EPA-600/2-77-029d
June 1977
Environmental Protection Technology Series
PRO1
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6 Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-77-029d
June 1977
REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT OF
DEEP-WELL INJECTION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
Volume IV - Appendices E, F, G , H, I & J
by
Louis R. Reeder
James H. Cobbs
John W. Field, Jr.
William D. Finley
Steven C. Vokurka
Bernard N. Rolfe
Louis R. Reeder and Associates
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74135
Contract No. 68-03-2013
Project Officer
Carlton C. Wiles
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because of
increasing public and government concern about the dangers
of pollution to the health and welfare of the American
people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoiled land are
tragic testimony to the deterioration of our natural en-
vironment. The complexity of that environment and the
interplay between its components require a concentrated
and integrated attack on the problem.
Research and development is that necessary first step in
problem solution and it involves defining the problem,
measuring its impact, and searching for solutions. The
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory develops new
and improved technology and systems for the prevention,
treatment, and management of wastewater and solid and
hazardous waste pollutant discharges from municipal and
community sources, for the preservation and treatment of
public drinking water supplies, and to minimize the ad-
verse economic, social, health, and aesthetic efforts of
pollution. This publication is one of the products of
that research; a most vital communications link between
the researcher and the user community.
This contract was supported by the EPA to provide a compre-
hensive review and data compilation of deep-well injection
as a control and disposal technology for hazardous waste.
Because of the large amount of information resulting from
this contract, the report is divided into four volumes.
Readers interested only in the general information about
deep-wells are referred to Volume I. Those interested in
the detailed data compiled during this work are referred
to the remaining volumes in addition to Volume I. The in-
formation is providing input into the EPA's program for
assessing control technologies available for managing the
Nation's large quantities of hazardous materials.
Francis T. Mayo, Director
Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory
111
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ABSTRACT
A review and analysis of the available information related
to deep-well injection, and an assessment as to the adequacy
of this method for managing hazardous wastes and ensuring
protecting the environment was made.
One hundred-five deep-well related research projects were
identified and hazardous waste research projects numbered
186. More than 1,000 papers related to deep-well injection
of industrial waste were reviewed.
Geologic and engineering data are available in many areas
to locate, design and operate a deep-well system receiving
hazardous wastes. The most serious problems encountered are
because of failure to use available geologic information and
accepted and proven engineering practices in design and com-
pletion. A small group of waste chemicals with high human
and ecological hazard ratings, little known degradability
characteristics or long persistence times are identified as
undesirable for injection unless containment within the host
reservoir is certain.
There is a paucity of information on salaquifer chemistry,
and the chemical and microbiological reactions of waste
within a receiving salaquifer. Monitoring of deep-well
systems needs to be developed into a predictive tool to
be fully effective.
State statutes and regulations vary greatly on deep-well
injection. To alleviate any problems arising from the
use of interstate aquifers for injection, and for more
effective management and control of deep-well systems,
a standardization of regulations is considered necessary.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of EPA Contract
68-03-2103. The report is comprised of 4 volumes; the main
text, Appendices A through C, Appendix D, and Appendices
E through J. Volume IV is comprised of Appendices E, F,
G, H, I, and J. Appendix E provides limited case histories
of actual industrial waste injection well operations and
provide examples of unacceptable and acceptable operations.
IV
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Appendix F discusses recent research on microbiological
aspects of deep-wells. Appendix G is a summary of research
related to deep-well injection, while Appendix H is a
summary of research dealing with treatment of hazardous
wastes. Legislation, regulations, and policies governing
deep-well injection operations are provided in Appendix I.
Appendix J was added by EPA so that readers would have the
benefit of clarifying information that resulted from review
of this document. Other volumes provide the main text and
additional appendices of detailed data.
As a result of EPA review of this document, there were a
number of questions and issues raised as to the conclusions
made versus those warranted based upon available informa-
tion. The user is referred to Appendix J for additional
information resulting from this review and the contractors'
response to that review.
v
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Appendix E - Case Histories 1045
Region III 1045
Region IV 1048
Region V 1051
Region VI • 1056
References 1069
Appendix F - Recent Microbiological Research
Including Wilmington and Belle
Glade Cast Studies 1070
Bacterial Physiology 1070
Recent Research Methods 1074
Review of Literature 1074
Research Facilities 1076
Design of a Model 1076
Preliminary Tests and Results 1080
Case Study: Belle Glade, Florida 1085
Case Study: Wilmington, N. C. 1097
A Biogeochemical Model 1115
Research in Progress or in Review 1119
References 1125
Appendix G - Summary of Research Related to
Deep-Well Injection 1129
Area Studies 1129
Biologic Studies 1172
Chemical Studies 1178
Engineering Studies 1197
Geological and Hydrogeological
Studies 1221
Geophysical Studies 1226
Monitoring Studies 1235
Miscellaneous Studies 1237
Appendix H - Summary of Research Projects Related
to the Treatment of Hazardous Wastes 1239
VII
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CONTENTS (continued)
APPENDIX I - Inventory of Legislation, Regulations,
and Policy Governing Deep-Well
Injection 1254
State 1254
Alabama 1254
Alaska 1254
Arkansas 1255
California 1260
Colorado 1265
Florida 1278
Georgia 1278
Idaho 1279
Illinois 1279
Indiana 1284
Kansas 1285
Kentucky 1289
Louisiana 1290
Maryland 1296
Michigan 1296
Mississippi 1338
Missouri 1338
Montana 1338
Nebraska 1339
New Mexico 1340
New York 1340
North Dakota 1341
Ohio 1341
Oklahoma 1349
Oregon 1363
Pennsylvania 1368
South Dakota 1369
Tennessee 1369
Texas 1369
Wyoming 1383
Federal 1383
References 1400
Vlll
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CONTENTS (continued)
Page
Appendix J - EPA Review Comments and Contractor
Response 1402
EPA Review Comments 1403
Contractor Reply to Review Comments 1411
IX
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX E - CASE HISTORIES
EPA REGION III
Well A
Source and Nature of Waste -
The waste liquid was sulphite liquors from paper mill opera-
tions with the following characteristics: specific gravity
- 1.02, pH - 5.3; alkalinity to pH 4.5, 1500 mg/1 as Ca;
acidity to pH - 8.3, 1900 mg/1 as Ca; suspended solids - 225
mg/1; NH3 - NIL; total dissolved solids 5 percent; hardness
total as CaC03 - 200; Ca as CaC03 - 80' MG as CaC03 - 100;
total sulphate - 1.75 percent; Cl - 270 mg/1.
Surface Equipment -
Few details are available regarding surface equipment other
than that injection pumps were used capable of injecting the
required volumes at a well head pressure of about 8.6 MPa
(1250 psig).
Well Completion and Geology -
The wells were completed with 7" casing. 4-1/2" injection
tubing was installed. The 7" casing was cemented to within
253 m (830') below the top of the hole.
Three wells constituted one system. The first well (PA-2)
was completed in the Bass Island Formation from 491-515 m
(1611-1692') and from 627-702 m (2057-2302'), tested, and
put into operation in 1964. In 1964 a second well (PA-3)
was completed to the basement rocks, from 1803-1814 m
(5914-5952'), tested and put into use. The injection in-
tervals used were the Bass Island Dolomite and the Mount
Simon (Potsdam), the basal sandstone unit. In 1968, well
number 3 (PA-8) was completed in the Bass Island Formation
from 483-529 m (1586-1737').
1045
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It is believed that Mount Simon received very little
injection during the operational period, but 4.2 hm-!
(1,097,965,700 gallons) were injected during the life
of the system. On April 14, 1968, the casing and tubing
of well PA-2 were lifted out of the hole signalling the
need for immediate repair and reconditioning of the well.
The well returned waste sulphite liquors to the surface
for several days at the rate of 8.7 dm^/s (140 gpm) per
day which went directly into Lake Erie. It was neces-
sary to bring a drilling rig and other equipment and ma-
terials to the well site to control the backflow. The
system was never returned to full use and the three wells
of the system were abandoned and plugged in the fall of
1972.
The pressures utilized, 8.6 MPa (1250 psig), were well
below critical pressures, being approximately 0.6 of
lithostatic. The annulus voids between casing runs were
only partially cemented. Corrosion attributed to either
galvanic action or escape of the corrosive fluids into
the annular spaces caused deterioration of the casing
string.
Assessment -
This situation resulted because of poor completion prac-
tices. It could have been prevented by all casing strings
being cemented following the recommended procedure of a
cement bond at least 15 m (501) into the next larger string,
setting the tubing on a packer and filling the annulus be-
tween tubing and casing with an inhibited fluid.
The sulphite wastes expected upon the surface from the well
had a temporary degrading effect upon the environment. The
exact radius of influence is not known nor is the length of
time over which the effect was present.
Well B
Source and Nature of Waste -
Waste water was steel plant pickling liquor composed of:
H2S04 to 10 percent and FeSC>4 to 10 percent.
1046
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Surface Equipment -
Little has been published regarding surface equipment except
that pumping equipment was used capable of injecting the re-
quired volume of waste water at a well head pressure of up
to 32.1 MPa (4650 psig).
Well Completion and Geology -
The well penetrated the Oriskany Sandstone and later the
Onondaga Limestone. The well went into operation in 1961
and operated on a trial basis until 1965. Spent pickle
liquors were injected into the Oriskany Sandstone 1641-
1660 m (5385-5445') until July 1968. The injection zone
was changed to 1398-1413 m (4585-4635'), and included the
Genessee, Marcellus Shale, and the Onondaga Limestone.
This well was used from April 15, 1965, to June 9, 1972,
when it was abandoned and plugged. The operational history
shows frequent tubing failures. Another aspect of well
operation was concern with respect to the injection pres-
sures applied and the buildup of pressure to maintain the
needed rates of injection. Pickle liquors in the amount
of 125 247 in3 (33 087 000 gallons) and fresh water in the
amount of 293 748 m3 (77 600 000 gallons) were injected.
At times the wellhead pressure was as high as 19.9 kPa
per metre (0.88 psi per foot) of well, which would be
approaching hydrofracture levels.
Assessment -
Although the well received about 416 400 m3 (110 000 000
gallons) of injected liquids, it could not be called a
completely successful well. The available data indicate
that the permeability was not sufficient for a good oper-
ation with the volume of waste to be injected. The acid
waste injected into the formation contributed greatly to
it doing as well as it did, although some formation plug-
ging may have been attributed to the waste. The high in-
jection pressures were due largely to the poor permeabil-
ity, and the frequent tubing failures were probably due as
much to the high injection pressures as to the corrosive
liquid being injected through the tubing. An in-depth
analysis would undoubtedly show that operating costs for
this well were excessive relative to the amount of waste
1047
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injected. Again directly related to naturally reduced
permeability and/or reduced permeability caused by reaction
of injected waste and formation minerals. This well appears
to have had no deleterious effects upon the environment.
EPA REGION IV
Well A
Source and Nature of the Waste -
One of the world's largest nylon plants on the Escambia
River about 21 km (13 mi.) north of Pensacola, Florida.
The effluent, an aqueous solution containing nitric acid,
inorganic salts, and numerous organic compounds, is injected
through two wells into the aquifer between depths of 425-
520 m (1400-17001) .
Well Completion and Geology -
With reasonable confidence that injection of waste into the
lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer could be done safely
and economically, the company decided to construct a test
well in such a way that it later could be used as an injec-
tion well if the hydrogeologic conditions proved to be favor-
able for injection. A hole was drilled with rotary tools
into the upper limestone of the Floridan aquifer. A 24"
surface casing was set at 26 m (86') and an 18" steel casing
was set at 299 m (982'). All casing was cemented to the
surface. After water samples were collected from the upper
limestone, the hole was drilled through the Bucatunna Clay
Member and into the lower limestone. A 12" steel casing was
set at 424 m (1390') and cemented back into the 18" casing.
The bottom joint of the 12" casing was type 304 stainless
steel. With a reverse-air rotary drilling rig, an open hole
was then drilled through the lower limestone and into shale
and clay to a total depth of 551 m (1808') .
The test well was converted to an injection well by inserting
a 6" type 304 stainless steel liner into the 12" steel casing
and sealing the annulus at the bottom with a packer. The
annular space between the two casings was then filled with a
corrosion-inhibitor solution, which is periodically replaced.
1048
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Through southern Alabama and northwestern Florida, the sand
and gravel aquifer is the major source of fresh water and
yields large quantities of water of excellent quality. In
the southern part of the area, the Pensacola Clay aquiclude
separated into two parts by the Escambia Sand Member, under-
lies the sand and gravel aquifer; whereas, in the northern
part, the Pensacola Clay is absent and the sand and gravel
aquifer lies directly on a sequence of sediments known as
the Floridan aquifer.
The Floridan aquifer is split into two units by the Buca-
tunna Clay aquiclude. The unit above the Bucatunna Clay
Member (of the Byram Formation) is called the "upper lime-
stone" of the Floridan aquifer; the unit below is called
the "lower limestone" of the Floridan aquifer. Water in
the upper limestone is probably fresh in the northern half
of the Escambia County and in all of Santa Rosa County ex-
cept the southwestern part.
The Bucatunna Clay aquiclude underlies part of Louisiana,
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. In Florida, it extends
beneath all of Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties. All geo-
logic information indicates that the aquiclude is continuous
and relatively thick. It reaches its maximum thickness of
about 60 m (200') just north of Pensacola.
The lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer crops out in
southern Alabama and dips gradually to the southwest. At
Pensacola, it is at a depth of more than 455 m (1500') below
mean sea level. Water in this part of the aquifer moves
slowly toward the south and, presumably, discharges into
the Gulf of Mexico near the edge of the continental shelf,
or seeps slowly upward through the confining beds somewhere
at sea beneath the continental shelf. Resistivities shown
on electric logs indicate the water to be salty, except
possibly in the northeastern part of the area.
The only known use of water from the lower limestone in
the area is from one well in extreme northeastern Santa
Rosa County, more than 48 km (30 mi.) from the company
plant. The position of the potentiometric surface is
inferred from water-level measurements in several wells
tapping the upper limestone, one water-level measurement
in the lower limestone obtained from a test well at the
1049
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injection site, and general geohydrologic information from
the area. The assumption has been made that the potentio-
metric surface of the lower limestone was the same as that
of the upper limestone. Inferred chloride concentrations
are based on data from a few test holes and numerous geo-
physical logs of oil-test wells.
Operating History -
The injection rate has increased gradually from about: 40
dm3/s (600 gpm) in 1963 to the present (1971) rate of about
132 dm3/s (2100 gpm). The wellhead injection pressure in
well "A" rose to about 1.6 MPa (225 psi) at an injection
rate of about 75 dm3/s (1200 gpm) prior to the construction
of well "B" in 1965. From 1966 through 1968, the injection
rate was about 95 dm3/s (1500 gpm), and injection pressure
remained relatively steady at about 1.4 MPa (200 psi). The
injection pressure has decreased gradually since 1968, even
though the injection rates have increased by about 32 dm3/s
(500 gpm). An explanation for this decrease in injection
pressure will be given in a succeeding section of this paper.
The total volume of waste injected to November 1971 was
about 22.7 hm3 (6 billion gals.), and the cumulative volume
is increasing at a rate of about 3.8 hm3 (1 billion gals.)
per year.
Assessment -
Geochemical and hydraulic effects of this waste-injection
system, as of November 1971, had been detected only in the
lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer. The acidic waste
is neutralized, or at least partially neutralized, by dis-
solving CaCOj from the limestone aquifer. Biochemical re-
actions such as denitrification may further modify the com-
position of the injected waste. Waste injection has in-
creased formation pressures to an equivalent rise in water
levels of more than 60 m (200') within a 1.6 km (1 mile)
radius of the injection site; the pressure effects as of
late 1971 probably extend outward more than 48 km (30 miles),
The injected waste fluid has probably migrated more than
1.6 km (1 mile) in all directions from the injection site.
Increased permeability near the injection wells has resulted
from dissolution of limestone by the acidic waste and has
1050
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brought about a decrease in injection pressures, even though
injection rates have increased. The possible development of
a large cavity in the lower limestone at the base of the
Bucatunna Clay is believed to be the greatest threat to the
subsurface environment resulting from the injection system.
The development of such a cavity would remove support from
the base of the Bucatunna Clay and could cause the clay to
slough and crumble, eventually allowing waste to leak into
the upper limestone of the Floridan aquifer (which contains
water at the injection site that is nonpotable according to
U. S. Public Health Service (1962) drinking-water standards),
If waste does ultimately leak into the upper limestone, the
geologic structure is such that leakage into the sand and
gravel aquifer is unlikely because of the presence of a
second thick confining layer, the Pensacola Clay.
Other Wells
Case histories of other wells in Region IV are discussed
in Appendix F, Recent Microbiological Research and in the
Chemical Aspects subsection of Section III.
EPA REGION V
Well A
Source and Nature of the Waste -
The waste is the effluent from a chemical plant producing
resins and chlordane. The wastewater characteristics are:
NaCl - 140 000 ppm, NaOH - 25 000 ppm, NaOCl - 20 000 ppm,
pH - 10.5 to 11.5, Sp. gr. - 1.15 (trace organics).
Surface Equipment -
Waste streams are mixed and settled in a 40 000 gallon
concrete tank. From this tank transfer pumps pass the
waste through filters to pumps which inject the waste
into the well.
1051
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Well Completion and Geology -
The present disposal well IL-6 is a replacement for IL-1
which failed when a Secureloy section in the casing string
was dissolved by the caustic waste. During workover oper-
ations, cement and formation caved in on the workover tools
and caused the loss of the Devonian disposal zone. As a
temporary measure, the Mississippian Salem zone exposed
behind the Secureloy windows was used for disposal until
the replacement well IL-6 was completed. The IL-6 was com-
pleted setting caseing on the top of the Devonian Grand
Tower Dolomite with the bottom joint being stainless steel.
Dowline injection tubing was run on a packer set in the
stainless steel casing joint. The annulus between the
casing and tubing was filled with inhibiting fluid. An
oil pad was placed to fill the annular space between the
tailpipe and the holewall below the packer to protect the
packer from corrosion.
Assessment -
This well is located on the north side of the Illionis
basin. Here the top of the Devonian Dolomite is at a
depth of approximately 732 m (2400') and it is about 60 m
(200") thick. Since the proper completion was made;, the
well has taken the waste volume with a minimal buildup in
pressure. During 1975 it was receiving about 3.0 dm /s
(48 gpm) at an average of 558 kPa (81 psi) and was con-
sidered a very successful operation. A monitor well was
drilled about 1000 feet away to check migration of waste
and fluid level (pressure) buildup. No change had been
noted in two years of operation through 1973.
The loss of the first well can be attributed directly to
the caustic waste fluid contacting the Secureloy sections
of the casing. This could have been prevented by setting
the injection tubing on a packer and isolating the annulus
between the casing and tubing and keeping it filled with
inhibited fluid. The use of Secureloy is discouraged in a
highly caustic environment as contact with caustic is one
method designed to remove them.
1052
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Well B
Source and Nature of the Waste -
The source of the waste is pickling liquor from steel plant
operations. The nature of the waste is as follows: HCL -
0.5 percent, FeCl2 ~ 24.0 percent, H2Cr207 - 1.0 percent.
Surface Equipment -
Holding tanks of 568 m3 (150 000 gal.) capacity are used
before and after filtration through a 5y diatomaceous earth
filter. A centrifugal pump is used for injection.
Well Completion and Geology -
Very little is known about well completion procedures.
This well, IL-3, was drilled through the Cambrian (Mount
Simon) Sandstone between 947.3-1477 m (3108-4846'), and
completed open hole in that interval.
The injection of 248 m^ (65 600 gals.) of waste per day is
being accomplished at an average rate of 8.5 dm^/s (135 gpm)
and an average pressure of 1827 kPa (265 psi).
Continuous monitoring of injection tubing and annular pres-
sure and injection rate is made. Periodic sampling and
water quality parameters are measured.
Assessment -
There has been no evidence that the waste has not remained
in the Mount Simon Sandstone and the operation overall is
considered successful.
Well C
Source and Nature of the Waste -
The waste water is the effluent from a chemical plant.and
its characteristics are: TDS - 14 000 mg/1, Na2S04 - 6500
mg/1, (NH4) S04 - 5000 mg/1, Acidity - 120 mg/1, Sp. gr. -
1.0, pH - 4.6.
1053
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Surface Equipment -
Three settling tanks in series receive the waste before
it is injected. The wells (2) are monitored for flow
and pressure.
Well Completion and Geology -
These wells, IN-1 and IN-2, are apparently completed in
the basal Devonian and upper Silurian carbonate rocks.
The depth to the top of the injection zone is about 61 m
(200') with 12 m (40') of zone open in IN-2 and 121 m
(397') in the IN-1.
These wells were developed in 1950 and 1951 before any
rules and specifications were set up for this type of
project. It is estimated that approximately 18.9 hm3
(5 000 000 000 gals.) had been injected through mid-1972.
Waste is injected at the rate of 2180 m3 (576 000 gals.)
per day at an injection pressure of 241 kPa (35 psig).
Assessment -
This is not regarded as a prudent operation because of
the attitude of the rocks and the location of the wells
in proximity to Lake Michigan. The waste may be escaping
into the lake.
Well D
When the State Water Resources Commission objected to the
discharge of liquid wastes containing phenols into a river
in 1956, the company considered biological treatment of the
waste in a large trickling filter. However, after comparing
the operating cost with that of subsurface disposal wells,
a preliminary geological investigation was made of possible
disposal formations. The Sylvania Sandstone at the shallow
depth of 147 m (483') appeared suitable for waste disposal.
It was estimated that a disposal well and surface equipment
for the subsurface disposal system would cost $25,000, which
was less than the cost of a trickling filter system.
1054
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Source and Nature of Waste -
A hard metallurgical coke for blast furnaces is prepared
in coke ovens. Crude benzene is extracted from the coal
gas by washing with a light oil which also removes about
95 percent of the naphthalene. Ammonia, removed by scrub-
bing with water, is reacted with phosphoric acid to make
ammonium phosphate. The light hydrocarbons from the gas
are used as fuel, and the phenols are mixed with coke
quench water to form a waste containing about 0.2 percent
phenols. The tar is sold to a local company for manufac-
turing coal tar products.
Analysis of the water from the Sylvania Sandstone showed
that it was not potable. Although some precipitation oc-
curred when the underground water was mixed with the waste,
the situation was not serious and could be overcome by
acidification of the waste. Therefore, approximately 570
dm3 (150 gals.) per day of 28 percent hydrochloric acid
was added to the waste to reduce the pH below 8.3 and
prevent precipitation of salts. After about four months,
acidification of waste was discontinued as being unneces-
sary.
Surface Equipment -
Quench water and the waste stream containing the phenols
are collected in a 30 000 gallon sump from which the waste
is pumped through leaf-type filters precoated with diato-
maceous earth. The waste then is given a final filtration
through a cartridge filter before it is pumped into a 3.4
m3 (900 gals.) clear-waste tank. A liquid level controller
governs the operation of a steam-drive, duplex, injection
pump having a rated capacity of 6.3 dm-^/s (100 gpm) at 3.1
MPa (450 psig).
Well Completion and Geology -
The disposal well MI-11 is relatively shallow compared with
others in use. A 9" hole was drilled to a depth of 147 m
(483') and 7" OD casing was run and cemented to the surface.
When the cement set, a 6" hole was drilled to a depth of
172 m (563'), forming an open-hole disposal zone 24 m (801)
1055
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into the Sylvania Sandstone. Waste is injected through 2"
tubing set at 149 m (489').
Acidizing and fracturing were necessary during 1957, 1958,
and 1960 becausa of injection pressure increase. The injec-
tion pressure was observed to gradually increase from 1.4
MPa (200 psig) following acidizing to the limit of the in-
jection pump 3.1 MPa (450 psig). However, the frequency of
acidizing has seemed to decrease after each treatment; the
period between the first and second treatment was 1 year;
between the second and third 2 years elapsed.
Assessment -
This appears to have been a successful system for nearly
20 years. However, pressure monitoring indicates that
fracture threshold pressures are reached and often ex-
ceeded. The reason for the increasing pressures should
be determined and the environmental impact of the well
reevaluated.
EPA REGION VI
Well A
Source and Nature of Waste -
The waste injected into this well, OK-13, is a complex
mixture of detergents, paint and varnish removers, hydro-
carbon solvents used for oil sludge cleaning, phenols,
cresols, and rinse water from electroplating tanks. The
only test conducted periodically is pH determination; pH
has been found to range from 5.0 to 9.0 in one day.
Surface Equipment -
The waste-collecting sump is a 75.7 m^ (20 000 gal.) tank
buried 4.6 m (15') underground. All liquid waste from the
maintenance area flows by gravity through drain lines into
this tank. Two lobe pumps, each rated at 12.6 m3/s (200
gpm) are used to pump the waste from the underground sump
to the clarifier on the surface. Originally, two duplex
1056
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stainless steel centrifugal pumps were used,, but they were
replaced because excessive bearing and shaft wear caused
frequent shutdown. However, the lobe pumps have not given
trouble-free operation. In January 1962, an accident in
the maintenance area caused a surge of a caustic cleaning
solvent that was sufficiently high to dissolve the buna-N
rubber sleeves that cover the pump lobes, causing a main-
tenance shutdown.
The clarifier is a 113.6 m^ (30 000 gal.) automatic skimmer.
Oil that floats to the top of the aqueous waste is skimmed
and drained into a tank by gravity flow. A scraper at the
bottom of the tank removes accumulated sludge. The insolu-
ble oil and sludge are hauled away. Although the clarifier
is rated for 42.3 dm3/s (670 gpm) with a detention time of
47 minutes, it did not prove adequate for this system be-
cause oil and sludge appear in the equalizer basin, indi-
cating that a longer detention time is necessary to treat
this waste.
From the clarifier, the waste flows by gravity into a 757 m3
(200 000 gal.) equalizer basin. This tank is equipped with
a manually operated skimmer and bottom rake to remove the
oil and sludge that overflow from the clarifier. The sludge
is skimmed twice a week. The equalizer allows time for
mixing the many components of the waste and thus provides a
more uniform waste for disposal. It also serves as a deten-
tion reservoir for the injection pumps. A float switch is
provided to shut off the injection pumps at a minimum liquid
level. The equalizer basin is constructed with a cement
bottom and carbon steel sides. A leak-proof seal between
the cement bottom and steel sides is difficult to maintain.
The injection pumps are set in a basement approximately 3 m
(10') below the surface to receive waste by gravity feed
from the equalizer basin. Two triplex, piston-type, posi-
tive displacement pumps rated for 9.5 drrrVs (150 gpm) at
4.1 MPa (600 psig) are driven by 44.8 kW (60 hp) electric
motors. The pumps are equipped with 3" ceramic pistons and
aluminum-bronze fluid ends. Positive displacement pumps
were selected because of their characteristic of delivering
a constant volume under varying pressures. Pressure fluctu-
ations and eventual plugging of the formation were antici-
pated in the original design; however, four months after
1057
-------
startup the operating pressure leveled out at 1.9 MPa (280
psig) and has not changed except for a few fluctuations of
± 2.8 kPa (40 psig).
Well Completion and Geology -
The top of the Arbuckle Group (a sequence of carbonate rocks)
occurs in this area at 527 m (1 729') below the surface and
extends to the top of the granite at 925 m (3 036'). Seven
inch OD casing was cemented to a depth of 551 m (1 807') to
ensure a good seal into the top of the Arbuckle Group. A
string of 2-1/2" OD tubing was run to a point near the bot-
tom of the disposal well. Injection began in January 1962.
A monitoring well drilled to the deepest layer of fresh
water at 55 m (ISO1) is sampled weekly. There has been
no indication of contamination in the fresh water monitor
well.
Assessment -
This has been a very successful injection system. It has
had only minor operational and maintenance problems. Data
indicates that after 15 years of continuous service, a long
useful operational life still remains.
Well B
Source and Nature of the Waste -
The waste effluent arises from the operation of an oil re-
finery, gasoline plant, and petrochemical plant, all located
at the plant complex in the Texas Panhandle. The oil re-
finery and gasoline plant have been in operation since about
1930. The petrochemical plant, only recently constructed,
produces sulfuric acid, ammonia, and products manufactured
from petroleum. Cooling-tower blowdown, process vessel
drainage, and boiler blowdown are the primary constituents
of the waste fluids. A typical analysis of some of the
principal constituents follows:
1058
-------
Concentration
Chemical ppm
Total hardness (CaC03 + MgCO3) 716
Calcium hardness (CaC03) 410
Magnesium hardness (MgC03) 306
Chloride (Cl) 760
Silica (Si02) 90
Sulphate (S04) 1440
Other trace constituents not indicated in the analysis in-
clude nitrogen compounds (principally ammonia), chromates,
and various hydrocarbon derivatives. The waste has a pH
of 8. Total waste-water production at the plant is about
69 dm3/s (1100 gpm).
Surface Equipment -
A large part of the effluent created by the complex is
routed directly to a large concrete settling basin which
was constructed in 1964. Effluent containing oils and
high in suspended solids is run through a clarifier before
being combined with cooling-tower and boiler-water effluent
in the concrete settling basin. The final waste is pumped
to the two injection wells at the plant. The waste is
clarified of suspended solids, and the pH is controlled
between 7.5 and 8.5 to protect the treating and disposal
equipment.
Several large unlined earthen pits were used for discharge
of waste water at the plant prior to 1958; however, only
one large pit 244 by 305 by 15 m (800x1000x50') remains in
use at the plant. Some waste was discharged into a creek
on the plant property.
1059
-------
Geology -
The plant is located on an undetermined thickness of pre-
dominantly windblown, unconsolidated silt and sand deposits
of Recent age. These deposits overlie clay, silt, sand, and
gravel beds of the Ogallala Formation of Pliocene age, which
is on the order of 137-152 m (450-500') thick in the plant
area.
The Ogallala is unconformably underlain by a thin sequence
of red and green shale, clay, and sandstone of the Dockum
Group of Triassic age. Unconformably underlying the Tri-
assic beds are rocks of Permian age, principally red shale
in the upper part of the section. The Elaine Gypsum, a
massive marker zone of predominantly gypsum and anhydrite,
occurs at depths from 262-334 m (860-1095') in the area and
directly overlies the Glorieta sand, which is the waste-
injection zone. The Ogallala Formation supplies all fresh
water used for irrigation, municipal, industrial, domestic,
and stock-watering purposes in the area. All industrial
water utilized at the plant is obtained from wells.
The Glorieta sand is a loosely to well consolidated, fine-
to-medium grained, well rounded, gypsum- and halite-bearing
quartz sandstone which extends over large parts of the
northern High Plains. Except in the eastern part of the
Texas Panhandle, the Glorieta generally has good porosity,
relatively high permeability, and comparatively low reser-
voir pressure. Owing to its favorable reservoir character-
istics and its relatively shallow depth, most of the oil-
field-brine-disposal wells and other industrial waste-
injection wells in the northern High Plains use the Glorieta
for waste-storage purposes.
Although no precise reservoir data are available for the
Glorieta in the plant area, the history of operation of
the two existing injection wells and the fact that the
fluid level in the proposed well approximately 783 m^
(27 650 cubic feet) of waste will be injected each year.
Based on a radial dispersion and complete displacement
of the connate water, the effluent would migrate 43 m
(140') from the well in 20 years. However, as discussed
above, the waste should migrate in an easterly direction
from the well.
1060
-------
^Numerous oil and gas test wells were drilled on and adjacent
to the salt dome. These wells contained insufficient sur-
face casing and cement plugs to adequately protect the fresh
water resources. The nearest abandoned well was 76 m (250')
north of the disposal well. This well was reentered and
properly plugged.
Other producing and abandoned wells are located 91 m (300')
or more from the disposal well. Calculations of the pres-
sure increase on the disposal formation after 20 years of
injecting should cause a pressure increase of 48 kPa (7 psi)
or less at a distance of 30 m (100') from the well and con-
siderably less at 91 m (300'). This increase is not great
enough to overcome the weight of the mud columns in the
abandoned wells and permit upward flow of salt water in the
wellbore.
Well Completion and Operation -
The injection well, TX-20, was originally completed in March
1959, and operated as an LPG storage well in the Clearfork
Salt section occurring in the approximate depth interval
from 457-494 m (1500-1620'). It was recompleted for waste-
disposal purposes. A 13-3/8 inch surface casing had been
set at 184m (603') and cemented with 500 sacks of cement.
A string of 9-5/8 inch, 32.3 Ib, H-40 casing was set at
473 m (15511) and cemented with 11.3 m (400 cubic feet) of
cement containing 4536 kg (10 000 Ib.) of Gilsonite.
The original string of 7 inch, 20 Ib., J-55 casing was sus-
pended from the wellhead to a depth of 494 m (1620'). Dur-
ing recompletion, an attempt was made to pull this casing;
however, the bottom part was stuck, and it parted at 434 m
(14251) leaving 56 m (185') of casing in the hole. The
inside of the 9-5/8 inch casing was cleaned with a casing
scraper to a depth of 427 m (1400'). A cement density log
and correlation collar log run from surface to 427 m (1400')
showed cement behind the 9-5/8 inch casing from 422 m to at
least 201 m (1383 to at least 660'). The cement could be
higher than 201 m (660') , but the water level in the well
was at 201 m (660') and the logging tool will not indicate
cement bonding out of liquid. A 2 foot Baker cast iron
plug was set in the 9-5/8 inch casing from 396.2-396.8 m
(1300-1302').
1061
-------
The 9-5/8 inch casing was perforated opposite the Glorieta
sand with one hole per foot from 340-377 m (1116-1236').
In April 1965, the perforations were treated with 3. 8 m^
(1000 gals.) of 15 percent mud acid. The acid was displaced
with 61 m^ (385 barrels) of water at an injection rate of
58 dm3/s (924 gpm) and a pumping pressure of 2.1 MPa (300
psig). The pump was stopped and pressure dropped to a
vacuum. An additional 16 m3 (100 barrels) of water was
injected at a rate of 32 dm3/s (504 gpm) with no pressure.
A string of 7 inch 20 Ib, J-55 casing equipped with a packer
having both rubber and lead seals was set at 332 m (1089') .
Assessment -
The operation can be considered successful. Studies of
possible contamination of the Ogallala Aquifer by injection
into the Glorieta Formation were conducted in 1970 by the
FWQA in Texas County, Oklahoma (Panhandle area). It was
concluded that no natural possibility existed for Glorieta
water to migrate into the Ogallala Aquifer except in some
limited areas of the county. It was recommended, however,
that the quality of natural Glorieta water be determined
to ascertain any changes caused by injection. These anal-
yses would be used to evaluate potential uses and pollu-
tional hazards of the Glorieta waters.
Well C1
Source and Nature of the Waste -
Diversification of the Gulf Coast chemical plant in 1970
resulted in production of an aqueous waste that could not
be adequately treated, for surface discharge, by the ex-
isting waste treatment facilities of the plant. Therefore,
underground injection of the waste was selected as the best
alternative. The waste consists princiaplly of sulfuric
acid, ammonium sulfate, and some organics. In addition, a
trace amount of cyanide is present. The makeup of the waste
stream is shown in the following analysis.
1062
-------
Constituent ppm
Sulfuric acid 17 000
Ammonium sulfate 44 000
Hydrogen cyanide 10
Glycolonitrile 5 000
Iminodiacetronitrile 3 000
Nitritotriacetonitrile 2 000
Methanol 1 000
Methyl formate 500
Formaldehyde 500
Glycolic acid 4 000
Formic acid 5 000
Density, g/ml 1.0
Viscosity, cp 0.50
pH 1.5
Surface Equipment -
The corrosive aqueous waste flows through a vinyl ester
fiberglass pipe to a 117 m^ (31 000 gals.) storage tank.
Two 186 kW (250 hp) pumps move it through two cartridge-
type filters and into the injection well. Each pump is
equipped with an automatic valve that releases the waste
effluent to a bypass line which is connected to an emer-
gency holding pond. This pond is used for storage of
effluent when the well becomes inoperative. The emergency
holding pond is 151 m (500') long by 61 m (200') wide with
an average depth of 3 m (10"). It is lined with bentonite,
and the interior surface is covered with a plastic liner.
1063
-------
Geology -
The plant is located on the Gulf Coast of Texas approxi-
mately in the center of the upper Texas portion of the
Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Typically, this region is char-
acterized by and can be described as a southeast dipping
homocline interrupted by salt movements, both of the
piercement and deep seated types, and faulting. The
major faults generally are not associated with the salt
movements but are regional down to the coast faults that
are contemporaneous with deposition; that is, the down-
thrown blocks generally have a much thicker section than
comparable upthrown equivalent.
In the locale there are several prominent geological fea-
tures. The first of these is the strong structural ridging
that is in evidence on all the structural horizons presented.
A similar feature occurs immediately to the east resulting
in a synclinal closure between these two features. The net
effect of this structural configuration is that any fluid
movement in a downdip direction would be toward these syn-
clinal areas which are quite extensive in the lateral east-
west direction.
The plant is on an outcrop of the Beaumont Clay of the
Pleistocene Series. The Beaumont consists of alternating
sand and clay beds. The Alta Loma Sandstone, a major aqui-
fer in the area, is the basal member.
Underlying the Beaumont in descending order are the Lissie
Formation of the Pleistocene Series, the Willis Sandstone
and the Goliad Sandstone of the Pleistocene Series, and the
Lagarto Clay of the Miocene Series. All of these formations
are composed of leticular beds of sandstone, gravel,, silt,
and clay. They have a combined thickness, including the
Beaumont, of approximately 1341 m (4400*).
Tb<- massive clay section of the Anahuac Stage underlies the
Layarto Clay. The bed is wedge shaped and pinches out with-
in a few miles to the north. It has a thickness in excess
of 213 m (700') in the subject area.
The Frio group that underlies the Anahuac Stage consists of
massive sandstones interbedded with thick to thin beds of
1064
-------
clay. The Frio Group has a thickness in excess of 610 m
(2000') in the area of the plant site.
Groundwater, from fresh to potentially beneficial quality,
occurs to a depth of 793 m (2600') in the area. The oper-
ating company has five water wells on the property that
furnish water for the plant operation.
Well Completion and Operation -
The disposal well is drilled to a total depth of 2134 m
(70001) and completed with 13-3/8 inch, 51 Ib., K-55 surface
casing set at 823 m (2700') and 9-5/8 inch, 36 Ib., K-55
casing set at 1945 m (63801). Both casing strings are
cemented from total depth to the surface.
The wellbore was underreamed from 1945-2134 m (6380-7000')
to 380 mm (15 inches) or larger. A 6-5/8 inch slotted
fibercast liner was set in the interval. The annulus be-
tween the liner and reamed hole was gravel packed.
The injection tubing is 5-1/2 inch, 14 and 15.5 Ib, K-55
internally coated casing. The tubing contains a sealing
assembly that is set in a receptacle at the bottom of the
casing.
The injection zone consists of massive sand beds of the
Frio Group in the interval from 1945-2134 m (6380-7000').
Net sand thickness is about 145 m (475'). The sand has
a porosity of 30 percent and permeabilities ranging up
to 1.0 darcy with an average of about 450 millidarcys.
Approximately 1128 m (3700') of sand and clay beds lay
between the base of fresh water and the top of the injec-
tion interval. These strata constitute an effective bar-
rier to vertical migration of the waste effluent.
Assessment -
This can be considered a successfully operating system.
Based upon available data, the injection is having no
detrimental effect upon the environment.
1065
-------
EPA REGION VIII
Well A
Source and Nature of the Waste -
A waste brine and waste which had a pH 8 and contained
ammonia, nitrates, chlorides, chlorates, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, and organic phosphorous compounds from
the manufacture of the insecticides chlordane, aldrin,
and dieldrin originally were disposed of by seepage and
evaporation from large reservoirs; however, a more re-
liable method of waste disposal was desired. Subsurface
disposal offered the best solution to the problem, and
drilling was started on a disposal well, CO-1, in March
1961. Routine injection of the accumulated waste began
in March 1962.
Surface Equipment -
The waste effluent streams of approximately 22-28 m3/s
(350-450 gpm) were discharged into a 36 420 m2 (9 acres)
asphalt-lined waste reservoir. Aerating towers at the
reservoir aided in reducing the water content of the
waste effluent. Two single-stage centrifugal pumps
moved the waste from the reservoir about 61 m (200')
to the injection treating plant.
The waste first flowed into a 1115 m3 (12 000 gal.) con-
crete sedimentation tank from which it flowed by gravity
into a 2787 m (30 000 gal.) clarifier equipped with a
skimmer and sludge rake. The clarifier was originally
installed to aid in preinjection treatment of the waste
with flocculating agents; however, because the floe that
formed would neither settle nor float this process was
abandoned. The clarifier was then used as an extra de-
tention tank.
The waste was pumped from the detention tank to one of
two leaf filters, each of which had filter surface area
of 42 m2 (450 sq. ft.). Chemically treated diatomaceous
earth was used along with asbestos for precoating the
filters. Engineering consultants recommended filtration
to less than 20 ppm of suspended material of 0.5 \i particle
1066
-------
size. This is both expensive and difficult to accomplish;
however, it was essential for removal of a high percentage
of microorganisms identified as Paracloan aeroginoids and
Bacillus subtilis which grew in colonies of colorless slime
in the waste reservoir and presented a problem of removal
before injection. A bactericide injected after filtration
accomplished complete bacterial control.
The company installed the necessary equipment to bypass the
reservoir and to inject the waste directly, thus eliminating
the need for filtration and bactericides, inasmuch as the
process waste streams were sterile when they left the plant.
Accumulated waste in the reservoir was disposed of by con-
centration through solar evaporation and by intermittent
subsurface injection.
In addition to the bactericide, sodium sulfite was added to
the waste after filtration to act as an oxygen scavenger to
protect the well from corrosion by dissolved oxygen acquired
by exposure to the atmosphere.
After filtration and treatment, the waste was pumped into a
4645 m3 (50 000 gal.) clear tank equipped with a float
switch that activated one or more, as required, of the four
injection pumps.
Four reciprocating, positive displacement pumps discharged
into a common fluid manifold with a pulsation dampener as
a precaution against water hammer. Each pump was powered
by a 96.9 kW (130 hp) electric motor and was rated at 6
dm3/s (95 gpm) and 13.9 MPa (2000 psi). A pressure relief
valve was set a 10.3 MPa (1500 psi). Normal operating
wellhead pressure fluctuates from 3.4 MPa (500 psi) at 13
dm3/s to 5.7 MPa (820 psi) at 25 dm3/s (400 gpm).
Well Completion and Geology -
The disposal well was drilled to a total depth of 3671 m
(12 045") and cased with 5-1/2 inch casing cemented at
3650 m (11 975') leaving 21 m (70') of open hole in the
Precambrian gneiss exposed for injection.
1067
-------
A string of 13-3/8 inch OD casing was set at 610 m (2000')
in a 24 inch hole and cemented to the surface to protect
fresh water aquifers above 451 m (1480"). Near the base
of the Fountain Formation, 3453 m (11 330'), drilling be-
came difficult because of prolonged periods of lost circu-
lation and, therefore, a string of 8-5/8 inch OD casing
was set and cemented at 2737 m (89801). Drilling then
proceeded to a Precambrian gneiss that was cored arid found
to be highly fractured. This fractured zone offered the
best potential for a disposal reservoir; therefore, a
5-1/2 inch OD casing was set and cemented in place from
the bottom of the 8-5/8 inch OD casing to the top of the
Precambrian gneiss at a total depth of 3650 m (11 975') .
From March, 1962 until February, 1966, a volume of 625 593
nr (165 million gal.) was injected at a maximum rate of 32
dm3/s (514 gpm) and 7.5 MPa (1100 psi) [average rate 13
dm3/s (200 gpm) and 3.4 MPa (500 psi)]. The seventh week
after injection began on April 24, 1962, an earthquake of
magnitude 1.5 was recorded. From April 24, 1962, through
August, 1967, 1514 earthquakes were recorded with magni-
tudes ranging from 0.5 to 5.3; all relatively shallow in
origin and from an area about midway between central Denver
and the Arsenal well.
Earthquake frequency correlated closely with injection
schedules. This helped substantiate the theory that the
injected fluids acted as a lubricant on the fracture and
joint surfaces, and that this factor plus the pressure
applied in injecting the fluid upset the equilibrium of
the rocks in the area and caused movement along the frac-
ture surfaces, and earthquakes. After use of the well
was discontinued, the seismic conditions approached those
prior to injection.
Assessment -
The discontinuance of the use of this well was advisable
because of its effect upon the environment. The situation
may have been predictable by in-depth feasibility studies
prior to drilling, but this is only conjecture. Also, the
earthquakes triggered by the fluids injected into this well
may have been instrumental in relieving enough stress to
prevent a major earthquake in the area.
1068
-------
SECTION XI
APPENDIX E
REFERENCE CITED
Donaldson, E. C., et al, Subsurface Waste Injection in
the United States, U. S. Bur. Mines Inform. Circ. 8636,
72 pp, 1974.
1069
-------
SECTION XI
APPENDIX F - RECENT MICROBIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
INCLUDING WILMINGTON AND BELLE GLADE CASE STUDIES
BACTERIAL PHYSIOLOGY
Bacteria can survive and remain viable over a wide range of
environmental conditions. Some of the environmental limits
were described by Ehrlich1 after Brock,2 and have been sum-
marized in Table 21. A distinction exists between the ability
to survive and the ability to grow well: e.g., optimal tem-
peratures for growth of nearly all microorganisms are near
the upper, maximal limits of their range. The optimal and
limiting factors are, in general, the optimal and limiting
factors of their enzymes according to Frobisher.3
Table 21. ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITS FOR GROWTH AND
REPRODUCTION OF SELECTED MICROORGANISMS2
Factor
Lower Limit
Upper Limit
Temperature
Oxidation-
reduction
PH
Hydrostatic
pressure
Salinity
-12°C (fungi, bacteria)
-350 to -450 mv at
pH 8 to 9.5 (sulfate-
reducing bacteria)
0 (Acontium velatur,
Practically 0
Double distilled water
(heterotrophic bacteria)
104°C (sulfate-
reducing bacteria
at 1,000 atm)
+850 mv at pH 8
(iron bacteria)
13(?) (Plectonema
Thiobacillus thiooxidans) nostocorum)
1,400 atm (deep-
sea bacteria)
Saturated brines
(Dunaliella, halo-
philic bacteria)
1070
-------
Metabolic activities of bacteria occur in one of three modes
with many bacteria having the ability to grow in two of the
three modes, i.e., facultative bacteria. The three modes
are photosynthesis, aerobic respiration, and anaerobic fer-
mentation and respiration. Bacterial photosynthesis requires
light absorption at 7400 A (orange-yellow range) for the
Chlorobacteraceae and 8000-9000 A (intra-red range) for the
brown, red, and purple pigmented species according to
Frobisher.3 Photosynthesis does not occur in the permanent
darkness of underground formations and could only be of in-
terest in surface treatment or holding facilities exposed
to light. Respiration (aerobic) is an energy-yielding pro-
cess in which organic compounds or reduced inorganic com-
pounds serve as electron donors and molecular oxygen serves
as the acceptor according to Ehrlich.1 As in photosynthesis,
respiration does not occur in injection formations, since
groundwater is generally lacking in dissolved oxygen. How-
ever, aerobic respiration can be of considerable importance
in the pre-injection system.
Anaerobic bacteria have developed metabolic processes which
occur in the absence of oxygen. These microorganisms may
be obligate anaerobes (limited by contact with molecular
oxygen) or facultatives (able to grow either aerobically
or anaerobically). Energy production by anaerobes can pro-
ceed in two general ways: fermentation, or anaerobic res-
piration.
Fermentation (intramolecular respiration) is the commonest
type of anaerobic metabolism. The final hydrogen acceptor
is derived from the nutrient substrate itself. Part of the
nutrient molecule is oxidized, while part is reduced. The
fermentation of glucose is shown as an example in Equation
3.
The six carbon sugar is split by enzymes into two 3-carbon
sugars and phosphorylated. Through a series of chemical
transformations these 3-carbon sugars are changed to pyruvic
acid. Part of the pyruvic acid is eventually changed to
alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the process of dissimilation
of the glucose, hydrogen has been removed from parts of the
molecule (oxidation) and shifted to other parts of the same
molecule (reduction). For further information concerning
1071
-------
OH
H - C
H - C - OH
HO-C-H 0 -v 2 C H 0 : PO
352 4
H - C - OH
H - C
H - C - OH
-*> 2
C E H.
C = 0 + H
C = H.
H = C - OH
HO - C = 0
Glucose
CO,
Triose
phosphate
Pyruvic
Acid
(3)
Ethanol
the varying metabolic pathways and enzymatic actions, see the
Meyerhof-Emden scheme for dissimilation of glucose to pyruvic
acid.
The second method is called anaerobic respiration (inter-
molecular respiration) in which the final hydrogen acceptor
is some extraneous substance like NaNO or some orgcinic com-
pound. Hydrogen is transferred from one molecule to another.
The essential chemistry involved is illustrated by the re-
action between lactic acid and sulfate in Equation 4.
H H 0
iiG | // -2
2 C-C-C + SO,
OH OH
H
/0
Lactic acid
2 C - C - OH + 2 CO + H S + 2 OH
£+ ~
Acetic acid
(4)
1072
-------
Other organic compounds such as ethanol, butanol, glycols,
amino acids, and glucose can also be utilized by bacteria
as hydrogen acceptors. Carbon dioxide can be reduced to
methane and nitrate to nitrite and are further examples
of anaerobic respiration.
The variety of organic compounds which can be dissimulated
by bacteria is very large. Humic materials are attacked
very slowly. Some compounds are virtually immune to micro-
bial dissimilation: chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides,
certain detergents, and polyolefin plastics.
Bacteria require certain inorganic elements for protoplas-
mic synthesis. These elements include traces of K, Mg, Fe,
Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, and Mb, which are usually available in the
groundwater. Other elements are required in larger quanti-
ties: N, P, and S, which may be limiting factors for growth.
See Table 22 for a list of general nutritional requirements.1*
Table 22. A LIST OF GENERAL NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS'*
1. Energy source
2. Electron acceptor
3. Minerals
4. Growth factor
a. Amino acids
b. Vitamins
c. Others
Organic compounds
Inorganic compounds
Oxygen
Organic compounds
Nitrate (N03-) , nitrite (N02-) ,
nitrous oxide (N20), sulfate
(S042-), carbon dioxide (C02)
Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium,
magnesium, sulfur, iron, calcium,
manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt,
molybdenum
Alonine, aspartic acid, glutamic
acid, etc.
Thiamin, biotin, pyridoxine, ribo-
flavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic
acid, paminobenzoic acid, folic
acid, thiotic acid, B^2/ etc.
Purine bases, pyrimidine bases,
choline, inositol, peptides, etc.
1073
-------
RECENT RESEARCH METHODS
Signer5 has analyzed in vitro data to relate the physical,
biological, and geochemical effects of the porous media
flow system. The objective was to obtain data that could
be transferred to field situations as an aid in developing
more effective and economical artificial recharge systems.
This data may well be useful in application to research on
the microbial aspects of deep-well waste injection.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1) Sakthivadivel and Irmay6 review of filtration theory
and experiments, concluded that the critical parameter
in clogging of a porous medium is the ratio of the
diameter of the matrix opening to that of the fines.
Between pore particle-diameter ratios of 5-14 clog-
ging or nonclogging depends on porosity of the matrix.
2) Heertjes and Lerk7 found that when the suspension to
be filtered is a stable colloid and the filter material
has pore sizes several orders of magnitude larger than
the colloid particle diameter, suspension removal is
by electrokinetic sorption on the filter medium.
3) Herzig, et al,8 concluded that for suspended particles
> 30 ym volume phenomena prevail and for - I urn parti-
cles surface effects prevail. Particles between these
sizes show both volume and surface effects in the same
order of magnitude.
4) Edwards and Monke9 hypothesized that bacteria may pro-
vide an electrical link between negatively charged
silica and bentonite clay particles.
5) Rahman10 in a radial-sector well model of uniform por-
osity observed that 10-20 percent of a bentonite-
kaolinite suspension remained in the model aquifer
after 8 hours of inflow. A sediment concentration of
500 mg/1 reduced the inflow rate by 43-47 percent in
that length of time.
6) Curry and Beasley11 concluded from laboratory column
tests that mechanical filtering is the main process
1074
-------
by which bentonite particles are removed from sus-
pension by carborundum medium.
7) Curry, et al,12 found that there appeared to be
mechanical seiving at the inflow surface in porous
media and diffusion and gravitational settling
below the surface.
8) Vecchioli,13 Ehrlich, et al,11*'15 added chlorine
to injection streams to deal with the problem of
bacterial clogging.
9) Rebhun and Schwarz16 suggested that small volume
pumping be used to redevelop wells and remove
organic material from near the well bore.
10) Nevo and Mitchell17 found that the formation of
microbial polysaccharides in sandy bottoms of
spreading basins under anaerobic conditions pro-
moted clogging.
11) Wood and Bassett18 found that major chemical changes
in infiltered water sampled below a spreading basin
correlated directly with changes in infiltration
rates and were a response to bacterial actions as
well as being useful to distinguish loss of infiltra-
tion rate caused by bacterial activity from that
caused by sediments.
12) Sniegocki19 cites air entrainment, suspended par-
ticles, and microorganisms as the principal cause
of clogging in injection wells.
Signor5 states that the difficulty encountered in trans-
ferring existing research results to the field situation
lies la part in the complexity of the natural systems.
Lithologic units are extremely variable porous media,
and injected wastes are subject to wide variation in
physical and chemical parameters.
1075
-------
RESEARCH FACILITIES
The requirements of a laboratory designed for transmis-
sivities studies of porous media under conditions of
injection well operations according to Signor5 are:
1) A source of relatively large quantities of injection
fluid which can be altered to any desired quality in
regard to suspended materials and dissolved materials.
2) A flow system which permits complete flow measurement
and control of flow rates and pressures, and which can
be operated under constant conditions of pressure and
flow.
3) Capability for evaluating the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the clogging process.
DESIGN OF A MODEL
In order to produce a model for studying flow through porous
media, Signor5 used a test column with axially and radially
homogeneous media packing (Figure 191). This packing was ac-
complished by using a full tremie pipe with an acrylic disk
with radial cleats on the end of the tremie tube. This ar-
rangement allows a homogeneous pack and is repeatable (Fig-
ure 192) .
In flow studies piezometer taps provide true pressure
measurements if placed with inlets in the interior of
the porous matrix. An input system equipped with a
mixing pump assures solids in uniform suspension as
the fluid enters the inflow face of the mixture. De-
livery lines are no more than 10 mm inside diameter
so that settling in the lines cannot occur.
The characteristics of clay suspension during flow is
the most difficult parameter. Concentrations were de-
termined directly by filtering the sample and weighing
the retained particulate matter with an analytical balance.
Physical parameters are listed in Table 23. Signor5 has
extensive tests in progress for investigating a broad
range of parameters affecting waste injection.
1076
-------
IN/OUT
STAINLESS STEEI
SCREEN
POROUS MEDIA
TEST COLUMN
FINE MESH STAINLESS,
STEEL SCREEN
• 0-RINGS
9"
10-
II-
12-
13-
TEMPERATURE PROBE
TOP PLATE
PIEZOMETERS
I- 14
BOTTOM INSERT
BOTTOM PLATE
Figure 191. Construction and assembly of
porous-medium test column.
1077
-------
Figure 192. Rotating tremie and vibration system
for packing test column with sand.
Table 23. PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF POROUS-MEDIA FLOW5
Matrix Parameter
Porosity
Particle size in medium
for which 10 percent is
smaller than that size
Particle size in medium
for which 60 percent is
smaller than that size.
Significance
Indicates voids, space
available for retention
of clogging material.
Termed the effective size
for filter sands.
The ratio of the 60 percent
size to the 10 percent size
is an indicator of the uni-
formity.
1078
-------
(Table 23. continued)
Bulk density of medium
Specific surface area
of medium
Grain shapes in medium
Surface roughness of
medium grains
Intrinsic permeability
Pore-diameter size and
size distribution
Surface charge of grains
Fluid
Viscosity
Density
Velocity of flow
Pressure
For a given material,
indicates the solidity
of packing and propensity
for material movement
under stress.
Relates to surface-active
phenomena and adsorption
rate.
Affects shape of pores
and thus fluid-flow
patterns.
Affects retention of
suspension on the particle
surface.
Integration of porous-
media characteristics.
Propensity for entrapment
or filtration of suspen-
sion.
Attraction to suspension
particles.
Significance
Shear forces and fluid
resistance to flow.
Fluid characteristics.
Hydrodynamic forces on the
medium and suspension.
Driving force moving the
liquid and suspension into
and through the medium.
1079
-------
(Table 23. continued)
Suspended Particles
Concentration (inflow,
within medium, outflow)
Size
Shape
Electric charge
Significance
Material available for
inflow, retention, and
through-flow.
Ability to pass through
pore openings.
Effect on retention or
through-flow due to
orientation.
Attraction or repulsion
to medium or intermediate
materials.
PRELIMINARY TESTS AND RESULTS
Signer's5 initial studies were directed toward physical
measurements of the plugging caused by suspended solids
in injection water. Preliminary results showed rapid re-
duction in permeability due to suspended solids.
The problem of determining actual clogging configurations
was approached by using a scanning electron microscope
(Figure 193). This technique showed the accumulation of
suspended solids on the sand grains and collections at the
medium-grain contact points. The collection of suspended
particles does not appear to occupy any significant part
of the pore space or interstital area in the medium., yet
the permeability of the medium was reduced by about 80
percent in the test.
"I . a test for clogging by bacterial growth, a vortex-
shaped deposit of organic material was formed (Figure 193)<
Bacterial growth on a stainless steel screen caused deteri-
oration of the screen in the form of circular pits approxi-
mately 1 mm in diameter (Figure 194). Seven such pits ap-
peared on a screen 13 cm in diameter during a period of 10
days. Dispersive x-ray analysis of the organic material
1080
-------
compared to an analysis of screen filings showed that the
organic material was composed primarily of iron or contained
iron, the same material as the screen."5
Figure 193. Scanning electron micrograph of vortex-
shaped organic deposit in interstitial
opening in porous medium.
Figure 194. Pits in stainless steel screen due to
bacterial growth during 10-day period.
1081
-------
In collecting samples from monitor wells for biogeochemical
analyses in the Wilmington, N. C., studies, (mentioned else-
where in this report) Leenheer and Malcolm20'21 and DiTommaso
and Elkan22 utilized rather unique methods necessitated by
the design of the monitor wells and the artesian head of the
injection zone salaquifer. A representative monitor well is
shown in Figure 195. The natural artesian head allowed the
collecting of samples by simply opening the outlet valve at
the top of the sampling tubing.
The small diameter, 6.35 mm (0.25 in) of the sampling tubing
enables collection of a relatively uncontaminated sample
after only a thirty-minute flush. Roughly three void vol-
umes pass through the sampling tubing at a flow rate of 1.2
1/min. during the thirty-minute flush. Assuming the annular
fluid to be static, only approximately 20 mm (0.79 in) into
the. sand pack surrounding the screen are sampled. As a
safeguard to assure a valid sample of the salaquifer water,
at least one sample with a greatly increased flushing period
should be taken for comparison. In studies made on micro-
bial growth in wells sampled by back flushing it has been
determined that the number of bacteria are greatly reduced
after some extended time of back flushing. The question is
raised whether or not these sampling methods reflect, more
than a sample of the conditions found in the annulus or at
most the conditions in the surface of the sand-annulus
interface.
These sampling methods are used for inorganic, organic, and
microbial samples. DOC water samples are pressure filtered
on site immediately after collection through a 0.45 ym
silver membrane filter. The DOC sample bottle is a 50 ml
glass serum bottle sealed with an aluminum foil covejred
rubber septum stopper.
Two samples are collected for standard inorganic analysis:
one litre of filtered sample acidified to pH 2 with nitric
acid for analysis of the cations, Al Ca, Fe, K, Na, Mg, and
Zn; and one litre of non-acidified sample for anion analysis
of Cl, F, 804, N02f N03, P, and silica. These samples are
pressure filtered in situ through a 0.45 ym vinyl metricell
membrane filter in a plexiglass filtration assembly,, using
1082
-------
J
-4 GATE VALVE
U c:
LOWER SAMPLE K?31
OUTLETS c^ p
VALVE FOR —X
PRESSURE K>=
GAUGE
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^» .V»>VF FO» tfiuPUNC
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^.^" CASINGS
-^ „ 15** HOLE
"*--, , , (Q" ID STEEL
PIPE CASING
I(APOl£N£ TUBING
/ "sTEEL^'piPE' *
G^iipr Ppifi, RACK
PRESSURE VALVE AND
WASH PLUG ASSEMBLY
HOLE
Figure 195. A representative monitor well.
1083
-------
compressed carbon-free nitrogen to prevent the precipitation
of ferrous iron. A 3.79 litre (1 gal.) sample is collected
in an identical way for analysis of trace elements.
A one litre sample is collected without filtration for
analysis of organic compounds. This sample is collected
in a one litre glass bottle previously heated to 350°C
(622°F) to free it of organic contamination. The sample
bottle is sealed with a metal screw cap with a teflon gasket.
The sample is placed in a molded styrofoam packer for ship-
ment, and is chilled in crushed ice to minimize sample deg-
radation .
Gas samples are collected by directing the outflow into an
inverted 100 ml graduated cylinder filled with water, and
the rate of gas collection is determined over a timed period
at a measured flow rate. After measurement of the rate of
gas effervescence, the inlet of a 250 ml cylindrical glass
gas collector tube is attached to the sampling outlet, and
the well water is allowed to flow through and displace air
in the collector tube. Well water is then allowed to flow
through the collector tube until 5 to 10 ml of gas are col-
lected. The sample is sealed in the collector tube by sim-
ply closing the inlet and outlet stopcocks.
Measurements of pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance are
performed on site, utilizing fresh samples.
Biological samples were obtained by DiTommaso and Elkan22
after flushing the wells for thirty minutes by collecting
a 100 ml sample in a sterile serum bottle. The sample
bottles were transported packed in ice to retard microbial
growth.
Leenheer and Malcolm21 used DOC as a parameter in deter-
mining the concentration of injected waste in monitor well
samples. In order to establish base levels of DOC in var-
ious ground waters, Leenheer, et al,23 analyzed samples from
100 sites in 27 states. Values of greater than 5 mg/1 DOC
could indicate contaminent and possible pollutant organic
materials. They did not advocate DOC as the absolute par-
ameter and warned that certain organic materials such as
pesticides can be toxic in concentrations below the detec-
tion limits of the organic carbon analysis.
1084
-------
CASE STUDY: BELLE GLADE FLORIDA
The United States Geological Survey undertook a study of
the Belle Glade, Florida, industrial waste injection system
in order to develop a better understanding of liquid toxic
waste interactions with aquifer rock and native fluid, to
determine movement and ultimate fate of the waste, and to
develop a scientific basis for assessing the long-term en-
vironmental impact of subsurface waste injection.
