghouse.
•pollutant parameters include: Chemical data
Location
Manufacturer
Production levels
ling study time period is 01/01/77 to 12/30/77
ilnation of data collection: Occurred 12/30/73
[uency of data collection: one time only
TSCA allows EPA to collect additional information,
as required, which may serve to update the data
base.
1 estimated number of observations is 43000 substances.
.mated annual increase of observations is unknown.
. base includes: Summary or aggregate observations
.1 nuiaber of stations 01 sources covered is 8000 sites.
«r currently contributing data is 0.
;raphic coverage of data base: National
lity identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Street address
Dun and Bradstreet number
Program identifier
.utant identification data have: CAS registry number codes
.rations: The CICIS On-line User's Guide should be consulted aprior to accessing
information. Quality assurance questions are not applicable.
procedures used and documented.
. collected by: Contractor - Chemical Abstracts Service
273
-------
I
Data analyzed by: ZPA headquarters - Office of Pesticides and Toxic Suostances
(OPTS)/Ofrice of Toxic Substances (OTS)
Data base does not identify specific Laboratory performing analysis.
Development of regulations or standards is the primary purpose for data collect:
Risk assessment is tne secondary purpose for data collection.
Statutory authorization is P L 94-469, Sections 8(a) and S(b) Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA)
OMB form number: 158S770H
Form of available reports and outputs: 055-OC7-00004-7, 055-007-00003-9, 055-<
00189-3: Government Printing Office T1
chemical inventory, PB-295-108 Nationa.
Technical Information Service (MTIS)
magnetic tape.
Printouts on request
Microfilm
On-line computer
Current regular users of data base: 8 offices
Users: Z?A headquarter offices - Offices of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 0
of Toxic Substances, Office of Enforcement, Office of Solid Waste, Offi
Research and Development, Office of Driniing Water, Office of Water Pro
Operations, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Other federal agencies
Confidentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some data
Primary physical location of data: Contractor
Form of data storage: • Magnetic disc
Data access: EPA software CICIS MIDSD system number: 7301700904
EPA hardware DECSYSTZM-2020
Contact - Subject matter: Geri MovaJc (202)755-9336
Contact - Computer-related: Denny Daniels (202)426-2447
Contact - responsible EPA Office: Tony Jover (202)426-^*697
Charge for non-EPA use: no outside use/access permitted
Frequency of master file up-date: selected portions/chemicals updated as requi
Person completing form: Tony Jover
Office: Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances (OPTS)
Office of Toxic Substances (OTS)/Management Support Division (MSD)
Address: 401 M St, SW, Washington, DC 20460
Phone: (202)^26-4697
Pollutants included in data base:
acenaphthene 33-32-9
acenaphchylene 208-96-3
acetaldehyde 75-07-0
acetic acid 64-19-7
acetic anhydride 108-24-7
acetone 67-64-1
acetone cyanohydrin 75-86-5
acetonitrile 75-05-3
274
-------
CPD
Scope:
Chemical Plant Data (CPD) is designed to provide worldwide information on
chemical plants producing, or planning to produce, any of more than 100 basic
chemicals. Currently. 114 chemicals, or in some cases classes of chemicals, are
covered. The information available through this service is based upon material
collected from a wide range of sources published in many languages, and includes
technical literature, company information, annual reports, etc. In addition,
companies are approached to verify the information thus provided.
Subject coverage includes:
114 chemical commodities
Producing plant listings (worldwide)
Plant capacities, start-up date
Production/Sales/Statistical summaries
Producer/Process/Feedstock
Access:
Currently, Chemical Plant Data is disseminated primarily in hard copy
form. Online computer retrieval of this information is, however, 1n the
planning stages. For further information contact:
The Sales Department
Chemical Data Services
Dorset House, Stamford Street
London, SE1 9LU, ENGLAND
Cost:
Not available.
Sample Search/Output:
Not applicable.
275
-------
D710300090!
Chemical Substances Information Network
Acronym: CSIN
Media sampled to generate data: CSIN to allow access to many kinds of existing
resources carrying data and information on all tin
media.
Type of data collection/monitoring., CSIN to allow access to many data bases
carrying information from various sources.
Data base status: Funded for development Projected operational date:01/00/31
ABSTRACT: CSIN provides a coordinated approach to the identification, location,
accessing, processing, and analysis of data and information on chemical substance;
and how they impact humans and the environment. The Network will allow and
encourage user interaction with data resources which are geographically scattered
and resident in disparate and diverse computer systems. Most of the complex
interfacing steps previously required to make use of computer resources will be
eliminated and/or made transparent to the user.
Mon-pcllutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Collection method
Compliance data
Concentration measures
Cost/economic data
Discharge paints
Disposal
Zlevation
Exposure data
Flow rates
Funding data
Geographic subdivision
Health effects
Industry
Inspection data
Location
Manufacturer
Physical data
Political suodiTisions
Population demographics
Population density
Precipitation
Production levels
Salinity
Sampling date
Site description
Temperature
Test/analysis method
Treatment devices
Use
Volume/mass measures
276
-------
DRAFT
Wind direction
Wind, velocity
Presence of data elements varies by resource
(data base)
ng study time period is 01/01/70 to 09/30/80 (present)
nation of data collection: Not anticipated
ency of data collection: frequency of collection, sampling, updating
dependent on rate established by each resource in
the network.
estimated number of observations is 2,5 million.
ated annual increase of observations is 15-20 million.
base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
Reference data/citations
varies by resource/data base
number of stations or sources covered is 8-10 resources.
r currently contributing data is 3.
aphic coverage of data base: International
National
ion identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
Congressional district
5MSA
Ciry
Town/t owns hip
Street address
Coordinates
Project identifier
varies by
resource/data base
ity identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Street address
SIC code-
Dim and Bradstreet number
sec
NPDES
Program identifier
varies by resource/data base
cant identification data have: CAS registry number codes
ations: The prototype, operational '31, includes HIM (Medlars ChemJLiae, etc.)
ad CICIS, 5-7 additional resources will be added in calendar '31. Each
rce on the network has front end caveats which speaJ: to differences in periods
277
-------
Of
of sampling, numbers of observations, experimental protocols, quality assurance
procedures followed i levels of documentation, etc.
Data collection and analysis procedures: documented in quality assurance project
plan
Sampling plan documented
Collection method documented
Analysis method documented
QA procedures documented (Above varies 1
resource/data base.)
Lab analysis based on EPA-approved or accepted methods.
Lab analysis not based on ZPA-approved or accepted methods.
(Above varies by resource/data base.)
Lab audit is satisfactory for varies by data base.
Precision and accuracy estimates partially exist for some resources/data
bases
Edit for some resources, not for others.
Data collected by: Self reporting
Local agency
State agency
Regional office
EPA lab
Contractor lab
Contractor
Other federal agency
E?A headquarters
Collector varies by resource/data base
Data analyzed by: Self reporting
Local agency
State agency
Regional office
EPA lab
Contractor lab
Contractor
Other federal agency
EPA headquarters
Analyzer varies by resource/data base .
Data base identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
Data base does aot identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
Development of regulations or standards is the purpose for data collection.
Compliance or enforcement is the purpose for data collection.
Trend assessment is the purpose for data collection.
Technology development is the purpose for data collection.
Risk assessment is the purpose for data collection.
Anticipatory/research is the purpose for data collection.
Program evaluation is the purpose for data collection.
Special study is the purpose for data collection.
Purpose varies by resource/data base is the purpose for data collection.
Statutory authorization is ? L 94-<*o9, Sections 10 i 15. Each resource has its o
authorization.
278
-------
DRAFT
of available reports and outputs: Publications overview documents, technical
.. user documents, CSIN Directory
Unpublished reports
Printouts on request
Microfilm
Machine-readable raw data
On-line computer
Outputs available vary by resource/data
base.
sot regular users of data base: 10-50 offices
s: SPA headquarter offices - Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances Office
of Toxic Integration
ZPA regional offices
EPA laboratories
Other federal agencies
States
Industry, academia, and other nations.
Ldentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some
iry physical location of data: Contractor
EPA lab
Regional office
NCC/UNTVAC
HCC^IBM
Headquarters office
State agency
Other federal agency
Varies by resource/data base.
of data storage: Magnetic tape
Magnetic disc
Microficn/film
Original form (hardcopy, readings)
Varies by resource/data base
access: ZPA software MIDSD system number: 7500000901
data identified, located & accessed through the CSIN front end.
ict - Subject matter: Dr. Sidney Siegel (202)755-3040
ict - Computer-related: Dr. Sidney Siegel (202)755-8040
ict - responsible EPA Office: Office of CSIN Administration (202)755-3040
;e for non-E?A use: yes
icncy of master file up-date: varies by resource/data base.
:ed EPA systems: Chemical Information System (CIS), Chemicals in Commerce
•nation System (CICIS)
:ed E?A data bases: Storage and Retrieval of Water Quality and Related Data
LET), User Prompted Graphic Data Evaluation System (UPGRADE), Health and
•onmental Effects Data Analysis System (HZZDA)
:ed ncn-EPA data bases: National Library of Medicine - bibliographic files
, Toxicology Data Management System (TDMS), Chemical Regulations and Guidelines
an (CRGS), PRCPHH (National Institutes of Health)
279
-------
-------
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281
-------
62
DCP
The Directory of Chemical Producers: United States of America (DCP) •
annually published book with quarterly updates.It provides ready reference
commercial chemical manufacturers and products produced 1n the U.S.A.
Commercial chemicals are defined as those produced In excess of 1,000 pound
$1,000 value per year. Indexes of products, companies, and regions provide
access to manufacturer names, locations, and products. Supplemental
Information, such as annual production volumes and company relationships, a
frequently included.
Data contained in the Directory are obtained from questionnaires retu
from manufacturers, technical and trade journals, other contacts with
manufacturers, and research. Sixteen hundred companies, representing 4,300
plant sites producing 10,000 chemicals, are reported in the volume. Each a
issue of the book contains only one year's data. The book has been publish
since 1961.
Access:
The Directory of Chemical Producers: United States of America is dis
nated and produced by the Chemical Information Services Department, Chemica
Industries Center, SRI-International, Inc., Menlo Park, California.
Cost:
The Directory of Chemical Producers is available on a subscription b<
for $450 for the first year, and 5300/year for subsequent renewal subscripi
The subscription Includes the book and quarterly updates.
Sample Search/Output:
Not applicable.
282
-------
-U .
ECONOMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS, Inc.
SHARE-OF-MARKET
AND SHIPMENTS REPORTS
on U.S. manufacturing industries
try behind EIS reports
>diate source of EIS reports is the
ass Data Base. This Data Base is a
nsive store of information on the
sector of the U.S. economy II con-
iled records on the lop 300.QUO
istablishmenls with 20 or more em-
mt account lor 65% of business
r names, addresses, phone num-
i of business, number of employees
1 company ownership.
tion, the ElS Data Base can mter-
a unique body of information—EIS
put" ratios. These ratios enable us
te the volume of sales and pur-
virtually all products and services
3 sold by U.S. business establish-
library of computer programs en-
j manipulate the information in the
to produce selective marketing re-
lany aspects of the economy.
acy and currency of the EIS Data
'es from its structure, source ma-
namtenance/update procedures.
Founded in 1968, the Data Base was con-
structed to parallel U.S Census Bureau rec-
ords on business aclivily II incorporates all
available information on business establish-
ments and firms published in the classified
sechons of U S telephone dirtjc'.ones, slate
and industrial diioclones, nnnual reports and
SEC 10K L>tul
-------
SHARE-OF-MARKET AND SHIPMENTS REPORTS:
I he reports that analyze manufacturing industries-
"Oy share-of-market of producing companies
and by shipments of producing establishments
SHARE-OF-MARKET REPORTS
What's in the Report?
An EIS Share-of-Market Report analyzes any
"4-digil SIC" manufacturing mauclry m lotms
of Us marketplace concentration and owner-
ship structure.
It lists the companies in that industry II
ranks them by their importance ai producers
It lurnishes the share-of-market (in dollars
and percent) held by each, and it groups all
the plants the company operates in the indus-
try, with the parent company's market share
broken down to a per-piant basis.
The report is unique in that it links every
producing planl in the company thai own:, il
regardless of the name under which th<; pljnl
cportilus And it rt.-viMlb huw much each plant
contributes to its parent company's stiure-of-
rnarkct in the industry
How are the Reports used?
A report on an industry you compete in tells
you your company's competitive position, and
identifies and ranks your competitors. This in-
formation is valuable as a basis
realistic market penetration goals
A roporl on an unjustly you so//
your major potential customers £}>
lifymg the plants they own, the
sorve as a guide to structuring r
accounts" lor special uaies handli
Acquisition and investment Ref
dustries you're interested in can I
rapid identification of companies
for acquisition, merger or investrr
Portion ot a typical EIS Share-ol-Market Report-on SIC 3622. Industrial Controls
RANKING
(BY SHARE
OF MARKET)
' i ' 'ALLEN B
PARENT
COMPANY
NAME
1
RAOLEY CD II
PLANTS
OWNED IN
SIC 3622
1C 1
1 1201 S 2ND
COMPANY
AND PLANT
ADDRESSES
1
MILWAUKEE Wl
PHONE
NUMBERS
1
51204 '1*14 671 2OC
ANNUAL
SALES
(S MIL)
1
O1 ' 227.4
'ALLEN BRADLEY SYSTEMS Dv1 62 ENTERPRISE OR
ALLEN BRADLEY SYSTEMS DV 747 ALPHA DR
ALLEN BRADLEY DRIVES OIV N143 06437 PIONEER
ALLEN BRADLEY CO 1201 S 2ND ST
ALLEN BRADLEY CO HWY 14 EAST
ANN ARBOR MI
HIGHLAND HGTS OH
CECARBURG WZ
MILWAUKEE Wl
RICHLAND CNTR Wl
GENERAL ELECTRIC CO
GENERAL ELECTRIC co IMC
3135 EASTON TPKE
29SS MERCED
FA IRFI ELD
SAN LEANDRO
CT
CA
4*103 313 7«1 2255
44143 216 449 6700
53012 414 377 1200
53204 414 671 2000
535*1 608 647 6376
06431 203 373 2211
94S77 412 436 900O
2.5
7.9
2.6
1»«. 0
1*.4
203.7
SHIPMENTS REPORTS
What's in the Report?
An EIS Shipments Report identifies—and ar-
rays by state ana county—all the important
producing plants in any (4-digit SIC) manu-
facturing industry
The report includes every plani in the in-
dustry which has annual shipments of over
$500,000—and/or 20 or more employees
Each plant in the report is identified by
name, address and phone number. The report
furnishes the estimated annual shipments and
percent-of-market ol each planl. each county
and each stale.
How are the Reports used?
As a sales too/ The report enables you to
idunhly all the important buying unit:. . • JV' —
066061
06604
06497
06855
06902
06902
06 106
06037
060»5
-
PHONE ANNUAL
NUMBERS SHIPMENTS
/• tjii i
(* MIL)
1
. J .
1 203-363 6751 ' ' .7 '
203-335 3114 2.9
203-576 0549 2. 1
203-866 2573 2.1
203-325 3581 4 . 1
203-348 7734 3.3
IS. 2
203-249 »471 49.2
203-828 6379 2.4
201-6*6 1914 - 4-.0
' "•_•*« - ' " --•
-------
-U -
ECONOMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS, Inc.
LINE OF BUSINESS REPORTS
on major diversified US. companies
ry behind EIS reports
>dial« source of EIS reporis is the
ass Data Base. This Data Base is a
nsive store of information on the
.ector ot the U.S economy I! con-
iled records on the top 300 000
istablishments with 20 or more em-
lat account for 85% of business
ir names, addresses, phone num-
» of business, number of employees
t company ownership.
tion, the EIS Data Base can mter-
a unique body of information—EIS
put" ratios These ratios enable us
te the volume of sales and pur-
virtually all products and services
d sold by U.S business establish-
library of computer programs en-
o manipulate the information in the
to produce selective marketing re-
lany aspects ot the economy
•acy and currency of the EIS Data
.•es from its structure sourco ma-
mamtenance/update procedures
Founded in 1968, the Data Base was con-
structed to parallel U.S. Census Bureau rec-
ords on business activuy It incorporates all
available information on business establish-
ments and firms published in the classified
sections of U S telephone directories, state
and industrial directories, annual reports and
SEC 10K stalcmonls All this data is mcon-
ciled each year with the corresponding "con-
trol" tcials published by the U S Census
Bureau for industries and regions
Quanerly updating of the Data Base util-
izes an accumulation of new information Irom
published sources, plus feedback from EIS
clients on new establishments, changes in
plant size and other (.eld-based findings.
