vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450/2-85-002
February 1985
Air
Progress in the
Prevention and
Control of Air
Pollution in 1983
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EPA-450/2-85-002
Progress in the Prevention and Control of
Air Pollution in 1983
Control Programs Development Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
February 1985
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication.
Copies of this report are available through the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; or, for a fee, from the National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication No. EPA-450/2-85-002
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CONTENTS
PREFACE . 1 i i
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1-1
II. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
A. National Air Quality and Emission Trends II-l
B. Ambient Ai r Monitoring II-3
C. Air Quality Modeling II-6
D. Integration of Air Data Systems II-8
III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
A. Oxi dants 111 -1
B. Hazardous Air Pollutants III-3
C. Gases and Particles III-5
D. Mobile Sources III-8
E. Acid Deposition III-9
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS IV-1
V. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS V-l
VI. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. Development of Policy and Regulations VI-1
B. Prevention of Significant Deterioration and
Nonattainment New Source Review Activities VI-4
C. Implementation Overview and Assistance VI-6
D. Air Pollution Training Programs VI-11
VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) VII-1
B. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAP) VII-1
C. Delegation of NSPS and NESHAP VII-2
D. BACT/LAER Clearinghouse VII-2
VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. General VI II-l
B. Post-1982 Enforcement Policy VIII-2
C. Enforcement of National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants VIII-3
D. Steel Industry Compliance Extension Act and
Associated Enforcement Actions VIII-3
E. Other Civil Litigation VIII-4
F. Compliance by Federal Facilities VIII-4
G. List of Violating Facilities VIII-4
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Page
IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. Introduction IX-1
8. Standard Setting IX-2
C. Preproduction Compliance IX-4
D. Inspection/Maintenance IX-4
E. Alternative Compliance Measures IX-4
F. Mobile Source Enforcement IX-5
G. Imports IX-6
X. LITIGATION
A. Introduction X-l
B. Mobile Source Cases X-l
C. Sulfur Oxides Control X-3
0. Prevention of Significant Deterioration X-3
E. Other Appellate Decisions X-4
F. Other Litigation X-4
XI. REFERENCES XI -1
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PREFACE
The Clean Air Act, as amended, authorizes a national program of air
pollution research, regulation, and enforcement activities. This program
is directed at the Federal level by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). However, primary responsibility for the prevention and
control of air pollution at its source continues to rest with State and
local governments. EPA's role is to conduct research and development
programs, set national standards and regulations, provide technical and
financial assistance to the States, and, where necessary, supplement
State implementation programs.
Section 313 of the Clean Air Act requires the Administrator to report
on measures taken toward implementing the purpose and intent of the Act.
This report covers the period January 1 to December 31, 1983, and describes
the issues involved in the prevention and control of air pollution and
the major elements of progress toward that goal that have been made during
that time. In addition, this report also includes two other EPA reports
to Congress required under the Clean Air Act, as amended:
1. Section 306 report on Federal procurement and violating facilities
(Chapter VIII), and
2. Section 202(b)(4) report on measures taken in relation to motor
vehicle emissions control (Chapter IX).
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I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
A. OVERVIEW
This report describes the progress that the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has made in the prevention and control of air pollution
during 1983. The following paragraphs summarize the contents of the
remaining chapters of this report, especially insofar as those chapters
illuminate current understanding of air quality problems, controls, and
administrative apparatus. Since it takes approximately one year to
assemble, analyze, and report air quality and emissions data on a national
basis, the latest air quality and emissions data available for this
report is for the year 1982.
B. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
With the exception of nitrogen dioxide, data trends between 1975 and
1982 show continuing improvements across the country in ambient air
quality and total pollutant emissions. For example:
0 Annual average ambient total suspended particulate (TSP) levels
decreased 15 percent from 1975 to 1982 while TSP emissions decreased
27 percent.
0 Annual average ambient levels of sulfur dioxide (S02) decreased 33
percent between 1975 and 1982 and total S02 emissions decreased 17
percent.
0 Ambient carbon monoxide (CO) levels decreased 31 percent between
1975 and 1982. Total CO emitted during this time decreased 11
percent.
0 Average ambient nitrogen dioxide (N02) levels in 1982 were
equivalent to the 1975 levels so that no long-term change was
observed. After increasing between 1975 and 1979, ambient N02
levels decreased by 7 percent between 1979 and 1982.
0 Average ambient ozone (03) levels decreased 18 percent between
1975 and 1982 due to a combination of emission reductions and a
change in the way the monitoring instrument was calibrated. Total
emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC's), which are ozone
precursors, declined approximately 13 percent during this same
period.
0 Ambient lead levels measured at 53 urban sites decreased 64 percent
between 1975 and 1982. This is consistent with a reduction in
lead consumption in gasoline of 69 percent in this period.
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EPA promulgated regulations in 1979 which required States to establish
and operate air monitoring networks and to report the data to EPA. Two
types of permanent stations are provided for in the regulations: State
and Local Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS) and National Air Monitoring
Stations (NAMS). The SLAMS, which were designed to meet the overall
monitoring requirements of State Implementation Plan activities, were
required to meet all provisions of the regulations by January 1, 1983.
Through December 1983, there were 4,682 SLAMS monitors out of a total
planned network of 4,888 monitors that met all requirements of the regula-
tions. The NAMS, which are a subset of the SLAMS network, are designed
to provide a national monitoring network as required by Section 319 of
the Act. Through December 1983, there were 1,351 NAMS monitors out of a
total planned network of 1,362 monitors that met all requirements of the
regulations.
During 1983, EPA continued its program to evaluate several categories
of models. The evaluation of urban models was completed and the results
reaffirmed that these models are reasonably reliable in estimating the
magnitude of the highest concentrations occurring within an area. The
evaluation of complex terrain models was initiated and will be completed
in 1984. Efforts to incorporate a more current chemical mechanism in
ozone models used in regulatory applications were successful. During
1984, computer software and documentation will be developed to facilitate
use of this procedure by the regulatory community. Work continued on
developing techniques to calculate the effect of model uncertainty on air
pollution control decisions. Efforts to improve guidance on air quality
models and to ensure consistency in their use were continued as were
efforts in the area of receptor model development and application.
C. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
EPA's air pollution research program was divided into four major
categories in 1983: Oxidants, Hazardous Air Pollutants, Gases and Particles,
and Mobile Sources. The research in each of these areas was planned by a
Research Committee composed of EPA research managers and representatives
from EPA's program offices. Each Research Committee planned the full range
of research for the pollutants covered by that Committee. The research
covered scientific assessments, monitoring systems and quality assurance,
health effects, environmental engineering and technology, and environmental
processes and effects.
In the oxidants area in 1983, major efforts included the convening
of national workshops to collect data and to discuss scientific issues
necessary for revising the criteria document for ozone and other
photochemical oxidants, completion of the San Diego Oxidant Transport
Study, and initiation of an oxidant transport and impact study in the
Ventura, California, area. In addition, several controlled human studies
on the health effects of ozone were completed as were several studies on
animals that investigated various health effects of ozone and nitrogen
dioxide. A number of research projects that focused on reducing emissions
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of volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen from industrial
processes were undertaken. Also, air quality models for use in developing
ozone abatement strategies were developed and tested and studies were
undertaken to assess the national impacts of ozone on major agronomic
crops grown in the United States.
Research efforts related to hazardous air pollutants in 1983 included
development of comprehensive health assessment documents for a number of
different chemicals and compounds, gathering dose-response data on various
pollutants, and studying the mutagenic activity of organic emissions from
combustion sources. In addition, research in the hazardous air pollutants
area included studies of the atmospheric transport and fate of hazardous
volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere.
Research in the gases and particles area in 1983 focused on air
pollution problems associated with particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
lead, and the interactive effects of combining sulfur dioxide with
particles and other pollutants. Research efforts included operating an
inhalable particulate monitoring network, performing complex clinical
studies of the pulmonary response of asthmatics exposed to sulfur dioxide,
and performing animal toxicology studies of the effects of chronic
exposures to gases and particles. Projects aimed at reducing sulfur
dioxide and particulate emissions from power plants and other sources
were undertaken. Air quality models concerned with the transport and
fate of sulfur dioxide and particles were investigated.
In the mobile sources area in 1983, research efforts emphasized
reviewing key studies included in the Agency's last criteria document for
carbon monoxide, monitoring population exposures to carbon monoxide, and
developing a bioassay system for testing of fuels, fuel additives, and
their emissions. In addition, research efforts included characterizing
the gaseous and particulate emissions from in-use gasoline and diesel-
powered motor vehicles.
Research efforts related to acid deposition continued to be a high
priority with EPA in 1983. The Agency, in cooperation with the Interagency
Task Force on Acid Precipitation, conducted research in a number of areas
including the relationship between emissions and deposition, dose-response
functions and extent of potential impacts, and the costs and benefits of
possible mitigation strategies.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA to review and, if
necessary, revise the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) on a
five-year basis. Reviews of all existing NAAQS were in progress in 1983.
One review resulted in revocation of the hydrocarbon (HC) NAAQS on the
basis that it was no longer appropriate and because more sophisticated
techniques are now available for designing ozone control strategies.
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EPA continued to review the NAAQS for carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, participate matter, and sulfur oxides. Proposal of revised
standards for nitrogen oxides and particulate matter are scheduled for
1984. Proposal of revised or reaffirmed standards for sulfur oxides is
scheduled for 1985. In addition, work on revising the criteria documents
for lead and ozone continued in 1983 and the first external review draft
of the lead criteria document was released.
E. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
Assessments of the need to regulate a number of potential air toxics,
including polycyclic organic matter, acrylonitrile, toluene, carbon
tetrachloride, and five chlorinated organic solvents were in progress in
1983. An air toxics information clearinghouse was initiated by EPA in
order to assist State and local control agencies in dealing with toxic
air pollutants. Work continued to integrate toxics activities across the
various media and a system for screening and ranking potentially toxic
air pollutants was developed and applied in 1983.
F. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A major accomplishment in the air quality management area in 1983
was the development of a policy for dealing with those areas of the
country that had not attained applicable ambient air quality standards by
December 31, 1982, and were therefore liable for the imposition of various
sanctions under the Act. This policy established a basic framework for
air quality management in the 1980's and beyond.
Other accomplishments in 1983 included work leading toward the
development of revised regulations and guidance documents for State
implementation of the revised particulate matter national ambient air
quality standard and negotiation of a settlement agreement with the
Environmental Defense Fund on a suit that had been filed to compel EPA to
promulgate plans for protection of visibility for States that had not
developed visibility plans.