Methods
Samples of injected waste, native aquifer water, and fluids
from the zone of active waste-rock-native fluid interaction
were taken periodically and analyzed for geochemical, dis-
solved gases, and bacterial content.
Hydrogeology
The southern part of the Florida peninsula is underlain by
early tertiary carbonate rocks at depths of about 457 m
(1,500 ft.) to 1372 m (4,500 ft.). The carbonate includes
several highly permeable cavernous zones filled with saline
water and separated from one another by relatively imper-
meable carbonate and/or evaporite beds. The top approximate
305 m (1,000 ft.) of this cavernous zone is the lower part
of the principal artesian aquifer of the southeastern United
States. This aquifer consists mostly of middle Eocene to
middle Miocene limestone and dolomite. The effective poros-
ity of the aquifer and the underlying tertiary carbonate
rocks is variable; however, in many places there are dense
beds of limestone and dolomite which act as aquitards.
In the Belle Glade injection site the chloride content of
the native salaquifer ranged from 1,650 mg/1 at 457 m
(1,500 ft.) to more than 7,000 mg/1 at 579 m (1,900 ft.)
at the time the injection well was drilled in 1966. See
Table 24 for chemical analyses of native salaquifer water.
The injection zone is separated from the overlying aquifer
by 46 m (150 ft.) of dense limestone. The artesian head
of the aquifer is about 17 m (57 ft.) above mean sea level.
The altitude of the land surface is 4.6 m (15 ft.) above
mean sea level. The slope of potentiometric surface indi-
cates a flow towards the Atlantic ocean. Water moving
through the Belle Glade area may ultimately discharge from
submarine exposures of the salaquifer into the Straits of
Florida (Figure 196).
1085
-------
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1086
-------
64 km
(40 Ml )
INJECTION WELL
EAST
STRAITS
100 •
200-
LU
UJ
o.
UJ
o
(500) -
dooo)-
400.
ci-
1650
mg/l
700,0
SHALLOW AQUIFER
SAND, SHELL.AND LIMESTONE
CONFINING BEDS '//'///'///
(DENSE MARL) '
CONFINING BEDS //
CARBONATE ROCKS) '/////.
•
FLOR1DAN AQUIFER,
UPPER PART
(PERMEABLE CARBONATE ROCKS)
'////'// CONFINING BEDS //'///////>
-------
10
04
I
-------
100
200
u
ui
a,
u
o
305 m
( 1000')
SHALLOW MONITOR
WELL NO. I
^SAMPLING
FRESH WATER
SUPPLY
C ONFIN1N6
BEDS
30(?o-ooP
400
500
600
(2000)-
BRACKISH
WATER
AQUIFER
Cl" 1000 mg/ I
UPPER FLORIDAN)
CONFINING
BEDS
Cl" I650mg/l
AQUIFER
>7000 mg/l
DEEP MONITOR
WELL NO.2
Figure 198.
Diagram of industrial waste injection
and monitoring system, prior to deep-
ening injection well (after Garcia-
Bengochea and Vernon).25
The deep monitor well is 305 m (1,000 ft.) southeast of
the injection well for assessing effects in the injection
zone. It is an open hole completion to a depth of 630 m
(2,067 ft.), cased with 304.8 mm (12 in.) casing to 454 m
(1,490 ft.), and has stainless steel 203.2 mm (8 in.) tubing
set with a packer at the bottom of the casing.
The shallow monitor well is 23 m (75 ft.) south of the in-
jection well for monitoring hydraulic and geochemical ef-
fects in the overlying aquifer. It is cased to 198 m (648
ft.), and completed in the open hole at 427 m (1,400 ft.).
1089
-------
Data were obtained from a University of Florida Everglades
Experiment Station well 3.2 km (2 mi.) southeast of the
Belle Glade site. This well is cased to 292 m '957 ft.)
and completed in the open hole to 406 m (1,332 ft.}.
The Waste
The injected waste is a hot, acidic, and highly organic
effluent from a sugar mill and from the production of
furfural, an aldehyde processed from sugar cane bagasse
(Table 25} . The temperature ranges from 71 to 103'5C (160
to 217IJF); the pH ranges from 2.6 to 4.5; tne COD ranges
from approximately 6,000 to 26,000 mg/1. See Garcia-
Bengochea and Vemon2lf for further operational inrorraation.)
Table 25. CHEMICAL ANALYSES — INJECTED INDUSTRIAL
WASTE, BELLE GLADS, FLORIDA.25
Parameter
Acidity (ae/1)2
pH ("nits)
Calcium
10-20-71
137
3.2
04
3-28-
36
4.3
30
72
COD
Organic Carbon
Culor (Units)
Organic Nitrogen fS)
Anmonium (NHi as N)
Total Phosphate (as P>
Suspended Solids
Fluoride
Chloride
Tenperatare ("C)
Specific Graviiy ^Sizi'irsijr.iess/
10,900
9,300
500
72
22
26
2,490
6.6
1U
93
1.C061
U,JOO
;,t,?o
1 ,000
39
0.6
8.5
1,880
6.0
90
88.5
l.CC-3?
Analyses in milligrams per liter except as indicated.
2
Acidity in miiliequlvalents per liter.
1090
-------
Operating History
Waste injection began in late 1966; it is seasonal with con-
tinuous fall, winter, and spring injection. The system is
inactive in late summer. Injection rates vary from 1.52
X 10 to 5.05 X 10~2 m3/s (400-800 gpm) at pressures from
2.07 X 105 to 4.14 X 105 Pa (30-60 psi). During 1966-1972
more than 3.0 X 106 m3 (8.0 X 108 gal.) of waste were in-
jected. The injection index:
injection rate in gpm
(pre-injection pressure) — (bottom hole pressure
after injection)
has increased more than fivefold, indicating a substantial
increase in permeability near the well bore.
No pressure effects are evident in the two monitor wells.
An increase in COD and a decrease in pH were detected in
the deep monitor well in 1967, and in the shallow monitor
well in the fall of 1969. The change in COD and pH in
the shallow monitor well indicated upward migration of
the waste front, either around the casing of the injection
well or through the aquitards. Consequently the injection
well was modified in the fall of 1971 as previously men-
tioned. During the modifications on the injection well,
the deep monitor well was used for waste injection. More
than 2.8 X 105m3 (7.5 X 107 gal.) of waste under pressure
of about 3.4 X 10^ Pa (50 psi) were injected into the
monitor well. See Figure 199 for the amount of waste in-
jected over the study period. After completion of the
modifications, waste injection was returned to the injec-
tion well.
Since the injection well was returned to use, the deep
monitor well has been allowed to backflow continuously at
7.6 X 10~3 to 1.1 X 10~2 m3/s (2-3 gpm) for geochemical
analyses. In October 1972, a mechanical caliper log in-
dicated that the injection well was plugged at 593 m
(1,945 ft.). Indications were that all of the injected
waste was exiting from the well bore into the salaquifer
1091
-------
through two 2.4 m (8 ft.) caverns within the 6.7 m (22 ft.)
interval below the casing. Apparently 4.6 m (15 ft.) of
mild-steel casing extending from the bottom of the stain-
less steel casing at 591 m (1,938 ft.) had been perforated
by corrosion.
1 37*5.4
1 (IOOO)
3028.3
(BOO)
2271.2
(600)
1514.1
(400)
V
O 757.1
(200)
X
G»
_.
X"
.*.
^'
cf
<***'
+**
^
s y
S
/ '
/
J 151.4
4 (40)
113.6
(30)
75.7
120)
3T9
(10)
146.9 316.0 312.3 691.6 77O.O 889.1
(38.8) (83.5) (8
NUMBERS SHOW VOLUME OF WASTE
INJECTED dan3 (CALLOUS XIO6)"
IN EACH OPERATING SEASON
1
1966
i**! f
ln^
1967
n
pi
«
h i
- 1 ii
HI968
12.5) (18.
u
\
1969
.7) (2
1
i_
T
]
If J
....y.,.,
!•
1970
M 4) (2.
1
1 f1
*r
s ' :
5 '
.^ 5'^
1971
34.9)
u
.
1972
Figure 199. Volume of waste injected versus time.25
Results
Analyses of the injected waste are given in Table 25. The
waste is hot, acidic, and highly organic. It also contains
high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. The organic
carbon concentration exceeds 5,000 mg/1, and suspended sol-
ids exceed 1,800 mg/1. Chloride concentration is low com-
pared to the native salaquifer water. The specific gravity
of the waste ranges from 1.004 to 1.006. At 80° C (176° F)
the estimated density of the waste is 0.98 g/ml, which is
less dense than the native fluids which have a density
greater than 1.003 g/ml at normal formation temperatures.
1092
-------
Analyses of native salaquifer fluids from the injection zone
and the overlying aquifer are presented in Table 24. Chlo-
ride is 1,000 mg/1 in the upper aquifer and 15,000 mg/1 in
the salaquifer. Besides the sodium chloride type there are
appreciable quantities of sulfate, magnesium, and calcium.
Analyses of injection zone fluids after waste injection are
shown in Table 26.
Table 26. CHEMICAL ANALYSES -- INJECTION —
ZONE FLUIDS FOLLOWING WASTE
EMPLACEMENT, BELLE GLADE, FLORIDA25
Deep Monitor Well
Depth 1490-2067 Feet
3-27-72
Parameter Residence Time = 75 days
Alkalinity (as CaC03)
pH (Units)
Calcium
Magnesium
Silica (Si02)
COD
Organic Carbon
Color (Units)
Organic Nitrogen (N)
Ammonium (NH, as N)
Total Phosphate (as P)
Fluoride
Sulfate
Chloride
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
SO,/C1 Ratio
Temperature (°C)
Specific Gravity
(Dimensionless)
Eh (millivolts)
3,920
6.2 '
1,100
700
58
6,610
3,870
900
7.9
11
8
3.3
228
1,300
68
0.18
40
1.0070
- 266
Injection Well
Depth 1938-2241 Feet
1-6-72
Residence Time ~160 day
3,477
6.6
1,100
700
68
4,166
2,430
480
3.9
13
4
2.9
452
8,000
79
0.06
28.8
-
-
^Analyses in milligrams per liter except as indicated.
1093
-------
The pre-injection chloride content data show that the in-
jection zone was within the brackish to saline transition
zone before the well was deepened. Samples from the Ex-
periment Station well show no change in the chemistry of
native fluids in the upper aquifer for the last 40 years
according to Stringfield.26
Geochemical effects associated with the upward movement
of the waste front and dissolution of aquifer rock are
shown from the shallow monitor well data from March, 1971,
to March, 1972:
Percent
Parameter Deviation
Calcium +150
Magnesium +85
Alkalinity +665
Sulfate -42
Chloride +10
SO4/C1 ratio -50
Table 27 shows analyses of water from the shallow monitor
well.
Anaerobic Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria
A reduction in sulfate concentration and the appearance
of hydrogen sulfide from March, 1971, to March, 1972, in
the monitor wells suggests the presence of sulfate-reducing
bacteria in the waste front. To detect and estimate the
bacterial populations, serial inoculations of water from
the monitor wells and the waste stream were made into Bacto-
Sulfate Broth in March, 1972. (API Recommended Practice
38.)27 Following inoculation the vials were observed daily
1094
-------
in
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1095
-------
for three weeks. A positive for the sulfate-reducirtg bac-
teria was indicated by a blackening of the broth. The re-
sults from the four sampling sites are tabulated below:
Sampling Site Serial dilution in ml
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
Waste stream - - - -
Deep
monitor well + - - - - -
Shallow
monitor well +• + + - - -
Experiment
Station well - - - - - -
The shallow monitor well was positive on a 0.01 ml dilution,
indicating a population estimate of 100 cells/ml. The deep
monitor well was positive for only a 1.0 ml (not diluted)
indicating an estimate of 1 cell/ml. Note that no positives
were found in the Experiment Station well, indicating no
sulfate reducing bacteria in the upper aquifer within the
study area.
Gas analyses of samples from the deep monitor well showed
the presence of methane which indicates the presence of
methane bacteria.
When a sample collected after 75 days residence time is
"normalized" to the composition of native salaquifer fluids
using chloride as a parameter because it does not undergo
any geocheraical or biochemical reaction, the following data
indicate biochemical and geochemical activity:
1096
-------
Normalized Actual
composition composition Percent
Parameter mg/1 mg/1 change
Chloride 1,300 1,300 0
Alkalinity as
Ca C03 100 3,920 +3,800
Calcium 120 1,100 + 820
Magnesium 125 700 + 460
Silica 18 58 + 220
Sulfate 420 228 - 45
Sulfate/chloride 0.32 0.18 44
Hydrogen sulfide 4 68 +1,600
CASE STUDY: WILMINGTON, N. C.
Hydrogeologic Conditions
The injection site is underlain by coastal-plain sedimentary
units more than 305 m (1,000 ft.) thick. These sediments
are mostly late Cretaceous and include the Tuscaloosa, Black
Creek, and the Peedee Formations. Undifferentiated Pleisto-
cene sands about 23-31 m (75-100 ft.) thick overlie the
Cretaceous strata. These Pleistocene deposits generally
consist of interbedded sand, silty sand, clay, and some thin
beds of limestone. The sediments are fine grained; clay is
the predominant lithic unit. The sands are in thin beds and
are generally fine grained.
The surficial sands are the only aquifer beneath the site;
are very permeable; and are a productive source of potable
water. The recharge rate is high from most rainfall en-
tering the sand. Individual wells yield about 1.89 X 10~2
m3/s (300 gpm), and more than 2.63 X 10"1 m3/s (6,000,000
gal/day) are withdrawn at the site.
1097
-------
There are several relatively permeable brackish artesian
aquifers in the Cretaceous sediments at 91-107 in (300-
350 ft.), 145-152 m (475-500 ft.), 203-213 m (666-700 ft.},
and 259-312 n (850-1,025 ft.). The 91 m {300 ft.) zone
was sampled at several sites and found to have a chloride
content of 4,600 mg/1 and an artesian head of 8.8 m
(29 ft.) above sea level.
No data are available for the 152 m (500 ft.) zone, since
no wells were completed at this depth.
Three wells have been completed in the 213 m (700 ft.) zone.
Chloride content of the salaquifer water ranges from 8,500
mg/1 to 12,500 mg/1. The artesian head of this zone is un-
usually high: 27 m (90 ft.) above sea level. No comparable
pressures had been measured from Cretaceous salaquifers in
North Carolina.
The injection zone salaquifer consists of multiple layers
of sand, silty sand, clay, and some thin beds of limestone.
The overall permeability of the injection zone is very low,
although the more saline levels have a relatively high per-
meability. A temperature survey indicated that most waste
entered a thin zone at 305 m (1,000 ft.) in the initial in-
jection well.
Since no long-term pumping test was made on the injection
well before the system was placed in operation, and the in-
itial injection rates fluctuated greatly no data are avail-
able for the hydraulic characteristics of the salaquifer
from the injection well. However, a 24 hour test was made
on Well No. 2 which shows a transmissiviry of 1.3 X 10~3
m-Vs/m (9,000 gal/day/ft.). A sharp decrease in transmis-
sivity after 23 minutes showed boundaries of low permea-
bility within 30+m (a few hundred feet) of the injection
well.
The high artesian pressure, particularly in the salaquifer;
the low permeabilities of the salaquifers; the thick zones
of clay and silty sands; and the shallow depth to the
brackish water suggest slow circulation of water in the
Cretaceous beds.
It is probable that discharge from the salaquifer is ver-
tical and into the Cape Fear River.28
1098
-------
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1099
-------
The Injection System
The initial injection system consisted of one injection well
and four monitor wells completed at 312 m (1,025 ft.)/ and
one monitor well completed in the first aquifer above the in-
jection zone at 213 m (700 ft.) in May 1968. See Figure
for a map of the injection system and Table 28 for a. chron-
ology of the waste injection operation. Monitor well 13 was
installed in November, 1971, at 91 m (300 ft.) in an over-
lying aquifer to determine possible vertical waste movement.
In September 1968, the waste was present in samples col-
lected from all wells completed in the injection zone.
These monitor wells were located as far as 46 m (150 ft.)
from injection well 1-6. Waste injection continued until
June 1969, when the injection pressure reached 1.35 X 10
Pa (196 psi). The injection permit set the maximum injec-
tion pressure at 1.03 X 106 Pa (150 psi). In an effort to
reduce the pressure monitor wells 4 and 5 were used for
waste injection. An unsuccessful attempt was made to re- *
claim 1-6, and injection continued through the monitor
wells until I-7A was completed in May, 1971.
Table 28. CHRONOLOGY OF WASTE INJECTION20
Date
Event
May 1968
May 1968
Sep. 1968
Jun. 1969
Injection well 1-6, and observation wells 1,
2, 4 and 5, completed at 312 m (1,025 ft.).
Observation well 3 completed at 213 m
(700 ft.).
Waste injection begun through injection well
1-6.
Waste was detected in wells 1, 2, 4 and 5.
Waste injection shifted from well 1-6 to
wells 4 and 5 because of excessive injec-
tion pressures in well 1-6.
1100
-------
(Table 28. continued)
Nov. 1969
Dec. 1970
Jan. 1971
Feb. 1971
Apr.
May
May
May
1971
1971
1971
1971
Jun. 1971
Oct. 1971
Nov. 1971
Dec. 1971
Injection well 1-6 plugged during an attempt
to reclaim. Waste injection continued
through wells 4 and 5.
Observation well 8 completed at 213 m
(700 ft.).
Observation well 9 completed at 213 m
(700 ft.).
Leakage of waste into the 213 m (700 ft.)
aquifer was detected at well 3.
Injection well I-7A was completed to 320 m
(1,050 ft.).
Waste injection shifted from wells 4 and 5
to well I-7A.
Observation wells 7 and 11 completed at 320 m
(1,050 ft.).
Wells I and 1-6 were cemented to stop waste-
leakage into the 213 m (700 ft.) aquifer.
Observation well 12 completed at 320 m
(1,050 ft.).
Waste injection renewed through well 0-4
because well I-7A was not accepting all the
waste at the specified injection pressure
limit.
Observation well 13 completed at 91 m
(300 ft.).
Waste was detected in well 9 indicating waste
leakage into the 213 m (700 ft.) aquifer.
1101
-------
(Table 28. continued)
Dec. 1971
Mar. 1972
May 1972
Jun. 1972
Nov. 1972
Dec. 1972
Jan. 1973
Pressure decrease in well 5 indicated
possible waste leakage into an aquifer
above the injection zone.
Pressure decrease in well 2 indicated
possible waste leakage into an aquifer
above the injection zone.
Observation wells 14, 15 and 16 were
completed at 320 m (1,050 ft.).
Waste was detected in well 14, and a weekly
sampling program was instituted to monitor
the passage of the waste front.
Waste injection was gradually phased over
to surface treatment of the waste.
Waste injection terminated.
Waste disappeared in well 14 after injection
termination.
Waste leakage into the 213 m (700 ft.) salaquifer was sus-
pected when the pressure increased in monitor well 3 in
February, 1971. By March 1971, formic acid was detected in
samples from monitor well 3, confirming that waste had
reached the 213 m (700 ft.) zone. In May 1971, the casings
of 1-6 and monitor well 1 were filled with cement and the
pressure dropped in monitor well 3, indicating that the
leakage had been reduced or stopped. Additional leakage
of waste from the injection zone into the 213 m (700 ft.)
salaquifer was presumed because the pressure dropped in
the injection zone at monitor well 5 in December 1971, and
in monitor well 2 in March 1972. These wells were reported
plugged in October 1972.
1102
-------
The Expanded Injection System
Injection well I-7A was drilled 762 m (2,500 ft.) northeast
of 1-6 and completed at a depth of 320 m (1,050 ft.) in
April 1971. During the completion of I-7A waste and gas
were pulled into the well. The gas was accidently ignited
by welding equipment and later analysis showed the gas to
be predominantly methane. The appearance of formic acid
in water samples confirmed the presence of waste.
A second observation well network was installed at 10 to
15 times the distances of the initial monitor system to
monitor waste movement from old and new injection wells.
Monitor wells 11, 13, 14, 15 and 16 were installed from
May 1971, to May 1972, for monitoring pressure and waste
movement in the injection zone. Monitor wells 8 and 9,
completed in the 213 m (700 ft.) zone, were operational
when the second injection well was completed, (Figures 201
and 202.
The Waste
The injected organic waste is from the manufacturing of
dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) used in the synthesis of poly-
ester fibers. Prior to the injection the waste is moved
through a settling basin, filtered to remove particles over
20 ym in diameter, and lime is added to adjust the pH to 4.
The average composition of the waste is shown in Table 29.
Organic constituents were determined prior to lime addition,
and inorganic constituents were determined after lime addi-
tion. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is defined as that
part of total organic carbon which passes through a 0.45
ym silver filter.
Almost three quarters of the DOC in the waste is composed
of acetic and formic acids. The acidity of the waste after
being neutralized to pH4 prior to injection is still such
as to evolve 3.15 ml of CO at STP per millilitre of the
waste with calcium carbonate. The remaining one quarter
of the DOC in the waste is mainly dicarboxylic aromatic
acids.
1103
-------
DEEP
OBSERVATION
WELL
INJECTION
Y/ELL
SHALLOW
OBSERVATION
WELL
100-
200-
JOO-
335-
-100 •
-200 .
-400 _'
-500 :
-600
-700
800
-soo _
.- '•':•_•.%•,: /.- F R e s H .;'•'. WA j ^ R ;•/ A'Q u i F E R :| :.V
A-r^v-^^^-v-^
'•'-.'-.'••"• • BRACKISH •'WATER--'AOUI'FERV.'.V-
: .-.••_ • •_ 3RACRiSH •.••. WflTERV./AOU IF E R.
-UPPER INJECTION ZONE—r=;. • '—r-
.••y-.'.'-.'.- .'• •'•'•: • COWER; INJECT ION'. ZO'N'E •'•':'.' .• '• • .'-.'•
d
-1100
Figure 201. Cross section of the injection
and monitoring system.
1104
-------
PRESSURE
4 ID STEEL
-PIPE CASING
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0-T-O
-100
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200-
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'• •;•.:;.'-."• V'j.'- C 1 V 2400 - 2800 m g/'l -\ .'' :. '-'.V.". "--" :
-_I— _T~— JT^-Jr - 3— -T— JT1— H — Z.— J
_1— ^-"— "_• T~— ~ — ^~"_I"~"_'~" i." '—•-'.
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— . — . ^ — . . — - . — , . — . . — . . — _ . — . - -
_ . JL _ _ __ . __ __L •_ . . . _
•'.'• : '. '. '. •'-" .".Ci-SjOOO- [0,000 mg/.l ,\-" ••'.": 'Ji- \
— . _ . _ -~
— —~—~— _J~_~~_JT _~~_J~J1_~T
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h — , — r~,-
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u Ov- •.•.-...•.••••
1000 ^- ^— _j_ _i _• -_ _._i •_._: _L.—_. ^^__^_^:y.
(23 SAND a GRAVEL \^\ CLAY
^ LIMESTONE f77] CRYSTALLINE ROCK
Figure 202. Monitor well 14.
1105
-------
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1106
-------
Chemistry of Native Water
Leenheer and Malcolm20 performed chemical analyses on
samples of native salaquifer waters from uncontaminated
monitor wells wherever possible for background data.
There was variability in the water from each well within
the same salaquifer (Table 30). However, the variations
were minor from samples within the injection salaquifer.
Wells 11 and 12 were screened in the injection zone, and
wells 8 and 9 were screened in the salaquifer near the
213 m (700 ft.) level.
The high iron content in the samples from well 9 causes
a red iron oxide precipitate, and the high sulfide con-
tent in water from well 8 causes black sulfide precipi-
tates after sampling. DOC concentrations in the native
ground water ranged from 0.2 to 4.0 mg/1. Since the DOC
concentrations of the injected waste ranged from 10,000
to 12,000 mg/1, only a small percentage of injected waste
in the ground water was necessary to significantly raise
the DOC concentration. DOC was used to simply and con-
veniently measure organic waste occurrence in the ground
water.
Waste - Salaquifer Interactions
Data on waste-salaquifer interactions were obtained during
passage of the waste front through wells 1, 2, 4, and 5
during the first four months of waste injection (May -
September, 1968). Samples from wells 2, 4, and 5 indicated
that interactions had occurred between the undiluted in-
jected waste and the salaquifer (Table 31). Water samples
obtained from well 14 between June 1972 and January 1973,
showed major changes and interactions of the waste after
it had moved a distance of 457 m (1500 ft.) laterally
through the injection zone during a 4 year period after
injection.
Residue on evaporation and pH measurements by Hercules,
Inc., during the first months of waste injection indicated
that by July 1968, the waste was already present in well 1,
15 m (50 ft.) from injection well 1-6, while monitor well
5 at a distance of 46 m (150 ft.) was waste free.
1107
-------
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1109
-------
Monitor well 5 remained waste free until the beginning of
October, when evaporation residue and pH decreased, indi-
cating the arrival of the waste front. The pH decreases
because of the acidity of the waste, and the dissolved
solids decrease because the salaquifer water is diluted
by the waste which has a smaller evaporation residue.
The organic acids of the waste react with the carbonate
minerals in the injection zone to form organic salts of
calcium and magnesium. These organic salts in solution
are neutral to alkaline; therefore, the carbonate minerals
act to neutralize the organic acids in the waste.
A waste front zone in which organic acids are neutralized
is indicated in the data from monitor well 1. From July 28,
1968, to October 15, 1968, the pH remained between 5 and 6,
while salaquifer carbonates reacted with the waste. When
the waste-carbonate reaction ceased, the pH abruptly de-
creased to the pH of the injected waste and has remained
at this level. Evaporation residue also decreased to the
level of the injected waste.
Water samples collected while the waste-carbonate reaction
was progressing contained large amounts of dissolved C02
which is a product of the acid-carbonate reaction. A sample
of gas which effervesced from a sample collected from well
2 contained 85 percent C02 by volume. Wells 3 and 9 yielded
similar C02 rich samples after the 213 m (700 ft.) salaquifer
became contaminated with waste.
Complexation of organic acids and alumino-silicate dissolu-
tion are believed to occur between the salaquifer minerals
and the undiluted waste in the region behind the waste front.
High concentrations of silica, aluminum, and iron were found
in water samples from behind the waste front. These in-
creased concentrations over the native salaquifer water con-
centrations may indicate clay mineral dissolution. Table 31
compares the dissolved constituents of two contaminated mon-
itor wells with two uncontaminated monitor wells.
The first period of sampling (January 20, 1972, to August 1,
1972) in well 14 (injection zone monitor well) showed an in-
crease in DOC as evidence of waste in the well. No gas was
1110
-------
found in a sample collected on August 1, 1972, but gas
appeared in a sample two days later, and DOC rapidly de-
creased. From August 3, 1972, to October 31, 1972, the
amount of gas increased while DOC did not increase at
the rate prior to the appearance of gas, Table 32 sum-
marized as analyses during this period.
Leenheer and Malcolm20'21 suggest that the appearance of
gas which coincided with the abrupt decrease in DOC marked
the beginning of anaerobic microbial decomposition of the
organic waste. Microbial populations have a lag time be-
tween the introduction of suitable media and rapid popula-
tion increase. The waste concentrations may become too
high to support microbial metabolism.
Samples collected from August 3, 1972, to November 22, 1972,
contained gas with methane concentrations up to 60 percent
of the total gas volume. Dissolved iron concentration fluc-
tuated, but tended to increase with gas evolution, suggesting
microbial reduction of ferric iron to more soluble ferrous
iron. In samples collected up to September 4, 1972, black
sulfide precipitates and hydrogen sulfide gas indicated the
presence of sulfate reducing bacteria. Methane production,
iron reduction, and sulfur reduction are probable indices
of anaerobic bacterial metabolism induced by waste in the
ground water.
Table 32. GAS ANALYSIS FROM WELL 14.20
VOLUME IN PERCENT OF TOTAL GAS VOLUME.
Date of
Sampling
8-01-72
8-07-72
8-14-72
10-11-72
11-02-72
11-22-72
H2
0.5
ND
0.2
ND
ND
ND
N2
26
22
21
29
62
68
CH4
51
54
52
48
33
12
C02
11
12
11
11
3.8
1.5
H2S
ND*
0.2
0.6
ND
ND
ND
*Not detectable.
1111
-------
Role of Bacteria
DiTommaso and Elkan22 obtained samples of water flushed from
monitor wells, as well as samples of the waste before injec-
tion. Samples were taken of unpolluted, as well as polluted
monitor wells. The samples were taken weekly or biweekly,
depending upon DOC levels. The samples were incubated at
32°C (90°F) overnight, after which serial dilutions in trip-
licate were performed on all samples.
Polypeptone-peptone plates were innoculated from the dilu-
tions and incubated for three days at 32°C (90°F) in anaer-
obic jars. (Figure 203) Colony counts were made; individ-
ual colonies were restreaked on polypeptone-peptone agar and
stored at 5°C (21.5°F). Isolated bacteria from polluted and
unpolluted monitor wells were identified to genus using
Sergey's Manual (Breed, 1957) as a methods reference (Table
33) .
No bacteria were found in the waste prior to injection or in
the monitor wells which had a high concentration of waste.
Laboratory innoculations of the waste showed no growth. Ap-
proximately 3,000 organisms per millilitre were present in
the unpolluted salaquifer water from well 11, 320 m (1050
ft.) in the injection zone, and this count remained constant.
These native bacteria were identified as the following
genera: Agrobacterium, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Bacillus,
Aerobacter, Corynebacter, Arthrobacter, Micrococcus, and
Pseudomonas fluorescens group. These organisms are faculta-
tive or aerobic genera representative of the normal micro-
flora of aquatic environments.
Isolates of the genera from well 11 samples were innoculated
singly or in combination into a medium in which various dilu-
tions of the waste served as the sole carbon and energy
source,. None of the isolates was able to metabolize the
waste under these conditions.
A very low number of obligate anaerobes were detected from
well 11. Since there is little or no organic-energy sub-
strate in the unpolluted salaquifer, these organisms can be
present only in limited numbers.
1112
-------
Figure 203. Anaerobic jar with disposable gas-generator
envelopes and anaerobic indicators containing
plates. (Bioquest, Cockeyville, Md.)
1113
-------
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1114
-------
When the waste front reached well 14, the bacterial popu-
lation count increased from 3000/ml to 1 million/ml (Table
34). When the ratio between bacterial counts and DOC is com-
pared to time, a proportional increase in bacterial popula-
tions as the waste content of the salaquifer water increases,
is evident (Figure 204) . The plate counts were compared to
direct microscopic counts of the samples from well 14.
These direct counts remained approximately 1000 X higher
than the plate counts. It is postulated that (1) mortality
in anaerobic culture or (2) barophilic effects were respon-
sible. However, the ratio between actual microscopic counts
and plate counts remained constant, and a constant plate
count sample could be assumed.
Methane Bacteria
When the gas content of well 14 reached 53 percent methane,
it was assumed that the small population of obligate anaer-
obic methane producing bacteria had greatly increased. The
combination of methane production and decreases in DOC sup-
port this assumption.
The waste diluted to 10 percent in salaquifer water from the
injection zone supported growth of the methane bacteria in
culture. After one week incubation periods, methane com-
posed 42 percent of the atmosphere in the anaerobic jars.
The methanogenic bacteria were isolated in pure culture and
were tentatively identified as belonging to two genera:
Methanobacterium and Methanococcus.
A BIOGEOCHEMICAL MODEL
A biogeochemical model of waste movement and transformations
after subsurface injection is presented in Figure 205. This
model is modified from a geochemical model proposed by
Leenheer and Malcolm20. The leading zone of the waste front
is called the dilution zone because the waste appears as a
dilute solution in the native salaquifer water. The zone
following the dilution zone is called the microbial zone be-
cause of anaerobic bacterial metabolization of the dilute
waste as a substrate for methane production. The next zone,
the transition zone, is where the waste concentration in-
creases to a level unfavorable for bacterial metabolism. In
1115
-------
Table 34. COMPARISON OF MICROBIAL COUNTS, ORGANIC
CARBON, PERCENT METHANE, AND IRON CONTENT
OF SAMPLES OBTAINED FROM WELL 14.22
Sampling
6-1-72
6-6-72
7-7-72
7-17-72
8-1-72
8-7-72
8-15-72
8-28-72
9-6-72
9-13-72
9-29-72
10-11-72
10-31-72
11-2-72
11-7-72
11-13-72
11-22-72
12-5-72
12-13-72
12-19-72
12-29-72
Microbial Count
Colony Forming
units/ml
2.0 X 103
2.3 X 103
3.0 X 103
3.5 X 103
4.8 X 104
5.2 X 104
6.0 X 104
5.8 X 104
6.2 X 104
7.0 X 104
7.1 X 104
7.2 X 104
8.7 X 104
1.0 X 105
1.9 X 105
4.1 X 105
9.6 X 105
9.5 X 105
9.7 X 105
9.6 X 105
9.0 X 105
Dissolved
Organic Carbon mg/1
20
30
70
102
112
32
20
44
42
44
48
74
60
18
34
33
10
6
21
3
4
Methane
Percent
3
3
3
2
4
50
53
40
8
2
32
7
4
30
10
5
21
3
3
24
3
Iron Content
M.g/1
2.01
2.09
3.74
6.12
5100
4200
5300
5400
8100
13000
12000
35000
34000
34000
18000
11000
8600
3400
4200
1400
3600
1116
-------
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2 14
WEEKS
16 18 20 22 24 26
Figure 204.
Ratio of number of bacteria to DOC
(mg/1) in waste front (well 14).22
1117
-------
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1118
-------
this zone there is a transition from microbial activity to
the predominantly geochemical reactions of the neutraliza-
tion zone. This zone probably constitutes the major area
of physical change.
All of the four previously described zones in the model
constitute the waste front. The waste is diluted by the
native salaquifer water, transformed by methanogenic bac-
teria populations, and neutralized by geochemical reactions
with the salaquifer minerals. The region where little dil-
ution or transformation of the waste occur, is called the
waste interior. The waste interior is where complexation
and dissolution reactions occur in the salaquifer by the
organic acids in the relatively undiluted waste.
RESEARCH IN PROGRESS OR IN REVIEW
A Biogeochemical Laboratory Study
J. A. Leenheer, R. L. Malcolm, and W. R. White23 have com-
pleted studies on the physical, chemical, and biological
aspects of subsurface waste injection near Wilmington, N. C.
This study, which was completed in April 1974, is still in
review, but should be available soon. Dr. Leenheer was most
kind in allowing this writer to view his research facility
and read his draft as it was prepared for review by the
USGS. Various instrumental and experimental capabilities
for surface-water organic studies were adapted and modified
for organic investigations of transformations occurring in
the injection zone of the Wilmington site. Columns were
charged with the salaquifer minerals, and salaquifer water
and waste were introduced under pressure. Every effort was
made to simulate the injection zone conditions in a labora-
tory mock-up. The reactivity, fate, and movement of the
waste were analyzed with methods including gas chromato-
graphic, electrophoretic, and mass-spectrometric, as well
as elemental and infrared analyses. When this paper is
published, it should be the most complete investigation
in existance covering the biogeochemical aspects of an in-
jected waste operation.
A Microbial Laboratory Study
G. H. Elkan, C. Willis, and E. Horvath29 are investigating
the role of microorganisms in the decomposition of deep well
1119
-------
injected wastes near Wilmington, N. C. The objectives of
their research project are to develop sampling and isolated
indigenous microorganisms from deep aquifers as a necessary
prerequisite to determining changes that may occur in micro-
bial populations resulting from waste injection. Due to the
limited funds available, the project has abandoned research
in sampling techniques. The project is now focused on the
roles of indigenous bacteria in degradation of the waste
constituents and positive identification or the orgeinisms
involved.
Mass cultures are grown in one litre flasks which are first
filled with sterile sodium acetate and sodium formate broth
buffered at pH 7.5 which simulates the dilute waste in the
native salaquifer injection zone. The cultures are topped-
off at one litre with native salaquifer and waste fluid from
a monitor well under sterile conditions. These one litre
culture flasks are equipped with gas collectors for quanti-
tative analysis of any gases evolved by the action of the
bacteria. Figure 206 shows a mass culture flask and the gas
collector apparatus. When this writer visited the research
facility in August, 1974, no gas had been evolved in the
mass cultures, however, a black precipitate had formed, pre-
sumably from the action of sulfate reducers. The investi-
gators plan to study the transformations of various wastes
from other injection sites with similar apparatus during
the course of their study.
Some preliminary work has been done with roller tube cul-
tures in pressure chambers (Figures 207, 208 and 209). Pres-
sure is transmitted hydraulically through a rubber diaphragm
cap to the culture. Preliminary results show that as pres-
sure increases to 1.72 X 107 Pa (2500 psi) growth rate drops
to one-half that at 1 atmosphere. These results cast doubt
on the hypothesis that the methane producing bacteria are
barophyllic.
Roller tube cultures of isolates cultured in an atmosphere
of hydrogen and carbon dioxide have produced methane. Fig-
ure 210 shows the white colonies of methane producing bac-
teria in a roller tube culture.
As the study progresses, it is hoped that a positive identi-
fication of the methane, producing bacteria will be possible.
1120
-------
It is also intended to develop a model of population changes
in the configuration of species under differing conditions
of waste-salaquifer concentrations.
. , * > ;«**
Figure 206. Mass culture for quantitative gas analysis,
1121
-------
Figure 207. Pressure chamber showing pressure
culture tube partially inserted.
Figure 208. Pressure chamber culture tube
showing diaphragm seal cap.
1122
-------
Figure 209. Method of filling and sampling
gases in culture tubes.
1123
-------
Figure 210. Methane bacteria colonies (white circles)
in gas filled culture tube. 4x
Bacterial Dissimilation of Phenolic Pollution
Riha, Millis, and Pinniger30 are testing the effectiveness
of newly developed borehole techniques for beneficiating
groundwater polluted with high concentrations of phenolic
compounds in basalt aquifers west of Melbourne, Australia.
High concentrations of phenolic compounds have been observed
in groundwater occurring in a series of observation bores
surrounding a quarry used for disposal of industrial efflu-
ent. Phenol oxidizing organisms are known to be present in
the groundwater. It is proposed to use special intra-well
flow devices to induce regulated flow from the upper, more
polluted aquifer to the lower aquifer which is at a slightly
lower head. It is anticipated that this transfer will serve
two functions, both of which will tend to improve the qual-
ity of the polluted groundwater: (1) Dilution by mingling
with relatively unpolluted water in the lower aquifer. Over
a period, water will be drawn in from less polluted parts of
the upper aquifer surrounding the highly polluted phenolic
zone. (2) Aeration of the descending water should promote
development of the phenol-oxidizing organisms already pres-
ent, thus providing improved conditions for dissimilation
of the phenolic pollution.
Hydrogeological results will be analyzed by Mr. Riha and
microbiological results by Dr. Millis.
1124
-------
SECTION XI
APPENDIX F
REFERENCES CITED
1. Ehrlich, G.G., Role of Biota in Underground Waste In-
jection and Storage, Amer. Assn. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 18,
pp 298-307, 1972.
2. Brock, T.D., Principles of Microbial Ecology, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood, N.J., 306 pp, 1966.
3. Frobisher, Martin, Fundamentals of Microbiology, W.B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 6th Ed., 617 p, 1957.
4. Alexander, Martin, Introduction to Soil Microbiology,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 742 p, 1967.
5. Signer, D.C., Laboratory Facility for Studies Related
to Artificial Recharge, 2nd Int. Symp. on Underground
Waste Management and Artificial Recharge Preprints,
Amer. Assn. Petrol. Geol., et al, Vol. 2, pp 799-822,
1973.
6. Sakthivadivel, R., and S. Irmay, A Review of Filtration
Theories, Hydraul. Eng. Lab., Coll. Eng., Univ. Calif.,
Berkeley, Calif., HEL 15-4, 65 pp, 1966.
7. Heertjes, P.M., and C.F. Lerk, "The Functioning of
Deep Bed Filters, Pt. I: The Filtration of Colloidal
Solutions, Pt. II: The Filtration of Flocculate Sus-
pensions," Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., Vol. 45, pp T129-
T145, 1967.
8. Herzig, J.P., et al, Flow of Suspensions through Porous
Media Application to Deep Filtration, American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C., Chapt. 7, pp 130-157, 1970.
9. Edwards, D.M., and E.J. Monke, "Electrokinetic Studies
of Porous Media Systems," Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans.,
Vol. II, No. 3, pp 412-415, 1968.
1125
-------
10. Rahman, A.M., Effect of Sediment Concentration on
Artificial Well Recharge in a Fine Sand Aquifer, M.S.
Thesis, Tex. A & M Univ., College Station, Tex., 85 pp,
1968 (Unpublished).
11. Curry, R.B., and R.P. Beasley, "Flow of Colloidal
Suspensions through Porous Media as Related to Reser-
voir Sealing," Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans., Vol. 5,
No. 2, pp 160-164, 1962.
12. Curry, G.L., et al., "The Interrelationship of Physical
and Chemical Properties in the Flow of Colloidal Suspen-
sions in Porous Media," Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng. Trans.,
Vol. 8, No. 2, p 259, 1965.
13. Vecchioli, J., "A Note on Bacterial Growth around a
Recharge Well at Bay Park, L.I.," Water Resources Res.,
Vol. 6, No. 5, pp 1415-1419, Oct. 1970.
14. Ehrlich, G.G., et al, "Microbiological Aspects of
Ground-Water Recharge-injection of Purified Chlorinated
Sewage Effluent," Geological Survey Research, 1971,
U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., No. 800B, pp B-24-B-245,
1972.
15. Ehrlich, G.G., et al, "Microbiological Aspects of
Ground-Water Recharge -- Injection of Purified Sewage
Effluent at Bay Park, L.I.," J. Res. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Vol. 1, No. 3, pp 341-344, 1973.
16. Rebhun, M., and J. Schwartz, "Clogging and Contamina-
tion Processes in Recharge Wells," Water Resources Res.,
Vol. 4, No. 6, pp 1207-1217, 1968.
17. Nevo, Z., and R. Mitchell, "Factors Affecting Bio-
logical Clogging of Sand Associated with Ground-Water
Recharge," Water Res. (Gr. Brit.), Vol. 1, No. 3, pp
231-236, 1967.
18. Wood, W.W., and R. L. Bassett, "Chemical Quality of
Recharge Water as a Function of Bacterial Activity
beneath a Recharge Basin — Summary," Trans. Arner.
Geophys. Union, Vol. 54, No. 4, p 261, 1973.
1126
-------
19. Sniegocki, R.T., Geochemical Aspects of Artificial
Recharge in the Grand Prarie Region, Arkansas, U. S.
Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Pap., No. 1615E, 41 pp, 1963.
20. Leenheer, J.A., and R.L. Malcolm, Case History of
Subsurface Waste Injection of an Industrial Organic
Waste, 2nd Int. Symp. on Underground Waste Management
and Artificial Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol.
Geol., et al, Vol. 1, pp 565-584, 1973.
21. Leenheer, J.A., and R.L. Malcolm, "Chemical and Micro-
bial Transformations of an Industrial Organic Waste
During Subsurface Injection," Inst. Environ. Sci. Proc.
(In Press), 1973.
22. Di Tommaso, A., and G.H. Elkan, Role of Bacteria in
Decomposition of Injected Liquid Waste at Wilmington,
N.C., 2nd Int. Symp. on Underground Waste Management
and Artificial Recharge Preprints, Amer. Assn. Petrol.
Geol., et al, Vol. 1, pp 585-599, 1973.
23. Leenheer, J.A., et al, Personal Communication, 1974.
24. Garcia-Bengochea, J.I., and R.O. Vernon, "Deep Well
Disposal of Waste Waters in Saline Aquifers of South
Florida," Water Resources Res., Vol. 6, No. 5, pp 1464-
1470, 1970.
25. Kaufman, M.I., et al, Injection of Acidic Waste into a
Saline Carbonate Aquifer; Geochemical Aspects, 2nd Int.
Symp. on Underground Waste Management and Artificial
Recharge Preprints, Amer. Assn. Petrol. Geol., et al,
Vol. 1, pp 526-551, 1973.
26. Stringfield, V.T., Groundwater in the Lake Okeechobee
Area, Florida Geol. Survey Rpt. Inv. 2, 31 p.
27. American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for
Biological Analysis of Subsurface Injection Waters, R.P.
38, 2nd Ed., 7 pp, 1965.
1127
-------
28. Peek, H.M., and R.C. Heath, Feasibility Study of Liquid-
Waste Injection Into Aquifers Containing Salt Water,
Wilmington, North Carolina, 2nd Int. Symp. on Under-
ground Waste Management and Artificial Recharge Pre-
prints, Amer. Assn. Petrol. Geol., et al, Vol. 2,
pp 851-875, 1973.
29. Elkan, G.H., et al, The Role of Microorganisms in the
Decomposition or Deep-Well Injected Industria1 Wastes,
In Progress.
30. Riha, M., et al, Subsurface Aeration of Groundwater for
Inducing Bacterial Dissimilation of Phenolic Pollution
in Basalt Aquifers West of Melbourne (abbrev.),
Victorial Geo. Surv. (In Progress), 1974.
1128
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX G
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH RELATED TO DEEP-WELL INJECTION
The research projects summarized in this appendix have been
grouped by subject matter which may be identified by key
letters indicated in the following legend.
Area Studies --------------- A
Biological Studies ------------ B
Chemical Studies ------------- c
Engineering Studies ----------- E
Geological and Hydrogeological Studies - - GH
Geophysical Studies ----------- QP
Monitoring Studies ------------ M
Miscellaneous Studies ----------MI
AREA STUDIES
A-l
Artifical recharge of treated sewage water at Bay Park,
New York
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Mineola, New York 11501
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
1129
-------
S umma ry o f P ro j e c t -
The objective is to evaluate the feasibility of and develop
optimum methods for injecting water from highly treated
sewage-plant effluent into deep artesian sand aquifers of
the Magothy (?) Formation (upper Cretaceous) of Long Island.
This formation, which is the principal source of the water
supplies for Nassau and western Suffolk counties, is being
pumped intensively and locally is being invaded by salty
water. Extensive artificial recharge through injection
wells with reclaimed waste water may be needed for water
conservation and to create fresh water pressure ridges to
retard sea water.
Water from sewage-plant effluent will be further treated to
a potable quality and then injected under pressure through
specially designed wells (with fiberglass casings) under
various experimental conditions. Data on hydraulic and
geochemical results of the injection will be collected
using observation wells and special in-situ geochemical
sensors.
A-2
Saline Water Investigations, Kentucky
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Louisville, Kentucky
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $10,000
1130
-------
Summarv of Project -
Saline water is an integral part of Kentucky's water re-
sources and is being evaluated along with the fresh water
resource. Knowledge of the saline-water resource is of
importance in the protection and management of fresh water
resources and in the planning for underground disposal of
wastes, and is of potential importance in areas where fresh
water is in short supply.
Evaluate the occurrence and movement of saline water in
Kentucky and its relation to fresh water. Determine the
chemical quality of saline water, particularly of brines
that may have commercial value.
Prepare a general statewide map showing the depth to the
fresh-saline water interface. Define in detail the posi-
tion of the interface and the movement of fresh water and
brine in several near-surface aquifers such as the salt
sands of the eastern coal field. Determine the occurrence
and movement of water in the Knox dolomite. Collect and
analyze brine samples, sampling and analysis of brines
from oil field development, and preparation of data on
chemical quality for computer storage.
Continuation of sampling analysis, and computerizing of data.
Prepare statistical analysis of chemical data by aquifer and
prepare map of selected chemical constituents by aquifer.
A-3
Wilcox waste disposal appraisal, Gulf Coastal Plain
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Bay St. Louis, Mississippi
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
1131
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $72,000
Summary of Project -
This research is to develop knowledge and understanding of
subsurface environments of the Gulf Coastal Plain necessary
for appraisal of their suitability for liquid waste storage;
and to analyze and interpret data obtained using new con-
cepts and principles of sedimentary basin hydrology, to make
semi-quantitative determinations of the physical character-
istics and geometry of reservoir rocks, the chemistry of
interstitial waters, and hydrodynamic controls.
Regional maps and sections showing sediment facies distri-
bution and thickness, structural features-water salinity
distribution in major aquifer systems, and temperature
distribution areally and with depth were presented. Major
buried delta systems describe reservoir rock occurrence;
structural features define hydrodynamic controls; salinity
and composition of formation waters describe chemical and
physical properties of the fluid to be displaced by waste;
and isogeothermal maps indicate natural flow paths and en-
enable calculation of density and viscosity of reservoir
fluids reaction rates and equilibria, and diffusion poten-
tials.
A-4
Waste emplacement, Southeast New Mexico
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
1132
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Sultimary of_ Project -
This project has as its objective the geologic evaluation
of the thick sequence of evaporites in the New Mexico part
of the Delaware Basin as a potential site or sites for the
construction of a Pilot Plant Repository for radioactive
wastes. The Salado Formation, the main salt-bearing unit
of the area, ranges in thickness from about 1,000 feet to
1,900 feet. The formation is characterized by thick per-
sistent units of rock salt alternating with thinner units
of anhydrite, polyhalite, sylvite, and other potash mine-
rals. Near the Eddy-Lea County line east of Carlsbad, the
Salado lies at a depth of about 1,000 feet. The formation
in this area exhibits only minor structural deformation.
The several exploratory boreholes to be put down in the
area will provide samples for detailed lithologic and
mineralogic investigations. In addition, the holes will
be subjected to intensive hydrologic tests in order to
determine the ground-water conditions of the area.
A-5
Snake River Plain, Part B - Volcanic Rocks
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
1133
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The purpose of the project is to geologically map, at scales
of 1:250,000 and larger, the volcanic rocks of the eastern
Snake River Plain and its margins. Major scientific objec-
tives are to delineate the late Cenozoic volcanic and tec-
tonic history in detail, to locate eruptive centers for
basalt flows and for rhyolite ash-flow tuffs in relation
to major structures, Quaternary faults, and geothermal
areas, and to determine petrogenesis of the rocks. From
the basic geologic data, derivative maps will be prepared
showing potential earthquake and volcanic hazards, geo-
thermal energy potential, construction materials and mine-
ral resources, environmental aspects of trace element dis-
tribution, aquifers and liquid waste disposal sites, poten-
tial recreation areas, and other topics needed for land-use
planning.
A-6
Water in the Elizabethtown, Kentucky, area - A Limestone
Terrane Study
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Louisville, Kentucky
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours; Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $30,000
1134
-------
Summary of Project -
The future economic growth of the Elizabethtown area depends
in part upon the availability of reliable sources of water
and on a sound program of development of these sources.
Massive limestone beds having solutionally enlarged openings
along bedding planes and joints are the principal source of
water for public, industrial, and rural water supply. These
same cavernous limestones are utilized also for subsurface
disposal of domestic sewage in rural areas, drainage of
storm-water runoff in urban areas, and perhaps for some
industrial wastes. The several uses are in conflict with
one another.
To provide detailed information on the quantity and quality
of the available water in the area and to understand
thoroughly the occurrence and movement of water in the
limestone karst so as to guide management decisions re-
garding the conflicting uses of the karst.
Rainfall, runoff, evaporation, ground water, and geologic
data will be collected to determine the influence of the
karst on the disposition of water. Geologic-structure
maps and piezometric maps will be prepared to define ground
water divides and areas of recharge and discharge. Partial-
record stations will be maintained on tributary streams for
correlation and the flow of all large springs will be gaged
periodically. Chemical and organic quality of streams and
ground water will be determined.
Inventory of wells was continued in Hardin County and addi-
tional new drilled wells were inventoried in Larue County.
Pumping tests were made on eight wells to determine yield
and specific capacity. Discharge measurements were made
on springs and streams. A seepage run was completed on
Middle Creek. A seismic survey was made in areas of thick
sand cover, but proved unsuccessful. Water samples were
collected for analysis. The preparation of illustrations
was begun.
Complete the inventory of wells in Elizabethtown and Cecilia
quadrangles. Continue measurements of discharge of streams
and springs and the collection of water samples. Finish
seepage run on several streams. Continue pumping tests
of wells where available. Begin preparation of reports.
1135
-------
A-7
Hydrologic effects of injecting treated sewage into deep-
lying aquifers, Dade County
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Miami, Florida 33130
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the. Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
An urgent waste disposal problem exists in south Florida.
In order to alleviate the growing problem of contamination
of fresh and estuarine waters, alternatives to the dis-
charge of municipal and industrial wastes to canals, streams,
lakes, and estuaries are required. Cessation of all waste
discharges to inland water bodies in Dade County by 1973
was proposed by a federal-state enforcement conference.
One alternative is the utilization of deep saline aquifers
as a receptacle for treated sewage effluent such as is in
operation near Miami, Florida.
To evaluate the potential use of deep aquifers underlying
Dade County as a waste-management option for the storage,
possible supplementary treatment, and ultimate disposal
of treated sewage effluent.
Determination of the characteristics and behavior of the
deep aquifer system and the hydrologic and geochemical
effects of large-scale injection of treated sewage ef-
fluent to the aquifer system will necessitate the drilling
1136
-------
and testing of a minimum of three observation-monitor wells,
one to a depth of approximately 1,700 feet and two to 3,400
feet (drilling cost not included in program). Hydrologic,
geologic, and geochemical information will be collected
during drilling and after completion. Aquifer performance
tests will be made and a monitor system will be established.
Reconnaissance of proposed sites for deep-well injection.
Samples of surface water and ground water were analyzed to
assess environmental effects of construction and testing.
Collect and analyze geologic, geochemical and biological
data during drilling of deep monitoring wells.
A-8
Subsurface waste storage, statewide (hydrologic and geo-
chemical aspects)
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Tallahassee, Florida
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $122,500
Summary of Project -
Liquid wastes are now being injected into saline water in
the deeper zones of the Floridan aquifer with indication
of expanded use of the aquifer waste-storage capacity, es-
pecially in regard to storing-disposing of secondary treated
sewage effluent. The hydrologic and geochemical character-
1137
-------
istics are not adequately known to effectively evaluate
the potentialities and possible consequences of subsur-
face waste storage. Based on the present state of know-
ledge, reliable prediction of the movement, chemical inter-
actions, and ultimate fate of liquid wastes underground
is uncertain.
To provide the needed scientific information base and
guidelines for a comprehensive evaluation of the lithol-
ogy, hydrology and geochemistry of the deep saline parts
of the aquifer systems, and for planning-management de-
cisions among a multiplicity of possible uses of the saline
aquifers, including subsurface liquid waste storage. The
investigation is coordinated with the geologic research
phase being conducted by the Florida Bureau of Geology.
Assessment and synthesis of available hydrologic and geo-
chemical data into a regional appraisal of the deep saline-
water part of the aquifer system; inventory, assessment
and evaluation of active and planned subsurface waste dis-
posal systems in Florida, compilation of data, field inves-
tigations and preparation of summary report including case
studies, and establishment of a foundation for expanded
effort in subsequent years via liaison with regulatory
agencies, consultants, companies, the Florida Bureau of
Geology and WRD research personnel.
Field investigations, encompassing hydraulic, geochemical
and geophysical technical coordination with state regu-
latory agencies in regard to planning, evaluation, and
monitoring of waste injection systems. Continuation of
hydraulic, geochemical, and geophysical studies, including
comprehensive evaluation and monitoring programs at active
and planned injection systems to assess environmental im-
pact. Drilling of test wells and evaluation of the systems'
response to waste injection on a regional basis in north-
west Florida. Continue regional appraisals statewide.
Completion of several short reports emphasizing hydrochem-
ical studies and establishment of a scientific data base
to permit development of technical guidelines for manage-
ment.
1138
-------
A-9
Hydrology of Nevada test site
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $368,000
Summary of Project -
Hydrologic data at Nevada test site and vicinity are needed
by the Atomic Energy Commission (NVOO), the laboratories,
and other test-site users for programming nuclear weapons
tests. These data also are necessary to assess the hydrol-
ogic safety around nuclear explosions. A) To determine
ground-water recharge, storage, movement, and discharge at
Nevada test site and vicinity. B) To assist in selection
of sites for exploratory and emplacement drill holes. C)
To determine water yields of specific rock units or inter-
vals in drill holes, especially those intervals suitable
for construction of chambers. D) To evaluate and predict
ground-water anomalies produced by nuclear explosions.
E) To determine rate and direction of ground-water move-
ment by studying the relationship between geology and
hydrochemistry. F) To evaluate water-supply wells at
NTS and assist in selection of sites for new water-supply
wells.
Hydraulic tests are made in deep drilled holes to determine
ground-water quality, flow patterns, and rock permeabilities,
1139
-------
Selected wells are monitored periodically. Maps and over-
lays showing water-level contours, and wells and their con-
struction, are updated several times each year. Preliminary
equations based on available data and methods of statistical
analysis, have been generated to predict the magnitude of
anomalous water level around a given nuclear explosion.
Changes of water quality with time are monitored. Kinetic
and equilibrium data from the two-phase reaction system
(rock-water) are used to evaluate transit paths and times.
Production tests are made in water-supply wells.
Reports have been published on hydrology of NTS, geohydrology
of Pahute Mesa, and water inflow to mined chambers. Evalu-
ation of NTS for disposal of radioactive wastes has been ini-
tiated. Pumping and sampling of test well 400 feet from
Bilby nuclear explosion is underway.
Continue programs of well testing and monitoring, updating
hydrologic maps, testing and sampling water-supply wells,
and studying rock/water chemical interactions. Initiate
hydrologic studies in unsaturated zone beneath NTS. Ini-
tiate intensive studies of close-in hydrologic effects of
nuclear explosions. Continue studies of aquifer character-
istics and ground-water movement by tracer techniques.
A-10
The effect of geologic structure on the occurrence of fresh
ground water in post-Oligocene deposits of the Gulf Coastal
Plain.
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
St. Louis, Missouri
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
1140
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $40,850
Summary of Project -
Very large rates of fluid withdrawal from Gulf Coast aqui-
fers and petroleum reservoirs (more than 2 billion GPD of
fresh water, many millions of GPD of salty water, several
million barrels per day of petroleum, and enormous volumes
of natural gas) have resulted in widespread large-scale
head decline, aquifer water salinity changes, land subsi-
dence, and reactivation of fault zones. Effects of oil
field and industrial waste water disposal through injection
wells are unknown. Superheated, overpressured, low-salinity
water in regional aquifer systems freshening progressively
with depth below 12,000 feet is an untapped resource needing
intensive study.
To identify, describe, analyze and interpret the major
structural features of post-Oligocene deposits of the Gulf
Coastal Plain as they relate to the occurrence and movement
of fresh ground water. Identification and description of
the structural features will be based on'maps showing faults
with displacement greater than 100 feet and the altitude of
marker beds. Analysis and interpretation of aquifer systems
will explain the relation of salinity and composition of
aquifer waters and the geothermal regime to the sediment
facies distribution and geologic structure.
Structural and sediment facies distribution maps will be
made using data provided by oil companies, supported by
geophysical log cross section. Salinity and composition
of aquifer waters will be mapped using chemical analyses
of produced waters and electric log-derived salinity data.
Isogeothermal maps will be based upon bottom-hole tempera-
ture data recorded on geophysical log headings. Computer
processing of salinity, temperature, and sediment facies
data will speed map preparation and the analysis and inter-
pretation of the hydrology of the deposits.
Data collection, from oil company records, is still the
major effort. Compilation, analysis, and mapping of for-
mation-water salinity and temperature, and computer pro-
1141
-------
cessing of data have resulted in development of new concepts
on deep sedimentary basin hydrology. These, together with
the basic data going into computer storage, greatly improve
our capability to appraise saline ground-water resources,
subsurface environments for waste storage, and geothermal
resources.
A-11
Regional hydrology of the Eocene Wilcox Formation, with ref-
erence to requirements for safe disposal of liquid wastes in
Gulf Coastal Plain
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
St. Louis, Missouri
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $78,000
Summary of Project -
A very large and rapidly growing chemical-petrochemical
industry, and associated population, produces a wide variety
of liquid wastes now generally discharged to the nearest
stream or estuary. Pollution abatement and control require
alternative waste handling procedures. Subsurface storage
has proven satisfactory in many places, and more than 100
disposal wells are now in use in this area. Public waste-
management agencies and industries faced with restrictive
orders need information on the geology and hydrology as a
basis for appraisal of the possibilities for local under-
ground storage.
1142
-------
To develop knowledge and understanding of subsurface envi-
ronments of the Gulf Coastal Plain necessary for appraisal
of their suitability for liquid waste storage; to utilize
for this purpose the very large store of information in
oil company files; and to analyze and interpret data ob-
tained using new concepts and principles of sedimentary
basin hydrology, to make semi-quantitative determinations
of the physical characteristics and geometry of reservoir
rocks, the chemistry of interstitial water, and hydro-
dynamic controls.
Regional maps and sections will show sediment facies dis-
tribution and thickness, structural features, water salinity
distribution in major aquifer systems, and temperature dis-
tribution areally and with depth. Major buried delta sys-
tems describe reservoir rock occurrence; structural features
define hydrodynamic controls; salinity and composition of
formation waters describe chemical and physical properties
of the fluid to be displaced by waste; and isogeothermal
maps indicate natural flow paths and enable calculation of
density and viscosity of reservoir fluids, chemical reaction
rates and equilibria, and diffusion potentials.
Collection of geologic and formation-water salinity data is
more than half completed; arrangements for purchase of struc-
tural data are in progress. Several thousand geophysical
logs for studies of sediment facies distribution and iso-
geothermal mapping have been obtained. Preliminary study
of sediment facies and water salinity distribution indicates
that salinity is greatest in alluvial and upper deltaic
channel sands and progressively decreases towards marine
margins of deltaic sequences.
A-12
Hydrology of Basalt and other rocks underlying Hanford AEC
site, Richland, Washington
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Richland, Washington
1143
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours^ Funds
7/72 to 6'"H N/A $58,000
ary of 1-'roject ~
Large quantities of high-level radioactive wastes are stored
in below-ground tanks at the Hanford works reservation of
the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission near Richland, Washington.
To more effectively isolate the wastes from the biosphere,
the Atomic Energy Commission is considering emplacing the
wastes in chambers to be excavated at depths of about 3,000
to 4,500 feet in the basaltic rocks underlying the reserva-
tion. The long-range environmental safety with regard to
migration through the ground-water system of radionuclides
from the proposed storage chambers is a principal concern.
The investigation is aimed at the prediction of the direc-
tion and rate of movement through the ground-water system
of any long-lived r
-------
test wells, 4,000 to 6,000 feet deep, and several deep core
holes within the Hanford reservation. Studies will be ex-
tended to the surrounding area by collecting hydraulic data
samples from existing wells. Mathematical models will be
developed of the ground water and geochemical systems.
Interpretation of geophysical logging, hydraulic, and chem-
ical data from the first deep test well ARH-DC-1 (5,661 ft.
in depth) was completed and an open-file report was prepared.