Many type* of reports can be furnished from
the EIS Data Base. Among them are
Shipments and Share ot-Murkct Ropoits on
Manutactunng Industries Tnese reporis an-
alyze any manufacturing industry in terms of
key producers and ownursnip structure
Marktit Shate rtcpor/s on "Non-Mdntitjc.tui
ing" Industries These reports, concentrating
on commercial/service industries, identify
and rank by market share all major compa-
nies and their subsidiaries
Line ot Business Reports analyze individual
companies in terms of snles. market share
and diversity of oporalions
Market Potential Rttpuiis identify establish
ments and firms that use any industrial prod
uct or service, with estimates of the
each one uses
Maiket Penetration Analyses utilize your own
customer lists to build a profile of your com-
pany's share-of-market in each industry m
which it operates
Market Protection Report'; foiecast She Trowth
trends of bucino:,^ mnrkcin lor ;iny ot your
company's product;, or services
For Detailed information on these [eportc,
and the full scope of EIS services contact
Economic Information SyMems Inc hyplmno
or mail
285
-------
LINE OF BUSINESS REPORTS:
The reports that analyze companies by sales,
^tanking and plant ownership- in all the industries in
which they operate. Example: ACF Industries, Inc.
LINE OF BUSINESS
REPORT
PART1
ACF'S RANKING
IN EACH INDUSTRY
IN WHICH
IT OPLHAIt.S
INDUSTRIES
SIC
1 ,
rJo7T1 '
3321
3494
3533
3714
3743
4743
5084
5088
IN WHICH ACF OPERATES
DESCRIPTION
1
HOSE AND BELTING ' '
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
VALVES f, FITTINGS
OIL FIELD MACHINERY
MOTOR VEHICLE PARTS
RAILROAD EQUIPMENT MFC
RAILROAD CAR RENTAL
INDUSTRIAL EQPT, WHOLESALE
TRANSPORTATION EQPT WHOLESALE
TOTAL MANUFACTURING SALES
TOTAL NONMANUFACTURING SALES
ANNUAL
SALES
($ MIL)
1
51.5 '
7. 5
50.3
36.6
93. 7
239 . 7
89.7
0.8
0.9
479.3
91.4
PERCENT
OF ACF'S
SALES
1
r 9.02 '
1.31
6.81
6. 42
16. 42
42 . 00
IS. 72
0. 14
0. 16
83.98
16.02
PERCENT
OF INDUSTRY
SALES
1
1 3.33'
0.17
1 . 15
0. 75
0.32
12. 85
11.37
—
--
COMPANY TOTAL
570.7
100.00
LINE OF BUSINESS
REPORT
PART 2
PLANTS OWNED BY ACF
IN EACH INDUSTRY
IN WHICH IT OPERATES
IN THESE INDUSTRIES ... ACF OPERATES
THESE PLANTS . . .
13041 HOSE AND BELT I NO 1
1 SAY HOSE 1350 MAPLE
POLYMER CORP 2120 FAIRMONT
POLYP6NCO OV ACF BLUEFIBLD H«Y
3321 GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
•KM VALVE DV ACF 126 COLLINS RO
3*94 VALVES AND FITTINGS
•KM «ELLHEAO DV 14O7 PENTECOST RO
•KM VALVE OV ACF 1650 S MAIN
3533 OIL FIELD MACMINEHY
BREWSTER WELLHEAD 7*0 N MARKET ST
371* MOTOR VEHICLE PARTS
CARTER AUTO POTS COOLlOGE RD
CARTER CARBURETOR 28*0 N SPRING AV
37*3 RAILROAD EQUIPMENT MFC
AMCAR DV ACF 2900 OE KALB ST
AMCAR OV ACF 2ND i ARCH STS
AMCAR OV ACF 2300 THIRD AVE
*743 RAILROAD CAR RENTAL
SHIPPERS CAR LINE rso THIRD AV
5084 INDUSTRIAL EOPT WHOLESALE
ACF INDUSTRIES 612 SMITH
POLYMER INC 777 S CENTRAL EXPY
S088 TRANSPORTATION EQPT WHOLESALE
ACF INDUSTRIES 111 SUTTER
ACF INDUSTRIES PORTER BLOC
AT THESE
ADDRESSES
NILES
READING
•YTHEV1LLE
RICHMOND
KlLGORE
MISSOURI CITY
SHREVEPORT
LAFAYETTE
ST LOUIS
ST LOUIS
MILTON
i-IUNTINGTON
NEB YORK
HOUSTON
RICHARDSON
SAN FRANCISCO
PITTSBURGH
Ml
PA
VA
TX
TX
TX
LA
TN
MO
MO
PA
• V
MY
TX
TX
CA
PA
*»12o|
196-03
2*382
??*«»
796*2
77*89
71 1*3
37083
63107
631 1<
178*7
2S710
10017
77002
75080
9*104
15219
PHONE N
NUMBERS E
616-683 2233|
215-929 sasa
8O4-228 5*23
713-3*2 Sail
214-98* 0606
71 J-«»« 1S1 1
118-222 32S*
61S-666 *6S6
3I*-997 7*00
314-773 6870
717-7*2 7601
304-S29 3211
212-980 8600
713-236 0921
21*-69O 0987
415-362 11*3
412-391 9*9*
COMPANY TOTAL
286
-------
ECONOMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS, Inc.
MARKET SHARES REPORTS
on mining, construction, transportation,
utilities, trade and service industries
Dry behind EIS reports
•dial* source of EIS reports is the
less Data Base. This Data Base is a
insive store of information on the
sector of the U.S. economy It con-
ailed records on the top 300,000
establishments with 20 or more em-
that account lor 85% ol business
w name*, addresses, phone num-
>s of business, number of employees
it company ownership.
lition, the EIS Data Base can inter-
a unique body of information—EIS
itput" ratios. These ratios enable us
ate the volume of sales and pur-
f virtually all products and services
nd sold by U.S. business estabiish-
library of computer programs en-
to manipulate the information in the
e to produce selective marketing ie-
many aspects of the economy.
iracy and currency of the EIS Data
ives from its structure, source ma-
I maintenance/update procedures.
Founded in 1968, the Data Base was con-
structed to parallel U.S Census Bureau rec-
ords on business activity. It incorporates all
available information on business establish-
ments and firms published in the classified
sections ol U.S telephone directories, stale
and industrial directories, annual reports and
SEC 10K statements All this data is recon-
ciled each year with the corresponding "con-
trol" totals published by the U.S Census
Bureau for industries and regions.
Quarterly updating of the Data Base util-
izes an accumulation of new information from
published sources, plus feedback from EIS
clients on new establishments, changes in
plant size and other field-based findings
Many typa* ol raportt can be furnished from
the EIS Data Base Among them are
Shipments and Share-ol-Market Reports on
Manufacturing industries. These reports an-
alyze any manufacturing industry in terms of
key producers and ownership structure.
Market Share Reports on "Non-Manufactur-
ing" Industries. These reports, concentrating
on commercial/service industries, identify
and rank by market share all maior compa-
nies and their subsidiaries.
Line ot Business Reports analyze individual
companies in terms of sales, market share
and divursity ot opuralions
Market Potential Reports idunlily establish-
ments and firms that use any industrial prod-
uct or service, with estimates of the am
each one uses.
Market Penetration Analyses utilize your own
customer lists to build a profile of your com-
pany's share-of-market in each industry in
which it operates.
Market Protection Reports forecast the growth
trends ol business markets for any of your
company's products or services.
For detailed information on these reports.
and the full scope of EIS services, contact
Economic Information Systems, Inc. by phone
or mail.
287
-------
MARKET SHARES REPORTS:
The reports that identify and rank
)y market share, all companies
in key non-manufacturing industries
Portion ot a typical E1S Market Shares Report— on SIC 5311, Department Stores
MNIONg PARENT BRANCHES
i BYMKL ^. COMPANY OWNED BY
; 5»
W '•'
C- '
1*-
$i
U; "„
£j
l*Pfi"'tv. ;, -; . . ABRAHAM I STRAUSS
t'i.
f -''
, ',,'; A t S, REGO PARK
.''"••"::, »LBOI
ONGOALES
COMPANY AND
BRANCH
ADDRESSES
EMPL. ANNUAL 1
SIZE BALES 1
(PHONE NO. OMITTED)*
t?«2 "
i»EST
420
90-1
6111
P'vN.iS:.-'-'*' *-S. GARDEN CITY SSS
r. TTH ST
MONTAUK HWY
FULTON ST
QUEENS BLVD
188TH ST
FftANKLIN AV
CINCINNATI :!
BABYLON
BROOKLYN
ELMHURST
FRESH MEADOWS
GARDEN CITY
OH
NY
NY
NY
NY
NY
•>*«i
' 11704
11201
11373
uses
11530
CODE (SMIL) |
/iu*-.i
2
3
3
' 3
2
'ii. ,i
STORES C0RP
DM MAO CO
OM READ CD
' on REAO CCT
ALMART
POMEftOYS
»»• 111* AVE AMERICAS
160 BROAD ST
FEDERAL £ NABBY ROS
TRUM8ELL SHOP PARK
CONCORD TPKE
CONCORD MALL
NEW YORK
DRV GOODS P* 417 STH AVE
NEW YORK
r .•
f-
(- '-
SOCOWATERS
GOJ-DlfATEUS
3100 N CENTRALi AVE PHOENIX
SCOTTSDALE & CAMELBACK SCOTTSDALE
.'-'•' ' : r'',-'-;-w ."^ j . : ,
~j- ^^^7 »«--jfc*- t 1-. J^---
aaaVagffCAT'ijSa^^r'ji.-^i-. •;.
'"P" designates public company registered with SEC (An "F" appearing in this
position would designate a company with 10% or more foreign ownership )
NY
1009«
BRIDGEPORT
DANBURY
TRUMBELL
WILMINGTON
WILMINGTON
CT
CT
CT
DE
DE
0*604
0*810
06611
19S03
1980S
1
1
1
2
2
NY
AZ
AZ
10016
85012
8S2S1
1.741.1
1,471.a
What's in the Report?
An EIS Market Shares Report identifies and
ranks the major companies in the mining,
construction, transportation, utilities, trade
and service industries.
In each industry in these groupings, the
report ranks the companies in high-to-low se-
quence, according to sales volume The re-
port specifies each company ;> annual uaiu£.
and its market share (expressed as d per-
centage- of tolal industry sales)
In addition, the report turrushus Iho numus,
addresses and the telephone numbers of all
•'adlishments and subsidiaries owned by
;h company, where those estaonsnments
operate in the same industry The establish-
ments are grouped under the parent company
heading, so the structure and ownership pat-
tern of the company is clearly visible
An employment size code is included for
each establishment, enabling you 10 estimate
the contribution of each establishment to cor-
porate revenues
How is the Report used?
You can use a Market Shares Report for many
marketing, sales and corporate planning pur-
poses Here drij |u:,l a low uxamplcs
To tjau'ju: your own ouinp.iny LI urikimj in
an industry rind lo idcnhly your compuiitors
and Ihoir lankingu—ju a rjindu in Bulling niaf-
Koling objrclwi.'L, To L,I..JII u/i iniJu:.liy lor
merger or acquisition po^sitiilitiu^ lo uue as
an initial guideline IP analyzing me compa-
nies in an industry lor investment opportuni-
ties. To pinpoint the companies that warrant
special saies handling because ot tneir size,
and the number and location of ineir subsidi-
ary establishments
What Reports are available?
EIS Market Shares Reports are .
the industries listed inside this toi
Since the purpose ot the repoi
vide unique data on corporate &
or market domination in an indu
are offered only for those mdj:
have companies in n v,Tnt;ly nl :.
Markol Shams Huporls aro nol ol
duslnos characleru-ed by comp..
pioximaMy equal wo (ouch .r, h
ubucl cji dealer:., ok. ) whuii; inai
lion is not a lactor
However, EIS can lurnish i,p<
on these "non-concentrated"
These reports would identity ih
ments in the industry, bui would a
in state-county sequence, mstea
them by market snare
288
-------
ECONOMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS, Inc.
MARKET SHARES REPORTS
on mining, construction, transportation,
utilities, trade and service industries
>ry behind EIS reports
•dial* »ourc« of EIS reports is the
less Data Base. This Data Base is a
insive store of information on the
sector of the U.S. economy. It con-
ailed records on the top 300,000
establishments with 20 or more em-
ihat account for 85% of business
iir names, addresses, phone num-
>s of business, number of employees
it company ownership.
lition, the EIS Data Base can inter-
a unique body of information—EIS
itput" ratios. These ratios enable us
ate the volume of sales and pur-
f virtually all products and services
-id sold by U.S. business establish-
library of computer programs en-
to manipulate the information in the
e to produce selective marketing its-
many aspects of the economy.
iracy end currency of the EIS Data
ives from its structure, source ma-
mamtenance/update procedures.
Founded in 1968, the Data Base was con-
structed to parallel U.S Census Bureau rec-
ords on business activity. It incorporates all
available information on business establish-
ments and firms published in the classified
sections of U.S telephone directories, stale
and industrial directories, annual reports and
SEC 10K stutumenls All this data is recon-
ciled each year with the corresponding "con-
trol" totals published by the U.S Census
Bureau for industries and regions.
Quarterly updating of the Data Base util-
izes an accumulation of new information from
published sources, plus feedback from ElS
clients on new establishments, changes in
plant size and other field-based findings.
Many type* of report* can be furnished from
the EIS Data Base Among them are
Shipments and Share-ol-Market Reports on
Manufacturing Industries. These reports an-
alyze any manufacturing industry in terms of
key producers and ownership structure
Market Share Reports on "Non-Manufactur-
ing" Industries These reports, concentrating
on commercial/service industries, identify
and rank by market share all major compa-
nies and their subsidiaries.
Line ol Business Reports analyze individual
companies m terms of sales, market share
and divursity of operations
Market Potential Reports iduntily establish
ments and firms that use any industrial prod
uct or service, with estimates of the
each one uses.
Market Penetration Analyses utilize your own
customer lists to build a profile of your com-
pany's share-of-market m each industry in
which it operates.
Market Protection Reports forecast the growth
trends ol business markets for any of your
company's products or services.
For detailed information on these reports.
and the full scope of EIS services, contact
Economic Information Systems, Inc. by phone
or mail.
287
-------
MARKET SHARES REPORTS:
The reports that identify, and rank
t)y market share, all companies
in key non-manufacturing industries
Portion at a typical EIS Market Shares Report—on SIC 537 7, Department Stores
BY MKT,
PARENT
CBMPAIIY
BRANCHES
OWNED BY
PARENT CO.
INSICS311
COMPANY AND
BRANCH ADDRESSES
(PHONE NO. OMITTED)*
EMPL ANNUAL I
SIZE SALES !
CODE (SMIL) f
f? j^f l|"a»foeiBf*tir8.Ti>sPT
*•*
ABRAHAM t STRAUSS
ABRAHAM t STRAUSS
A (• S, P.EGO PARK
£•- %'
• : "
SAROBN CITY
8TOWES
OM RCAO CO
OH READ CO
I";.;.' .. OM READ CO" '
*mS "~• • AUMAST
-, 'r. "*. POMEROY-S
[f.XyriVcfc. -_ .-
Ki* ::'T.-I-f','"'" "-': ••-'-"• .
u/. *-;'-•'ASSOCIA-TED ORY GOOOS
f ".'•' -.;' '/GOCOWATERS .. ,
f- -";'.••"-•". COLOir*TE«S
TTH ST
WEST MONTAUK HWY
420 FULTON ST
90-1 QUEENS BLVD
6111 188TH ST
•85 FRANKLIN AV
F>* 1114 AVE AMERICAS
ISO BROAD ST
FEDERAL £ NABBY ROS
TRUMBELL SHOP PARK
CONCORD TPKE
CONCORD MALL
417 STH AVE
CINCINNATI
BABYLON
BROOKLYN
ELMMURST
FRESH MEADOWS
GARDEN CITY
NEW YORK
BRIDfiEPORT
OANBURY
TRUMBELL
WILMINGTON
WILMINGTON
NEW YORK
3100 N CENTRAL. AVE PHOENIX
SCOTTSOALE & CAMELBACK SCOTTSOALE
'"P" designates public company registered with SEC (An "F" appearing in this
position would designate a company with 10% or more foreign ownership )
OH
NY
NY
NY
NY
NY
NY
11704
11201
11373
II 365
11530
1009*
2
3
3
3
t
1.741.1
CT 04604 1
CT 06810 1
CT 06611 1
DE 19803 2
OE 19803 2
NY
AZ
AZ
10016
• S012
852S1
i ,471.a.