The Agency made considerable progress in 1983 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Act regarding the preconstruction review of
new and modified stationary sources. Part of this progress was reflected
in the increased number of States that assumed responsibility for
implementation of the prevention of significant deterioration (PSD)
program. In addition, EPA entered into a settlement agreement with
industry petitioners in the suit filed by the Chemical Manufacturers
Association which challenged the Agency's PSD and nonattainment new source
review programs. This agreement required that EPA propose certain regulatory
changes and the Agency satisfied an important part of this requirement in
1983.
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One of EPA's most important air quality management initiatives
undertaken in 1983 was the development, in partnership with State and
local air pollution control agencies, of the National Air Audit System.
This system was developed to contribute to the existence of nationally
consistent State and local programs that would pursue attainment of the
various objectives of the Clean Air Act.
In 1983, EPA and the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) negotiated
a settlement agreement regarding EPA's actions in regard to State plans
implementing the national ambient air quality standard for lead. The
agreement, which was entered by the court in July 1983, established
various schedules for obtaining State implementation plans (SIP's) for
States that had not yet submitted them and for acting on State submissions
on which EPA had not taken final action.
EPA continued to support various emissions trading activities in
1983. One group of such activities included bubble trades which allow
existing plants or groups of plants to treat all of their emission points
as though they were under a giant bubble and thereby minimize control
costs by controlling the more cost-effective sources first. A second
such activity was emissions reduction banking which allows firms to get
credit for surplus emission reductions and to store them in a legally
protected manner.
In 1983, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. Through classroom presentations, self-study
courses, graduate programs, and technical assistance to State training
efforts, 1766 individuals received training in a variety of topics during
1983.
6. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
In the area of stationary source controls, work progressed on the
development of emissions standards for those major source categories not
yet regulated under new source performance standards (NSPS). NSPS for
five new categories were promulgated in 1983 and existing NSPS for two
categories were revised. Ten promulgations are planned for 1984. Control
techniques guidance documents for three source categories also were
published in 1983.
Section 112 of the Act authorizes EPA to establish national emission
standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP). Regulations under this
section limiting coke oven emissions and benzene emissions from a number
of sources in the chemical and petroleum industries were in preparation
in 1983 as were regulations governing asbestos emissions and arsenic
emissions from several sources.
Also in 1983, EPA continued to make progress in delegating responsibility
for implementing NSPS and NESHAP programs to the State and local air
pollution control agencies. EPA also continued to maintain the best
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available control technology/lowest achievable emission rate (BACT/LAER)
Clearinghouse in order to assist State and local agencies in their BACT
and LAER determinations.
H. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
As of the end of 1983, approximately 89 percent of the stationary
sources in the country were reported as achieving compliance with applicable
air pollution control regulations and an additional 3 percent were in
compliance with schedules to install controls. Whereas past enforcement
efforts have focused on sources of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide,
future efforts will be also directed toward other problems of significance
such as volatile organic compounds.
EPA also made considerable progress in the first 21 months of the
significant violator program. An initial list of 482 sources was established
and an additional 340 sources were identified after the initial list was
established. In this same period, 484 sources (representing the vast
majority of the original list) were brought into compliance or placed on
an acceptable compliance schedule.
In 1983, EPA developed a compliance strategy for stationary sources
of air pollution which will serve as the basis of the compliance program
for the immediate future. The strategy emphasizes resolving violations
by significant violators. It places emphasis on allowing the States more
flexibility in implementing inspection programs, increasing the use of
continuous emission monitoring and similar techniques, and emphasizing
compliance by sources that violate VOC provisions of the SIP's.
In 1982, EPA issued a policy on enforcement against sources in
primary nonattainment areas (other than areas that had received an attain-
ment date extension) not in compliance with the Clean Air Act on or after
December 31, 1982. Of the 226 sources initially subject to the policy,
140 sources had been brought into final compliance or had been placed on
Federal or State compliance schedules by the end of 1983. The remaining
sources on the list generally had some type of Federal or State action
pending or in process that would resolve the violation.
EPA directed a considerable portion of its air enforcement efforts in
1983 toward compliance with NESHAP. Two cases were settled and eleven
cases were filed regarding the vinyl chloride NESHAP while two cases were
filed to enforce the asbestos NESHAP.
Under the Steel Industry Compliance Extension Act (SICEA), EPA was
given authority to extend, for eligible corporations, deadlines for
meeting air pollution requirements. During 1983, EPA's air enforcement
program completed action on all applications submitted under SICEA by
filing implementing decrees for those companies found to be eligible
under the Act and by pursuing enforcement actions against those companies
found not to be eligible.
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I. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
In 1983, EPA undertook a number of standard setting activities
related to various vehicle categories. One action was the promulgation
of final rules for 1984 and later model year light-duty vehicles and
trucks that implement the provisions of Section 206 of the Act related to
compliance with national emission standards regardless of altitude. In
addition, EPA promulgated a final rule allowing manufacturers to demonstrate
compliance with diesel particulate emission standards on a fleetwide
average basis. Other regulatory activities included promulgation of a
new standard for evaporative emissions from heavy-duty trucks with gasoline
engines, modification of useful life definitions for light-duty trucks
and heavy-duty engines, and revision of the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
standards from 1985 and later model year heavy-duty trucks.
In 1983, EPA extended a pilot program allowing alternative methods
in determining the durability of emission control systems in light-duty
vehicles and trucks. EPA also proceeded with a study whose goal is to
identify the most efficient ways to achieve in-use vehicle compliance
with emissions standards. In addition, the Agency also took steps to
assure that inspection maintenance (I/M) programs were implemented in
each locality where they are required. By the end of 1983, 20 areas in
31 States had initiated I/M programs.
EPA undertook in 1983 a number of actions related to enforcement of
motor vehicle emissions standards and fuel regulations. These included
requiring the recall of vehicles with emissions problems, issuing decisions
on requests from automobile manufacturers for waiver of NOX standards for
diesel engine powered automobiles, and conducting inspections to measure
the lead content of fuels. In addition, EPA promoted the initiation of
State and local programs aimed at deterring tampering with vehicle emissions
control systems, developed guidelines for State and local anti-tampering
and anti-fuel switching programs, and modified its program to deal with
imported vehicles to make the process work more smoothly and efficiently.
J. LITIGATION
The U.S. Courts of Appeals decided 15 cases under the Clean Air Act
in 1983. The most important case decided in 1983 was Small Refiner Lead
Phase-Down Task Force v. EPA in which the D.C. Circuit upheld most aspects
of EPA's decision to reformulate its lead-in-gasoline regulations in a way
that would increase their stringency over time and modify certain provisions
related to small refiners.
Four other decisions related to various aspects of EPA's motor
vehicles control program. Other decisions in 1983 related to the areas of
sulfur oxides control, prevention of significant deterioration, the system
for attaining air quality standards, and EPA's regulations for assessing
penalties under Section 120 of the Act.
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II. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
This chapter describes current trends in ambient air quality levels
(the concentration of a given pollutant in the atmosphere) as well as
trends in the estimated emissions into the air of the various pollutants,
In addition, the chapter discusses the topics of air quality monitoring
and air quality modeling. Data on ambient air quality levels and
emissions are through 1982, the latest year for which EPA has complete
statistics.
A. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION TRENDS1
National long-term (1975 through 1982) improvements can be seen for
sulfur dioxide (S02), carbon monoxide (CO), and lead (Pb). Improvements
can also be seen for ozone (03) and nitrogen dioxide (N02) in the period
1979 through 1982 and for total suspended particulate (TSP) between
1978 and 1982.
In the case of 03, a major drop in ambient concentration levels
occurred between 1978 and 1979 largely due to a change in the 03 cali-
bration procedure. Therefore, special attention is given to the 1979
through 1982 period because the change in the calibration procedure is
not a factor during this time.
All of the ambient air quality trend analyses which follow are
based on monitoring sites which recorded at least 6 of the 8 years of
data in the period 1975 through 1982. In each of these years, annual
data completeness criteria also had to be met. As a result of these
criteria, only a subset of the total number of existing sites are used
for trends purposes.
Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) - Annual average TSP levels
measured at 1768 sites decreased 15 percent from 1975 to 1982. This
corresponds to a 27 percent decrease in estimated TSP emissions during
this period. TSP air quality levels generally do not improve in direct
proportion to estimated emission reductions because air quality levels
are influenced by factors such as wind blown dust and reentrained
street dust which are not included in the emission estimates. Most of
the air quality improvement occurred during the last several years, and
was due not only to reductions in TSP emissions, but also to more
favorable meteorology in 1982. An analysis of meteorological conditions
for 1982 indicated a potential for lower TSP concentrations due to
abnormally high precipitation.
Sulfur Dioxide (S02) - Annual average S02 levels measured at 351
sites with continuous S02 monitors decreased 33 percent from 1975 to
1982. A comparable decrease of 39 percent was observed in the trend in
the composite average of the second maximum 24-hour averages. An even
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greater improvement was observed in the estimated number of exceedances
of the 24-hour standard, which decreased 91 percent. Correspondingly,
there was a 17 percent drop in sulfur oxide emissions during this period.
The difference between emissions and air quality trends is believed to
arise because the use of high sulfur fuels was shifted from power
plants in urban areas, where most of the monitors are, to power plants
in rural areas which have fewer monitors. Further, the residential and
commercial areas, where the monitors are located, have shown sulfur
oxide emission decreases comparable to SOg air quality improvements.
These decreases in sulfur oxide emissions are due to a combination of
energy conservation measures and the use of cleaner fuels in the residential
and commercial areas.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) - Nationally, the second highest nonoverlapping
8-hour average ambient CO air quality levels at 196 sites decreased at
a rate of approximately 5 percent per year, with an overall reduction
of 31 percent between 1975 and 1982. An even greater improvement was
observed in the estimated number of exceedances, which decreased 87
percent. CO emissions decreased 11 percent during the same period.
Because CO monitors are typically located to identify potential problems,
they are likely to be placed in traffic saturated areas that may not
experience significant increases in vehicle miles of travel. As a result,
the air quality levels at these locations are expected to improve at a
rate faster than the nationwide improvement in emissions.
Nitrogen Dioxide (N02) - Annual average N02 levels, measured at
276 sites, increased from 1975 to 1979 and then began declining. The
1982 ambient N02 levels are equivalent to the 1975 levels, so that
there is no long-term change. The trend pattern in the estimated nation-
wide emissions of nitrogen oxides is similar to the N02 air quality
trend pattern, with nitrogen oxides emissions increasing only by a total
of 5 percent between 1975 and 1982. Between 1979 and 1982 both ambient
N02 levels and nitrogen oxide emissions showed reductions of 7 and 5
percent, respectively.