Hydrologic conditions appeared favorable enough to warrant
further exploration. A reconnaissance was made of the entire
area of study to select about 25 water wells, which were then
sampled. (Test abridged)
A-13
Investigation of the use of deep wells for waste disposal
near Pensacola, Florida
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Ocala, Florida 32670
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $10,000
Summary of Pro j ect -
Two deep wells are presently being used to inject organic
industrial wastes into a saline limestone aquifer near
Pensacola, Florida. There are indications that larger
quantities of waste will be injected and that wells for
1145
-------
this purpose may be constructed by other industries. Unless
properly evaluated fresh water aquifers could be contaminated
and irrevocable damage could result.
Disposal of wastes underground presents many potential prob-
lems which require evaluation in order to safeguard the
public and in order to better understand the physical and
chemical processes involved. This project will provide the
means to evaluate some of the hydrologic and geochemical ef-
fects of acidic industrial wastes on a limestone aquifer, a
clay aquiclude, and overlying aquifers. It may form a basis
for similar studies in other areas and a basis for decisions
relative to deep well waste disposal.
Chemical, physical, and hydrologic data collected from the
operation of two industrial waste disposal wells are analyzed
and evaluated. Aquifer tests are conducted to study aquifer
characteristics. Monitor wells are used to record pressures
in the receiving formation and the aquifer above the confining
layer. Water samples from monitor wells and samples of the
industrial waste are analyzed periodically. Geologic samples
from the injection horizon and confining layer are analyzed
and controlled experiments are conducted to study limestone
solution rates in the acidic waste at aquifer pressure and
temperature. Theoretical potentiometric surface maps are
constructed to depict present and future hydrologic condi-
tions.
Injection of chemical waste into a confined limestone aquifer
in Pensacola.
Continuous pressure recorders will be operated and main-
tained on all monitor wells. Water samples from all monitor
wells will be analyzed monthly for pH, alkalinity, temper-
ature, boron, the nitrogen species, calcium, magnesium,
specific conductance and total organic carbon. Semi-annual
samples will be analyzed for boron, copper, iron, zinc, and
standard constituents. A 8-10 backflushing experiment will
be conducted at one of the injection wells.
1146
-------
A-14
Hydrogeology of the Wilcox group (Eocene), Texas — A
regional appraisal with reference to storage of fluid
wastes in the subsurface
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Bay Saint Louis, Mississippi
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Sjammary of Project -
Very large and rapidly growing chemical-petrochemical com-
plexes, industry, manufacturing, and the associated popu-
lation, produce a wide variety of fluid wastes which are
generally discharged to the nearest stream or estuary.
Pollution abatement and control require alternative waste-
handling procedures. Subsurface storage has proven satis-
factory in many places, and more than 100 waste-injection
wells are now in use in this area. Public waste-management
agencies and industries faced with restrictive orders need
information on the geology and hydrology as a basis for ap-
praisal of the possibilities of underground storage as an
alternative waste-handling procedure.
To develop knowledge and understanding of the deep sub-
surface environments of the Gulf Coastal Plain requisite
for appraisal of their suitability for storage of liquid
wastes; to utilize for this purpose the very large store
of information in oil company files; to analyze and inter-
pret data obtained using new concepts and principles of
1147
-------
deep basin hydrology; to make quantitative and semi-
quantitative determinations of the physical properties
of reservoir rocks, the chemistry of interstitial waters,
and hydrodynamic controls; and to demonstrate how deep
aquifers can be described so that local site requirements
for waste injection can be related to the regional hydrol-
ogy.
Work will be accomplished in two (2) phases. Phase 1 will
describe the geologic framework of the Wilcox group between
the Rio Grande and the Sabine River. Regional maps and
sections will show the distribution and thickness of sedi-
mentary systems and their component facies and phases and
structural features. Phase 2 will describe salinity dis-
tribution and geothermal conditions in the entire Wilcox
group and aquifer characteristics, head distribution, and
formation water composition in the Rockdale Delta system
(lower Wilcox) between the San Marcos Arch and the Sabine
River.
A-15
Effects of disposal wells on water quality, Western Snake
Plain Aquifer, Idaho
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Boise, Idaho 83702
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
1148
-------
Summary of Project -
There are thousands of disposal wells used to inject surplus
runoff, irrigation water, effluent from septic tanks, indus-
trial wastes, and runoff from streets into the Snake Plain
aquifer of southeastern Idaho. There is concern by many
people and agencies that the use of disposal wells is
directly polluting or contaminating the aquifer. There is,
therefore, need for a study which will provide information
on the quantity and quality of water being injected into
the aquifer and its effect on groundwater quality. The
information is needed as a basis for establishing water
quality standards and design criteria for disposal wells.
Gooding, Jerome, Lincoln, and Minidoka counties were
selected as being representative of the basalts of the
Snake Plain aquifer. Data to be collected will be indic-
ative of the rates, quantity, and quality of water now
being injected into the aquifer by disposal wells. These
data are to be interpreted to show the local and regional
effects of drain wells injecting different types of water
into the Snake Plain aquifer. Overall effect of drain
wells on ground water quality is to be compared to the
effects of deep percolating irrigation water, canal
leakage, and drainage from septic leach lines.
The flow into a representative number of disposal wells
will be analyzed for common ions, nutrients, sediment,
coliforms, and streptococci. Estimates of total quan-
tities of water and chemical loads being injected will
be based on measured inflow rates, irrigated acreages,
evapo-transpiration, precipitation, quantities of water
pumped or diverted, published data on sewage, census data,
and chemical analyses of the injected waters. Decay rates
and chemical interactions will be considered. An attempt
will be made to document cases of drain well induced con-
tamination, or deterioration of water quality in ground
water.
A-16
Feasibility of Eastern Triassic Troughs for subsurface
storage of liquid wastes
1149
-------
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Raleigh, North Carolina
S upp orting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Recent regulation of the disposal of toxic wastes necessi-
tates the search for storage sites remote from man's normal
and anticipated activities where these wastes can degrade.
Places in the upper few miles of the earth's crust are cur-
rently being used for storage where the rocks, minerals, or
pore fluids involved are unusable or their extraction uneco-
nomical by today's technology. The Triassic Troughs of
eastern U. S. are possible sites for waste storage because
of their structure entity, saline water content at depth,
and proximity to industrial centers and because of the
permeability contrast of sediments.
To gather and compile data on the geologic architecture of
the east coast Triassic Basins, the geometry and physical
character of their contained sedimentary and igneous rocks,
and the chemistry and physical nature of their contained
fluids. These geohydrologic data will be used to develop
criteria for the ultimate selection or rejection of indi-
vidual Triassic Basins as sites for storage of various
liquid wastes.
The first year's work consisted of review of the pertinent
Triassic literature, compilation of available hydrologic
and geologic data, preparation of an administrative report
containing available geologic, hydrologic, and water quality
1150
-------
data on each basin, and recommendations. Effort in the
second and third years will concentrate on field investi-
gations designed to recover those subsurface data which the
literature search has indicated to be especially pertinent
to the disposal problem but unavailable from existing data
files.
A-17
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Tampa, Florida
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Period
7/72 to 6/73
Summary of Project -
Man
Hours_
N/A
Funds
$52,000
Pinellas County is seeking a means of ultimate disposal for
secondary effluents within the county other than disposal
into the warm shallow bays of its prime beach area. The
gulf is very shallow in this area and ocean outfalls would
need to be 20-30 miles out.
To determine if isolated saline water zones exist capable
of accepting large quantities of waste water that could be
used for waste disposal without endangering the fresh water
supply.
Wells will be drilled and cased to various depths. Wells
penetrating and cased to a particular zone will be pumped
and wells penetrating and cased to other zones will be ob-
served to determine the degree of interconnection between
zones within the aquifer. Injection tests using fresh water
1151
-------
will be conducted to determine the rates a particular zone
will accept water.
Batteries of weiis were installed at the spray irrigation
site and adjacent area. Wells in each battery range in
depth from 2-40 feet, Soil samples were collected while
drilling the wells and analyzed for permeability, ion
exchange capacity and base saturation.
To commence drilling wells for deep injection.
7V-1J3
Geologic and hydrologio factors relating to subsurface waste
disposal in Kentucky
Performing Organization
U, S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Louisville, Kentucky
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $27,000
Summary of Project -
Increased interest in subsurface disposal of wastes in the
past few years has resulted from stricter regulations con-
trolling release of liquid wastes into surface streams and
improvements in waste treatment processes which produce
more concentrated wastes. The increasing interest on the
part of industry has resulted in several applications for
permits for underground waste disposal to regulatory agencies
in Kentucky. The agencies have been hampered in exercising
1152
-------
this responsibility by lack of data on the character of
potential disposal zones, and on possible effects of under-
ground disposal on natural fluids and minerals.
Identify and describe permeable zones which might be con-
sidered for disposal of fluid wastes. Define location,
extent, boundaries and hydraulic properties of the zones
and possible hydraulic connections with other zones or
fresh-water aquifers. Determine the quality of existing
water and direction and velocity of water in the permeable
zones. Set up a digital model or models to estimate the
effects of waste disposal in these zones, if adequate data
are acquired. The purpose of this study would be to pro-
vide the state of Kentucky information needed for enforce-
ment and surveillance of subsurface water quality standards
and waste-disposal practices.
The areas where the need for information is most imminent
will be selected for early study. Data, mostly in files
of the Oil and Gas Division of Kentucky Geological Survey,
will be used to interpret permeable strata or zones, gener-
alized state-wide geologic structure and permeability,
chemical constitutents, and potentiometric surfaces of the
various permeable zones. Data on adjacent low permeability
zones will also be noted. Preparation of a digital computer
model to simulate the hydrology of disposal zones will be
attempted, data permitting. Water samples and field data
on deep wells will be collected on continuing basis.
Literature has been reviewed on subsurface waste storage
and on subsurface stratigraphy of Kentucky. State files
have been searched for pertinent data and little has been
found. Report writing has begun on a generalized report
on subsurface waste storage possibilities in the various
physiographic regions in Kentucky.
A-19
Isotope geochemistry of deep saline and fresh water aquifers
of Atlantic Coastal Plain, with reference to liquid waste
storage (Abbrev)
1153
-------
Performing 0rganiz at i on
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Arlington, Virginia 22209
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $103,635
Summary of Project -
Disposal of industrial liquid wastes to deep saline aquifers
is increasingly being used by industry to partially satisfy
the demands for a clean environment. Yet, such injection,
when hastily undertaken, may pollute overlying fresh ground
water supplies or brackish waters suitable for de-salination.
The greatest potential for subsurface storage is to deep
saline aquifers capped by extensive aquitards. Such aquifers
underlie portions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, but little
is known about their hydrogeology or geochemistry.
The study seeks to determine the geochemistry age, and flow
paths of saline water, and up-gradient fresh water, in sev-
eral regional aquifers beneath the central and Northern
Atlantic Coastal Plain. Such basic information is essential
background for the detailed hydrogeologic and chemical engi-
neering studies which precede selection of specific liquid
waste storage sites.
Sparseness of wells tapping the deep saline aquifers beneath
the coastal plain necessitates use of indirect and direct
interdisciplinary approaches to study suitability of these
aquifers for waste storage. Indirect approaches include:
isotopic dating of fresh ground water in regional aquifers
1154
-------
containing salt water down the hydraulic gradient; and com-
pilation of published permeability and mineralogic data for
such aquifers. Direct approaches include: study of the iso-
tope geochemistry and hydrogeology of saline water at actual
waste disposal sites; and collection of isotopic, chemical,
hydraulic, and mineralogic data from deep test holes drilled
during this investigation.
The bulk of the year's field work was devoted to collection
of well water samples from the Raritan-Magothy-Potomac
Aquifers System beneath the New Jersey Coastal Plain, and
the Peedee Formation beneath the Hercules waste disposal
site near Wilmington, N. C. Interpretation of flow patterns
and water ages in these aquifers awaits receipt of isotopic
analyses from the laboratories. The potential utility of
selected thick unsaturated zones in the Southwest as storage
sites for solidified high-level radioactive wastes is dis-
cussed in a report currently in review (RPI). The assets
and liabilities of this neglected, but important environ-
ment, are detailed and contrasted with those of other com-
monly proposed storage or disposal environments.
A-20
Evaluation of feasibility of deep-well waste disposal in
Western New York and prediction of reaction of aquifer
system to applied stresses
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Albany, New York
Supporting Agency^
0. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $30,000
1155
-------
Summary of Project -
The use of underground space as a disposal zone for indus-
trial and municipal waste is currently being considered in
New York. The state regulating agency is in accord with
the concepts of regional management of deep-well injection
as described in USGS Circular 621 by A. M. Piper. In order
to adequately develop guidelines for such regional manage-
ment in Western New York State, it is necessary to under-
stand the hydrology and geology of the injection formations
and develop a prediction capability for the consequences
of injection. A deep well to inject acid pickling liquor
is ready to go on-line during 1972. Pumping tests indicate
that the injection formations will not easily accept large
volume of waste.
Short-term - to provide understanding of the hydrology of
injected formations and its relationship to stratigraphy;
to evaluate waste reaction with the formation and its
fluids. To provide data and insights to improve regula-
tory arrangements for operation of the injection well.
Long-term - to provide insights for regional management
of deep-well injection in Western New York; to evaluate
the practicality of computer simulation of hydrologic and
geochemical changes resulting from deep-well injection
processes; to evaluate the state of knowledge concerning
reaction between extremely acid wastes with high iron con-
centrations and carbonate rock.
The Potsdam Sandstone and Theresa Formation of Western New
York will be studied to evaluate the areal extent of car-
bonate and sandstone strata. Petrologic examination of
samples will determine physical characteristics including
porosity and permeability. The geochemical interaction
between acid waste, dolostone of the injected formations
and native saturated brines will be studied. A combina-
tion of well test data, stratigraphy, and model simulation
will be used to predict the effects of injection. Existing
computer programming may be adapted to accommodate the
variables of the injection formations; the resulting model
simulation will help in predicting hydrologic changes in
this environment.
1156
-------
A-21
Geochemical aspects of ground-water pollution in the Babylon-
Islip Area, Long Island, New York
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Mineola, New York
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $56,000
Summary of Project -
Ground-water andf to some extent, surface water in the
Babylon-Islip area, Long Island, New York, have been
polluted by the activities of man. The source of pub-
lic water supply in the area is ground-water derived
from the upper glacial and magothy aquifers. The ex-
tent and manner of pollution in the two aquifers needs
to be more clearly defined so as to provide a basis from
wnich water managers can develop plans to assure a safe
public water supply in the future along with satisfactory
disposal of sewage and waste materials without attendant
deleterious effect to the ecology or the environment.
The major objective of this proposed project is to evaluate
the geochemical aspects of the nature, extent, movement, and
temporal variants of inorganic and certain organic pollu-
tants in the ground-water reservoir of the study area, with
special emphasis on the water in the upper glacial and
magothy aquifers. The information thus developed will be
useful in evaluating present and future suitability of
1157
-------
ground-water for public use, and will provide a data base
and data collection network for monitoring the effects of
proposed sewers. Other water-management activities, and
waste disposal.
Assemble and review existing hydrologic data and reports on
the area of study. Collection of new data will consist of:
Periodic water-level measurements; collection of water sam-
ples from existing wells and streams. Additional wells will
be drilled in areas where needed; especially in the vicinity
of sanitary landfill and sewage disposal operations. Stage
and conductivity records will be installed on streams or
wells where needed. A series of maps and cross sections
will be constructed to show areal and vertical extent of
pollutants in the aquifer as well as temporal trends.
A ground-water and surface water sampling network has been
established and samples collected for chemical analyses in-
cluding the toxic-trace metals. The chemical data has been
placed on maps for contouring water-quality parameters.
5,000 chemical analyses from cooperator's files have been
processed for computer analyses of trends in water-quality
changes. Water levels are being measured for preparation
of water level change maps.
A-22
Mathematical modeling of waste transport and dispersion in
the Snake River Plain Aquifer, National Reactor Testing
Station, Idaho
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Idaho Falls, Idaho 83401
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
1158
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Liquid chemical and radioactive wastes have been discharged
to the Snake River Plain aquifer at the National Reactor
Testing Station, Idaho, since 1952. The aquifer is the
largest and most productive ground water resource in Idaho.
As the wastes are carried downgradient, their distribution
and behavior is controlled by a complex combination of hy-
draulic, dispersive, chemical, and radioactive influences.
In order to understand the observed behavior of the wastes
and to predict future effects of the wastes on the valuable
aquifer, a digital model is needed to simulate the complex
processes operating on the waste-aquifer system.
To develop a digital computer mathematical model which will
simulate the Snake River Plain aquifer system in the NRTS
vicinity and the significant processes controlling the trans-
port of NRTS waste products in the aquifer, such as disper-
sion, radioactive decay, and sorption. The first objective
will be to adequately simulate the observed waste behavior
patterns from 1952 through 1972. When the model does that
satisfactorily, it will then be used to predict future waste
distribution patterns under a variety of assumed future dis-
posal schemes.
Two coupled phases of modeling are involved. The first is
to adapt an iterative alternating-direction implicit numer-
ical model for the flow of ground water in the aquifer. The
second is a digital model for the dispersion and chemical
controls on the waste transport. This utilizes the recently
developed method of characteristics for the solution of the
differential equations of transport. The chemistry model
depends upon velocity vectors generated by the hydrology
mode1.
Basic background data was compiled, and analyzed. After
completion of a two-week course in digital modeling tech-
niques, a preliminary digital model of the ground hydrology
1159
-------
of the NRTS vicinity was successfully completed. With help
of other USGS experts, a preliminary digital waste transport
model was completed and coupled with the hydrologic model.
The transport model includes the effects of dispersion and
radioactive decay and has satisfactorily simulated the be-
havior of the Idaho chemical processing plant's waste chlo-
ride and tritium in the Snake River Plain aquifer from 1952
to 1970. Predictive simulations were also made up through
the year 1983,
The transport model will be refined and expanded so that
longer-term predictions can be made.
A-2 3
Feasibility of the injection of liquid acid wastes in the
Theresa and Potsdam Formations of Western New York
Performing Organization
State Department of Education
S. Swan, New York State Office Bldg.
Albany, New York
Supporting Agen^cy
New York State Government
Man
Pejiod Hgurs^ Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summaryof Project -
To describe the geccnemistry of the Theresa and Potsdam
Fo-_mations in Western New York, their permeability and
porosity and the hydrology of natural brine fluids existing
within the formation. This information will be evaluated
together with expected chemical reactions between acid
waste and dolostone rock of the Theresa Formation. The
hydrologic model which is developed for the Theresa and
1160
-------
Potsdam Formations, will be used to predict the pressure
effects of deep well injection. The probability of earth-
quake activity associated with injection will also be ex-
plored.
In cooperation with the United States Geological Survey, a
hydrologic modeling investigation of the Theresa and Potsdam
Formations has been undertaken. Sedimentary petrology of
the Theresa and Potsdam Formations is also under investi-
gation. Natural earthquake activity is being monitored in
Western New York in cooperation with Lamont-Doherty Geolog-
ical Observatory.
Current plans and/or progress includes the development of a
computer model simulation of the hydrologic characteristics
of the Theresa and Potsdam Formations in Western New York.
Geochemical evaluations of the dolostone associated with the
Theresa Formation are in progress and laboratory evaluations
of chemical reactions between highly acid pickling liquor
waste and Theresa dolostone are in progress. Plans for the
development of an experimental well have been delayed by
lack of funding.
A-24
Sedimentary petrology of the Theresa and Potsdam Formation
Performing Organization
State Department of Education
S. Swan, New York State Office Bldg.
Albany, New York
S upporting Agency
No formal support reported
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
1161
-------
Summary of Project -
To investigate the textures, mineralogy, and sedimentary
structures of the Theresa and Potsdam Formation in order
to understand the environment of deposition.
Porosity and permeability information is being derived from
study of drill core and from gamma-gamma log records of
wells drilled through these formations.
This project is integrated with the evaluation of the geo-
logic feasibility of injection of acid liquid wastes into
the Theresa and Potsdam Formation in Eastern New York.
A-2 5
Deep well injection of non-reclaimable liquid wastes
Per f o r mi n g 0 r gan i z a t i on
State Department of Water Resources
Los Angeles, California 90055
Supporting Agency
California State Government
Man
Period Hours Funds
10/72 to 6/73 N/A $21,000
Summary of Project -
The objective is to assess the potential for deep well
injection of non-reclaimable liquid wastes compatible
with the surrounding environment. The three phase pro-
gram consists of review of existing injection technology
and costs; location of areas of potential storage; and
evaluation of alternative waste disposal methods.
1162
-------
A-26
Geology of the Boulder Zone
P e r f o rmi ng 0rganization
State Bureau of Geology
P. 0. Drawer 631
Tallahassee, Florida 32302
Supporting Agency
Florida State Government
(Multiple Support)
S umma ry of P r o j e c t -
Approximately along the contact of the fresh water with
the salt water of the Floridan artesian aquifer there
occurs an extremely pervious zone which the well drillers
have called the "Boulder Zone". This zone apparently
represents some subsurface formation that has been easily
dissolved and has been removed, or it represents a solu-
tion zone that has formed along the contact of fresh and
salt water in the artesian system. The dynamics of this
flow are not fully understood and it is hoped that further
study of the zone, both the hydrology and the geology will
provide sufficient knowledge to allow its safe usage for
storage of fresh water in the distal end of Florida where
the artesian water is brackish or to use this zone for
waste disposal after the waste has been treated to some
extent and reduced to sludges.
A-27
Investigation of permeability of fine grained glacial sedi-
ments in relation to waste disposal in Illinois
Performing Organization
State Geological Survey
Urbana, Illinois 61081
1163
-------
Supporting Agency
Illinois State Government
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The objective of the research is to evaluate current methods
and to develop practical procedures for determining the field
permeability of fine-grained glacial sediments. These sedi-
ments - mainly tills - are too tight to be analyzed for
permeability on the basis of conventional pumping tests.
Field measurements of permeability in shallow bore holes are
being made utilizing a number of techniques, including long-
term injection tests. Laboratory tests, made on cores by
standard permeameter methods, are to be made for comparison
to field data.
The permeability data will be obtained from representative
glacial deposits of known character and extent, so that
results may be extrapolated, and will be evaluated for such
practical applications as selecting sites for surface waste
disposal, protecting shallow aquifers from pollution, and
appraising drainage and ground water recharge conditions.
A-28
Pilot scale investigations of well recharge using cored
samples
Performing Organization
State Water Survey
Box 232
Urbana, Illinois 61801
1164
-------
Supporting Agency
Illinois State Government
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility of re-
charging treated sewage effluent into the Cambrian-Ordovician
(deep sandstone) aquifer in Northeastern Illinois.
The physical, chemical, and biological factors affecting
rates at which the effluent can be injected into the aquifer
are being investigated. The effectiveness of the filtering
action of the aquifer is being studied. Methods of further
treatment of secondary or tertiary treated sewage effluent
are being investigated so that effluent can be successfully
used to recharge the aquifer system. Some success was had
in maintaining constant recharge rates at constand heads
through sandstone cores.
One objective of further study will be to maintain constant
recharge rates for longer periods of time.
A-29
Study of transient mass transport around liquid waste
injection wells in Illinois
Performing Organization
University of Illinois
Water Resources Center
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Supporting Agency
Illinois State Government
1165
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The objectives of this study are to investigate the develop-
ment of pressure buildup around an injection well in Illinois
in an aquifer with density stratification, and use this re-
sult to predict the movement of the injected fluid with a
different density than the native water in the aquifer. It
is planned to arrive at these objectives by the use of numer-
ical solution by laboratory and field tests.
The success of the numerical solution is directly related
to the validity of the mathematical models. This means that
the models must incorporate lateral and longitudinal vari-
ations in permeability, density, diffusion, coefficient,
and other related parameters. Once such models are devel-
oped, some newly developed solution techniques such as
finite element or Galerkin technique, subject to proper
boundary conditions, will be employed for their solutions.
Some theoretical assumptions that will be incorporated in
the mathematical models will be checked by the use of labo-
ratory models and, if possible, by the field data.
A-30
Subsurface liquid waste disposal
Performing Organization
State Water Survey
Box 232
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Supporting Agency
Illinois State Government
1166
-------
Man
Period Hours
7/73 to 6/74 N/A
Summary of Project -
In cooperation with the State Geological Survey, a study
has begun of the flow and mass transport phenomena in-
volved in liquid waste disposal by injection into deep
Illinois aquifers. The purpose is to devise methods of
predicting the pressure distribution and the movement
of waste fluid in the vicinity of an injection well. The
resulting information should prove useful in formulating
operating conditions for disposal wells which will mini-
mize the possibilities of polluting water-supply aquifers.
The present cooperative work is aimed at comparing alter-
native techniques for the numerical solution of the mathe-
matical equations describing fluid flow and mass transport
through an aquifer, in an effort to devise an efficient
computer model for simulating waste injection systems.
Subsequent work will involve the determination of appro-
priate values for the parameters involved in the computer
model, and then the application of the model to the simu-
lation of actual waste injection.
A-31
Surficial materials of the Salem Plateau
Performing Organization
State Geological Survey & Water Resources
Rolla, Missouri 65401
Supporting Agency
Missouri State Government
1167
-------
Man
Period Hours Functe
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Basic purpose is to map surficial materials, but obser-
vations relative to various aspects of waste disposal
effects on possibilities of ground water pollution will
be made.
A-3 2
Subsurface liquid waste disposal and its feasibility in
Pennsylvania
Performing Organization
Geoengineering Labs., Inc.
P.O. Box 781
Mount Vernon, Illinois
Supporting Agency
Pennsylvania State Government
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
To provide: (1) a comprehensive review of the principles
involved in subsurface liquid-waste disposal and possible
effects upon the rock/fluid system; (2) a review of avail-
able techniques for site selection, control, and monitoring;
and (3) a study of the regional geology of Pennsylvania
drawing attention to factors favoring or inhibiting the
development of disposal facilities. The study is intended
primarily to provide a background for non-geological per-
sonnel concerned with liquid-waste-disposal operations.
1168
-------
The study was based on extensive review of pertinent
literature, investigation of governmental and industrial
records, and conventional sources of regional geological
information.
A-33
Bedrock waste storage exploration
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Columbia, South Carolina 29204
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Summary of Project -
One proposal for the permanent containment of highly radio-
active waste at the Savannah River Plant is to store it in
a chamber excavated in crystalline basement rock which is
buried beneath 1,000 feet of coastal plain sediments. The
natural movement of ground water is the most significant
driving force that might cause the migration of waste from
the chamber. The objective of this project is to determine
the movement and possible movement of ground water through
the small fractures in the crystalline rock and in the sedi-
ments above as it relates to waste containment.
A previous study provided an evaluation of the hydrology
of crystalline rock in the immediate vicinity of the pro-
posed storage chamber. A second previous study explored
the hydrologic characteristics of the region. Based in
part on the two previous studies AEC has proposed to sink
an exploratory shaft through the coastal plain sediment
and into the rock, and to excavate a smaller diameter but
full length exploratory tunnel. In addition, some further
1169
-------
exploratory work is proposed to precede and complement the
exploratory shaft and tunnel. This USGS project includes:
(1) geohydrologic consulting advice to AEC in their further
deliberations on underground waste management and in investi-
gative program formulation, and (2) to extend and refine
some of the geohydrologic interpretations developed in the
two previous studies.
Previous studies indicated that the permeability of the
buried Triassic sediment is extremely low and that the
frequency of water transmitting fractures in these sedi-
ments is extremely low. Therefore, this buried Triassic
basin will be further explored by seismic and test drilling
methods. The hydraulic data from the one-year pumping test
and the two-year tracer test can be analyzed by a digital
simulation of the flow system. This will be done incor-
porating all other hydraulic data to develop a consistent
hydrologic model.
Collection and analysis of test well data and the monitoring
of observation wells in the SRP site.
A-34
The shallow hydrogeologic environment of Northeastern
Illinois
Performing Organization
Illinois State Geological Survey and
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
Supporting Agency
Illinois State Geological Survey and
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/65 to 6/66 N/A N/A
1170
-------
Summary of Project -
A study of the influence of topography, types, and distri-
bution of earth materials, seasonal rainfall variation, and
to some extent vegetation on the ground water potential
(head) distribution. The potential distribution in the
vicinity of lakes and marshes in both clays and sands and
gravels is of particular interest because these areas may
be useful as waste disposal sites provided it can be shown
that they are permanent discharge areas and therefore that
no ground water pollution hazard exists. Furthermore, if
these marshes are permanent discharge areas, it is hoped
that the equipotential line separating upward from down-
ward movement in the sites studied can be located and their
seasonal variations observed. Chemical content of water in
the vicinity will also be determined. This information can
then be projected to other areas where similar conditions
exist. It is also anticipated that a basis can be estab-
lished for estimating the percentage of infiltrated water
that finally reaches deeper aquifers.
The necessary information was obtained primarily by pie-
zometers, either driven or not according to the Casagrande
method.
A-35
Deep well disposal
Performing Organization
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Water Resources Research Ctr.
Burruss Hall, Blackburg, Virginia 24061
Supporting Agency
U. S. National Science Foundation,
Division of Environmental Systems & Resources
Man
Period Hours Funds
6/72 to 11/73 11,100 $94,300
1171
-------
Summary of Project -
The project is to assess how institutional economic, and
physical factors enter into the use and regulation of deep
well waste disposal methods in an environmentally acceptable
manner. Primary emphasis will be placed on the analysis of
the legal and institutional aspects of deep well waste dis-
posal. Economic and physical considerations will be incor-
porated to the extent necessary for formulating policy
issues and for identification of the parameters essential
for effective regulation.
The project is to identify the various deep well techniques
now being used, to define their physical limitations, and
to examine how they can be effectively regulated, this study
will: 1) analyze the laws and regulations now being used
with respect to deep well waste disposal; 2) compare laws
and regulations of states that have similar physical con-
ditions; 3) explore the legal framework for the implemen-
tation of effective monitoring and control; 4) identify
critical factors which determine the conditions under
which deep well disposal of wastes can become a viable
method. The Mid- and South-Atlantic Region is used as
the focus of the case study.
BIOLOGIC STUDIES
B-l
Subsurface aeration of ground water for inducing bacterial
dissimilation of phenolic pollution in Basalt aquifers West
of Melbourne (Abbrev)
Performing Organization
Victoria Geological Survey
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Supporting Agency
Victorian State Government
1172
-------
Man
Period Hours^ Funds^
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
To test the effectiveness of newly developed borehole
technique for beneficiating ground water polluted with
high concentrations of phenolic compounds.
High concentrations of phenolic compounds have been
observed in ground water occurring in a series of
observation bores surrounding a quarry used for dis-
posal of industrial effluent. The ground water occupies
a shallow Basalt aquifer system which consists of an
upper unconfined and a lower partly confined aquifer.
Phenol oxidizing organisms are known to be present in
the ground water (Millis in litt. 9/5/72). It is proposed
to use special intra-well flow devices developed by Riha
(1971) to induce regulated flow from the upper more pol-
luted aquifer to the lower aquifer which is at a slightly
lower head. The bore will be constructed so that there is
maximum aeration of the descending water. It is anticipated
that this transfer will serve two functions, both of which
will tend to improve the quality of the polluted ground
water: (1) Dilution by mingling with relatively unpolluted
water in the lower aquifer. Over a period, water will be
drawn in from less polluted parts of the upper aquifer
surrounding the highly polluted phenolic zone. (2) Aera-
tion of the descending water should promote development of
the phenol-oxidizing organisms already present, thus pro-
viding improved conditions for dissimilation of the phenolic
pollution.
B-2
The role of microorganisms in the decomposition of deep
well injected liquid industrial wastes
1173
-------
Performing Organization
University of North Carolina
School of Agriculture
Raleigh, North Carolina
Supporting Agency
U. S. National Science Foundation
Division of Environmental Systems & Resources
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $36,650
Summary of Project -
Storage and disposal of industrial chemical wastes by
injection into deep aquifers is a practice in use and
growing with little base of knowledge as to the biological
implications of such a waste disposal system. This re-
search is sited at an experimental deep well located in
Wilmington, North Carolina designed for injection of
300,000 gallons per day of industrial waste water from
production of dimethyl terephthalate into formations
850 to 1,025 feet deep. The experimental system includes
an injection well and observation well being operated
under a permit issued in 1968 by the State of North
Carolina which included provisions for study of the
feasibility and effects. Objectives of this study are
to develop techniques for sampling and isolating micro-
organisms indigenous to deep aquifers as a necessary pre-
requisite to determination of changes that may occur in
microbial population resulting from waste water injection.
The roles of indigenous organisms in degradation of the
waste constitutents and the waste water injection pro-
cedure in causing dispersal of microorganisms in the
aquifer are also being studied. Innoculation of waste
water constitutent degradation will be investigated to
determine the feasibility of utilizing deep well systems
for treatment of industrial waste waters.
1174
-------
B-3
Organic aspects of deep waste storage
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $90,000
Summary of Project -
The enforcement of water-quality standards for major rivers
of the United States has forced many companies and municipal-
ities into larger expenditures for sewage and waste water
treatment facilities. A cheaper alternative for many com-
panies is to dispose of certain wastes in presently unusable
saline zones at various subsurface depths. Most subsurface
disposal systems are constructed and operated without know-
ledge of the fate, reactivity, or distribution of the waste
in the disposal zone. Without due consideration of hydro-
logical, chemical, and geological factors such serious prob-
lems as contamination of fresh water aquifers, and well
failures may result.
(1) To predict the reactions and interactions between cer-
tain organic wastes and aquifer components when organic
wastes are placed in the subsurface. (2) To establish the
organic water quality of several uncontaminated ground water
aquifers of the United States. (3) To define the effects
chemical and biological reactions have on the distribution
and movement of organic wastes in the subsurface.
1175
-------
Fiscal Year 1972: An extensive literature survey on organic
aspects in ground water, ground water recharge, and deep
water disposal will be compiled. The naturally occurring
organic content of selected aquifers of the United States
will be determined by periodic sampling. Fiscal Year 1972-
77: Various instrumental and experimental capabilities for
surface water organic studies will be adapted and modified
for organic investigations of ground water. The instru-
mental capabilities include gas chromatographic, electro-
phoretic, and mass-spectrometric techniques, as well as
elemental and infrared analyses. Several reconnaissance
studies of deep waste injections of organic substances will
be conducted. Certain sites will be chosen for intensive
studies to determine the reactivity, fate, and movement of
organic waste in the subsurface.
Phase 1-3 will be continued, but major emphasis will be on
predicting the reactivity, fate, and movement of organic
wastes in the subsurface at the Wilmington, North Carolina,
disposal site. Laboratory models will be combined with
field observations to attain these objectives. Manuscripts
will be completed for publication. Several papers and lec-
tures on organic waste disposal are planned.
B-4
Microbial ecology of ground water
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
345 Middlefield Road
Menlo Park, California
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Pe rigd Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $41,800
1176
-------
Summary of Project -
Little is known of the biota living in ground water. This
project will supply information in this area.
Isolate, identify and describe biota found in ground water.
Much of the effort will be directed toward the requirements
of artificial recharge and underground waste disposal
studies. Results should be applicable to specific problems
in recharge and waste storage practice.
Bacteria and fungi will be isolated from ground water
sources. Both existing wells and core material from wells
under construction will be exploited as sources. In place
sampling with contact slides and sand probes will be at-
tempted. Microorganisms found will be identified and ex-
amined by standard microbiological techniques. Special
biochemical features of the organisms will be studied as
appropriate. This information will be used to construct
ecological models.
A comprehensive review of the effects of biota on waste
injection and storage was completed. Methods for deter-
mining the base composition of deoxyribonucleic acid iso-
lated from well-clogging bacterial species were investi-
gated. This information is useful for classifying bacteria.
Simple methods, which do not involve sophisticated equipment
were used. Unfortunately the data obtained by use of such
simple methods was not sufficiently precise for the intended
use. Since analytical ultracentrifuges, needed to perform
more precise analysis, are unlikely to become available in
the near future this line of investigation has been aban-
doned. Field tests at Bay Park, Long Island, New York, dem-
onstrated that bacteria can be primary causes of well clog-
ging if the injectant is not chlorinated.
Growth of bacteria under controlled condition in packed
sand columns under laboratory conditions will be studied
in cooperation with the Texas High Plains Recharge Study.
Principles governing the growth of microbes in ground
water will be investigated. Role of bacteria in solubi-
lizing pyrite will be emphasized.
1177
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CHEMICAL STUDIES
C-l
Water conservation by waste water reclamation and injection
or recharge
Performing Organization
County of Nassau
Department of Public Works
Mineola, New York 11501
Supporting Agency
Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Man
Period Hours Funds
1/67 to 12/67 N/A $30,000
Summary of Project -
The purpose of this project is to conduct pilot studies on
activated sludge sewage effluent to improve its quality to
conform with required drinking water standards and inject
or recharge it into subsurface water bearing strata for
re-use after removal of suspended solids. Using all infor-
mation available in this field and also data obtained from
bench scale and pilot plant units, a tertiary treatment
plant will be designed and constructed. In addition, an
injection well and a network of observation wells will be
dry and operated on a three-four year program.
C-2
Long Island recharge study
Performing Organization
New York State Department of Health
84 Holland Avenue
Albany, New York
1178
-------
Supporting Agency
Public Health Service and
New York State Department of Health
Man
Period Hours Funds
1/68 to 12/68 N/A $30,000
Summary of Project -
This study is to determine the treatment requirements for
sewage reclamation for recharging into the ground waters by
injection wells, and conducted at Riverhead, Long Island,
utilizing the sewage from the municipal trickling filter
sewage plant.
C-3
Advanced waste treatment for water reclamation and re-use
by injection
Performing Organization
Nassau County Department of Public Works
Mineola, New York
Supporting Agency
Interior Department
Federal Water Quality Administration
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/64 to 6/70 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The objective of the project is to conduct studies of ad-
vanced waste treatment processes and to demonstrate that
1179
-------
the reclaimed secondary effluent is suitable for re-use and
injection into underground aquifers. The project will pro-
vide operating data on advanced waste-treatment processes
and allow optimizing the economics of the process. It will
also demonstrate the effectiveness and reliability of ad-
vanced waste treatment as a method of providing water for
re-use from secondary treatment plant effluent.
C-4
Treatment needed by sewage before injection - well recharge
Performing Organization
State Department of Health
84 Holland Avenue
Albany, New York 12208
Supporting Agency
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds_
7/70 to 6/71 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
A study to investigate the mechanism of clogging and its
reduction to increase the recharge capacity of the injec-
tion well. Various methods of tertiary treatment were used
(rapid sand filtration, diatomite filtration, carbon filtra-
tion) , including degasification, chlorination and the appli-
cation of bivalent ions, to produce an optimal effluent for
injection.
The distance that various constituents of sewage travel
through saturated soil was also investigated by continual
observations of the water quality in the observation wells.
The project began in 1964 and was completed in mid-1969.
The final project report has been received by the New York
State Department of Health.
1180
-------
C-5
Treatment and disposal of complex chemical wastes
Performing Organization
State Geological Survey
P.O . Drawer 0
University, Alabama 35486
Supporting Agency
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/70 to 6/71 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The proposed research will provide a means of treatment and
disposal of complex chemical wastes consisting of five major
efforts: (1) Phase 1 - Drilling and testing of a deep well,
(2) Phase II - Completion of deep well for waste injection,
(3) Phase III - Surface installation for deep well system,
(4) Phase IV - Installation of surface plant for total
treatment, and (5) Phase V - Operation, maintenance and
monitoring of total system.
All phases will be involved in standard procedures and con-
current research development of methodologies and/or tech-
niques that will permit projections of the fate of the
chemical wastes and assimilative capacity of underground
formations for the waste to be studied. The deep well
phase will be carried to a point of decision and if the
deep well does not prove feasible an alternative method of
waste treatment and disposal will be initiated.
The work will be performed on the Reichhold Chemical property
in Tuscaloosa.
1181
-------
C-6
Treatment and disposal of complex chemical wastes
Performing Organization
State Geological Survey
P.O. Drawer 0
University, Alabama
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $939,525
Summary of Project -
This study is to develop and evaluate a surface or subsur-
face method for control of pollution from a complex chemical
waste from a petrochemical complex, manufacturing alkyl
resin and phenols. Also to develop methodology and/or
testing techniques to permit projections of: (1) the fate
of waste components, and (2) the waste assimulative capacity,
of deep geological formations.
C-7
Treatment needed by sewage before injection well-recharge
Performing Organization
State Department of Health
84 Holland Avenue
Albany, New York 12208
1182
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $72,450
Summary of Project -
The study is to define the treatment needed by trickling
filter effluent before injection-well recharge.
Project Objectives: To determine the treatment required
by trickling filter effluent for injection into ground
water formation. Project Period: 1/1/65 - 3/31/69.
Product Director: Dr. Leo J. Hetlin, Director, Research
Unit Environmental Health Services, New York State Depart-
ment of Health, 84 Holland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208.
Financial Officer to Receive Funds: Marion L. Henry,
Treasurer, New York State Department of Health, Health
Research, Inc., 8 Holland Avenue, Albany, New York 12208.
C-8
Consolidation of available subsurface saline water analyses
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Washington, D.C. 20240
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
1183
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 TO 6/72 N/A $35,000
Summary of Project -
This research is to establish an automatic data processing
reference system for subsurface saline waters in the Storet
format, which can be utilized in establishing the sources
of ground water and surface water pollution resulting from
oil production, deep well disposal, inadequately plugged
oil wells, etc. For example, information concerning sub-
surface saline waters from any area in the U.S. would be
obtained rapidly with the system for use in comparison
with a polluted water. The computer system could be
used to plat water analysis diagrams for use in saline
water intrusion studies, and predictions of possible
pollution areas can be made for use in pollution pre-
vention.
C-9
North Fork alluvial decontamination project
Performing Organization
West Central Texas Municipal Water District
Abilene, Texas 79604
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $264,023
Summary of Project -
This project is to demonstrate the abatement of surface
water pollution caused by oil production which brings
1184
-------
seepage from shallow ground water aquifers using deep well
disposal techniques.
C-10
Compatibility of subsurface reservoirs with injected liquid
wastes
Performing Organization
University of Alabama
Natural Resources Center
University, Alabama 35486
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Saline Resources
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The proposed research plan involved laboratory determination
of the long-term effects (compatibility) upon the physical
parameters of subsurface rock formations resulting from the
disposal of liquid wastes in deep-well injection practices.
Purpose is to determine the extent of change in volumetrics
and permeability of disposal reservoirs which may limit the
economic practicability of this disposal method.
Laboratory methods employed: 1. Chemical analysis of reser-
voir fluids, rock matrix, and cementing materials of selected
subsurface reservoir rock samples. 2. Determination of
potential receptive horizons. 3. Injection of typical in-
dustrial liquid wastes into core samples under both surface
conditions and elevated conditions of temperature and pres-
sure over nominal to long periods of time to simulate actual
reservoir conditions. 4. Re-examination of injected samples
1185
-------
to determine changes in physical properties subsequent to
long-term injection. 5. Chemical analysis of interstitial
precipitates formed.
Data analyses were directed toward prediction of effects of
waste types on physical properties critical to receptivity
and volumetrics of identified geologic horizons. Compati-
bility and criteria will be formulated as a guide to the
nature and volume of specific waste types which may be
disposed of under limitations of local geologic conditions.
C-ll
Computer modeling of rock-water interactions
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
18th & E. Streets N.W.
Washington, D. C.
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
This project is to develop a computer model which accurately
predicts the chemical effect on the subsurface environment
when waste fluids, such as the effluent of typical industrial
processes, are injected into an aquifer. The desired output
of the model is (1) a detailed prediction of the chemical
interaction between the injected fluid, the aquifer brine
and the rocks; (2) the identity and amounts of products
1186
-------
formed by reaction; (3) the amount and composition of
material absorbed onto mineral surfaces; (4) the thermo-
dynamics of the processes in terms of pressure, tempera-
ture and volume changes; and (5) their distribution in
space and time. These in turn predict changes in porosity,
permeability and other factors important to the hydrologic
regime. Essential input into the model includes not only
the geological and chemical parameters describing the par-
ticular situation to be modeled, but also the thermochemical
parameters characterizing the mineral and solution phases.
C-12
Advanced waste treatment for water reclamation and re-use
by injection
Performing Organization
Nassau County Department of Public Works
Mineola, New York 11501
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research & Development
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project
The objectives of this project are to conduct studies of
advanced waste treatment processes and to demonstrate that
the reclaimed secondary effluent is suitable for re-use and
injection into underground aquifers. This project will pro-
vide operating data on advanced waste treatment processes
and allow optimizing the economics of the process. It will
also demonstrate the effectiveness and reliability of ad-
vanced waste treatment as a method of providing water for
re-use from secondary treatment plant effluent.
1187
-------
013
Corrosion and water treatment
Performing Organization
Standard Oil Co. of Indiana
P.O. Box 591
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74102
Supporting Agency
Standard Oil Co. of Indiana
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
This includes research to combat corrosion by inhibitors,
cathodic protection and coatings. Water treatment research
is directed to water quality for injection in flooding
projects and for disposal in wells or at the surface. Cur-
rent emphasis is on inhibitor development for wells with
high temperatures and corrosive conditions and on cathodic
protection in hostile off-shore environments.
014
Acid emulsion breaking-activated sludge for bakery waste
Performing Organization
Ebinger Baking Company
Maxess Rd.
Huntington, New York 11746
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
1188
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $129,729
Summary of Project -
Development and demonstration of acid emulsion breaking pre-
treatment, activated secondary treatment, and multimedia
filtration effluent polishing suitable for subsurface in-
jection disposal. Treatment of 80,000 gpd effluent from a
sweet-goods bakery was to be demonstrated.
Develop, design, construct, operate, and evaluate waste
treatment plant.
Make technical and operation data available for use by
others in the industry.
C-15
Computer modeling of rock-water interactions
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geologic Division
Washington, D.C. 20242
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Saline Water
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $138,067
Summary of Project -
The objective is to adapt a computer model which predicts
the interactions between rock and brines to problems related
1189
-------
to geothermal brine disposal and reservoir recharge.
the desired output is (1) a detailed prediction of the
chemical interaction among the injected fluid, the aquifer
brine, and the rock; (2) the identity and amounts of pro-
ducts formed by reaction; (3) the thermodynamics of the
processes in terms of temperature, pressure, and volume
changes; and (4) their distribution in space and time.
Basic thermochemical principles are used to describe
the chemical processes occurring between brine and rock
minerals. As a first approximation, the reaction between
the brine and the rock is considered an irreversible pro-
cess while possible products are assumed to form reversibly.
Every effort will be made to obtain the most accurate,
internally consistent and thermodynamically correct set
of data for use in the program. The critical evaluation
of existing data and the use of calorimetry, solution
chemistry, phase equilibria, and crystallography to re-
define poor values in the existing data will be used.
C-16
The evaluation of aquifer systems as processing plants for
the modification of the composition of injected water
Performing Organization
Louisiana State University
School of Geosciences
University Station
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Res.
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $13,000
1190
-------
Summary of Project -
The proposed research is intended to quantify the mechanisms
which control water composition in selected Gulf Coast fresh
and saline aquifer systems. If successful, the results will
permit the geochemical evaluation of these aquifer systems
for: 1) the storage of injected waters, and 2) for the
controlled modification of the composition of injected water.
Some fresh water aquifers could conceivably be used as water
softening plants of large capacity. At depth, saline aqui-
fers may serve for the permanent containment of dissolved
metallic and radioactive wastes by exchange and fixation.
The study will combine the following methods: 1) the inter-
pretation of existing water analyses to quantify changes in
water composition which have accompanied a) progressive with-
drawal of natural waters and b) mixing of diverse water types;
2) the experimental investigation, under controlled condi-
tions, of reaction and exchange of material between aquifer
sediment and waters of specific initial composition; and 3)
the numerical modeling of processes of reaction and mass
transport in 1) and 2) above.
C-17
Treatment processes - wastes pumped from septic tanks
Performing Organization
University of Connecticut
Graduate School
Storrs, Connecticut
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research & Development
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
1191
-------
Summary of Project -
A three-year study of the characteristics, volumes, appro-
priate treatment and handling methods of septic tank sludge
was conducted. Public attitudes and policies toward septic
tank sludge treatment and disposal were determined by inter-
views and questionnaires. Pilot studies of treatment and
disposal by soil injection, aeration-anaerobic digestion-
filtration system, and controlled addition to a small muni-
cipal sewage treatment plant were conducted.
018
Spatial distribution of chemical constituents in ground
water
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Arlington, Virginia 22209
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $50,500
Summary of Project -
There is a need to be able to predict the chemical and
physical changes that occur within an aquifer owing to
stresses imposed upon the hydrologic system. These
stresses may be the result of natural or artificial re-
charge of good quality water from injection of waste
water or from withdrawals of water supplies.
1192
-------
To understand the chemical reactions between water and
earth materials; these reactions are the processes by
which the water attains the observed chemical character.
To describe the field relationships between the chemistry
of the water and the geologic and hydrologic environment,
and to identify problems that are amenable to solution by
application of chemical thermodynamics; to identify and
measure the variables that control the environment; and
to interpret the measurements within the theoretical
framework provided by reversible and irreversible thermo-
dynamics .
C-19
Chemical reactions at mineral surfaces
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
345 Middlefield Rd.
Menlo Park, California
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $13,300
Summary of Project -
When solutes are introduced into a ground water system, as
in artificial recharge or waste injection, chemical reactions
may occur between introduced and native materials. The re-
actions may precipitate solids that interfere with water
movement, generate gases or bring about various physical
1193
-------
and chemical changes in the system surrounding the injec-
tion site. These changes may influence water movement and/
or composition. Mineral surfaces tend to catalyze some of
the more important chemical reactions but the effect is
poorly understood.
To study effects of specific mineral surfaces on rates of
such chemical reactions as hydroxide or carbonate precipi-
tation, relating rate to nature and area of surface exposed,
and determining rate constants and related numbers that can
be used for design or evaluation of actual field operations.
Experiments will be conducted in the laboratory using
physical-chemical techniques to characterize surfaces
and measure reaction rates at various temperatures.
Presence of fine-grained inert solid minerals has been
found to accelerate strongly the polymerization of alum-
inum hydroxide in solutions to which aluminum has been
added and pH is slightly below neutrality. The rate of
polymerization is directly related to specific surface
area of minerals present. Methods for measuring the
surface areas have been compared and adapted for use
with various mineral forms.
C-20
Denver water quality modeling
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
1194
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The accidental or planned injection of fluids into the
ground-water storage system will cause a change in the
water quality as well as the water quantity of that
system. Prediction of this change is necessary to allow
a decision making capability prior to injection as well
as to provide remedial action in case of accidental con-
tamination. Prediction of water quality is also necessary
to solve "inverse problems", that is the determination of
aquifer-parameters through various tracer tests.
To predict water quality changes during solute transport
through the saturated ground-water systems and to analyze
the effects of these changes on the ground-water environ-
ment.
Solve the mass transport equation through numerical means
using finite difference and Galerkin methods and thus pro-
duce a water quality model that will predict the effects of
various chemical disturbances on the ground-water system.
Evaluate the effects of these disturbances on the aquifer.
Involve a systems orientated approach concentrating on the
use of field data rather than laboratory experiments to
verify the model.
C-21
Gases and solute complexes in water
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
18th & F. Streets, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
1195
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Progress in studies of the geochemistry of water depends in
part on more detailed knowledge of water compositions. The
extent of complex formation and the concentrations of dis-
solved gases are among the properties which must also be
determined. Studies for which such additional information
is necessary include the geochemistry of ground waters in
carbonate and sulfide rocks, the reactions occurring at
lake bottoms, and in flooded mines, and subsurface waste
disposal studies.
The objectives of the project are to develop techniques for
determining kinds and concentrations of dissolved gases and
solute complexes in natural waters, and to apply the re-
sulting methods to the solution of particular geochemical
problems.
The analytical capability for the chromatographic analysis
of dissolved gases will be refined and enlarged to include
all of the naturally occurring gases. Improved gas sampling
devices, capable of collecting water samples uncontaminated
by the atmosphere, will be developed and tested. The solute
complex phase of the project will be concerned with refining
our estimates of complexing in real systems for which pub-
lished stability constant data are inadequate to account for
observed water compositions. Techniques to be used will in-
clude ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometry, potentio-
metric and specification electrode methods and eventually
infrared spectrophotometry and other methods.
1196
-------
C-22
Significance of oil field brine in reservoir geochemistry
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Bartlesville, Oklahoma
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Samples of petroleum and natural gas reservoir fluids and
rocks are obtained from selected areas. The samples are
analyzed and the resultant data together with related geo-
logical data are integrated and interpreted by using maps
and computer correlation techniques. Significant results
are published to aid federal and non-federal agencies in
evaluating reservoirs, in improving exploration and pro-
duction methods, in evaluating strata for use in waste
disposal, and in evaluating the economics of recovering
minerals from brines.
ENGINEERING (RESERVOIR AND GEOLOGIC) STUDIES
E-l
Statistical porous media hydrodynamics
Performing Organization
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61808
1197
-------
Supporting Agency
Office of Water Resources Research
Department of the Interior
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/66 to 6/68 N/A $21,140
Summary of Project -
A previously established analogy between energy-based
statistical mechanics and mass dispersion in transport
phenomena is extended to stationary and non-stationary
dispersion in flow through porous media. A detailed
analysis is made of the pertinent thermodynamic equa-
tions and their corollaries in mass-based statistical
mechanics are to be established. The project has a
direct bearing upon the theory of movement of pollu-
tants in ground water.
E-2
Dispersion in flow through non-homogeneous porous media
Performing Organization
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Supporting Agency
University of Wisconsin
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/65 to /69 N/A N/A
1198
-------
Summary of Project -
In the study of dispersion in non-homogeneous porous media,
a general solution for the distribution of a contaminant in
flow through a layered or continuously graded porous media
has been obtained. The resulting expression is simple and
easily adapted to any arbitrary non-homogeneity. The basic
feature of the analysis is that it treats the media as a
continuum with a spatially varying dispersion coefficient.
In this way the boundary conditions at the interface be-
tween successive layers are automatically satisfied.
For two and three layer systems, the solution has compared
very well with experimental data. Though this work has
been directed at one-dimensional, uniform flow, these re-
sults can be easily adapted to non-uniform flows (such as
well pumping and recharge systems) in cases where longi-
tudinal dispersion dominates the pollutant distribution.
For flow through non-homogeneous media in which lateral
dispersion is important (i.e., flow parallel to the layers),
a solution using the results obtained above, is being
attempted. For a two-layered system, a solution has been
obtained. An attempt will be made to extend this to a more
general layered system.
E-3
Injection of chemicals into underground
Performing Organization
Ministry of Transport
Road Research Laboratory
United Kingdom
Supporting Agency
Osaka City University
Japan
1199
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 12/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Pro ject -
Many sorts of chemicals were injected into the ground.
There is only one method of injection and the effects
are compared with each chemical used in the process.
Uniaxial compression test, triaxial compression test,
dry pit values, elastic wave method, chemical analysis
and other tests are employed to evaluate resulting pro
perties of treated soil.
Movement and mixing of water injected into aquifers
Performing Organization
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
School of Engineering
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Supporting Agency
Department of the Interior
Federal Water Quality Administration
Man
Period Hours Funds
9/70 to 8/71 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The research program is concerned with the replenishment
of ground water aquifers by injection of water through
recharge wells. The injected water may be a treated
waste effluent or it may have other water quality char-
acteristics, such as salinity, which differ from the
1200
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native ground water. The primary objectives are to deter-
mine the quality of water pumped from the aquifer after
mixing the dilution due to the recharge.
The movement and mixing of the injected water is effected
by the natural flow existing in the aquifer and by the
flow pattern induced by the injection and pumping wells.
A single well may be used both for injection and pumping
on an alternating basis. It is desired to develop analyt-
ical methods for the prediction of mixing and dilution for
various boundary conditions and for both steady and un-
steady flow fields. The distribution of concentration of
any material introduced into the aquifer by means of the
injection well is to be determined by numerical solution
of the convective-dispersion equation. Longitudinal and
lateral dispersion is considered in addition to the mass
transport by the convective action.
The influence of density variations due to dissolved salts
on the mixing of injected water were studied in the final
stage of the research programs.
E-5
Dispersion of contaminants in jointed rock
Performing Organization
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois 60201
Supporting Agency
University of Illinois
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/70 to 6/71 N/A N/A
1201
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Summary of Project -
Deep injection wells into jointed rock strata provide one
of the promising methods for the disposal of certain liquid
wastes. However, relatively little is known about the
characteristics of flow behavior in jointed rock. From a
water resources point of view, such knowledge is very
valuable when appraising the long-term quality of water
from a jointed rock aquifer. Accordingly, the objectives
of this research are (1) to formulate a basic seepage law
for the flow, of homogeneous fluid through jointed rock,
and (2) to develop a theoretical model for the dispersion
of a miscible contaminant into a homogeneous parent fluid
which saturates a jointed rock stratum.
The investigation will be both theoretical and experimental
in nature, and emphasis will be placed on plane and axi-
symmetric artesian flow under steady conditions. The entire
practical range of Reynolds numbers will be investigated
both for uniform seepage flow and for dispersion. The ex-
perimental model will consist of an orderly array of imper-
meable prismatic blocks separated by relatively narrow flow
channels which will intersect at various angles. Concurrent
with the development of. an experimental flow law for this
system, a theoretical analysis, based on a finite difference
solution of the Navier-Stokes equations, will be performed.
Hopefully, the synthesis of the experimental and theoretical
results will lead to the development of a model which will
have broader application to more complex systems.
E-6
Demonstration project for temporary detention of storm and
combined sewage in the natural underground formations
Performing Organization
South St. Paul City Government
South Saint Paul, Minnesota 55075
1202
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Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $380,000
Summary of Project -
The objective of the project is to demonstrate the feasi-
bility of using natural permeable underground strata in
the South St. Paul, Minnesota, area for temporary storage
of both storm water and combined sewage during periods of
storm runoff. Prior to introduction of waste waters into
the ground, they will be treated by removal of suspended
solids, and will be chlorinated, if necessary, to eliminate
danger of contaminating adjacent sources of water supply.
Waste water entering the ground during storms will be
pumped out over a period of several months. If the quality
of water meets the required standards, it will be returned
directly to surface streams. Otherwise, it will be trans-
ported to the sewage treatment plant.
The project will be conducted in three phases of six months
each to consist of: Phase I, location of suitable under-
ground strata and study of methods of solids removal;
Phase II, tests using city water, construction of treat-
ment facilities, and demonstration with storm water; and,
Phase III, demonstration of the concept using combined
sewage. Evaluation of each phase must demonstrate feasi-
bility before the following is started.
E-7
Effects of density stratification on aquifer mixing
1203
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Performing Organization
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
School of Engineering
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $28,086
Summary of Project -
The proposed research is concerned with the mixing of water
injected into ground water aquifers through wells. The
ultimate objective is to provide methods of predicting
water quality when aquifers are used as storage areas for
surface waters or disposal of wastes. The work has possi-
ble application in the area of thermal pollution in that
ground water aquifers may serve as disposal areas for hot
water.
The research will be primarily concerned with the role of
density stratification on mixing in ground water aquifers.
When the density of the injected water differs from that
of the native water, a substantial increase in effective
mixing would be expected. Actual application may involve
storage of fresh water in aquifers containing brackish
water or injection of hot water into a cool aquifer. The
combined effects of dispersion and density differences will
be studied analytically and experimentally.
E-8
The effect of pore fluid pressure on friction on fault and
joint surfaces
1204
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Performing Organization
University of Texas
School of Engineering
200 W. 21st
Austin, Texas 78712
Supporting Agency
University of Texas
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The mechanism of friction along weakness planes in the earth
crust is thought to play an important role in earthquakes,
slope stability and movements around water reservoirs and
fluid injection wells. The objective of the investigation
is to study the effect of pore fluid pressure on the fric-
tion characteristics of rock surfaces, particularly if
through variation of the pore fluid pressure sliding can
be induced under a given state of stress.
E-9
Mechanical and frictional behavior of rocks in fluid
environment
Performing Organization
Martin Marietta Corporation
1450 S. Rolling Rd.
Baltimore, Maryland 21227
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of Defense
Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
1205
-------
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $40,000
Summary of Project -
Investigate the control of faulting near waste injection
wells by modification of rock surface hardness. This may
be accomplished by pretreatment of waste fluids prior to
injection so that frictional resistance of the faulted
rock surface is increased.
The influence of various aqueous and non-aqueous surface-
active environments on the near-surface flow and flow-
dependent frictional behavior of several simple minerals
will be investigated in the laboratory of RIAS with the
idea of developing simple and economic procedures for
treating fluid wastes prior to injection so that the
possibility of triggering earthquakes is reduced.
E-10
Workshop in conjunction with engineering foundation
conference - need for national policy for the use of
underground space
Performing Organization
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037
Supporting Agency
U. S. National Science Foundation
Division of Social Sys. & Human Resources
Man
Period Hours Fundjs_
8/73 to 4/74 N/A $18,600
1206
-------
Summary of Project -
Generally, competing uses for underground space are in-
creasing with improved subsurface excavation and drilling
technology and with increased costs for use of surface
space. There is an important need to understand how
different claims on the underground space resource are
made and how they compete with each other. This study
will bring together engineering expertise and interest
with that of economists and lawyers. The results will
be definitive of how the market for underground space
operates or fails to operate, and recommendations for
planning goals consistent with equitable and efficient
utilization of the resource.
Specifically, this effort will allow economists and
lawyers to be brought to the Engineering Conference
to discuss the legal regimes controlling mining, oil
and gas drilling, water rights, tunneling, underground
storage of waste or fuel, natural processes, and the
geothermal resource. The perspective given will be
both historical with regard to the development of
existing laws and prospective with regard to how new
laws might develop.
E-ll
The storage of fresh water in saline aquifers - the
effect of aquifer dip on the efficiency of a multi-
well system
Performing Organization
Louisiana State University
School of Engineering
University Station
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
1207
-------
Man
Period Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $20,800
Summary of Project -
Previous work has evaluated the fresh water recovery effi-
ciency of a well field in a horizontal saline aquifer that
was used for water storage purposes. Experimental obser-
vations on a small, artificial aquifer composed of epoxy-
cemented, uniform blasting sand was used to verify and
validate computational procedures. The work proposed here
will consist of series of runs on the same mini-aquifer
which will be tilted to predetermined dip angles and,
simultaneously, the preparation of a computational program
that can be used to compute the results to be expected at
any dip angle, if the needed aquifer parameters are known.
In view of the computational problems of recovery efficiency
encountered when the factor of dip was lacking, a very com-
plete set of experimental data will be obtained so that,
if nothing else, empirical or semi-empirical correlations
can be made,. The results of the work will be usable, not
only in the utilization of aquifers for the storage of
fresh water, but in computing the movement of wastes, when
a saline aquifer is used as the receiving volume of the
management of wastes, subsurface.