What's in the Report?
An EIS Market Shares Report identifies and
ranks the major companies m the mining,
construction, transportation, utilities, trade
and service industries.
In each industry in these groupings, the
report ranks the companies in high-to-low se-
quence, according to sales volume The re-
port specifies each company b annual ^aiu£.
and its market share (expressed as a per-
'centago of total industry sales)
In addition, the report lumishus Ihu numus.
addresses and ihe teiepnone numbers of ail
-'ablishments and subsidiaries owned by
.h company, where those estabnsnments
operate in the same industry The establish-
ments are grouped under the parent company
heading, so the structure and ownership pat-
tern of the company is clearly visible
An employment size code is included for
each establishment, enabling you to estimate
the contribution of each establishment to cor-
porate revenues
How is the Report used?
You can use a Market Shares Report for many
marketing, sales and corporate planning pur-
poses Here jnj |u:,l a low t;xampli,3
To (jciuiju your own cump.in/Li lunkimj in
an industry, and 1o idcnhly your cumpuiitors
and trioir rjnkinQo—ju a ijnidu in bolting niar-
kuting ob|('C.livi,'0 lo ;,(..in tin mdu:.liy loi
merger or acquisilion po^.Mtuliliu't lo u^u as
an initial guideline ir analyzing me compa-
nies in an industry lor investment opportuni-
ties To pinpoint the companies :hat warrant
special saies handling because of their size,
and the number and location of their subsidi-
ary establishments
What Reports are available?
EIS Market Shares Reports are .
the industries listed inside this toi
Since the purpose of the repoi
vide unique data on corporate ci
or marKet domination in an indu
are offered only for thoie indu;
have companies in n vanuiy nl i
Marnol Shurus Rupwts jro not ol
dublnos characterised by coinpc
p/oximaloly equal 'ji/u (uuc;h ,r, h
ubucl cji UujlL'tij. Die: ) whuiu inai
lion la nol a lactor
However, EIS can furnish bpf
on these "non-concentraied"
These reports would loentity ih
ments in the industry, but would a
in state-county sequence,
them by market snare
288
-------
iployment and Earnings
:tober 1981
epartment of Labor
j of Labor Statistics
289
-------
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Raymond J. Donovan, Secretary
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner
Employment and Earnings is prepared by the
Division of Monthly Industry Employment
Statistics and the Division of Employment and
Unemployment Analysis in collaboration with
the Division of Special Publications. The data
are collected by the Bureau of the Census
(Department of Commerce), State Employment
Security Agencies, and State Departments of
Labor In cooperation with the Bureau of Labor
Statistics. A brief description of the coopera-
tive statistical programs of the BLS with
these agencies is presented in the Ex-
planatory Notes. The State agencies are listed
on the inside back cover.
Employment and Earnings may be ordered
through the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 20402. Subscription price per year $22
domestic, and $27.50 foreign. Single copy
$2.75. Annual supplement $3.25. Prices are
subject to change by the U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Communications on editorial matters should
be addressed to: Editors, Employment and
Earnings, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20212. Inquiries regarding the
text and Household Data should be ad-
dressed to: Attention of Gloria P Green, or
phone: (202) 523-1944. Inquiries relating to
Establishment Data and all other tables should
be addressed to: Attention of Gloria P. Goings,
or phone: (202) 523-1487. Send correspondence
on circulation and subscription matters (in-
cluding address changes) to the Superinten-
dent of Documents.
The Secretary of Labor has determined that
publication of this periodical is necessary
in the transaction of the public business re-
quired by law of this Department. Use of funds
tor printing this periodical has been approved
by the Director of the Office of Management
and Budget through July 1, 1985. Controlled
circulation postage paid at Riverdale, Md.
Unless specifically identified as copyright,
material in this publication is in the public
domain and may, with appropriate credit, be
reproduced without permission.
Library of Congress Catalog Number 70-11379.
Employment and Earnings (Dept. of Labor
Pub) (USPS 081-990)
Jar
Jar
Ju
Calendar of Features
In addition to the monthly data appearing
regularly in Employment and Earnings
special features appear in most of the
issues as shown below:
Household data
Annual averages
Revised seasonally adjusted series
Quarterly averages: Seasonally adjusted
data, persons not in labor force, persons
of Hispanic origin, Vietnam-era veterans
and nonveterans, poverty-nonpoverty area
data, family relationship data, weekly
earnings data
Establishment data
National annual averages:
Industry divisions (preliminary)
Industry detail (final)
Women employment detail (final)
National data adjusted to new benchmarks
Revised historicnl national dat.^
adjusted to new benchmarks
Revised seasonally adjusted series
State and area annual averages
Area definitions
State and area unemployment data
Annual averages
' The issue that introduces now benchmark varies The July 1981
iroduced March 1980 benchmarks
1 Month ol publication of annual supplement varies The latest sup
was published in September 1980
' Issue vanes Latest revised data introduced July 19U1
' Tnese data lirst introduced in the May 1981 issue
Supp
290
-------
DRAFT
000902
Energy Data System
tym: IDS
sampled to generate data: Other No specific media: Data related to fossil
fuel combustion taken from Department of Energy
forms on the utility sector.
of data collection/monitoring: Point source data collection Utility power
plants (annual and monthly reports)
base status: .Update terminated
LACT: The data base stores fuel quality and consumption data, plant design and
,tion data, emission regulations, compliance information, future megawatt
:ities, diffusion modeling results, and air quality data. Much of the data ia
Inergy Data System are extracted from existing automated data systems. The
y Data System is unique, however, in that it combines these data in a. single
base and thus provides a capability to relate emissions data, fuel consumption
and air quality data.
xsliutant parameters include: Cost/economic data
Tlow rates
Location
Temperature
Volume/mass measures
utility boiler and stack parameters
utility plant annual and monthly fossil fuel use
individual fuel procurements
fuel characteristics
.ag srudy tiae period is 01/01/69 to 12/30/78
.nation of data collection: Occurred 10/30/79
Lency of data collection: monthly, annually and as needed before termination
. estimated number of observations is 250000.
base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
. number of stations or sources covered is 1200.
:r of facilities covered is 1200.
•aphic coverage of data base: National
:ion identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
SMSA
City
Town/township
Street address
291
-------
DF
Coordinates
latitude/longitude
UTM
Facility identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Street address
Pollutant identification data are: Uncoded
Limitations: Regulation data on State Implementation Plans is dated January 1, 1?
boiler identification codes recorded as on original Department of Energy forms,
therefore inconsistencies occur. Some quality assurance aspects act applicable.
Lab audit: Data not based on lab analysis.
Precision and accuracy estimates are not available
Edit coordinate data checked to ensure that the plant is located in county
specified.
Data collected by: Self reporting utility plants
Other federal agency - Department of Energy
Data analyzed by: Self reporting utility plants
Other federal agency - Department of Inergy
Data base does not identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
Program evaluation is the primary purpose for data collection.
data used to plan air quality strategies is the secondary purpose for data
collection.
No statutory requirement: Department of Energy mandated by Public Law to collect
this data
Form of available reports and outputs: On-line computer
Current regular users of data base: no known current users
Users: EPA headquarter offices - Stationary Source Enforcement Division; Office
Air Quality Planning and Standards; Office of Planning of Evaluation; Of:
£.f Radiation Programs
Confidentiality: Linu.tr on access within EPA and outside agency for some
data
Primary physical location of data: NCC/UNIVAC
Form of data storage: Magnetic disc
Data access: Commercial software System 2000
Contact - Subject natter: Bob Short (919) 541-5420
Contact - Computer-related: George Duggan (919) 541-5420
Contact - responsible EPA Office: Dr. Al Wehe (919) 541-5310
Charge for non-E?A use: yes
Frequency of master file up-date: Other data base update terminated
Related E?A data bases: National Emissions Data System (.¥ZDS); Storage and Retri*
of Aerometric Data (SARQAD)
Person completing form: Bob Short
292
-------
DATA SOURCE D: ECDIN
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS DATA AND INFORMATION NETWORK
Review Date: February, 1981
D.I BACKGROUND
The Environmental Chemicals Data and Information Network
(ECDIN) project was established to provide a data bank of environmental
chemicals for European communities.
ECDIN was begun in 1973 and is still in pilot phase. When the
system is fully operational, it will provide information on chemical
products of environmental significance. Eventually, the system is
expected to include 20,000 - 30,000 chemicals.
The finished ECDIN system will cover chemical identity,
physical-chemical properties, chemical production, and health and
environmental effects.
D.2 STATUS
For the pilot phase, 4,000 chemicals were selected. From this
group, a smaller list of priority compounds were chosen for data collec-
tion. The identification category is completed for most compounds.
About one half of the entered compounds include toxicity data, and more
detailed information is present for an even smaller number of compounds.
Whenever possible, ECDIN will answer questions directed to
the system regarding chemicals and their effects. Users can gain direct
access to the data bank by contacting ECDIN. At this point, there are no
charges for answering queries.
D.3 SCIENTIFIC PARAMETERS
It is planned that ECDIN will have 11 categories of data, some
of which are further divided into more specific scientific parameters.
The 11 scientific parameters can be roughly divided into eight general
groups:
o Chemical Identifiers
o Physical-Chemical Properties
o Analytical Methods
o Manufacturing Information
o Environmental Effects
o Environmental Fate
o Health Effects
o Legal Implications
293
-------
These broad groups are explained in detail below.
o Chemical Identifiers
Identification
In order to identify a chemical or compound, ECDIN provides
the following scientific parameters:
Preferred systematic name
Synonyms, including foreign names and trade names
CAS Registry Number
Wiswesser Line Notation
Chemical Structure Information
In the proposed format of ECDIN, a chemical structure
diagram is provided for each chemical. Since some toxic chemical
structures are unknown, this may not be available for every compound.
o Physical-Chemical Properties
This section refers to the properties such as boiling point and
molecular weight. Although at this time no further division of this
category is made, ECDIN does state that more specific divisions of some
categories are used.
o Analytical Methods
This field refers to the methods used to determine the
chemical's presence in the environment.
o Manofacturing information
Supply, Production and Trade
This field is divided into seven more specific areas. These are:
Manufacturing process
Producers
Production
Consumption
Capacity
Foreign trade
Bulk displacements
Transport, Packing, Handling and Storage
This category is primarily concerned with the hazards and
safety recommendations relating to dealing with toxic chemicals during
these activities.
294
-------
Use and Disposal
Most of the data in this field are unstructured and, by
necessity, the category covers a wide variety of data types.
o Environmental Fate
Dispersion and Transformation in the Environment
This topic deals with the behavior of the chemical in the
environment. It provides insight into where the compound might
accumulate and what its by-products are.
o Environmental Effects
Effects of the Chemical on the Environment
This category is concerned with environmental effects data.
More specific types of data are contained in this category. They are as
follows:
Effects on ecosystems
Effects on inanimate material
Effects on plants
o Health Effects
Effects of the Chemical on Health
This section includes all human and environmental toxicity
data. The more specific categories are as follows:
Human toxicity
Animal toxicity data
Terrestrial toxicity
Aquatic toxicity
Microorganism toxicity
Effects on in-vitro systems
Effects on reproduction (including teratogenicity)
Carcinogenicity
Mutagenicity
Allergic and immunological reactions
Odor threshold values
Occupational Safety and Health
The safety and health recommendations and hazards for the
workplace and employees are included in this category.
295
-------
o Legal Implications
ECDIN provides these data in the form of a summary of the
most important points. In order to find further detail regarding this
section, the standard references must be consulted.
D.4 ACCESSIBILITY
ECDIN is accessible through EURONET although it is only in
the pilot phase at this time. Since the data base is only in preliminary
form, there is no user fee at present.
D.5 DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Several enhancements will eventually be required. These
areas are understood by the data base developers, but at present, data are
being collected and coded for the given fields only.
D.6 REFERENCES
I. ECDIN Input F ormat Manual
296
-------
Chemical Substances Regulated by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration
The following 1s a listing of those chemical substances regulated by
>HA. Physical agents are not Included 1n this listing. Full
>cumentat1on of OSHA regulations concerning the listed substances can be
)und 1n 29 CFR 1910.
itc KM .
•ttc enhydiide
ilone
ptomtril*
itylene dichloride, see 1. 2-
(chtoroethylene
itylene tetrabromide
Diem . .
m— Skin . . .............
I alcohol — Skin .
I chloride . . .
Ityttfycidyl ether (AGE) .
I propyl disultide
mmoethanol. see Ethanola-
une .....
Timopyndine ... -
Twnium sulfamate (Ammale)
Tiyl acetate
Amyl acetate .
na—Skin
•dine (o. p-isomers)—Skin .
mony and compounds (as Sb)
'U (alpha naphthyl thiourea)
mic organic compounds (as
I)
ne ... .
phos-methyl—Sktn
urn (soluble compounds)
mzoquinone, see Quinone
toyl peroxide . .
ryl chloride . . .
wnyl, see Oiphenyl.
m oxide .. ....
xon rn'luonde
nine.
noform—Skm
diene (1. 3-butadiene)
nethiol. see Butyl mereaptan
lanone . ....
toxy ethanol (Butyl Celto-
tve)—Skm
I acetate (n-butyl acetate)
Butyl acetate . ..
3utyl acetate .
I alcohol
Butyl alcohol
3utyl alcohol
rtylamine—Skin
rt-Butyl chromate (as CrO,)—
m .. .
V gtycidyl ether (BGE)
I mercaptan
t-Butyltoluene
urn oxide
phor
•ryl (S»vm«)
on black
on dioxide
on monoxide
utane—Skin
inated camphene—Skin
mated diphenyl oxide .
itonne
'ine dioxide
C Chtonn* tnftuonda
C Chkxoacelaldehyde
a-Chkvoaolophenone (phena-
cylchloride)
Chtorobeozene (iiHHiocnlorooon-
zene) ... ...
o-Chtorobenzylidene malononitrile
(OCBM)
Chlorobromomethane
2-Chloro-1.3-butadiene. see Chkx-
oprene. . . . .
Chkxodiphenyt (42 percent Chlo-
rine)—Skin
Chlorodiptienyl (54 percent CMo-
nn«)—Skin
1 -Chkxo. 2.3-epoxypropane. see
Epichkxhydnn
2-Chkxoethanol, see Ethylene
chlofohydrm ...
Chloroethylene. see Vinyl chloride
C Chloroform (tnchtoromethane)
1 -Chkxo-1 -ratropropane
ChloropicTin .
Chloroprene (2-chloro-1.3- butadi-
ene)—Skin. . ...
Chromium sol. chromtc, chro-
mous salts as Cf
Metal and msol salts
Coal tar pitch volatiles (benzene
sdubte fraction) anthracene.
BaP, phenanthrene, acridine.
chrysene. pyrene
Cobalt, metal fume and dust
Copper fume
Dusts and Mists
Cotton dust (raw) . . .
Crag* herbicide...
Cresol (all isomers)—Skin
CrotonakJehyde
Cumene—Skin. ...
Cyanide (as CM)—Skin
Cyclohexane ..
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexene
Cyclopentadiene ...
2,4-D
DOT—Skm
DDVP—Skin ...
Decaborane—Skin
Demeton"—Skin
Diacetone alcohol (4-hydroxy-4-
memyt-2-pentanone)
1,2-diaminoethane. see Ethylene-
dnmine
Diazomethane
Diborane
Dibutyl phosphate
Dibutytphthalate
C o-Dichlorobenzene
p-DKhkxobenzene
OchkxodifKioromethane
1.3-Dichloro-5.5-dtmethyl hydan-
lom
1.1-D-cNoroethane
t.2-Dichloroethylene .
C Dichtoroethyl ether—Skm
Dichkvomethane. see Metnyten-
echioode
Dtchkxomonofluoromethane
C 1,1-Dteh(oro-1-n«roe1han» .............
1,2-Dlchtorapropane, see Propy-
tenedtehtoride ..........................
Ethyl srHcate
Ethylene chJuiohydnn—Skm
DwWnn-- Skin ..................................
Dtethylamlne ...............................
Diethylamino ethanol— Skin .............
Dwtltyletrief, se0 Ethyl 4lfWM .........
Difkiorodlbrornornethane .............
C Diglyctdyl ether (DGE) ................
Dihydroxybonzeno, soe Hydro-
quinorw ...................................
DVsobutyt ketone ........................