Ozone (03) - Nationally, the composite average of the second-
highest daily maximum 1-hour 63 values, recorded at 193 sites, decreased
18 percent between 1975 and 1982. An even greater improvement was
observed in the estimated number of exceedances in the ozone season
(July-September), which decreased 49 percent. Volatile organic compound
(VOC) emissions decreased 13 percent during the same time period. The
greater improvement observed in ozone levels than emissions may be due,
in part, to the non-linear relationship between VOC emissions and ambient
ozone levels, and also to the change in the calibration procedure which
took place between 1978 and 1979. To eliminate the influence of the
calibration change, trends were examined for the 1979-1982 time period.
Ozone levels improved by 9 percent from 1979 to 1982, a period which
was not influenced by the calibration change.
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Lead (Pb) - The composite maximum quarterly average of ambient
lead air quality levels, recorded at 53 urban sites, decreased 64 percent
between 1975 and 1982. This sample of sites satisfied a minimum of 6
years of data in the 1975-82 time period and were heavily weighted by
sites in Texas (51 percent) and Pennsylvania (23 percent). In all a
total of only six States were represented in the sample. In order to
increase the number of sites and their geographical representativeness
lead trends were studied again over the 1979-82 time period. A total
of 214 urban sites from 21 states satisfied the minimum data requirement
of at least 3 out of the 4 years of data. An improvement in ambient
lead concentrations of 43 percent was observed at these sites as compared
with an improvement of 54 percent for the 46 sites mentioned above over
this same 1979-82 period. Even this larger group of sites was
disproportionately weighted by sites in California, Pennsylvania, Texas,
Arizona, Illinois, and Minnesota. These six states accounted for almost
79 percent of the 214 sites represented. Contributing to the decrease
in national ambient lead levels was the fact that lead consumed in
gasoline dropped 69 percent from 1975-82, primarily due to the use of
unleaded gasoline in catalyst-equipped cars and the reduced lead content
of leaded gasoline.
B. AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
General
Section 110(a)(2)(C) of the Clean Air Act requires State Implementation
Plans to include provisions for establishment and operation of systems
for monitoring ambient air quality. In addition, Section 319 of the
Act requires the development of uniform air quality monitoring criteria
and methods and the establishment of an air quality monitoring system
throughout the United States which uses uniform monitoring criteria and
methods. To satisfy these requirements EPA promulgated regulations in
1979 which required States to establish and operate air monitoring
stations and to report the data to EPA^. The two principal types of
stations in the State networks are State and Local Air Monitoring
Stations (SLAMS) and National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS). The moni-
toring stations of the SLAMS and NAMS must adhere to the uniform moni-
toring criteria described in the regulation. These criteria cover quality
assurance, monitoring methods, network design, and probe siting.
January 1, 1981 was the deadline by which all NAMS were to meet all of
the requirements in the regulations. The SLAMS had until January 1,
1983 to meet all of the provisions in the regulations.
Overall, State and local progress in meeting the requirements of the
regulations has been excellent. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the SLAMS and
NAMS status through December 1983. Table 3 lists, by pollutant, the number
of SLAMS and NAMS.
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Table 1. SLAMS Status through December 1983
Total planned network*
Monitors operational
Monitors in operation meeting all require-
ments of the regulations
* Includes NAMS monitors
Number of
Monitors
4888
4763
4682
Percent of
Network
100
97
96
Table 2. NAMS Status through December 1983
Number of
Monitors
Percent of
Network
Total planned network
Monitors operational
Monitors in operation meeting all
requirements of the regulations
1362
1351
1351
100
99
99
Table 1 shows a total of 4888 planned SLAMS monitors of which 4763 or
97 percent were in operation. This number is about the maximum expected
since monitoring station shutdowns routinely occur because of lost leases,
urban renewal projects, and changing ambient air monitoring priorities.
Of these 4763 operating monitors, 4682 or 96 percent of the total monitors
are meeting all requirements of the regulations. The remaining operating
monitors should meet the requirements with some small changes in monitor
siting and improvements in the standard operating procedures.
Table 2 shows that of the 1362 planned NAMS, 1351 or 99 percent were
in operation and were meeting all requirements of the regulations through
December 1983.
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Table 3. National Summary of Planned Air Monitoring Stations
Pollutant
TSP
S02
N02
CO
03
Pb
SLAMS
(including NAMS)
2574
583
298
450
612
371
NAMS
644
222
58
115
216
107
TOTAL 4888 1362
Particulate Monitoring
As discussed in Chapter IV of this report, EPA plans to propose revisions
to the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter in 1984.
One change considered is the establishment of standards for that fraction of
particulate matter that is composed of particles that are nominally 10 micro-
meters or less in size
During 1983, data collected during 1980 and 1981 in the 120 site
National Inhalable Particulate Monitoring Network were used to develop a
procedure to use total suspended particulate (TSP) data to estimate the
likelihood that a monitoring site would violate specified national ambient
air quality standards (NAAQS) for PM^Q. Since very little PMio air quality
data are available, the methodology is expected to be useful in establishing
PM^o monitoring and control priorities, should a PMjQ NAAQS be promulgated.
Additional efforts were underway to examine TSP-PMio relationships in the
Inhalable Particulate network to see whether they are affected appreciably
by geographic location, microscale differences, or other factors. The
methodology was used to examine 1980-82 TSP data at approximately 2000
sites for which TSP data were reported to EPA in order to estimate each
site's likelihood of violating prospective PMjg NAAQS. Data from sites
judged most likely to violate prospective NAAQS were reviewed with the EPA
Regional Offices to rule out natural events, temporary construction
activities, and spurious data as reasons for the estimated high probability
of violation.
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C. AIR QUALITY MODELING
An air quality model is a set of mathematical equations that describe
the atmospheric transport, dispersion, and transformation of pollutant
emissions. By means of these equations, a model can be used to calculate
or predict the air quality impacts of emissions from proposed new sources,
emissions from existing sources, or changes in emissions from either of
these source categories. These models are of great utility because they
provide a means whereby the effectiveness of air pollution controls can
be estimated before action is taken.
During 1983, a major EPA program to evaluate several categories of models
was continued. This program was developed in response to recommendations
of the American Meteorological Society (AMS) under its cooperative agree-
ment with EPA.3 The evaluation of urban models was completed.^ The
evaluation of complex terrain models was initiated and will be completed
in 1984. A test evaluation of two short-term, long-range transport models
was completed;^ this will serve as the basis for a more complete evaluation
of 6-8 such models during 1984-85. The evaluation of mobile source models
will also be initiated in 1984. Guidance was completed for the use of
a newer chemical mechanism in the EKMA model widely used in State
Implementation Plans for ozone. During 1984, computer software and
documentation will be developed which will facilitiate the use of newer
chemical mechanisms by the regulatory community.
The evaluation of urban models reaffirmed that these models are reason-
ably reliable in estimating the magnitude of the highest concentrations
occurring within an area. For long-term models there was little bias and
the estimates were generally quite good. For short-term models there was
somewhat greater variability in estimating the maximum concentrations and
poor ability (as expected) in accurately estimating concentrations that
occur at a specific time and site.
The rural^.7 anc| urban^ models were also subjected to peer scientific
reviews through a cooperative agreement with the American Meteorological
Society. The reviewers found all the models considered to be basically
similar, with common deficiencies in the extent to which they represent
the current state-of-the-art. Recommendations for improvement were
provided. While some concern was expressed about poor model performance
when pairings in space and time are considered, it was recognized that
good agreement may be impossible to attain with current models and
data bases. Agreement with observations at the upper percentiles,
as has already been demonstrated, may be all that can be expected for
the present. A peer scientific review of complex terrain models is
planned for 1984.
Work continued on the explicit consideration of model uncertainty
in decision-making. A preliminary technique to directly calculate the
effect of model uncertainty on air pollution control decisions was
developed.^ During 1984 demonstration of this technique for typical
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applications and analysis of its sensitivity to various factors should
be possible. As a result, a quantitative assessment of the effects of
model performance on effective and reliable control regulations for air
pollution sources may eventually become available for use by decision-
makers.
Efforts to improve guidance on air quality models^ and to ensure
consistency in their use have also continued. Additional efforts were
undertaken to promote consistency between modeling applied in national
regulatory impact analyses for automotive pollutants and in State
Implementation Plans. These efforts led to guidance regarding ozone
modeling and closer scrutiny of design values and growth rates assumed in
analyses for 03, CO, and N02. In addition, ozone modeling analyses
submitted in connection with 1982 SIP's were scrutinized more carefully
than ever before for technical accuracy. The Air Quality Model Clearing-
house activities were continued to ensure that use of nonguideline techniques
does not lead to inconsistent regulatory decisions. A workshop was held
with modeling contacts in EPA's ten Regional Offices to improve communi-
cations on the use of models and to resolve problems common to several
Regions. Guidance on such problems was expanded and circulated to these
offices. In addition, draft revisions to the "Guideline on Air Quality
Models" were completed. Based on the results of the cooperative agreement
with the American Meteorological Society, other contacts with the technical
community, and extensive in-house analyses, guidance on models and associated
data bases for specific regulatory programs was improved. A preliminary
draft of the guideline was circulated to selected Federal and State
governmental agencies; their comments have been incorporated. In 1984
the revised guideline will be subjected to a public hearing and comment.
The hearing will be conducted in conjunction with the Conference on Air
Quality Modeling (Third) which is required at three year intervals by
Section 320 of the Clean Air Act. The guideline will be incorporated by
reference in the PSD regulations, with final promulgation expected in
1985.
Work also continued in the area of receptor model development and
application. A receptor model is an analytical procedure which begins
with monitored air quality data and attempts to draw inferences about
sources causing observed high ambient concentrations of pollutants.
These methods require some knowledge of the characteristics of ambient
and source samples which can be gained through chemical analysis and/or
analysis of individual particles [as in the case of participate matter(PM)].
Receptor models are likely to be utilized in performing source apportionment
studies in areas which fail to meet prospective national ambient air
quality standards for PMig. To assist the States in preparing control
strategies, guidance on the application of receptor models will be included
as a part of the guidance to be developed for PM^g State Implementation
Plan (SIP) preparation. In addition to guidance concerning the use of receptor
models in SIP's, several reports describing the uses, capabilities, and
limitations of several specific receptor models have been issued.ll»12
These reports are part of an ongoing series of descriptive documents for
specific receptor modeling approaches.