E-12
A study of transient mass transport around waste injection
wells in Illinois
Performing Organization
Univers'ity of Illinois
State Geological Survey
Natural Resources Building
Urbana, Illinois
1208
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Hydrogeologic studies together with mathematical modeling
are being used to investigate the fate of the liquid wastes
injected into ground water reservoirs by deep injection
wells in Illinois and the long range hydrodynamic effects
of such injections on overlying aquifers. The work is
being conducted according to the following procedure:
A) the hydrogeologic investigations consists of collection
and evaluation of hydrogeologic data on a local basis for
a horizon currently under injection; B) the development
of at least two mathematical models, to describe the tran-
sient state of pressure and contaminant concentration at
any point in the injection horizon. These models must
represent the spatial and time variations of the physical
and chemical properties of the system as much as possible;
C) the numerical solution of the models utilize the re-
sults of A and B and the numerical solution of the models
obtained by finite element and Galerkin's methods; D) data
from field observations will be collected to correlate the
results of the solution with actual field data.
E-13
Study of mass transport around liquid waste injection wells
in Illinois
Performing Organization
University of Illinois
School of Engineering
Urbana, Illinois 61801
1209
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Supporting Agency
University of Illinois
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
There are three activities in this study: (1) the deri-
vation of mathematical models for mass transport phenomena
in porous media; (2) the collection of geologic data; (3)
the development of efficient techniques to solve the matrix-
vector equation that results from applying the finite ele-
ment method to the pressure equation. The techniques employ
an adaptive-Chebyshev-factorization method to allow the use
of up to 5,000 node points. Other methods are restricted
to 1,000 node points.
E-14
Permeability restoration in underground disposal reservoirs
Performing Organization
University of Alabama
Natural Resources Center
University, Alabama 35486
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $9,841
1210
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Summary of Project -
The proposed research plan involves laboratory procedures
seeking to develop technology for restoration of perme-
ability and related physical parameters of underground
liquid-waste disposal reservoirs wherein the injective
capacity has been impaired by the physical and chemical
interaction of injected liquid wastes and the rock matrix,
native fluids, and other interstitial pore material.
Laboratory investigations will employ the following tech-
niques: (1) determination of porosity and permeability
of selected reservoir rocks; (2) injection of typical
industrial liquid wastes under simulated reservoir con-
ditions over nominal or long periods of time to deter-
mine the resulting permeability diminution; chemical
analysis of fluids utilized; (3) employing mechanical
and chemical methods of restoration of permeability and
receptive capacity of the injected core samples; (4)
comparing the effectiveness of various permeability res-
toration procedures by data analysis, wherein the perme-
ability history is expressed mathematically. These
relationships will be obtained by curve-fitting tech-
niques and use of a digital computer.
Data analysis and reporting will be directed toward pro-
viding techniques for field application of methods of
permeability restoration and rehabilitation of underground
waste-disposal reservoirs where the injection capacity has
been impaired as a result of the incompatibility of injected
wastes and native pore materials.
E-15
Finite element modeling of anisotropic ground water movement
with interfaces
Performing Organization
State University of New York
School of Engineering
Hayes Hall B, Rm. 1
Buffalo, New York
1211
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $33,444
Summary of Project -
It is proposed to investigate the ground water movements in
isotropic and anisotropic porous medium. The only one con-
tinuum concept is adopted and a mathematical model is set up
for a multi-liquid system which permits the inclusion of the
heterogeneous physical parameters involved. The finite ele-
ment method will be developed to obtain the numerical solu-
tions of the following problem areas: 1. Transient (and
steady state) solutions of isotropic porous medium flows
including the movements (and equilibrium position) of the
interfaces, drainage, deep-well disposal, withdrawal-
recharging, up-coning, etc. 2. Sea water intrusion into
confined aquifer. 3. Sea water intrusion including phreatic
surface and interface. 4. Transient solution of sea water
intrusion into anisotropic porous medium including the move-
ments of the phreatic surface and interface.
Modeled problems will be set up so that the numerical solu-
tions may be compared with known experimental data. Real-
istic physical parameters will be used whenever they are
applicable.
E-16
Pressure-fracture gradient problems in deep well waste
disposal
Performing Organization
University of Alabama
School of Engineering
University, Alabama
1212
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
(Multiple Support)
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 9/74 N/A $9,329
Summary of Project -
The proposed research is directed toward an evaluation of
the relationship between pressure buildup in deep well
waste disposal reservoirs and the fracture resistance of
confining strata or aquicludes.
The investigation will consist of the following procedures:
1. Pressure buildup in disposal reservoirs in response to
long-term injection of given volumes of waste will be deter-
mined, assuming that permeability of the reservoirs will
diminish with time as a result of chemical reaction between
the waste and native pore material. 2. The state of stress
of reservoirs at various depths within the earth, the re-
sulting fracture gradients, and the resistance to vertical
fracturing of confining strata will be determined. 3. Max-
imum permissible pressure of volume of injected waste over
the projected life of a disposal system that will insure
the confining strata will not be subjected to fracturing
stresses. 4. A computer program will be developed that
will correlate pressure buildup with fracture resistance
of confining strata, determine the elapsed time when in-
jection must cease, and calculate capital investment and
operating costs of disposal of given volumes of waste.
E-17
The finite element method in fluid mechanics
1213
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Performing Organization
Georgia Institute of Technology
School of Civil Engineering
225 N. Avenue, N.W.
Atlanta, Georgia
Supporting Agency
Georgia Institute of Technology
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
The finite element method is a powerful analytical tool in
solving engineering problems. The present study is under-
taken to explore the applicability of this method to hydrau-
lic engineering.
Successful solutions have to be found in steady saturated
subsurface flows. The application is to be extended to
time-dependent problems. Its immediate usefulness may be
in problems involving heat dissipation and the disposal of
biologically or chemically degradable, or radioactive liquid
wastes.
E-18
Transport properties of natural clays
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Arlington, Virginia 22209
1214
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $45,400
Summary of Project -
Hydrologic studies concerned with the following problems:
water supply, underground waste disposal, recharge, move-
ment of contaminants, gas storage, and subsidence, are
often hampered by the dearth of reliable information re-
garding the effect of fine-grained layers. The properties
of interest regarding these layers are: hydraulic conduc-
tivity, storage coefficient, exchange capacity and osmotic
efficiency. Clay minerals control these properties. At
present these properties are difficult to predict and/or
measure in the field or on undisturbed samples in the
laboratory.
The objectives of this project are to continue development
of meaningful measurement techniques for use in the field
and laboratory determination of the properties of interest
in fine-grained materials, and concurrently to increase the
laboratory emphasis on delineating the factors which affect
or control these properties with the goal of improving pre-
dictive ability based on relatively easily acquired data.
Complete a thorough evaluation of two completed field and
laboratory studies resulting from this project in conjunc-
tion with the results of an additional similar study, to
be published soon, and other data and results from related
studies to determine the logical sequence of emphasis to
achieve the objectives cited.
Analysis of a field and laboratory study regarding hydraulic
properties of a confining bed deposited in an alluvial en-
vironment was completed. The lab and field results did not
agree. Indications are that an apparent complex geological
1215
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geometry was not adequately represented in the lab samples.
Summarizing, studies to date have shown that representative
samples analyzed properly in the lab provide meaningful data;
however, the representatives of the samples is most impor-
tant and often difficult to evaluate.
Initiate active laboratory investigations regarding the
mechanisms affecting the behavior of fine-grained materials,
primarily clay minerals, with respect to their transport
properties as outlined in BIB10. Initial efforts will con-
centrate on osmotic conductivity. Field work will also be
conducted applying previously developed techniques for eval-
uating in situ properties of confining beds to an existing
field problem.
E-19
Denver Hydrologic Laboratory
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $115,500
Summary of Project -
The capacity of an aquifer system to store and transmit
water and to accept liquid wastes is governed in part by
a variety of hydraulic, mechanical, and geologic character-
istics that may or, in some cases, must be determined by
1216
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laboratory testing. The usefulness of laboratory data may,
however, be limited by the degree to which the measurements
reflect the undisturbed in situ properties of the samples,
and by the extent to which the samples are representative
of vastly larger volumes of earth material.
The hydrologic laboratory provides a central facility to
which geological survey projects throughout the United
States may submit samples for testing of hydrogeologic
properties. The continuing role of the laboratory is
to provide reliable and meaningful data to such projects
and, largely within the framework of current project needs,
to develop improved and diversified methods of testing
that will enhance the usefulness of laboratory data and
contribute to the understanding of basic hydrologic prin-
ciples.
Using samples submitted by field projects, the laboratory
will continue research and development directed toward im-
proving the reliability and reducing the costs of labora-
tory determinations. Particular emphasis is being placed
on close laboratory simulation of the physical and chemical
conditions existing in the field. Facilities for investi-
gating the effects of proposed artificial recharge and waste
disposal are being developed. Increased interaction with
field projects during their planning stages has been deve-
loped, and whenever possible laboratory data are being
correlated with the results of field tests and simulation
modeling.
A constant-flow permeameter employing a precision infusion
pump and sensitive pressure transducers was developed and
put into routine operation. The test chamber is a low-
pressure triaxial cell that permits moderate loading of the
sample and eliminates bypassing. A high-pressure triaxial
chamber was modified to permit testing the hydraulic con-
ductivity and specific storage of samples at effective
stresses up to 4,000 psi and pore pressures to 1,500 psi.
Excellent data on the change of hydraulic conductivity
with effective stress has been obtained.
E-20
Brine injection operation and management study
1217
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Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Charleston, West Virginia
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Oil and gas wells have been drilled in the Appalachian basin
since the 1850's, and salt brine wells since the earliest
1800's. Current exploration and development of high water-
to-oil ratio reservoirs in the basin has created a serious
brine disposal problem. Most companies now inject brine
into, just above, or just below the originating formation.
Pollution of contiguous potable ground- and surface-water
supplies has reportedly resulted from this practice in some
places. This study will determine the feasibility of making
a detailed study of the effects of brine injection at one
site.
A favorable finding in this study will lead to the following
project objectives; determine the practical limits of pres-
sure and volume under which brine may be injected into
fractured and possibly faulted oil reservoirs without harm
to potable ground and surface-water supplies. Evaluate the
effects of various injection rates and pressures on the be-
havior of the rock skeleton and native rock fluid, the growth
of the pressure mound, and the production of seismic events
of a typical Appalachian sandstone reservoir of Mississippian
age.
Before a project proposal can be made, the following are
necessary: (1) search the literature for previous studies
1218
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of this problem; (2) incorporate the methods and techniques
used in previous studies into a proposal for this study;
(3) contact and confer with local officials to enlist their
assistance in obtaining complete data at one oil field;
(4) with local officials, obtain permission of oil company
official to conduct the study in one limited oil field;
(5) confer with survey analog model personnel concerning
the construction and interpretation of models of the with-
drawals and injections in the area.
E-21
Injection of produced water to prevent pollution and
increase oil recovery - Wilmington Field, California
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
San Francisco, California
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $83,000
Summary of Project -
To determine how water produced crude oil in the Wilmington
Field, California, may be economically treated and injected
into the reservoir. Particular attention will be paid to
the sources of all particulate matter that may prevent con-
tinued injection. The effects of other waters added to the
water injection system will be studied for chemical and
bacteriological stability. The size and quantity of solids
in the injected waters will be correlated with the observed
injectivity in the injection wells.
1219
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E-22
Underground injection, monitoring, storage, and disposal of
industrial wastes
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Bartlesville, Oklahoma
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $200,000
Summary of Project -
The purpose of this project is to determine the parameters
controlling the migration of industrial waste fluids in-
jected into deep geologic formations. The objectives are
to determine: (1) the maximum particle size of waste con-
stituents that can be continuously injected into porous
media having specific pore size distributions, (2) the ion
exchange properties of various types of geologic formations,
including four formations that are currently being used for
waste injection, (3) the adsorption properties (rates and
equilibria) of organic waste constituents in sandstone and
carbonate formations under simulated subsurface conditions
of temperature and pressure, (4) the rates and products of
decomposition of organic waste constitutents in a subsurface
environment, (5) to develop technology and procedures for
evaluation of underground formations for injection of wastes
and for monitoring procedures of injection systems.
Present research is concentrated on pore size distributions
of porous media, the ion exchange and neutralization capaci-
ties of formations, and the adsorption and decomposition
properties of organic waste constituents.
1220
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GEOLOGIC-HYDROGEOLOGIC STUDIES
GH-1
Investigations on the subsurface disposal of waste effluents
at inland sites
Performing Organization
University of Arizona
Water Resources Research Center
Tucson, Arizona
Supporting Agency
Interior Department
Office of Saline Water
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/68 to 6/70 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Artificial ground water recharge investigations will be con-
ducted to evaluate the applicability of recent theoretical,
laboratory and field studies on mixing during miscible dis-
placement, to waste disposal operations in inland alluvial
sediments. The results will facilitate the establishment
of rational guidelines for the selection and operation of
artificiax recharge facilities to preclude the impairment
of native ground water supplies during subsurface disposal
of waste effluent in inland areas with physical controls
similar to those at the experimental site.
Recharge studies will be initiated at The Water Resources
Research Center Field Laboratory, The University of Arizona,
Tucson, using a blended, cooling-tower blowdown effluent.
A series of "single-well" recharge-pumping trials will be
conducted on a 150 ft. deep, 20 inch diameter recharge well.
"Two-well" tests will consist of injecting effluent into the
recharge well and, simultaneously, pumping from a downstream
1221
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observation well. Recharge water will be tagged with fluor-
escent dye to facilitate preparation of breakthrough curves,
using a recording fluorometer, during pumping. Tracer
studies will also be conducted during recharge in a pit
(100 ft. x 50 ft. x 10 ft., 2-1/2:1 side slopes). Water
samples will be obtained from wells in the vadose and
phreatic zones for preparation of breakthrough curves.
GH-2
The carbonate hydrogeologic environment, its relationship
to land use, water resources development and management
Performing Organization
Pennsylvania State University
Inst. Res. Land & Water Resources
Land & Water Res. Building
University Park, Pennsylvania
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Office of Water Resources Research
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A $12,470
Summary of Project -
The geologic, topographic and land use factors that govern
the occurrence, movement and recharge of ground water, the
interrelationship among surface and ground waters, and the
chemical quality of ground water related to the above is
being studied for a terrain underlain by nearly 10,000 feet
of folded and faulted carbonate rocks in central Pennsylvania.
Geologic and hydrologic factors pertinent to land use
planning, and comprehensive water resources development
and management will be investigated in this hydrogeologic
1222
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environment. To accomplish this aim, stresses acting on
the physical environment brought about by drought, urbani-
zation, industrialization, recreation, etc., will be in-
vestigated and related to the physical environment response.
Methodology of obtaining and evaluating relevant data will
be improved upon to accomplish these objectives. Specifi-
cally, the importance of rock type, faults, folds, fracture
traces and topography will be related to the permeability
and storage characteristics of rocks, their relationship
to recharge, stream flow and water quality. Geohydrologic
factors relating site selection of sanitary landfills, storm
water discharge, sewage effluent and industrial waste dis-
posal will be investigated.
The overall hydrologic response of this complex aquifer and
surface water system will be analyzed using electrical analog
techniques.
GH-3
Immobilizing wastes in impermeable rocks
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado 80225
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Waste materials generated by DOD agencies and their con-
tractors are considered an economic and social liability
1223
-------
on the land surface. One of the most promising subsurface
environments for emplacement of these wastes is that offered
by salt deposits. Therefore, the objective of this project
is to evaluate potential subsurface sites in impermeable
rocks, particularly salt deposits, in terms of their geo-
logic and hydrologic suitability for emplacement of wastes
generated by activities of the Department of Defense.
GH-4
Waste emplacement, preliminary overview
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
uenver, Colorado
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
A program to provide a summary of available geologic and
hydrologic knowledge of selected areas and rock types,
particularly salt, to aid the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission
in its search for the best location for a pilot plant repos-
itory for underground emplacement of solid high-level radio-
act.ive waste. The project includes six report topics:
1) stability of salt in the Permian salt basin of Kansas,
Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico; 2) geology and hydrology
of the Carlsbad potash area, Eddy and Lea Counties, New
Mexico; 3) halite occurrences in Arizona; 4) geologic and
hydrologic summary of salt domes in Gulf Coast region of
1224
-------
Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama; 5) potential
waste disposal sites in Paradox and Eagle Basins, Utah
and Colorado; 6) shale, mudstone and claystone as poten-
tial host rocks for underground emplacement of radioactive
waste.
GH-5
Subsurface management of waste liquids
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Morgantown, West Virginia
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Mines
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $100,000
Summary of Project -
The objective is to determine subsurface formations in West
Virginia that are best suited for injection and storage of
various waste liquids.
The underground storage of waste liquids is often desirable
and necessary in preventing surface and subsurface fresh
water pollution. The Kanawha River Valley, Charleston, West
Virginia, has been selected for the initial study. This
study is a cooperative effort with the West Virginia Geolog-
ical and Economic Survey.
The Geological Survey will prepare location maps of all oil
and gas wells in the area and also make structure, isopach,
porosity, connate water saturation, reservoir pressure and
fracture gradient maps of reservoirs in the area.
1225
-------
The Morgantown Energy Research Center will prepare maps
of surface fracture traces and lineaments using the air-
borne remote sensors, side looking radar, and thermal
infrared photography. Surface joint measurements, rock
stress measurements and induced hydraulic fracture orien-
tation field studies will be made to determine where possible
vertical migration of injected waste liquids may occur or
intersect abandoned or active oil or gas wells. Laboratory
studies will be made of core material to evaluate the phys-
ical and chemical properties of the formations and their
reaction to waste liquids and injection pressures. Engi-
neering studies will be made of injection pressures and
equipment, volumes and rates of injection of liquid waste.
From these studies, locations for waste liquid disposal
wells will be selected with the lowest probability of
pollution to the environment.
GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES
GP-1
Seismicity and tectonic strainfields
Performing Organization
California Institute of Technology
Graduate School
1201 E. California Blvd.
Pasadena, California
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of Defense
Air Force
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Relation to DOD function and mission - This work supports re-
search in the large shot seismicity phase of Arpa's military
1226
-------
geophysics program. This is part of a coordinated DOD/AEC
program to determine whether underground explosions are
capable of triggering damaging earthquakes. The nature,
and possible continuation, of the high-yield nuclear test
program will, in part, depend upon the results of these
measurements. In the last several years it has become in-
creasingly clear that man's activities are able to interact
with the tectonic strain field of the earth. Examples of
such activities are reservoir loading, deep fluid injection,
and underground testing of nuclear devices. It is also
clear that natural earthquakes cause a change in the phys-
ical environment leading to stress release and aftershock,
foreshock, and swarm sequences, or to periods of accelerated
creep. A detailed study of the triggering problem of cer-
tain aspects of the regional seismicity problem will be
investigated to determine source mechanisms, seismic energy
propagation, strain accumulation and release. This research
will provide the USAF with data to improve the identification
of underground nuclear explosions and the understanding of
stress and strain relationship for site selection.
GP-2
Laboratory investigation of earthquake generation by fluid
injection
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
345 Middlefield Rd.
Menlo Park, California
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
1227
-------
Summary of Project -
Try to find out if it is possible to limit the size of
elastic shocks during fluid injection into rocks subjected
to a differential stress and high confining pressure.
GP-3
Childress M/Eq. Studies
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
345 Middlefield Rd.
Menlo Park, California
Supporting Agency^
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Geologic Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/71 to 6/72 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
This project is part of a larger program to study the
relationship between earthquakes and fluid injection in
wells. The current phase of the project is to gather data
on the natural seismicity of the area prior to fluid in-
jection. Future work will investigate the seismicity of
the area after fluid injection begins to determine the
relationship between earthquakes and fluid pressure.
GP-4
Tiltmeter instrumentation for deep borehole operation
1228
-------
Performing Organization
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
15 Acorn Park
Cambridge., Massachusetts
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of Defense
Air Force
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $75,824
Summary of Project -
This effort is a part of the instrument development phase
of Arpa's military geophysics program. Its purpose is to
develop and test a new type of deep hole instrumentation
to measure and continually record two components of tilt
resulting from changes in the earth's strain field. These
deep borehole tiltmeters are intended to be used in studies
of the spatial and temporal distribution of earth strain
caused by stress sources of natural (tectonic) origin or
artificial processes, such as deep well fluid injection
waste disposal, hard rock excavation, and underground
nuclear explosions. Results of this work will contribute
to the technical solution of DOD related problems associated
with inadvertent generation of seismic activity by fluid
injection in deep holes for waste disposal and by nuclear
weapons testing, and with prediction of cavity behavior
during the excavation of extensive underground openings
in hard rock. Design of the instrument sensor is based
on a diamagnetic suspension principle. Three instrument
packages will be assembled and each will be subjected to
operational and stability tests in shallow (approximately
100 feet deep) boreholes in an area where the earth tides
can be deployed in deep (several thousands of feet) bore-
holes in a suitably spaced array to continuously record
two components of tilt for interpretation of the changes
in the regional strain field of the earth in the test
location.
1229
-------
GP-5
Deep borehole stress measurement technique
Performing Organization
South Dakota School of Mines
School of Engineering
Rapid City, South Dakota
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of Defense
Air Force
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $80,674
Summary of Project -
In situ measurements of the initial state of stress of rock
masses provide one of the most important parameters for ac-
complishing the objectives of two phases of the DOD military
geophysics program of Arpa — fluid injection and waste dis-
posal research for determining the susceptibility of rocks
to fail during fluid injection into deep wells or filling of
reservoirs resulting in the inadvertent triggering of hazard-
ous earthquakes, and rapid excavation rock mechanics research
for the design of both surface and underground openings in
rock. A deep borehole instrument capable of making stress
measurements in the side walls of uncased boreholes has been
developed and lab tested and stress concentration factors
unique to the geometry of the measurements have been de-
veloped under a previous contract. Combining the stress
measurements and the concentration factors in calculations
completely defines the state of stress at various depths in
the ground. The deep borehole stressmeter will be tested in
a shallow hole, modified if necessary, and then utilized at
various depths in several deep boreholes in producing oil
fields, seismically active areas, and reservoir sites to
determine underground stress fields and their changes re-
sulting from natural tectonic and man-made seismic activity.
1230
-------
GP-6
Triggering of earthquakes in Mississippi Valley seismic zone
Performing Organization
St. Louis University
School of Arts
221 N. Grand Boulevard
St. Louis, Missouri 63103
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of Defense
Defense Adv. Res. Project Agency
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/73 to 6/74 N/A $40,456
Summary of Project -
To determine seismicity in the vicinity of a deep injection
well at New Johnsonville, Tennessee.
Seismicity is to be monitored by a radio telemetered seismic
array newly developed under fluid injection/waste disposal
research program. Analysis and interpretation of data will
be conducted and earthquake activity, if any, correlated
with injection pressures and other data from the waste dis-
posal well.
GP-7
Borehole geophysics as applied to geohydrology
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado
1231
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $89,000
Summary of Project -
Borehole geophysics is essential for a full understanding of
the geologic framework within which water moves and provides
a means for the extrapolation of hydrologic data to other
areas. The techniques and degree of application of borehole
geophysics to ground water hydrology are many years behind
the petroleum industry. The maximum use of borehole geo-
physics will provide a greater data return for money in-
vested in test holes and wells, sampling and sample analyses,
and hydraulic tests.
The objectives of this research project are: to investigate,
appraise, and report on the current and potential appli-
cations of borehole geophysics in ground water hydrology, to
demonstrate the value of these techniques in various ground
water environments, to adapt existing equipment for hydro-
logic purposes and to improve methods of quantitative log
interpretation.
Many of the interpretive techniques and much of the logging
equipment developed in the petroleum industry can be adapted
to hydrologic investigations with a considerable savings in
time and money. New equipment and techniques that are not
available elsewhere are developed by project personnel for
specific ground water applications such as artificial re-
charge and subsurface waste disposal. Close liaison, with
the equipment services unit results in a better understanding
of field problems and a more rapid application of new develop-
ments to the field. All final testing is done in the field
and relies heavily on the availability of other data on the
wells logged.
1232
-------
Research was carried out on improving borehole flow meters.
Thermal, strain-gauge, impeller and tracer probes were de-
signed and tested. Geophysical logging as applied to arti-
ficial recharge to identify plugging of the aquifer and to
measure water movement. Periodic temperature logs were used
to determine the relative permeability and changes with time.
A project on the application of geophysics to Karst hydrology
was started in Yugoslavia. Specifications were prepared for
the first regional logger and it was tested and accepted.
Testing and modification of borehole flow meters will con-
tinue with an evaluation report planned for later in the
year. When flow meter research is finished work should
start on a system for digitizing logs in the field. Field
investigations will continue on artificial recharge and
limestone hydrology near San Antonio, Texas, and Dubrovnik,
Yugoslavia.
GP-8
Geophysical logging research as applied to subsurface waste
storage
Performing Organization
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado
Supporting Agency
U. S. Department of the Interior
Geological Survey
Water Resources Division
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A $50,000
1233
-------
Summary of Project -
Investigations of subsurface waste storage rely on drilled
holes for specific data on deep environments, but disposal
into deep rocks imposes an economic limit on the number of
test holes and monitor wells that can be drilled. Data on
the capacity of the environment to accept and transmit cer-
tain fluids can be determined by coring and hydraulic tests
using isolation packers. Geophysical logs can add three-
dimensional information to core and test data, vertically
in one well and laterally to other wells. Periodic logging
also provides information on changes taking place in the
well and rocks due to waste injection.
Adequate protective and developmental knowledge of deep
waste storage basins in the United States will require an
improved arsenal of borehole geophysical techniques. New
and improved methodologies and equipment of the petroleum
industry must be developed, modified, and tested for waste
storage applications. Acoustic velocity and pulsed neutron
logging capabilities will be added to the equipment already
available in the Water Resource Division. The basic objec-
tive is to provide predictive information on the effect of
injecting waste on the rock matrix and contained fluids.
The acoustic velocity and pulsed neutron logging equipment
along with other logging techniques already available in
the Water Resources Division will be applied to the study
of proposed waste emplacement environments. Logs will be
calibrated and collated with core and fluid analyses and
the results of hydraulic tests using statistical and com-
puter techniques. Because of the difficulty of building
laboratory models to simulate in situ response of geo-
physical tools, the project will rely entirely on wells,
analyses, and tests from other phases of the subsurface
waste emplacement program.
In order to make room for additional logging equipment to
be acquired for subsurface waste storage applications, the
research logging van was moved to a larger truck and storage
boxes and tubes were added. A 20 foot folding tower was de-
signed and built on the truck so that acoustic velocity logs
can be made in the absence of a drilling rig. The acoustic
1234
-------
velocity system was tested and accepted. A comparison of
velocities measured with this equipment and a Schlumberger
borehole compensated system revealed discrepancies. Core
samples from the hole have been selected for laboratory
velocity and porosity analyses which will be used for log
calibration.
MONITORING STUDIES
M-l
Application of remote sensing to hydrogeology
Performing Organization
University of Wisconsin
School of Natural Sciences
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Supporting Agency
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Organization & Management Office
University Affairs Office
Man
Period Hours Funds
N/A N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
In continuation of our research on the application of remote
sensing in the evaluation of shallow ground water flow sys-
tems, two landfill sites in the city of Madison, Wisconsin,
were overflown with a Daedalus thermal scanner and PRT-5
(8-14 pr.) at altitudes between 1600-1800 feet. Simulta-
neously with the thermal flights, ground truth information
was gathered and the data obtained are now being correlated
with the imagery obtained by the thermal sensor. An analysis
is being made of such masking effects as: vegetation and
1235
-------
color of soils; depth to the water table; topography;
diurnal soil temperature variations; heat conduction
originated by the decomposition of the refuse.
Extensive ground water flow system evaluations, both
physical and chemical, had already been accomplished at
these two sites using conventional ground based techniques,
Hopefully, the results of these investigations will show
some of the potentials and handicaps of remote sensed
thermal imagery for local and basin-wide investigations
of shallow ground water flow systems.
M-2
Use of precise ground water temperature measurement for
detecting and tracking pollution spread in shallow basalt
aquifer west of Melbourne
Performing Organization
Victoria Geological Survey
Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia
Supporting Agency
Victorian State Government
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary^ of Project -
To provide a cheap and simple technique for monitoring move-
ment of polluted ground water in the vicinity of effluent
disposal bores.
Twelve observation bores were drilled at selected positions
surrounding a bore used for underground disposal of indus-
trial effluent. Disposal is into a basalt aquifer system
1236
-------
which consists of an upper, unconfined and a lower, partly
confined, aquifer. The aquifers show evidence of pollution
and partial clogging.
To monitor water quality and movement, initial observations
of the potentiometric surface and ground water quality were
made by periodic water level observations, sampling and
chemical analysis. This method proved both costly and time
consuming. To overcome these problems, a method involving
use of precise ground water temperature measurements in com-
bination with continuous water level recording and regular
determination of conductivity has been developed. An experi-
ment is planned to begin immediately before the annual Xmas
shut-down of the plant and will continue until after pro-
duction resumes. As many boreholes as possible will be
equipped with continuous water level recorders, and ground
water conductivity will be recorded continuously from a
single point in one borehole. All holes will be regularly
logged for water temperature and conductivity at vertical
intervals of five or ten feet using equipment accurate to
0.01 degrees C, especially developed for the purpose.
It is expected that the experiment will provide quantitative
data on the rates of ground water movement and flow paths in
three dimensions, and will also test the value of the method
for similar investigations in other areas.
MISCELLANEOUS STUDIES
MI-1
Brine disposal treatment practices relating to the oil
production industry
Performing Organization
University of Oklahoma
Research Institute
660 Parrington Oval, Room 101
Norman, Oklahoma
1237
-------
Supporting Agency
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water Programs
Man
Period Hours Funds
7/72 to 6/73 N/A N/A
Summary of Project -
Supply the oil field operator with sufficient information
to implement the most satisfactory method of brine disposal
while complying with state regulations.
A report will be prepared based on contacts with state
agencies, oil companies, and salt water disposal companies.
The text will include the principle and coordinating state
agencies having regulatory responsibility for brine disposal;
the date and title of the most current brine legislation;
the disposal practices permitted and permit fees; and a
mathematical model of disposal costs (capital and operating)
as a function of disposal method, benefits of brine injec-
tion, size of the operation, and location.
1238
-------
SECTION XI
APPENDIX H
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH PROJECTS RELATED
TO THE TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Table 35 comprises this appendix. It lists the project
and the performing and supporting agency. The period
during which the project was undertaken is shown together
with the manhours and funds incumbered when available.
Data that were not available are indicated by N/A.
1239
-------
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX I
INVENTORY OF LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS,
AND POLICY GOVERNING DEEP-WELL INJECTION
STATE
Alabama1
The Water Improvement Commission has jurisdiction over the
disposal of industrial wastes. The Commission originally
was established by Act No. 523, 1947 General Acts of Alabama,
as amended. In 1965 the Commission was reorganized and its
jurisdiction extended into areas of Water Pollution Control
by Act. No. 574, 1965 General Acts of Alabama. There are no
specific laws or regulations governing underground disposal.
A general summary of the information reviewed before ap-
proval of a deep-well system is as follows:
a. Volume of waste.
b. Physical and chemical properties of the waste.
c. Subsurface geologic investigations, study of well
logs.
d. Depth and extent of usable ground waters and means
of requiring their protection.
e. Depth and thickness, areal extent, and physical
and chemical composition of formations designated
as disposal reservoirs.
f. Hydrology of designated disposal formations and
their expected performance over a period of years.
Alaska1
The Department of Health and Welfare is the state agency
charged with the preservation of water quality standards.
Title 46 of the Alaska Statutes describes their policy and
functions. They would be the primary regulatory agency in
1254
-------
the event subsurface disposal programs were adopted. In
addition, the Department of Natural Resources, under
Statutes 31, 05.030, also has authority to regulate the
drilling, casing and plugging of wells to prevent pollu-
tion of fresh water. The regulations specifically apply
to oil activities; however, the general wording indicates
application to other subsurface programs. The State of
Alaska Water Quality Standards and Implementation Plan
has been submitted to the Secretary of Interior as part
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
requirements and conditional approval has been given.
Arkansas l' 3
The Pollution Commission was established under Act 472 of
1949 as amended by Act 183 of the 1965 Legislature (Section
82-1901, et seq., Arkansas Statutes) and are charged with
regulation of any type of disposal system. Rule C-7 of the
Oil and Gas Regulations specifies disposal of salt water or
other water containing minerals. Permits would have to be
obtained from both agencies. Applications for permits would
need to comply with the existing C-7 regulations, as well as
any regulations the Pollution Control Commission has.
Rule C-7 Disposal of Salt Water -
A. Application, Approval and Place of Disposal., Salt
water or other water containing minerals in such amount
as to be unfit for domestic, stock, irrigation, or
other general uses, upon application to, and approval
by the Commission may be disposed of by injection into
the following formations:
1. Non-producing zones of oil or gas-bearing formations
that contain water mineralized by processes of nature
to such a degree that the water is unfit for domestic,
stock, irrigation, or other general uses.
2. All non-producing formations, containing water miner-
alized by processes of nature to such a degree that
water is unfit for domestic, stock, irrigation or
other general uses; provided, that before such for-
mations are approved for disposal use, it shall be
ascertained that they are separated from fresh water
1255
-------
formations by impervious beds which will give adequate
protection to such fresh water formations, and that
fresh water supplies contained by the proposed dis-
posal formation near its outcrop shall be at such a
remote distance as not to be endangered by addition
of mineralized water in the proposed disposal wells.
The Commission, in passing upon applications for the
use of non-producing formations for disposal formations,
will be advised by the technical recommendations of the
State Geological Survey and the State Board of Health
in determining whether such formations may be safely
and legally used.
B. Casing and Cement. Disposal wells shall be cased and
the casing cemented in such manner that damage will not
be caused to oil, gas or fresh water resources.
Special requirements augmenting Section B —
"I. New Wells Drilled for Disposal:
A. On wells to be drilled to the Wilcox, operator
may have the option of setting surface and
cementing the long string a minimum of 250 feet
above the top of the Wilcox, or not setting
surface casing and circulating the cement to
the surface on the long string.
B. On wells to be drilled below the Wilcox,
operator shall be required to comply with
the Minimum Surface Casing Requirements and
cement the long string a minimum of 250 feet
above any producing zone or above the zone to
be injected into.
C. A cement bond log shall be required to be sure
the cementing requirements are complied with.
D. An Induction log shall be required if there
are no logs in the immediate vicinity of the
proposed injection well to be used for corre-
lation.
1256
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II. Old Wells Converted to Disposal Wells:
A. A cement bond log shall be required to be sure
the cement behind the casing is a minimum of
250 feet above any producing zone or 250 feet
above the zone to be injected into.
B. A Gamma Ray log shall be required if there are
no logs in the immediate vicinity of the pro-
posed injection well to be used for correlation.
III. Completion or Recompletion Reports shall be filed
no later than 10 days after completion of the well."
C. Trial Test — Application, Contents and Approval.
1. On application to and approval by the Commission
trial tests may be made in the manner and for such
duration as the conditions justify and the Com-
mission may permit.
2. The application for a trial test shall be verified
and filed with the Commission showing:
(a) the location of the disposal well
(b) location of wells and names of landowners and
lessees within one-half mile of the disposal
well
(c) description of formation and top and bottom
depth where disposal water is to be injected
(d) elevation of the producing formations
(e) disposal well log and description of disposal
well casing
(f) such other information as the Commission may
require to ascertain whether the disposal may
be safely and legally made
3. Approval for trial tests will be given by the Com-
mission if after investigation it is found that the
disposal may be safely made under the proposed plan.
1257
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4. Disposal water may not be injected into a disposal
well for a longer period than a trial test without
first complying with the requirements herein for
permanent disposal.
D. Permanent Disposal — Application, Contents, Notice,
Objections, Hearing and Approval.
1. No disposal water shall be injected into a disposal
well except for trial tests as provided in (C),
until so ordered by the Commission pursuant to
application and notice as herein required.
2. The application shall be verified and filed in
triplicate with the Commission showing:
(a) the location of the disposal well, abandoned
and drilling wells and dry holes
(b) the location of all oil and gas wells, in-
cluding abandoned and drilling wells arid dry
holes, and the names of the landowners and
lessees within one-half mile of the disposal
well
(c) the name, description and depth of the for-
mation into which water is to be injected
(d) elevations of the top of the producing for-
mation in the disposal well and in all pro-
ducing wells within one-half mile radius if
the disposal water is to be injected into a
lower horizon of an oil or gas-bearing for-
mation
(e) disposal well log
(f) description of the disposal well casing
(g) location of wells producing water to be in-
jected into the disposal well
(h) the estimated minimum and maximum amounts of
water to be injected daily
1258
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(i) the name and address of operators notified of
the application and the date that such notice
was given
(j) such other information as the Commission may
require to ascertain whether the disposal may
be safely and legally made
3. Application may be made to include the use of more
than one disposal well on the same lease or on more
than one lease.
4. Applications shall be executed by all operators who
are to participate in the proposed disposal plan.
5. Notice of the application shall be given by the
applicant by mailing or delivering a copy of the
application to each operator of producing and
drilling wells within one-half mile radius of
the proposed disposal well. Such notice shall
be mailed to or delivered on or before the date
the application is mailed to or filed with the
Commission.
6. Objections or complaints, stating the reasons why
the proposed plan as contained in the application
may cause damage to oil, gas or fresh water re-
sources, must be filed within ten days after the
application is filed.
7. In the event any such objection or complaint is
filed or the Commission on its own motion deems
that there should be a hearing on the application,
a hearing shall be had after reasonable notice of
the time, place and subject matter of such hearing
has been given to the parties in interest.
8. Orders approving the disposal plan will not be made
within ten days of the filing of the application
unless the written consent of all persons entitled
to notice is filed with the Commission within such
time.
1259
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E. Notice of Commencement and Discontinuance of Disposal
Operations.
1. Immediately upon the commencement of disposal oper-
ations, the applicant shall notify the Commission
of the same and the date of commencement.
2. The owner or operator of the disposal well shall
keep an accurate record of the amount of water dis-
posed of and such information shall be furnished
the Commission monthly.
3. Within ten days after the discontinuance of dis-
posal operations, the applicant or the one in
charge thereof shall notify the Commission of
the date of such discontinuance and the reasons
therefore.
4. Before any disposal well shall be abandoned,
notice shall be served on the Commission and
the same procedure shall be followed in the
plugging of such well as provided for the
plugging of oil and gas wells.
California19-20
There is no specific legislation related to deep-well
disposal of industrial waste in California. The Porter-
Cologne Water Quality Control Act gives various state
departments or agencies regulatory authority in Chapter
5.5 Section 13382 stating, "Waste discharge requirements
shall be adopted to control pollutants into wells". The
jurisdiction of regulation and enforcement probably will
be with five agencies; the Water Resources Control Board,
the Water Quality Control Board, the State Land Commission,
the State Board of Health and the Division of Oil and Gas.
The State Board of Health is specifically involved when
septic tanks and sewage lagoons are involved and the Divi-
sion of Oil and Gas, under the Public Resources Code, has
control over all wells drilled or converted to waste water
disposal from oil, gas or geothermal resources operations.
The Division of Oil and Gas also acts as an advisor to
other involved agencies and the Division's specific re-
quirements for disposal wells as set forth in its Manual
of Instructions (revised August 1973) apply to industrial
deep-well systems; they state:
1260
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43. WATER DISPOSAL
A disposal well is any well used for the disposal of
waste water from oil, gas or geothermal resources
operations.
New wells may be drilled and old wells may be con-
verted for water disposal service. Notices and
bonds are required as for any other well.
Note: Water-injection wells will be classified by
district offices as water flood (Sec. 42) or water
disposal, according to primary purpose. Use best
judgment in borderline cases.
Map symbols for water-disposal wells:
X Water disposal
X Oil well converted to water disposal
XP Dual producing and disposal well
X Water disposal, Industrial
%c Gas well converted to water disposal
# Abandoned gas well that had disposal
43.1 NEW PROJECTS
Data Required from Operator
In general, requirements are similar to those for
production-stimulation wells (Sec. 42). However,
data and exhibits need only extend or cover the
disposal zone and shall consist of the following:
1. A cross section through the injection well,
showing structural details and the following:
a. Top, bottom, formation and age of
injection zone.
b. Base of any fresh-water strata, or
a statement that none present.
1261
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2. A contour map on top of, or near the injec-
tion zone.
Note: Items 1 and 2 above may be omitted
if the Division has a recently published
report and the operator states he accepts
this interpretation of the geology, or if
the well is so isolated as to preclude the
filing of the information.
3. Source and analysis of the injection water
and analysis of water in the injection zone.
4. Graphs of injection rate vs. pressure (to
be submitted as soon as they are made).
5. Letter containing engineering details of the
project, such as:
a. Reservoir characteristics of injection
zone, such as porosity, permeability,
etc.
b. Method of injection (casing, tubing,
tubing with packer, between strings).
c. Daily amount of water to be injected
per well.
d. Treatment of water to be injected.
e. Maximum surface injection pressure
anticipated.
f. Condition of old, abandoned, idle
wells in vicinity of injection well.
g. Precautions taken, or to be taken, to
ensure that injection fluid is confined
to intended zone of injection.
6. Copies of letter of notification are sent to
neighboring operators if deemed advisable by
the deputy.
1262
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Approval of New Projects by Division
Projects may be approved by the district deputy with-
out reference to the Supervisor. However, the deputy
may refer to the Supervisor in advance if he has any
questions or doubts.
In some instances, operators proposed to inject
waste water into aquifers other than depleted oil
reservoirs. Every effort should be made to confirm
that all the injected water is confined to the in-
tended zone of injection. Some aquifers are con-
fined and if filled to capacity, there is the pos-
sible problem of the waste water migrating upward
behind the casing of either the injection well or
nearby producing wells. The condition of all wells
within a half-mile radius should be such that all
oil, gas and fresh water deposits are protected.
A thorough knowledge of the stratigraphy and sub-
surface conditions is essential before permitting
such disposal. Even so, these projects must be
constantly and carefully scrutinized.
Upon receipt of data from operator in regard to a
new project, Deputy replies by letter approving the
project subject to our general requirements:
1. Form 105 or Form 107 shall be used whenever
a new well is to be drilled for use as an
injection well, or whenever an existing well
is to be converted to an injection well,
even if no work is required. (Specific re-
quirements to be outlined in answer to the
notice.)
2. A monthly report on Form 110-B shall be
furnished this Division in duplicate,
listing the amount of fluid injected
and the surface pressure required for
each injection well.
3. A chemical analysis of the fluid to be in-
jected shall be made and filed with this
Division prior to the start of injection,
whenever the source of injection fluid is
changed, or as requested.
1263
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4. A chemical analysis of the fluid in the in-
jection zone shall be made and filed with
this Division prior to the start of injec-
tion.
5. An accurate, operating pressure gauge or
chart shall be maintained at the wellhead
at all times.
6. Fluid injection profile surveys shall be
required for all injection wells within
one month after injection has commenced,
at least once every year thereafter for
all high-pressure or high-volume injec-
tion wells, after any significant anomal-
ous rate or pressure change, or as re-
quested by the Division, to confirm that
the injection fluid is confined to the
proper zone.
7. Sufficient data shall be maintained to
show performance of the project and to
establish that no damage is occurring
due to excessive injection pressure.
These data shall be available for peri-
odic inspection by personnel from the
Division.
8. Injection shall cease if any evidence of
damage is observed or upon written notice
from the Division.
It may be necessary to modify the above requirements
or add other requirements to fit individual circum-
stances.
Do not send to headquarters duplicate copies of the
material received from the operator. This material
is to be sent to the State Record Center by the
district office.
When reporting a chemical analysis of zone water or
injection water, preferably use ppm as the unit. Re-
ports of water analysis submitted by operators are
generally given in parts per million or milligrams
per liter.
1264
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Colorado2•**
Effective May 1, 1974, the Colorado Water Quality Control
Commission has jurisdiction to regulate and control the
subsurface disposal of industrial and domestic waste as
contemplated by the Water Quality Control Act of 1973,
(C.R.S. 66-28 as amended) and by C.R.S. (1963) 3-16-2
(6) as amended.
Rules for Subsurface Disposal Systems -
The Rules and Regulations for Subsurface Disposal Systems
effective July 1, 1970, are repealed and repromulgated as
follows:
Section 1 - DECLARATION OF POLICY. - These Rules provide
the conditions for the location, construction and operation
of subsurface disposal systems. After the effective date
of the adoption of these Rules, no construction nor oper-
ation shall take place contrary to provisions of these Rules,
Section 2 - DEFINITIONS. - As used in these Rules:
(a) "Act" means the Colorado Water Quality Control Act of
1973, Chapter 66, Article 28, C.R.S. 1963 as amended.
(b) "Aquifer" means a permeable formation, group of forma-
tions, or part of a formation that contains sufficient
saturated permeable material to yield quantities of
ground water to wells or springs.
(c) "Coefficient of Storage" means the volume of water
released from or taken into storage per unit surface
area of the aquifer when the piezometric surface de-
clines one (1) unit.
(d) "Commission" means the water quality control commission
created by section 66-28-201.
(e) "Construction" when used with respect to a disposal
system shall mean any initial creation of a new dis-
posal system, any material modification or alteration
of any existing disposal system, and the conversion
of any condition or structure not previously used as
a disposal system into such a system.
1265
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(f) "Disposal aquifer" is any aquifer into which wastes are
intended to be disposed of by means of a disposal system.
(g) "Dispose" and "Disposal" mean the deposit, generation,
creation, or discharge of any wastes at any level below
the land surface.
(h) "Division" means the division of administration of the
state health department.
(i) "Operate" when used with respect to a disposal system
means the use or employment of that system to dispose
of wastes below the surface of the land.
(j) "Person" means an individual, corporation, partnership,
association, state, or political subdivision thereof,
federal agency, state agency, municipality, commission,
or interstate body.
(k) "Pollution" means the man-made, man-induced, or natural
alteration of the physical, chemical, biological, and
radiological integrity of water.
(1) "Subsurface" means any level below the surface of the
land.
(m) "Subsurface disposal system" means any system or fa-
cility, method, excavation, well structure or condition
of any kind whatsoever (other than individual sewage
disposal systems, solid waste disposal sites, sanitary
landfills, refuse disposal sites, oil and gas wells,
water injection wells employed in oil and gas well
operations, surface ditches or retention ponds and
irrigation and water transportation systems), used,
employed or operated so that the same may reasonably
be expected, by direct or indirect means, to result in
the disposal of wastes underground, including without
limitation, the following: Sewage systems, treatment
works, wells into which wastes are deposited or in-
jected, installations, structures, wells and excava-
tions to be used in connection with any subsurface
explosion, detonation, reaction or process that might
tend to discharge, deposit or generate wastes under-
ground, and mines or other excavations initially made
for other purposes when they are used for disposal.
1266
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(n) "Subsurface water" or "Groundwater" means any waters of
the State not visible on the surface of the ground under
natural conditions.
(o) "System" means all surface and subsurface equipment,
installations and appurtenances and shall include the
formations within the zone of influence of a subsurface
disposal system.
(p) "Waste" means any substance, solid, liquid or gaseous,
including radioactive particles thereof, which pollute
or may tend to pollute any waters of the State.
(q) "Workover" means any remedial procedure which could
change the physical or chemical characteristics of the
formation, or changes in physical equipment (other than
routine maintenance of mechanical equipment), repairing
or replacing casings, tubing, packing and plugging or
perforating additional zones.
(r) "Zone of influence" means the areal extent to which a
waste can or will migrate or be dispersed within a
stated period of time from a subsurface disposal system,
as well as the areal extent of the significant vari-
ations of formation fluids caused by such a system.
Section 3 - PREREQUISITES TO CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF
SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS.
(a) No person shall construct or operate a subsurface dis-
posal system within the State of Colorado unless such
person has a currently effective permit for such con-
struction or operation issued by the Division pursuant
to this Section.
(b) No person shall receive a permit from the Division for
the construction or operation of a subsurface disposal
system within the State of Colorado unless the Commis-
sion, acting upon the application of a person proposing
to construct or operate a subsurface disposal system
shall have found and determined beyond a notice and
public hearing, one of the following:
(1) that no waters of the State will be polluted
thereby: or
1267
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(2) that if waters of the State may be polluted thereby,
the pollution resulting therefrom will be limited
to waters in a specified limited area from which
there is no risk or significant migration and the
proposed activity is justified by the public need.
Any other finding by the Commission shall preclude the
construction or operation of a subsurface disposal sys-
tem at the site proposed in the application in response
to which the Commission has made its findings.
(c) Every finding by the Commission under the provisions
of subparagraph (b) of this Section shall be stated
in writing, refer to the application upon which it
was based, and shall be final; provided, however, the
Commission will grant a rehearing to an applicant re-
questing the same if good cause therefore be shown to
the Commission and such request is made within 30 days
after the date of the entry of the Commission's
findings. Any person assuming to construct and/or
operate a subsurface disposal system, with or without
a permit issued by the Division, shall be solely res-
ponsible for such system and shall be deemed to have
assumed all risks in respect to the construction and
operation of such system.
(d) When the Commission shall have, pursuant to application,
made one of the findings described in subparagraphs (1)
or (2) of subsection (b) of this Section, the Division
shall grant to the applicant a permit to construct, op-
erate or construct and operate, as the case may be, the
subsurface disposal system for which the application
has been made, which permit may be subject to any con-
ditions reasonably required by the Division.
(e) Any person having applied to and received from the
Division a permit under the provisions of this Section
and thereafter assuming to construct and/or operate a
subsurface disposal system under the permit shall be
subject always to such orders and regulations as the
Division may reasonably require, from time to time, for
the prevention, abatement and control of pollution to
the waters of the State, including but not limited to
one or more of the following:
1268
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(1) that no zone or interval, other than the zone or
interval represented to both the Commission and
Division as the disposal interval or aquifer,
shall be used as part of the system except after
notice and hearing.
(2) that a monitoring system, including prescribed
equipment, tests, and installations, shall be
provided and operated at the sole risk, cost
and expense of the persons interested in the
system; provided, however, the Division may
designate some third party to utilize the
monitoring system data developed by or for
the operation of the system.
(3) that treatment of wastes shall be provided to
that degree required by the Division.
(4) that workover or remedial procedures shall not
be performed without prior notification of the
Division and then only to the extent ordered by
the Division.
(5) that disposal shall be only in such manner as
may be ordered by the Division in respect to
volume, rate, pressure, and similar parameters
and shall not exceed that specified or be of a
kind different from that presented to both the
Division and the Commission upon the application
filed under the provisions of Section 4 of these
Rules.
(6) that all drilling, completing, and operating pro-
cedures for subsurface disposal and monitoring
systems or wells shall conform to those practices
and procedures previously reviewed by the Division
and that any deviation in procedure or equipment
from that specified in the applications presented
to the Division shall require the concurrence of
the Division before deviation from such procedures
may be implemented.
(7) that an adequate back-up facility be provided,
including surface equipment, pumps, well-head,
1269
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transmission lines, holding tanks, retention ponds
and treatment facilities, to assure that a system
may be safely shut down in the event of component
failure and to assure the treatment of effluent to
a suitable degree for temporary surface disposal.
(8) that evidence of financial responsibility be sub-
mitted to the Division and, when the Division so
requires by its order, security, in the form of
cash, approved securities, surety bond, or evi-
dence of insurance, be deposited with the Trea-
surer of the State of Colorado, in such amount
and with and under such conditions as the Divi-
sion may direct to assure the people of the State
of Colorado of the continued compliance with the
Division's orders and that, upon abandonment,
cessation or interruption of the construction or
operation of the system, appropriate measures will
be taken to prevent present or future pollution of
the beneficially usable waters of the State. When-
ever evidence of financial responsibility is re-
quired, such evidence shall be furnished annually
for as long as the Division may require.
(9) that the Division shall be furnished with such
reports, charts, forms, and other information as
it may reasonably require and at such intervals
as may be directed by the Division from time to
time.
(10) that notwithstanding any prior finding, order or
permit of the Division the continued or future
construction of operation or use of a disposal
system shall, upon order of the Division, be dis-
continued after notice and hearing if the Division
determines that continued operation thereof is or
may tend to be injurious to the then present or
foreseeably beneficially usable waters of the
State.
Section 4 - APPLICATION FILED WITH DIVISION. - Any person
proposing to construct or operate, or cause to be constructed
or operated, a subsurface disposal system within the State of
1270
-------
Colorado shall file with the Division a verified, written
application for a permit under Section 3 of these Rules.
Such application shall contain, unless the requirement is
waived as inapplicable by an order of the Division, the
following:
(a) A legal description of the area within a radius of
two (2) miles of the proposed system and a legal
description of the site upon which the system will
be located.
(b) An accurate map of the area within a two (2) mile
radius of the proposed system showing the location
of the system, property boundaries, surface and
mineral ownership of record, the location of all
water wells and oil and gas wells and whether the
same are operating or have been abandoned and, if
appropriate, whether such wells have been plugged;
and the location of all mines, test holes and other
artificial penetrations or excavations.
(c) A description of the depths and deepest formations
penetrated by each of the wells, mines, excavations
or penetrations required to be shown on the map re-
quired at (b) above.
(d) A description of local topography, industry, agri-
culture, population densities, culture, wildlife,
and fish and other aquatic life within the area of
the proposed system with a projection as to the
probable effect of the system upon industry, agri-
culture, population, culture, wildlife, and fish
and other aquatic life.
(e) A description of the mineral resources believed to
be present in the area of the system and the probable
effect of the system upon such mineral resources,
together with a map or maps illustrating geologic
structures and stratigraphic sections (formations,
lithologies and physical characteristics for the
local area and a general map illustrating the re-
gional geologic setting of the system). Such ex-
hibits shall be prepared by a qualified expert.
1271
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(f) A description of all water resources, both surface
and subsurface, within the probable zone of the in-
fluence of the system, the classification if any,
the available amounts thereof and potential uses and
a map or maps indicating vertical and lateral limits
of surface and subsurface water supplies.
(g) A description of the chemical, physical, radiological
and biological properties and characteristics of the
wastes to be disposed of through the system, and the
treatment proposed for such wastes.
(h) Copies of all plans and specifications for the system
and its appurtenances.
(i) A statement of all sources relied upon for the infor-
mation set forth in the application.
(j) If the disposal system is to be an injection well,
the following information shall be required:
(1) Potentiometric surface maps of the disposal
aquifers and those aquifers immediately cibove
and below the disposal aquifer.
(2) Copies of all drill-stem tests, extrapolations
and data used in making the maps required at
(1) above.
(3) Location and nature of present and potential
use of fluids from the disposal or affected
aquifer formations in the general area.
(4) Volume, rate and injection pressure of the fluid
to be injected.
(5) The following geologic and physical character-
istics of the injection interval and the over-
lying and underlying impermeable barriers:
(aa) Thickness.
(bb) Areal extent.
1272
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(cc) Lithology (grain mineralogy, type and min-
eralogy of matrix, amount and type of cement,
clay content, clay mineralogy).
(dd) Effective porosity and how determined.
(ee) Permeability, vertical and horizontal, and
how determined, i.e., mechanical (electrical)
logs, core analyses, formation tests.
(ff) Coefficient of storage of aquifer.
(gg) Amount and extent of natural fracturing.
(hh) Location, extent and effects of known or
suspected faulting.
(ii) Extent and effects of natural solution
channels.
(jj) Fluid saturation.
(kk) Formation fluid chemistry with indications
of local and regional variations.
(11) Temperature of formation and how determined.
(mm) Formation and fluid pressures, original and
modifications resulting from previous fluid
withdrawals.
(nn) Fracturing gradients.
(oo) Osmotic characteristics of rock and fluids
both comprising and contiguous to the res-
ervoir, and an indication of the effect of
injected wastes on contiguous formations
in the event of leakage.
(pp) Diffusion and dispersion characteristics
of the waste and formation fluid, including
effect of gravity segregation.
1273
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(qq) Compatibility of injected waste with
physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of the reservoir.
(6) The following engineering data concerning the well:
(aa) Size of hole and estimated total depth of
well.
(bb) Type, size, weight, strength, and related
data in respect to all surface, inter-
mediate and production casing.
(cc) Specifications and proposed installation
of tubing and packers.
(dd) Proposed cementing procedures and type of
cement.
(ee) Proposed coring program.
(ff) Proposed information testing program.
(gg) Proposed injection procedure, i.e., open
hole, perforated casing.
(7) Plans for monitoring the system and, if the system
is a deep disposal well, the plans for monitoring
injection pressures and formation pressures, i.e.,
injection wells and observation wells.
(8) Expected changes in pressure, rate of fluid dis-
placement by injected wastes, directions of dis-
persion and area affected by the system.
(k) Such other and further data as the Division may reason-
ably request. An applicant may upon its own initiative,
or shall when requested by the Division, furnish an opin-
ion of independent experts, satisfactory to both the
Division and Commission, in respect to the accuracy and
completeness of any information or data furnished by the
applicant and on any aspect of the applicant's disposal
system or the contemplated operation or effects thereof.
1274
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Section 5 - PRELIMINARY REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS
(a) The Commission and the Division recognize that the
accumulation of the information and data required to
complete an application under Section 4 of these Rules
may involve considerable expense to an applicant.
Therefore, and merely as a convenience to applicants,
the Division will accept for preliminary review appli-
cations setting forth in general terms the information
specified in Section 4, but the same shall be "set out
in sufficient detail so as to enable the Division to
determine the gensral feasibility of a proposed system.
Such applications shall be clearly designated as "for
preliminary review" under authority of this Section.
(b) The Division may rule upon applications submitted for
preliminary review and either approve or disapprove
the feasibility of the proposed system. The approval
or disapproval by the Division upon preliminary review
of applications shall in no way affect the right of an
applicant to subsequently submit an application or appli-
cations containing the data required by Section 4 of
these Rules. Neither the Commission nor the Division
shall be bound by any ruling upon any application sub-
mitted for preliminary review.
Section 6 - PROCEEDINGS BEFORE THE COMMISSION - NOTICE -
PUBLIC HEARING.
(a) Before any finding upon an application, or application
for rehearing, or finding, or amendment of a finding
shall be made by the Commission under these Rules,
there shall be held a public hearing upon at least
twenty (20) days notice at such time and place as may
be prescribed by the Commission and any person inter-
ested in the action of the Commission shall be entitled
to appear and be heard; except, when an emergency re-
quiring immediate action is found to exist by the Com-
mission, the Commission may issue an emergency order
without notification of the hearing, which shall be
effective upon promulgation, but shall remain effective
for no more than twenty (20) days.
1275
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(b) The Applicant shall cause notice of every public
hearing to be given by personal service to each
surface and mineral owner of record within a two
(2) mile radius of any subsurface disposal system
which may be the subject of any proceeding before
the Commission, or it may give such notice by one
publication in a newspaper of general circulation
in the City and County of Denver, Denver, Colorado,
and in a newspaper of general circulation in the
county where the land affected by a subsurface dis-
posal system, or some part thereof, is situated.
Said notice shall be issued in the name of the
State of Colorado, shall be signed by the Commis-
sion, or the Technical Secretary of the Commission,
and shall specify the style and number of the pro-
ceedings, the time and place of the hearing, and
shall briefly state the purpose of the proceeding.
(c) If notice is given by personal service, such service
shall be made by an officer appointed to serve summons,
or by an agent of the Commission, in the same manner
and extent as is provided by law for the service of
summons in civil actions in the District Courts of
this State. Proof of service by such agent shall be
by his affidavit and proof of service by any officer
shall be in the form required by law with respect to
service of summons in civil actions.
(d) In_ addition to the notice required to be given under
subparagraph (b) of this Section, notice of every
application filed with the Commission shall be given
by the applicant by mailing or delivering a copy of
the application to each surface and mineral owner of
record within two (2) miles of any proposed subsurface
disposal system. Such notice shall be mailed or de-
livered on or before the date the application is filed
with the Commission. An affidavit shall be attached
to the application showing the parties to whom the
notice required by this subsection has been served,
and their respective addresses.
(e) The Commission shall designate a hearing officer, as
provided in the Act, who shall make findings and recom-
mendations to the Commission in respect to any matter
pertaining to a subsurface disposal system.
1276
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(f) Either the Commission or the Division may, on its own
motion, or upon the request of any interested person,
institute a proceeding to prevent a violation of the
Act, or of any order, rule or regulation of the Com-
mission or permit issued by the Commission or the Divi-
sion relating to a subsurface disposal system, or for
the amendment of any order, rule or regulation, by
notice of hearing, or issuance of an emergency order
to show cause directed to and served upon any person
or persons charged with violating the same, and may
take any step allowed under law.
(g) Hearings before the Commission shall be conducted with-
out rigid formality. A transcript of testimony shall
be taken and preserved as part of the permanent record
of the Commission. Any person testifying before the
Commission or in support of an application or in oppo-
sition thereto shall be required to do so under oath
or affirmation. Full opportunity shall be afforded all
interested parties at a hearing to present evidence and
to cross-examine witnesses. In general, the rules of
evidence applicable before a trial court without a jury
shall be applicable, providing that such rules may be
relaxed, where by so doing, the ends of justice will
be better served.
Section 7 - TERMINATION, ABANDONMENT. - No Subsurface dis-
posal system subject to these Rules shall be terminated or
plugged and abandoned except after notice and hearing.
Every plugging and abandonment shall be accomplished in
accordance with the orders of the Division. Monitoring
equipment shall be operated and precautionary steps shall
be undertaken after termination or abandonment for as long
as the Division may reasonably require, which operation and
steps shall be at the sole risk, cost, and expense of the
person responsible for the disposal system.
Section 8 - WAIVER OF BASIC STANDARDS. - Any person oper-
ating a subsurface disposal system under an effective permit
issued pursuant to these Rules shall not, as a result of the
discharge from that system, be deemed to be in violation of
the Basic Standards applicable to all the waters of this
State.
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Section 9 - OTHER REGULATORY AGENCIES. - Nothing in these
Rules shall relieve a person making application to the Com-
mission and Division from complying with all applicable
rules and regulations of other government agencies, whether
State or Federal.
Section 10 - RESPONSIBILITY. - Compliance with the Rules
contained herein shall in no way be deemed to relieve any
person of any liability, obligation or duty imposed on such
person by statute or the common law.
Section 11 - RELIANCE UPON OTHER AGENCIES. - The Commission
and the Division of Administration shall freely consult with
such other State and Federal agencies and departments as the
Division of Administration or the Commission may deem neces-
sary for a proper determination of any matter subject to
these Rules. Notice of hearing before the Commission or be-
fore a hearing officer designated by the Commission shall be
given to interested State and Federal agencies and depart-
ments .
Section 12 - AUTHORITY. - These Rules are promulgated pur-
suant to the authority conferred upon the Commission by the
Water Quality Control Act of 1973 (C.R.S. 66-28 as amended)
and by C.R.S. (1963) 3-16-2 (6) as amended.
Florida2
The state agency having the primary responsibility for regu-
lating disposal wells is the Florida Department of Health and
Rehabilitation Services Division of Health (formerly known
as the State Board of Health). The Florida Air and Water
Pollution Control Authority will have a responsibility on
the future use of underground disposal systems in Florida.
They are presently considering a policy encouraging that
type system for liquid wastes whenever geohydrologic con-
ditions are favorable.