Dtisopropytamine— Skin ...........
DKnemoxymethane. see Mettiylal...
Dimethyl acetamide— Skin ............
Dimethylamrne ...........................
Dimethylaminobenzene. see XyK-
dene ...............................................
Dimethylaniline (N-dimethyl- an-
Nne)— Skm ..................................
Dtmethytbenzene. see Xytene ........
Dimethyl 1.2-<*bromo-2.2-dM:hlor-
oetnyl phosphate, (Dibrom) ........
Oimethylformamide— Skm ..............
2,6-Omethylneptanone. see Dkso-
butyl ketone .................
1,1-Dimethylhydrazine — Skin .......
Dimethylphthalate ............................
DimethylsuHate— Skin ...............
uinitrooonzooo (ttll nornors^— •
Skin ..............................
DtnrtroKH»esol— Skm ...................
Dinrtrotolueoe— Skin ..................
Dtoxane (Diethytene dioxide)—
Skin .............................................
Diphenyl ........................................
Diphenylmethane rjisocyanate .....
(see Methylene bisphenyl isocyarv
ate (MDI) ............................
Dipropylww Qtycot rnothyi 8tt>0r—
Skin ...................................
Di-sec. octyl phthalate (R-2- eth-
ylhexylphthalate) ..........
Eridnn— Skin .......................
Epichlorhydnn— Skin ....................
EPN— Skm ....................
1,2-Epoxypropane. see Propylerv
eoxkJe ............
2, 3-Epoxy-1 -propane), see Glyo-
dot ..............................
Ethanethiol. see Ethyrmercaptan . .
Ethanolamine ................
2-Ethoxyethanol— Skm ......
2-Ethoxyethyfacetate (Cellc-solve
acetate) — Skm . . .....
Ethyl acetate ................
Ethyl acrylate— Skin .
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) ......
Ethylamme .............
Ethyl sec-amyf ketone (5- mettiyl-
3-heptanone) ...............
Ethyl benzene ....................
Ethyl bromide ................
Ethyl butyl ketone (3- Heptanone)
Ethyl chloride ......... ...
Ethyl ether ..............
Ethyl formate ........
C Ethyl mercaptan .. . .
Ethytenedtamine
C Ethylene gtycol dmitrate and/or
Niliuyrycenn—Skm
tlhylene yrycol monomethyl ethar
acetate, see Methyl ceHoaorve
acetate
Ethylene imine—Skin
Ethylene oxide
Ethytidme chloride, see 1,1- Dteh-
kxoethane
M-Ethylmorpholine—Skin
Ferbam
FerrovanaoTum dust
Fluoride (as F)
Fluorine
Forniic acid
Furfural—Skin
Furturyl alcohol
Gryodol (2.3-Epoxy-1- propanof)
Glycoi monoemyt ether, see 2-
Ethoxyethanol
Guthion*, see Azmuhosmalhyl
Hafnium
Heptachtor—Skin
Heptane (rvheptane)
Hexachkxoethane—Skm
Hexachtoronaphthalene—Skm
Hexane (n-hexane)
2-Hexanone
Hcxone (Methyl isobutyl keton*)....
sec-Hexyl acetate
Hydrazme—Skin
Hydrogen bromide
C Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide—Skin
Hydrogen peroxide (90%)
Hydrogen selenide
HydroQumone .
C tadine
Iron oxide fume
Isoamyl acetate
laoamyl alcohol
laobutyl acetate
Isobutyl alcohol
Isophorone
laopropyl acetate
laopropyl alcohol
laopropylamine
Isopropytether
laopropyl grycidyl ether (IGE).. ..
Ketene. - . •
Lmdane— Skin
Lithium hydnde
L.PG (liquified petroleum gas)
Magnesium oxide fume
Malathran—Skin
Mateic anhydride
C Manganese
Mesttyl oxide
Methanethiol. see Methyl mercap-
tan
Methoxychkx
2-Methoxyethanol. see Methyl cel-
knolve
Methyl acetate
Methyl acetylene (propyne)
297
-------
Methyl acetylene-propadiene mix-
hue (MAPP) .
Methyl ecrylate—Skin
Methylal (dimethoxymethane)
Methyl alcohol (methanol)
Methylamine .... . .
Methyl amyl alcohol, see Methyl
isobutyf carbmol
Methyl (n-arnyl) ketone (2- Hep-
tanone)
C Methyl bromide—Skin
Methyl butyl ketone. see ?.- Hex-
anone
Methyl cellosolve—Skin
Methyl cellosolve acetate—Skin
Methyl chloroform
Methylcyctohexane
Methyteyclohexanol
o-Methylcydohe»anone— Skin
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEKI. see 2
Butanone ...
Methyl lormate
Methyl KxMe— Skin
Methyl isobutyl carbmol—Skin
Methyl isobutyl ketone, see
Hexone ...
Methyl isocyanate—Skin .
C Methyl mercaptan
Methyl rnethacrylate
Methyl propyl ketone. see 2- Pen-
tanone
Cf Methyl ityrene
C Methytone bisphenyl isocyanate
(MDI)
Molytoooouni.
Soluble compounds
Insoluble compounds
Monomethyl aniline—Skin
C Monomethyl hydrazine— Skin
Morpholine—Skin
Naphtha (coaltar)
Naphthalene .. . .-
Nickel carbonyl
Nickel, metal and soluble cmpds.
•a Ni ....
Nicotine—Skin ....
Nrtncacid
Nitnc oxide .
p-Nrtrotniline—Skin . .
Nitrobenzene—Skin
p-Nitrochtorobenzane—Skin
Nrtroethane .....
C Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen tnfluonde .
C Nitroglycenn—Skin ..
Nitromethane
1 -Nrtropropane. .
2-Nrtropropane
Nrtrotoluene—Skin
Nitrotnchtoromethane, see Chtoro-
picnn
Octachtoronaphthalene—Skin .
Octane
Oil mtst, mineral
Osmium tetroxide
Oxalic acid
Oxygen difluonde
Ozone
Paraquat—Skin
Parathion—Skin
Pentaborene . .
PentacfUoronaphthalene—Skm
Pentachlorophenol—Skm
Pentane... .
2-Pentanone
Perchloromethyl mercaptan . ..
Perchtoryl fluoride
Petroleum distillates (naphtha).
p-Phenytone diamioe— Skin
Phenyl ether (vapor)
Phenyl ether-biphenyl mixture
(vapor)
Phenytethytene, see Styrene
Phenyl gtyddyl ether (PGF)
Phenylhydrazlne—Skin
Phosdrin (Mevmphos1)— Skin
Phosgene (carbonyl chloride)
Phosphioe.
Phosphoric acid .
Phosphorus (yellow)
Phosphorus pentachkxide
Phosphorus pentasulfide
Phosphorus tnchlonde .
Phthalic anhydride . . .
Picnc acid—Skin . ,
Prva!" (2-Prvaryl-1,3- indandione)
Platinum (Soluble salts) as Pt
Propane
n-Propyl acetate
Propyl alcohol
n-Propyl nitrate... .
Propylene dichlonde
Propylene imme—Skin ... ....
Propylene oxide
Propyne, see Methylacetylene ..
Pyrethrum . .. .
Pyndme
Oumone
Rhodium, Metal fume and ousts.
as Rh
Soluble salts .. .
Ronnel . ... . .....
Rotenone (commercial)
Selenium compounds (as Se) .
Selenium hexafluonde .. . .
Silver, metal and soluble com-
pounds ....
Sodium flurxoacetate (1060)—
Skin
Sodium hydroxide
Stibine
Stoddard solvent
Strychnine . ... ... ...
Sulfur dioxide . .
Sulfur hexafluoride.
Suttuncecid . . .
Sulfur monochlonde
Sulfur pentafluonde ....
Suffuryl fluoride
Systox. see Demeton"
2.4.ST
Tantalum. .
TEDP—Skin
Teflunum .
Teflunum hexafluonde
TEPP—Skin
C Terphenyis
1.1.1.2-Tetrschloro-22-
difluoroettiane
1,1,2,2-Tetracrtk>ro-1,2-
dtnuoroatnerte
1,1,2,2-Tetiacriloioefhane— Skm ..
Tetrachloromethane, see Carbon
tetrachloride
Tetrachkxonaphthalene—Skin
Tetraethyl lead (as Pb)—Skin
Telrahydrofuran
Tetramethyl lead (as Pb)— Skm
Tetramethyl succinonrtnle— Skm
Tetranitromethane
Tetryl (2,4,6-trintrophenyl- methyl-
nrtramme)—Skin .
Thallium (soluble compounds)—
Skin as T1
Tlwam
Tin (inorganic cmpds, except
oxides
Tin (organic cmpds) . . .
C Tohjene-2,4-d«socyanate
o-Tolmdino Skin
Toxaphene, see Chlorinated cam-
phene
Tribulyl phosphate
1,1,1-Tnchtoroethane, see Methyl
chtofoform
1,1.2-Trichloroelriane—Skm
THanhjmdioxide
Trichloromethane, see Chloroform.
Tnchloronaphthatene—Skin
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
1,1,2-Trichloro 1.2.2-trifluoroem-
ane
Triethylarfiif w . .
Trmuoromonobroriwrneitiane
2.4.6-TrMlraprienol, see Picric
acid
2.4,6-T**ophenytmethy|. mtra-
mioa, see Tetryl
Trinitrotoluene—Skm
Tnorthocresyl phosphate
Tnphenyl priosohate
Turpentine
Uranium (soluble compounds)
Uranium (insoluble compounds) ..
C Vanadium
V.O. dust
V.O. fume . . .
Vmyl benzene, see Styrene ..
vlnylcyanldB. see Acrylonrtrile
Vinyl toluene
Wartarm
Xylene (xytot)
Xylidme—Skin
Yttnum ..
Zinc chloride fume
Zinc oxide fume
Zirconium compounds (as Zr)
Benzene (Z37 40-1969)..
pounds (Z3T 29-1970)
Cadmium (urn* (Z37 5-18
Cadmium dust (Z375-19
Carbon rjauffide (Z37 3-1
CtVoon IvtrAcnlontM \2
1967).
CnrofTKC •Kio flno cnt
(Z37 7-1971)
EtfiylerM rjbrormde 12
1970)
EthyMfM flcntonoc (2
196M.
Fluorida aa dual (237 28-
Fmnialdehvge (Z37 16-1'
Hydrogen fluoride (2
196t).
Hydrogen wNWa (737 2-
Mercuty (237 8-1971)
Methyl cntoride (Z37 16-1
1969)
Ogeno (adryl) mercury (.
1*69)
Styrene (237 15-1969)
Telnchloroethylene (;
1987)
Toluene (Z37 12-1987)
Tnchkxoethylene (Z37 1t
4-«1trcb1phenyl ...
Alpha -naphthyUnlne
•ethyl thloromethyl
3.3'-Dtchlorobenz1d
Bls-chloronethyl et
tcta-naphthylanlnc
B»n7.1d1ne .........
4-Are1no
-------
Epidcmiolcn:ic3l Studies Program Syslem (FSPS) EZIS1) *!0209
The 1:51*5 aids research in the health effect •> of pesticide products by providing a comprehensive data
has* 'in liejlih statistics loi n-'tvini e\t>osed to various pesticides
— Annu.i' Cost:
Contract Support
S.O.OOO SJ5.000 S 100.000
- Primary Users:
The twelve i'pidemiolo'ji..jl SmkK Project Crimps, who an- sponsored under this Pr»»gram. use the
data file* to make hr.ihii i-liect» Mmhcs
- IXrscrivion:
This Program has taken over and expanded the Pesticide Community Stui'ies Data System. Tliis
I'royrjin luiul-. Mudies ol a rosn-'ul and i>ii*ort the iecvirds jrc medical liiiUtrios updated iver a peiiinl ot lime.
- Operation:
The Health EHects Brunch i i" the Offi-.-c ol Peuticides Program has hciiun to exercise control over this
data systems operation. 1 jpos c»nt.iininp the dat-i from these individual proj*cts arc hemp delivered
to the Hunch tor their djlj iuj'iipul.ilnm. Tliii djlj is Kemp, used to review the nndin^s of the Held
Studies and to develop new <>!.ili-iicul analyser, jnil coirelalio.is. New software standjids and data
rnanaijenieiil lcxhnu|ues .ire .vms developed 10 beitei coordinjte the wuik of the 12 individual
projc-cts.
- Responsibility
System Sponsor: Aii(!tisi Vandenvirr
299
-------
DR
D3404000002
Establishment Registration Support System
Acronym: ZRSS
Media sampled to generate data: pesticide production data
Type of data collection/monitoring: production information for pesticide
products.
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: A centralized data base is used to support inspection planning and case
preparation for pesticide enforcers by maintaining a nationwide file identifying
pesticide producing establishments and their types and amounts of annual producti
Data covers pesticide products as defined by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
•lodenticide Act (FIFRA), identified by product registration numbers. Mo chemical
ingredient data is included.
Mon-poliutant parameters include: Compliance data
Industry
Location
Production levels
Ongoing study tine period is 01701/75 to 09/30/30 (present)
Termination of data, collection: Not anticipated
Frequency of data collection: annually
Total estimated number of observations is 120000.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 20000.
Data base includes: production volumes reported by producing establishments.
Total number of stations or sources covered is 3000.
Nfumber currently contributing data is 3000.
dumber of facilities covered is 3000.
Geographic coverage of data base: International, include foreign product imports
U.S.
Location identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
City
Street address
IP A Establishment
Number
Facility identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Street address
E?A Establishment dumber
Pollutant identification data have: pesticide registration number cooes
300
-------
DRAFT
collection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
Collection method documented
udit: Data not based on lab analysis.
sion and accuracy estimates are not available
own edit procedures exist.
collected by: Self reporting
analyzed by: data not analyzed
lance or enforcement is the primary purpose for data collection.
an evaluation is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Cory authorization is ? L 95-396, Section 7 (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Sicide Act-FIFRA)
:mi number: 158-R-0109
3i available reports and outputs: Printouts on request
Machine-readable raw data
it regular users of data base: 300
: I?A headquarter offices - Pesticides and Toxic Substances Znforcement Div.,
OPP, S?RD, BFSD.
E?A regional offices
Other federal agencies, tflE, U.S. Congress
lentialiry: Limits on access within IP A and outside agency for some
7 physical location of data: NCC/IBM
if data storage: Magnetic tape
iccess: Z?A software 2*SS MEDSD system number: 3-404000002
Z?A hardware IBM 370/168
:t - Subject matter: Carol Buckingham (202) 755-2647
:t - Computer-related: Jean Malachowski (202) 633-0885
:t - responsible ZPA Office: Jonn Martin (202) 755-1075
• for non-E?A use: yes
ncy of master file up-date: Weekly
d EPA systems: Pesticides Enforcement Management System.
completing form: Tim Shaw/John Martin
: SPA/(QE)/(OGZ)/(PTSS»/
s: Viar and Company 114 X. Columous St. Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 633-0885
301
-------
3 1283"00015"! 949
-------
DRAFT
,000903
Hazardous Waste Site Tracking System
lyra: STS
sampled to generate data: No specific media: Inventory of hazardous waste
sites with gross amounts of chemicals found at site
of data collection/monitoring: No monitoring data collection
base status: Operational/ongoing
ACT: The data base contains an inventory of potential hazardous waste sites
active and inactive, "n-si^.gf _industrial facilities and off -site. Major
ions supported include: inventory and" identification, assessment, site
ction, hazards, hydrological analysis, and remedial and enforcement actions
sary.
ollutant parameters include: Compliance data
Cost/economic data
Funding data
Inspection data
Location
Physical data
Political subdivisions
Population demographics
Population density
Site description
Hazards
Waste state
Waste characteristics
Remedial actions
ag study tine period is 08/01/79 to 12/30/80 (present)
aation of data collection: Not anticipated
ency of data collection: As events (e.g. inspections) are done
estimated lumber of observations is 20821.
ated annual increase of observations is 10000.
base includes: Raw- data/observations
number of stations or sources covered is 3000.
aphic coverage of data base: National
ion identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
City
Street address
Coordinates
La ti tude/Longi fade
Coordinates
ity identifiers include: Plant facility name
303
-------
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Street address
SIC code
Dun and Bradstreet number
NPDES
Lab analysis based on E?A-approved or accepted methods.
Lab audit: Data not based on lab- analysis.
Precision and accuracy estimates are not available
Edit procedures used but undocumented.