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D. INTEGRATION OF AIR DATA SYSTEMS
The Aerometric Information Reporting System (AIRS) is a new integrated
data system being developed by EPA to replace entirely the existing data
bases, files, and software now used by the Agency for storing and retrieving
ambient air quality data, stationary source and emissions data, and
source compliance data. The AIRS project was fully approved by senior
EPA management in December 1980 after the earlier comprehensive feasibility
study revealed the advantages of a truly integrated data system. Detailed
performance specifications were completed in 1981-82 which defined the
overall structure of AIRS. AIRS will be composed of two relatively
separate components (air quality and facility data) but will use common
sets of geographical and other codes and draw upon a state of the art
data base management system.
In 1983, work progressed on the air quality component of AIRS. This
segment is expected to be fully available for use by the States by late
1985 with pilot installations at the State level in 1986.
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III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) provided extensive technical
support to EPA's air pollution control activities in 1983. ORD's air research
program is divided into four major categories: Oxidants, Hazardous Air Pollutants,
Gases and Particles, and Mobile Sources. The research in each of these areas
is planned by a Research Committee composed of ORD managers and representatives
from EPA's program offices. Each Research Committee plans the full range of
research for the pollutants covered by that Committee. The research covers
the areas of scientific assessments, monitoring systems and quality assurance,
health effects, environmental engineering and technology, and environmental
processes and effects. The discussion of 1983 research accomplishments is
organized along these lines. In addition to the discussions of the four major
air research programs, a discussion of ORD's research program on acid deposition
is included.
A. OXIDANTS
The oxidants research program focused on air pollution problems associated
with ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds (VOC's).
Scientific Assessments
National workshops were convened to collect data and discuss scientific
issues necessary for revising the criteria document for ozone and other photo-
chemical oxidants. The external review draft of the criteria document is
scheduled to be completed in 1984 and the final document published in
1985.
Monitoring
Two additional standard ultraviolet spectrophotometers were delivered
to EPA by the National Bureau of Standards. These units, in addition to
those to be delivered in the 1984 to 1986 timeframe, will be used by the
EPA Regional Offices as standards to calibrate field units utilized in
measuring ozone. The National Atmospheric Background Network was terminated,
and a final report is being prepared. This network provided background
data on ozone concentrations in remote National Forests for use in determining
trends throughout the United States. Research continued on the development
of a cryogenic system for trapping and measuring VOC's and non-methane
organic hydrocarbons. The San Diego Oxidant Transport Study1 was completed
and the first phase of an oxidant transport and impact study was initiated
in the Ventura, California, area.
Health Effects
Several controlled human studies of the effects of ozone were completed.
These studies describe changes in pulmonary structure and function, blood
chemistry, and host defense mechanisms following inhalation of ozone at various
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concentrations. Data was collected on three potentially susceptible sub-
populations: persons with naturally-occurring respiratory infections,
individuals with allergic rhinitis ("hay fever"), and children. Data from
these studies are being analyzed. Two other studies of potentially
sensitive groups were continued. The first is a study of asthmatics to
determine if they are more or less sensitive to ozone than a normal
population, and the second is a study that compares the sensitivity of
various health groups (blacks, whites, males and females) to ozone.
A study was completed which further defined effects seen previously in
guinea pigs, namely, that vitamin C deficiency enhances the pulmonary
toxicity of nitrogen dioxide. Several studies of ozone toxicity were
performed on animals with health conditions similar to human ones, such
as respiratory infection and asthma. Some of the animals were exposed to
ozone in a manner similar to the pattern of exposure for humans while
others were exposed chronically to determine if there are long-term
effects of ozone exposure.
A workshop, sponsored by the Agency, was held to identify extrapolation
research needs for EPA. This workshop, which was attended by experts from all
over the country, provided a forum for discussing the current state-of-the-
art, and a basis upon which to formulate an extrapolation research strategy
for the future.^
Environmental Engineering and Technology
Research activities focused on reducing emissions of VOC's and
oxides of nitrogen (NOX) from industrial processes.
In the VOC area, research focused on the usefulness of carbon adsorption,
thermal and catalytic oxidation, and safety relief systems. Pilot-scale
testing was initiated to investigate the design, cost, and performance of
the carbon adsorption technology, and catalytic oxidation was field
evaluated at six sites. Other studies demonstrated that the cost of
controlling VOC emissions for paint bake ovens can be substantially
reduced by the use of a microprocessor.3
In the NOX area, a prototype heavy-oil, low-NOx burner was fabricated
for evaluation on an enhanced oil-recovery steam generator.^ The dilution of
primary combustion air with inert gas (vitiation) was identified for a cement
kiln as one of the most effective combustion modification techniques for NOX
control.5 Initial tests on a coal-fired, dry-rotary cement kiln have
shown that vitiation can reduce NOX emissions by approximately 40 percent.
Effective NOX reduction approaches were also identified for applica-
tion to spark-ignited, gas-fired and diesel engines.^ Tests of a gas-
fired internal combustion engine equipped with a nonselective reducing
catalyst showed NOX reductions of 70 percent; tests are undrway to evaluate
the effectiveness of a selective catalyst. Small pilot-scale tests of
in-furnace NOX reduction via secondary fuel injection using natural gas
(reburning technology) have shown reductions as much as 60 percent whereas
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smaller-scale coal-fired tests achieved 50 percent reductions. Natural
draft staging-air systems were evaluated for refinery process heaters.^
NOX reductions of approximately 50 percent with a gain in thermal efficiency
of approximately 2.5 percent were achieved for gas firing. Correlations
useful in predicting NOX emissions for specific fuels were developed as a
function of coal properties using experimental data from 46 coals.
Environmental Processes and Effects
The primary focus of the research in this area is the development and
testing of air quality models for use by the States in the development of State
Implementation Plans (SIP's) for ozone abatement strategies. Smog chamber
studies, which simulate atmospheric reactions, were conducted to determine
the role of VOC's in producing elevated levels of ozone. Studies on perchloro-
ethylene indicated that this compound may not be as important in producing
ambient ozone as previously thought.^ The scientific data base obtained from
the smog chamber studies will be used in future studies to develop and test
improved ozone chemical mechanisms for use in air quality models.
Evaluation studies of a first generation regional model were conducted
and the preliminary results of the model's predictive capability were successful.
When verified, it will be used to calculate the extent of long-range transport
of ozone and its precursors from one urban area to another.
In the air ecology program, research focused on the development of scien-
tific data to assess the national impacts of ozone on major agronomic crops
grown in the United States. Studies to determine the effects of ozone on
the yield of major crops through a national network of field research
sites were conducted. Experimental results were integrated to develop a
dose/yield response data base and economic and crop yield assessment
techniques were developed for use in a preliminary national assessment of
ozone impacts. This assessment is scheduled to be completed in 1984. To
improve the accuracy of the assessment, sources of uncertainty such as
soil moisture relationships, the effects of differing air quality conditions,
and the evaluation of the impacts of ozone on hay crops are being assessed.
8. HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
The pollutants covered by the hazardous air pollutants research
program are those air pollutants that are either currently regulated or are
potential candidates for being regulated under the Clean Air Act or other
appropriate legislation.
Scientific Assessments
Efforts to develop comprehensive health assessment documents for
chlorinated benzenes, dioxins, hexachlorocyclopentadiene, cadmium, mercury,
beryllium, and vinyl chloride were initiated. Peer review workshops were
held for draft documents on chloroform, chlorinated benzenes, chromium,
dioxins, epichlorohydri n, ethylene dichloride, and ethylene oxide.
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Several documents were released for public review and comment in 1983 or
early 1984. as follows: carbon tetrachloride.9 nickel,10 cadmium,11
manganese,12 chromium,13 vinylidene chloride,1^ epichlorohydrin.15
trichloroethylene,16 tetrachloroethylene.l? methylene chloride,18 asbestos,19
hexachlorocyclopentadiene,20 chloroform,21 ethylene dichloride,22 anc|
ethylene oxide." Following EPA Science Advisory Board review, documents on
toluene,^^ acrylonitrile," chlorofluorocarbon CFC-113,26 coke oven emissions,-^
methyl chloroform,^ and inorganic arsenic^ were published.
Health Effects
Major accomplishments were achieved in gathering dose-response data for
various hazardous air pollutants. A mammalian cell study was completed which
showed 1-nitropyrene emissions to be mutagenic. Further work will be done to
determine the comparative potency of these emissions. Behavioral and electro-
physiological changes were measured in animals exposed to toluene. Data from
this study were scheduled to be analyzed in 1984. Nickel, manganese, and
cadmium compounds were administered to animals and xenobiotic metabolism
was studied. Alterations in biochemical mechanisms were found, but the
significance of these changes will not be known until the data are analyzed
in 1984. Respiratory infectivity was studied in animals exposed to 2.5
parts per million (ppm) ethylene trichloride, 1.0 ppm toluene, or 75.0
ppm chlorobenzene. The results show no significant increase in susceptibility
to respiratory infection.
Preliminary studies were completed on the kinetics of toluene following
acute exposures in animals, and the data are being analyzed. Further develop-
ment and validation of a test battery will proceed when the studies are published.
Mutagenic activity of organic emissions from combustion sources was compared
using cellular bioassays. Extractable organics were found to be fairly inactive
(within two orders of magnitude), whereas particle-bound organics varied by as
much as five orders of magnitude.
Monitoring
Two journal articles on reduced temperature preconcentration of volatile
organics for gas chromatographic analysis were submitted.^0 A draft report on
the Background Phase of Arsenic Monitoring near cotton gins was completed.
Trace elements and benzo-a-pyrene were analyzed in filter samples from the
national network. Field tests of source methods for vinyl chloride, arsenic,
asbestos, and hexavalent chromium were carried out. Reference materials for
benzene, tetrachloroethylene, and other organic vapors were issued by the
National Bureau of Standards.
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Environmental Processes and Effects
The overall goal of this program is to develop a data base of information
on the atmospheric levels of potential hazardous air pollutants, their
lifetimes in the atmosphere, and their fate. In particular, the program
focuses on the atmospheric transport and fate of VOC's. In 1983, a report
was prepared which identifies existing air quality data bases obtained
through a variety of previously conducted studies on potentially hazardous
VOC's in the atmosphere and assesses the scientific quality and applicability
of these data bases.31 The information will be useful to the Agency in
preparing overall assessments on the importance of specific VOC's in the
atmosphere.
Also in 1983, a final report was prepared on an ambient characterization
field study in which the atmospheric concentrations and transformation
products of approximately 45 potentially toxic air pollutants were determined
for ten urban areas of the United States.32 This work will provide useful
information on the temporal and spatial distribution of toxic air pollutants
in urban atmospheres.