Georgia1
The State Water Quality Control Board has the responsibility
for establishing policy and regulating water pollution con-
trol over all waters of the State (Act No. 870, as amended).
1278
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The technical staff for the Board is the Division for Georgia
Water Quality Control created within the Health Department.
Any applications for permits or approval of subsurface dis-
posal would have to be processed by the Board. Also, it is
quite likely that an interagency approach would be used in
the processing of applications. Although there are no spe-
cific statements directly relative to subsurface disposal,
the Board, under the statute does have authority to adopt
whatever rules and regulations it should deem necessary
should such a proposal be made.
The present policies regarding subsurface disposal of in-
dustrial wastes are that it is generally not an accepted
method and that any such storage should be approached with
great caution. Criteria and regulations are being developed
for deep-well disposal.
Idaho1
The regulating agencies charged with the protection of fresh
waters are:
A. State Board of Health (39-101 (4)) Idaho Code.
B. Water Resources Board of the Department of Reclamation
(42-1734) Idaho Code.
In all probability should deep-well disposal be utilized this
state would also have an interagency approach and the Bureau
of Mines and Geology would be directly involved.
Illinois1'2
A divided authority exists between Sanitary Water Board and
the Department of Mines and Minerals.
A. Rule IX under the Department of Mines and Minerals for
the Oil and Gas Division.
1. Disposal in Underground Stratum.
Salt water or other waste liquids may be disposed
of into an underground formation or strata after a
1279
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permit to do so has been procured from the Mining
Board as hereinbefore provided. The Mining Board
shall have the authority to designate and approve
the stratum into which such liquids shall be dis-
posed of, also the protective work necessary to
confine such liquids to the intended stratum. All
such work shall be executed under the supervision
of a Mining Board Representative and shall conform
to the requirements imposed in granting the permit
therefore.
H.B. 416, Sec. 86 (passed at 1967 session of the
Legislature) specifies that well for injection gas,
oil, water, or other liquid — requires permit from
Mining Board. Also that Mining Board may prescribe
rules and regulations — in connection with such
wells.
B. Statute Creating Sanitary Water Board (1929, superseded
by 1951 Act).
1. 111. revised Stat. C-19 Sections 145-1 to 145-18.
Pollution of waters of the state is not allowed.
Sanitary Water Board can determine whether pollution
exists; issue permits for waste discharge instal-
lations into waters of the state.
Administrative and Technical Procedures controlling the in-
stallation and operation of deep-well injection of industrial
waste in Illinois.
Administrative Procedures -
Basis of Requiring Sanitary Water Board Permit: Sanitary
Water Board Act requires a permit be obtained from the Board
before the construction or use of any new outlet for the dis-
charge of any wastes into the waters of the State. The
waters of the State are defined as follows: ...."Waters of
the State" means all accumulations of water, surface and un-
derground, natural or artificial, public or private or parts
thereof, which are wholly or partially within, flow through,
or border upon this State or within its jurisdiction."....
1280
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There is also authorization in the Act for the Board to pre-
scribe the requirements to be met before the issuance of a
permit for a particular facility such as the submission of
such plans, specifications, and other information as it deems
relevant and necessary.
General Procedures Followed -
The interested industry must have prepared a comprehensive
Feasibility Report and submit it to the Technical Secretary
for review, comment and receive tentative approval subject
to the receipt of final construction documents for the pro-
posed test well. Upon receipt of several copies of the
Feasibility Report, the Illinois State Water Survey, the
Illinois Geological Survey and the Department of Mines and
Minerals are requested to review the report and report their
opinions, recommendations and questions to the Technical
Secretary of the Board. Also, the technical engineering
staff of the Bureau of Stream Pollution Control and Bureau
of Public Water Supplies review the Feasibility Report.
If and when tentative approval is given by the Technical
Secretary, then the Industry must prepare proposed final
construction and testing procedure plans and specifications
prior to the drilling of the test hole. Again, the above
noted agencies give a technical review of these documents
and forward their advisory comments to the Technical Secre-
tary. When the proposed final construction and testing
plans and specifications are satisfactory, the Technical
Secretary issues a letter of approval to proceed with the
drilling of the test well as the next step toward obtaining
a permit to install and operate a deep disposal well.
During the drilling of the test well, in accordance with
the previously approved procedures, engineering and geo-
logical personnel make field observations of various tests
performed at the well, such as logging, rock core sampling,
formation fluid sampling, and injection tests. The Industry
is required, as set forth in their approved procedures, to
notify the Technical Secretary of the upcoming testing to
be done, several hours ahead of time so that the appropriate
personnel may be present. The State personnel are prepared
to proceed without delay to the site so as not to cause ex-
1281
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pensive delay in the drilling of the test hole. Also, the
State personnel are prepared to make field decisions as nec-
essary which are confirmed by letter immediately thereafter.
When the test hole is completed and the necessary test data
is completed, the Industry must then submit the data and pro-
posed final construction plan documents as modified on the
basis of test results, to the Technical Secretary for review.
The above State agencies are again asked to review the test
data. If the modified final plans are satisfactoryr then a
permit to install and operate the well casing and surface
works is issued.
It should be noted that we do hold conferences with the in-
dustry and other State agencies before the submission of the
Feasibility Report. Other conferences are encouraged and
held as necessary during the development of the plan docu-
ments and the drilling of the test hole to help insure ef-
fective current communication between the State and the in-
dustry on all details of the project.
Technical Considerations of Deep Well Disposal -
The basic policies are as follows:
(1) All zones to be considered for disposal must contain
brine waters having over 10,000 mg/1 total dissolved
solids. This equates to a one percent solution of
total dissolved solids.
(2) There must be an effective and adequate impermeable
barrier overlying the disposal zone to prevent upward
migration of either the wastes or displaced brine
waters into fresh water zones.
(3) The well bore must be double cased and the annular
spaces grouted to a point 200 feet below the lowest
fresh water zone. The outer casing is to be set into
the next lower suitable rock barrier.
(4) Fresh water is defined as water of 10,000 mg/1 or
less total dissolved solids. A figure of 5,000 mg/1
or less had been used until recently to define fresh
1282
-------
water. This was revised upward to preserve ground
waters that may be usable if and when current exper-
imental methods of desalination are made practical
for the production of potable water from brackish
waters.
(5) The industry must indicate the character and volume
of waters to be injected into the deep well. Compat-
ibility of the wastes with the formation fluids must
be indicated.
(6) Operational injection pressures to be used must be in-
dicated in the plan documents. We have not permitted
injection pressures that cause fracturing of the rock
formations in the injection zone.
(7) Detailed information about the proposed surface in-
jection equipment must be provided as a part of the
plan documents.
(8) The industry is required as a condition of the permit
to submit daily injection report records each month to
the Sanitary Water Board. These operating reports must
include the character and volume of the waste and show
the injection pressures.
(9) We are currently reviewing the necessity for requiring
the installation of observation wells to detect the es-
cape of any fluids from the disposal zone.
General Consideration of Deep Well Disposal of Industrial
Wastes -
We consider that this procedure is relatively new to Illinois.
It is realized that any pollution of any underground potable
or fresh waters will undoubtedly represent a long-term damage
to a critical natural resource. It is believed and hoped
that the procedures governing the installation and operation
of deep disposal wells are conservative. If we err in engin-
eering and administrative judgment, it is hoped that it be
toward the conservative side of the scale so that the crit-
ical natural resource of underground waters is conserved for
present and future use. It is intended that the administra-
tive and technical reviewing procedures preparatory to the
1283
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issuance of a Sanitary Water Board permit to install and
operate a deep disposal well, be rigorous — even more so
than for a permit to install and operate treatment facil-
ities for a surface discharge where the necessity of cor-
rective measures are more easily observed and accomplished.
Indiana1' 2
Indiana has been utilizing subsurface disposal of industrial
waste to a limited extent since 1951. Jurisdiction over sub-
surface disposal of industrial wastes in Indiana rests with
the Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board. The Stream Pol-
lution Control Board was created by Chapter 214, Acts of
1943 of the Indiana General Assembly. All projects for sub-
surface disposal of waste waters other than those resulting
from oil and gas operations are required to be submitted to
the Stream Pollution Control Board for review and approval
in accordance with Section 10 of Chapter 214. Section 10
reads in its entirety that "all plans and specifications for
abatement or correction of any polluted condition shall be
approved by the Stream Pollution Control Board. The Stream
Pollution Control Board shall advise and consult, on request,
with any person planning any correction or prevention of any
pollution condition of any waters of this State".
Section 6 of Chapter 214 indicates the Stream Pollution
Control Board shall have the power to call upon any state
offices, boards, departments, schools, universities or
other state institutions, and the officers or employees
thereof, and receive any assistance deemed necessary to
the carrying out of the provisions of this Act. Much of
the day-to-day work of the Board is effected by the
Indiana State Board of Health. The Indiana Department
of Natural Resources commonly provides technical counsel
to the Board; usually the Geological Survey of the Indiana
Department of Natural Resources provides judgment as to
feasibility when projects for subsurface disposal of in-
dustrial wastes are proposed.
Indiana also has a relatively new law that, among other
things, pertains to "test holes for, or in connection with,
fluid disposal investigation". This law is administered by
the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, parent of the
1284
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Geological Survey. Current interpretation of the law is
that if one proposing to drill a disposal well takes the
position that disposal feasibility has been established,
there is no need for investigation and the law does not
apply. This current interpretation will undoubtedly
limit the usefulness of the law.
Accordingly, total jurisdiction over industrial waste dis-
posal systems continues to rest with the Indiana Stream
Pollution Control Board. The body has issued no new policy
statements. Also, there is some question whether any stan-
dard forms are being used in processing these wells other
than those the operating companies submit.
Kansas1'5
Primary control over the subsurface disposal of industrial
and municipal wastes rest with the State Department of
Health. Their authority is derived from the General Stat-
utes of Kansas (KSA 65-161 through 65-171h, as amended).
The State Corporation Commission shares the responsibility
of oil and gas field brine disposal with the Health Depart-
ment (KSA 55-1003). The Board of Water Resources and the
Geological Survey (KSA 55-1006) also have certain responsi-
bilities in selecting the proper zone in which to dispose
waste.
KSA 65-171d as amended by Sec. 4, HB 1497, 1967 Session:
"For the purpose of preventing surface and subsurface water
pollution and soil pollution detrimental to public health
or to the plant, animal, and aquatic life of the state, and
to protect beneficial uses of the waters of the State, the
State Board of Health shall make such rules and regulations
including registration of potential sources of pollution,
as may in its judgment be necessary to protect the waters
of the state from pollution by oil, gas, salt water injec-
tion wells, or underground storage reservoirs; to control
the disposal, discharge or escape of sewage as defined in
KSA 65-164, by or from municipalities, corporations, com-
panies, institutions, state agencies, federal agencies, or
individuals and any plants, works, or facilities owned and/
or operated by them; and to establish water quality stan-
dards for the waters of the state to protect their bene-
ficial uses. For the purposes of this act, and if not
1285
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otherwise included, including KSA 65-161 through 65-171h,
pollution is hereby defined as such contamination or other
alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties
of any waters of the state as will or is likely to create a
nuisance or render such waters harmful, detrimental, or in-
jurious to public health, safety or welfare, or to the plant,
animal, or aquatic life of the state, or to other legitimate
beneficial uses. In making rules and regulations, the state
board of health, taking into account the varying conditions
that are probable for each source of sewage and its possible
place of disposal, discharge, or escape, may provide for
varying the control measures required in each case to those
it finds to be necessary to prevent pollution and protect
the beneficial uses of the waters of the State. The storage
or disposal of salt water, oil or refuse in surface ponds
shall be prohibited unless a permit for such storage or dis-
posal shall first be obtained from the State Board of Health,
and such permit shall be considered as granted unless denied
within ten (10) days. The State Board of Health is autho-
rized to deny or revoke a permit for such storage or dis-
posal in any case where it finds such storage is causing or
likely to cause pollution: Provided however, that surface
ponds in use on the effective date of this act may be oper-
ated without a permit until January 1, 1958.
"Whenever the board or its duly authorized agents shall find
that the waters of the state are not being protected from
pollution by oil, gas, salt water injection wells, or under-
ground storage reservoirs, or that storage or disposal of
salt water, oil or refuse in any surface pond is causing or
is likely to cause pollution of waters of the state, or soil
detrimental to public health, plant, animal or aquatic life,
the executive secretary or duly authorized agents designated
by him, shall issue an order prohibiting the operation or
use of such oil, gas, salt water injection well, underground
storage reservoir, or surface pond; such order to take ef-
fect ten (10) days after service upon the owner, operator,
contractor, or agents thereof. Any person aggrieved by such
order may within ten (10) days of service of the order re-
quest a hearing on the order.
"Hearings may be conducted by the board, executive secretary,
or hearing officers appointed by the executive secretary.
Such hearing officers shall have the power and authority to
1286
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conduct such hearings in the name of the board at any time
and place. A record of the proceedings of such hearings
shall be taken and filed with the board together with
findings of facts and conclusions made by the board. On
the basis of the evidence produced at the hearing, the board
shall make findings of fact and conclusions of law and shall
give written notice of such findings and conclusions to the
alleged violator. The order of the board shall be final un-
less appealed to the courts within thirty (30) days after
the order has been made.
"Any notice, order or instrument issued by or with the au-
thority of the board may be made by mailing a copy of the
notice, order, or other instrument by registered or certi-
fied mail directly to the person affected at his last known
post-office address as shown by the files or records of the
board.
"An appeal may be taken from any final order or final deter-
mination of the board by any person adversely affected, to
the district court of the county of residence of the appel-
lant. Notice of appeal from any such final order or deter-
mination shall be served on the board through its executive
secretary. Failure to serve such notice of appeal within
thirty (30) days shall operate as a waiver of the right of
appeal. Notice of appeal shall refer to the action of the
board appealed from and shall specify the grounds for appeal.
Copy of the original notice of appeal with proof of service
on the executive secretary shall be filed by the appellant
with the clerk of the court within ten (10) days of the
service of the notice and thereupon the court shall have
jurisdiction of the appeal. Service of a notice of appeal
shall not operate as a stay of the board order; however, the
appellant has the right to apply to the board for a stay,
which the board in its discretion may grant. Upon receipt
by the executive secretary of the notice of appeal, he shall,
within fifteen (15) days, file with the clerk of the district
court a certified transcript of all files and proceedings re-
lating to the order or decision appealed from. The review
shall be conducted by the court without a jury and shall be
de novo, except that in cases of alleged irregularities in
procedure, testimony thereon may be taken in the court. The
court may affirm the order or decision of the board, or may
1287
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reverse or modify said order. Appeals may be taken to the
supreme court from the order or decision of the district
court in the same manner as in other civil cases. The
Board of Health shall fix fees to cover the cost of ser-
vices rendered under this act."
New regulations for disposal wells are to be formulated
pursuant to the 1967 amendments to the existing act. The
following excerpts are from the regulations that existed
prior to the 1967 amendments.
Article 13. Underground Storage/ Disposal Wells and Surface
Ponds
"28-13-1. SCOPE. This article regulates the construction
and use of underground storage reservoirs and the construc-
tion and use of disposal wells and surface ponds for the
confinement, storage and disposal of industrial fluids in-
cluding but not limited to brines, but does not include regu-
lations pertaining to oil field activities described in
L 1965, ch. 506, Sec. 1(4). (Authorized by K.S.A. 65-164,
65-165, 65-171d; compiled January 1, 1966).
"28-13-2. DEFINITIONS.
C. Disposal Well. The term disposal well as used herein
is defined as any well which receives industrial waste
waters, both organic and inorganic, salt water or other
highly mineralized waters for disposal into underground
formations. (Authorized by K.S.A. 65-164, 65-165,
65-171d; compiled January 1, 1966).
"28-13-10. PERMITS REQUIRED FOR DISPOSAL WELLS. The use of
any disposal well not otherwise exempted by these regulations
shall be prohibited unless a permit for such disposal well
shall first have been obtained from the State Department of
Health. (Authorized by K.S.A. 65-164, 65-165, 65-171d; com-
piled January 1, 1966).
"28-13-11. APPLICATIONS FOR DISPOSAL vtfELL PERMITS. Appli-
cations for permits for disposal wells shall be submitted
in duplicate to the chief engineer for the State Board of
1288
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Health on forms obtainable from his office. Applicant
shall supply such other information, plans and specifi-
cations as may be needed to adequately review the project.
(Authorized by K.S.A. 65-164, 65-165, 65-171d; compiled
January 1, 1966)."
Kentucky1»2
Any application for a waste disposal project in Kentucky
goes to the Water Pollution Control Commission of the
Kentucky Department of Health, Division of Environmental
Health. The burden of proof of feasibility is on the ap-
plicant. The Commission has their own petroleum engineer;
however, they obtain advice from the Kentucky Geological
Survey and the Division of Oil and Gas, Kentucky Depart-
ment of Mines and Minerals. Although no specific regula-
tions have been adopted by this Commission, the following
requirements for the disposal of wastes into the subsurface
would have to be submitted in support of an application be-
fore issuance of a permit.
1. A process "flow sheet" and description of the plant's
operations.
2. A detailed explanation of the plant's operations which
result in a waste effluent.
3. A breakdown of the substances and quantities that will
be contained in the waste stream.
4. A geological report describing the local and regional
geology. If possible, the zone of influence of the
well must be defined.
5. Information on wells previously drilled in the influ-
ence zone, their location and condition.
6. The storage capacity of the disposal formation, the
maximum injection rates and pressure.
7. Information regarding the treatment facilities required
to render the waste waters compatible with the disposal
formation waters.
1289
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8. Type of monitoring system or systems that will be
provided.
9. A plan showing a standby or alternate disposal system.
10. The type of construction which will be applicable to
completion of the disposal well.
In addition to the above supporting information the Commis-
sion requires a copy of the permit or authority to drill the
well obtainable from the Division of Oil and Gas. Perfor-
mance bonds would be required for the life of the well.
Louisiana
1,6,7
There are three agencies which have laws governing industrial
wastes. These are the Department of Conservation, State
Board of Health, and the Louisiana Stream Control Commission.
Of the three, the first two are in a more authoritative posi-
tion with respect to the subsurface disposal of industrial
wastes and permits have to be obtained from both departments.
Drilling methods and operating procedures for industrial
waste disposal wells have generally followed those developed
by the Department of Conservation for underground disposal
of oil field brines. Disposal of these brines by under-
ground injection has been employed for many years prior to
industrial waste injection and has been very successful in
Louisiana.
The history of successful operations of oil field brine dis-
posal influenced the state authorities to permit underground
disposal of industrial waste.
Salt Water Disposal -
The Louisiana Department of Conservation has the responsi-
bility of protecting fresh water sands from contamination
by oil, gas, and salt water. The authority for this pro-
tection is contained in Title 30, Chapter I, Section 4,
Paragraph C of the Louisiana Revised Statutes of 1950 which
reads:
1290
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"The Commissioner of Conservation has authority to make
after notice and hearing as provided in this Chapter, any
reasonable rules, regulations, and orders that are neces-
sary from time to time in the proper administration and
enforcement of this Chapter, including rules, regulations
or orders for the following purposes:
(1) To require the drilling, casing, and plugging of
wells to be done in such a manner as to prevent
the escape of oil or gas out of one stratum to
another, to prevent the intrusion of water into
oil or gas strata; to prevent the pollution of
fresh water supplies by oil, gas, or salt water;
and to require reasonable bond with security for
the performance of the duty to plug each dry or
abandoned well."
Statewide Order 29-B issued by the Department of Conservation
July 19, 1943, and subsequent amendments govern the drilling
for and the producing and plugging of oil and gas wells in
Louisiana. This order has definite provision for preventing
pollution of underground fresh water supplies. Section XV
of Statewide Order 29-B regulates the production and dis-
posal of salt water.
This section states:
"When a well starts to produce salt water, the operator or
company shall report that condition to the Department.
Permits must be secured before disposing of salt water
underground."
The Department also requires that the salt water be injected
into a sand which carries salt water and that the injected
water will not displace any fresh water up gradient or be
put in a sand which produces oil and gas. Fresh water sands
which are drilled through must be protected by an adequate
casing and cementing program. These provisions also apply
to industrial wastes.
As stated in the Amendment to Statewide Order 29-B, dated
October 19, 1967:
1291
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(1) No waste oil or oil field waste shall be disposed of
into any stream, lake or other body of water or into
any ditch or surface drainage depression leading to
any stream, lake or other body of water. Such waste
shall be retained for proper disposal.
(2) Produced salt water shall be disposed of into sub-
surface formations not productive of hydrocarbons,
except:
(a) It may be disposed of in pits where such method
and pits have been approved by the Commissioner
of Conservation.
(b) It may be disposed of in tidally affected waters,
brackish water or any other waters unsuitable
for human consumption or agricultural purposes.
(3) Producing salt water shall not be disposed of into a
zone producing or productive of hydrocarbons unless
such disposal is approved by the Commissioner of Con-
servation after a public hearing or unless prior ap-
proval has been granted to use the proposed zone for
salt water disposal.
The Commissioner of Conservation shall cause an inspection
to be made of each completed disposal facility to insure
compliance with this Amendment.
A reasonable estimate of the amount of salt water injected
annually into each disposal well shall be reported to the
Geological Oil & Gas Division with a copy to the appropriate
District Manager, such report to be filed during the first
quarter of the next calendar year.
Amendment to Statewide Order 29-B dated February 27, 1974,
Section XIX F-3 c and d pertains to abandonment procedures
and states:
(c) When production casing is not run or is removed from
the well, a cement plug of at least one hundred feet
(1001) shall be placed from at least fifty feet (501)
1292
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below the shoe of the surface casing to at least
fifty feet (50') above. In lieu of the above, the
operator shall have the option of using a cement
retainer placed at least fifty feet (50') above
the surface casing shoe and a sufficient amount
of cement shall be squeezed below the retainer to
form a cement plug from the base of the retainer
to fifty feet (50') below the base of the surface
casing. A ten foot (10') cement plug shall be
placed on top of the retainer.
(d) If fresh water horizons are exposed when production
casing is removed from the well, or as a result of
production casing not being run, a cement plug shall
be placed from at least one hundred feet (100') be-
low the base of the deepest fresh water sand to at
least one hundred fifty feet (150') above the base
of the sand. A cement plug of at least one hundred
feet (100') shall also be placed from at least fifty
feet (50') below the shoe of the surface casing to
at least fifty feet (50') above it. In lieu of the
above, the operator shall have the option of using
a cement retainer placed at least fifty feet (50')
above the surface casing shoe and a sufficient
amount of cement shall be squeezed below the re-
tainer to form a cement plug from the base of the
retainer to fifty feet (50') below the base of the
surface casing. A ten foot (10') cement plug shall
be placed on top of the retainer.
Industrial Waste Disposal -
The Department of Conservation has the same responsibility
in the protection of subsurface fresh water sands in the
case of industrial waste disposal wells as with salt water
disposal wells, with the same provisions of Title 30 being
applicable.
The approval, procedure and requirements for industrial
waste disposal wells as of June 1974 follow:
1. Application will be filed in duplicate with the District
Office. In addition, an application is to be filed with
1293
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the Louisiana Department of Health for their approval.
Applications should include the following:
a. A plat showing the location, or proposed location,
of the well.
b. An electrical log of a nearby well showing the
proposed disposal zone with the approximate depth
indicated.
c. A schematic diagram showing the proposed casing
depths, cement program, and packer depths if
packer is to be used.
d. Daily volume of waste to be injected (in barrels).
e. Analysis, or constituents, of proposed waste stream.
f. Casing and cementing requirements are:
SURFACE CASING - To be set through and below fresh
and brackish water sands and cemented back to the
surface.
SECOND STRING - To be set below the minimum depth
allowed (depending on area) for waste injection
and cemented back to the surface.
THIRD STRING - To be set to and/or through the
disposal zone and cemented back to the surface.
ALTERNATE:
SURFACE CASING - To be set through and below fresh
and brackish water sands and cemented back to the
surface.
LONG STRING - To be set to and/or through the dis-
posal zone and cemented back to surface.
TUBING - To be run and set on a packer. The packer
is to be set below the minimum depth allowed for
waste disposal.
1294
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2. The application will be first processed by the District
Office and, if satisfactory, a copy of the above listed
data will be forwarded to the Geological Oil & Gas
Division.
3. The Geological Oil & Gas Division will then review the
application with regard to depths for setting casing,
etc. The letter will be sent to the District Manager
indicating approval or denial and reason for denial of
the application.
NOTE: When a proposal is approved, final approval
for completion of the well in the injection
sand is given upon receipt and review of the
electrical log of the waste disposal well and
the casing program with packer setting depth
if utilized.
4. Upon receipt of the Geological Oil & Gas Division's
letter, the District Manager shall notify the applicant
of approval or denial of the application and reasons
for denial.
5. Once the disposal well is in operation, the following
shall be required January 1 and July 1 of each year:
a. Average amount of waste injected daily in barrels.
b. Total amount of waste injected in the six (6)
month period (barrels) .
c. Cumulative total of injected waste (barrels).
d. Chemical composition of waste.
6. Form WH shall be filed upon completion of the well.
Prior approval shall be secured before a disposal well
is recompleted and after recompletion, Form WH shall be
filed to indicate the work performed.
7. Prior to abandonment, the abandonment plans must be
submitted for approval.
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Figure 1 shows a diagramatic sketch of the required casing
program for industrial waste disposal wells. This diagram
shows that the surface casing is required to be set through
and below the fresh water sands and cemented to the surface.
The injection, or long, string is required to be set to and
through the injection sand and cemented to the surface. The
effluent is then pumped through tubing which is set on a
packer. The packer is set below the minimum depth allowed
for waste disposal. This construction with three (3) strings
of pipe and two (2) columns of cement between the fresh
water sands and the waste material gives adequate protection
to the fresh water sands.
Maryland2
The Department of Water Resources, a member agency of the
Department of Natural Resources, has regulatory responsi-
bility over industrial discharges. The Department operates
under Article 96A, Annotated Code of Maryland. There are no
specific laws presently on the books regulating subsurface
disposal of industrial wastes.
Michigan *
,2,8,9
The principal agency regulating the injection of industrial
waste into subsurface stratum in Michigan is the Water Re-
sources Commission. The initial law setting up the responsi-
bilities of the agency is Act 245 of the Public Acts of 1929
as amended. The intent of Act 245 is to insure that "reason-
able use" is made of the state's waters. The reasonable use
doctrine is not violated if the waste stored in a particular
geological stratum will not create a hazard to the safety,
health or welfare of people or resources. The disposal pro-
gram must reasonably insure that wastes will be confined in
the stratum officially approved as the disposal reservoir.
Additional legislation known as the Mineral Well Act was
passed in 1969 which has a direct bearing on waste disposal
wells. The act supplementing the Water Resources Act, dele-
gates the responsibility for regulating these wells on the
"Supervisor of Wells" which is the State Geologist.
1296
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Pertinent Parts of Act 245 of the Public Acts of 1929 -
Act 245: "An act to create a water resources commission
to protect and conserve the water resources of the state,
to have control over the pollution of any waters of the
state and the great lakes, with power to make rules and
regulations governing the same, and to prescribe the
powers and duties of such commission; to prohibit the
pollution of any waters of the state and the great lakes;
to designate the commission as the state agency to co-
operate and negotiate with other governments and agencies
in matters concerning the water resources of the state;
and to provide penalties for the violation of this act.
"Sec. 2. The commission shall organize and make its own
rules and regulations and procedure and shall meet at
least once each month and shall keep a record of its pro-
ceedings. The commission shall protect and conserve the
water resources of the state and shall have control of
the pollution of surface or underground waters of the
state of Michigan and the great lakes, which are or may
be affected by waste disposal of municipalities, indus-
tries, public or private corporations, individuals,
partnership associations, or any other entity. The com-
mission is empowered to make or cause to be made surveys,
studies and investigations of the uses of waters of the
state, both surface and underground, and to cooperate
with other governments, governmental units and agencies
thereof in making such surveys, studies and investigations,
"Sec. 6. (A). It shall be unlawful for any person directly
or indirectly to discharge into the waters of the state any
substance which is or may become injurious to the public
health, safety, or welfare: or which is or may become in-
jurious to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural,
recreational, or other uses which are being made of such
waters: or which is or may become injurious to the value
or utility of riparian lands: or which is or may become
injurious to livestock, wild animals, birds, fish, aquatic
life, or plants or the growth or propagation thereof be
prevented or injuriously affected: or whereby the value
of fish and game is or may be destroyed or impaired.
1297
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"Sec. 8 (A). Whenever any person shall feel himself ag-
grieved by the restriction of polluting content or waste,
or pollution, or any other order of the commission, he
shall have a right to file a sworn petition with the com-
mission, setting forth the grounds and reasons for his
complaint and asking for a hearing of the matter involved.
The commission shall thereupon fix the time and place, for
such hearing and shall notify the petitioner thereof. At
such hearing the petitioner and any other interested party
may appear, present witnesses and submit evidence. Following
such hearing, the final order of determination of the com-
mission upon such matter shall be conclusive unless reviewed
in accordance with the provisions of the administrative pro-
cedures of Act No. 197 of the Public Acts of 1952, as
amended, being Sections 24.101 to 24.110 of the compiled
laws of 1948, or any amendment thereto, in the circuit
court for the county of Ingham, or for the county in which
such person resides, or for the county in which the alleged
violation occurred.
"Sec. 11. Whenever the word "person" is used in this Act,
it shall be construed to include any municipality, industry,
public or private corporation, co-partnership, firm or any
other entity whatsoever. Wherever the words "waters of the
state" shall be used in this Act, they shall be construed
to include lakes, rivers and streams and all other water
courses and waters within the confines of the state and
also the great lakes bordering thereon."
The Health Department under Act 294, P. A. 1965, known as
the Water Quality Control Act, has some responsibility rel-
ative to subsurface disposal wells.
325.221 Sec. 1, Part (C) defines "well" as an opening in the
surface of the earth for purposes of removing fresh water or
a test well, recharge well or waste disposal well.
"R 325.1671. Re-use of water and disposal wells.
Rule 171. (1) Water used for cooling parts of
engines, air compressors or other equipment, or
water used for air conditioning shall not be re-
turned to any part of the potable water system.
1298
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"(2) A well used for the disposal of waste water
is regulated by Act 245 of the Public Acts of 1929,
as amended, being Sections 323.1 to 323.12a of the
Compiled Laws of 1948. An order of determination
for such a well shall be obtained from the water
resources commission. A well shall not be used for
disposal of surface water, near surface water or
ground water without first obtaining approval in
writing from the director or his authorized agent.
The director or his authorized agent has the right
to refuse any such request, or prescribe methods
of treatment prior to disposal."
When an industry requests permission to initiate a waste
disposal program they must first fill out a "New Use State-
ment" application from the Water Resources Commission. This
statement, along with supporting evidence, is reviewed by the
Commission staff and Geological Survey personnel, and the
Health Department. If the program is acceptable, it will go
before the Commission, which meets every month. The decision
made by the Commission will result in an "Order of Determin-
ation" approving or disapproving the "New Use Statement".
Act No. 315 of the Public Acts of 1969,
the Mineral Well Act -
STATE OF MICHIGAN
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
SUPERVISOR OF MINERAL WELLS
ACT NO. 315 OF THE PUBLIC ACTS OF 1969
An Act to provide control of the drilling, operating and
abandoning of mineral wells to prevent surface and under-
ground waste; to provide for a supervisor of mineral wells
and prescribe his powers and duties; to provide for an ad-
visory board and prescribe its duties; to provide for in-
specting, repairing and plugging of mineral wells and for
entering on private property for that purpose; to provide
for the assessing of certain fees; to provide for the pro-
mulgation of rules and orders to enforce this act; and to
prescribe penalties.
1299
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The People of the State of Michigan enact:
Sec. 1. This act shall be known and may be cited as the
"Mineral Well Act".
Sec. 2. As used in this act:
(a) '"Person" means any individual, corporation,
company, association, joint venture, partner-
ship, receiver, trustee, guardian, executor,
administrator, personal representative or
private organization of any kind.
(b) "Owner" means the person who has the right
to drill, convert or operate any well sub-
ject to this act.
(c) "Operator" means the person, whether owner
or not, supervising or responsible for
drilling, operating, repairing, abandoning
or plugging of wells subject to this act.
(d) "Supervisor" means the supervisor of
mineral wells.
(e) "Board" means the advisory board appointed
by the supervisor and approved by the direc-
tor and commission.
(f) "Director" means the director of natural
resources.
(g) "Commission" means the commission of natural
resources.
(h) "Natural brine" means naturally occurring
mineralized water other than potable or
fresh water.
(i) "Artificial brine" means mineralized water
formed by dissolving rock salt or other
readily soluble rocks or minerals.
1300
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(j) "Underground storage cavity" means a cavity
formed by dissolving rock salt or other
readily soluble rock or mineral, by nuclear
explosion, or by any other method for the
purpose of storage or disposal.
(k) "Pollution" means damage or injury from the
loss, escape or unapproved disposal of any
substance at any well subject to this act.
(1) "Waste product" means waste or byproduct re-
sulting from municipal or industrial opera-
tions or waste from any trade, manufacture,
business or private pursuit which could
cause pollution and for which underground
disposal may be feasible or practical.
(m) "Mineral well" means any well subject to
the provisions of this act.
(n) "Brine well" means a well drilled or con-
verted for the purpose of producing natural
or artifical brine.
(o) "Test well" means a well, core hole, core
test, observation well or other well drilled
from the surface to determine the presence
of a mineral, mineral resource, ore, or rock
unit, or to obtain geological or geophysical
information or other subsurface data, but
shall not include holes drilled in the opera-
tion of a quarry, open pit or underground
mine.
(p) "Storage well" means a well drilled into a
subsurface formation to develop an under-
ground storage cavity for subsequent use in
storage operations.
(q) "Disposal well" means a well drilled or con-
verted for subsurface disposal of waste pro-
ducts or processed brine and its related
surface facilities.
1301
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(r) "Exploratory purposes" means test well
drilling for the specific purposes of
discovering or outlining an ore body or
mineable mineral resource.
(s) "Underground waste" means damage or injury
to potable water, mineralized water, or
other subsurface resources.
(t) "Surface waste" means damage to, injury to,
or destruction of surface waters, soils,
animal, fish and aquatic life or surface
property from unnecessary seepage or loss
incidental to or resulting from drilling,
equipping, or operating a well or wells
subject to this act.
Sec. 3. A person shall not cause surface or underground
waste in the drilling, development, production,
operation or plugging of wells subject to this
act.
Sec. 4. The state geologist shall serve as the supervisor
of mineral wells. He shall appoint, with the ap-
proval of the director, such assistants as neces-
sary to carry out the provision of this act. The
supervisor and assistants, in addition to salaries,
shall receive reasonable traveling expenses while
on business connected with their duties in accor-
dance with standard travel regulations of the de-
partment of administration.
Sec. 5. The supervisor, after conferring with and re-
ceiving recommendations from owners and operators
subject to this act, shall appoint 7 persons, sub-
ject to the approval of the director and commis-
sion, who shall constitute a board known as the
mineral well advisory board which shall be repre-
sentative of the industries subject to this act.
The members of the board shall be chosen from
owners and operators, or their managing agents
or representatives, having ownership, production
or operations which are subject to the provisions
1302
-------
of this act. There shall be only 1 representative
of 1 company or its subsidiaries or affiliates.
Sec. 6. The term of each member shall be 3 years. Of the
first appointed board, 2 members shall serve for 1
year; 2 for 2 years; and 3 for 3 years. The super-
visor, after conference with and receiving recom-
mendations by owners and operators subject to this
act, shall fill any vacancy in the membership sub-
ject to approval by the director and the commis-
sion. The supervisor may remove any member for
good cause, after public hearing and approval by
the commission. Each member of the board, unless
removed as provided, shall serve until the appoint-
ment and qualification of his successor.
Sec. 7. The board, after approval by the commission, shall
immediately and annually thereafter meet with the
supervisor and organize by electing a chairman and
vice-chairman. Four members of the board consti-
tute a quorum for the transaction of business. A
member of the staff of the supervisor shall be ap-
pointed by the board to serve as its secretary.
Sec. 8. The board shall meet semi-annually and hold such
other meetings as it and the supervisor may deem
necessary. Meetings shall be held at the office
of the supervisor or at other designated places
in the state as may be fixed by the board and
the supervisor. Meetings may be called by the
chairman, or in his absence by the vice-chairman,
by a majority of the members or by the supervisor.
Sec. 9. The board may consult with the supervisor or com-
mission and perform such other duties as may be
designated to it. The board shall participate
in all public hearings provided by this act,
shall meet promptly thereafter with the super-
visor and shall advise and make recommendations
with respect to any rules or orders which may be
considered for adoption pursuant to the evidence
and testimony submitted.
1303
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Sec. 10. The supervisor shall keep the board informed of
his activities by minutes of meetings and other
agreed means.
Sec. 11. The members of the board shall receive no com-
pensation but shall be reimbursed for expenses
in connection with their duties in accordance
with the standard travel regulations of the
department of administration.
Sec. 12. (1) The commission shall act as an appeal board.
Whenever the advisory board or any owner or oper-
ator deems any rule or order made by the super-
visor to be unduly burdensome, inequitable or
unwarranted, the board, owner or operator may
appeal to the appeal board for relief, giving
notice to the supervisor. The chairman of the
commission shall set a date and place to hear
such appeal, which may be at any regular meeting
or at any special meeting of the commission duly
called for that purpose. The supervisor, members
of the board, or any person interested in the
matter shall have the right to be heard at such
hearing.
(2) The action of the appeal board shall be final
with respect to an appeal by the advisory board,
but any person may seek relief in the courts and
the filing of an appeal as provided in this sec-
tion shall not be a prerequisite to seeking re-
lief in the courts.
Sec. 13. The supervisor shall have jurisdiction over the
administration and enforcement of this act.
Sec. 14. The supervisor shall prevent the wastes defined
in and prohibited by this act. Acting directly
or through his deputy or authorized representa-
tive, and with the advice and recommendations of
the board following public hearing, the supervisor
shall promulgate rules subject to the approval of
the commission and issue orders and instructions
necessary to enforce these rules. Rules shall be
1304
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adopted in accordance with the provisions of Act.
No. 88 of the Public Acts of 1943, as amended,
being Sections 24.71 to 24.80 of the Compiled Laws
of 1948, and subject to Act. No. 197 of the Public
Acts of 1952, as amended, being Sections 24.101 to
24.110 of the Compiled Laws of 1948.
Sec. 15. The supervisor, acting directly or through his
deputy or authorized representative, may promul-
gate emergency orders without a public hearing to
carry out the provisions of this act. Such emer-
gency orders shall remain in force and effect not
more than 21 days.
Sec. 16. The supervisor, acting directly or through his
deputy or authorized representative, is specifi-
cally empowered to:
(a) Make inspections and provide for the keeping
of records and checking on the accuracy
thereof.
(b) Require the locating, drilling, deepening,
reworking, reopening, casing, sealing, in-
jecting, mechanical and chemical treating
and plugging of wells subject to this act
to be accomplished in a manner which is
designed to prevent surface and under-
ground waste.
(c) Designate after public hearing, and with
the advice and recommendations of the
board, those areas of the state in which
there is no known or potential danger of
surface or underground waste from test
well drilling and in which permits to
drill test wells will not be required.
(d) Require on all wells the keeping and filing
of logs containing data which are appropriate
to the purposes of this act. Logs on brine
and test wells shall be held confidential for
10 years after completion and shall not be
1305
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open to public inspection during that time
except by written consent of the owner or
operator. Logs for test wells drilled for
exploratory purposes shall be held confi-
dential until released by the owner or
operator. The logs shall be opened to
public inspection when the owner is no
longer an active mineral producer, mineral
lease holder, or owner of mineral lands in
the state of Michigan.
(e) Require on storage and waste disposal wells,
when specified by the supervisor, the keeping
and filing of drillers' logs and sample logs,
the running and filing of electrical and
radioactivity logs, the keeping and filing
of drill cuttings, cores, water samples,
pilot injection test records, operating
records and other reports.
(f) Release to the board or commission, for
meetings and hearings, only data described
in this section which are necessary to the
administration of this act in the prevention
or correction of surface or underground waste.
(g) Order through written notice the immediate
suspension or prompt correction of any oper-
ation, condition or practice found to exist
which is causing or resulting, or threatening
to cause or result, in surface or underground
waste.
(h) Require the filing of an adequate surety or
security bond and provide for the release
thereof.
(i) Qualify persons for blanket permits.
Sec. 17. (1) A person shall not drill, or begin the drilling,
of any brine, storage or waste disposal well, or
convert any well for these uses,, until the owner
directly or through his authorized representative
1306
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files a written application for a permit to drill
or convert a well, files a survey of the well site,
files an approved surety and security bond, and
receives a permit in accordance with the rules of
the supervisor. A fee of $50.00 shall be charged
for a brine, storage or waste disposal well permit.
Within 10 days after receiving the prescribed ap-
plication and fee, and following investigation,
inspection and approval, the supervisor shall
issue the well permit. No permit shall be issued
to any owner or his authorized representative who
does not comply with the rules of the supervisor
or who is in violation of this act or any rule of
the supervisor. Upon completion of the drilling
or converting of a well for storage or waste dis-
posal and after necessary testing by the owner to
determine that the well can be used for these pur-
poses and in a manner that will not cause surface
or underground waste, the supervisor, upon receipt
of appropriate evidence, shall approve and regu-
late the use of the well for storage or waste dis-
posal. These operations shall be in accordance
with the provisions of Act No. 245 of the Public
Acts of 1929, as amended, being Sections 323.1 to
323.12a of the Compiled Laws of 1948. The super-
visor may schedule a public hearing to consider
the need or advisability of permitting the drill-
ing or operating of a storage or waste disposal
well, or converting a well for these uses, if the
public safety or other interests are involved.
(2) A person shall not drill a test well, except
as provided in subdivision (c) of Section 16, un-
til the owner directly or through his authorized
representative files a written application for a
permit to drill, files an approved surety or secu-
rity bond, and receives a permit in accordance
with the rules of the supervisor. A fee of $1.00
shall be charged for a permit to drill a test well.
Within 10 days after receiving the prescribed ap-
plication and fee, and following necessary investi-
gation, inspection and approval, the supervisor
shall issue the permit. No permit shall be issued
1307
-------
to any owner or his authorized representative who
does not comply with the rules of the supervisor
or who is in violation of this act or any rule of
the supervisor.
(3) No permit shall be required to drill a test
well in those areas of the state where rocks of
Precambrian age directly underlie unconsolidated
surface deposits or in those areas which have
been designated in accordance with the provisions
of subdivision (c) of Section 16. However, within
2 years after completion of the drilling of the
well, the owner shall advise the supervisor of the
location of the well and file with the supervisor
the log required under subdivision (d) of Section
16. The provisions of this act pertaining to the
prevention and correction of surface and under-
ground waste shall have the same application to
these test wells as to other wells defined herein.
(4) Upon request, the supervisor may issue a
blanket permit to drill test wells within a lim-
ited or local area where a geological test program
is intended, and issue a blanket permit to drill
test wells to qualified persons.
(5) All information and records pertaining to the
application for and issuance of permits for wells
and subject to this act shall be held confidential
in the same manner as provided for logs and re-
ports on these wells.
(6) The supervisor shall deposit all fees in the
state treasury to be credited to the general fund.
Sec. 18. The supervisor may bring proceedings at law or in
equity for the enforcement of this act and rules
promulgated thereunder in the circuit court of
Ingham County or in the circuit court of the
county in which a violation shall have occurred.
The attorney general shall represent the super-
visor in all actions brought under this act.
1308
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Sec. 19. The circuit court of Ingham County shall have ex-
clusive jurisdiction of all suits brought against
the supervisor, board or commission, or any agent
or employee thereof, by or on account of any mat-
ter or thing arising under the provisions of this
act.
Sec. 20. (1) Jurisdictional requirements of notice of time,
place and issues involved in all hearings required
by this act shall be satisfied by publication once
each week for 2 weeks consecutively in a newspaper
of general circulation in the area where a speci-
fic matter of concern is located, if the last date
of publication is at least 3 days prior to the
date set for hearing.
(2) If a listing of interested persons is a part
of the petition for hearing, or if the names of
these persons are on record with the supervisor,
service in the form of notice by certified or
registered mail shall be made by the petitioner.
(3) The publishing of notices of hearings and
payment for the publishing, shall be the respon-
sibility of the petitioner. The supervisor shall
be responsible for the publishing, and payment for
the same, on all hearings initiated by him.
Sec. 21. All hearings and other actions pertaining to these
hearings or investigations may be conducted by the
supervisor, his deputy or authorized representa-
tive, and all acts of his deputy or authorized
representative shall have the same force and ef-
fect as if done by the supervisor.
Sec. 22. (1) The supervisor may summon witnesses, admin-
ister oaths and, when necessary to carry out the
provisions of this act, may require the production
of appropriate records, books and documents.
(2) Upon failure or refusal of any person to com-
ply with a subpoena issued by the supervisor, or
upon the refusal of any witness to testify as to
1309
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any matter on which he may be interrogated as
being pertinent to the hearing or investigation,
the person or witness may be subject to a court
order compelling him to comply with such subpoena,
and to appear before the supervisor and produce
such records, books and documents for examination
and to give his testimony. The court shall have
the power to punish for contempt or for refusal
to testify.
Sec. 23. Whenever the supervisor, his deputy or his autho-
rized representative has determined that an owner
or operator has failed or neglected to case, seal,
operate, repair or plug a well in accordance with
the provisions of this act or the rules or orders
adopted hereunder, notice of the determination
shall be given to the owner or operator and to the
surety executing the bond filed by such owner or
operator. If the owner or operator, or surety,
fails to correct the specified conditions in ac-
cordance with the rule or order of the supervisor
within 60 days after service of notice, the super-
visor may enter into or upon any private or public
property on which the well is located, and across
any private or public property to reach the well,
and repair or correct the specified condition, and
the owner, operator and surety shall be jointly
and severally liable for all expenses incurred.
The supervisor shall certify to the owner, oper-
ator and surety the claim of the state, listing
therein the items of expense in making the repair
or correction. The claims shall be paid by the
owner or operator, or surety, within 30 days, and
if not paid within that time the supervisor may
bring suit in the circuit court of Ingham County
against the owner, operator and surety, jointly
and severally, for the collection.
Sec. 24. It is unlawful for any person:
(a) To wilfully violate any provision of this
act or any rule or order of the supervisor.
1310
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(b) To drill or convert any well subject to
this act without first obtaining a permit
or to operate a storage or waste disposal
well without approval as provided herein.
(c) To do any of the following for the purpose
of evading or violating this act or any rule
or order adopted hereunder:
(i) Make false entry or statement in any
required report or record.
(ii) Omit or cause to be omitted from any
required report or record full, true
and correct entries as required by
this act.
(iii) Remove from this state or destroy,
mutilate, alter or falsify any re-
quired report or record.
Sec. 25. Any person in violation of this act shall be sub-
ject to a fine of not more than $1,000.00 and each
day that the violation shall continue shall consti-
tute a separate offense. The penalty shall be re-
covered by suit brought by the supervisor. Any
person aiding or abetting in the violation of this
act or any rule or order promulgated hereunder
shall be subject to the same penalties as pre-
scribed herein.
Sec. 26. The provisions of this act shall not apply to
wells drilled under the authority of Act No. 61
of the Public Acts of 1939, as amended, being
sections 319.1 to 319.27 of the Compiled Laws of
1948; Act. No. 326 of the Public Acts of 1937, as
amended, being sections 319.51 to 319.82 of the
Compiled Laws of 1948; Act No. 294 of the Public
Acts of 1965, being sections 325.221 to 325.240
of the Compiled Laws of 1948; or Act No. 98 of
the Public Acts of 1913, as amended, being sec-
tions 325.201 to 325.214 of the Compiled Laws of
1948. This act shall not be construed to super-
sede or contravene any of the provisions of Act
No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended.
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PART 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS
R 299.2201. Applicability and effect on other laws.
Rule 1. (1) These rules implement the act and apply to
mineral well operations except for special orders and deter-
minations which may be adopted from time to time by the super-
visor to apply to specifically designated areas or conditions
in the state.
(2) A rule, special order or determination which
may be adopted pursuant to the act shall not supersede or
contravene any of the provisions of Act No. 61 of the Public
Acts of 1939, as amended, being sections 319.1 to 319.27 of
the Compiled Laws of 1948 (oil and gas act); Act No. 326 of
the Public Acts of 1937, as amended, being sections 319.51
to 319.82 of the Compiled Laws of 1948 (natural gas act);
Act No. 294 of the Public Acts of 1965, being sections
325.221 to 325.240 of the Compiled Laws of 1948 (groundwater
quality control act); Act No. 98 of the Public Acts of 1913,
as amended, being sections 325.201 to 325.214 of the Com-
piled Laws of 1948 (waterworks systems and sewage disposal
systems act); or Act 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as
amended, being sections 323.1 to 323.12a of the Compiled
Laws of 1948 (water resources commission act).
R 299.2205. Definitions A to G.
Rule 5. (1) Terms used in these rules which are defined
in the act have the same meaning as given in the act.
(2) "Act" means Act No. 315 of the Public Acts
of 1969, being sections 319.211 to 319.236 of the Compiled
Laws of 1948.
(3) "Cement" means an approved type of sealing
material.
(4) "Foundation boring" means a test well drilled
for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the
overburden or rock on which a foundation or structure will
rest.
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(5) "Geophysical testing hole" means a hole
drilled for the purpose of providing a means for deter-
mining the physical or chemical characteristics of the
earth.
R 299.2207. Definitions L to S.
Rule 7. (1) "Lost mineral well" means a well which cannot
be completed because of mechanical difficulties, accidents
of construction or geological conditions.
(2) "Mineral well" includes brine, storage, dis-
posal and test wells.
(3) "Precambrian" means rocks older than the
Jacobsville Sandstone.
(4) "Repair" or "maintenance" means changes to
the retrievable components of a well, such as tubing, pumps,
movable liners or minor reconditioning operations, such as
backflushing or swabbing.
(5) "Reservoir" means a natural or artifically
developed underground container of liquids or gas.
(6) "Rework" means to make changes or alterations
in the permanent subsurface well equipment or in the original
relationship between the permanent, non-retrievable equip-
ment and the adjacent geologic formations, including but not
limited to, squeezing with cement, repairing of casing leaks,
cementing of casing or liners, casing or liner, perforations,
well stimulation, deepening or plugging back operations.
(7) "Static water level" means the level at which
water stands in a well when no water is being taken from the
aquifer and is expressed as the distance from the ground
surface.
PART 2. PERMITS
R 299.2211. Permits to drill, deepen, rework or convert
mineral wells.
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Rule 11, (1) An application for permit shall be filed and
a permit received before commencing to drill a mineral well,
to convert a mineral well to new use, to convert a well
drilled under another act to a mineral well, or to deepen,
rework or convert to new use a well drilled before the ef-
fective date of the act except as provided in Rule 27.
(2) The permit shall be posted in a conspicuous
place at the well location and remain posted until the
drilling of the well has been completed.
(3) The blanket permit to drill mineral wells,
or a copy thereof, shall be posted in a conspicuous place
at the well location or be in the possession of the driller.
R 299.2212. Permits to drill, deepen, rework or convert
brine, storage and disposal wells; conditions
for issuance.
Rule 12. Except as provided in Rule 29, and unless a pub-
lic hearing on issuance of a permit is required under Rule
15, a permit to drill a brine, storage or disposal well, to
convert a mineral well or to convert a well drilled before
the effective date of the act or under another act to a
brine, storage or disposal well, or to deepen or rework a
brine, storage or disposal well drilled before the effec-
tive date of the act shall be issued within 10 days after
receipt of application if:
(a) The exact location is established by a
surveyor, engineer or competent company personnel and
a stake or marker is set at the well location.
(b) A map or plat of the well area or company
property is prepared indicating distances and directions
from the well site to specific features, including lakes,
streams, swamps, drainageways, wells including depth or
deepest zone or formation, buildings, streets, highways,
pipelines, power or other utility lines, railroads, and
other features which lie within 300 feet, but shall not
include proprietary information relating to manufacturing
processes or unreasonable detail in manufacturing plant
complexes.
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(c) An accurately completed application is
filed on prescribed forms with the map or plat and permit
fee. The application shall be typewritten and contain a
detailed account of the proposed well construction, drilling
program and general operating plans and procedures. Supple-
mental information required by the application or by the
supervisor shall be submitted on separate sheets with the
application. Evidence of authority of a representative of
the applicant shall be furnished on request of the super-
visor. Inaccurate or incomplete maps, plats or application
shall be corrected or completed and resubmitted.
(d) An organization report is filed on a pre-
scribed form if requested by the supervisor.
(e) A surety or security bond is filed as re-
quired by these rules.
R 299.2213. Special requirements for permits.
Rule 13. (1) Special conditions or circumstances related
to purpose, construction or location of a proposed mineral
well may require investigation, review and determination by
the supervisor or proofs of feasibility by the applicant,
or both, before a permit may be issued.
(2) A person who intends to drill a storage or
disposal well may be required to furnish advance notice of
intent to drill, either published, or by certified mail, or
both, to property owners within a 2-mile radius of the pro-
posed well, or within such adjacent area as required by the
supervisor.
(3) A person applying for a permit to drill a
storage or disposal well shall file with the application a
statement setting forth the bacterial, physical, chemical
and other known characteristics of the wastes or materials
to be stored or disposed.
R 299.2215. Public hearings on storage and disposal wells.
Rule 15. A public hearing to determine the need or advis-
ability of issuance of a permit for drilling a storage or
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disposal well or converting a well to these uses may be held
by the supervisor if he believes that the public safety or
other interests are involved or receives from an owner, op-
erator, lessee, lessor, the advisory board, or other person
directly concerned with the matter proposed for hearing, a
written request or petition which alleges that the public
safety or other interest is involved.
R 299.2216. Confirmation of use of storage and disposal
wells.
Rule 16. (1) Confirmation of the use of a storage or dis-
posal well, the drilling of which has been authorized by a
permit, is conditioned on approval of the well by an order
of the water resources commission after completion and
testing. If it is determined by inspection, and appropriate
evidence is filed after testing, that a well can be used
for storage or disposal in a manner that will not cause
surface or underground waste, the supervisor shall approve
and thereafter regulate the use and operation of the well
in accordance with these rules and the order of the water
resources commission.
(2) Requirements for testing are prescribed in
rules 61 and 62. If a well is determined after testing to
be unsuitable for storage or disposal use, it shall be aban-
doned and plugged as provided in part 7 or converted for
another use as provided in rule 46.
R 299.2221. Individual test well permits.
Rule 21. Except as provided in rule 29, a permit to drill
an individual test well shall be issued within 10 days after
receipt of an application if:
(a) The exact location is established and a stake
or marker is set at the well location.
(b) A plat or map is made of the well area or
company property indicating the relationship of the well
to lakes, streams, swamps, drainageways, wells buildings,
streets, highways, pipelines, power and other utility lines,
railroads and other features within 300 feet.
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(c) An accurately completed application is filed
on prescribed forms with the map or plat and fee. The ap-
plication shall be typewritten and contain a detailed account
of the proposed well construction, drilling procedure and
plugging method.
(d) An organization report is filed on a pre-
scribed form if requested by the supervisor.
(e) A surety or security bond is filed as re-
quired by these rules.
R 299.2222. Blanket test well permits.
Rule 22. A blanket permit may be issued to drill not more
than 200 test wells, other than foundation borings or geo-
physical testing holes, within a limited or local area not
exceeding 9 square miles if a geological test program is
intended. A blanket permit is valid for not more than 1
year and expires on December 31. Test wells may be drilled
in accordance with this rule if:
(a) An accurately completed application is filed
on prescribed forms. The application shall be typewritten
and contain a detailed account of the proposed well con-
struction, drilling procedure and plugging method.
(b) Information is furnished in an accompanying
letter and map indicating the purpose of the drilling pro-
ject and the approximate number, location and depth of the
wells.
(c) A permit fee is filed with the application.
(d) An organization report is filed on a pre-
scribed form if requested by the supervisor.
(e) A surety or security bond is filed as pro-
vided by these rules.
R 299.2223. Geophysical testing holes.
Rule 23. (1) A blanket permit may be issued to drill
geophysical testing holes within a specified area or for
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a specified investigative program. A blanket permit will
not be issued for an area larger than 1 county and may be
restricted to a smaller area by the supervisor for geo-
logic reasons. A person may obtain separate blanket permits
for more than 1 county or may obtain more than 1 blanket per-
mit for the same county. A blanket permit is valid for not
more than 1 year and expires on January 31. Not more than
200 holes may be drilled under a blanket permit except as
authorized by the supervisor.
(2) Geophysical testing holes may be drilled in
accordance with this rule if:
(a) An accurately completed, typewritten applica-
cation is filed on prescribed forms. The application shall
contain a detailed account of the proposed well construction
methods, drilling procedures and plugging methods. The plan
shall propose alternative methods of plugging to be used to
cope with various soil and water conditions within the area
covered by the permit and shall specify criteria which will
be applied to determine the applicable method.
(b) Information is furnished in an accompanying
letter and map indicating the purpose of the drilling pro-
ject and estimated number, general location, drilling pat-
tern and approximate depth of holes.
(c) A permit fee is filed with the application.
(d) An organization report is filed on a pre-
scribed form if requested by the supervisor.
(e) A surety or security bond is filed as pro-
vided in these rules.
(3) Within 60 days after completion of a geo-
physical test hole project or termination of a permit,
whichever is first, a location plan and logs of wells
shall be submitted in accordance with part 6.
(4) Issuance of a blanket permit for a specified
area or period of time shall not be construed as granting
exclusive rights to operate therein, nor does the permit
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preclude the necessity of permission, permits, easements or
other granting of privileges by other persons or agencies.
R 299.2225. Foundation borings.
Rule 25. (1) A blanket permit may be issued to drill foun-
dation test borings within a specified area or for a speci-
fied investigative program. A blanket permit will not be
issued for an area larger than 1 county and may be restricted
to a smaller area by the supervisor for geologic reasons. A
person may obtain separate blanket permits for more than 1
county or may obtain more than 1 blanket permit for the same
county. A blanket permit is valid for not more than 1 year
and expires on February 28. Not more than 200 holes may be
drilled under a blanket permit except as authorized by the
supervisor.
(2) A blanket permit shall be issued to qualified
persons for drilling of foundation test borings if:
(a) An accurately completed application is filed
on prescribed forms.
(b) Acceptable plans are proposed for the drilling
and plugging. Plugging shall conform to procedures adopted
by the supervisor based on recommended practices of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, Michigan section, and
the Department of State Highways. The plan shall propose
alternate plugging methods for various soil and water con-
ditions within the area covered by the permit and the cri-
teria which will be applied to determine the applicable
method.
(c) A permit fee is filed with the application.
(d) An organization report is filed on a pre-
scribed form if requested by the supervisor.
(e) A surety or security bond is filed as pro-
vided in these rules.
(3) Within 60 days after completion of a test
boring, test boring program, or termination of the permit,
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whichever is first, a location plan and log of each well
shall be submitted as provided in part 6. The log shall
indicate the actual drilling and plugging procedures used.
(4) Issuance of a blanket permit for a specified
area or period of time shall not be construed as granting
exclusive rights to operate therein, nor does the permit
preclude the necessity of permission, permits, easements
or other granting of privileges by other persons or agencies.
R 299.2227. Test well permits; when not required.
Rule 27. (1) A permit to drill test wells is not required
in areas of the state where rocks of Precambrian age lie
directly under unconsolidated surface deposits; or in areas
designated by the supervisor as being areas where there is
no known or potential danger of surface or underground waste
from te^t well drilling; except that the drilling shall be
subject to rule 28 and other applicable rules. However,
within 2 years after completion of the drilling of a well,
the owner shall advise the supervisor of the location of
the well and file with him the log required by part 6.
(2) A petition with supporting evidence may be
filed with the supervisor requesting a hearing to determine
the need or advisability of designating an additional area
or areas where permits to drill test wells are not required
except that the drilling shall be subject to rule 28 or
other applicable rules. A petition shall be filed and
hearings shall be scheduled in accordance with rules 92 to
94.
(3) A permit is not required for a hole drilled
in the operation of a quarry, open pit or underground mine
if the hole location is less than 500 feet from the quarry,
open pit or mine.
(4) A permit is not required for a test hole 25
feet or less in depth which does not encounter bedrock.
However, plugging of such a well shall be in accordance with
rules 23, 25, 83 and 85.
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R 299.2228. Wells located in waters of the state.
Rule 28. A mineral well to be located in or over the bed or
waters of a stream, inland lake, a Great Lake, a natural or
artificial impoundment, or other body of water shall be sub-
ject to approval by the commission before issuance of a per-
mit.
R 299.2229. Denial of permits.
Rule 29. (1) The supervisor is prohibited by the act from
issuing a permit to a person who is not in compliance with
the act, or the rules or the orders of the supervisor.
(2) The supervisor shall deny issuance of a per-
mit for a mineral well if he has reason to believe that the
locating, drilling, constructing, reworking or operating of
the well cannot be accomplished in a manner designed to pre-
vent surface or underground waste.
PART 3. BONDS
R 299.2231. Surety and security bonds.
Rule 31. (1) A person who obtains a permit to drill, con-
verts to, or acquires a mineral well shall file a surety or
security bond, the amount of which shall be commensurate
with the number of wells and the type of project.
(2) The amount of a surety bond shall be as
follows:
(a) Single test well -- $2,000.00.
(b) Blanket bond for 2 or more test
wells - $5,000.00.
(c) Single brine well — $5,000.00.
(d) Blanket bond for 2 or more brine
wells — $15,000.00.
(e) Single storage or disposal well —
$15,000.00.
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(f) Blanket bond for 2 or more storage
or disposal wells or a combination
of 2 or more test, brine, storage
or disposal wells — $25,000.00.
(3) A security bond in the amount equal to the
required surety may be deposited or required in lieu of a
surety bond. A security bond shall consist of cash or nego-
tiable securities and shall be deposited with the Department
of Treasury. The securities shall be registered in the name
of the State Treasurer of the State of Michigan. The State
Treasurer shall charge a fee sufficient to reimburse him for
not less than actual and necessary expenses incurred in con-
nection with the deposit.
R 299.2235. Liability on bonds.
Rule 35. (1) Liability on a surety or security bond is con-
ditioned on compliance with the act and the rules and the
orders of the supervisor and continues until either of the
following occurs:
(a) One year after the well or wells have been
abandoned and satisfactorily plugged as provided in part 7
and approved by the supervisor, and all logs, plugging re-
cords and other pertinent data required by the act or rules
and orders of the supervisor are filed and approved.
(b) Ownership of the well or wells is assumed by
another person and the permits are transferred as provided
in rule 42.
(2) The supervisor shall advise the surety and
the principal when liability on a bond is terminated. A
security bond deposited with the State Treasurer shall be
released only upon written direction of the supervisor.
(3) The supervisor shall look to the surety or
the security bond for correction of unsatisfactory condi-
tions not otherwise corrected, and all expenses shall be
paid through the surety or security bond in case of default
by the principal.