Data collected by: State agency - Every state environmental protection agency
Regional office - Zvery Regional Office
Contractor - Various contractors
Data analyzed by: Regional office - Every Regional Surveillance and Analysis
Division
Contractor lab - Various laboratories
Data base does net identify specific laboratory performing analysis -
Compliance or enforcement is the primary purpose for data collection.
Remedial action is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Program evaluation is the third purpose for data collection.
Ho statutory requirement: Data collection requirement is to aid in E?A tracking
hazardous waste sites
Form of available reports and outputs: Printouts on request
Current regular users of data base: 15 offices
Z?A headquarter offices - Hazardous Waste Task Force; SUPERFUND; Office
Solid Waste; Office of Enforcement
EPA regional offices
Confidentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some
data
Primary physical location of data: NCC/TBM
Form of data storage: Magnetic disc
Data access: Z?A software Site Tracking System
EPA hardware IBM 370
Contact - Subject matter: Margie Russell (202)426-7810
Contact - Computer-related: Bruce Rothrock (202)426-7240
Contact - responsible EPA Office: Hazardous Waste Task Force (202)426-7310
Charge for aon-EPA use: no
Frequency of master file up-date: Weekly
Person completing form: Bruce Rothrock
Office: Office of Enforcement
Address: 401 M St. 3V Washington, DC 20460
Phone: (202)426-7240
Pollutants included in data base:
acetaldehyde 75-07-0
acetic acid 54-19-7
304
-------
DRAFT
301700901
Health and Environmental Effects Data Analysis System
•onym: HULA
lia sampled to generate data: toxicological end effects; structure-activity
relationship modeling
3e of data collection/monitoring: literature and other agency health effects
evaluation
:a base status: Funded for development Projected operational date:09/00/81
ITRACT: This system is a mechanism for testing and evaluating various chemical
•ucture/activity relationship models to compare chemicals of iaown effects to
snicals of similar structure with well-documented effects. It is the Office of
ic Substances repository for known toricological and environmental effects of
•raicals. The data base contains evaluated health and environmental effects data
.ined from, inter alia, the GZNETOX Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
•vice. It is still under development and will be operational with a limited
tunt of data early in 1981.
-pollutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Health effects
Physical data
mathematical models for structure/activity
correlation
oing study time period is 01/01/30 to 09/30/80 (present)
aination of data collection: Mot anticipated
quency of data collection: as needed
file building/as funded
al estimated number of observations is 455.
imated annual increase of observations is 300.
a base includes: evaluated data generated by expert groups
al aumber of stations or sources covered is 6.
ber currently contributing data is 5.
ber of. facilities covered is 0.
graphic coverage of data base: International
ility identifiers include: Hot applicable
lutant identification data have: CAS registry number codes
itations: Concentrations/levels of a chemical in a particular media are not
luded in this data base. Toxicity and physical-chemical data are included.
its are proposed on access within EPA and outside agency for some data.
a collection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
analysis not based on EPA-approved or accepted methods. •
305
-------
Precision and accuracy estimates exist but are not included in data base.
Edits on existing Health and Environmental Effects Data
Analysis (HZSDA) data. Edit procedures for new data may rely on contributor
editing. Some evaluation to be done in-house.
Data collected by: Federal Agencies
industry
published literature
Data analyzed by: Contractor - University of Pennsylvania (cooperative agreemi
original EZEDA
EPA headquarters - Assessment Division and Management Suppo
Division/Office of Toric Substances
Data base does not identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
Risk assessment is the primary purpose for data collection.
Development of regulations or standards is the secondary purpose for data
collection.
Statutory authorization is P L 94-469, Section 10 (Toxic Substances Control Act
2609)
Form of available reports and outputs: Unpublished reports format to be
established
Printouts on request
On-line computer
Current regular users of data base: untaown
Users: EPA headquarter offices - Office cf Toxic Substances
EPA regional offices
Other federal agencies
Confidentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some data
Primary physical location of data: Contractor
Form of data storage: Magnetic disc
Data access: EPA software MIDSE system number: 7500000904
University of Pennsylvania IBM-will be moved to the Office of To:
Substances December 20, 1980
Contact - Subject matter: Charles Auer (202) 426-9819
Contact - Computer-related: Tony Jover (202) 426-^697
Contact - responsible EPA Office: Paula Miles (202) 426-2447
Charge for non-EPA use: no outside use/access permitted
Frequency of master file up-date: system in transition
Person completing form: Paula Miles
Office: ZPA/(OPTS)/(CIS)/(JSD)
Address: 401 M St. SW, Washington, DC
Phone: (202) 426-2447
Pollutants included in data base:
phenobarbital 50-06-6
tmtomycin c 50-07-7
oestrioi 50-27-!
oestradiol-ITbeta 50-2S-2
d-lysergic acid diethylamide 50-37-3
306
-------
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-------
DF
D9055000903
Industrial Process Evaluations
Acronym: None
Media sampled to generate data: Effluents industrial
Runoff limited
in plant chemical process
Type of data collection/monitoring: Point source data collection pulp and pape:
plants, chemical industry, and herbicide ai
pesticide manufacturers
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: Evaluation of specific industries and industrial processes regarding t)
formation of toxicants by (1) National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permit or Clean Water Act, Section 308 request to industry or (2) EPA
contractor. Toxicants beyond the 129 Consent Decree Priority Pollutants are
covered. Initial work is dry lab paper study of industrial process followed by
chemical and/or biomonitoring testing by facility. Most of the data (90%) suppl.
by industry.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Concentration measures
Discharge points
Disposal
Geographic subdivision
Industry
Location
Production levels
Test/analysis method
Treatment devices
Ongoing study time period is 01/01/79 to- 09/30/BO (present)
Termination of data collection: Not anticipated
Frequency of data collection: as needed
Total estimated number of observations is 4000.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 600-800.
Data base includes: Raw data/observations
Total number of stations or sources covered is 200.
Number currently contributing data is 90.
Number of facilities covered is 60.
Geographic coverage of data base: Selected federal region Region V
Location identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
City
Town/township
308
-------
DRAFT
Street address
:ility identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Street address
SIC code
NPDES
.lutant identification data are: Uncoded
litations: Evaluation for toxicants only (sometimes conventional also). Quality
'.urance varies by facility.
:a collection and analysis procedures: documented in quality assurance project
plan
> analysis based on EPA-approved or accepted methods.
) audit is satisfactory for part of the data base.
icision and accuracy estimates partially exist for the data base.
known edit procedures exist.
-.3 collected by: Self reporting
Regional office - Surveillance and Analysis Division
Contractor - Dr. Patterson and Associates
•A analyzed by: Self reporting
Regional office - Surveillance and Analysis Division
Contractor lab - through Surveillance and Analysis Division
;a base identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
-elopment of regulations or standards is the primary purpose for data collection.
\tutory authorization is P L 90-500 as amended, Section 308 (Clean Water Act-CWA)
TO of available reports and outputs: Unpublished reports Individual
undistributed reports
•rent regular users of data base: 40
;rs: EPA headquarter offices - Effluent-Guidelines Division
EPA regional offices
States
.fidentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some
.a
.mary physical location of data: Regional office
•m of data storage: Original form (hardcopy, readings)
-a access: Manually
.tact - Subject matter: Glenn D. Pratt/Jon Barney (312) 353-2098
.tact - responsible EPA Office: Glenn D. Pratt/Jon Bamey (312) 353-2098
rge for non-EPA use: no
•quency of master file up-date: as completed
•son completing form: Glenn Pratt
ice: EPA/Region V/Enforcement Division
.ress: 230 3. Dearborn Chicago, 111 60604
•ne: (312)353-2098
309
-------
Yankelovich Part3:
Toward an ethic of commitment
Savin gambles on a strategy for growth
June 15,1981
Penton/IPC
-------
DATA SOURCE C: IRPTC
INTERNATIONAL REGISTER OF POTENTIALLY TOXIC CHEMICALS
Review Date: January, 1981
C.I BACKGROUND
Development of the International Register of Potentially
Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC) was begun in 1977, and is under the auspices of
the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). The project is still in
the planning stages.
The IRPTC plan provides for much detail in reporting of
physical-chemical properties and effects upon health and the environ-
ment.
C.2 STATUS
Currently, IRPTC is coordinating and incorporating data and
instructions to develop the system. A total of 17 major categories of data
are in the register, and these include information on the chemical, its
manufacture, its health effects and its environmental effects. IRPTC is
not currently available as a data base, either manually or in computer
form, although information on some sixty compounds used to test the
proposed data contents and organization are available in published form.
C J SCIENTIFIC PARAMETERS
IRPTC has 17 categories of data. Each consists of several
scientific parameters. These 17 categories can be roughly divided into
nine broad classifications:
o Chemical Identifiers
o Physical-Chemical Properties
o Manufacturing Information
o Environmental Effects
o Health Effects
o Environmental Fate
o Analytical Methods
o Removal
o Legal Implications
Each of these categories is explained in further detail with
examples to illustrate the format.
311
-------
o Chemical Identifiers
This section includes the following information:
Chemical name
Accession number (IKPTC NU)
CAS number (CAS NU)
molecular formula (MOLFM)
molecular weight (MOLWT)
structural formula (STRFM)
Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN)
definition (DEF)
synonyms (SYN)
Examples of the chemical fields are given in Figure E.C. I for
the compound Acrylonitrile.
o Physical-Chemical Properties
This topic concerns the following information:
melting point (MP)
flash point (FP)
density (DEN)
boiling point (BP)
flammable limits (FL)
relative vapor density (RVDEN)
vapor pressure (VP)
adsorption coefficient (ADS)
partition coefficient (PC)
water solubility (AQSOL)
additives (ADD)
impurities (IMPUR)
Figure E.C.I shews a typical entry for the chemical Acrylonitrile.
o Manufacturing Information
This section deals with the following aspects of chemical
production and use.
Production/Consumption covers information relating to:
geographic area
quantity
year
reference
A typical entry is shown in Figure E.C.2.
312
-------
Production processes include information pertaining to the:
process
impurities
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.G.2.
The Use category includes such information as:
use
geographic area
quantity
Figure E.C.2 shows a typical entry.
o Environmental Effects
The environmental effects category incorporates information
on a substance's effect upon the environment.
The pathways into the environment are described by informa-
tion such as:
pathway and receiving medium
geographic area
quantity
time unit
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.G.3.
Environmental concentration (residue) data include:
medium
geographic area
concentration
analytical method
date of sampling
reference
A typical entry is shown in Figure E.G.3.
o Health Effects
The health effects field is very broad in its coverage, and
includes a variety of data items:
Bioconcentration is the experimental determination that a
higher concentration of a given substance is detected within on organism
313
-------
than in the surrounding (experimental) environment. The- scientific
parameters given include:
test conditions
water concentration
organism
bioconcentration factor and time
calculation basis
reference
An example of a typical entry appears in Figure E.C.4.
The clearance time for aquatic organisms refers to the amount
of time it takes for an organism to rid (depurate) itself of a substance
after being placed in clean water. The information supplied includes:
test conditions
organism
quantity cleared
reference
An example of a typical entry is given in Figure E.C.4.
The mammalian metabolites section includes the following
scientific parameters:
organism
metabolites
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.C.5.
The mammalian toxicity array shows the toxic effects
associated with a chemical substance in relation to the amount of
exposure. The scientific parameters include:
exposure concentration/dose
exposure period
route
organism
effect
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.G.5.
Carcinogen!city data include:
evaluation
reference
314
-------
Also entered as part of this category are experimental results
including:
organism
route
exposure concentration/dose
exposure period
effect
reference
Figure E.C.6. shows these types of entries.
Mutogenicity data cover the following experimental results:
organism
route
exposure concentration/dose
exposure period
test results
reference
When a mutagenicity entry involves a microorganism or cell
culture, the scientific parameters entered include:
test system or organism
test results
reference
Typical entries of both these types are shown in Figures E.G.7.
Neurotoxicity and behavior studies determine if a substance
affects nerve tissues or behavior performance. The scientific parameters
included are as follows:
o organism
o route
o exposure concentration/dose
o exposure period
o effect
o reference
An example of this type of entry appears in Figure E.C.8.
Potentiation studies determine if a chemical's toxic effects
are increased if combined with widely used drugs and other chemicals.
The scientific parameters provided include:
organism
chemical or drug
reference
315
-------
An example appears in Figure E.C.8.
Primary irritation is characterized by the following entries:
organism
route
effect
reference
Figure E.G.9 shows a typical entry.
Reproduction data are entered as follows:
organism
route
exposure concentration/dose
exposure period
effect
reference
A typical entry is shown in Figure E.C.9.
Sensitizotion data are entered as follows:
organism
route
effect
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.G. 10.
The scientific parameters on terotogenicity appear in the
following format:
organism
route
exposure concentration/dose
exposure data
effect
reference
A typical entry appears in Figure E.G. 10.
Aquatic and terrestrial toxicity are included to provide
information on the environmental toxicity of a substance. Each entry
includes the following scientific parameters:
organism or ecosystem
exposure concentration/dose
316
-------
exposure period
route of exposure (when applicable)
effect
reference
Typical entries for each of these fields appear in Figure
E.G.11.
o Environmental Fate
The environmental fate field includes a variety of topics.
Biodegrodation data are presented in the format:
source of microorganisms
test conditions
analytical technique and quantity
products and quantity produced
reference
A typical entry is shown in Figure B.C. 12.
The environmental fate data concern the transformation and
transport of a chemical in the environment. The scientific parameters
entered include:
interphase or subcompartment
geographic area
quantity/time
reference
A typical entry is shown in Figure E.G. 12.
Photodegrodotion data include the following:
medium
test conditions
quantity of chemical that degrades
products and quantity produced
reference
An example of this type of entry appears in Figure E.G.12.
Hydrolysis data include:
medium and test conditions
quantity hydrolysed
products and quantity produced
reference
317
-------
A sample entry appears in Figure E.G. 13.
Adsorption refers to the process whereby a chemical adheres
(absorbs) to a surface solid (biotic and abiotic). The scientific parameters
include:
medium or adsorbent
test conditions
test method and quantity
reference
Figure E.G.13 shows a typical entry line.
Evaporation data include:
medium
test conditions
quantity evaporated
reference
A sample of this data is given in Figure E.G. 13.
Loss describes the event where a decrease in the concentra-
tion of chemical cannot be attributed to a single process. The scientific
parameters include:
medium
test conditions
quantity lost
products and quantity produced
reference
An example appears in Figure E.G. 14.
Model ecosystems are set up to experimentally study the
various phenomena which occur in natural ecosystems. The scientific
parameters included are as follows:
type of model ecosystem
reference
Figure E.G.!4 shows a typical entry.
o Analytical Methods
Sampling/Preparation/Analysis describes the sampling
methods, sample preparation, and analytical methods used to test for the
environmental presence of various substances. If the report is detailed,
the scientific parameters selected include:
318
-------
medium
analytical method
detection limit
sample size
reference
If a less detailed description is given, the data appear in a
section called Sampling/Preparation which includes:
medium
analytical method
reference
o Removal
This section is very broad and includes:
Spills - entered as a free-text description of secondary
documents prepared by expert committees on the handling of spills.
Poisoning treatment - also entered as a free-text description.
It is included to inform the user of the symptoms and treatment of various
intoxications.
Removal methods - describe the main procedures for
substance removal. These methods include recycling, regeneration and
ultimate disposal.
o Legal Implications
The Legal mechanisms/Recommendations section concerns the
control of substances in the environment. The category is very broad and
highlights regulations and guidelines from air quality to cosmetic quality.
The scientific parameters include:
geographic area or organization
type of mechanism
subject of mechanism
description of mechanism
levels with specified analytical method
effective date
reference
C.4 ACCESSIBILITY
IRPTC is not yet in published or computerized form. A
manual is available containing sample entries of various chemicals.
319
-------
C.5 DEVELOPMENT PLANS
It is planned that IRPTC will be an on-line data base as well as
in published book form. The data base would be continuously updated.
IRPTC will also be available on comfiche-computer generated microfiche.
C.6 REFERENCES
I. IRPTC - Instructions for the Selection and Presentation of
Data for the International Register of Potentially
Toxic Chemicals with Sixty Illustrative Chemical
Data Profiles.
320
-------
KIRK-OTHMER
•CO
The Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology is a reference text
'hich covers virtually all major aspects of chemical technology and related
;opics: Industrial products, natural resources, manufacturing processes, and
hemical uses. The third edition will include topics such as energy, health,
afety, toxicology, new materials, polymer and plastics technology, inorganic
nd solid-state chemistry, composite materials, fermentation and enzymes,
oatings, Pharmaceuticals, and surfactant technology.