C. GASES AND PARTICLES
The Gases and Particles research program focuses on air pollution problems
associated with particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (503), and lead, and the
interactive effects of combining $62 and particles with other pollutants such
as ozone and nitrogen dioxide.
Scientific Assessments
National workshops were convened to collect data and discuss scientific
issues pertinent to revising the criteria document for lead.33 The external
review draft was completed and released. The final document is scheduled to
be completed and published in 1985.
Monitoring
In 1983, the 130-station Inhalable Particulate (IP) Network was operated
successfully. Twenty stations will remain operational for Federal data-
collection efforts and the remainder of the equipment is being refurbished
for distribution to the States for their use in operating particulate
monitoring sites.
A wind tunnel was designed and constructed. The tunnel is being operated
to test the operational characteristics of various devices under simulated
environmental conditions for different kinds of particulates and different
particulate loadings.
A study was initiated to document the visibility impairment caused
by plumes from sources in Ventura, California, as these plumes moved over
the nearby mountains into adjoining areas.
Quality assurance activities continued for the National Air Monitoring
Sites/State and Local Air Monitoring Sites (NAMS/SLAMS) and IP networks.
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Health Effects
A research strategy for quantitative extrapolations was developed by
EPA scientists, with input from outside experts. This strategy provides
a broad framework for performing dosimetry and sensitivity studies to
develop improved risk assessments. As part of the Agency's extrapolation
efforts, the lung structure of adult and infant humans and several species
of animals were compared as a preliminary step in determining species
sensitivity to gases.
Complex clinical studies of the pulmonary response of asthmatics
exposed to $03 were completed. The data have been analyzed and the
studies were scheduled to be reported in 1984. These studies describe
group responses as functions of both S02 concentrations and length of
exposure, and describe individual responses to S02 to determine bronchial
sensitivity to S02. Another clinical study measured the acute physiological
response of normal people following inhalation of gases and particles,
alone and in combination.
To complement the clinical work, animal toxicology studies were done
of chronic exposures to gases and particles, alone and in combination,
measuring changes in pulmonary physiology, immunology, and lung morphology.
Both normal and emphysemic rats were exposed. In another study of gases
and particles, two groups of animals were shown to have increased suscep-
tibility to bacterial lung infection following a total exposure of 103
days. Intratracheal instillation was used in a study of the comparative
potency of several coarse mode particles in animals. In this study, animals
were exposed to ferric oxide, calcium carbonate, and sodium feldspar,
which have been thought to be benign. They were also exposed to silica
dust, which is known to cause immunological decrements. All of the
particles were found to be roughly equivalent in potency, indicating that
some coarse mode particles may be more toxic, than previously thought.
Environmental Engineering and Technology
A co-sponsored full scale demonstration program at the Louisville Gas
and Electric Company's Cane Run Facility in 1983 verified that the dual
alkali process is a reliable flue gas desulfurization alternative. The
program demonstrated that high S02 removal efficiency (over 90 percent) can
be sustained at a high reliability (less than 10 percent shutdown).34
Another system assessed was the use of adipic acid which was tested at
the TVA Shawnee Power Station near Paducah, Kentucky. Sulfur dioxide
removal efficiencies in excess of 90 percent, and reliable scrubber
operation were achieved.^ The addition of adipic acid to a wet limestone
flue gas desulfurization system was also evaluated at the Rickenbacker Air
National Guard Base near Columbus, Ohio.36 The efficiency of sulfur dioxide
removal was raised from 55 percent to over 90 percent in a 30-day test
period.
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In cooperation with the Electric Power Research Institute and the
Southern Company Services Utility Company, EPA has developed and demonstrated
that adding amounts of sodium to coal feed can increase performance of coal
burning power plants equipped with "hot side" electrostatic precipitators
(ESP's).37 These results were obtained with a 195 Megawatt (MW) coal-fired
unit. Sodium conditioning reduced particulate emissions by 90 percent.
Two concepts of using two-stage ESP's for new power plants using low
sulfur coals were evaluated. The two-stage precipitators were developed
for pilot unit demonstrations at the TVA Bull Run Station and Public
Service of Colorado's Valmont Station. Results indicate that two-stage
precipitators substantially improve the performance of ESP's when low
sulfur coal is burned.38
The use of fabric filters (baghouses) to remove particles from gas
streams is of growing importance. Conventional fabric filter design does
not consider the electrical properties of either the dust or the fabric.
Research has shown that electrostatic forces influence the way in which
the particles interact with the fabric and other particles. An electro-
statically augmented fabric filter (ESFF) was developed and installed on
several pilot-scale baghouses including an industrial boiler site at the
DuPont Company Plant in Waynesboro, Virginia, and at a Southwestern
Public Service Company facility in Amarillo, Texas. Results show that
the ESFF baghouse has significant advantages over conventional baghouses.39
The primary effect is a 50 percent reduction in pressure drop across the
filter bags, and greater operating stability and reliability.
An evaluation of conventional fabric filter baghouses for particulate
control in electric utility applications was completed and the data made
available to support the review of the utility boiler new source performance
standards. Additionally, field assessments of the performance of baghouses
in conjunction with spray dryers for combined sulfur dioxide and particle
capture were conducted to ascertain the reliability of this technology and
the time in compliance of this technology.
Environmental Processes and Effects
Research in the gases and particles area focused on the development
and validation of air quality models concerned with the transport and
fate of SOg and particles, particularly inhalable-sized particles with
diameters of ten micrometers (urn) or less, as well as their effects on
agricultural crops, materials, and visibility.
Urban, mesoscale, and regional particulate air quality models are
required by the Regions, States, and local governments and industry to
support anticipated revisions of State Implementation Plans (SIP's) for
particulate matter. EPA plans to develop improved models that will
predict concentration values of total fine (less than 2.5 urn) and coarse
(greater than 2.5 urn) particle mass and chemical composition. In 1983,
the development and validation of urban particulate models resulted in
the completion of the Particulate Episodic Model (PEM) and user's guide.^
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Regional scale particulate matter modeling research continued to
study prolonged elevated pollutant episodes and the planetary boundary
layer resulting in the development of a model to determine the time-varying
mixing depth and transport flow in the planetary boundary layer. Additionally,
the Cross Appalachian Tracer Experiment (CAPTEX) was conducted during
September, October, and November 1983 jointly with the Department of
Energy, the Electric Power Research Institute, and Canada to study regional
scale transport and dispersion mechanisms to validate regional scale
transport models.
Research continued on the development of improved S02 air quality
dispersion models for use in complex terrain, particularly in the mountainous
West where energy development is increasing. Data from the Small Hill
Impaction Study #2 field study conducted in 1982 and earlier field studies
were utilized in the continuing development of the Complex Terrain Dispersion
Model (CTDM). Research in the Green River Ambient Model Assessment
(GRAMA) program resulted in improved local-scale and mesoscale air quality
models for Western Colorado and Eastern Utah.
Research in the Source Apportionment Methods (SAM) program to develop
receptor models for apportioning suspended particulate mass to components
from emission sources resulted in a project report on the second receptor
modeling workshop (Quail Roost II) held in 1982,41 a preliminary report on
results of the 1982 Denver Winter Haze Study,42 and reports on residential
heating43 and the application of SAM to various data sets.44
Research continued on the development of new dispersion techniques
for air quality dispersion models, which are necessary to account for
changes in the dispersion properties of the atmosphere with height.
Reports were published on the comparison of several dispersion schemes45
and on a workgroup summary for preparing meteorological data for routine
dispersion calculations.4$ The User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air
Pollution (UNAMAP) published version 5 of UNAMAP for distribution to the
model user community.'
In the welfare effects area, research addressed ecological and material
damage. The ecological program focused on the effects of air pollutant
combinations (S02, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide). A workshop was held to
evaluate the effects of pollutant combinations associated with ambient
environments and to develop a research approach to evaluate this problem.
Research involving material damage concentrated on the development of an
atmospheric corrosion monitor to be used as a proxy for material damage
caused by SO? and particles.
D. MOBILE SOURCES
Scientific Assessments
A panel of experts was convened to review in-depth key studies
reported by the Agency in the last criteria document for carbon monoxide
(CO).48 Additional studies appearing in the literature since publication
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of the criteria document were also reviewed. Based on these reviews, an
addendum to the criteria document was prepared and an external review
draft was completed. The final draft of the addendum was scheduled to be
completed and published in 1984.
Monitoring
Two large scale field studies of population exposures to CO were
completed using the newly developed miniaturized CO personal exposure
monitors. In Denver, Colorado, the CO exposure profiles of 454 persons
were obtained for two-day periods, giving 908 person-days of data. In
Washington, O.C., the 24-hour CO exposure profiles for 712 persons were
obtained. In both studies, diaries were filled out, allowing the CO
exposures to be related to individual activities and locations, and CO
breath samples were obtained to allow blood carboxyhemoglobin to be
estimated. Initial data analyses, including CO exposure-dose modeling,
were begun on this large data base. Also, a microenvironmental field study
was completed of CO exposures on various roadways and in buildings in
Washington, D.C. Initial steps were taken to construct a model of CO
exposures, sources, and microenvironments.
Health Effects
A tier-testing bioassay system for in vitro and in vivo testing of
fuels, fuel additives, and their emissions was developed and a report
published. Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity were the primary endpoints.
In addition, a study was initiated to study alterations in the cardiac
function of both normal human subjects and those with coronary artery
disease following exposure to CO while at rest and exercising.
Environmental Processes and Effects
In 1983, research in this program focused on characterizing the gaseous
and particulate emissions from in-use gasoline and diesel-powered motor
vehicles. Emissions from 41 in-use gasoline-powered passenger cars were
analyzed for hydrocarbons, aldehydes, and organic particulates. Additionally,
the factors responsible for the sensitivity of emissions to varying
average speed conditions was determined. Research to characterize emissions
from heavy-duty trucks and buses was scheduled to be completed in 1984.
E. ACID DEPOSITION
Research on the sources, effects, and possible mitigation strategies
for controlling acid deposition continues to be a high priority for EPA.
During 1983, the Agency worked closely with the other members of the
Interagency Task Force on Acid Precipitation to more clearly establish
and verify the relationship between emissions and deposition, determine
the dose-response functions and the extent of potential impacts, and
assess the relative costs and benefits of possible mitigation strategies.
Research on acid deposition is organized by the following Task Force
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sub-groups: Natural Sources, Man-Made Sources, Atmospheric Processes,
Deposition Monitoring, Aquatic Effects, Terrestrial Effects, Effects on
Materials and Cultural Sources, and Assessments and Policy Analysis. EPA
contributed significantly to the following major accomplishments achieved
by the Task Force in 1983 as described below.