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(4) The surety under a blanket bond may refuse
to accept additional wells or permits by giving 10 days
notice by registered mail to the supervisor and the owner
or operator. The bond shall continue in full force and ef-
fect relative to the well or wells for which permits were
granted or transferred before the effective date of the
notice. This cancellation procedure does not apply to
single surety bonds.
PART 4. DISPOSITION OF PERMITS AND_WELLS
R 299.2241. Changes of location before drilling.
Rule 41. A permit to drill shall be returned to the super-
visor for cancellation, together with a new application for
permit to drill at a new location if the location for which
a permit to drill has been issued is changed before commence-
ment of drilling. A new fee is not required, but drilling
may be commenced only after the new application is processed
and the new permit issued.
R 299.2242. Changes of ownership of wells.
Rule 42. (1) If a person who obtains a permit to drill dis-
poses of his interest in a mineral well to a new owner while
the well is being drilled, or after the well is completed, a
notice of change of ownership and a request for transfer of
permit shall be submitted to the supervisor on prescribed
forms.
(2) The request for transfer of ownership may be
approved if it is signed by the owner of record and the ac-
quiring owner, and if the required bond if filed by the ac-
quiring owner.
(3) A permit may be transferred only to persons
who are in compliance with the act and the rules and orders
of the supervisor.
R 299.2244. Termination of permits.
Rule 44. A permit to drill, rework or deepen a well termi-
nates and is void 6 months after the date of issuance if the
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well for which the permit was issued has not been commenced,
drilled, reworked or deepened in accordance with the permit
except as provided by rules 22 to 25. The supervisor may
grant an extension of time for commencement after receiving
a written request and finding that the request is reasonable.
R 299.2246. Conversion of wells for new uses.
Rule 46. (1) An existing well, a mineral well, or a well
drilled under another act may be converted to a new use if
a permit is obtained in accordance with rule 12.
(2) A mineral well may be converted to a use
other than provided by the act if the conversion is accept-
able to the receiving authority and the well construction is
suitably altered in accord with specifications to be stated
by the supervisor and the receiving authority.
R 299.2247. Change of Status of wells.
Rule 47. (1) A mineral well may be deepened below the
depth at which originally completed, may be reworked, may
be shut-in for a period of time not to exceed 1 year except
as provided in rule 81, or its status may otherwise be
changed by any operation except for conversion to new use
if:
(a) An application for permission to change the
status of the well has been filed with the supervisor on
prescribed forms. The application shall contain a detailed
account of the work to be accomplished. Supplemental infor-
mation required by the application or the supervisor shall
be submitted on separate sheets with the application.
(b) A surety or security bond is filed as pro-
vided by these rules.
(c) The application has been approved by the
supervisor and a permit to change the status of the well
has been issued.
(2) Within 30 days after completion of the change
of status operation, a complete record of the work performed
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shall be filed with the supervisor on prescribed forms in
accordance with rules 71 and 72.
(3) Normal repair or maintenance of mineral wells
shall not constitute a change in status.
R 299.2248. Lost mineral wells.
Rule 48. A mineral well which cannot be completed shall be
plugged promptly in accordance with part 7 unless converted
to other use as provided in rule 46.
R 299.2249. Disposal of unconfirmed wells.
Rule 49. A well which is not confirmed or approved for dis-
posal use under rule 16 shall be:
(a) Abandoned and plugged in accordance with
part 7 or
(b) Converted for other use as provided in
rule 46.
PART 5. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF WELLS
R 299.2251. Preparation of well locations.
Rule 51. (1) A pit or pits of a size approved by the super-
visor shall be provided in close proximity to the well for
the purpose of collecting and containing drill cuttings and
confining drilling muds and fluids.
(2) Dikes may be required to prevent the escape
of fluids from the well site, and other safeguards may be
required for the protection of cultural or other adjacent
features.
(3) Steel tanks, cribs or other approved con-
tainers may be required in an area where pits are not
feasible or adequate or if the cuttings and fluids are to
be removed from the premises.
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(4) Drilling shall not be commenced until the
person has complied with the methods and means specified
by the supervisor to prevent pollution.
(5) Provision for protection of life and prop-
erty may be required in a congested area. Fencing, gates,
warning signs, cooperation of police and fire departments,
and other protective safeguards may be required.
R 299.2252. Prevention of waste and pollution.
Rule 52. (1) A person who drills or operates a mineral
well shall use appropriate and approved methods to prevent
waste and pollution during drilling, testing, production,
storage and disposal operations. The supervisor may issue
orders and instructions and adopt, recommend or recognize
guidelines relating to drilling, spacing or operating to
cope with known or expected surface or underground con-
ditions.
(2) A well site shall be maintained in an orderly
manner and kept free and clear of debris and unnecessary or
abandoned equipment.
R 299.2253. Casing and sealing brine, storage and disposal
wells.
Rule 53. A specific casing and sealing program shall be sub-
mitted with each application for a permit to drill a brine,
storage or disposal well, which shall be appropriate to the
drilling methods, expected geologic conditions, and the in-
tended ultimate use of the well, including, but not limited
to, the following:
(a) Drive pipe shall be landed, or surface pipe
set and cemented to the surface, at sufficient depth to pro-
tect fresh water aquifers.
(b) Intermediate casing or casings, if required,
shall be run and cemented as approved by the supervisor.
Centralizers may be required.
(c) The production or long string of casing shall
be run and cemented as approved. Centralizers may be re-
quired.
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(d) Tubing may be required for use in injection
and withdrawal operations. The operator shall furnish to
the supervisor evidence that the casing will not be exposed
to undue corrosion. Installation of a packer on the tubing
may be required.
(e) Hole diameters, casing weights and diameters
and cementing procedures shall be subject to approval by the
supervisor.
(f) The drilling fluid used with rotary drilling
equipment shall be capable of preventing blowouts and flows
and sealing off each oil, gas, brine or fresh water stratum
above the producing horizon or objective formation.
(g) A well head shall be equipped with blowout
preventer, master gate valve, or control head, and securely
anchored flow lines, appropriate to the type of drilling
method, and shall be kept in good working condition. Rec-
ords of pressure and mechanical tests of well head equip-
ment shall be entered in the log book, signed by the driller,
and kept available for inspection by the supervisor or his
representative.
R 299.2254. Casing and sealing test wells.
Rule 54. A combination of casing and sealing may be re-
quired on a test well to provide protection to the waters
of the state and to prevent migration of fluids between
layers of earth materials.
R 299.2255. Cavities and reservoirs for storage use.
Rule 55. (1) A cavity or reservoir may be created by solu-
tion, by fracturing, or by any chemical, physical or mechan-
ical method, or any combination thereof.
(2) Disposal of the salt water or other mineral-
ized water resulting from development of a cavity or reser-
voir shall be subject to Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of
1929, as amended, b,eing Sections 323.1 to 323.13 of the
Compiled Laws of 1948.
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R 299.2256. Oil, gas, brine and fresh water.
Rule 56. (1) Oil, gas, brine and fresh water encountered
shall be confined to the strata in which they occur by
either of the following:
(a) Specified casing and sealing requirements.
(b) Plugging operations in accordance with part 7.
(2) An unusual, unexpected, or difficultly-
controllable large volume of oil, gas, brine or flowing fresh
water or a condition hazardous to public health, safety or
waters of the state shall be reported immediately to the
supervisor.
R 299.2257. Removal or stripping of casings.
Rule 57. Removal or stripping of a casing from a well
during drilling or after completion is permitted only when
approved by the supervisor.
R 299.2261. Initial testing of storage wells, cavities and
reservoirs.
Rule 61. Data shall be reported to the supervisor demon-
strating that a storage well, cavity or reservoir is suit-
able for the proposed use. These data shall be obtained by
appropriate testing and measurement procedures, including
the following:
(a) The casing, tubing and well head equipment
shall be pressure tested at a minimum of 133 percent of
the expected operating pressure.
(b) The cavity or reservoir shall be tested to
demonstrate to the supervisor that there will be no leaks
or losses of fluids into the adjacent formations at expected
operating pressure.
(c) The size, shape and volume of the cavity or
reservoir shall be determined as accurately as practicable.
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R 299.2262. Initial testing of disposal wells.
Rule 62. (1) Tests, logs and direct measurements shall
be conducted to determine to the satisfaction of the super-
visor that the well and disposal formations are suitable
for disposal or storage of wastes and that overlying and
underlying rock units, zones, intervals, beds or formations
are adequate to confine disposed or stored fluids. The
tests shall include, but not be limited to, the following
data:
(a) Physical, chemical and lithologic properties
of formation materials and fluids.
(b) Formation porosity and permeability.
(c) Compatability of waste or stored fluids with
naturally-occurring formation fluids and formation materials.
(d) Formation temperature and pressure.
(2) Tests, logs and direct measurements shall be
conducted in accordance with procedures acceptable to the
supervisor. Results shall be filed with the supervisor.
Waste products or stored materials shall be injected and
confined to the zone, interval, bed or formation designated
for disposal or storage use. Compliance with the act and
rules promulgated thereunder does not obviate the necessity
of compliance with any order or other action of the Water
Resources Commission in accordance with Act No. 245 of the
Public Acts of 1929, as amended, or any other pertinent act.
R 299.2265. Periodic testing of brine wells.
Rule 65. Testing shall be accomplished not less than bien-
nially on a brine well to determine and locate leaks or
losses of fluids or pressure in tubing, casing, surface or
drive pipe, and well head equipment. Results of the testing
shall be reported to the supervisor. The supervisor may
accept continuous monitoring data in lieu of some periodic
testing.
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R 299.2266. Operation of brine wells.
Rule 66. (1) The handling, piping and surface storage of
brines shall be accomplished in a manner to prevent leaks
and losses into surface or underground waters.
(2) The use of unlined surface pits or earthen
reservoirs is prohibited.
(3) Records of volume of fluids withdrawn and
injected shall be maintained on a monthly basis. These
records shall be preserved by the operator and be subject
to inspection and evaluation by the supervisor. The oper-
ator shall file an annual report with the supervisor
showing:
(a) Volume relationship or withdrawal-injection
ratios.
(b) A summary statement or tabulation of injec-
tion pressures and injection pressure variations.
(4) Any anomalous condition, including a rate
or pressure variation, shall be reported promptly to the
supervisor.
R 299.2267. Periodic testing of storage and disposal wells.
Rule 67. At least once during each calendar quarter a
storage or disposal well shall be tested by the operator
by the variable-rate input method, the pressure fall-off
test, or any other performance test as the supervisor may
require or approve. Sufficient data shall be collected
during each calendar year to facilitate analysis of static
and injection formation pressures, storage zone limits or
boundaries, changes in formation characteristics, and other
information commonly derivable from such tests. Data shall
be preserved by the operator for inspection by the super-
visor or his agent. At the end of each calendar year a
summary and analysis of test data shall be supplied to the
supervisor. The supervisor may accept continuous monitoring
data in lieu of some periodic testing.
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R 299.2268. Operation of storage and disposal wells.
Rule 68. (1) Anomalous behavior of a storage or disposal
well shall be reported promptly to the supervisor. In case
of an anomalous behavior arising from or likely to arise
from storage or disposal practices, the supervisor may
order reduction or cessation of storage or disposal oper-
ations, may order additional testing by the operator, or
may order the drilling of an observation well by the oper-
ator to provide additional data on the movement and behavior
of injected fluids, indigenous formation fluids or stored
fluids.
(2) Elimination and correction of leaks or
losses of fluids or pressure in wells, reservoirs and
surface installations shall be made immediately.
(3) An operation which may cause or create a
condition endangering public health or welfare shall be
avoided.
(4) Adequate equipment and installations at a
disposal well for appropriate testing and monitoring of
the operation shall be used.
(5) Wastes shall be treated before injection
unless otherwise approved by the supervisor.
(6) Records or reports, forms, charts of oper-
ating pressures, rates of injection, types and volumes of
fluids injected or withdrawn, and other pertinent infor-
mation shall be maintained and submitted monthly to the
supervisor or at other specified times.
(7) Wastes shall be treated and stored before
injection in a manner to avoid surface or ground water
pollution.
(8) A request for change of status shall be
filed before any rework operations are commenced.
(9) Volumes, injection rates and pressures
used shall not exceed those specified in the approval of
the disposal or storage use.
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(10) Only wastes specified in the statement re-
quired by rule 13 may be injected into a well.
(11) Not less than 1 observation well, located
within 100 feet of the disposal well, shall be provided
for each well used for the disposal or storage of radio-
active materials. An observation well shall penetrate,
as a minimum, the formational unit immediately overlying
and confining the disposal formation. The well or wells
shall be used for continuous control and monitoring on a
scale commensurate with the level of the radioactivity.
PART 6. RECORDS
R 299.2271. Kinds and filing.
Rule 71. (1) A person who drills a mineral well shall
keep, preserve and file with the supervisor drilling logs,
sample logs, and electric or radiation or other physical,
chemical or mechanical logs as designated or approved by
the supervisor. Logs shall consist of data accurately
recorded during drilling, deepening, reworking and testing
of wells or the subsequent analysis or description of earth
materials removed. Logs shall be filed within 60 days after
the completion of drilling, except test wells drilled in
accordance with rules 22 to 27, on forms prescribed or
approved by the supervisor.
(2) The permittee shall obtain and transmit to
the supervisor the records and logs of work done on wells
by contractual service companies that specialize in logging
or cementing or other special well treatment procedures.
R 299.2272. Content.
Rule 72. A log of a mineral well shall include all normally
recorded information for the particular type well being con-
structed and shall include, but not be limited to:
(a) For a test well, the owner's name, permit
number, site location, elevation, drilling contractor,
drilling method, casing record, description and thickness
of geologic materials penetrated, static water levels,
flowing water zones, total depth, beginning and completion
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dates, occurrences of oil, gas or salt water, and des-
cription of procedures and materials used in plugging.
(b) For a brine, storage or disposal well,
the owner's name, permit number, site location, ele-
vation, drilling contractor, drilling method, casing
record, cementing record, description and thickness
of geologic materials penetrated, total depth, static
water levels, flowing water zones, occurrences of oil,
gas or salt water, beginning and completion dates, data
on perforating, acidizing, fracturing, shooting and
testing, electrical, radiation or other types of mechan-
ical, chemical or physical records; sample descriptions,
core descriptions, data on well head completion, and
data on subsurface equipment installed.
(c) For a reworked well, the owner's name,
permit number, site location, contractor's name, reason
for rework, changes made within the well and at the well
head, and reports of testing accomplished.
R 299.2273. Confidentiality.
Rule 73. Records shall be kept confidential as follows:
(a) A log of a brine or test well shall be kept
confidential for 10 years after well completion, except as
otherwise released by the owner.
(b) A log of an exploratory test well shall be
kept confidential until released by the owner or operator.
(c) A log of a brine or test well for exploratory
purposes shall be kept confidential until the owner is no
longer an active producer, mineral lease holder, or owner
of mineral lands in the state.
PART 7. PLUGGING
R 299.2281. Plugging of mineral wells.
Rule 81. A mineral well shall be plugged promptly after
abandonment or termination of the project in accordance
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with plugging procedures specified by the supervisor. A
well which has been inactive for 1 year is considered to
have been abandoned unless otherwise authorized by the
supervisor.
R 299.2282. Plugging of brine, storage and disposal wells,
cavities and reservoirs.
Rule 82. (1) The abandonment of a brine, storage or dis-
posal well, a solution cavity, or a reservoir shall require
the filing of a notice of intention to abandon on a pre-
scribed form and plugging instructions shall be issued by
the supervisor before plugging operations are commenced.
(2) The plugging instructions shall specify the
type and amount of plugging material to be used, depths at
which bridges may be set, depths and lengths of cement plugs,
and other requirements for adequate plugging.
(3) Fluids and gases shall be confined to the
strata in which they occur by use of mud-laden fluid,
cement, other suitable material or combinations thereof.
The amount, type and kind of material and the method of
placement shall be prescribed or approved by the supervisor.
(4) The surface or drive pipe shall be abandoned
with the hole except when otherwise approved by the super-
visor.
(5) The surface or drive pipe shall be cut off
below ground level, except as otherwise approved by the
supervisor, and a cement plug, welded plate or other ap-
proved seal placed at the top of the pipe.
R 299.2283. Plugging of test wells.
Rule 83. (1) Plugging of a test well shall be accomplished
in accordance with specifications made at the time of the
application for a permit to drill. The plugging operation
may require the use of mud-laden fluid, cement, other suit-
able material, or a combination of 2 or more of these items.
Fluids and gases shall be sealed off and confined to the
strata in which they occur. A suitable plug may be required
at the surface.
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(2) The plugging of a test well drilled without
issuance of a permit shall be in the manner as a test well
for which a permit was issued.
R 299.2285. Clean-up of abandoned v/ell sites.
Rule 85. The well pit or cellar and all pits and excava-
tions shall be filled and leveled off at the surface, debris
shall be removed, and all conditions which may create a
nuisance or a fire or pollution hazard shall be eliminated.
The surface of the abandoned well site shall be returned as
nearly as possible to its original condition.
R 299.2287. Plugging reports and records.
Rule 87. (1) A report shall be filed with the supervisor
after plugging of a test well. This report may cover a
number of wells drilled under a blanket permit.
(2) Well plugging records shall be filed on pre-
scribed forms following the plugging of a brine, storage,
disposal and single test well. This record shall indicate
how the well was plugged, the casing recovered and abandoned
with the hole, and the condition of the abandoned well site.
(3) The plugging record on a test well drilled
without the issuance of a permit shall be attached to or
made a part of the log when it is filed after the prescribed
2 years.
(4) Plugging records for a brine, storage or dis-
posal well shall be filed within 30 days after completion of
the plugging.
PART 8. ADMINISTRATION
R 299.2291. Forms.
Rule 91. Forms required by these rules are prescribed by
the supervisor and will be available from his office.
R 299.2292. Public hearing requests and petitions.
Rule 92. (1) The supervisor, the board or any person
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affected by a mineral well matter may request or petition
for a public hearing before the supervisor or the board to
consider the need or advisability of an action or order by
the supervisor. The purpose of the hearing will be to
receive evidence, testimony, statements and exhibits per-
taining to the matter to be heard.
(2) A petition or written request by any person
other than the supervisor or board for a hearing shall be
filed with the supervisor and shall include the following
and other information which may be pertinent:
(a) Name and address of petitioner.
(b) Purpose for which the hearing is requested.
(c) Descriptions, sections, townships and
counties involved in the matter to be heard.
(d) Maps, plats and exhibits which may be useful
in considering the matter to be heard.
(e) Names and addresses of persons known to be
concerned with the matter to be heard and who should be
notified of the hearing.
(f) Name of the newspaper circulated in the area
of the matter to be heard.
R 299.2293. Notice of public hearings.
Rule 93. The supervisor shall prepare notices of all public
hearings. Notice of the time, place and issues involved
shall be published once each week for 2 consecutive weeks in
a newspaper circulated in the area where the matter of con-
cern is located. The last date of publication shall be at
least 3 days before the date set for hearing. The petitioner
is responsible for the publishing of notices and payment for
the publishing, except that the supervisor is responsible
for the publishing and payment for the publishing on a
hearing initiated by him.
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R 299.2294. Service of notices.
Rule 94. A person whose name is listed in the petition, or
otherwise known by the supervisor or the petitioner to be
concerned, shall be furnished with a copy of the notice by
certified or registered mail. The petitioner shall furnish
these notices and submit return receipts and affidavits of
publication to the supervisor before the date of the hearing.
R 299.295. Determinations by supervisor.
Rule 95. The board shall participate in all hearings and
shall meet privately with the supervisor following each
hearing. It shall review the evidence and testimony sub-
mitted and make recommendations thereon to the supervisor.
The supervisor, after evaluating the evidence and testimony
and giving due consideration to the recommendations of the
board, shall adopt the appropriate rule or order or make
the determination which in his judgment is warranted on
the matter.
R 299.2296. Emergency orders of supervisor.
Rule 96. An emergency order may be issued by the supervisor
without public hearing and with immediate effect to apply to
situations requiring prompt control of pollution or elimi-
nation of any other hazardous condition. An emergency order
shall remain in effect not more than 21 days. It becomes
void unless made permanent or replaced by a new order
adopted following a public hearing which shall be promptly
commenced.
R 299.2297. Extension of time for compliance.
Rule 97. The supervisor may grant an extension of time for
compliance with these rules after receipt of a written re-
quest from an operator setting forth appropriate evidence
acceptable to the supervisor.
R 299.2298. Enforcement by supervisor.
Rule 98. The supervisor by virtue of sections 14 and 16 of
the act is empowered to enforce all rules, issue orders and
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instructions necessary to enforce these rules, order suspen-
sion or correction of any operation, condition or practice
which is causing or resulting, or threatening to cause or
result, in surface or underground waste, and do whatever
is necessary to carry out the purpose and intent of the
act and the rules, whether or not such orders or instruc-
tions are indicated, specified or enumerated in the act or
in the rules.
Mississippi2
The Air and Water Pollution Control Commission, Box 827,
Jackson, would apparently have jurisdiction over subsurface
disposal. They are presently making a study of the various
rules and regulations of other states with the intent of
establishing some for Mississippi.
The State Board of Health's Regulation 52, 40-110 governs
industrial waste disposal. The Oil and Gas Conservation
Commission's role in this respect would be only to issue
a permit to drill the well. There is no direct reference
to subsurface disposal in the above regulation which ap-
pears to apply generally to surface waters. However, it
does regulate industrial and municipal discharges into the
state's waters which can be liberally interpreted to mean
subsurface aquifers.
Missouri*°
The Clean Water Commission of the Department of Public
Health and Welfare has jurisdiction over all matters
involving ground water. Any injection of industrial
waste into the subsurface in Missouri is specifically
prohibited in Chapter 564.025 of the Missouri Revised
Statutes, Cumulative Supplement, 1973.
Montana1'2
The State Board of Health's regulation 52, 40-10 governs
industrial waste disposal. The Oil and Gas Conservation
Commission's role in this respect would be only to issue
a permit to drill the well. There is no direct reference
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to subsurface disposal in the above regulation which appears
to apply generally to surface waters. However, it does regu-
late industrial and municipal discharges into the State's
waters which can be liberally interpreted to mean subsurface
aquifers.
The Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (60127C) has the
power to require the drilling, casing, and plugging of oil
and gas wells so as to prevent pollution of fresh water
supplies and also has the power to regulate disposal of
salt water and other oil field wastes. It is quite likely
that the Commission could actively participate in regulating
or approving any subsurface disposal program.
Nebraska1
Nebraska has no specific laws regulating the subsurface dis-
posal of industrial wastes other than oil and gas field
brines. The agency principally responsible for water pol-
lution control is the State Pollution Control Council which
is a part of the State Department of Health (Revised Stat-
utes of Nebraska, 71-3001, et. seq.). The Council sets
quality standards and formulates broad general policy. The
Department of Health is charged with the administration of
the Water Pollution Act in accordance with the law and poli-
cies and regulations that are established by the Council.
The Council itself holds hearings and adopts rules and regu-
lations and orders regarding pollution and abatement thereof.
Although the Board may review and make recommendations of
plans for disposal systems, the Council is the one that must
actually approve the plans and issue the permits. The Oil
and Gas Conservation Commission has the authority to regu-
late the disposal of salt water and other oil field wastes.
In all probability should subsurface disposal of wastes
become a reality the above agencies under present laws
would be directly involved. Other agencies which should
be consulted are the State Department of Water Resources
and the Geological Survey. The Department of Water Re-
sources is represented on the Council. It is quite likely
that this method of disposal will not be used until adequate
protective legislation has been adopted.
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New Mexico1
The Department of Health probably would have this authority,
at least in the area of enforcement. Legislation aimed at
air pollution and water pollution may have some bearing on
subsurface disposal.
New York2•ll
The present policies relative to deep well injection were
adopted by the Department of Health, May 29, 1969. These
are listed below:
A. The injection of liquid wastes by deep
wells is considered a last resort after
all other methods have been evaluated;
it is a method for gaining long-term
storage rather than treatment. The
applicant must demonstrate that this
method (1) is the optimal approach,
and (2) has the least effect to the
total environment.
B. Fresh ground waters and potential
mineral resources which may be sub-
ject to future development must be
protected against any adverse effect
by the disposal of wastes into the
subsurface.
C. It is incumbent upon the applicant to
obtain a competent geologist and a pro-
fessional engineer for the necessary
studies, design and preparation of re-
ports and plans. This should include,
but not be limited to the environmental,
economical and technical implications.
D. Continuous injection at critical input
(Hydraulic parting) pressures is pro-
hibited and will not be approved.
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E. A permit must be issued prior to the
construction and operation of any
disposal of wastes through deep well
injection.
F. Concurrence must be obtained from the
Division of Oil and Gas of the Conser-
vation Department and the office of
the State Geologist of the Education
Department.
North Dakota1
The Water Conservation Commission does have power for the
complete supervision and control of acts tending to pollute
water courses (N.D. C.C. § 61-02-14 (2) C). The act does
not limit the authority of the Department of Health to pre-
vent pollution, and the Commission shall not declare waters
to be polluted without a finding to that effect by the De-
partment of Health (§ 61-02-15). Also the State Industrial
Commission has jurisdiction to prevent pollution by oil, gas,
or salt water (N.D. C.C. § 38-08-04) with the State Geolo-
gist acting as the administrative agent. It is quite likely
that the Industrial Commission would be involved in the sub-
surface disposal of industrial wastes should such a program
or programs be instigated in North Dakota. The State Water
Pollution Control Board, an agency established by the 1967
Legislature, would probably enter the picture as well as the
above named agencies, all of which are represented on the
Board.
Ohio1 '12
In June of 1967 the Ohio Legislature enacted changes in
their Oil and Gas Code which incorporated specific laws
for industrial waste disposal wells. Jurisdiction would
be under the Division of Oil and Gas. Although that
Division can set up specific regulations and enforcement
procedure, the multi-agency approach will still be used
in approving any application for a disposal well. The
other agencies involved are Water Pollution Control Board,
Geological Survey, Division of Mines, and the Health De-
partment.
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Amended Senate Bill No. 226 -
To amend sections 1509.01 and 1509.06 and to enact sec-
tions 1509.501 and 1509.081 of the Revised Code relative
to issuance of liquid disposal permits, and to declare
an emergency.
SECTION 1. That sections 1509.01 and 1509.06 be amended
and sections 1509.051 and 1509.081 of the Revised Code be
enacted to read as follows:
Sec. 1509.01. As used in sections 1509.01 to 1509.99, in-
clusive, of the Revised Code:
(A) "Well" means any borehole, whether drilled or bored,
within the state, for production, extraction, or
injection of any gas or liquid mineral, excluding
potable water to be used as such, but including
natural or artificial brines and oil field waters,
sewage, and any liquid used in or resulting from
any process or industry, manufacture, trade, busi-
ness, or agriculture.
(B) "Oil" means crude petroleum oil and all other hydro-
carbons, regardless of gravity, that are produced
in liquid form by ordinary production methods, but
does not include hydrocarbons that were originally
in a gaseous phase in the reservoir.
(C) "Gas" means all natural gas and all other fluid hydro-
carbons not defined above as oil, including condensate.
(D) "Condensate" means liquid hydrocarbons that were orig-
inally in the gaseous phase in the reservoir.
(E) "Pool" means an underground reservoir containing a
common accumulation of oil or gas, or both, but does
not include a gas storage reservoir. Each zone of
a geological structure that is completely separated
from any other zone in the same structure may contain
a separate pool.
1342
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(F) "Field" means the general area underlaid by one or
more pools.
(G) "Drilling unit" means the minimum acreage on which
one well may be drilled, but does not apply to a
well for injecting gas into or removing gas from a
gas storage reservoir.
(H) "Waste" includes:
(1) Physical waste as such term is generally under-
stood in the oil and gas industry;
(2) Inefficient, excessive, or improper use, or
the unnecessary dissipation of, reservoir
energy.
(3) Inefficient storing of oil or gas;
(4) Locating, drilling, equipping, operating, or
producing an oil or gas well in a manner that
reduces or tends to reduce the quantity of oil
or gas ultimately recoverable under prudent
and proper operations from the pool into which
it is drilled, or that causes or tends to cause
unnecessary or excessive surface loss or destruc-
tion of oil or gas;
(5) Other underground or surface waste in the pro-
duction or storage of oil, gas, or condensate,
however caused.
(I) "Correlative rights" means the reasonable opportunity
to every person entitled thereto to recover and receive
the oil and gas in and under his tract or tracts, or
the equivalent thereof, without having to drill unneces-
sary wells or incur other unnecessary expense.
(J) "Tract" means a single, individually taxed parcel of
land appearing on the tax list.
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(K) "Owner", unless referring to a mine, means the person
who has the right to drill on a tract or drilling unit
and to drill into and produce from a pool and to ap-
propriate the oil or gas that he produced therefrom
either for himself or for others.
(L) "Royalty interest" means the fee holder's interest in
the production from a well, usually one-eight of the
gross production.
(M) "Discovery well" means the first well capable of pro-
ducing oil or gas in commercial quantities from a pool.
(N) "Prepared clay" means a clay which is plastic and is
thoroughly saturated with fresh water to a weight and
consistency great enough to settle through saltwater
in the well in which it is to be used, except as
otherwise approved by the chief of the division of
oil and gas.
(0) "Rock sediment" means the combined cutting and residue
from drilling sedimentary rocks and formation.
(P) "Excavations and workings", "mine", and "pillar" have
the meaning set forth in section 4151.01 of the Revised
Code.
(Q) "Coal bearing township" means a township designated as
such by the chief of the division of mines under section
4151.11 of the Revised Code.
(R) "Gas storage reservoir" means a continuous area of a
subterranean porous sand or rock stratum or strata
into which gas is or may be injected for the purpose
of storing it therein and removing it therefrom, and
includes a gas storage reservoir as defined in division
(A) of section 4161.01 of the Revised Code.
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Sec. 1509.051. No person shall use a well for the injec-
tion of sewage or any liquid used in or resulting from any
process of industry, manufacture, trade, business, or agri-
culture, without having a liquid disposal permit issued by
the chief of the division of oil and gas, and the original
permit or a true copy thereof displayed in a conspicuous
and easily accessible place at the well site.
A permit to drill a new well, drill an existing well deeper,
or to reopen a well, is a liquid disposal permit if the
permit was issued in satisfaction of the requirements of
section 1509.081 of the Revised Code, or if a permit autho-
rizing such use has been issued under section 1509.21 of
the Revised Code, or if such use is approved by the chief
under section 1509.22 of the Revised Code.
Sec. 1509.06. An application for a permit to drill a new
well, drill an existing well deeper, reopen a well, ***
plug back a well to a different source of supply, or use
a well for injection of a liquid for which a permit is
required by section 1509.051 of the Revised Code, shall
be filed with the chief of the division of oil and gas
upon such form as the chief prescribes and shall contain
the following information:
(A) The name and address of the owner;
(B) The signature of the owner or his authorized agent.
When an authorized agent signs an application it
shall be accompanied by a certified copy of his ap-
pointment as such agent.
(C) The names and addresses of all persons holding the
royalty interest in the tract upon which the well
is to be drilled or within a proposed drilling unit,
(D) The location of the tract or drilling unit on which
the well is to be drilled identified by section or
lot number, city village, township, and county;
1345
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(E) Designation of well by name and number;
(F) The geological formation to be tested or used and the
proposed total depth of the well;
(G) The type of drilling equipment to be used;
(H) The name and address of the corporate surety and the
identifying number of the bond;
(I) The plan for disposal of water and other waste sub-
stances resulting, obtained, or produced in connection
with exploration, drilling, or production of oil or
gas.
(J) If the well is for the *** injection of a liquid,
identity of the geological formation to be used as
the *** injection medium and the composition of the
liquid to be injected.
Each such application shall be accompanied by a map, on a
scale not smaller than four hundred feet to the inch, pre-
pared by an Ohio registered surveyor, showing the location
of such well and containing such other data as may be pre-
scribed by the chief. If the well is or is to be located
within the excavations and workings of a mine the map shall
also include the location of such mine, the name of the
mine, and the name of the person operating the mine.
Each application to drill or reopen a well, except a well
drilled or reopened for purposes of section 1509.22 of the
Revised Code, shall also be accompanied by a fee of thirty-
five dollars for a well two thousand feet or more in depth
or twenty dollars for a well less than two thousand feet
in depth or for a well for injecting gas into or removing
gas from an underground gas storage reservoir. If for any
reason the permit is denied, such fee shall be returned to
the applicant.
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Sec. 1509.081. Upon receipt of an application for a permit
to drill a new well, drill an existing well deeper, reopen
a well, or use a well, for injection of a liquid for which
a permit is required by section 1509.051 of the Revised
Code, other than one which comes within the requirements
of section 1509.21 or section 1509.22 of the Revised Code,
the chief of the division of oil and gas shall determine
whether the proposed injection would present an unreason-
able risk that waste or contamination of oil or gas in the
earth will occur. If he determines such risk to exist, he
shall make an order rejecting the application. If he deter-
mines such risk not to exist, he shall transmit copies of
the application and the map required by section 1509.06 of
the Revised Code to the water pollution control board, the
director of health, the chief of the division of geological
survey, the chief of the division of water and, if so re-
quired by section 1509.08 of the Revised Code, to the chief
of the division of mines.
The chief of the division of geological survey shall approve
the application unless he determines that the proposed in-
jection would present an unreasonable risk of loss or damage
to valuable mineral resources.
The chief of the division of water shall make a report and
recommendation to the director of natural resources.
The water pollution control board shall approve the appli-
cation if it determines that the proposed injection will
not cause pollution as defined in division (A) of section
6111.01 of the Revised Code.
Upon approval by the water pollution control board, the
department of health under section 3701.19 of the Revised
Code, and the chief of the division of geological survey
and by the chief of the division of mines, if required
by section 1509.08 of the Revised Code the chief of the
division of oil and gas shall issue a liquid disposal
permit with such conditions as may be necessary to pro-
tect health, safety, or the conservation of natural re-
sources, including all conditions appended by the water
pollution control board and the department of health.
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If the chief is unable to obtain the required approvals, he
shall issue an order denying the application. In an appeal
from such an order where the application was denied because
of lack of approval by an agency or agencies other than the
division of oil and gas, the appeal shall be taken under
section 119.12 of the Revised Code as if the order had been
made by the agency whose approval is lacking.
The chief of the division of oil and gas may adopt rules
and regulations for the administration and implementation
of this section as may be necessary to protect health,
safety, or the conservation of natural resources.
The chief may order that a liquid disposal permit be sus-
pended and that operations cease if he determines that the
well being operated in violation of law, regulation, order,
or condition of the permit. Upon service of a copy of the
order upon the permit holder, his agent, or assignee, the
permit and operations thereunder shall be immediately sus-
pended without prior hearing, and shall remain suspended
until the violation is corrected and the order of suspen-
sion is lifted. If a violation is the second within a
one-year period, the chief may, after hearing, revoke the
permit.
The chief may order that a liquid disposal permit be sus-
pended and that operations cease if he has reasonable cause
to believe that the permit would not have been issued if
information available at the time of suspension had been
available at the time a determination was made by one of
the agencies acting under authority of this section. Upon
service of a copy of the order upon the permit holder, his
agent, or assignee, the permit and operations thereunder
shall be immediately suspended without prior hearing, but
a permit may not be suspended for such reason without prior
hearing unless immediate suspension is necessary to pre-
vent waste or contamination of oil or gas, pollution as
defined in division (A) of section 6111.01 of the Revised
Code, damage to valuable mineral resources, or danger to
human life or health. If after hearing the chief deter-
mines that the permit would not have been issued if the
information available at the time of the hearing had been
available at the time a determination was made by one of
the agencies acting under authority of this section, he
shall revoke the permit.
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A revocation of permit shall not prejudice the right of
the holder to obtain another permit. When a permit has
been revoked, the permit holder or another person respon-
sible therefor shall immediately plug the well.
In an appeal from an order of suspension or revocation
where the order was made because of objection of an agency
or agencies named in this section other than the division
of oil or gas, the appeal shall be taken under section
119.12 of the Revised Code as if the order had been made
by the agency upon whose objection the order was based.
SECTION 2. That existing sections 1509.01 and 1509.06 of
the Revised Code are hereby repealed.
SECTION 3. This act is hereby declared to be an emergency
measure necessary for the immediate preservation of the
public peace, health, and safety. The reason for this
necessity is that its enactment into law at the earliest
possible time will enable industries which have a present
need to dispose of untreatable waste materials to dispose
of them safely underground, and thus avoid pollution of
the rivers and streams of the state. Therefore this act
shall go into immediate effect.
Oklahoma13•l*
The Oklahoma Water Resources Board, created by an Act of
the 26th Legislature, Title 82, Section 1071, O.S. 1961,
approved May 2, 1957, is the controlling authority over
deep-well injection of industrial waste. Exceptions would
involve interested agencies which are charged with specific
duties as applied to surface and ground waters. These agen-
cies would be the Corporation Commission, Health Department,
and the Wildlife Conservation Commission. Opinions are
usually solicited from the referred to agencies prior to
final approval of a proposed disposal program.
Oklahoma Water Resources Board, Rules and Regulations -
CHAPTER V
POLLUTION REMEDIES
1349
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500. INTRODUCTORY PROVISIONS
500.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS: For the purpose of carrying out
these rules and regulations and in the performance of its
duties, the Board relies upon the following definitions of
terms:
(a) BOARD, whenever used herein, shall mean the Oklahoma
Water Resources Board.
(b) PERSON means the State, any municipality, political
subdivision, institution, public or private corporation,
individual, partnership or other entity.
(c) WATERS OF THE STATE by law means all streams, lakes,
ponds, marshes, watercourses, waterways, wells, springs,
irrigation systems, drainage systems, and all other
bodies of accumulations of water, surface and under-
ground, natural or artificial, public or private, which
are contained within, flow through, or border upon this
State or any portion thereof, except privately owned
reservoirs used in the process of cooling water for
industrial purposes, provided that water released from
any such reservoir into a stream system of the State
shall be and become waters of the State. (926.1)
(d) POLLUTION by law means contamination or other alter-
ation of the physical, chemical, or biological prop-
erties of any natural waters of the State, or such
discharge of any liquid, gaseous, or solid substance
into any waters of the State as will or is likely to
create a nuisance or render such waters harmful or
detrimental or injurious to public health, safety,
or welfare; to domestic, commercial, industrial, agri-
cultural, recreational, or other legitimate beneficial
uses; or to livestock, wild animals, birds, fish, or
other aquatic life. (926.1)
(e) WASTES by law mean industrial waste and all other
liquid, gaseous, or solid substances which may pol-
lute or tend to pollute any waters of the State.
(926.1)
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(f) DISPOSAL WELL means any system of pipelines, conduits,
tubing, pumps, holding tanks, and all other construc-
tions, devices, appurtenances, and facilities used to
convey, deposit, or discharge waste to a storage reser-
voir below land surface.
(g) DISPOSAL SYSTEM by law means a system for disposing
of wastes and includes sewerage systems and treatment
works. (926.1)
(h) TREATMENT WORKS by law mean any plant, disposal field,
lagoon, dam, pumping station, incinerator, or other
works used for the purpose of treating, stabilizing,
or holding wastes. (926.1)
(i) SYSTEM by law means pipelines or conduits, pumping
stations and force mains, and all other constructions,
devices, appurtenances, and facilities used for col-
lecting or conducting wastes to a point of ultimate
disposal. (926.1)
(j) OPERATOR means the person responsible for the main-
tenance and operation of a disposal well and for
keeping records and providing reports to the Board.
(k) MUD means mud of not less that thirty-six (36) vis-
cosity (A.P.I. Full Funnel Method) and a weight of
not less than nine (9) pounds per gallon.
(1) DESIGNATED AGENT means those governmental entities
designated by the Board to distribute reference
samples.
(m) HEAVY METALS include but are not limited to cadmium,
chromium, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
nickel, silver, and zinc.
(n) MINERAL CHARACTERISTICS mean acidity, alkalinity
(bicarbonate, carbonate, hydroxide), barium, boron,
bromide, calcium, chloride, fluoride, iodide,
magnesium, silica, sulfate, sulfide, sodium, and
potassium.
1351
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(o) NUTRIENT CHARACTERISTICS means compounds of nitrogen
and phosphorus.
(p) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS include but are not limited
to color, dissolved oxygen, hardness, oxygen demand
(BOD, COD), pH, solids (dissolved, suspended, etc.),
specific conductance, temperature, and turbidity.
(q) REFERENCE SAMPLE means water standards made up under
controlled conditions to be used in the determination
of laboratory testing reliability.
(r) TOXIC SUBSTANCES are those substances which are dan-
gerous to human, animal, or plant life, and include
but are not limited to arsenic, cyanide, detergents,
oil and grease, pesticides, phenols, and selenium.
500.2 DECLARATION OF POLICY: Whereas the pollution of
waters of the State constitutes a menace to public health
and welfare, creates public nuisances, is harmful to wild-
life, fish and aquatic life, and impairs domestic, agri-
cultural, industrial, recreational and other legitimate
beneficial uses of water, and whereas the problem of water
pollution of this State is closely related to the problem
of water pollution in adjoining states, it is hereby de-
clared to be the public policy of this State to conserve
the waters of the State and to protect, maintain, and im-
prove the quality thereof for public water supplies, for
the propagation of wildlife, fish, and aquatic life and
for domestic, agricultural, industrial, recreational and
other legitimate beneficial uses; to provide that no waste
be discharged into any waters of the State without first
being given the degree of treatment necessary to protect
the legitimate beneficial uses of such waters; to provide
for the prevention, abatement, and control of new or ex-
isting water pollution; and to cooperate with other agencies
of this State, agencies of other states, and the federal
government in carrying out these objectives. (926.2)
500.3 LAWS: The statutory powers and duties of the Oklahoma
Water Resources Board are contained in Title 82, Oklahoma
Statutes:
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§§926.1-926.13, Pollution Remedies;
§§931-942, Pollution Control Coordinating Act of 1968
(as amended in 1971);
§§1020.1-1020.22, Oklahoma Ground Water Act;
§§1085.1-1085.28, Oklahoma Water Resources Board (Water
Conservation Storage Commission),
Membership and Authority;
§1401 - Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact; and
§1421 - Arkansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact.
Under other statutes, the Board is the primary agency for
water resources planning and development and the administra-
tion of water rights within the State.
500.4 WATER QUALITY STANDARDS: In accordance with the pro-
visions of the Water Quality Act of 1965, P.L. 89-234, as
amended by P.L. 92-500 (1972), and the Clean Water Restora-
tion Act of 1966, P.L. 89-753, the State of Oklahoma pre-
pared and adopted water quality standards for interstate
and intrastate waters of Oklahoma on April 10, 1973.
530. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL WELL PERMITS
530.1 PROTECTION OF FRESH WATER AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES:
(a) An application for a disposal well permit shall be ap-
proved by the Board prior to the start of construction.
(b) The application shall be accompanied by the proposed
plan for construction which sets out the steps to be
taken to protect the fresh water and other natural
resources.
(c) All applications for subsurface disposal wells shall
be critically evaluated to determine that:
1. Alternative disposal measures have been explored
and found less satisfactory in terms of pollution
control;
1353
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2. Adequate evidence demonstrates that said disposal
well will not interfere with present or potential
use of natural resources nor result in other en-
vironmental hazards; and
3. The disposal system has been designed and con-
structed using the best available techniques,
equipment, and design criteria.
(d) Any person who drills or authorizes such a well to be
drilled without a permit shall be subject to penalties
in accord with regulations of the Board and its en-
abling legislation.
530.2 QUALIFICATIONS OF DESIGNERS AND OPERATORS OF DISPOSAL
WELLS:
(a) All plans and specifications for a proposed disposal
well must bear the seal of a registered professional
engineer who has proven to the Board's satisfaction
his competence in designing a disposal well.
(b) All plats, surface and subsurface maps, stratigraphic
sections, lithological descriptions, and stratigraphic
cross-sections shall be prepared by a professional
geologist who has proven to the Board's satisfaction
his competency in the geologic aspects of designing
a disposal well.
530.3 PRETREATMENT:
(a) All applications for disposal well permits shall be
critically evaluated to determine that the best prac-
tical measures for pretreatment of wastes have been
applied.
(b) Pretreatment shall render substances to be disposed
of compatible with solids and liquids in the disposal
zone.
530.4 EMERGENCY STORAGE FACILITIES:
(a) Emergency storage facilities shall be provided to
1354
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enable the disposal well operator to shut down safely
in the event of component failure.
(b) In the event a disposal well must be shut down because
of component failure, the well operator shall notify
the Board in writing within forty-eight (48) hours
stating the nature of the problem and the estimated
time required to resume disposal operations.
530.5 APPLICATION FOR DISPOSAL WELL PERMIT:
(a) An application for a permit to drill a new disposal
well shall consist of the following:
1. Standard Waste Disposal Permit.
2. Disposal Well Questionnaire.
3. Plats showing every oil, gas, water, or disposal
well and every "dry hole" or other artificial
penetration deeper than twenty-five (25) feet
within a one (1) mile radius of the proposed
disposal well, together with the name and ad-
dress of each operator and each land surface
owner.
4. Schematic diagram of well showing:
a. Total depth of all plugs used in the well.
b. Depth of the disposal interval.
c. Depths of the tops and bottoms of the casing
and cement to be used in the well.
d. Size and weight of the casing and tubing;
depth of the packer.
5. Geology of the disposal zone, including a structure
contour map of the top of the disposal zone and an
isopachous map of the disposal zone".
1355
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6. A minimum of two stratigraphic cross-sections of
the formations penetrated at right angles to each
other shall be constructed.
7. A five-thousand dollar ($5,000.00) performance
bond.
(b) Application for a permit to convert an existing well
to a disposal well shall consist of the information
required in Rule 530.5 (a) above plus:
1. All electrical surveys and gamma ray-neutron logs
of the well.
2. A bottom-hole pressure test.
3. A fluid injectivity test showing injection pres-
sure versus cumulative liquid volume for a minimum
period of one (1) week after well is first started
and every two (2) years thereafter.
4. A detailed lithological description of all forma-
tions penetrated, together with all available core
data. A copy of the core report should be included
stating the method used in the determination of the
porosity and permeability figures.
5. The casing of a converted well shall be tested as
specified in Rule 530.9 (b).
(c) Upon completion of a new well the information required
in Rule 530.5 (b), Subsections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 must
be submitted to the Oklahoma Water Resources Board.
(d) The applicant shall mail by certified mail or deliver
a copy of the application with the accompanying plat
and schematic diagram to the landowner on whose land
the disposal well is to be located at last address on
file in office of county treasurer and to each operator
or lessee of record within one-half (1/2) mile of the
subject well, on or before the date the application is
mailed to or filed with the Board.
1356
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(e) The application shall be submitted in triplicate. One
copy shall be given to the Oklahoma Corporation Commis-
sion for review and comment, one copy shall be returned
to the applicant, and one copy shall be kept on file at
the Board's office.
(f) A public hearing shall be held at which time any inter-
ested party may register a formal complaint against the
issuance of the permit. After the hearing, the appli-
cation will be submitted to the Board.
530.6 PERMIT CONDITIONS:
(a) A disposal well permit is issued for a period of five
(5) years and may be renewed upon written application
to the Board.
(b) A renewal application must summarize the preceding
five years' activities. The summary must include:
1. The total amount of waste material disposed of.
2. The estimated number of cubic feet in the disposal
zone saturated with the waste material.
3. Estimated areal extent of saturation.
(c) The permit is issued with the condition that no damage
to natural resources shall occur as a result of any
operations associated with the disposal well.
(d) Violations of any rules and regulations set forth in
this document and/or permit shall be cause of forfei-
ture of the Performance Bond.
(e) A permit to operate a disposal well shall expire if
the well is not in operation for a period of six (6)
months.
(f) A permit which has expired for nonuse may be renewed
upon written application to the Board and after a
field inspection as specified in Rule 530.9.
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(g) All disposal wells drilled and/or completed prior to
May 9, 1972, shall submit Performance Bonds as required
in Rule 530.5 (a), Subsection 7, by July 11, 1972.
(h) All disposal wells shall comply with these rules and
regulations in all respects by November 14, 1972.
530.7 CONDITIONAL PERMITS:
(a) Certain special conditions may be imposed or allowed
by the Board.
(b) Any such special conditions shall become a part of
the permit.
(c) The disposal well operator will be given adequate time
to adjust to any unusual changes or conditions required
by the Board.
530.8 CONSTRUCTION OF WELL:
(a) A disposal well shall be completed, equipped, and main-
tained in a manner that will prevent pollution of fresh
water, damage to sources of oil or gas, or danger to
any natural resources.
(b) Disposal of industrial waste or similar substance shall
be through adequate tubing and below a packer, which is
strategically set so as to isolate the waste-receiving
formation.
(c) Tubing and all surfaces coming in contact with the
waste fluid shall be constructed of materials which
are resistant to the corrosive effects of the waste.
(d) The annular space between tubing and production casing
shall be filled with a noncorrosive fluid and shall be
monitored continuously for changes in pressure.
(e) The maximum total gradient (disposal pressure and fluid
pressure) of any industrial disposal well shall not ex-
ceed 0.75 pounds per square inch (p.s.i.) per foot of
depth from land surface to the top of the disposal zone,
1358
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The casing shall be tested at 150 percent of its maxi-
mum design pressure or 300 p.s.i., whichever is greater,
before operation of a disposal well.
(f) The surface casing shall be cemented from the surface
down to a minimum of 50 feet below the lowest fresh-
water-bearing zone.
(g) The cement used in the production string must be of a
material that will not react chemically with the waste
to be disposed of.
530.9 FIELD INSPECTION:
(a) After a disposal well permit has been issued and
before operation begins, a field inspection by the
staff of the Board will be made.
(b) At the time of inspection, the well casing shall be
tested at 150 percent of design pressure or 300 p.s.i.,
whichever is greater.
(c) At the time of inspection, the well operator shall
demonstrate methods of monitoring:
1. Disposal pump pressure.
2. Annular pressure.
3. Chemical and physical nature of waste material
to be disposed of.
4. Weight of waste in pounds per cubic foot.
530.10 OPERATING REPORTS:
(a) A daily log shall be kept by the operator of the dis-
posal well showing the following:
1. Well number, owner, and permit number.
2. Source of waste material.
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3. Chemical and physical nature of waste material
disposed of.
4. Amount of waste material.
5. Density of waste in pounds per cubic foot.
6. Disposal pump pressure.
7. Annular pressure between tubing and production
casing.
8. Pressure and fluid-quality reports from monitoring
wells where required.
This log shall be signed by the person responsible for
maintenance and operation of said well and submitted
monthly to the Board.
(b) Every six (6) months the disposal well shall be shut
down for a period of twenty-four (24) consecutive
hours for the purpose of conducting a formation pres-
sure test. Results of this test shall be given to
the Board. If a problem or failure is indicated, a
pressure test will be made at the earliest possible
time and the results presented to the Board. Any
remedial (or emergency) work shall be commenced im-
mediately. The Board will be informed of the oper-
ator's work and a final report submitted within ten
(10) days following completion of such work.
530.11 ABANDONMENT AND PLUGGING OF WELLS:
(a) The owner and/or operator of any industrial disposal
well shall be jointly and individually liable and
responsible for the proper plugging of said well.
(b) The owner and/or operator of any disposal well not in
operation for a period of six (6) months must either
apply for a nev permit as specified in Rule 530.6 (f)
or immediately plug the well.
(c) Any well to be permanently abandoned shall be immedi-
ately plugged.
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(d) The owner and/or operator of a disposal well shall
notify the Board of his intention to plug. Written
notification shall be received at least ten (10) days
prior to the commencement of plugging operations.
(e) The Board's staff shall be given the opportunity to be
present at plugging operations. The plugging operator
shall notify the Board of the exact time during which
all plugging operations will take place.
(f) Every well shall be plugged in such a manner as to
permanently prevent the migration of any disposed sub-
stances out of the disposal zone as well as the migra-
tion of oil, gas, or salt water into or out of any pro-
ductive formations by means of the well bore. Plugging
shall also seal off all fresh ground water strata en-
countered in the well so as to prevent the entrance of
salt water or the escape of fresh ground water by means
of the well bore.
(g) Before any casing is removed from a well, all liquids
shall be removed or displaced and the well filled with
mud. As the casing is removed, the well shall be kept
filled with mud.
(h) Any uncased hole below the shoe of any casing to be
left in the well shall be filled with cement to a
depth of at least fifty (50) feet above the shoe of
the casing. If the well is completed with a screen
or liner and the screen or liner is not removed, the
well bore shall be filled with cement from the base
of the screen or liner to a point at least fifty (50)
feet above the screen or liner.
(i) Whenever production casing is severed and removed, the
well bore shall be cemented from a point fifty (50)
feet below to a point fifty (50) feet above the point
of severance; provided that, if after such cement plug
has been set, the same string casing is again severed
in the process of removal, further cementing thereof
shall not be required.
(j) All fresh-water zones encountered in the well shall be
sealed off and protected by adequate casing extending
1361
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from a point at least fifty (50) feet below the base
of the lowest fresh-water zone to within three (3)
feet of the top of the well bore and by completely
filling the annular space behind such casing with
cement. If the surface or other casing in the well
meets these requirements, a cement plug may be set
at least fifty (50) feet below the shoe of the casing
to extend at least fifty (50) feet above the shoe of
the casing. If the casing and cement behind the
casing do not meet the requirements of this subsection,
the well bore shall be filled with cement from a point
fifty (50) feet below the base of the lowest fresh-
water zone to a point fifty (50) feet above the shoe
of the surface casing. The well bore shall, in all
events, be filled with cement from a point three (3)
feet below ground surface to a point thirty-three
(33) feet below ground surface.
(k) All intervals between cement plugs in the well bore
shall be filled with mud.
(1) Any "rat" or "mouse hole" used in the drilling of a
well with rotary tools shall be filled with mud to a
point eight (8) feet below ground level and with ce-
ment from such point to a point three (3) feet below
ground level and then shall be filled in with earth
above the top of the cement.
(m) The top of the plug of any plugged well shall show
clearly by permanent markings, whether inscribed in
the cement or on a steel plate embedded in the cement,
the well number and date of plugging.
(n) Within fifteen (15) days after a well has been plugged,
the owner or operator shall file a plugging record in
duplicate with the Board. If a complete and correct
log of the well is not on file with the Board, then
the owner at the time of plugging shall furnish and
file a complete and correct log thereof or the best
information available. The well bond will be released
only when the requirements of this rule have been met.
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Oregon1'2
Anti-pollution was strengthened by the Oregon legislature
in the 1967 session (ORS 449-075-449. 107). Underground
disposal is included in the new definition of "disposal
system". Disposal of wastes will be allowed only by a
permit from the Department of Environmental Quality, and
infractions of the rules may be subject to penalties pro-
vided in the law. The Department of Environmental Quality
has jurisdiction over pollution of air, surface waters, and
ground waters; the State Engineer has jurisdiction over
appropriations and use of ground water, and the Department
of Geology and Mineral Industries has jurisdiction over
underground disposal of brine or salt water.
Regulations were passed in 1969 requiring all disposal wells
in the lava terrain to be converted to acceptable disposal
systems by January 1, 1975. The regulations also specify
that permits for disposal wells be limited to a five-year
period. Effluent waste must be treated in an approved
manner before being injected into any underground formation.
The new regulations specify well casings are to be properly
cemented and injection monitoring devices to be installed.
Subdivision IV of the Sanitary Authority Regulation deals
with the construction of disposal wells.
Unless otherwise specified Section 14-005 through 14-045 of
this chapter of the Oregon Administrative Rules Compilation
were adopted by the Sanitary Authority May 13, 1969, and
filed with the Secretary of State May 15, 1969, as Adminis-
trative Order SA 41.
Construction and Use of Waste Disposal Wells -
14-005 DEFINITIONS - As use in these regulations unless the
context requires otherwise:
(1) "Person" means the state, any individual, public
or private corporation, political subdivision, govern-
mental agency, municipality, industry, co-partnership,
association, firm, trust, estate or any other legal
entity whatsoever.
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(2) "Sewage" means the water-carried human or animal
waste from residences, buildings, industrial establish-
ments or other places, together with such ground water
infiltration and surface water as may be present. The
admixture with sewage as above defined of industrial
wastes or wastes shall also be considered "sewage"
within the meaning of these regulations.
(3) "Wastes" means sewage, industrial wastes, agri-
cultural wastes, and all other liquid, gaseous, solid,
radioactive or other substances which will or may cause
pollution or tend to cause pollution of any waters of
the state.
(4) "Waste Disposal Well" means any natural or man-
made hole, crevasse, fissure or opening in the ground
which is used or is intended to be used for disposal
of sewage, industrial, agricultural or other wastes;
provided, however, as used in these regulations waste
disposal wells do not include conventional seepage
beds, tile fields, cesspools or landfills constructed
and operated in accordance with State Board of Health
rules and regulations or waste treatment or disposal
ponds or lagoons constructed or operated under a per-
mit issued by the State Sanitary Authority.
(5) "Approved Permit Issuing Agency" means a city,
county, or other governmental entity which has been
specifically designated by the State Sanitary Authority
as the agency authorized to issue pursuant to these
regulations permits for the construction, modification,
maintenance or use of waste disposal wells within a
designated geographical area.
14-010 POLICY. Whereas the discharge of untreated or in-
adequately treated sewage or wastes to waste disposal wells
and particularly to waste disposal wells in the lava terrane
of Central Oregon constitutes a threat of serious, detri-
mental and irreversible pollution of valuable ground water
resources and a threat to public health, it is hereby de-
clared to be the policy of the State Sanitary Authority to
restrict, regulate or prohibit the further construction and
use of waste disposal wells as a means of disposing of un-
1364
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treated or inadequately treated sewage or wastes as rapidly
as possible in an orderly and planned manner.
14-015 CONSTRUCTION OF USE OF WASTE DISPOSAL WELLS
PROHIBITED.
(1) After the effective date of these regulations,
no person shall construct or place in operation any
waste disposal well for the disposal of sewage with-
out first obtaining a permit for said construction
or operation of the waste disposal well from an ap-
proved permit issuing agency.
(2) After the effective date of these regulations,
no person shall construct or place in operation any
waste disposal well for the disposal of sewage from
a system serving more than 25 families or 100 people
or of wastes other than sewage without first obtaining
a permit from the State Sanitary Authority.
(3) After January 1, 1975, no person shall maintain
or use any waste disposal well for the disposal of
sewage or wastes without a currently valid permit
from an approved permit issuing agency or the State
Sanitary Authority which specifically authorizes
said maintenance or use.
It is the intent of this sub-section to phase out, by
January 1, 1975, the use of waste disposal wells except
for those which are scheduled to be replaced by sewers
in accordance with an approved plan and time-schedule,
and those which are operated under specific permit from
the State Sanitary Authority pursuant to Section 14-045
of these regulations.
14-020 ISSUANCE OF PERMITS WITHOUT SANITARY AUTHORITY
APPROVAL PROHIBITED. After the effective date of these regu-
lations, no person shall issue permits for the construction,
modification, maintenance or use of waste disposal wells un-
less they are at the time of issuance designated by the State
Sanitary Authority as the approved permit issuing agency for
the area for which the permit is sought.
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14-025 WASTE DISPOSAL WELL PERMIT AREAS. Permits for con-
struction, modification, maintenance or use of waste disposal
wells may be issued only in those designated geographic areas
for which a city, county or district, legally authorized to
provide sewerage services for the area complies with the
following conditions:
(1) Maintains on file with the Sanitary Authority a
currently approved sewerage program including a plan
and time schedule for providing collection, treatment
and disposal of wastes.
(a) The time schedule must be designed to provide an
approved sewerage system within the shortest time pos-
sible and unless it can be demonstrated to be non-
feasible shall at least comply with the following:
(A) Qualified consulting engineer to be hired
by not later than July 1, 1969.
(B) Preliminary engineering report including
a detailed financing plan and construction
schedule to be submitted to the Sanitary
Authority by not later than January 1, 1971.
(C) Start construction of the sewerage system
by not later than August 1, 1971, after obtaining
approval from the Sanitary Authority of detailed
plans and specifications.
(D) Complete construction of the approved
sewerage system by not later than January 1,
1980.
(2) Submits to the State Sanitary Authority, during
the month of January each year, annual reports which
demonstrate that reasonable progress is being made in
implementing the approved sewerage program.
14-030 WASTE DISPOSAL WELLS PROHIBITED WHERE BETTER TREAT-
MENT OR PROTECTION IS AVAILABLE. Permits shall not be
issued for construction, maintenance or use of waste dis-
posal wells where any other treatment or disposal method
1366
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which affords better protection of public health or water
resources is reasonably available or possible.
14-035 PERMIT CONDITIONS. Permits for construction or
use of waste disposal wells issued by an approved permit
issuing agency shall include, in addition to other reason-
able provisions, minimum conditions relating to their
location, construction or use and a time limit for autho-
rized use of said waste disposal wells, not to exceed a
period of five years. Construction and orientation of
building sewers shall be compatible with the approved
area sewerage plan.
14-040 ABANDONMENT AND PLUGGING OF WASTE DISPOSAL WELLS.
(1) A waste disposal well upon discontinuance of use
or abandonment shall immediately be rendered completely
inoperable by plugging and sealing the hole to prevent
the well from being a channel allowing the vertical
movement of water and a possible source of contami-
nation of the ground water supply.
(2) All portions of the well which are surrounded by
"solid wall" formation shall be plugged and filled
with cement grout or concrete.
(3) The top portion of the well must be effectively
sealed with cement grout or concrete to a depth of
at least 18 feet below the surface of the ground, or
whenever this method of sealing is not practical, ef-
fective sealing must be accomplished in a manner ap-
proved in writing by the State Sanitary Authority or
the authorized permit issuing agent if functioning.
14-045 CONSTRUCTION OR USE OF WASTE DISPOSAL WELLS PRO-
HIBITED AFTER JANUARY 1, 1980. After January 1, 1980, it
shall be unlawful for any person to construct, maintain or
use waste disposal wells for disposal of sewage or wastes
unless said wastes have been previously treated by methods
approved by the Sanitary Authority and further such treated
wastes shall be discharged to waste disposal wells only if
specifically approved and authorized by the Sanitary Author-
ity.
1367
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It is intended that this section will permit consideration
for approval by the Sanitary Authority of waste disposal
to deep injection wells, constructed and operated in ac-
cordance with a carefully engineered program, and for dis-
posal to waste disposal wells of adequately treated and
disinfected effluents from large, efficiently-operated,
municipal or county sewage treatment plants where contin-
uous and effective surveillance and control of waste treat-
ment and discharge can be assured so as to fully safeguard
water quality and the public health and welfare.