Second edition volumes were sequentially published from 1963-1972. In the
5 volumes of the third edition, approximately 1,000 articles written by subject
xperts will appear. The third edition volumes are being issued at a rate of
our per year; completion of the set is expected in 1983.
ccess;
The Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology is published by Wiley-
Tterseience, New York uizj 8b/-92UU.
ast;
The third edition of the Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
> available by subscription for 595 per volume.
imple Search/Output:
Not applicable.
321
-------
Introduction
The DIALOG Information Retrieval Service, from DIALOG
Information Services, Inc., has been serving users since
1972. Now, with more than 120 databases available on the
system, the DIALOG Service offers unequaled subject
balance and variety. And the DIALOG searching capabil-
ities and strengths make it the most powerful online system
of its type.
The databases on the DIALOG system contain in excess
of 45,000,000 records. Records, or units of information,
can range from a directory-type listing of specific manu-
facturing plants to a citation with bibliographic information
and an abstract referencing a journal, conference pa
or other original source.
The following chart groups the DIALOG databases
categories representing their primary topic coverage.
DIALOG System features are then described, and inf<
tion on how to begin service is provided. Brief databa
descriptions follow, giving a clearer picture of not on I'
individual databases, but also of the scope of subject
matter the DIALOG Service offers. A list of databases
file number is found at the end of the Catalog.
Flto
No.
102
88
137
101
35
77
135
411
200
114
20
136
26
27
66
85
150
47
78
111
211
911
49
65
110
10
55
5
2
DATABASE (Supplier) \
MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND CURRENT AFFAIRS
* ASI (Congressional Information Service, Inc.)
* BIOGRAPHY MASTER INDEX (Gale Research Company)
* BOOK REVIEW INDEX (Gale Research Company)
CIS (Congressional Information Service, Inc.) . .
COMPREHENSIVE DISSERTATION INDEX (Univ. Microfilms Inc.)
CONFERENCE PAPERS INDEX (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts)
* CONGRESSIONAL RECORD ABSTRACTS (Capitol Services, Inc.)
DIALINDEX™ (DIALOG Information Retrieval Service)
DIALOG PUBLICATIONS (DIALOG Information Retrieval Service) . .
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FEDERAL INDEX (Capitol Services, Inc.) .
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NEWSEARCH (Information Access Corporation)
NEWSEARCH (Information Access Corporation) subscriber
PAIS INTERNATIONAL (Public Affairs Information Service, Inc.)
SSIE CURRENT RESEARCH (Smithsonian Science Info. Exchange)
SCIENCE
AGRICOLA 1970—1978 (U S D A Technical Information Systems)
AGRICOLA 1979-present (US D A Technical Information Systems)
BIOSIS PREVIEWS 1969—1973 (Blosciences Information Service)
BIOSIS PREVIEWS 1974— present (Biosciences Information Service)
CA SEARCH 1967-1971 (American Chemical Society)
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$90
55
55
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75
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DATABASE (Supplier)
3 CA SEARCH 1972-1976 (American Chemical Society) $70 18«
)4 CA SEARCH 1977-1979 (American Chemical Society) 70 18
4 CA SEARCH 1978-present (American Chemical Society) 70 18
i1 CHEMNAME™ (Chemical Abstracts Service, DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service) 70 20
50 CHEMSEARCH™ (Chemical Abstracts Service, DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service) .. . ... 55 16
JO CHEMSIS™ 1977-present (Chemical Abstracts Service, DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service) .. . 70 20
>1 CHEMSIS™ 1972-1976 (Chemical Abstracts Service, DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service) 70 20
iO CAB ABSTRACTS (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) . 35 25
'2 EXCERPTA MEDICA 1980-present (Excerpta Medica) 65 20
'3 EXCERPTA MEDICA IN PROCESS (Excerpta Medica) 65 20
'2 EXCERPTA MEDICA 1974-1979 (Excerpta Medica) 65 20
i8 GEOARCHIVE (Geosystems) 70 20
I9 GEOREF (American Geological Society) 65 20
2 INSPEC1969-1977 (Institution of Electrical Engineers) 70 20
3 INSPEC 1978-present (Institution of Electrical Engineers) 70 20
6 IRL LIFE SCIENCES COLLECTION (Information Retrieval Ltd.) .. 45 15
2 * MEDLINE 1966-1974 (U.S. National Library of Medicine) 35 15
3 * MEDLINE 1975-1979 (U.S. National Library of Medicine) 35 15
4 MEDLINE 1980-present (U.S. National Library of Medicine) 35 15
9 METEOROLOGICAL AND GEOASTROPHYSICAL ABSTRACTS (American
Meteorological Society and NOAA) 95 15
4 ONTAP™ CA SEARCH (American Chemical Society) 15 na
1 ONTAP™ CHEMNAME (American Chemical Society) 15 na
4 SCISEARCH* 1974-1977 (Institute for Scientific Information) subscriber 40 10
SCISEARCH* 1974-1977 (Institute for Scientific Information) nonsubscriber 130 20
4 SCISERACH* 1978-present (Institute for Scientific Information) subscriber 30 10
SCISEARCH* 1978-present (Institute for Scientific Information)
nonsubscriber 120 25
2 SPIN (American Institute of Physics) 35 10
> TSCA INITIAL INVENTORY (Environmental Protection Agency, DIALOG
Information Retrieval Service) 45 15
APPLIED SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
5 APTIC (Air Pollution Tech. Info. Ctr. & the Franklin Institute) $47 20«
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I AQUACULTURE (NOAA) 35 15
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CLAIMS™/CHEM 1950-1970 (IFI/Plenum Data Company) 95 15
CLAIMS™/UNITERM 1950-1970 (IFI/Plenum Data Company) 300 15
t CLAIMS™/UNITERM 1971-1977 (IFI/Plenum Data Company) . 300 15
i CLAIMS™/UNITERM 1978-present (IFI/Plenum Data Company) . . 300 15
CLAIMSTM/CITATION (IFI/Plenum Data Company) . 95 $50.00
CLAiMS™/CLASS (IFI/Plenum Data Company) . 95 10
\ CLAIMS™/U.S. PATENTS 1971-1977 (IFI/Plenum Data Company) .... 95 15
323
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DATABASE (Supplier)
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No.
25 CLAIMS™/U S. PATENTS ABSTRACTS 1978-present (IFI/Pelnum Data
Company) ... .
125 CLAIMS™/U.S. PATENT ABSTRACTS WEEKLY (IFI/Plenum Data Company)
8 COMPENDEX (Engineering Index, Inc.)
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69 ENERGYLINE" (Environment Information Center, Inc.) .
40 ENVIROLINE" (Environment Information Center, Inc.)
68 ENVIRONMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (Internatl Acad. at Santa Barbara) . ..
51 FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ABS. (Intl. Food Info. Service)
79 FOODS ADLIBRA (K&M Publications, Inc.)
123 INPADOC (International Patent Documentation Center)
74 INTERNATIONAL PHARMACEUTICAL ABS. (Am. Soc. of Hospital
Pharmacists) . . .
14 ISMEC (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts) .
32 METADEX (American Society for Metals)
118 * NONFERROUS METALS ABSTRACTS (British Non-Ferrous Metals
Technology Center)
6 NTIS (National Technical Info. Service, U.S. Dept. of Commerce)
28 OCEANIC ABSTRACTS (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts)
48 PIRA (Research Assoc. for Paper & Board, Printing & Packaging Indus.)
41 POLLUTION ABSTRACTS (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts)
95 RAPRA ABSTRACTS (Rubber and Plastics Research Association of Great
Britain) . ..
117 * SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS (U.S. Dept. of the Intenor)
115 SURFACE COATINGS ABSTRACTS (Paint Research Association of Great
Britain) . .
63 TRIS (U.S. Department of Transportation and Transportation Research Board)
99 WELDASEARCH (The Welding Institute) . ...
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i Health Information, National Institute of Mental Health)
201 ONTAP™ ERIC .
$95
95
68
40
35
90
90
60
65
55
95
50
73
80
45
40
73
55
73
65
45
65
40
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55
$25
65
60
35
25
25
65
55
50
55
35
70
35
30
15
324
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DATABASE (Supplier)
>7 PHILOSOPHER'S INDEX (Philosophy Documentation Center)...
1 POPULATION BIBLIOGRAPHY (University of North Carolina, Carolina
Population Center)
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7 SOCIAL SCISEARCH* (Institute for Scientific Information)
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65
65
70
55
65
65
35
$73
95
75
60
65
90
90
45
90
45
70
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90
90
90
90
90
90
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85
45
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10
15
15
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25
20
$5.00
20
50
50
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20
15
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20
20
20
20
20
20
20
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25
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a three-month trial period the rate per record TYPEd or PRINTed will increase to 50C unless subscription arrangement is
through Predicasts, Inc., 200 University Circle Research Center, 11001 Cedar Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106 (216/795-3000)
icoming database
325
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D6303000I07
Multimedia Assessment of the Inorganic Chemicals Industry
Acronym: Mone
Media sampled to generate data: Effluents manufacturing processes and waste
treatment
Emissions manufacturing processes and waste
treatment
Solid waste
Type of data collection/monitoring: Point source data collection inorganic
chemical manufacturing processes
Data base status: Update terminated
ABSTRACT: Information on high volume, industrial inorganic chemicals which are
compounds of aluminum, boron, chromium, fluorine, iron, manganese, nickel,
phosphorus, seawater, silicon, methane, alkalis, sodium, sesquicarbonate, sulfui
titanium, barium, calcium, copper, lead, strontium, potassium, lithium, magnesii
arsenic, antimony, cadmium, cobalt, mercury, vanadium, and four industrial gases
Process description, energy requirements, raw waste description, pollution
technology, and emissions after controls are also included. Occupational and he
effects and research and development needs in pollution control are presented fc
each group of chemicals.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Chemical data
Compliance data
Concentration measures
Cost/economic data
Discharge points
Disposal
Exposure data
Flow rates
Geograpnic subdivision
Health effects
Industry
Location
Manufacturer
Political subdivisions
Production levels
Treatment devices
Use
Volume/mass measures
Process description
Control technology
Residual emissions after treatment
disposal practices
Ongoing study time period is 01/01/75 to 08/30/30
Termination of data collection: Occurred 08/30/30
Frequency of data collection: 5 year period for data collection and update
326
-------
DRAFT
•ry plant used in the U.S. to manufacture inorganic chemicals.
a base includes: Summary or aggregate observations
Reference data/citations
:ry facility manufacturing inorganic chemicals on an industrial scale
graphic coverage of data base: National
ation identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
City
Town/township
ility identifiers include: Plant location
Parent corporation name
lutant identification data are: Uncoded
itatioas: Limitation of data base is that representative manufacturers were
tacted and engineering estimates were made for others.
audit: Data not based on lab analysis.
cision and accuracy estimates are not available
fcnown edit procedures exist.
a collected by: Contractor - Versar, Inc. Springfield, VA
a analysed by: Z?A lab - Industrial Environmental Research Lab-Cinci
Contractor - Versar, Inc. Springfield, VA
a base identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
Lcipatory/research is the primary purpose for data collection.
onology development is the secondary purpose for data collection.
id assessment is the third purpose for data collection.
statutory requirement: Data collection requirement is to develop long term
sarch and development program for inorganic chemical industry
n of available reports and outputs: Unpublished reports Multimedia Assessment
of Inorganic Chemicals Industry.
Printouts on request possible in a year
rent regular users of, data base: 5
rs: E?A headquarter offices - Iffluent Guidelines Division
Z?A regional offices
Federal agencies Occupational Safety and Health Administration
fidentiality: No limits on access to data
oary physical location of data: Z?A lab
a of data storage: Magnetic tape
i access: Commercial software SYSTEM 2000
EPA hardware Univac n 00
act - Subject matter:.Mary Stinson (201) 340-66S3
act - Computer-related: Mary Stinson (201) 340-6683
act - responsible E?A Office: Industrial Environmental Research Lab-Cincin (513)
•4431
rge for aon-EPA use: Mot Xnowu at this time
luency of aaster file up-date: Armua1 update may be done
327
-------
D7205000002
National Electronic Injury Surveillance System
Acronym: NEISS
Media sampled to generate data: sample is hospital emergency rooms wnich trsai
pesticide poisonings.
Type of data collection/monitoring: monitoring of injuries (pesticide poisoi
treated in hospital emergency rooms.
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: MEISS consists of a listing of pesticide poisoning incidents giving
information on type of pesticide, route of exposure, whether or not the case v;
diagnosed as a poisoning by a physician, what symptoms, if any, were present,
brand name of the pesticide, and the E?A registration number of the product, i.
known.
Mon-pollutant parameters include: Exposure data
Health effects
Location
Population demographics
Sampling date
Treatment devices
pesticide type
route of exposure
physician diagnosis of poisoning
symptoms present
age & sex of patient
disposition of case
body part affected
EPA regulation number
Ongoing study time period is 01/01/79 to 09/30/30 (present)
Terminatiop of data collection: Mot anticipated
Frequency of data collection: Monthly reports by Consumer Product Safety
Commission to EPA
Total estimated number of observations is 21067.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 13500.
Data base Includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
Total number of stations or sources covered is 74.
Number currently contributing data is 51.
Number of facilities covered is 74.
Geographic coverage of data base: National
Location identifiers of station/source for each record are: County
328
-------
DRAFT
State (available to
Health Effects Branch
only)
;ility identifiers include: hospital identification number assigned by Consumer
Product Safety Commission
lutant identification data are: Coded with other coding schemes
atations: Data base contains only those pesticides and RPAR chemicals that are no
.ger being sold but that may still exist in homes throughout the country.
a collection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
Analysis method documented
analysis not based on E?A-approved or accepted methods.
audit: Data not based on lab analysis.
cision and accuracy estimates exist but are not included in data base
t procedures used but undocumented.
a collected by: hospital personnel
a analyzed by: Other federal agency - U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC)
a base does not identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
«lopment of regulations or standards is Che primary purpose for data collection.
nd assessment is the secondary purpose for data collection.
cial study is the third purpose for data collection.
statutory requirement: Data collection requirement is to support Agency research
o health effects of pesticides.
SB of available reports and outputs: Unpublished reports Report of First Year
Data-Interagency Agreement with the
Consumer Product Safety Commission
rent regular users of data base: 5
rs: EPA headquarter offices - Health Effects Branch, Office of Pesticide
Programs
EPA laboratories Pesticide Incident Monitoring System (PIMS) Data Center,
Miami FL.
fidentiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for some
a
nary physical location of data: Other federal agency
o of data storage: Magnetic disc
a access: through the Health Effects Contact with the Consumer Product Safety
Commission
tact - Subject matter: Mary "raakenberry (202)472-9310
tact - Computer-related: Eileen Kessler, CPSC
tact - responsible E?A Office: Mary Franicenberry (202)472-9310
rge for non-E?A use: Mo outside use/access permitted
quency of master file up-date: Semi-annually
report annually
ated aon-E?A data bases: reports from Poison Control Centers
329
-------
D2209000905
National Institutes of Health/Environmental
Protection Agency (NIH/IPA) Chemical Information System
Acronym: CIS
Media sampled to generate data: Air
Atmospheric deposition
Blood
Drinking water
Effluents various
Emissions various
Ground water
Mobile source emissions
Noise
Runoff various
Sediment
Soil
Solid waste
Surface water various
Tissue various
Type of data collection/monitoring: ambient, point and non-point sources
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: The NTH/EPA Chemical Information System (CIS) is a collection of
scientific data bises available through an interactive computer program. No o
publicly available information system can provide such diverse numeric, as opp
to bibliographic, data on so many (over 192,000) chemical substances. CIS has
unique linking system, the heart of which is the Structure and Nomenclature Se
System (SANSS). SANSS allows the user, in a single operation, to search 66
different files including the TSCA inventory. CIS includes 6 major identifica
data bases (QHM-TADS; Mass Spectometry; Carbon 13 NMR; Organic Crystals: Singl
Crystals and Powder Defraction). Additional data bases cover toxicology, the
Federal Register, and bibliographic files.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Collection method
Compliance data
Concentration measures
Cost/economic data
Discharge points
Disposal
Geographic subdivision
Health effects
Industry
Inspection data
Location
Manufacturer
Physical data
Sampling date
Site description
Temperature
330
-------
DRAFT
Use
Volume/mass measures
g study time period is 01/01/30 to 09/30/80 (present)
ation of data collection: Not anticipated
ncy of data collection: one time only
daily
weekly
quarterly
semi annually
annually
as needed
actual number of observations is 192000 chemicals.
ted annual increase of observations is 25000-50000.
ase includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
number of stations or sources covered is 1000.
currently contributing data is 66.
phic coverage of data base: International
on identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
City
Town/township
Street address
Coordinates
latitude/longitude in
Waterdrop data base
Project identifier
lab identifier
ty identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Street address
SIC code
ant identification data have: CAS registry number codes
tions: Quality assurance procedures vary by data base and source, frequency
a collection varies for each data base and source.
ollection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
Collection method documented
Analysis method documented
QA procedures documented
alysis not based on EPA-approved or accepted methods.
dit: Data not based on lab analysis.
ion and accuracy estimates partially exist for organic crystals and
331
-------
mass spectometry data
Edit generally performed by contractor, some documented, and some not.