Natural Sources
Measurements of natural sulfur compounds in the ocean suggest emissions
from marine sources may contribute significantly to the production of acid
precursors.
Man-Made Sources
A comprehensive emission inventory data base for 1980 was being
developed and the final version was expected to be available to modelers
in 1984. Models to predict the cost and emissions changes from utilities
and industries based on various possible control strategies were developed
and are being validated.
Atmospheric Processes
A major field experiment was performed to track the movement of tracer
gases released in the Midwest and Canada over hundreds of miles. In addition
studies of the role of clouds in processing sulfur dioxide into acidic sulfates
were performed. The development of a major Eulerian model for long-range
transport was initiated.
Deposition Monitoring
Three research sites were established to test improved methods of monitoring
wet and dry deposition, precipitation in chemistry data were analyzed, and acid
deposition maps for North America were produced. The National Trends Network
became fully functional and the first annual report of wet deposition data was
prepared.
Aquatic Effects
A preliminary, qualitative map of the nation indicating regions where
surface waters are likely to be most sensitive to acidification was produced,
and a preliminary survey of drinking water in the Northeast was completed. In
addition, long-term monitoring of aquatic resources (chemistry and biota) in
key sensitive regions continued. The planning for a major survey of lakes was
undertaken.
Terrestrial Effects
Extensive long-term studies continued to investigate whether acid
deposition has caused changes in the rate of growth and species composition.
An analysis of tree ring data indicated a possible synergistic effect between
deposition and other stress factors. Agricultural experiments using simulated
acid rain were also continued.
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Effects on Materials and Cultural Resources
Operations at four field sites continued, and the site selection process
for additional stations in the U.S. and in Canada was initiated. Prototype,
movable covers that separate the effects of wet from dry deposition were field
tested. Chamber studies to determine the role of moisture in air pollution
began. Collection of service life and life cycle cost data was initiated.
Work on assembling inventories of common materials and cultural properties also
began.
Assessments and Policy Analysis
The Critical Assessment Review Papers detailing the current state of
knowledge about acid deposition and its effects were completed and distributed
for public comment.^9 Investigations into the methodology of conducting integrated
assessments, which bring together the various scientific and economic aspects
of the program, have continued. A framework for coordinating the activities of
the individual task groups for the 1985 Assessment was completed.
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IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA to review regularly
and revise, if necessary, all of the national ambient air quality standards
(NAAQS). Reviews of all existing NAAQS were in progress during 1983.
In 1983, EPA revoked the existing NAAQS for hydrocarbons (which was
originally established as a guide for attaining the NAAQS for photochemical
oxidants) on the basis that it was no longer appropriate and because
there are now much more sophisticated techniques available for designing
control strategies for photochemical oxidants (ozone).1
During 1983, work continued on finalizing EPA's proposal of August
18, 1980, to revise the NAAQS for carbon monoxide (CO).2 Additional
review and comment from the public and by the Clean Air Scientific Advisory
Committee (CASAC) was conducted in 1983 on several new issues that were
raised since proposal.3 A draft Addendum to the revised criteria
document for CO^ and a new draft staff paper^ which interprets the
critical studies cited in the criteria document for standard-setting
purposes were reviewed and concurred on by CASAC.
The revision to the criteria document for nitrogen oxides (NOX) was
completed in 1982. The NOX staff paper, which interprets the critical
studies in the criteria document for use in the standard-setting process
and provides a range of values which the staff feels is most appropriate
for selecting the level of the air quality standard, was reviewed and
concurred on by CASAC in 1983. Proposal of standards is scheduled for
1984.
CASAC concurrence on the scientific accuracy and completeness of the
staff paper for particulate matter was received in January 1982.^ Work
on the regulatory support documents was nearly completed in 1983 and
proposal of a revised particulate matter NAAQS is scheduled for early 1984.
In 1983, CASAC submitted a closure letter on the staff paper9 for
sulfur oxides (SOX). The staff presented their recommendations to the
Assistant Administrator on either reaffirming or revising the current
standards. A proposal to reaffirm or revise the standards is scheduled
for 1985.
Work on revising the criteria documents for ozone and lead was
initiated in late 1981, with initial drafts of chapters for the documents
completed in 1982. Public workshops on the draft criteria document
chapters were held in 1983. Work on the regulatory support documents was
initiated in 1982 and continued in 1983. Release of the first external
review draft of the lead criteria document^1 occurred in the fall of 1983 and
release of the first external review draft of the ozone document is
scheduled for 1984.
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Also in 1983, the Agency continued its efforts to develop methodologies
for using risk assessment in setting NAAQS, as has been suggested by a
number of groups, including the National Commission on Air Quality. The
CASAC has set up a subcommittee to assist and advise EPA in applying risk
assessment to the lead NAAQS review.
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V. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
In 1983, recommendations on whether to regulate polycyclic organic
matter and acrylonitrile under the Clean Air Act were developed, with
proposal of the Agency's decision anticipated in early 1984. Regulatory
recommendations for toluene also were completed in 1983 and are expected
to be published in 1984. Assessments containing information on the
sources, emissions, public exposure, current control, and possible control
improvements were completed for acrylonitrile, carbon tetrachloride,
toluene, and five chlorinated organic solvents. This information is used
in conjunction with the health assessment documents discussed in Chapter
III of this report in order to make recommendations on the need for
control of these chemicals and the appropriate regulatory mechanism to be
used.
Efforts to assist State and local air pollution control offices in
dealing with toxic air pollutants also increased significantly in 1983.
Workshops were held in three EPA Regional Offices for the States in those
Regions, and a substantial effort began to develop an Air Toxics Information
Clearinghouse. In the "latter effort, EPA worked closely with States
and local air pollution control agencies to facilitate the voluntary
exchange of information relating to substances that are toxic or may be
found to be toxic. Full implementation of the clearinghouse is planned
in late 1984 or early 1985.
Work continued within the Agency to integrate properly toxics activities
across the various media. Of principal interest was the activity on the
Toxic Integration Task Force chartered by the Deputy Administrator in 1983
and scheduled for completion in early 1984. Subgroups on risk management,
risk assessment, high visibility chemicals, intermedia inconsistencies, and
interagency coordination were established to evaluate and recommend improved
policies and procedures.
A system^- for screening and ranking a large number of potentially toxic
air pollutants for further more detailed assessment was developed and applied
in 1983. This system uses readily available data that provides an indication
of the potential for adverse health effects and public exposure. Using
appropriate weighting factors, the system provides a quantitative ranking
which is then used for setting future priorities for additional work.
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VI. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. DEVELOPMENT OF POLICY AND REGULATIONS
Post-1982 Attainment Policy
Part D of the Clean Air Act requires that primary national ambient
air quality standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone be attained no later than
December 31, 1982. State Implementation Plan (SIP) revisions providing
for attainment of these standards were to have been submitted to EPA by
January 1, 1979. Extensions of the attainment date up to 1987 were authorized
under prescribed conditions for the carbon monoxide and ozone air quality
standards. One condition was the submission to EPA of an additional SIP
revision by July 1, 1982 which demonstrated attainment of these standards
not later than December 31, 1987. On February 3, 1983, EPA published two
rulemaking proposals relating to implementation of the primary national
ambient air quality standards under the Clean Air Act.*»2 The first
notice proposed to disapprove State Implementation Plans and impose a
moratorium on major stationary source construction or modification in
nonattainment areas that were required to attain the standards by December 31,
1982, but were still experiencing violations. This notice also proposed
to disapprove plans and impose construction moratoriums in nonattainment
areas that had not received full EPA approval for plan revisions due in
1979. The second notice, depending upon the circumstances, either proposed
approval or disapproval of implementation plans submitted in 1982 by
States with nonattainment areas that had obtained extensions of the 1982
deadline for the carbon monoxide or ozone standards. In this notice, EPA
proposed to impose construction moratoriums in all areas where it was
proposing to disapprove 1982 plan submissions. In addition, the notice
requested comment on the appropriateness of additional restrictions,
including the withholding of air program and highway funds.
After evaluating the comments submitted in response to its proposals,
EPA revised its interpretation of the Act's legal consequences of a failure
to meet the 1982 attainment deadline and published a notice on November 2,
1983, taking final action on portions of the first notice described
above.^ EPA did not take any action on the proposals in the second notice,
but it did describe its revised policy for dealing with nonattainment areas
that had attainment date extensions. As discussed later in this chapter,
action on the proposals in the second notice were published as individual
Federal Register notices in early 1984.
Under the policy announced on November 2, 1983, EPA gave States
an opportunity either to show that their State Implementation Plans were
not deficient or to remedy their deficiencies before any of the various
sanctions provided by the Clean Air Act would apply. States could show
that their plans were not deficient by requesting redesignation to attain-
ment under Section 107(d) of the Act. States could remedy deficiencies
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by either implementing any undone portions of their existing plans or
else by revising their existing plans. EPA prepared comprehensive guidance
to be made available in early 1984 for areas that needed to implement or
revise their plans.
Implementation Guidance for Revised Particulate Matter Standards
As discussed in Chapter IV of this report, EPA plans to propose
revisions to the national ambient air quality standards for particulate
matter in 1984. One change being considered is the establishment of
standards for that fraction of particulate matter that is composed of
particles that are nominally 10 micrometers or less in size (PM^o). In
recognition of the administrative and technical impacts of such a change,
in 1983 EPA prepared draft revisions to regulations and to guidance
documents applicable to implementing the revised standards. The drafted
regulations would revise both 40 CFR 51, "Requirements for Preparation,
Adoption, and Submittal of Implementation Plans"; and 40 CFR 52, "Approval
and Promulgation of Implementation Plans" to specify PM^g requirements
for the prevention of significant deterioration and for the review of new
sources in nonattainment areas and to make the technical amendments
needed to accommodate a PM^g air quality standard. Drafts of new guidance
documents and revisions to existing documents deal with (1) interim methods
for measuring source emissions of PM^g; (2) dispersion and receptor models
which can be used for PM^g and the input data required; (3) source-specific
emission factors developed through a multi-year EPA research program that
are needed to prepare PM^g emissions inventories; (4) new network and data
reporting requirements applicable to monitoring the levels of PM^g in the
ambient air; (5) interim PSD monitoring methods for measuring ambient PM^g
levels before reference methods are approved and a phase-in program for
operating new PM^g monitors for PSD; and (6) a method for using existing
air quality data, which is not specific to PM^g, to assess PM^g air quality
and to assist in implementation plan preparation. The revisions to the
regulations and to the technical guidance will be announced in the Federal
Register shortly after the proposal to revise the air quality standard
and will be made available for public comment.