Pennsylvania1
The Sanitary Water Board is the primary pollution control
agency; it can declare the discharge of industrial wastes
to be unlawful (35 P.S. 691.302) and require a permit for
discharging waste (S.691.307). The Department of Health
is the Board's enforcement agency (71 P.S. S539). Article
600 of the Rules and Regulations of the Sanitary Water
Board concerns itself with industrial wastes. Section 15
of this article is titled '"Subterranean Disposal of Wastes"
Paragraph D of that section reads:
"Disposal of wastes into underground horizons will
only be accepted as an abatement of pollution when
the applicant can show by the log of the strata
penetrated and by the stratigraphic structure of
the region and it is improbable that such disposal
will be prejudicial to the public interest, but any
such acceptance will be conditioned and will riot
relieve the applicant of responsibility for any
pollution of the waters of commonwealth which may
occur, in which case such disposal shall be stopped
forthwith."
A few of the conditions under which permits were
issued are:
1. That no usable water or minerals are encountered
while drilling the well.
2. That a continuing rock is present above the
receiving horizon.
1368
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3. That the receiving horizon will be completely
saturated with fluid.
4. That the formation fluid be under pressure.
(The purpose being an indication that the
formation does not "bleed" into another
"horizon or formation".)
South Dakota1
South Dakota has no laws governing the subsurface disposal
of industrial wastes other than oil and gas brines. The
Water Pollution Committee may cause an investigation of
suspected pollution (SDC I960, Supp. § 61.0146).
Tennessee2
In accordance with the Tennessee Stream Pollution Control
Law, Tennessee Code Annotated Section 70-301-70-319 and in
particular Section 70-301 (Definitions) the term "waters"
shall mean all streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, marshes, water
sources, waterways, wells, springs, irrigation systems,
drainage systems, and all other bodies or accumulations of
water surface and underground, natural or artificial, public
or private, which are contained within, flow through, or
border upon the State of Tennessee or any portion thereof."
During the 1963 General Assembly meetings, the wording was
changed to include the protection of groundwater as well as
surface water from pollution. Since that modification the
Tennessee Pollution Control Board, an agency of the State
Health Department, has assumed the authority for controlling
the discharge of industrial waste waters into groundwater
formations.
Available information indicates that there are no specific
regulations or forms used to monitor or process disposal
wells.
Texas2•l5
The regulation of municipal and industrial waste disposal
now is the responsibility of the Texas Water Quality Board.
1369
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This is the result of an act of the 61st Legislature,
Regular Session 1969, which is compiled as Article 7621b
Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes.
Injection Well Act -
A BILL TO BE ENTITLED
AN ACT
Amending Chapter 82, Acts of the 57th Legislature,
Regular Session, 1961, as amended (Article 7621b,
Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes), relating to the
disposal of wastes into a subsurface stratum by
injection well; revising and rearranging Article
7621b, Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes, to improve
the structure of the Act; transferring certain
functions under the Act from the Texas Water De-
velopment Board to the Texas Water Quality Board;
providing for civil penalties and injective re-
lief for violations of this Act; validating the
actions of the Texas Water Development Board
under the Act and requiring transfer of certain
records to the Texas Water Quality Board; re-
pealing that part of paragraph (a) of Section 21
of Article 8280-9, Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes,
in conflict with this Act; providing severability;
and declaring an emergency.
BE IT ENACTED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF TEXAS
Section 1. Chapter 82, Acts of the 57th Legislature, Regular
Session, 1961 (Article 7621b, Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes),
as amended by Chapter 615, Acts of the 59th Legislature,
Regular Session, 1965, is amended to read as follows:
"Section 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the In-
jection Well Act.
"Section 2. DEFINITIONS. As used in this Act, unless the
context requires a different definition:
"(a) 'Board' means the Texas Water Quality Board;
"(b) 'Commission' means the Texas Railroad Commission;
1370
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" (c) 'Person' means individual, corporation, organi-
zation, government or governmental subdivision
or agency, business trust, partnership, associ-
ation, or any other legal entity;
"(d) 'Pollution' means the alteration of the physical,
chemical, or biological quality of, or the con-
tamination of, water that renders the water
harmful, detrimental, or injurious to humans,
animal life, vegetation or property, or to public
health, safety, or welfare, or impairs the use-
fulness or the public enjoyment of the water for
any lawful or reasonable purpose;
"(e) 'Industrial and Municipal Waste' is any liquid,
gaseous, solid or other waste substance or a
combination thereof resulting from any process
of industry, manufacturing, trade, or business
or from the development or recovery of any
natural resources, or resulting from the dis-
posal of sewage, or other wastes of cities,
towns, villages, communities, water districts
and other municipal corporations, which may
cause or might reasonably be expected to cause
pollution of fresh water.
"(f) 'Fresh Waters' means waters whose bacteriological,
physical and chemical properties are such that
they are suitable and feasible for beneficial use
for the purposes permitted by law;
11 (g) 'Casing1 means any material utilized to seal off
strata at and below the earth's surface;
"(h) 'Injection Well1 means an artificial excavation or
opening into the ground, made by means of digging,
boring, drilling, jetting, driving or otherwise,
and made for the purpose of injecting, trans-
mitting, or disposing of industrial and municipal
waste into a subsurface stratum; also a well in-
itially drilled for the purpose of producing oil
and gas when used for the purpose of transmitting,
injecting, or disposing of industrial and munici-
1371
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pal waste into a subsurface stratum; but 'injec-
tion well1 does not include any surface pit, ex-
cavation or natural depression used to dispose
of industrial and municipal waste.
"Section 3. INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL WASTES: APPLICATIONS
TO BOARD.
"(a) Before any person commences the drilling of an
injection well, or before any person converts
any existing well into an injection well, for
the purpose of disposing of industrial and
municipal waste, other than waste arising out
of or incidental to the drilling of or the pro-
ducing of oil or gas, a permit therefor shall
be obtained from the board. The board shall
prepare suitable forms for making application
which shall be available upon request without
cost. The board shall require the furnishing
of such information by an applicant as the
board may deem necessary to discharge properly
the duties imposed by this Act. An application
for a permit to drill an injection well, or to
convert any existing well to an injection well,
shall be accompanied by a fee of $25.00 which
shall be collected by the board for the benefit
of the state.
"(b) Upon receipt by the board of an application in
proper form and accompanied by the necessary
fee for a permit to drill an injection well,
or to convert an existing well to an injection
well, the board shall cause an inspection to be
made of the location of the proposed injection
well to determine local conditions and the prob-
able effect of the injection well, and shall
cause an evaluation to be made to determine the
requirements for the setting of casing, as
provided in Section 5 of this Act.
"(c) The board shall also send copies of every appli-
cation received in proper form to the Texas Water
Development Board, the Texas State Department of
1372
-------
Health, the Texas Water Well Drillers Board,
and to such other persons as the board may
designate. The agencies and other persons
to whom a copy of the application is sent
may make recommendations to the board con-
cerning any aspect of the application, and
shall have such reasonable time to do so as
the board may prescribe.
"(d) The board may hold a public hearing upon an
application if it is deemed necessary and in
the public interest, but otherwise, a public
hearing is not required. Notice of any pub-
lic hearing and its procedure shall be under
such terms and conditions as the board may
prescribe.
"(e) Any person applying to the board for a permit
to inject industrial and municipal waste, other
than waste arising out of or incidental to the
drilling for or the producing of oil or gas,
into a subsurface stratum shall submit with
the application a letter from the commission
stating that the drilling of the injection
well and the injection of industrial and mu-
nicipal waste into the subsurface stratum will
not endanger or injure any oil or gas formation.
"Section 4. WASTES FROM OIL DRILLING: APPLICATIONS TO
RAILROAD COMMISSION.
"(a) Before any person may commence the drilling of an
injection well, or before any person may convert
any existing well into an injection well, for the
purpose of disposing of waste arising out of or
incidental to the drilling for or the producing
of oil or gas, a permit therefor shall be obtained
from the commission. The commission shall require
the furnishing of such information by an applicant
as the commission may deem necessary to discharge
properly the duties imposed by this Act and shall
promulgate such regulations or orders as to notice
and hearing as may be deemed proper and necessary.
1373
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"(b) Any person applying to the commission for a per-
mit to inject waste arising out of or incidental
to the drilling for or the producing of oil or gas
into a subsurface stratum shall submit with the
application a letter from the board stating that
the drilling of the injection well and the injec-
tion of such waste into the subsurface stratum
will not endanger the fresh water strata in that
area and that the formation or strata to be used
for such waste disposal are not fresh water sands.
The commission shall, if requested by the board,
require the filing of a log of the injection well.
"Section 5. ISSUANCE OF PERMIT; CASING OF WELL; RULES AND
REGULATIONS. If the board or commission, as the case may
be, finds that the installation of the injection well is in
the public interest, will not impair any existing rights,
and that by requiring proper safeguards both ground and sur-
face fresh waters can be protected adequately from pollution,
the board or commission, as appropriate, may grant the appli-
cation in whole or in part and issue a permit with such
terms, provisions, conditions and requirements as are rea-
sonably necessary to protect fresh waters from pollution by
industrial and municipal waste. Specifically, the board or
commission shall require that the injection well shall be
so cased as to protect all fresh waters from pollution by
the intrusion of industrial and municipal waste. The casing
shall be set at such depth, with such materials, and in such
manner as the board or the commission may require. The
board or the commission, in establishing the depth to which
casing shall be installed, shall consider known geological
and hydrological conditions and relationships, the fore-
seeable future economic development in the area, and the
foreseeable future demand for the use of the fresh waters
in the locality. The board or commission may also require
the permittee to keep and furnish a complete and accurate
record of the depth, thickness and character of the dif-
ferent strata penetrated in the drilling of the well. In
the event an existing well is to be converted to an injec-
tion well, the board or commission may require that the ap-
plicant furnish an electric log or a drilling log of the
existing well. A copy of every permit issued by the board
shall be furnished by the board to the commission, the Texas
1374
-------
Water Development Board, the Texas State Department of
Health, and the Texas Water Well Drillers Board. A copy
of every permit issued by the commission shall be furnished
by the commission to the board, which shall in turn forward
copies to the other agencies named in the preceding sen-
tence. The board and the commission each shall adopt rules,
regulations and procedures reasonably required for the per-
formance of the duties, powers and functions prescribed for
each by this Act. Copies of any rules or regulations under
this Act proposed by the board or the commission shall, be-
fore their adoption, be sent by each of these agencies to
the other agency, and also to the Texas Water Development
Board, the State Department of Health, the Texas Water Well
Drillers Board, and such other persons as the originating
agency may designate. Any agency or person to whom the
copies of proposed rules and regulations are sent may sub-
mit comments and recommendations to the agency proposing
the rules and regulations, and shall have such reasonable
time to do so as the originating agency may prescribe.
"Section 6. FILING COPY OF PERMIT. Any person receiving
a permit to inject industrial and municipal waste, shall,
before injection operations are begun, file a copy of the
permit with the health authorities of the county, city and
town where the well is located.
"Section 7. ENFORCEMENT. Any person who fails to comply
with the provisions of this Act, or with any rule or regu-
lation promulgated by the board or the commission under this
Act, or with any term, condition or provision in his permit
issued pursuant to this Act, shall be subject to a civil
penalty in any sum not exceeding One Thousand Dollars
($1,000.00) for each day of non-compliance and for each act
of non-compliance, as the court may deem proper. The action
may be brought by the board or the commission, as appro-
priate, in any court of competent jurisdiction in the county
where the offending activity is occurring or where the de-
fendant resides. Full authority is also given the board or
commission, as appropriate, to enforce by injection, manda-
tory injunction or other appropriate remedy, in courts having
jurisdiction in the county where the offending activity is
occurring, any and all reasonable rules and regulations pro-
mulgated by it which do not conflict v/ith any law, and all
1375
-------
of the terms, conditions and provisions of permits issued
by the board of commission pursuant to the provisions of
this Act. At the request of the board or the commission,
the attorney general shall institute and conduct a suit
in the name of the State of Texas for injunctive relief
or to recover the civil penalty, or for both the injunc-
tive relief and civil penalty, authorized in this section.
Any party to a suit may appeal from a final judgment as
in other civil cases. The obtaining of a permit under
the provisions of this act by a person shall not act to
relieve that person from liability under any statutory
law of the Common Law,"
Sec. 2. Validation of Authorized Actions; Transfer of
Records. All permits, orders, and rules and regulations
issued, promulgated, or administered by the Texas Water
Development Board under Chapter 82, Acts of the 57th
Legislature, Regular Session, 1961, as amended (Article
7621b, Vernon's Texas Civil Statutes), and in effect on
the effective date of this Act, are validated and remain
in effect unless and until amended or superseded by order
or other appropriate action of the Texas Water Quality
Board, and shall be administered by and under ths juris-
diction of the Texas Water Quality Board. The permits,
orders, and rules and regulations issued, promulgated or
administered by the Texas Water Development Board under
that Act and such reports, records and other information,
or copies thereof, as the Texas Water Development Board
and the Texas Water Quality Board mutually agree are
reasonably necessary to enable the Texas Water Quality
Board to properly administer the permits, orders, and
rules and regulations, and perform the responsibilities
of the Texas Water Quality Board under this Act, shall
be transferred to and become the responsibility of the
Texas Water Quality Board.
Sec. 3. Repealer. To the extent that any duties and
functions under Article 7621b, Vernon's Texas Civil
Statutes, were transferred or assigned to the Texas
Water Development Board by Section 8 of Chapter 297,
Acts of the 59th Legislature, Regular Session, 1965
(compiled as Section 21 of Article 8280-9, Vernon's
Texas Civil Statutes, and enumerated in Paragraph (a)
1376
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of that Section 21), or to the extent that there is any
conflict between said Section 8 of Chapter 297 and this
Act, that part of said Section 8 of Chapter 297 is re-
pealed.
Sec. 4. Severability Clause. The provisions of this Act
are severable. If any word, phrase, clause, sentence,
section, provision or part of this Act should be held to
be invalid or unconstitutional, it shall not affect the
validity of the remaining portions, and it is hereby de-
clared to be the legislative intent that this Act would
have been passed as to the remaining portions, regardless
of the invalidity of any part.
Sec. 5. Emergency Clause. The importance to the public
of the amendments in this Act creates an emergency and
imperative public necessity demanding the suspension of
the Constitutional Rule requiring bills to be read on
three several days in each House, and the same is hereby
suspended, and this Act shall take effect and be in force
from and after its passage.
Procedures -
The procedures outlined indicate that application forms
(GW-14) are sent to a prospective applicant upon request.
They require that the application be submitted in tripli-
cate together with a twenty-five dollar filing fee and a
preliminary engineering report prepared by a registered
professional engineer or professional geologist. The re-
port would include but not necessarily be limited to the
following information:
"1. An accurate plat showing location of proposed
injection well.
"2. A map indicating location of water wells and all
artificial penetrations (oil and gas wells, ex-
ploratory tests, etc.) of the proposed injection
interval(s) in the general area of the proposed
injection well. Reasonable diligence shall be
used to locate such penetrations. Well and aban-
donment records (Railroad Commission Forms 2 and
4) for all exploratory oil and gas tests located
within the area owned and operated by applicant
should accompany map.
1377
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"3. Description of local topography and geology per-
tinent to injection program. Depth of deepest
strata containing fresh water or water of suit-
able quality for potential beneficial development
as determined by well development and/or electri-
cal logs.
"4. A detailed description of the chemical, physical,
and biological characteristics of the waste to be
injected. Complete chemical analyses of all in-
organic constituents should be reported in ppm or
mg/1. If organic fractions are present, all such
constituents should be reported in ppm, mg/1, as
individual percentages by weight, or in other ap-
propriate terms.
"5. The anticipated average and maximum rate of in-
jection in gallons per minute or barrels per day.
Estimated yearly volume of injected waste and
anticipated life of project.
"6. Data on completion and operation of proposed in-
jection well.
(a) Total depth of well.
(b) Casing — size, grade, type, weight, and
setting depth of all strings; size and type
of tubing, name, model, and depth of tubing
packer setting.
(c) Cement — type and volume to be used on each
casing string and calculated top of cement
behind each string. Describe and give per-
cent of all cement additives.
(d) Proposed injection interval(s) and perfora-
tions. This should include the interval(s)
to be utilized initially and the entire zone
requested for future development.
(e) Diagrammatic sketch of proposed well.
(f) Anticipated maximum and average well head
injection pressures.
1378
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(g) Description of possible hydraulic fracturing
and/or acidizing programs, if anticipated.
(h) Description of proposed injectivity tests.
"7. Characteristics of injection interval(s).
(a) Lithology, porosity, permeability, tempera-
ture.
(b) Natural reservoir fluid pressure and equiva-
lent hydrostatic head; fluid saturation and
chemical characteristics; and fracture gra-
dient or critical input pressure.
"8. Compatibility of injected waste and formation
fluids.
"9. Calculated rate of fluid displacement by injected
waste and directions of dispersion.
"10. Description of program to monitor water quality
in fresh water aquifers.
"11. Surface installations.
(a) Detailed description of pretreatment process
and facilities to be used (include flow dia-
gram if available.).
(b) Description of type of materials to be used
in pretreatment facilities and transmission
lines.
(c) Description and location of all waste reten-
tion ponds, if such are to be used in con-
junction with the injection well.
"12. In the event an existing well is to be converted
to an injection well, applicant should submit a
complete electric log, all other logs or surveys
performed on the well, and complete casing and
cementing data."
1379
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A letter from the Railroad Commission stating that the
drilling of such an injection well and the injection of
such wastes into a subsurface stratum will not endanger
or injure any oil or gas formation must accompany the
application.
Whenever sewage injection is involved another application
form (GW-15) is used. That application has to be accom-
panied by a letter from the County Pollution Control or
Health Offices stating whether or not the operation of
such an injection well is likely to be detrimental or
injurious to public health, safety, or welfare.
No permits are final until the Board confirms that the
construction and operation of the injection well and
related facilities have been accomplished in accordance
to the permit and any amendments thereto.
West Virginia
1,2,16
The West Virginia Division of Water Resources of the
Department of Natural Resources administers the disposal
of industrial wastes. They do not have specific regu-
lations governing subsurface disposal but would appear
to apply the same regulations used relative to oil and
gas field brines. (Articles 5 and 5A, Chapter 20 of the
Code of West Virginia 1931, as amended.) Section 2,
Article 5A under definitions of the Water Pollution
Control Act reads as follows:
"(h) 'Industrial wastes' shall mean any liquid,
gaseous, solid or other waste substance or
a combination thereof, resulting from any
process of industry, manufacturing, trade
or business, or from the development,
processing or recovery of any natural
resources "
Chapter 20 was amended by the 1969 West Virginia Legis-
lature to include the following items concerning disposal
wells:
1380
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"Article 5A, Section 2, Definitions:
"(p) "Disposal well" shall mean any well drilled or
used for the injection or disposal of treated
or untreated sewage, industrial waste or other
wastes into underground strata:
"(q) 'Well1 shall mean any shaft or hole sunk,
drilled, bored or dug into the earth or into
underground strata for the extraction or injec-
tion or placement of any liquid or gas, or any
shaft or hole sunk or used in conjunction with
such extraction or injection or placement. The
term 'well' shall not have included within its
meaning any shaft or hole sunk, drilled, bored
or dug into the earth for the sole purpose of
core drilling or pumping or extracting there-
from potable, fresh or usable water for house-
hold, domestic, industrial, agricultural or
public use;
"Article 5A, Section 5. Added subsection a. 7:
"(a.7) Operate any disposal well for the injection or
reinjection underground of any industrial wastes,
including, but not limited to liquids or gases,
or convert any well into such a disposal well
or plug or abandon any such disposal well.
"Article 5A, Section 7. Expanded subsection b:
"(b) The chief or his duly authorized representative
shall conduct such investigation as is deemed
necessary and proper in order to determine
whether any such application should be granted
or denied. In making such investigation and
determination as to any application pertaining
to any activity specified in subdivision (7)
of subsection (a) of Section Five (20-5A-5) of
this article, the chief shall consult with the
director of the state geological and economic
survey and appropriate officials of the State
1381
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Department of Health, and all such persons
shall cooperate with the chief and assist him
in carrying out the duties and responsibilities
imposed upon him under the provisions of this
article and the rules and regulations of the
board; such cooperation shall include, but not
be limited to a written recommendation approving
or disapproving the granting of the permit and
the reason or reasons for such recommendation."
No new policy statements were passed relative to the indus-
trial disposal wells. However, the Water Resources Division
has issued a policy statement directing the discontinuance
of the use of the Salt Sands for return of salt brine from
oil well operation within one area of the state where sig-
nificant salt contamination of ground water has occurred.
The director of the Division of Sanitary Engineering of the
State Department of Health would have to approve any permit
for activities related solely to sewage.
Applications for permits are obtainable from the Chief of
the Division of Water Resources. The chief and his repre-
sentatives would conduct such investigations deemed neces-
sary for the approval of the application.
The present responsibilities regarding disposal wells are as
follows:
a. The Department of Natural Resources - responsible for
the preservation of surface and ground water purity.
b. The Department of Mines, Division of Oil and Gas -
responsible for assurance of proper drilling, casing
and cementing operations as well as for the protection
of workable coal seams.
c. The Geological and Economical Survey - responsible for
approval of the geological aspects of the facility and
to the extent feasible, to determine possible cross-
contamination through abandoned, unplugged wells.
1382
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d. The Department of Health - a review by the Sanitary
Engineering Division to insure protection of potable
water supplies.
Wyoming1'2
There are no state regulations governing the subsurface dis-
posal of industrial wastes. Whenever questions of pollution
are evident they are passed directly to the Health Depart-
ment for review. Title 35, Chapter 4, Article 2, relates to
the "protection of Public Water Supply". There is an advi-
sory council appointed by the Governor and charged to
"advise the State Department of Public Health in developing
a comprehensive program for the prevention, control and
abatement of new or existing pollution of the waters of the
state".
Permits for disposal wells will be issued only with the full
approval of the State Engineer, State Geologist, and State
Health Inspector.
FEDERAL
Administrator's Decision Statement No. 517
EPA Policy -
This ADS records the EPA's position on injection wells and
subsurface emplacement of fluids by well injection, and
supersedes the Federal Water Quality Administration's order
COM 5040.10 of October 15, 1970.
Goals - The EPA Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids
by Well Injection is designed to:
(1) Protect the subsurface from pollution or other
environmental hazards attributable to improper injection
or ill-sited injection wells.
(2) Ensure that engineering and geological safeguards
adequate to protect the integrity of the subsurface environ-
1383
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ment are adhered to in the preliminary investigation, de-
sign, construction, operation, monitoring and abandonment
phases of injection well projects.
(3) Encourage development of alternative means of
disposal which afford greater environmental protection.
Principal findings and policy rationale - The available
evidence concerning injection wells and subsurface em-
placement of fluids indicates that:
(i) The emplacement of fluids by subsurface injection
often is considered by government and private agencies as
an attractive mechanism for final disposal or storage owing
to: (a) the diminishing capabilities of surface waters to
receive effluents without violation of quality standards,
and (b) the apparent lower costs of this method of disposal
or storage over conventional and advanced waste management
techniques. Subsurface storage capacity is a natural re-
source of considerable value and like any other natural re-
source its use must be conserved for maximal benefits to
all people.
(2) Improper injection of municipal or industrial
wastes or injection of other fluids for storage or disposal
to the subsurface environment could result in serious pol-
lution of water supplies or other environmental hazards.
(3) The effects of subsurface injection and the fate
of injected materials are uncertain with today's knowledge
and could result in serious pollution or environmental
damage requiring complex and costly solutions on a long-
term basis.
Policy and program guidance - To ensure accomplishment of
the subsurface protection goals established above it is the
policy of the Environmental Protection Agency that:
(1) The EPA will oppose emplacement of materials by
subsurface injection without strict controls and a clear
demonstration that such emplacement will not interfere with
present or potential use of the subsurface environment, con-
taminate ground water resources or otherwise damage the en-
vironment.
1384
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(2) All proposals for subsurface injection should be
critically evaluated to determine that:
(a) All responsible alternative measures have been
explored and found less satisfactory in terms of environ-
mental protection.
(b) Adequate preinjection tests have been made for
predicting the fate of materials injected;
(c) There is conclusive technical evidence to demon-
strate that such injection will not interfere with present
or potential use of water resources nor result in other
environmental hazards;
(d) The subsurface injection system has been designed
and constructed to provide maximal environmental protection;
(e) Provisions have been made for monitoring both the
injection operation and the resulting effects on the environ-
ment;
(f) Contingency plans that will obviate any environ-
mental degradation have been prepared to cope with all well
shut-ins or any well failures;
(g) Provision will be made for supervised plugging of
injection wells when abandoned and for monitoring to ensure
continuing environmental protection.
(3) Where subsurface injection is practiced for waste
disposal, it will be recognized as a temporary means of dis-
posal until new technology becomes available enabling more
assured environmental protection.
(4) Where subsurface injection is practiced for under-
ground storage or for recycling of natural fluids, it will
be recognized that such practice will cease or be modified
when a hazard to natural resources or the environment ap-
pears imminent.
(5) The EPA will apply this policy to the extent of
its authorities in conducting all program activities, in-
cluding regulatory activities, research and development,
1385
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technical assistance to the States, and the administration
of the construction grants, State program grants, and basin
planning grants programs and control of pollution at Federal
facilities in accordance with Executive Order 11752.
Signed by William D. Ruckelshaus, Administrator, February 6,
1973.
Recommended Required Evaluation Data -
The Administrator's Decision Statement No. 5 on subsurface
employment of fluids by well injection has been prepared to
establish the Agency's position on the use of this disposal
and storage technique. To aid in implementation of the
policy a recommended data base for environmental evaluation
has been developed.
The following parameters describe the information which
should be provided by the injector and are designed to
provide regulatory agencies sufficient information to
evaluate the environmental acceptability of any proposed
well injection. A potential injector should initially
contact the regulatory authority to determine the pre-
liminary investigative and data requirements for a par-
ticular injection well as these may vary for different
kinds of injection operations. The appropriate regula-
tory authority will specify the exact data requirements
on a case by case basis.
(a) An accurate plat showing location and surface
elevation of proposed injection well site, surface fea-
tures, property boundaries, and surface and mineral
ownership at an approved scale.
(b) Maps indicating location of water wells and all
other wells, mines or artificial penetrations, including
but not limited to oil and gas wells and exploratory or
test wells, showing depths, elevations and the deepest
formation penetrated within twice the calculated zone of
influence of the proposed project. Plugging and abandon-
ment records for all oil and gas tests, and water wells
should accompany the map.
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(c) Maps indicating vertical and lateral limits of
potable water supplies which would include both short- and
long-term variations in surface water supplies and subsur-
face aquifers containing water with less than 10,000 mg/1
total dissolved solids. Available amounts and present and
potential uses of these waters, as well as projections of
public water supply requirements must be considered.
(d) Descriptions of mineral resources present or be-
lieved to be present in area of project and the effect of
this project on present or potential mineral resources in
the area.
(e) Maps and cross sections at approved scales illus-
trating detailed geologic structure and a stratigraphic
section (including formations, lithology, and physical
characteristics) for the local area and generalized maps
and cross sections illustrating the regional geologic
setting of the project.
(f) Description of chemical, physical, and biological
properties and characteristics of the fluids to be injected.
(g) Potentiometric maps at approved scales and iso-
pleth intervals of the proposed injection horizon and of
those aquifers immediately above and below the injection
horizon, with copies of all drill-stem test charts, ex-
trapolations, and data used in compiling such maps.
(h) Description of the location and nature of present
or potentially useable minerals from the zone of influence.
(i) Volume, rate, and injection pressure of the fluid.
(j) The following geological and physical character-
istics of the injection interval and the overlying and under-
lying confining beds should be determined and submitted:
(1) thickness;
(2) areal extent;
(3) lithology;
(4) grain mineralogy;
(5) type and mineralogy of matrix;
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(6) clay content;
(7) clay mineralogy;
(8) effective porosity (including an
explanation of how determined);
(9) permeability (including an explanation
of how determined);
(10) coefficient of aquifer storage;
(11) amount and extent of natural fracturing;
(12) location, extent, and effects of known or
suspected faulting indicating whether
faults are sealed, or fractured avenues
for fluid movement;
(13) extent and effects of natural solution
channels;
(14) degree of fluid saturation;
(15) formation fluid chemistry (including
local and regional variations);
(16) temperature of formation (including an
explanation of how determined);
(17) formation and fluid pressure (including
original and modifications resulting from
fluid withdrawal or injection);
(18) fracturing gradients;
(19) diffusion and dispersion characteristics
of the waste and the formation fluid in-
cluding effect of gravity segregation;
(20) compatibility of injected waste with the
physical, chemical and biological char-
acteristics of the reservoir; and
(21) injectivity profiles.
(k) The following engineering data should be supplied:
(1) diameter of hole and total depth of well;
(2) types, size, weight, and strength, of all
surface, intermediate, and injection casing
strings;
(3) specifications and proposed installation
of tubing and packers;
(4) proposed cementing procedures and type
of cement;
(5) proposed coring program;
(6) proposed formation testing program;
1388
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(7) proposed logging program;
(8) proposed artificial fracturing or
stimulation program;
(9) proposed injection procedure;
(10) plans of the surface and subsurface con-
struction details of the system including
engineering drawings and specifications of
the system (including but not limited to
pumps, well head construction, and casing
depth);
(11) plans for monitoring including a multipoint
fluid pressure monitoring system constructed
to monitor pressures above as well as within
the injection zones; description of annular
fluid; and plans for maintaining a complete
operational history of the well;
(12) expected changes in pressure, rate of native
fluid displacement by injected fluid, direc-
tions of dispersion and zone affected by the
project;
(13) contingency plans to cope with all shut-ins
or well failures in a manner that will ob-
viate any environmental degradation.
(1) Preparation of a report thoroughly investigating
the effects of the proposed subsurface injection well should
be a prerequisite for evaluation of a project. Such a state-
ment should include a thorough assessment of:
(1) the alternative disposal schemes in terms
of maximum environmental protection;
(2) projection of fluid pressure response with
time both in the injections zones and over-
lying formation, with particular attention
to aquifers which may be used for fresh
water supplies in the future;
(3) problems associated with possible chemical
interactions between injected wastes, forma-
tion fluids, and mineralogical constituents.
Safe Drinking Water Act18
The "Safe Drinking Water Act", Public Law 93-523, 93rd
Congress, S.433, December 16, 1974, is an amendment to The
1389
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Public Health Service Act and is inserted in that act as
Title XIV. This is the first Federal legislation that deals
directly with subsurface injection and directly affects
deep-well waste injection systems. Part C of Title XIV
which relates to deep-well injection is as follows:
"PART C - PROTECTION OF UNDERGROUND SOURCES
OF DRINKING WATER
"REGULATIONS FOR STATE PROGRAMS
"Sec. 1421. (a) (1) The Administrator shall publish
proposed regulations for State underground injection control
programs within 180 days after the date of enactment of this
title. Within 180 days after publication of such proposed
regulations, he shall promulgate such regulations with such
modifications as he deems appropriate. Any regulation under
this subsection may be amended from time to time.
"(2) Any regulation under this section shall be pro-
posed or promulgated in accordance with section 553 of title
5, United States Code (relating to rulemaking), except that
the Administrator shall provide opportunity for public hear-
ing prior to promulgation of such regulations under this
section, the Administrator shall consult with the Secretary,
the National Drinking Water Advisory Council, and other ap-
propriate Federal entities and with interested State enti-
ties.
"(b) (1) Regulations under subsection (a) for State
underground injection programs to prevent underground in-
jection which endangers drinking water sources within the
meaning of subsection (d) (2). Such regulations shall re-
quire that a State program, in order to be approved under
section 1422 -
"(A) shall prohibit, effective three years after
enactment of this title, any underground injection in
such State which is not authorized by a permit issued
by the State (except that the regulations may permit
a State to authorize underground injection by rule);
"(B) shall require (i) in the case of a program
which provides for authorization of underground injec-
tion by permit, that the applicant for the permit to
1390
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inject must satisfy the State that the underground
injection will not endanger drinking water sources
and (ii) in the case of a program which provides
for such an authorization by rule, that no rule may
be promulgated which authorizes any underground in-
jection which endangers drinking water sources;
"(C) shall include inspection, monitoring,
recordkeeping, and reporting requirements; and
"(D) shall apply (i) as prescribed by section
1447 (b), to underground injection by any other
person whether or not occurring on property owned
or leased by the United States.
"(2) Regulations of the Administrator under this
section for State underground injection control programs
may not prescribe requirements which interfere with or
impede -
"(A) the underground injection of brine or other
fluids which are brought to the surface in connection
with oil or natural gas production, or
"(B) any underground injection for the secondary
or tertiary recovery of oil or natural gas, unless
such requirements are essential to assure that under-
ground sources of drinking water will not be endangered
by such injection.
"(c) (1) The Administrator may, upon application of
the Governor of a State which authorizes underground injec-
tion by means of permits, authorize such State to issue
(without regard to subsection (b) (1) (B) (i)) temporary
permits for underground injection which may be effective
until the expiration of four years after the date of enact-
ment of this title, if -
"(A) the Administrator finds that the State has
demonstrated that it is unable and could not reasonably
have been able to process all permit applications with
the time available;
1391
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"(B) the Administrator determines the adverse
effect on the environment of such temporary permits
is not unwarranted;
"(C) such temporary permits will be issued only
with respect to injection wells in operation on the
date on which such State's permit program approved
under this part first takes effect and for which
there was inadequate time to process its permit
application; and
11 (D) the Administrator determines the temporary
permits require the use of adequate safeguards estab-
lished by rules adopted by him.
"(2) The Administrator may, upon application of the
Governor of a State which authorized underground injection
by means of permits, authorize such State to issue (without
regard to subsection (b) (1) (B) (i) ) , but after reasonable
notice and hearing, one or more temporary permits each of
which is applicable to a particular injection well and to
the underground injection of a particular injection well
and to the underground injection of a particular fluid and
which may be effective until the expiration of four years
after the date of enactment of this title, if the State
finds, on the record of such hearing -
"(A) that technology (or other means) to permit
safe injection of the fluid in accordance with the
applicable underground injection control program is
not generally available (taking costs into consider-
ation) ;
"(B) that injection of the fluid would be less
harmful to health than the use of other available
means of disposing of wastes or producing the de-
sired product; and
"(C) that available technology or other means
have been employed (and will be employed) to reduce
the volume and toxicity of the fluid and to minimize
the potentially adverse effect of the injection on
the public health.
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"(d) For purposes of this part:
"(1) The term 'underground injection1 means the
placement of fluids by well injection.
"(2) Underground injection endangers drinking
water sources if such injection may result in the presence
in underground water which supplies or can reasonably be
expected to supply any public water system of any contam-
inant, and if the presence of such contaminant may result
in such system's not complying with any national primary
drinking water regulation or may otherwise adversely af-
fect the health of persons.
"STATE PRIMARY ENFORCEMENT RESPONSIBILITY
"Sec. 1422. (a) Within 180 days after the date of en-
actment of this title, the Administrator shall list in the
Federal Register each State for which in his judgment a
State underground injection control program may be necessary
to assure that underground injection will not endanger
drinking water sources. Such list may be amended from time
to time.
" (b) (1) (A) Each State listed under subsection (a)
shall within 270 days after the date of promulgation of any
regulation under section 1421 (or, if later, within 270 days
after such State is first listed under subsection (a)) sub-
mit to the Administrator an application which contains a
showing satisfactory to the Administrator that the State -
"(i) has adopted after reasonable notice and
public hearings, and will implement, an underground
injection control program which meets the require-
ments of regulations in effect under section 1421;
and
"(ii) will keep such records and make such reports
with respect to its activities under its underground
injection control program as the Administrator may
require by regulation.
1393
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"(B) Within 270 days of any amendment of a regu-
lation under section 1421 revising or adding any re-
quirement respecting State underground injection control
programs, each State listed under subsection (a) shall
submit (in such form and manner as the Administrator
may require) a notice to the Administrator containing
a showing satisfactory to him that the State under-
ground injection control program meets the revised or
added requirement.
"(2) Within ninety days after the State's application
under paragraph (1) (A) or notice under paragraph (1) (B)
and after reasonable opportunity for presentation of views,
the Administrator shall by rule either approve, disapprove,
or approve in part and disapprove in part, the State's
underground injection control program.
"(3) If the Administrator approves the State's pro-
gram under paragraph (2), the State shall have primary en-
forcement responsibility for underground water sources until
such time as the Administrator determines by rule, that such
State no longer meets the requirements of clause (i) or (ii)
of paragraph (1) (A) of this subsection.
"(4) Before promulgating any rule under paragraph (2)
or (3) of this subsection, the Administrator shall provide
opportunity for public hearing respecting such rule.
"(c) If the Administrator disapproves a State's pro-
gram (or part thereof) under subsection (b) (2) , if the
Administrator determines under subsection (b) (3) that a
State no longer meets the requirements of clause (i) or
(ii) of subsection (b) (1) (A) , or if a State fails to
submit an application or notice before the date of expir-
ation of the period specified in subsection (b) (1), the
Administrator shall by regulation within 90 days after the
date of such disapproval, determination, or expiration (as
the case may be) prescribe (and may from time to time by
regulation revise) a program applicable to such State
meeting the requirements of section 1421 (b). Such program
may not include requirements which interfere with or impede -
"(1) the underground injection of brine or other
fluids which are brought to the surface in connection
1394
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with oil or natural gas production, or
"(2) any underground injection for the secondary
or tertiary recovery of oil or natural gas, unless such
requirements are essential to assure that underground
sources of drinking water will not be endangered by
such injection. Such program shall apply in such State
to the extent that a program adopted by such State
which the Administrator determines meets such require-
ments is not in effect. Before promulgating any regu-
lation under this section, the Administrator shall pro-
vide opportunity for public hearing respecting such
regulation.
"(d) For purposes of this title, the term 'applicable
underground injection control program1 with respect to a
State means the program (or most recent amendment thereof)
(1) which has been adopted by the State and which has been
approved under subsection (b), or (2) which has been pre-
scribed by the Administrator under subsection (c).
"FAILURE OF STATE TO ASSURE ENFORCEMENT OF PROGRAM
"Sec. 1423. (a) (1) Whenever the Administrator finds
during a period which a State has primary enforcement re-
sponsibility for underground water sources (within the
meaning of section 1422 (b) (3)) that any person who is sub-
ject to a requirement of an applicable underground injection
control program in such State is violating such requirement,
he shall so notify the State and the person violating such
requirement. If the Administrator finds such failure to
comply extends beyond the thirtieth day after the date of
such notice, he shall give public notice of such finding
and request the State to report within 15 days after the
date of such public notice as to the steps being taken to
bring such person into compliance with such requirement
(including reasons for anticipated steps to be taken to
bring such person into compliance with such requirement
and for any failure to take steps to bring such person
into compliance with such requirement). If -
"(A) such failure to comply extends beyond the
sixtieth day after the date of the notice given pur-
suant to the first sentence of this paragraph, and
1395
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"(B) (i) the State fails to submit the report re-
quested by the Administrator within the time period
prescribed by the preceding sentence, or
"(ii) the State submits such report within such
period but the Administrator, after considering the
report, determines that by failing to take necessary
steps to bring such person into compliance by such
sixtieth day the State abused its discretion in
carrying out primary enforcement responsibility for
underground water sources, the Administrator may com-
mence a civil action under subsection (b) (1).
11 (2) Whenever the Administrator finds during a period
during which a State does not have primary enforcement re-
sponsibility for underground water sources that any person
subject to any requirement of any applicable underground in-
jection control program in such State is violating such re-
quirement, he may commence a civil action under subsection
(b) (1).
"(b) (1) When authorized by subsection (a), the Admin-
istrator may bring a civil action under this paragraph in
the appropriate United States district court to require com-
pliance with any requirement of an applicable underground
injection control program. The court may enter such judg-
ment as protection of public health may require, in the case
of an action brought against a person who violates an appli-
cable requirement of an underground injection control pro-
gram and who is located in a State which has primary en-
forcement responsibility for underground water sources, the
imposition of a civil penalty of not to exceed $5,000 for
each day such person violates such requirement after the
expiration of 60 days after receiving notice under sub-
section (a) (1) .
"(2) Any person who violates any requirement of an
applicable underground injection control program to which
he is subject during any period for which the State does
not have primary enforcement responsibility for under-
ground water sources (A) shall be subject to a civil pen-
alty of not more than $5,000 for each day of such viola-
tion, or (B) if such violation is willful, such person
1396
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may, in lieu of the civil penalty authorized by clause (B),
be fined not more than $10,000 for each day of such viola-
tion.
"(c) Nothing in this title shall diminish any author-
ity of a State or political subdivision to adopt or enforce
any law or regulation respecting underground injection but
no such law or regulation shall relieve any person of any
requirement otherwise applicable under this title.
"INTERIM EEGULATION OF UNDERGROUND INJECTIONS
"Sec. 1424. (a) (1) Any person may petition the Ad-
ministrator to have an area of a State (or States) desig-
nated as an area in which no new underground injection well
may be operated during the period beginning on the date of
the designation and ending on the date on which the appli-
cable underground injection control program covering such
area takes effect unless a permit for the operation of such
well has been issued by the Administrator under subsection
(b). The Administrator may so designate an area within a
State if he finds that the area has one aquifer which is
the sole or principal drinking water source for the area
and which, if contaminated, would create a significant
hazard to public health.
"(2) Upon receipt of a petition under paragraph (1)
of this subsection, the Administrator shall publish it in
the Federal Register and shall provide an opportunity to
interested persons to submit written data, views, or argu-
ments thereon. Not later than the 30th day following the
date of the publication of a petition under this paragraph
in the Federal Register, the Administrator shall either
make the designation for which the petition is submitted
or deny the petition.
"(b) (1) During the period beginning on the date an
area is designated under subsection (a) and ending on the
date the applicable underground injection control program
covering such area takes effect, no new underground in-
jection well may be operated in such area unless the Ad-
ministrator has issued a permit for such operation.
1397
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"(2) Any person may petition the Administrator for
the issuance of a permit for the operation of such a well
in such an area. A petition submitted under this paragraph
shall be submitted in such manner and contain such informa-
tion as the Administrator may require by regulation. Upon
receipt of such a petition, the Administrator shall publish
it in the Federal Register. The Administrator shall give
notice of any proceeding on a petition and shall act upon
such petition on the record of any hearing held pursuant
to the preceding sentence respecting such petition. Within
120 days of the publication in the Federal Register of a
petition submitted under this paragraph, the Administrator
shall either issue the permit for which the petition was
submitted or shall deny its issuance.,
"(3) The Administrator may issue a permit for the
operation of a new underground injection well in an area
designated under subsection (a) only if he finds that the
operation of such well will not cause contamination of
the aquifer of such area so as to create a significant
hazard to public health. The Administrator may condition
the issuance of such permit upon the use of such control
measures in connection with the operation of such well,
for which the permit is to be issued, as he deems neces-
sary to assure that the operation of the well will not
contaminate the aquifer of the designated area in which
the well is located so as to create a significant hazard
to public health.
"(c) Any person who operates a new underground in-
jection well in violation of subsection (b), (1) shall be
subject to a civil penalty of not more than $5,000 for each
day in which such violation occurs, or (2) if such viola-
tion is willful, such person may, in lieu of the civil
penalty authorized by clause (1), be fined not more than
$10,000 for each day in which violation occurs. If the
Administrator has reason to believe that any person is
violating or will violate subsection (b), he may petition
the United States district court to issue a temporary re-
straining order or injunction (including a mandatory in-
junction) to enforce such subsection.
1398
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"(d) For purposes of this section, the term 'new
underground injection well' means an underground injec-
tion well whose operation was not approved by appropriate
State and Federal agencies before the date of the enact-
ment of this title.
"(e) If the Administrator determines, on his own
initiative or upon petition, that an area has an aquifer
which is the sole or principal drinking water source for
the area and which, if contaminated, would create a sig-
nificent hazard to public health, he shall publish notice
of that determination in the Federal Register. After the
publication of any such notice, no commitment for Federal
financial assistance (through a grant, contract, loan
guarantee, or otherwise) may be entered into for any pro-
ject which the Administrator determines may contaminate
such aquifer through a recharge zone so as to create a
significant hazard to public health, but a commitment
for Federal financial assistance may, if authorized
under another provision of law, be entered into to plan
or design the project to assure that it will not so con-
taminate the aquifer."
1399
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX I
REFERENCES CITED
1. Ives, R. E., and G. E. Eddy, Subsurface Disposal of
Industrial Wastes, Interstate Oil Compact Comm. Study,
109 pp, 1968.
2. Ives, R. E., and G. E. Eddy, Subsurface Disposal of
Industrial Wastes, (Unnumbered Publ.), Interstate Oil
Compact Comm. Oklahoma City, 61 pp, First Suppl. ,
Jan. 1970.
3. Wright, B., Arkansas Oil and Gas Comm., Personal Com-
munication, 1974.
4. Colorado Department of Health, Rules for Subsurface
Disposal Systems, 11 pp, January 15, 1974.
5. Latta, B. F. , Kansas State Department of Health,
Personal Communication, 1974.
6. Chauviere, A. C., and R. D. Bates, Geological Oil and
Gas Division, Louisiana Geological Survey, Department
of Conservation, Personal Communication, 1974.
7. Department of Conservation, Underground Salt Water and
Waste Disposal in Louisiana, State Regulations and Geo-
logical Concepts, 23 pp, June 1974.
8. Ellison, R., Geological Survey Division, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources, Personal Communication,
1974.
9. State of Michigan, Mineral Well Act and General Rules
Governing Mineral Well Operations, Dept. of Natural
Resources, Geol. Surv. Div., Circ. 10, 16 pp, June 28,
1972.
1400
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10. Lightfoot, E. S., Missouri Clean Water Commission,
Personal Communication, 1975.
11. Loveridge, W., New York Water Resources Division,
Personal Communication, 1974.
12. Norling, D. L. former Deputy Director of the Division
of Natural Resources, State of Ohio, Personal Communi-
cation, 1974.
13. Thurman, T. L. , Oklahoma Water Resources Board, Per-
sonal Communication, 1974.
14. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, Rules and Regulations,
Publication 45, 63 pp, 1973.
15. Hill, B., and Trippet, W. , Texas Water Quality Board,
Personal Communication, 1974.
16. Ray, J. L., West Virginia Division of Water Resources,
Personal Communication, 1974.
17. EPA Administrator, Decision Statement No. 5, "Subsur-
face Emplacement of Fluids", Federal Register, Vol. 39,
No. 69, April 9, 1974.
18. U. S. Congress. Senate., An Act to Amend the Public
Health Service Act to Assure that the Public is Pro-
vided with Safe Drinking Water, and for other Purposes,
Pub. L. 93.523, 93rd Congress, 1974, S. 433, pp 14-20.
19. Cordova, S., California Division of Oil and Gas, Per-
sonal Communication, 1975.
20. California Division of Oil and Gas, Manual of Instruc-
tion (Revised August 1973) , Sec. 43.1, 1973.
1401
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APPENDIX J
EPA REVIEW COMMENTS AND CONTRACTOR RESPONSE
As a result of EPA review of this document, there were a number of
questions and issues raised as to the conclusions made versus those
warrented based upon the available information. Additional clari-
fying data and information were provided.
This appendix is provided so that users of the large amount of
information contained in this report have available this clarifying
data and information. Included are the EPA review comments and
the contractor's response to those comments.
1402
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EPA REVIEW COMMENTS
The contractor has provided a rather impressive document (more than
1,400 pages), containing an extensive compilation of information
dealing with deep-well disposal. In general, the produced document
responds to the research request by providing the information about
the present state-of-the-art of deep-well injection.
Based on the report, there is sufficient information available
covering geologic aspects to define potential injection areas,
well design and well construction. However, information on the
salaquifer hydrology is meager, except in some localized areas where
there has been extensive oil well drilling or exploitation of sub-
surface brines for their mineral content.
Major gaps exist in knowledge dealing with reactions of the injected
wastes with the receiving geologic formations, and in the area of
microbiology of injection zone salaquifers - all of which is essential
for evaluation of safety and environmental adequacy of deep-well
injection.
Monitoring techniques in present form are adequate to detect equip-
ment malfunctions, and at a specific point, a monitor well may
detect waste passage within a reservoir. These techniques are in-
effective, however, for continuous tracking of waste movement within
a reservoir, of waste escape from a reservoir, or of vertical move-
ment of fluid. It seems to me, that after a waste stream is injected
underground, there is practically no control over what happens to
it or where it goes (page 8).
In view of problems identified by the subject report, certain state-
ments and conclusions in the Executive Summary and elsewhere tend
to present a rather unrealistically rosy picture of the safety and
environmental adequacy of deep-well injection. Some of the con-
clusions favoring well disposal of hazardous wastes are inadequately
supported and documented. The examples are:
1403
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1. Conclusions that (#7, page 10) - "Deep-well injection
systems for nearly all types of nonhazardous and hazardous
industrial waste are a safe method of handling the waste
if the systems are properly located, designed, operated,
managed, and regulated." This statement could be mis-
leading at the present state-of-the-art of deep-well
injection due to the fact that, at this time, no universal
criteria exists to define the proper location, design,
operation, management and regulation of deep-well injection;
and that - "Tentatively excluded as being safe for deep-well
injection if containment is questionable are 13 chemicals
and their related compounds identified in the assessment
section." In the case where the waste containment is
questionable, well construction should not be considered,
since practically all injected wastes, including such
wastes as brine and sewage which are indicated by this
report to be a potential or latent hazard, could create
an environmental problem if they escape from the host zone
and enter the groundwater.
2. Recommendation that (#13, page 15) - "The injection of
hazardous waste should be permitted to continue until
there is positive evidence that it is having a deleterious
effect upon environment" - could lead to a high risk
approach to hazardous waste disposal.
3. Recommendation that (#15, page 15) - "Alternative methods
that are safe and economically feasible for treating hazard-
ous wastes should be investigated for waste streams now
being injected into subsurface reservoir, if: 1) The waste
is shown to be escaping from the host zone, and 2) the
waste is having a detrimental effect upon the environment." -
Starting with an investigation after wastes have been shown
to be escaping from the host zone and creating problems
is not an environmentally sound practice.
An evaluation of the degree with which the produced document complies
with the contract scope-of-work was difficult since the produced final
report differs considerably from the suggested form.
1404
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For example, it was suggested that Section I provide data and
information relative to the specific wells disposing primarily
industrial wastes of hazardous or potentially hazardous nature; an
assessment of each well's operation from an environmental point, and
a discussion relative to the good and bad features of well design,
installation, operation, etc. This section would also contain "the
case histories" of selected deep-well operations and their performance
assessment. In the produced report those subjects are scattered
throughout five different sections or appendices.
The following comments apply to the above subject:
1. No formal assessment of the environmental effects of
deep-well disposal was made. Instead of this, Table 3,
(page 28-36) "Assessment of Operating Deep-Wells
Receiving Hazardous Wastes," provides information by
well ratings (A) - Acceptable; (L) - Limited acceptability;
(M) - Marginal; (U) - Unsatisfactory), and defines the intra-
formational reactions (underdetermined; not unfavorable;
unfavorable). However, nowhere in the final report is an
explanation as to the criteria selection used to define
intraformational reactions, or the rating system used to
assess a certain well as "acceptable" or otherwise. That
information is essential for future evaluation of deep-
well injection.
2. Some wells listed in Table 2, (page 27), - "Identification
of Wells Receiving Hazardous Wastes," and with complete
information provided in Appendix D (page 449 up) - "Inventory
of Industrial Waste Injection Wells in the United States,"
were not included in the assessment in Table 3 - see wells:
AL-4, 5: FL 5; LA-3, 19, 26, 54, 66; TX-12, 23, 30, 58, 86,
97, 98.
3. There are several discrepancies in the data provided in
Tables 2, 3, and Appendix D - detected by random selection.
For example, some wells listed as used for disposal of chromium
wastes in Table 2, (wells KS-3, 12, 13, 14, 18), are specified
as injected with "brine" in Table 3, and in Appendix D, and have
no chromium content listed, (except for KS-18 indicating "brine"
with 3.8 ppm Cr+6).
4. Are heavy metal wastes considered to be hazardous for deep-well
injection? They are listed as hazardous in Table 2, (page 27) -
"Indication of Wells Receiving Hazardous Wastes," but not
included among the 13 waste streams (page 5 and 102), considered
to be "hazardous for deep-well injection in any system."
1405
-------
The "case histories" of selected deep-well operations are the
subject of Appendix E (page 1045 up) and Appendix F (page 1070 up).
I have the following comments on the above subject:
1. Different symbols are used for wells described in "case
histories," (well A, B,), many of them are operating
wells, as compared with Table 2 and 3. Some well indexing
codes can be found in the middle of the text, some not at
all, so it is difficult or impossible to compare provided
information with overall well assessment.
2. Two "case*studies," Belle Glade, Florida and Wilmington,
North Carolina, need a conclusion drawn from the research
described and its impact on the deep-well operation. Also,
an assessment of the wells' performance is not included. Are
those wells still operating?
It was suggested that Section II provide an assessment of the
presently available technology in regard to adequacy for disposal of the
hazardous waste in a manner precluding environmental degradation. The
good and bad points of the technique were to be covered as well as
criteria for handling the wastes. The information dealing with the
above subjects can be found in different sections of this report. I
would like to indicate the following shortcomings of the report in
dealing with the above subject:
1. Explain the criteria used for rating of an area's
acceptability for deep-well injection, elaborated in
Table 1 (page 17 up) - "Acceptability of Deep-Well
Industrial Waste Injection to Environmental Regime."
The discussion on page 2 - Executive Summary,
indicates a ten point criteria as compared to Table 1,
which uses a six point criteria.
2. What is the significance of seismic risk in the rating of
an area's acceptability for deep-well injection? In
evaluation of the geology of California, the high
seismic risk was probably not considered (page 51).
Also, the overall system design and construction of
deep-well injection systems (including surface
treatment, monitoring wells, etc.), corresponding to
the degree of seismic risk, as recommended on page 51,
cannot assure an environmentally sound system and
operation, regardless of waste being injected (see
documented case from Region VIII - Well A, Appendix
E).
3. Limestone and dolomite may not always be satisfactory
as confining strata, contrary to the claim on page 56,
if untreated highly concentrated acid wastes are
injected. It can create unfavorable intraformational
reactions and eventually result in well failure (see
documented case from Region IV - Well A, Appendix E).
1406
-------
This whole section is too speculative; Elaborate on the
statement "Fortunately, potential host zones in many places are
enclosed by hundreds and occasionally thousands of feet of
impermeable strata which virtually ensures their segregation"
(page 56).
4. Was the environmental impact of "artificial fracturing to
increase permeability" of strata considered (page 61).
Another OSWMP need was a discussion of wastes from specific
industries (i.e., probably mixed waste streams as opposed to a pure
waste containing one component or compound), and the problems that
may exist in managing these wastes via deep-well injection, in a
separate section. A special listing of wastes that cannot be disposed
into deep-wells under any conditions should also have been included.
I have the following comments on this section:
1. The characterization of wastes being injected into
deep-wells was discussed in three different sections
(Section I, III, V). The wastes characteristics and
their impact on host zone environment were discussed
only in general terms. No attempt was made to discuss
the wastes and their suitability for disposal by
deep-well injection using their origin or by specific
industry.
2. The special list of wastes that cannot be disposed by
deep-well injection under any conditions was not
included into the subject final report. Only
tentatively excluded from deep-well injection if
containment is questionable were 13 chemicals and
their related compounds identified on page 5 and
102 of this report.
It was problematic to determine to what degree the contractor
had elaborated on OSWMP's comments to the Draft Report (see
D. Huber memo of March 7, 1975), as the page and figure numbers
have been changed. Some of the requests for clarification (which
were traced), however, were not fully answered. Examples are:
1. Page 1-102, now page 1096: Please clarify :
a. The statement that chloride does not undergo any
geochemical or biochemical reaction.
b. The technique of indicating reactivity by comparing
changes in comparison of wastes before and after
injection by "normalizing," - these statements were
not clarified.
1407
-------
2. Explain the criteria used to select the wastes considered
unsafe for deep-well injection on page 1-195. The discussion
on page 5 and 103 of the final report gives only a partial
explanation.
3. The research projects considered to have the greatest potential
for providing significant results in the area of protecting
the environment from adverse pffects were not identified, as
requested.
The additional comments and suggestions for correction are listed
below:
Page 11 #11 -- should be ... on groundwater quality ...
Page 11 #16 Sewage ... statement should clarify if it
considers raw or treated sewage (treated
sewage, especially after chlorination, has
a very low bacterial content).
Page 17 Table 1 - what is the seismic risk for New York
(EPA II), Ah/w. (?)
Page 41 Figure 2 - reference?
Page 44 Table 6 - Depth (inches, feet?)
Page 48 Figure 3 - reference?
Page 50 Figure 4 - reference?
Page 52 Figure 5 - reference?
Page 55 What is considered to be adequate buffer zone?
Page 61 Table 7 - reference?
Page 64 Figure 6 - reference?
Page 67 Figure 7 - reference?
Page 71 Figure 8 - reference?
Page 73/74 Figure 9 and 10 - reference?
Page 76 Chemical aspect ... not a common practice, in most
cases wastes are injected rather without discrimination.
Page 80 Selm and Hulse (?) reference.
1408
-------
Page 81 Reference to mercury poisoning has no connection with
deep-well injection.
Page 82 Injected waste will be greatly modified not only by
microbial activities, but also by dilution and
chemical reaction within the salaquifer.
Page 125 Figure 12; reference; depth (inches, feet?)
Page 126 Figure 13, reference?
Page 127 Figure 14; reference, injection rate (?) units
Page 128 Figure 15; reference, volume (liter, gallon)?
Page 129 Figure 16; reference, disposal quantity (liter, gallon)?
Page 130 Figure 17; reference, depth (inches, feet)?
Page 131 Table 14, references; type of surface treatment and
volume not specified. This is necessary for cost
comparison.
Table 15; references, heading of table not clear.
Page 496 Unreacted HC1 99.9% (?); also presence of living
organisms in this kind of waste is unrealistic.
Page 499 Hard to expect biological activity in waste
pickling acid.
Page 521 pH = 74 (?)
Page 526 Same as page 499
Page 534 Expression "no BOD as such?" (20,000 ppm Na OC1
strongly oxidative, hardly any biological activity)
Page 844 Phenol alkalinity (phenolphthalein ?)
Page 967 Contradictive, waste was pretreated in bio-pond, so
it should have some biological activity.
Page 1076 Don't see connection between referenced research
and deep-well injection.
Page 1083 Figure 195; reference
Page 1085 Case study Belle Glade needs conclusion and
evaluation of environmental impact
1409
-------
Page 1099 Figure 200; reference
Page 1104 Figure 201; reference
Page 1105 Figure 202; reference
Page 1109 Table 31; headings ... should be: 7 and 11 waste
free. What is meaning of last line in Table 31?
Page 1119 Case study in Wilmington, M.C., requires conclusion.
What is the impact of research on deep-well injection?
Page 1121 Figure 206; reference
Page 1122 Figure 207 and 208; reference
Page 1123 Figure 209; reference
Page 1124 Figure 210; reference
This completes the list of specific comments.
1410
-------
CONTRACTOR REPLY TO REVIEW COMMENTS
The information in this section was submitted by the con-
tractor. It provides his detailed reply to the comments
and questions resulting from the EPA review of the work.
1411
-------
Re: Page 2
In the introductory paragraph on page 2, * indicates
that certain statements and conclusions in the executive summary
and elsewhere have a tendency to present a rather unrealistically
rosy picture of the safety and environmental adequacy of deen-well
injection. The reviewer cites one conclusion and two recommendations
as statements favoring deep-well disposal which are inadequately
supported and documented. It was not the intent of the contractor's
report to present deep-well disposal of hazardous industrial waste as
an unequivocally and riskless environmentally safe method of waste
management. Deep-well injection is a valuable tool for industry, al-
though some risk is involved, and when properly used there is a definite
place for it among the various schemes of waste management.
1. (Re: Conclusion No. 7, page 10) The reviewer is correct in
stating that no universal criteria exists to define the
proper location, design, operation, management and regula-
tion of deep-well injection inasfar as a precise number of
metres per injection zone, an exact number of cubic metres
per second injection rate, or a limiting number of pascals
at which a hypothetical volume of fluid may be injected into
a theoretically predetermined reservoir rock can be applied.
However, once a daily maximum and minimum amount of waste to
be injected is determined and a growth factor for the waste
volume is established the proper location, design, operation,
management and regulation of that particular well may be well
defined. The determination of location of a particular deep-
well is discussed under the heading "Geologic Aspects," and
its sub headings. The importance of the feasibility study is
indicated on page 47 under the heading "Geologic Aspects" and
again on page 53 under the sub heading "Reservoir Requirements."
The criteria cited for site determination are relative and
cannot be given exact dimensions until the amounts of fluid
to be injected are known. Once anticipated volumes and rates
are established operating limits can be defined and the mechanical
success or failure, as well as the environmental effect, of a
system may be determined with a high degree of reliability during
the feasibility study and before drilling is begun. However, in
a few cases where data are insufficient or inconclusive to allow
this determination from the available data an exploratory well
must be drilled and injection tests made as part of the study.
In such instances the expenses incurred for drilling and testing
are part of the calculated risk necessary for an operator to
define an acceptable injection zone. On page 53 under the
heading "Reservoir Requirements" it is noted that the criteria
determining location are considered relative quantities. Relia-
bility in establishing injection volumes and rates, and capacity
of reservoirs has been demonstrated both theoretically and
*Names of reviewers have been omitted at their request.
1412
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Re: Page 2 (cont.)
1. (Cont.) empirically during many years of practical application
in oil field and water well development. Extensive studies on
this subject have been made by Van Everdingen, Van Poolen, Rubbert,
and many others.
Regarding the second part of No, 1 page 2—I agree that where
containment of the injected fluid is questionable well construc-
tion should be neither considered nor permitted. This idea is
clearly indicated under the heading Geological in the first
paragraph on page 2, "...A reservoir so chosen will have the
capability to contain safely, any waste that may be injected
into it provided the injected volume does not exceed the available
volume of the reservoir and injection pressures do not exceed
critical formation pressures..." The idea is again expressed
in the first paragraph on page 47, "...Waste of these types
are the ones that should be considered prime materials for con-
trolling deep-well injection and storage, if the deep-well
method is proved safe and acceptable to receive them " (there
is a typographic error, controlling should read controlled.)
Page 53, paragraph 1, Reservoir Requirements repeats the thought,
"...There is the universal requirement that the waste be con-
fined to the disposal formation so that commercially valuable
natural resources including fresh water be protected... "The
idea again appears on page 68, paragraph 2, under ENGINEERING
ASPECTS, "The initial concern in the planning, construction and
operation of a deep-well management system is the protection of
life and property as represented by potable waters and minerals
of economic value which might be found beneath the surface of
the earth." The idea is presented still another time in the
first paragraph under CHEMICAL ASPECTS on page 76, "...Precau-
tions must be taken so that the waste itself will not harm the
environment, and that there will be no reactions; or, if any
reactions do take place, they will not be harmful."
2. (Re: Recommendation No. 13, page 15) "...could lead to a high
risk approach to hazardous waste disposal."