Data collected by:
Local agency - Texas, California and other Air Resources Be
State agency - Environmental Protection Agencies
Regional office - Surveillance and Analysis Divisions (most
regions)
lab - Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab-Cincinn«
EPA
OH
EPA
EPA
EPA
lab - Environmental Research Lab-Athens, GA
lab - Environmental Research Lab-Ada, OK
lab - National Enforcement Investigations Center
Contractor lab - under contract to National Bureau of Stanc
& Radian Lab under contract to EPA.
Contractor - Betel, RTI and misc. others
Other federal agency - National Institutes of Health Feder;
Drug Administration National Bureau of Standards
EPA headquarters - Chemical Information System coordinator
Universities, Data Center (England), Hungarian Academy of
Sciences & others
Contractor - Fein Marquart & Radian Corporation
international data generators
Data base identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
Data analyzed by:
Development of regulations or standards is the secondary purpose for data
collection.
Compliance or enforcement is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Trend assessment is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Technology development is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Risk assessment is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Anticipatory/research is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Program evaluation is the secondary purpose for data collection.
development of single resource to link chemical files and literature. Purpose
use varies by user, is the primary purpose for data collection.
No statutory requirement: Data collection requirement is to develop a support
resource to coordinate and link all EPA chemical files with the literature &
external files.
Form of available reports and outputs: Publications articles in On-Line; Sci
Industrial Chemical News; Journal o_f
Chemical Information and Computer Svs
mass spectra data (4 volumes and inde
Current regular users of data base: 1000
Users: EPA headquarter offices - Office of Planning and Evaluation
EPA headquarter offices
EPA headquarter offices
EPA headquarter offices
EPA headquarter offices
EPA headquarter offices
EPA headquarter offices
EPA regional offices
EPA laboratories
Other federal agencies
Office of Toxic Substances
Office of Enforcement
Office of Waste Water Management
Office of Solid Waste
Office of Research and Development
Office of Air, Noise and Radiation
332
-------
DRAFT
States
industry, universities and 20 countries
dentiality: No limits on access to data
ry physical location of data: Contractor
of data storage: Magnetic tape
Magnetic disc
access: EPA software NIH/EPA-CIS MIDSD system number: 7500000900
EPA hardware DEC PDF- 10 (NIH)
zt - Subject matter: Stephen R. Heller (202)755-4938
:t - Computer-related: Stephen R. Heller (202)755-4938
:t - responsible EPA Office: Stephen R. Heller (202)755-4938
• for non-EPA use: yes
•ncy of master file up-date: varies from weekly to annually by data base
•d EPA data bases: OHM-TADS, STORET
sd non-EPA data bases: Lockheed bibliographic data bases, National Library of
Lne data bases, System Development Corporation data bases.
i completing form: Stephen R. Heller
t: EP A/( 0PM )/(OMAS)/( MIDSD)
;s: 401 M St, S.W. Washington, DC 20460
: (202)755-4938
:ants included in data base:
Ldehyde 75-07-0
sin 107-02-8
mitrile 107-13-1
chloride 107-05-1
. chloride 100-44-7
iloromethy 1 ) ether 542-88-1
i tetrachloride 56-23-5
>benzene 108-90-7
>form 67-66-3
>prene 126-99-8
>romethane 75-09-2
tylnitrosanri ne 62-75-9
ic 123-91-1
i 828-00-2
.orohydrin 106-89-8
me dibromide (edb) 106-93-4
•ne dichloride 107-06-2
sne oxide 75-21-8
.dehyde 50-00-0
ilorocyclopentadiene 77-47-4
10! 108-39-4
tne 108-38-3
: anhydride 108-31-6
icse 7439-96-5
. chloroform 71-55-6
333
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D6303000106
Organic Chemical Producers Data Base
Acronym: OCPDB
Media sampled to generate data: No specific media This data base lists organic
chemicals, their properties, producers, and
describes processes by which they are produced.
Type of data collection/monitoring: literature and personal contacts
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: The data base includes almost 500 chemicals and their more than l.300
producers. Chemicals are described by Chemical Abstracts Services (CAS) registr
number. Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN), chemical uses, synonyms, toxicity data,
economic data, and producers. Locations of producers are described by city, sta
Z?A region, and river basin. The chemicals that are produced at each location a
listed, along with nameplate capacities and emissions when available.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Chemical data
Cost/economic data
Discharge points
Geographic subdivision
Industry
Location
Manufacturer
Political subdivisions
Production levels
Use
toxiciry data
process descriptions
Ongoing study tune period is 02/01/76 to 02/30/79
Termination of data collection: Not anticipated
Frequency of data collection: as needed
Total estimated number of observations is 2492.
Data base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
Reference data/citations
Total number of stations or sources covered is 1246.
Number currently contributing data is 1246.
Number of facilities covered is 1246.
Geographic coverage of data base: National
Location identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
City
Town/township
Facility identifiers include: Plant facility aarae
Plant location
340
-------
DRAFT
Parent corporation name
Parent corporation location
Program identifier
ant identification data have: CAS registry number codes
tions: The data base includes high volume, organic chemical products are
ed, exclusively. Quality assurance aspects are not applicable.
ollection and analysis procedures: Collection method documented
Analysis method documented
QA procedures documented
dit: Data not based on lab analysis.
roceduxes used but undocumented.
ollected by: Contractor lab - Monsanto, Radian
nalyzed by: Contractor - Radian
ase does not identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
pment of regulations or standards is the primary purpose for data collection.
assessment is the secondary purpose for data collection.
tutory requirement: Data collection requirement is To compile a list of
srs of major chemicals in order to facilitate ZPA sampling programs and
Dries.
t available reports and outputs: Publications
Unpublished reports
Printouts on request
Machine-readable raw data
t regular users of data base: 50
2?A headquarter offices - Office of Toxic Substances
EPA headquarter offices - Office of Solid Waste
SPA headquarter offices - Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
SPA regional offices
SPA laboratories
Other federal agencies
States
local government agencies
sntiality: Mo limits on access to data
7 physical location of data: MCC/UNIVAC
f data storage: Magnetic tape
:cess: Commercial software System 2000
: - Subject matter: A. McBath (513) 634~a41 7
: - Computer-related: A. McSath (513) 684-4417
t - responsible Z?A Office: E.S. Berkau (513) 634-4314
for non-EPA use: no
acy of master file up-date: as needed
pertinent data 'oases: Several are proposed by this office — some of which
be operational by 1982.
341
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Pesticides Analysis Retrieval and Control System (PARC'S) FlSt) * 10083
— Purpu*:
The Olli.-c (if 1'csltcitlc I'nigrjiw (OPI'i iv n-spnnsihle Cot registration ni" all pesticide* ux'd in the
nj'ion. PARCS piovtdcs a ccntrjh/cd ^>mce of information or. all of these icgistered pesticides.
DJ(J in the s>stcm arc us^d Uu legislation analysis, rcscuicd. anJ reporting.
- Annual Cost :
/Vrh'fiwri CiiHirat-t Supfxirt
S:>I7,UOO S7S.OOO
- Primary Vvn:
The system is u«d ihiclly to suppoit the ^ic si Hides rcitKiciitnn pt«j«taiii. Research on chcniicaK uu'J
in pcsticidev is alsu a f.;,o( uiun:f lor rcinovjl n-qucsli.
— Drscription:
Cuncntlv. uifurmation on ?(>.000 pcsiiciJcs I'.sndleJ ;n intciMiic ronmstMcc is contained in ti\e
PARCS system. Djta in this system is ludily encoded-, for cav anil mampiibtiun. and all ncv. Jjia
tequests aie contiotUd hy one centul nlllcc.
The I'ARCS system is used 10 loinevc inturmation abnu! pcMu-idfs on a variety of categories. For
example, the system can answer questions such as "liM all diunlectams and funcicides containing
rrulalhion." The system maintains information on the name and address uf producer, ingredients
(both active and inert). and the iivipc category ot :ill pebtictdos. Retrieval snftwure allows the dau to
he extracted, anaiwcd. and liintialt-'d An'idc'it mvestiptini mlorniation it aKo Tiainiamcc' js a
H'pJutc part of the system.
- Operation:
PARCS runs on the OSI computer. The ibtj files arc «ored on-line, but access to them is limited to
retrieval requests suhmilted to OIT. Retnevjls are airrcntly hvinp run alnmt 500 times per \ ear.
which is up sliarply from previous \e.irs. Tlu1 worklojd in maintain the data i ..» increav-J .'()-4l> ; this
year due to .ek. Standard summary icporls are produced monthly.
System Spunsor: Elgin Fry
343
-------
D7202000005
Pesticide Document Management System
Acronym: PDMS
Media sampled to generate data: Air
Drinking water
Effluents varies by producer
Ground water
Runoff rain water, ground water, waste water
Sediment
Soil
Surface water
Tissue animals, plants, man
Type of data collection/monitoring: scientific data varies as submitted by
producers
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act requires eve:
pesticide__nanufacnger or producer to submit scientific data to ZPA before a
pesticide product can~"be~manu£actured, sold, or used in the United States. Thi
data are maintained in the Pesticide Document Management System. Related
information from the published literature is also included.
tan-pollutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Cost/economic data
Disposal
Exposure data
Health effects
Manufacturer
Physical data
Production levels
Site description
Test/analysis method
Use
Ongoing study time period is 01/01/150 to 10/30/80 (present)
Termination of data collection: Mot anticipated
Frequency of data collection: daily
Total estimated number of observations is 65000 citations.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 43000.
Data base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations.
Reference data/citations
Total number of stations or sources covered is 44941 companies.
dumber currently contributing data is unknown.
344
-------
DRAFT
of facilities covered is not available.
jhic coverage of data base: National
m identifiers of station/source for each record are: citations
ry identifiers include: Mot applicable
mt identification data have: Shaughnessy Cades
:ions: The data base is still being developed. Currently, it has limited
•batch mode by a chemical code, Shaughnessy Code; a limited number of «tandard
•aIs and output formats; a response time of 3-4 days; and one purpose-
,tion support, to the EPA Pesticides Program. Information Requests which fall
: of these limits will require new programs and increase the response time.
.ains information for 72 chemicals.
llection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
Collection method documented
Analysis method documented
QA procedures documented
lysis not based on ZPA-approved or accepted methods.
.on and accuracy estimates are not available.
ograms for validity of bibliographic information only; no
or accuracy.
llected. by: Self reporting pesticide producers and manufacturers
EPA headquarters - Office of Pesticide Programs
alyzed by: Self reporting primary data analysis
EPA headquarters - Office of Pesticide Programs
se identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
nent of regulations or standards is the primary purpose for data collection.
nee or enforcement is the secondary purpose for data collection.
sessment is the third purpose for data collection.
ry authorization is P L 92-516 as amended, section 3(c)(2)(c) (FURA)
available reports and outputs: Printouts on request
Microfilm
regular users of data base: 350 people (OPP review Scientists and contract reviewers)
EPA headquarter offices - Office of Pesticide Programs
itiality: Limits on access within ZPA and outside agency for some
physical location of data: Headquarters office
data storage: Magnetic disc
Microfich/film
:sss: Commercial software WYLBUR
ZPA hardware I3M 370/163 MIDSD system number: 7200000905
- Subject matter:William C. Grosse (202) 426-2680
• Computer-related: Elgin G. Fry (202) 426-8862
- responsible EPA Office: William C. Grosse (202) 426-26SO
for non-E?A use: ao outside use/access permitted
77 of master file up-date: Weexly
345
-------
D7205000003
Pesticide Incident Monitoring System
Acronym: PIMS
Media sampled to generate data: Air
Blood
Drinking water
Ground water
Runoff agricultural
Sediment
Soil
Tissue human, animal, fish
Type of data collection/monitoring: daza collection or monitoring is often
determined by the nature of the incident.
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
ABSTRACT: The Pesticide Monitoring System (PIMS) enters, stores, coordinates ar
retrieves pesticide incident data within the EPA. The system develops and mail
reporting sources, monitors suspected incidents and provides confirmatory anal)
and data on circumstances of the incident.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Biological data
Chemical data
Collection method
Concentration measures
Disposal
Exposure data
Geographic subdivision
Health effects
Industry
Location
Manufacturer
Physical data
Precipitation
Sampling date
Site description
Use
Wind direction
Wind velocity
Some application methods
Rates
Ongoing study tine period is 01/01/66 to 09/30/80 (present)
Termination of data collection: Mot anticipated
Frequency of data collection: varies as incidents are reported-may be as
frequently as daily.
Total actual number of observations is 41000.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 4000.
346
-------
DRAFT
base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggrega.ee observations
1 number of stations or sources covered is 100 or more.
er currently contributing data is 50 major contributors.
raphic coverage of data base: National
tion identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
County
City
Project identifier
Agency or reporting
source
itant identification data are: Coded with other coding schemes
rations: Pesticides with most reported incidents are those with high
:ultural and home use rates. No incidents have been reported for some of the
.cides. PIMS is a voluntary system—as such, numbers of reports vary as does
luality (e.g. confirmed as to pesticide cause.)
inalysis based on ZPA-approved or accepted methods.
ludit: Data not based on lab analysis.
.sion and accuracy estimates exist but are not included in data base
automated data processing system undergoing edit..
collected by: Self reporting
Local agency
State agencyS state health departments are among the 12 field
offices collecting 90% of the reports.
Regional office
EPA lab
Contractor lab
Contractors universities are among the 12 field offices -
collecting 90% of the reports.
Other federal agency
ZPA headquarters
analyzed by: Local agency
State agency
Regional office
ZPA lab
Contractor lab
Contractorcooperative agreement with the University of Miami,
School of Medicine-operates PLMS
Other federal agency
ZPA headquarters
3ase identifies specific laboratory performing analysis.
assessment is the primary purpose for data collection.
issessment is the primary purpose for data collection.
jprnent of regulations or stancards is the primary purpose for data collection.
il study is the primary purpose for data collection.
Lance or enforcement is the secondary purpose for data collection.
347
-------
Anticipatory/research is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Program evaluation is the secondary purpose for data collection.
Statutory authorization is P I 92-516 as amended, Section 3 (The Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act-FITRA)
CMS form number: 153-R-0008
Form of available reports and outputs: Publications summary reports
Unpublished reports
Printouts on request
Current regular users of data base: 50
Users: EPA headquarter offices - Office of Pesticide Programs, Office of Gener
Counsel, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Office of Znforceme
EPA regional offices
Other federal agencies
States
General Accounting Office
Public Interest Groups various ones
Confidentiality: Limits on outside access for all data
Primary physical location of data: Contractor
Form of data storage: Magnetic disc
Original form (hardcopy, readings)
Data access: University of Miami, IBM Series I
Contact - Subject matter: James J. Boland (202)472-9310
Contact - Computer-related: Dr. Robert Duncan (305)547-6475
Contact - responsible EPA Office: Hazard Evaluation Division, Office of Pestic
Programs (202)472-9310
Charge for non-IPA use: No
Frequency of master file up-date: daily
Person completing form: James J. Boland
Office: EPA/(OPTS)/(QPP)/(HZD)
Address: Marfair Bldg., Washington, DC
Phone: (202)472-9310
Pollutants included in data base:
acrolein 107-02-8
acrylonitrile 107-13-1
carbon tetrachloride 56-23-5
chloroform 67-66-3
dichloromethane 75-09-2
ethylene dibromide (edb) 106-93-4
ethylene oxide 75-21-8
formaldehyde 50-00-0
m-cresol 103-39-4
methyl chloroform 71-55-6
o-cresol 95-43-7
p-cresol 106-44-5
p-dichlorobenzene 106-46-7
perchloroethylene 127-13-4
phosgene 75-44-5
proplyene oxide 75-56-9
348
-------
ume 1, Number 1
March 1981
RIANDF 1(1) 1-96 (1981)
ISSN 0272-4332
Plenum Press • New York and London
349
-------
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X
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X
X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
>:
•/.