Visibility Protection
Section 169A of the Clean Air Act establishes as a national goal
"the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment
of visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas which impairment results
from manmade air pollution." On December 2,, 1980, EPA promulgated regula-
tions implementing this section.^ All States which contained mandatory
Class I Federal areas were to develop and submit SIP revisions to EPA which
implemented these regulations.
On December 20, 1982, a number of petitioners filed suit in the
United States District Court for the Northern District of California
seeking to compel EPA to promulgate State plans for visibility protection
under Section 110(c) of the Clean Air Act for those States which had not
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submitted such plans. During 1983, EPA and the Environmental Defense
Fund negotiated and signed a settlement agreement which was then submitted
to the Court. The agreement provides for EPA to complete the requested
promulgation within 40 months of finalization of the agreement. Court
acceptance of the agreement as settlement of the suit was pending at
year's end.
A Visibility Task Force was formed in 1983 to develop recommendations
on a long-range strategy for dealing with visibility impairment from
pollution-derived regional haze. The group is charged with defining
goals, research needs, and regulatory options and serves to integrate
regional haze issues in mandatory Class I Federal areas with more general
visibility protection considerations under the national ambient air
quality standards and with related aspects of other air pollution control
programs that affect visibility. The task force will involve through
membership or consultation several EPA offices, other Federal agencies,
concerned States, environmental organizations, and industry. The major
task force output will be a report, currently scheduled for late 1984,
containing its findings and recommendations and a summary of supporting
material and analyses. The group will also issue interim research and
analytical recommendations.
Tall Stacks and Other Dispersion Techniques
Section 123 of the Clean Air Act requires that stationary sources
of air pollution not be allowed to take credit for having stacks that are
higher than that defined by "good engineering practice" (GEP) and thereby
evade more stringent emissions limitations. In addition, Section 123,
except for specified exemptions, does not allow sources to take credit
for any other type of air pollution dispersion technique. On February 8,
1982, EPA promulgated regulations to implement Section 123.-* Subsequently,
the Sierra Club, Natural Resources Defense Council, and the Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania challenged those regulations in court. On October 11, 1983,
the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ordered
EPA to reconsider portions of the regulations. The Court provided very
detailed instructions to guide the Agency's thinking on remand. EPA
started preparation of a response to the Court by the end of 1983 and
held a public meeting in December to discuss options available to the
Agency.
Section 123 prohibits the use of dispersion techniques unless such
techniques were implemented before December 31, 1970. One technique,
known as an intermittent control system, varies the rate of pollutant
emissions according to meteorological conditions. The Agency drafted
regulations in 1983 which, when finalized, will define the requirements
of an implemented system.
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Restructuring SIP Preparation Regulations
A major EPA goal in 1983 was to improve government regulations. The
SIP preparation regulations (40 CFR 51) were selected for revision.
Since promulgating the regulations in 1971, EPA had made many revisions.
For example, EPA added and amended requirements pertaining to transportation
control strategies, maintenance of the national ambient air quality
standards, air quality monitoring, new source review, data reporting, and
prevention of significant deterioration. These additions tended to make
the regulations long and difficult to follow.
On October 11, 1983, EPA published in the Federal Register proposed
changes to 40 CFR 51. The proposal would delete obsolete provisions and
rewrite the regulations in a new format which is shorter and better
organized. States using the proposed regulations to prepare SIP's will
find them current and easier to follow. The proposed regulations also
have a flexible structure into which future requirements can be more
easily included.
B. PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION AND NONATTAINMENT
NEW SOURCE REVIEW ACTIVITIES
The Agency made significant progress in 1983 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Act regarding the preconstruction review of
new and modified stationary sources. Major 1983 activities are described
below.
PSD Program Transfer
EPA continued its progress in transferring implementation of the
prevention of significant deterioration (PSO) program to State and local
agencies. The majority of PSD permits are now issued by these agencies.
As of the end of 1983, 37 State and local agencies had either full delegation
of the PSD program or a PSD SIP (compared to 26 a year earlier) and 11
more had partial responsibility for the PSD program.
Chemical Manufacturers Association v. E'PA
The Agency's PSD and nonattainment new source review regulations were
challenged by a variety of entities. These challenges were consolidated
as Chemical Manufacturers Association v. EPA (CMA), D.C. Cir. No. 79-1112.
On February 22, 1982, EPA entered into a litigation settlement with the
industry petitioners in which it agreed to propose certain regulatory
changes. An important part of the settlement agreement was satisfied
by EPA's Federal Register proposal of August 25, 1983.6 That proposal
addressed the topics of fugitive emissions in new source review applicability
determinations, Federal enforceability of various emissions reductions,
"buffer zones" around Class I areas, review of secondary emissions, and
offset credit for past source shutdowns.
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Another significant provision of the settlement deals with the means
by which emissions reductions can be credited so that a source can avoid
new source review of a modification or create an offset. The Clean Air
Act is not specific regarding the type of system (e.g., actual or allowable
emissions) to be used in granting such credits to sources, and there is
risk that sources could adversely affect air quality by avoiding review
through too liberal a computation of credits. Work on this portion of
the settlement was on hold at the end of 1983 pending resolution of
certain problems with industry petitioners.
A third aspect of the settlement involves the decision whether to
propose interim and long-term relaxation of PSD increments for particulate
matter in anticipation of new national ambient air quality standards for
particulate matter based on fine particles. EPA's position on this
matter was prepared in 1983 and will be proposed for comment when the
revised particulate matter air quality standard is proposed.
The remaining part of the litigation settlement resulted in the
Federal Register promulgation of June 25, 1982, in which vessel emissions
were excluded from the review of marine terminals.^ EPA was challenged
on this rulemaking by the State of California and the Natural Resources
Defense Council. On January 17, 1984, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals
vacated this rulemaking in part and remanded it to the Agency for further
action.
An important matter of controversy has been the definition of "source"
for the purposes of nonattainment new source review. The Clean Air Act is
not clear in this area. In 1980, EPA promulgated a dual source definition
that minimized the opportunity for modifications to sources to avoid
review in nonattainment areas. This was challenged by industry in the
CMA suit, but was not of primary concern in the settlement because the
Agency replaced it with a "plantwide" definition in its rulemaking of
October 14, 1981.8 The Natural Resources Defense Council claimed that
the plantwide definition is inconsistent with the Act and, on August 17,
1982, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in their favor. EPA and
industry appealed this ruling and it is now before the Supreme Court.
The uncertainty over source definition has caused difficulty for the
nonattainment program, especially with respect to the development of
SIP's.
In its August 25, 1983, proposal mentioned above, EPA did not require
that fugitive emissions from surface mining operations be included in PSD
applicability determinations. The Sierra Club sued EPA on this point and
on August 26, 1983, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals remanded this
matter to the Agency for explanation of its position. EPA replied in
January 1984 that it would coordinate a proposal to list surface mines
with its final action on the August 25 proposal.
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C. IMPLEMENTATION OVERVIEW AND ASSISTANCE
National Air Audit System
One of EPA's most important air quality management initiatives
undertaken during 1983 was the development, in partnership with State and
local air pollution control agencies, of the National Air Audit System
(NAAS). The need for the NAAS developed as State and local air pollution
control agencies assumed responsibility for an increasing number of
delegated programs under the Clean Air Act. While EPA provided oversight
of State and local air pollution control programs for many years, the
Agency never developed guidelines to ensure national consistency in the
evaluation of these programs. Officials of State and local agencies
pointed out that EPA audits varied in frequency, depth, and procedure,
and also were inconsistent from Region to Region and State to State.
Representatives of State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators
(STAPPA) and Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (ALAPCO)
recommended that EPA develop evaluation criteria for conducting audits of
State and local air pollution control agencies that would be used by all
Regional Offices. EPA responded to the concerns of STAPPA and ALAPCO
members and agreed to participate in a STAPPA/ALAPCO/EPA workgroup charged
with developing an auditing system that would ensure national consistency
and confirm that State and local air pollution control programs were
consistent with the national objectives of the Clean Air Act.
Standardized audit guidelines were written in 1983 by four subcommittees
of the workgroup. The program areas selected by the workgroup for
development of audit guidelines were: (a) air quality planning and State
Implementation Plan (SIP) activity, (b) new source review, (c) compliance
assurance, and (d) air monitoring. The subcommittees were chaired by
State agency personnel with EPA staff serving as expediters. All State
agencies, local agencies, EPA Regional Offices, and EPA Headquarters offices
were provided an opportunity to comment on a draft version of the audit
guidelines. The system will be implemented in 1984 when the guidelines
will be used to audit all State agencies and key local agencies.
The primary goals of the NAAS are to identify any obstacles that are
preventing State and local agencies from implementing an effective air
quality management program and to provide EPA with quantitative information
for use in defining more effective and meaningful national programs.
The objectives of the NAAS are to provide audit guidelines that EPA,
State, and local agencies can use to: (1) meet statutory requirements;
(2) assist in developing an acceptable level of program quality; (3)
account for the achievements and needs of SIP programs to Congress and
the public; (4) identify programs that need further technical support or
other assistance; and (5) effectively manage available Federal, State,
and local resources so that the national ambient air quality standards
may be attained and maintained as expeditiously as possible.
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Status of Nonattainment Areas
The following table lists those areas of the country that were not
in attainment with air quality standards as of the end of 1983. Note
that totals are not shown since the same area may be nonattainment for
more than one pollutant.
Pollutant Number of Nonattainment Areas
Particulate Matter (primary standard) 172
Particulate Matter (secondary standard) 148
Sulfur Oxides (primary standard) 61
Sulfur Oxides (secondary standard) 8
Nitrogen Oxides 5
Carbon Monoxide 148*
Ozone 448**
*97 areas received an extension until 12/31/87
**154 areas received an extension until 12/31/87
1982 SIP Revisions for Ozone and Carbon Monoxide
As discussed earlier in this chapter, certain areas of the country
that demonstrated that the primary NAAQS for ozone (03) or carbon monoxide
(CO) could not be attained by December 31, 1982, even with the application
of all reasonably available control measures, were granted an extension of
the attainment date until no later than December 31, 1987. A total of 31
States requested and were granted compliance date extensions and were
therefore required to submit revised SIP's. In an action taken on
February 3, 1983, EPA proposed to disapprove SIP's for 17 of the 31
States. The major deficiencies cited included failure to demonstrate
attainment by 1987, lack of an approvable Inspection and Maintenance
(I/M) program, and failure to adopt regulations requiring reasonably
available control technology (RACT) for stationary sources of volatile
organic compounds (VOC's).