There is an element of risk in the handling and disposal of any
hazardous material regardless of the designed safety factors or
degree of sophistication of the method involved. Recommendation
No. 13 should be read with the host reservoir basic prerequisites
(noted in No. 1, part 2, above) in mind. Recommendation No. 13
also should be read and interpreted in conjunction with Recommen-
dation No. 14. A recommendation lending itself to a more concise
interpretation may possibly have been developed by integrating
Nos. 13 and 14 into a single recommendation. Nevertheless, the
low concentration of many of these hazardous substances in most
1413
-------
Re: Page 2 (cont.)
of the high volume waste streams greatly reduce the possible
damage risk potential. Prudent operating procedures and diligent
supervision and monitoring by regulatory agencies would also reduce
risk potential. A well designed and operated deep-well system can
probably be run with only slightly higher risk potential than many
of the surface treatment plants operating today.
(Re: Recommendation No. 15, page 15) "...Starting with an
investigation after wastes have been shown to be escaping from the
host zone and creating problems is not an environmentally sound
practice." I agree that starting an investigation or study after
the waste has escaped from the host zone is not an environmentally
sound practice. The "if" escaped the editor's pencil and should
better read "in case", or "in order to replace deep-well systems
when", or "in order to systematically phase out troublesome or
questionable deep-well systems when." The gist of the recommen-
dation is that alternate methods of treatment should be investigated
and be available as replacements for troublesome and unsound well
systems. This is not intended to advocate an "after the fact"
investigation, but to follow the thinking of paragraph (3) in the
Goals section and paragraphs (1) and (3) in the policy and program
guidance section of the EPA ADS No. 5 dated February 6, 1973.
Re: Page 3
1. "...Instead of this, Table 3, (page 28-36) "Assessment of
Operating Deep-Wells Receiving Hazardous Wastes," provides
information by well ratings (A) Acceptable; (L) Limited accepta-
bility; (M) Marginal; (U) Unsatisfactory, and defines the intra-
formational reactions (undetermined; not unfavorable; unfavorable)..."
Note: to be added to remarks on Table 3 code page 36;PpH- Precipitate
when pH is greater than -
Dr. Zuhair Al-Shaieb, geochemist, at the University of Oklahoma
determined the intraformational reactions from the available in-
jected waste stream information vs formation lithology and inter-
stitial water. This was the first phase toward developing a detailed
reaction matrix between waste, formation, and operating parameters.
The matrix was not developed beyond the first phase because of
time and budgetary limitation. Dr. Al-Shaieb based the first phase
on "favorable" or "unfavorable" development of gas or precipitate
between injected fluid and the formation parameters. Dissolution
of SiO« was also noted in several cases where the condition was
determined. During the preparation of the table the headings
undetermined, unfavorable and not unfavorable were chosen. The
1414
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Re: Page 3 (cont.)
1. (cont.) first two were as determined by Dr. Al-Shaieb; the third,
not unfavorable, was used in preference to Dr. Al-Shaieb's original
"favorable" because it was believed that a reaction developing gas or
a precipitate, although not necessarily damaging or developed to an
unfavorable degree could, only in a few cases, possibly be con-
sidered as favorable. The assessment of the various wells as
acceptable, unacceptable, etc., was done on an individual well
basis, which is the method by which the operations must be evalua-
ted. Two geologists, a chemist, a petroleum engineer and a biolo-
gist, (in addition to Dr. Al-Shaieb) reviewed the available data
on each well listed, and assessment arrived at by consensus. Al-
though there were many weighting factors used the principal consid-
eration was the protection of potable water aquifers and the main-
tenance of reservoir integrity. General aspects related to this
subject are indicated in the first four columns to the right of the
Intraformational Reaction section. Important influencing parameters
occupy the remaining six columns before the rating column.
The information used for evaluation is generally summarized in
Appendix D, pages 495-2044. Knowledge of the operating area and
operating practices also were used in influencing the appraisals.
If the situation appeared to exist the two categories, Insuffi-
cient Aquiclude and Suspected Fresh Contamination were sufficient
in most cases to warrant an unsatisfactory rating. In reiteration
the ratings were made by consensus of a multi disciplined commit-
tee reviewing the data available on each well. The ratings on
the individual wells will change and each well must be reviewed
on a regular basis. The review scheduling will not necessarily
be the same for each well; annual review will suffice for many,
while others will require semiannual or even quarterly review
to assess their status properly. Each well must be assessed
individually and in relation to all the parameters affecting its
safe operation.
2. "Some wells listed in Table 2, (page 27),- ...were not included
in the assessment in Table 3 - see wells: AL-4, 5; FL-5; LA-3,
19, 26, 54, 66; Tx-12, 23, 30, 58, 86, 97, 98."
Table 2 identified all wells; operating, plugged, or permitted and
not operating; for which there was information available indicating
that hazardous waste was being, had been, or would be injected.
Table 3 identifies the wells receiving one or more of the 13 chemi-
cals regarded as undesirable for deep-well injection. Perhaps the
title would be better if it read "Identification of Wells Receiving
One or More of the Thirteen Chemicals Considered Undesirable for
Deep-Well Injection." We discussed several titles, most of which
proved to be quite long and unwieldy - the shorter title chosen
apparently is ambiguous and confusing.
1415
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Re: Page 3 (cont.)
2. (cont.) Information received after the table was prepared shows
that TX 100 and 101 are injecting a waste stream containing
30 ppm acrolein which should include them in the table.
Table 3 - Assessment of Operating Deep-Wells Receiving Hazardous
Waste. This table is an assessment of the 209 deep-wells operating
at the date of the report. (206 are listed, the remaining 3 are
permitted under the same number with one or more of the listed
wells). For clarity and to differentiate between Tables 2 and 3
the title for Table 3 may better have read, "Assessment of 209
Deep-Wells Operating in January 1975."
The wells, referred to earlier, which appeared in Table 2 would
not appear in Table 3 because none of them were operating wells
at the time the data were prepared.
3. The discrepancies noted in Tables 2, 3 and Appendix D by random
selection list wells KS-3, 12, 13, 14,18 showing disposal of chromium
waste in Table 2, but containing only brine in Table 3 and Appen-
dix D. The apparent discrepancies result from the contractor's
interpretation of the available data. The key phrases are
"cooling water" and "blow down water" which appear in all the
"brine" wells listed in Table 2. It was common practice to add
chromates to cooling waters, etc., to inhibit and retard the growth
of bacteria, slimes, algae, etc., in the equipment. Comparing these
"brine" wells with wells in the area showing chromium wastes being
injected, and the operators of the chromium waste wells vs. "brine"
well operators - I feel secure in saying that an analysis of the
injected fluid of both type wells would show almost the same amount
of chromium.
4. "Are heavy metal wastes considered to be hazardous for deep-well
injection? They are listed as hazardous in Table 2, (page 27)."
...Table 2 has 14 headings. Thirteen of these headings are the
chemicals listed as hazardous for deep-well injection in any
system. The fourteenth heading, "Identified Only as Heavy Metals,"
was added because data received on many of the wells identified
heavy metals in the waste streams, and many of these heavy metals
are both toxic and hazardous and are included in the 13 listed
chemicals when specifically identified. (Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, Ag, Cd,
In, Sn, Sb, Au, Hg, Ti, Pb, Bi, - heavy metals periodic table,
Hodgman, C.D., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 31st Ed., Chem.
Rubber Pub. Co., Cleveland, Ohio.)
1416
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Re: Page 3 (cont.)
4. (cont.) The probability of one of the listed toxic and
hazardous metals being included in the industrial waste
streams listing only "heavy metals is great enough to justify
noting the wells injecting the heavy metals.
Re: Page 4
First Section:
1. "Different symbols are used for wells described in 'case
histories,' (well A, B,)..." The letter code in "case
histories" is used only to separate the case history
summaries for each EPA Region. The code does not bear any
relation to Tables 2 and 3, nor was it intended to.
The material for the summaries was drawn from many sources
including much from the experience of the contractor. Many
of the sources,especially the BuMines Circulars identified
their various examples by letter or number only. The contractor
can identify most of the wells with certainty, but there is
some question on several from the BuMines source. Inasmuch
as the wells which were summarized and could not be positively
identified, all the case histories were referred to only by
letter identification in the report. It was decided that
this would be better than having part of the wells identified
and part of them unidentified.
For reference the wells are identified as follows:
Region III
Well A (PA-2) Hammermill Paper Co., Erie, Pennsylvania
Well B (PA-1) Jones & Laughlin, Aliquippa, Pennsylvania
Region IV
Well A (FL-1 and
FL-2) Monsanto Textile Co., Pensacola, Fla.
Belle Glade Appendix F Quaker Oats Co., Bell Glade Chemical Plant
(FL-3 and Belle Glade, Florida
FL-4)
Wilmington, N.C. Appendix F Hercules, Inc., Wilmington, N.C.
(NC-1, NC-2, NC-3 & NC-4)
1417
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(First Section)
1. (cont.)
Well A
Well B
Well C
Well D
Re: Page 4 (cont.)
Region V
(IL-1 and IL-6) Velsicol Chemical Company
Marshall, Illinois
(IL-3) Jones & Laughlin Steel Co., Hennepin, Illinois
(IN-1 and IN-2) American Cyanamide Co.
Michigan City, Indiana
(MI-11) Ford Motor Co., Rouge Plant, Dearborn, Mich.
Region VI
Well A (OK-13) American Airlines, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma
Well B (TX-20) Diamond Shamrock Oil Co., Amarillo, Texas
Well C (TX-86) Ethyl Corp., Pasadena Plant, Harris, Texas
Region VIII
Well A (CO-1) U.S. Corps of Engineers, Rocky Mt. Arsenal, Colo.
Table 14 (page 131) Region VI
Well A (OK-13) American Airlines, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Well B (Tx-8, TX-14, TX-32) Celanese Chemical Co., Bay City, Texas
Region V
Well C (IN-8) Midwest Steel Co., Portage, Indiana
Well D (OH-4) Vistron Corporation, Lima, Ohio
The contractor had intended to include a greater number of case
histories and all in considerably greater detail. Inasmuch as some inconsis-
tancies and gaps in data were apparent and time did not permit refining the
data to the desired degree the additional histories were not included.
1418
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Re: Page 4 (cont.)
(First Section, cont.)
2. "Two 'case studies' Belle Glade, Florida (Re: page 6, this reply)
and Wilmington, N.C. (Re: page 6, this reply) need a conclusion
drawn from the research described and its impact on deep-well
operation..." The conclusions drawn from the Belle Glade,
Florida, study are:
1. The geologic conditions which were known in the area of the
well site were not considered or ignored when designing the
injection system.
2. A poor completion was made inasmuch as the reservoir conditions
were known, the waste to be injected was known, and the re-
actions between the two could be accurately predicted.
3. The overlying aquiclude was breached by the injected acidic
waste permitting some water from the host salaquifer and
some injected waste to escape with the overlying aquifer.
4. The monitor well system was effective and detected the in-
vasion of the overlying aquifer.
5. The recompletion of the injection well appears to have cor-
rected the problem of fluid escaping from the host salaquifer.
6. A point of weakness to the integrity of the system remains
in the area breached in the overlying aquiclude.
The impact of this study on deep-well operation is a re-emphasis
that none of the preliminary data of the feasibility study can be
ignored, and that system design must be compatible with the data
of the study. The study also emphasizes the necessity of a good
monitoring system as an integral part of the overall injection sys-
tem.
The performance of the well as originally completed was unacceptable
in that it permitted a breaching of the overlying aquifer and
escape of injected fluid and host reservoir fluid into the over-
lying aquifer.
The Belle Glade well has been worked over and recompleted and
is still operating on a seasonal basis.
The conclusions drawn from the Wilmington, N.C. wells are:
1. The geologic and hydrologic conditions of the area
were known.
1419
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Re: Page 4 (cont.)
(First Section, cont.)
2. (cont.)
2. Mechanical failure of some wells in the system permitted
leakage of injected waste and host reservoir water into
overlying aquifers.
3. The monitor wells were effective in detecting movement of the
injected fluid.
4. The area is not hydrogeologically compatible with deep-well
injection of waste.
The impact of this study on deep-well operation again emphasizes
the need to consider all the data available in a feasibility study,
and it condemns this and similar parts of the Atlantic Coastal
Plains for future attempts at deep-well waste injection.
The performance of the wells was not good. The entire exercise
appears to have been somewhat of a mess from beginning to end.
All the injection wells have been shut down. The monitor wells
were maintained in operating condition, but their present status
is not known.
Second Section:
1. "Explain the criteria used for rating of an areas' acceptability
for deep-well injection, elaborated in Table 1 (page 17 up)..."
As is explained on page 1, paragraph 2 under Geological, —
"Table 1 ... is a summary of broad geomorphic areas of the con-
tiguous United States and classifies them as having apparent
geologic compatibility with deep-well injection and will, in
most cases, serve to identify areas which may or may not be
feasible for safe injection. Detailed investigation, however,
must still be made for any given well site within an area rated
as acceptable in the table." The table is intended for use as a
quick area identifier to make an initial decision on the accepta-
bility of an area for deep-well injection. The criteria of the
table for an acceptable area are more than the ten shown as guide-
lines for an acceptable reservoir only. Two criteria, no poorly
plugged wells nearby and compatibility between reservoir and
injected waste, are not considered because they become, by the
necessity to keep the table generalized and simplified, parameters
of the detailed study. Eight of the reservoir criteria are used,
to which are added main fresh water aquifers to penetrate proxi-
mity of mineral resource and seismic risk. The breakdown is as
follows:
1420
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Re: Page 4 (cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
1. (cont.)
A. Reservoir availability - an area containing reservoir
rocks which have (1) uniformity, (2) large areal extent, (3) sub-
stantial thickness, (4) high porosity and permeability, and (5)
low pressure is considered to have reservoir availability. This
does not qualify the reservoir in any way except to those 5 cri-
teria. The letter code under the heading shows no reservoir avail-
able (NA), limited areas of availability (LA), and areas of rela-
tively unrestricted availability (A).
B. Adequate salaquifer - this was selected as a separate
criteria for the table because in some areas many reservoirs
capable of accepting injected wastes contain potable water.
Letter ratings NA, LA, and A same as for reservoir availability.
C. Adequate aquiclude - this was made a separate criteria
for the table because many areas do not have adequate aquicludes.
Separation from fresh water horizons is also given consideration
with this criteria. Letter ratirtgsNA, LA, and A same as for
reservoir availability.
D. Main fresh water aquifers to penetrate - this category
gives a range for the depth to aquifers containing total dissolved
solids of greater than 1000 ppm.
E. Mineral resources - an important factor in the final con-
sideration of an area for deep-well injection.
F. Seismic risk - an important factor in the final decision
of selection of an area and design of a system.
G. Rating - a, b, c, and d are the most heavily weighted
criteria; e and f are influencing criteria. None of the criteria
carry numerical ratings.
In the remarks column opposite North Carolina it should be
noted "Injection Prohibited by State Regulations."
2. "What is the significance of seismic risk in the rating of an
areas' acceptability for deep-well injection?..."
Seismic risk ia an influencing factor in rating the acceptability
of an area for deep-well injection. The seismic risk factor can
rate an area unacceptable or poor without considering other factors.
However, it is generally used in conjunction with other criteria
and, of course, it has less weight and is of less importance as the
indicated risk decreases, i.e. 3 is greater than 2 is greater than
1 is greater than 0.
1421
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Re: Page 4 (cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
2. (cont.)
The high seismic risk was considered in the cursory evaluation
of the geology of California (page 51). The paragraph points out
that reservoirs are available in the many small Tertiary basins,
but, "...the speculation of many factors, such as possible con-
tamination of future water supplies; contamination of oil and gas
reservoirs, and triggering of active fault zones prevent these
basins from being considered as attractive for deep-well injection
of any industrial waste at this time..." It also points out that
injection is being conducted successfully in the Great Valley which
does lie within an area of less seismic risk than most: of the rest
of California.
The overall system design and construction of deep-well injection
systems, corresponding to the degree of seismic risk will provide
an environmentally sound system and operations to a very high
degree, but it cannot assure an absolutely perfect trouble free
and riskless operation; nor can such a guarantee be given for the
present surface treatment method for industrial wastes.
Despite the preponderance of circumstantial evidence relating
earth tremors to injection in CO-1 there still is held two diametri-
cally opposed opinions as to whether the injection is really the
cause of the tremors. Also the theory has been advanced that such
induced slippage, if such is the case, might gradually relieve
built up strain and prevent a possible impending shock of greater
magnitude. However, once an operation, such as CO-1, has been
identified as a cause of something undesirable, whether by fact
or fiction, it automatically becomes the cause of every undesirable
situation in the area. Nevertheless the operation did cease after
the coincidental relationship between tremors and injection was
established and seismic condition approached those prior to
injection.
3. I feel that there has been a communication lapse in this section.
Nowhere on page 56 is there a claim that limestone arid dolomite
always are satisfactory as confining strata. To the contrary,
the statement is made, "...Limestone and dolomite may be satis-
factory confining strata. However, those rocks often have frac-
tures and solution channels so their adequacy must be determined
in each case. ..."
Untreated highly concentrated acid wastes injected, neutralize
fairly rapidly in a carbonate environment. (see Belle Glade study;
documented case from Region IV - Well A., Appendix E; and Donald-
son's study on acid neutralization in carbonate reservoirs.)
1422
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Re: Page 4 (cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
3. (cont.)
True, concentrated acid waste can create unfavorable intraformational
reactions and eventually result in well failure. However, nowhere
in the discussion of Well A - Region IV Appendix E is well failure
indicated as more than a possibility. With 359 feet of section
available for injection I conclude, from the data available, that
any injection with or without a buffer, 30 feet below the top of
the formation (Top 1360; casing shae , 1390) was not too judicious
a decision considering the type and volume of waste to be injected.
I cannot understand why, "This whole section appears to be specu-
lative; ..." Five rather concise major points are made in the
section, none of which appear too speculative as outlined in their
original order below:
1) Vertical confinement of waste is important,
a) to protect usable water
b) to protect oil and mineral deposits
2) Effect of lateral waste movement on mineral resources
is also an important consideration.
3) Unfractured shale, clay, slate anhydrite, gypsum, salt,
marl, bentonite and similar low permeability lithologic
types are considered good seals against vertical migra-
tion of fluids.
4) Limestone and dolomite may be satisfactory confining
strata. Inasmuch as they often have fractures and solu-
tion channels their adequacy must be determined in each
case-
5) Reservoirs are covered by hundreds and sometimes thou-
sands of feet of impermeable strata in many places
virtually ensuring their segregation.
Elaborate on the statement "Fortunately, potential host zones in
many places are enclosed by hundreds and occasionally thousands of
feet of impermeable strata which virtually ensures their segregation"
(Page 56). Russell, (W.L.) (Principles of Petroleum Geology,
McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 490 pp, 1960) states that 3m-6m
(10—20 feet) of shale overlying an oil reservoir is sufficient to
effect a good seal. Of course that thickness should not be con-
sidered to have a sufficient safety factor to act as an aquiclude
for a reservoir receiving injected wastes. Fortunately most of
the areas have a sufficiently thick sedimentary section of inter-
bedded and intercalated lithologic units separating the host reser-
voir and potable water aquifers and/or the surface of the ground
that they are positively separated, e.g. in the Eastern Interior
basin, 610 m to 1524 m (2000* to 5000') of alternating carbon-
ates arid elastics form the barrier; in the Mid-Continent 305 m
to 915 m (1000* to 3000') of carbonates, evaporites and elastics
form the overlying aquiclude. These general examples can be illus-
trated throughout the country or specific localized areas can be
described.
1423
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Re: Page 5 (cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
4. "Was the environmental impact of 'Artificial fracturing to
increase permeability' considered (page 61)." This table
originally presented by Van Everdingen " (page 92 this report) and
again by Wright1^ (page 92 this report) was intended only to show
the effect of fracturing on improving permeability of the reservoir
rock. To make a valid consideration of the impact of fracturing
on the environment from the data presented in Table 7 the thickness
of the aquiclude needs to be known as does its lithology as well
as the proximity to potable water aquifers, hydrocarbon and economic
minerals. If the aquiclude was composed of shale or clay 30 m
(100') or greater in thickness the artificial fractures would
probably die out within the aquiclude and close following a relax-
ing of injection pressure; in which case injected waste would not
escape and environmental degradation outside the host reservoir
would be essentially nil. If the aquiclude were relatively thin
and a potable water aquifer lay above it, the probability that
the aquiclude would fracture completely through and the water and
waste from the host reservoir would enter the overlying aquifer
causing contamination is high. However, these last two statements
are only conjecture because many of the critical parameters
needed to assess the situation correctly are missing.
General Statement
First Section
"Another OSWMP need was a discussion of wastes from specific
industries..."
I would have included a discussion of wastes from specific
industries had it been called for in the scope of work. Such a
discussion probably would have been included voluntarily regard-
less of whether it had appeared in the "Scope of Work" if the
time frame of the project had permitted it. An overall discussion
of the problems involved in determining the effects and reactions
of mixed waste streams as opposed to pure streams and streams of
varying concentration is included in the Executive Summary under
Chemical, pp. 307; CHEMICAL ASPECTS, p. 76; PROBLEMS OF ANALYZING
TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE EFFECTS, p. 96-98; HAZARDOUS WASTE AND
WASTE STREAMS, p. 98-101; and POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS WASTE BEING
INJECTED; p. 100-104.
I do not believe that a special listing of wastes that cannot be
disposed into deep-wells under any conditions can be compiled
unless there is an arbitrary selection based on the toxicity or
persistance of the pure substance, disregarding reservoir condi-
tions, etc., of the well site.
1424
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Re: Page 5 (cont.)
First Section (cont.)
1. notes that characterization of wastes being injected
into deep-wells was discussed in Sections I, III, and V. 1 be-
lieve she intended to note Sections I,III, and IV. Appendix C
compliments Section IV. Section I is not intended as a discus-
sion, but as the first order heading indicates, a summary. If
it is accepted as that its purpose is fulfilled. Section III
is a review of the basic principles and the interrelationship of
the numerous disciplines involved in planning, constructing and
safely operating a deep-well injection system. This section was
developed in the report on the belief that it is vitally needed.
The conclusion was reached during the gathering of the data for the
project when the apalling lack of basic knowledge of some people
deeply involved with the planning, operation, and regulation of
these systems became apparent. Section IV and its complimentary
Appendix C was the discussion of waste characterization.
The wastes characteristics and their impact on host zones could
be discussed only in general terms. In many instances enough data
was not available to discuss the impact in specific terms. A de-
tailed analysis of each well and the waste stream being injected
into it must be made to be specific on the impact on the host zone.
This must be done for each well and waste stream, and is valid only
for the well and associated waste stream analyzed.
A discussion of wastes and their suitability for disposal by
deep-well injection using their origin or by specific industry
has bery little meaning. A valid assessment of one well and waste
stream at one locality would not be valid at a different location
if the wastes were of the same origin or from the same industry.
e.g. a concentrated sulfuric acid injected into a carbonate reser-
voir of limestone and dolomite, disregarding the composition of the
conate water, would generally react with the host reservoir
neutralizing fairly rapidly and producing carbon dioxide gas and
precipitating calcium sulfate as well as lesser quantities of
other reaction products which could or could not have adverse
effects upon the system. The same effluent from the same source
placed in an acceptable quartzarenite reservoir would have only
minute amounts of calcareous material with which to react thereby
limiting the dissipation of the acid waste almost entirely to
dilution by the formation water. Again the same low pH effluent
injected into a graywacke or subgraywacke reservoir would, in
all probability, cause tremendous operating problems because of
reaction between injected fluid and formation minerals; one of
the first reactions probably being swelling clays causing partial
or complete loss of permeability and initially manifesting itself
by increasing injection pressures and decreasing volumes of fluids
accepted. With the potential number of end reactions between a
1425
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Re: Page 5 (cont.)
First Section (cent.)
1. (cont.)
single effluent and varying lithologies the combinations
expand rapidly when the parameters of temperature, pressure,
time, formation water chemistry, variable effluent concen-
tration, etc. are added. The first section, "Intraformational
Reaction" of Table 3 was the first step in the development of
a reaction matrix for effluent that had been, was being, and
would be injected (when known and identified). Time frame
and budget would not permit the expansion of the matrix beyond
its initial step, so it was incorporated into Table 3. Origin
or specific industry means little unless all parameters in the
systems being compared are the same.
First Section:
2. "The special list of wastes that cannot be disposed by deep-well
injection under any conditions was not included into the subject
final report..."
I do not believe that list of wastes that cannot be disposed by
deep-well injection under any conditions can be legitimately
compiled without mentioning some modifying circumstances which
define exceptions to the rule. If we accept the premise that
containment is possible then the 13 chemicals and their related
compounds should be permitted to be injected. If their contain-
ment within the host reservoir is questionable then they should
be tentatively excluded from injection, because, should dissipation
or neutralization occur within the host reservoir, and if an
injected stream containing dilute quantities of any of the 13
chemicals escapes in concentrations at or less than those estab-
lished as safe by the USPHS the prime reason for curtailing the
operation would be for the escaping fluid and not the toxic effect
of the originally injected chemicals. Another example of the
basic reasoning for tentative exclusion at this time is the injection
of acrolein. There was divided opinion on whether it should have
been included on the list. Although highly toxic and hazardous,
some of our chemical people believed that it is so highly reactive
that its dissipation would be complete within such a short time
following injection that it should not even be considered for the
tentative exclusion list. However, I believe that there is suff-
icient reason to include it.
If we reject the premise of containment and conclude that the
tentatively excluded chemicals present too great a hazard regardless
of the concentration at which they are injected or reside in
storage, then the list indicating tentatively excluded wastes
may be accepted as the special list of wastes that cannot be
disposed by deep-well injection under any conditions,. I believe
that the oil and gas industry has too many documented examples of
1426
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Re: Page 5 (Cont.)
First Section (cont.)
2. (cont.)
effective containment in original reservoirs and in secondary
use of reservoirs for water, gas, and LPG storage to say
that containment is neither feasible nor effective. I
believe that the only way such a definitive list of wastes
unacceptable for injection can be made, at this time, is
to establish the list based on the toxicity of the prime
substance and disregard all other parameters.
Second Section:
1. "Page I, 102, now page 1096: Please clarify...:
(a) The statement that chloride does not undergo any
geochemical or biochemical reaction.
(b) The technique of indicating reactivity by comparing
changes in comparison of wastes before and after injection
by 'normalizing', these statements were not clarified."
Kaufman, Goolsby and Faulkner (Ref. 25, p. 1127 this report)
state, "The sample collected after 75 days residence time has been
'normalized' to the composition of the native aquifer fluids,
using chloride as a conservative parameter. A conservative
parameter is one which does not undergo any subsequent geochem-
ical or biochemical reactions. The actual composition can then
be compared with the normalized composition. Significant posi-
tive or negative deviations from normalized composition indicate
geochemical reactions and/or anaerobic degradation of the waste.
The results are as follows...:" (see tabularized data p. 1097
this report.) Inasmuch as no organism metabolizes chloride
and it did not react with the injected waste in this situation it
was chosen as the conservative parameter. The exact water
analysis to which the injected fluid had been 'normalized' by
Kaufman et al. still is not known to me. If I get the information
1 will be pleased to forward it together with the method he used
in 'normalizing' it.
Re: Page 6
Second Section:
2. "Explain the criteria used to select the wastes considered
unsafe for deep-well injection on page 1-195..." The wastes
were selected by the toxicity of the pure substance, and as
indicated under the heading POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS WASTE BEING
INJECTED, " Based upon toxicological data, degradability,
persistence, solubility in water, potential reactions, corro-
siveness, and environmental effect, a tentative list of
chemicals might be considered unsafe for deep-well injection
has been made. ..." Reference: Appendix C, waste character-
ization profiles, pp 297-492 and references for Appendix C, p 493.
1427
-------
Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
2. (cont.)
The list is considered tentative because the ]ow concentration
of these substances in many waste streams, further diluted
by mixing with reservoir water upon injection may preclude
any toxic or hazardous effect. It also does not make the list
definitive, but leaves it open for the addition or deletion
of any materials at a later date.
With reference to D. Huber memo of March 7, 1975 concerning
the omission of bromine pentafluoride from the profiles or
'unsafe' waste list. It is considered to be included in the
fluorides category on the tentative list and is not included
in the waste characterization profiles because they represent
wastes being injected into deep-wells. Bromine pentafluoride
was not identified as one of those substances.
3. "The research projects considered to have the greatest potential
for ... protecting the environment from adverse effects were
not identified, ..."
Of all the research projects reviewed twelve are believed to
have the greatest potential for providing significant results
in the area of protecting the environment. Those projects
identified relate only to the studies that can be applied to
all deep-well systems. Projects with restricted operating or
geographic application were not included although many had
merit in their restricted scope.
None of the projects chosen are considered to be definitive,
but all represent a great step toward clarifying some of the
conditions about which little is known and which relate closely
to successful safe operation of injection systems.
The projects believed to have the greatest potential to provide
significant results in the area of protecting the environment
from adverse effects are:
Biological Studies
B-2 The role of microorganisms in the decomposition of deep-
well injected liquid industrial wastes
The objectives of this study was to develop techniques for
sampling and isolating microorganism indigenous to deep aquifers
as a necessary prerequisite to determinations of changes that
may occur in microbial population resulting from waste water
injection.
1428
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
3. (cont.)
B-3 Organic aspects of deep waste storage
The objectives were to predict the reactions and interactions
between certain organic wastes and aquifer components when
organic wastes are placed in the subsurface, establish the
organic water quality of several uncontaminated ground water
aquifers of the United States, and define the effects chemical
and biological reactions have on the distribution and move-
ment of organic wastes in the subsurface.
C-6 Treatment and disposal of complex chemical wastes
The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a
surface or subsurface method for control of pollution from a
complex chemical waste from a petrochemical complex, manufact-
uring alkyl resin and phenols. Also to develop methodology
and/or testing techniques to permit projections of: (1) the
fate of waste components, and (2) the waste assimulative capacity,
of deep geological formations.
C-8 Consolidation of available subsurface saline water analyses
The objective of this research was to establish an automatic
data processing reference system for subsurface saline waters in
the Storet format, which can be utilized in establishing the
sources of ground water and surface water pollution resulting
from oil production, deep well disposal, inadequately plugged
oil wells, etc. For example, information concerning subsurface
saline waters from any area in the U.S. would be obtained rapidly
with the system for use in comparison with a polluted water.
The computer system could be used to plat water analysis diagrams
for use in saline water intrusion studies, and predictions of
possible pollution area can be made for use in pollution prevention,
C-10 Compatibility of subsurface reservoirs with injected fluid
wastes
The research plan involved laboratory determination of the long-
term effects (compatibility) upon the physical parameters of
subsurface rock formations resulting from the disposal of liquid
wastes in deep-well injection practices. Purpose is to determine
the extent of change in volumetrics and permeability of disposal
reservoirs which may limit the economic practicability of this
disposal method.
1429
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
3. (cont.)
Oil Computer modeling of rock-water interactions
The objective of this project was to develop a computer
model which accurately predicts the chemical effect on the
subsurface environment when waste fluids, such as the effluent
of typical industrial processes, are injected into an aquifer.
The desired output of the model is (1) a detailed prediction
of the chemical interaction between the injected fluid, the
aquifer brine and the rocks; (2) the identity and amounts of
products formed by reaction; (3) the amount and composition
of material absorbed onto mineral surfaces; (4) the thermo-
dynamics of the processes in terms of pressure, temperature
and volume changes; and (5) their distribution in space and
time. These in turn predict changes in porosity, permeability
and other factors important to the hydrologic regime.,
C-18 Spatial distribution of chemical constituents in ground
water
The objective of this project was to understand the chemical
reactions between water and earth materials; and to describe
the field relationships between the chemistry of the water,
the geologic and hydrologic environment, and to identify
problems that are amenable to solution by application of
chemical thermodynamics; to identify and measure the variables
that control the environment; and to interpret the measurements
within the theoretical framework provided by reversible and
irreversible thermodynamics, thereby being able to predict the
chemical and physical changes that occur within an aquifer owing
to stresses imposed upon the hydrologic system which may be
the result of natural or artificial recharge of good quality
water from injection of waste water or from withdrawals of
water supplies.
C-19 Chemical reactions at mineral surfaces
The objectives of this project was to conduct laboratory
experiments using physical-chemical techniques to characterize
surfaces and measure reaction rates at various temperatures.
Also, it was to study effects of specific mineral surfaces
on rates of such chemical reactions as hydroxide or carbonate
precipitation, relating rate to nature and area of surface
exposed, and determining rate constants and related numbers
that can be used for design or evaluation of actual field oper-
ations. When solutes are introduced into a ground water system,
as in artificial recharge or waste injection, chemical reactions
may occur between introduced and native materials. The reactions
1430
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Second Section (cont.)
3, (cont.)
C-19 (cont.)
may precipitate solids that interfere with water movement,
generate gases or bring about various physical and chemical
changes in the system surrounding the injection site. These
changes may influence water movement and/or composition.
Mineral surfaces tend to catalyze some of the more important
chemical reactions but the effect is poorly understood.
However, the presence of fine-grained inert solid minerals has
been found to accelerate strongly the polymerization of alum-
inum hydroxide in solutions to which aluminum has been added
and pH is slightly below neutrality. The rate of polymerization
is directly related to speific surface area of minerals present.
Methods for measuring the surface areas have been compared and
adapted for use with various mineral forms.
E-8 The effect of pore fluid pressure on friction on fault
and joint surfaces
The objective of the investigation is to study the effect of
pore fluid pressure on the friction characteristics of rock
surfaces, particularly if through variation of the pore fluid
pressure sliding can be induced under a given state of stress,
inasmuch as the mechanism of friction along weakness planes in
the earth crust is thought to play an important role in earth-
quakes, slope stability and movements around water reservoirs
and fluid injection wells.
E-9 Mechanical and frictional behavior of rocks in fluid
environment
The objective of this project was to investigate the control
of faulting near waste injection x^ells by modification of rock
surface hardness. This was to be accomplished by pretreatment
of waste fluids prior to injection so that frictional resistance
of the faulted rock surface is increased.
The influence of various aqueous and non-aqueous surface-
active environments on the near-surface flow and flow-dependent
frictional behavior of several simple minerals were investigated
in the laboratory to develop simple and economic procedures for
treating fluid wastes prior to injection so that the possibility
of triggering earthquakes can be reduced.
1431
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Second Section (cont,)
3. (cont.)
E-16 Pressure fracture gradient problems in deep well
waste disposal
The objective of this project was directed toward an evaluation
of the relationship between pressure buildup in deep well waste
disposal reservoirs and the fracture resistance of confining
strata or aquicludes.
The investigation consisted of the following procedures:
1. Pressure buildup in disposal reservoirs in response to
long-term injection of given volumes of waste was determined,
assuming that permeability of the reservoirs diminished with
time as a result of chemical reaction between the waste and native
pore material. 2. The state of stress of reservoirs at various
depths within the earth, the resulting fracture gradients, and
the resistance to vertical fracturing of confining strata was
determined. 3. Maximum permissible pressure of volume of
injected waste over the projected life of a disposal system
that will insure the confining strata will not be subjected to
fracturing stresses. 4. A computer program was developed that
will correlate pressure buildup with fracture resistance of
confining strata, determine the elapsed time when injection
must cease, and calculate capital investment and operating costs
of disposal of given volumes of waste.
M-2 Use of precise ground water temperature measurement for
detecting and tracking pollution spread in shallow basalt
aquifer west of Melbourne
The objective of this project was to provide a cheap and simple
technique for monitoring movement of polluted ground water in
the vicinity of effluent disposal bores.
On the whole, the results of these research projects, which were
in a form available for review, were somewhat disappointing.
As was stated earlier these projects were initial attempts to
investigate some of the many problems associated with deep-well
injection. They are not definitive, but do provide departure
points for future research.
Page 11 #11 Agreed it should read "... on ground-water quality..." the
"of" slipped past the editors; the hyphenated "ground-water"
conforms with present EPA usage.
Page 11 #16 "Sewage..." untreated and inadequately treated sewage is the
principal concern. However, the persistence and virulence of
viruses outside a host in untreated and partially treated sewage
is conjecture. How long the viruses remain a hazard in untreated
1432
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Page 11 #16 (cont.)
sewage is not known; and what is required in the way of
minimum treatment to kill them is not known. Elkan
(Personal Communication, 1974) said, they must be regarded
as a hazard, Erlich and Leenheer (Personal Communication,
1974) do not believe this to be so. However, until it is
established at what degree of treatment the viruses are
rendered innocuous they must be considered as a potential
hazard especially while there remains divided opinion among
those persons with expertise on that subject.
Page 17 Table 1 The seismic risk for New York (EPA II), Ah/w is 2-3
Page 41 Figure 2 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates after
Wapora, Inc., 1974 (Ref. 12, p.46 this report)
Page 44 Table 6 Depth in feet
Page 48 Figure 3 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates after
Wright, 1968 (Ref. 12, p. 92 this report)
Page 50 Figure 4 Reference: after Donaldson, 1974 (Ref. 2 p. 91 this
report)
Page 52 Figure 5 Reference: after Algermissen 1969 (Ref. 3, p. 91
this report) reference is shown on the included figure.
Algermisscm on figure should read Algermissen. Eastern
Massachussetts and northwestern Maine should have fine
screened dots of risk area 3.
Page 55 An adequate buffer zone will vary greatly and must be determined
for each well. The two principal determinants are the thickness
of the porous and permeable section receiving the injected
fjuid and the volume of fluid that is to be injected over
the life of the well. Of the two, the thickness of the
effective reservoir section is the most influential for any
given volume of injected fluid.
Page 61 Table 7 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates after Wright, 1968
(Ref. 12, p. 92 this report) (Louis R. Reeder and Associates
metric notations)
Page 64 Figure 6 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates after
Donaldson, 1974 (Ref. 17, p. 92 this report) (Louis R. Reeder
and Associates metric notations)
1433
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Re: Page 6 (Cont.)
Page 67 Figure 7 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates after
Donaldson, 1974 (Ref. 17, p. 92, this report) (louis R.
Reeder and Associates metric notations)
Page 71 Figure 8 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates
Page 73-74 Reference: after Wright 1968 (Ref. 12, p. 92, this report)
Figures 9 & 10
Page 76
Chemical Aspect I guess that this is a comment on the first
paragraph of the section.It seems to be the only place
that it might vaguely relate. The observation is quite
astute, but really irrelevant to the paragraph inasmuch
as the paragraph is expressing the way a deep-well oper-
ation should be approached and conducted, and not the way
many are now being operated.
Page 80
Selm & Hulse (?) Reference: Selm, R.P. and B.J. Hulse, "Deep Well
Disposal of Industrial Wastes," jndustrial Waste Conference,
14th, 1959 Proc., Purdue Univ. Engr. Bull., Vol. 44, No. 5,
pp. 566-596, 1960.
Page 81 Agreed that the mercury poisoning reference: "Examples of
mercury...high levels of mercury. is irrelevant to this
paragraph, but the rest of the material is pertenant. This
reference was repeated and one or two similar references
were edited out of the draft and final copy. This one should
have been cut too.
Page 82 Agreed that injected waste will be greatly modified not only
by microbial activities, but also by dilution and chemical
reaction within the salaquifer. Change within the salaquifer
is covered under both CHEMICAL ASPECTS pages 76-82 and under
CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE pages 95-96. These sections also
infer modification by dilution, but it is not spelled out.
Page 125 Reference: after Koenig 1964 (Ref. 1, p. 132, this report).
Figure 12 The depth may be in feet, metres, or whatever units desired,
as may the cost units. This apparently is not clear in the
explanation on page 124.
Page 126 Reference: after Koenig 1964 (Ref. 1, p. 132 this report).
Figure 13
1434
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Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 127 Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates, injection rate
Figure 14 may be in whatever units desired,gpm. metres /sec., etc.
Page 128 Reference: after Koenig 1964 (Ref. 1, p. 132, this report).
Figure 15 Volume may be in whatever units desired, cu. ft. ..barrels,
gallons, metres
Page 129 Reference: after Koenig 1964 (Ref. 1, p. 132, this report).
Figure 16 Quantity (volume) may be^in wahtever units desired, gallons,
barrels, litres, metres , etc.
Page 130 Reference: after Koenig 1964 (Ref. 1, p. 132, this report).
Figure 17 Depth may be in whatever units desired, feet, metres, etc.
All are relative units.
Page 131 Reference: after Wright 1969 (Ref. 3, p. 132 this report).
Figure 14 Reference given in paragraph 1 "Cost Examples" page 130 of
this report. The type of surface treatment and volume of
fluid injected into the wells listed in Table 14 is as follows:
Plant A.- Volume approximately 500,000 gpd of paint remover,
waste oil, wash water containing traces of chromates
and cyanides. Surface treatment consisted of skimm-
ing, biological treatment and neutralization.
Plant B.- Volume approximately 550,000 gpd of acidic acid,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, and other organics. Surface
treatment was complete neutralization, but the exact
methods are not known.
Plant C.- Volume approximately 400,000 gpd of sulfuric acid
pickling liquor. Surface treatment was with lime,
resulting in a very large amount of CaSO. to dispose
of. The big factor in this case, in addition to the
expense involved in surface treatment, was that they
exhausted the usable land fill areas.
Plant D.- Volume approximately 230,000 gpd of ammonia, sulfate,
cyanide, aldehydes, organic acids, and nitrites.
Surface treatment was by incineration.
Page 131 Reference: after Wright 1969 (Ref. 3, p. 132, this report).
Table 15 Reference given in paragraph 1 "Cost Examples", page 130 of this
report. There may be a built in fog factor in the heading of
this table. However, five people, with technical training
and with varied experience at reading tables, when shown
Table 15 for the first time, interpreted it correctly. Never-
theless, the situation may be clearified by the explanation of the
heading that follows:
A. The title Deep-Well Facility Average Operating
Cost seems to clearly describe what the table shows.
1435
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 131 (cont.)
Table 15
B. EPA Region - This should be clear to anyone
working for or with the EPA, or anyone con-
ducting an operation coming under the juris-
diction of the EPA. Figure 1, page 16 of
this report outlines these regions. A foot-
note might be made referring to Figure 1, if
greater clarity is needed.
C. Area - This indicates specific geomorphLc -
geographic areas and is necessary because EPA
regions will often overlap two or more areas,
and conversely a specific area may fall within
two or more EPA regions. It is also necessary
so as to identify average operating costs to
specific areas. The code GL, MC, GC, is explained
under "Cost Examples" on page 130, which is the
facing page to this table.
D. No. Wells - This shows the number of wells used
to get the averages for the figures in the
remaining columns. The number of wells used for
averaging in each area was determined by those
of which both volume and cost data were available.
O f
E. Cum. Inj/Welltm (Gals.) X 10 1- Average cumula-
tive injection per well in millions of cubic metres or
(millions of gallons), e.g. first line 1,950,000 m
(515,900,000 gallons).
F. Inj./Well/Yr. Cm3 (Gals.) X 106 ]- Average injection
per well, per year in millions of cubic metres or
(millions of gallons), e.g. first line 236,000 m
(62,300,000 gallons).
3
G. Yearly Cost -[mils/m (Gal.)]- The yearly operating
cost in mils per cubic metre or (mils per gallon).
e.g. first line 111 mils per cubic metre per year
or (0.42 mils per gallon per year) It also might
be expressed $0.111 ($0.00042) or 11.lc (0.042c)
both of which would be extremely clumsey to use in
Table 15 in the amounts noted per unit volume.
Page 496 Unreacted HC1 99.9% (?) I believe that the 99.9% probably
represents the percentage of the waste stream that is represen-
ted by HC1, while the remaining 0.1% is composed of the phenol,
chloride, and dissolved organics which are shown by weight.
1436
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 496 (cont.)
By manipulating various combinations of input volumes and
using the specific gravity given, the percentage by weight
falls within a range of acceptable error to at least start
with such an assumption, considering the many unknown in
the data. These well data shown in Appendix D are gathered
from many sources almost none of which can or will varify
the accuracy of the data or the care taken in its preparation.
We have been through a great amount of it and corrected many
obvious errors of which we are aware, as well as adding data
from more reliable sources. We have also updated and vari-
fied data with state agencies and well operators. However,
we realize that there are still many data that are sketchy
and not of the quality with which we would prefer to work.
Also noted: presence of living organisms in this kind of
waste is unrealistic. Our data indicate that this effluent
has a pH of less than 1.0 which would indicate a rather stout
concentration. Nevertheless, as unrealistic as it may seem,
living organisms can and do exist in this kind of waste.
Ehrlich , refers to work by Brock^ on the environmental limits
for growth and reproduction of selected microorganisms which
shows some organisms living in an environment of pHO while
others can survive in an environment of possibly pH 13. This
was also mentioned when he (Ehrlich) presented his paper
"Role of Biota in Underground Waste Management" at the Symposium
on Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications,
in Houston, Texas, December 6-9, 1971. Ehrlich also discussed
the extreme pH limits at which organisms can survive and pro-
pagate with our biologist John W. Field, Jr., when Field inter-
viewed him at Menlo Park in August, 1974. Amstutz has observed
fungi growth in a well disposing of spent sulfuric acid with
a pH of 2.8. He has also mentioned this same situation in
personal communication.
1. Ehrlich, G.G., Role of Biota in Underground Waste Injection,
Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 18, pp. 298-307, 1972.
2. Brock, T.D., Principles of Microbeal Ecology, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 306 pp., 1966.
3. Amstutz, R.W., and L.C. Reynolds, Is the Earths Crust Going to
Waste - Part II, Types of Fluids Injected and Treating Procedures,
National Petrol. Refiners Ass. Mid-Continent Regional Mtg.,
(Wichita, June 12-13, 1968) Reprint MC-68-48, 8 pp., 1968.
1437
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 499 Hard to expect biological activity in waste pickling acid.
— See discussion for page 496.
Page 521 pH: 74. (?) typographic error escaped editing — should
read pH: 7.4.
Page 526 See discussion for page 496.
Page 534 Expression probably should be deleted from the well data
sheet to avoid any further confusion. We had discussion
on the usage of the phrase when the data were being compiled
from the various sources. We really didn't like it then
because we did not know just what was being said, but it
made its way into the final copy without being clarified.
Page 844 Phenol Alkalinity (phenolphthalein?). The phenol alkalinity =
10 ppm cam from Warner's Survey of Industrial Waste Injection
Hells, Vol. Ill, p. 189, 1972. WAPORA'S Compilation of
Industrial and Municipal Injection Wells in the United States,
Vol. 2, p. TX-27 (b) shows BOD - 170 mg/1 and pH 8.2. The
information on this well which we obtained from the file of the
Texap Water Quality Board in September 1974 should have
superseded that from secondary sources on our well data
sheet. The TWQB data on the effluent collected at the well
head on January 24, 1973, analyzed, and reported on February
14, 1973, as follows:
Silica
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
NH - N
PPM
Interference
44
21
256
44
56
PH 6.7
(Illedgible) 0 - PO
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Nitrate
PPM
90
0
510
48
317
Interference
DISSOLVED SOLIDS (sum) 1130
(this sum falls 256 ppm short of the
TOTAL which equals the ppm sodium noted)
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity as CaCO.
Total Alkalinity as
Total Hardness as CaCO
0
1438
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 967 Noted as contradictive because waste pretreated in biopond
should have some biological activity. The information below
identifies the waste stream results of bio-pond retention
and calculated reaction of injected effluent presented by
du Pont to the TWQB.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WASTE
The waste from the Beaumont Works Plant consists of two
streams of identical compounds but of different percentages.
Below is shown a typical example of the composition of each
stream and composite sample of the waste to be injected,
indicating the range of the individual components after mixing.
Ion or Compound
HCN
Acetonitrile
Acrylonitrile
Acrolein
Famaronitrile
Nicotinonitrile
Maleonitrile
Succinonitrile
Phthalonitrile
Ammonium Sulfate
Polymeric Nitriles
Water
PH
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
* ND not detected
Stream 1
Stream 2
Composite
2,000 ppm
ND*
32
36
3,183
835 ppm
2,994
503
79
25,000
6.5
200
ND
10
ND
476
664
134
3,759
87
200
5.5
ppm 2,000-3,000 ppm
50- 100
20
30
1,785
ppm 622
1,511
2,049
79
50,000-90,000
*^ n nnn /( n nnn
JU 9 UUU H-U j UUU
T> * A
tv& uia. luu B L
6.0-7.0
In on i n ^Q
• U Q-n f- n nr\ T o o
25° C.
Effluent condition following bio-pond treatment is shown as
follows:
CN ppm
NH^ ppm
BOD ppm
COD ppm
Dissolved
PPm
U J-&SVJ-L VCU Vo PP111
Suspended Solids ppm
Before
2.5
50
700
1,300
0
40
After
0.3
200
25
570
2
65
Present Beaumont
Discharge Permit
5
20
200
25
1439
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 967 (cont.)
The retention time in the bio-pond was 14 days. The effluent
would not be suitable for discharge to the Neches River,.
Long-term chemical reactions occurring in the waste materials
shown in Table I, lists by compound the expected reactions.
In summary, the ammonium sulfate is expected to remain
unchanged. The nitriles will be hydrolyzed first to amides
and finally to the equivalent organic acid which will remain
as its ammonium or sodium salt.
WASTE STREAM TO BE DISPOSED OF IN DEEP WELL
Component*
1. (NH4) S04*
2. HCN*
Reactions
None
Eventual Speculated
Decomp. Product
3. Polynitriles*
4. Polyamides*
5. Polyacids*
6. Acrolein cyanohydrin*
7. Acrolein*
Polymerization
Addition to
double-bonds
Hydrolsis
Hydrolysis
Salt formation
Polymerization
(1)
(1)
.(1)
Polynitriles (see 3)
Polyamides (see 4)
Polyacids (see 5), NH4+
Acrolein cyanohydrin (see 6)
Acetaldehyde cyanohydrin
(see 8)
Succinonitrile (see 13)
Polyamides (see 4), NH4+
Polyacids (see 5) , NH4+
NH.+ and Na+ salts of
polyacids
Polynitriles (see 3)
Polyacrolein
Acrolein Cyanohydrin (see 6)
Hydroxy-propionaldehyde
Polymerization
Addition to HCN
Addition to H20
8. Acetaldehyde cyanohydrin* Polymerization Polynitriles (see 3)
(1)
9. Acetaldehyde*
10. Acrylonitrile*
Polymerization
Addition to HCN
Polymerization
Hydrolyses
Addition to HCN
(1)
Polyacetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde cyanohydrin (see 8)
Polynitriles (see 3)
Acrylamide (see 11), NH4+
Succinonitrile (see 13)
1440
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 967 (cont.)
11. Acrylamide*
12. Acrylic acid*
13. Succinonitrile*
14. Succinamide
15. Succinic acid
16. Fumaronitrile*
17. Fumaronitrile*
18. Fumaramide
19. Fumaric acid
20. Maleonitrile*
21. Maleamide
22. Maleic acid
23. Nicotinonitrile*
24. Nicotinamide
25. Nicontinic acid
26. Phthalonitrile*
27. Phthalamide
28. Phthalic acid
29. Acetonitrile*
30. Acetamide
(1)
Polymerization
Hydrolysis
Polymerization
HydroIsis
Hydrolysis
Salt formation
Polymerization
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Polymerization
(
Polymerization
Salt formation
(
Polymerization
Hydrolysis
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Hydrolysis (1)
Polymerization
Polymerization
Salt formation
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Salt formation
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Salt formation
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
(1)
Polyamides (see 4)
Acrylic Acid (see 12), NH +
4
Polyacids (see 5)
Succinamide (see 14), NH,+
Succinic acid (see 15), NH +
4
NH.+ and Na+ succinate
4
Polynitriles (see 3)
Fumaramide (see 18), NH +
4
Fumaric acid (see 19), NH.+
Polyamides (see 4)
Polyacides (see 5)
NH.+ and Na+ fumarate
4
Polynitriles (see 3)
Maleamide (see 21), NH4+
Maleic acid (see 22), NH^+
Polyamides (see 4)
Polyacids (see 5)
NH/ + and Na+ maleate
Nicotinamide (see 24), NH^+
Nocotinic acid (see 25), NH,4
NH.+ and Na+ nicotinate
4
Phthalamide (see 27), NH4+
Phthalic acid (see 28), NH4+
NH,+ and Na+ phthalate
Acetamide (see 30), NH4+
Acetic acid (see 31), NH +
1441
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 967 (cont.)
31. Acetic acid* Salt formation NH-+ and Na+ acetate
32. Propionitrile* Hydrolysis Propionamide (ssee 33), N
33. Propionamide Hydrolysis Propionic acid (see 34),
34. Propionic acid Salt formation ^,+ and Na+ propionate
* Known to be present, the other components listed may be present
in trace quantities.
(1) The products of polymerizations would be expected to be less
soluble, and form insoluble solids, especially in the presence
of brine.
Page 1076 Notation - that no connection could be seen between referenced
research and deep-well injection.
Although Signer's research was directed toward artificial
groundwater recharge it may be applied equally well to oil
field pressure maintenance, injection for secondary recovery
of petroleum, disposal of oil field brine, or deep-well
injection of industrial waste.
The success of any fluid injection system or program, regardless
of what name it is given, is subject to the limitations caused
by whatever mechanisms degrade the hydraulic conductivity of
the porous media through which the fluid is being injected.
The reduction of hydraulic conductivity may be caused by sus-
pended solids, bacterial growth, chemical reactions of dissolved
solids with the porous media or native water, air entralnment
or dissolution of gasses in the interstices of the porous
medium. Equipment deterioration because of bacterial action
also presents limitations in system design and materials available
for use.
Generally, field experiments will develop data related to one
major problem encountered. Because of the lack of control, field
tests usually are not conducive to the quantitative determination
of the relative effects of several combined factors. Consequently,
field tests result in conclusions which sometimes appear to be
reiterations of problem descriptions, according to Segnor (Ref.
5, p. 1125, this report).
Because of a lack of systematic experimental results, and
because a study of the factors affecting the success or failure
of an injection system must be comprehensive in scope, additional
theoretical and experimental investigations are necessary.
1442
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 1076 Laboratory determinations of the physical, chemical, and
(cont.) biological relations and interrelations of these factors
are essential for their application to the lithologic
environment of proposed field installations. Although
the reader without field operating experience may not
immediately recognize the connection between the referenced
research and deep-well injection, an experienced field
operator would. The research is an attempt to find a workable
solution to the operator's perpetual nightmare of pore clogging
and equipment deterioration because of physical, chemical,
or bacterial action.
Page 1083 Reference: Leenhur, J.A., and R.L. Malcolm (Ref. 21, p. 1127,
this report).
Page 1085 Conclusions: The Lower Floridan aquifer is capable of yielding
and accepting large quantities of fluids. In the Belle Glade
area greater than 0.03 hm (800 million gallons) had been
injected seasonly prior to the compilation of data for our
well inventory in 1974. This hot, acidic, and highly organic
waste (pH 2.6-4.5, COD 6000-26,000 mg/1) would normally, be
expected to neutralize within the host reservoir. The waste
is partially neutralized almost immediately to a pH of 5.5 by
dissolution of limestone. The presence of hydrogen sulfide,
methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen confirms the anaerobic
degradation of the organic waste starting near the well bore
(Ref. 25, p. 1127, this report). However, while the acid
effluent was still of high enough concentration, its reaction
with the extremely pure carbonate aquiclude breached that barrier
and permitted the effluent to escape into the Upper Floridan
aquifer, and be detected by a shallow monitor well within 27
months after injection began.
Following the liquid escape into the upper aquifer from the
injection well, it was worked over by cementing an eight inch
liner between 1494' and 1938' and deepening the hole below the
liner from 1939' to 2242'as an open hole for injection into the
salaquifer. Although this remedial work-over and recompletion
apparently has solved the problem situation we have seen no
verification of this.
Calipering the bore of the recompleted well 10 months after
the work-over showed a bridge at 1945' and a 15' hole corroded
in the mild steel tail pipe between 1923' and 1945'. The choice
of material for the tail pipe was not too good in this case.
A different material with an oil or other type inhibited liquid
cushion placed below the casing shoe would have prevented any
situation such as the pipe corrosion and liquid escaping, and
entering the formation above the bottom of the liner.
1443
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 1085 The escape of the injected effluent from the host salaquifer
(cont.) (Floridan, lower part) into the brackish Floridan (upper
part) through the dense carbonate conferring beds should
never have occurred. The geology and lithology of the
region was well known and the type effluent that was; to
be injected was well known, as were the possible reactions
between the two. There was very little left for speculation
on the geologic feasibility for this system. However, it seems
as if this vital information was slighted or overlooked when
the injection well was being planned and designed. The second
step toward compounding the effects of this oversight and non use
of pertinent data was poor design and completion of the
injection well. The results of injection could fairly well
be predicted from a cursory inspection of the completion data
and sketches. Proper use of the available geologic information
and proper design and completion could have prevented this
situation from developing.
The monitor wells were well placed and proved effective in
detecting leakage from the host reservoir and travel of the
injected fluid.
Impact: The geochemical effects associated with the waste
movement within the host aquifer includes increased concentration
of calcium, magnesium, organic carbon, COD and alkalinity;
reduction in pH and in sulfate concentration; and the generation
of considerable quantities of hydrogen sulfide (83 to 93 mg/1).
Dissolution of the carbonate aquifer, anaerobic decomposition,
and sulfate reduction within the subsurface environment have
occurred. The presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria within the
organic-rich subsurface environment was confirmed.
Although it was evident that anaerobic decomposition of the
high temperature, organic, nutrient-rich waste is taking place
within the subsurface environment of the Belle Glade injection
area, the results of investigations to date are only qualitative.
Quantative interpretation is limited because of the lack of
comprehensive chemical analysis of the contained water taken
from several zones before waste injection began. This makes
uncertain the relative significance to be given to mixing and
dilution versus anaerobic decomposition as a presumed cause
of decreases in waste concentration.
Analyses of samples from the shallow monitor well during the
year of March 1971 through March 1972, suggested a relative
stabilization of the geochemical reactions following the deep-
ening and recompletion of the injection well. Geochemical
changes previously mentioned were noticed in the deep
monitor well 1000 feet from the injection well. No geochemical
changes were noticed in a monitor well in the upper Floridan
1444
-------
Re: Page 7 (cont.)
Page 1085 aquifer two miles from the injection well. Comparative
(cont.) analyses for this well span a period of 40 years. No
pressure changes were noted in any of the wells. (Ref. 25,
p. 1127, this report). No data on operations within the
last three years was received for this well.
The general direction of groundwater movement in the host
aquifer is southeast toward the Straits of Florida a distance
of 64 km (40 mi). It is believed that the waste will be
neutralized before it reaches the waters of the straits and
will cause no environmental problems.
From the information available it is believed that the
injected effluent will remain in the host aquifer. However,
if there should be fluid escape, it would be expected to be
by the original escape route. Changes and effects on the
water in the upper aquifer might be expected to follow the
pattern shown by the data on page 1094 and in Table 27, page
1095. If the shallow monitor well begins to show indications
of a change, injection can be stopped and the fluid escaping
into the upper aquifer should be neutralized and/or diluted
within a short period of time without permanent damage to
the invaded reservoir.
Page 1099
Page 1104
Page 1105
Page 1108
Page 1109
Re: Page 8
Figure 200 Reference:
p. 1127, this report)
after Leenheer and Malcomb (Re: 20 & 21,
Figure 201 Reference: after Leenheer and Malcomb (Re: 21,
p. 1127, this report)
Figure 202 Reference: after Leenheer and Malcomb (Re: 20,
p. 1127, this report)
Table 30; Reference: after Leenheer and Malcomb (Re: 20,
p. 1127, this report). No reference noted on table, but
referenced in text on page 1107.
Table 31; headings should be corrected to read:
... 7 and 11 waste free. The number 7 was inadvertently omitted.
The meaning of the last line in Table 31 is: A ratio of con-
taminated (4+5) divided by uncontaminated (7+11) and should
appear as; Contaminated (4+5)
Uncontaminated (7+11)
7 Q
t-. -*...
The ratio check except for Fe which shows 5.1 in the table,
but calculates as 4.53.
1445
-------
Re: Page 8 (cont.)
Page 1119 Case study Welmington, N.C., conclusions: Because of the
unfavorable hydrologic conditions and the failure of some
wells in the system which permitted leakage into overlying
aquifers, deep-well injection was unfeasible at Wilmington.
Waste injection ceased in November, 1972, after the injection
system had been replaced by a conventional waste treatment
system. We believe that the results of this exercise could
have been anticipated from the feasibility study, and deter-
mined without doubt by drilling a slim exploration hole. We
have made several feasibility studies in the Atlantic Coastal
Plain and have arrived at the conclusion that for the most
part the Atlantic Coastal Plain is not conducive to the devel-
opement of good safe deep-well injection systems.
The impact of the research on deep-well injection is twofold:
it emphasizes the generally unfavorable conditions for deep-
well injection in the Atlantic Coastal Plains, and it emphasizes
the need to correctly use and interpret the available data
in a feasibility study prior to a full committment on a deep-
well project.
In addition much valuable information on the behavior of
organic wastes in the subsurface environment has b«ien obtained.
Also directly related to the research and injection well tests
in the legislation enacted in 1973 by the General Assembly of
North Carolina prohibiting waste disposal by deep-well injection
in that state. (Re: 28, p. 1128, this report)
Page 1121 Figure 206; Reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates
Page 1122 Figure 207 and 208; reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates
Page 1123 Figure 209; reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates
Page 1124 Figure 210; reference: Louis R. Reeder and Associates
1446
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-77-029d
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4 TITLE AND SUBTITLE
REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT OF DEEP-WELL
INJECTION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
Volume IV - Appendices E, F, G, H, I
5. REPORT DATE
June 1977(Issuing Date)
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
& J
7 AUTHORIS) Louis R. Reeder, James H. Cobbs,
John W. Field, Jr., William D. Finley,
Steven C. Vokurka, and Bernard N. Rolfe
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO,
9 PERFORMING ORG\NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Louis R. Reeder and Associates
5200 South Yale
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74135
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1DC618, SOS 2, Task 02)
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2013
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS Cin . , OH
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory—
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
See also Volumes I, II, & III, EPA-600/2-77-029a,b,&c
Project Officer; Carlton C. Wiles, 684-7881
16. ABSTRACT
voiume report is a review and assessment of the ade-
quacy of deep-well waste injection systems to receive hazardous wastes
and to define what effects that these wastes will have upon the environ-
ment when injected into subsurface reservoirs. All aspects of deep-well
injection systems have been touched upon.
A comprehensive bibliography, chemical waste profiles, deep-well inven-
tory, case histories, microbiological research, deep-well and hazardous
waste research, legal aspects and an inventory of statues and regula-
tions governing waste injection are discussed in the text and detailed
in the appendices.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Waste Disposal
Deep-Wells
Hazardous Materials
Industrial Wastes
Industrial Waste Dis-
posal
Underground Disposal
Systems
Deep-Well Disposal
Waste Disposal Wells
Hazardous Waste Injec
13B
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
413
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage]
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
#US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1977-757-056/5616
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