X
X
X
A
BUSINESS
X
; X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
352
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125
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95
100
120
45
95
45
45
90
90
95
40
120
105
65
100
10S
70
75
80
105
120
OFFLINE PRINTS ONLINE PRINTS
PRT/PRT FULL PRT/PRT FULL
OR TAILORED OR TAILORED
.107,10
.10/.15
.15/.15
.2S/.25
.15/.15
.2S/.25
.257.35
.15/.15
.10/.10
.10/.20
.10 PRT TRIAL
.05 PRT ISSUE
.2Q/.20
.207. 90
.257.25
.20/.25
.257.35
.257.2!
.257.35
.137.13
.257.25
.257.25
.207.20
.157.25 (INTRODUCTORT
.107.10
.207.20
.207.20
.207.20
.107.15
.207.25
.257.25
.157.25
.207.20
.257.25
.357.35
.307.40
.307.30
.207.20
.257.25
.05
.15
.05
.15
.10
.12
.08
.10
.22
OFFER)
.10
.10
353
-------
LISA
MANAGEMENT
MONITOR
NOEX
NTIS
NUC/ CODES
ORBIT/ORBCHEM/ORBPAT
P/E NEWS SUBSCRIBERS
NON-SUBSCRIBERS
PESTDOC SUBSCRIBERS
PIE
POWER
PSTC1NFO
R1NGDOC SUBSCRIBERS
SAE
SAFETY
SPORT
SSIE
SWRA
TITUS
TROPA6
TULSA MAJOR SUBSCRIBERS
MINOR SUBSCRIBERS
USCUSS
USGCA
USPA
SO
80
90
90
45
40
40
105
105
100
50
40
65
100
95
75
70
110
65
85
70
75
125
60
105
100
USRFP1/USHFP3 115
USRFP2 115
VETDOC SUBSCRIBERS 100
VOTES 90
UATEILIT 80
WPI SUBSCRIBERS 100
NON-SUBSCRIBERS 125
WPIL SUBSCRIBERS 105
NON-SUBSCRIBERS 130
.10/.10
.25/.2S
.15/.15
.15/.15
.10/.15
.107.10
NA
.15/.15 .05
.2S/.25 .15
.13/.13
.10/.10
.10/.10
.1U/.15
.13/.13
.20/.20
.15/.15
.15/.15
.25/.2S
.10/.10
.20/.2Q
.20/.20
.15/.15
.SO/.SO
.SO/.50
.20/.20
.2S/.50
.75 PRT HIT
1.00 PRT AU
.SO/. 50
.50/2.00 1.00
.13/.13
.IS/.15
.15/.15
.15/.15
.2S/.25
.15/.15 PRT FAM OR FULL
.26 PRT CODE OR TAILORED
.2S/.25 PRT FAfl OR FULL
.45 PRT CODE OR TAILORED
- STORESEARCHPS ARE CHARGED AT THE RATE OF S.05 PER TERM PER MONTH.
• NETWORK TELECOMMUNICATIONS CHARGES ARE S8/HR, FOR EITHER TELENET OR TYMNET.
(EFFECTIVE 1/82)
354
-------
165
SYNORG
)pe_:
Synthetic Oroanlc Chemicals: United States Production and Sales (SYNORG)
a single volume annual publication of the U.S.International Trade
mission. It receives data from approximately 800 producers, and reports
lestic commercial production and sales of synthetic organic chemicals and the
f materials from which they are made. Fifteen sections, organized by chemical
isses, deal with: tar and tar crudes; crude products from petroleum and
:ural gas for chemical conversion; cyclic intermediates; dyes; organic
iments; medicinal chemicals; flavor and perfume materials; plastics and resin
;erial; rubber-processing chemicals; elastomers; plasticizers; surface-active
•nts; pesticides and related products; miscellaneous end-use chemicals and
mica! products; and miscellaneous cyclic and acyclic chemicals.
For each of these groups, three separate tables are provided. The first
these lists the total production and sales figures for those chemicals for
ch there are three or more significant producers. The second table lists the
ufacturers for all chemicals (in terms of a code), and the third table defines
manufacturers code. The Commission also publishes monthly statistics on
1 of the most significant of these chemicals.
A companion publication entitled "Imports of Benzenoid Chemicals and
iducts, 19xx", is also available from the Commission. For this publication,
1 imported benzenoids are categorized in seven groups as follows:
.ermediates, finished products, dyes and pigments, medicinals and
rniaceuticals, flavor and perfume, and all other finished products. Various
iles are provided for various groups showing imported quantities by chemical,
oice values by country of origin, etc.
Through 1975, data were reported by producers for only those items where
[ volume of production exceeded 1,000 pounds or where the value of sales
:eeded $1,000. Beginning in 1976, these limits were raised to 5,000 pounds
I S5,000 for most chemicals and 50,000 pounds and $50,000 for plastics and
;in materials; the 1,000 pounds and $1,000 limits were retained for organic
jments, medicinal chemicals, flavor and perfume materials, rubber processing
jmicals, and elastomers.
:ess:
Available through the U.S. Government Printing Office.
Cost varies with year of publication.
nple Search/Output:
Not applicable.
355
-------
Form No. CD-A1 Office of Management fr Budget So. 73-R0002
RETURN TO
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20436
BY APRIL 1, 1980
SYNTHETIC
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
PRODUCTION AND SALES IN 1979
BY ORIGINAL MANUFACTURERS ONLY
COMPANY NAME _
OFFICE ADDRESS
CITY STATE ZIP CODE
PLANT STATE ZIP CODE
If report cover* nor* than on* plant, plane attach lice of plant location*.
The information required in this questionnaire is being collected by the United
States International Trade Commission under the authority of seotion 333 of the Tariff
Aot of 1930, as amended (IS V.S.C. 2333). The U.S. International Trade Commission is
authorized to aolleot the data requested in this questionnaire under the provisions of
section 232 of the Tariff'Aot of 1920, as amended (19 V.S.C. 1332). The data are bein
aolleoted for the use of the U.S. International Trade Commission and for the use of th
Domestic and International Business Administration of the Department of Commerce, uhic
has the authority to aolleot such data in its own right under section 705 of the Defer
Production Aot of 1930, as amended (SO V.S.C. App. 21SS), and to reoeive them from tht
U.S. International Trade Commission pursuant to 44 U.S.C. 3S08(b/(4).
This report is mandatory and failure to reply as directed oan result in a subpeor
or other order to compel the submission of records or information in your possession.
Information supplied by you in this questionnaire or in oonneation therewith thai
qualifies as aonfidential business information aithin the meaning of the Freedom of
Information Act [6 U.S.C. 662(6)(4)] will be so treated by the Commission and not
disclosed except as may be required by lau. Suoh information uill not be published bi
the Commission in a manner that uill reveal the individual operations of your firm.
IMPORTANT NOTICE: Please enter the necessary data In each of the enclosed aectii
and return one copy of each to the U.S. International Trade Co»«i*sion without delay.
Be sure each section is clearly identifies as the report fro« your company. Return tl
cover and the Directory of Manufacturers (Section XIX) with the l«st section you send
The report muat be signed by an offlcal of the Company.
1979
356
-------
SCOPE OF THE REPORT
The complete report used by the U.S. International Trade Commission
compiling its annual report on the synthetic organic chemicals industry
consists of 19 sections. The first 15 sections arc to be used in re-
ting data on the production and sales of synthetic organic chemicals
their raw materials. Section 16 is to be used for reporting syn-
tic organic chemicals which are not covered by the other sections of
report. Section 17 is to be used for reporting toll agreements. Sec-
i 18 is to be used for reporting barter agreements. Section 19 provides
>rraation for the Directory of Manufacturers. Only those sections pertain-
to the chemicals and chemical products which are believed to be produced
'our company are enclosed.
This report consists of the following sections:
I Tar, Tar Crudes, and Tar Pitches
II Primary Products from Petroleum and Natural Gas
for Chemical Conversion
III Cyclic Intermediates
IV Dyes
V Organic Pigments
VI Medicinal Chemicals
VII Flavor and Perfume Materials
VIII Plastics and Resin Materials
IX Rubber-Processing Chemicals
X Elastomers (Synthetic Rubber)
XI Plasticizers
XII Surface-Active Agents
XIII Pesticides and Related Products
XIV Miscellaneous End-Use Chemicals and Chemical Products
XV Miscellaneous Cyclic and Acyclic Chemicals
XVI Other Synthetic Organic Chemicals
XVII Toll Agreements
XVIII Barter Agreements
XIX Directory of Manufacturers
357
1973
-------
DR
2560200000!
Waste Characterisation Data Base
Acronym: None
Media sampled to generate data: Solid waste
process residuals
Type of data collection/monitoring: Point source data collection industrial
process residuals
Data base status: Operational/ongoing
.ABSTRACT: Data on the amount and composition of industrial chemical process
residuals. Specific compound icentification and concentrations. Includes
information on generator of the sample. Samples are analyzed to determine
significant materials present, regardless of whether or not they are on any of tii
pollutant parameter lists.
Non-pollutant parameters include: Chemical data
Disposal
Industry
Location
Manufacturer
Physical data
Production levels
Sampling date
Test/analysis method
Ongoing study tune period is 10/01/20 to 09/30/30 (present)
Termination of data collection: Not anticipated
Frequency of data collection: as needed
once or twice per generator
Total estimated numoer of observations is 200.
Estimated annual increase of observations is 2000.
Data base includes: Raw data/observations
Summary or aggregate observations
Total number of stations or sources covered is 25.
Number currently contributing data is 12 month.
Numoer of facilities covered is 25.
Geographic coverage of data base: National
Location identifiers of station/source for each record are: State
City
Street address
Project identifier
complete facility
identification
Facility identifiers include: Plant facility name
Plant location
358
-------
DRAfT
Street address
Dun and Brads treet number number
ant identification data are: Uncoded
tions: Mo lab evaluation samples have yet been developed.
ollection and analysis procedures: Sampling plan documented
Collection method documented
Analysis method documented
QA procedures documented
alysis based on EPA-approved or accepted methods.
ion and accuracy estimates partially exist for only part of the data
rocedures used but undocumented.
Dllected by: Self reporting in petitions
EPA lab - Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab-Las Vegas, and
other Office of Research and Development Labs.
Contractor lab - various
lalyzed by: EPA lab - Office of Research and Development Labs (including
Environmental Monitoring System Lab-Las Vegas)
Contractor lab - various
EPA headquarters - Office of Solid Waste
ise does not identify specific laboratory performing analysis.
iment of regulations or standards is the primary purpose for data collection.
iry authorization is P L 92-530/3007 (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)
available reports and outputs: Sand searchable as ne«ded
regular users of data base: 15
EPA headquarter offices - Office of Solid Waste
ntiality: Limits on access within EPA and outside agency for all data
physical location of data: Headquarters office
data storage: Original form (hardcopy, readings)
cess: Manually
- Subject matter:David Frieaman (202) 755-9137
- responsible E?A Office: Office of Solid Waste Hazardous i Industrial Waste
n (202) 755-9187
for non-EPA use: no outside use/access permitted
cy of master file up-date: as data is obtained
completing form: David Friedman
E?A/( OWVM) /(CSW) /( HIWD)
: ^*01 M St S.W. Washington, DC 20^60
(202) 755-9137
its included in data base:
shyde 75-07-0
67-6^*- i
rrile 75-05-3
•none 98-36-2
359
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
OFFICE OF
PESTICIDES AND TOXIC SUBS'
Adapted from:
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING DATA
April 28, 1982
Protective Clothing Working Group
Office of Pesticide Programs
United States Environmental Protection Age
Washington, DC 20460
Prepared by:
Richard V. Moraski, Ph.D.
Environmental Fate Branch
Hazard Evaluation Division (TS-769)
Office of Pesticide Programs
(703) 557-7347
368
-------
, 1974. Occupational Satety and Health: Personal Protective
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b. 8.
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lifornia Decision, Pesticide and Toxic Chemical News, 8(30): 28, June 18.
, 1981. Protective Clothing Studies Reveal Wearer Preferences,
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•meablilty of Vulcanized Rubber to Volatile Liquids, ASTM Standards, 37: 189-190,
;ignation: D 814 - 55 (Reapproved 1970).
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.ermining Permeability of Thermoplastic Containers, AST* Standards, 36: 488-492,
•ignation: D 2864-73.
rican Society for Testing and Materials, 1981. Standard Test Method for
istance of Protective Clothing Materials to Permeation by Hazardous Liquid
micals, Annual Bock of ASTM Standards, Designation: F739-81.
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369
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378
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ssible Exposure Hazards to Workers Associated with the Application of
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: Wearing Industrial Respirators: A Review, American Industrial Hygiene
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C Supplied Air Suits. A Review, American Industrial Hygiene Association
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ie Pesticide Applicator. The Mitre Corporation under Contract No.
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379
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Sansone, E.B. and Y.B. Tewari, 1978. Permeaoility of Laboratory Gloves
to Selected Ilitrosamines in Environmental Aspects of K'-Nicroso Compounds,
E.A. WalKer, Ed., lyon, p 517- 529. R.RCQX. 331.
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Selected Solvents, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 39: 169-17
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Materials by l,2-Dibrcmo-3-chloropropane, Ethylene Dibromide, and
Acrylonitrile, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 39: 921-922.
Sansone, E.B. and Y.B. Tewari, 1980. Differences in the Extent of Solvent
Penetration Through Natural Rubber and Nitrile Gloves from Various Manufacture
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 41(7): 527-528, July.
Sansone, E.B. and Y.B. Tewari, 1980. The Permeability of Protective Clothing
Materials to Benzene Vapor, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal,
41: 170-174.
Schiefer, H.F. and P.M. Boy land, 1942. Improved Instrument for Measuring
the Air Permeability of Fabrics, Journal of Research of the National Bureau
of Standards, 28: 637-642.
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Wear and Aging Tests with Perrnethrin-Treated Cotton-Polyester Fabric,
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380
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381
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Final Draft.
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Materials by Liquid Halogenated Ethanes and a Poly chlorinated Biphenyl,
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382
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383
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r DOCUMENTATION IMPORT NO. 2.
PAGE EPA 560/5-85-006
id Subtitle
.hods for Assessing Exposure to Chemical Substances -
olume 6: Methods for Assessing Occupational Exposure to
Chemical Substances
s> L. Schultz, G. Uixon, b. Nacht, U. carpenter, nl. Christie
itos, J. DiClementi, J. Doria, W. Palmer, S. Sullivan, P.Wooc
ling Organization Name and Address
rsar Inc.
50 Versar Center
ringfield, Virginia 22151
>ring Organization Name and Address
ited States Environmental Protection Agency
fice of Toxic Substances
posure Evaluation Division
shingt.on. D.C. 20460
3. Recipient's Accession No.
5. Report Date
8/85
6.
8. Performing Organization Rept. No.
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
Task 41
11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No.
(oEPA 68-02-3968
(G)
13. Type of Report & Period Covered
Final Report
14.
mentary Notes
a Project Officer was Michael A. Callahan
\ Task Manager was L. Greg Schweer and Stephen H. Nacht
t (Limit: 200 words)
This report, one of a series of reports concerning exposure assessment, describes
)ds and catalogs informations sources for estimating exposure to chemical substances
ie occupational environment. The report provides specific guidance for conducting
/arious component analyses of an occupational exposure assessment. It details
)aches used to identify chemical manufacturing, processing, and use locations, and
ietermining the chemical processes used. The types of monitoring data useful in
)ational exposure assessments are addressed, as are relevant QA/QC considerations.
lass balance approach to estimating workplace contaminant concentrations in the
ice of pertinent monitoring data is detailed, as are methods for evaluating contami-
transport and transformation in the workplace, and attendant worker exposure path-
Procedures for identifying, characterizing, and enumerating exposed worker popu-
ms are outlined, and methods are provided for calculating the level of exposure ex-
•nced by each population. The report concludes by providing two appendices. The
. details the exposure potential associated with a number of major industrial_pro-
•s, while the second identifies a large number of information sources useful in con-
ng occupational exposure assessments.
it Analysis a. Descriptors
iers/Ooen-Ended Terms
sure Assessment/Occupational
c Substances/Occupational
Field/Group
y Statement
ribution Unlimited
19. Security Class (This Report)
Unclassified
20. Security Class (This Page)
Unclassified
21. No. of Pages
383
22. Price
18)
See /nstructions on Reverse
OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
(Formerly NTIS-35)
Department of Commerce
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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