Many States subsequently revised their SIP's and many of the plans
previously proposed for disapproval were reproposed for approval. During
1983, EPA witnessed significant State progress toward implementation of
required I/M programs. Additionally, many States committed to the adoption
of additional stationary source and transportation control measures
necessary for attainment of 03/CO standards. As of January 31, 1984, EPA
had proposed action on all 1982 03/CO SIP's (including reproposals in many
cases) and had published final approvals for eight States. The Agency is
on a schedule leading to final actions on all 1982 03/CO SIP's by September
1984.
Lead SIP's
In October 1978, EPA published a national ambient air quality standard
for airborne lead under Section 109 of the Clean Air Act.9 Section 110
of the Act required each State to adopt and submit to EPA within nine
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months a plan to implement that standard. The Act further required EPA
to approve or disapprove these SIP's within four additional months and to
promulgate SIP's within two additional months beyond that for States that
did not meet the requirements specified in the Act. In 1982, the Natural
Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and other parties filed suit in the U.S.
District Court for the District of Columbia to require EPA to promulgate
lead SIP's for those States that had not yet submitted them and to approve
or disapprove lead SIP's that had been submitted but on which EPA had not
taken final rulemaking. The Lead Industries Association and St. Joe
Minerals Corporation intervened in the suit on behalf of EPA.
The EPA and NRDC negotiated a Settlement Agreement which was entered
by the court on July 26, 1983. The agreement allowed States additional
time to prepare and submit lead SIP's before EPA must prepare a Federal
plan and established different schedules for different categories of
States. For States that had already submitted SIP's before EPA reached
agreement with NRDC, the agreement required EPA to publish final approval
or proposed disapprovals by November 1983. With the exception of one
extension requested of the court, EPA achieved this objective. For
States with either major sources of lead or recent violations of the lead
standard but which had not yet submitted lead SIP's, the agreement set a
date of August 1, 1983, for submission of SIP's. The agreement required
EPA to propose rulemaking on these SIP's by January 3, 1984. EPA received
draft or final plans from all such States except for one area, and published
proposed rulemaking on these plans on or before January 3, 1984. The
agreement established further dates in 1984 and 1985 for completing
rulemaking on the problem States and for action on the other States that
do not have any known problems. For the 56 States and Territories at the
end of 1983, 27 have submitted complete SIP's on which EPA published
final rulemaking; 22 have submitted draft or final SIP's that cover
complete States, but on which EPA has not yet completed rulemaking; and 7
had not submitted draft or final SIP's that cover complete States.
Processing of SIP Revisions
During 1982, efforts were focused on changes in the SIP review process
that would accelerate review of routine and noncontroversial SIP actions
and reduce the duplication of efforts between the States, Regional Offices,
and Headquarters. These efforts consisted of the full implementation of
three improved SIP processing procedures developed and tested in late
1981. These procedures resulted in a reduction of 93 percent of the SIP
backlog by July 1, 1982. In addition, the new procedures allowed EPA to
process SIP actions at about the same rate as received.
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In 1983, continuing efforts were made to process SIP revisions at a
rate that would avoid future backlogs. The major emphasis in 1983 was
placed on improving the internal operating procedures of the SIP review
process. These efforts consisted of developing modified procedures for
processing, tracking, and accounting for SIP revisions. Computer programs
were revised to improve tracking efficiency and provide an early warning
system for packages nearing deadlines. A Standing SIP Review Committee
was established to meet at regular intervals to resolve controversial
issues and problems arising in SIP packages. A SIP Policy Committee was
also established to meet as needed to review actions involving major
national issues and to resolve conflicts. The changes which were made
should further improve the existing SIP review process and result in a
further decrease in review time, a workable method to identify and resolve
problems, and improve communication and cooperation between the various
review offices.
Emissions Trading
Emissions trading includes several alternatives to traditional
regulation. These alternatives do not alter existing air quality require-
ments but simply give States and industry more flexibility to meet these
requirements. Bubble trades and emissions reduction banking are two of
the major emissions trading concepts being promoted by EPA.
Bubble trades allow existing plants (or groups of plants) to treat all
of their emission points as though they were under a giant bubble and reduce
or eliminate pollution controls where costs are high, in exchange for
compensating increased control at emission sources where control costs are
low. They give firms increased compliance flexibility, meet current or
future pollution control requirements more quickly, make innovative control
approaches profitable, and can result in significant savings over the costs
of conventional controls. In 1982, EPA issued a proposed emissions trading
policy to replace the original bubble policy and to streamline procedures,
giving States and industry more opportunities to use bubbles in many more
circumstances and geographic areas. Since that time, EPA has reviewed
numerous formal comments on its policy and developed alternatives to respond
to specific issues raised by the commenters. In 1983, EPA proposed the
alternatives for public review and additional comment. EPA plans to issue
the policy in final form after considering all of the comments that were
submitted on the proposals. As of December 31, 1983, EPA approved or proposed
to approve 43 bubbles saving their users an estimated $205 million over the
cost of conventional pollution controls, with many producing energy savings
and greater emission reductions than traditional regulation. Over 69
other bubbles averaging $3 million each in savings were under review at the
State or Federal level and an additional 30 bubbles were under development
by industry sources.
Bubbles can be approved by the States without case-by-case EPA review
if evaluated under EPA-approved State generic trading rules that assure
that no bubble will interfere with timely attainment and maintenance of
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ambient air quality standards. As of December 31, 1983, EPA had approved
generic trading rules for eight States which allow these States to approve
bubbles without prior Federal approval. In addition, 17 generic rules were
under State development. Another 14 bubbles had been approved by States
under generic trading rules and at least 29 others were under review.
Emissions Reduction Banking
Emissions reduction banking allows firms to get credit for surplus
emission reductions and store such emission reduction credits (ERC's) in a
legally-protected manner. ERC's can be "banked" (stored) and used in bubble
applications to meet control requirements for existing plants more flexibly
and efficiently, as offsets to support economic growth in areas not meeting
air quality standards, or in "netting" to exempt certain expansions or
modernizations from new source review. Banking rules can speed trades
between firms, expand opportunities for bubbles, and encourage the production
of cheap ERC's at optimal times. Banking systems also provide the certainty
needed for firms to invest in ERC's when meeting other control requirements,
creating a pool of readily available credits that makes trading easier and
speeds permit issuance while assuring progress toward clean air. As of
December 31, 1983, EPA had approved Statewide banking rules in Oregon and
Rhode Island and had proposed to approve a Statewide rule in Kentucky.
Another 13 States had adopted banking rules but had not received EPA
approval.
VOC RACT Clearinghouse
The EPA has specified that the SIP revisions for areas designated as
not attaining photochemical oxidant standards should contain, as a minimum,
regulations for controlling volatile organic: compound (VOC) emissions from
stationary sources. These regulations must provide for the implementation
of reasonably available control technology (RACT). To assist the States in
defining RACT, EPA prepared a series of documents, referred to as control
techniques guidelines (CTG's), which address, various control options for a
variety of individual stationary sources. Since EPA cannot publish CTG's
for all affected VOC source categories, States may have to develop regula-
tions using information sources other than CTG's. The purpose of the VOC
RACT clearinghouse is to provide a means by which State and local air
pollution control agencies can exchange technical information, minimize
duplication of effort and resources, and provide guidance regarding VOC
controls for various sources. The VOC RACT Clearinghouse is a cooperative
effort with the State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators
(STAPPA), the Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (ALAPCO),
and EPA.
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Emission Factors
In 1983, the Agency continued its efforts to provide technical guidance
on how to estimate air pollutant emissions from various sources. Such
information is used by EPA, the States, the private sector, and others in
development of State Implementation Plans, permitting of sources under the
prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) program, emission trading
(offset/bubbles), environmental impact statements, and other applications.
A vehicle for transmitting such technical information is Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors.^ In 1983, guidance was prepared or was in the
process of being prepared for estimation of emissions for specific pollutants
of current interest such as particulates by particle size, nickel, acrylo-
nitrile, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, formaldehyde, ethylenedichloride,
and others. Release of documents on these and other pollutants is scheduled
for 1984 pending completion of responses and any modifications resulting
from public review and comment on the documents.
D. AIR POLLUTION TRAINING PROGRAMS
In 1983, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. This training included short course presentations
(three to five days in length), self-study courses, technical assistance to
others who conduct training, and the support of traineeships and fellowships
for graduate air pollution training.
During 1983, EPA conducted 26 short courses in 14 different subject areas
for a total of 639 students. These courses were presented in locations across
the U.S. by 7 universities designated as area training centers. Technical
assistance was provided to States and EPA Regional Offices for the conduct of
20 additional courses reaching a total of 388 students.
In support of the delegation of more air quality management responsibili-
ties to the States, EPA continued emphasis on self-study courses as a means of
providing training to more air pollution personnel. During 1983, 568 students
applied for the 16 self-study courses presently available. At the end of 1983
over 125 applications had been received for two new courses scheduled for
release early in 1984.
As an additional means of developing qualified personnel, EPA supported
27 graduate traineeships/fellowships to employees of State and local air
pollution control agencies. These awards are for both part-time and full-
time graduate study in the field of air pollution control.
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VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
During 1983, NSPS were promulgated for five new categories: the
pressure sensitive tape and label surface coating industry,! Synthetic
Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industry (SOCMI) equipment leaks of volatile
organic compounds (VOC's),^ the graphic arts industry,3 bulk gasoline
terminals,^ and the beverage can surface coating industry.^ The existing
NSPS for automobile and light-duty truck surface coating operations [inno-
vative technology waiver],° and four phosphate fertilizer processes? were
revised. Standards were proposed for eight new categories: SOCMI - VOC
emissions from air oxidation unit processes.,^ SOCMI - VOC emissions from
distillation unit operations,9 VOC fugitive emission sources in petroluem
refineries,10 flexible vinyl coating and printing operations,H rubber tire
manufacturing industry,^ nonmetallic mineral processing plants,13 light-
weight aggregate,13 gypsum,13 perlite,^ and glass manufacturing plants.^
A revision to the averaging time provisions of the NSPS for fossil-fuel-
fired steam generators was proposed.15 The reviews of NSPS for kraft pulp
mills, gas turbines, and Glaus sulfur recovery plants were completed. A
nitrogen oxides (NOX) control technology document was published as were
two control techniques guideline (CTG) documents; one for plants that produce
high density polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene resins, and one
for petroleum solvent dry cleaning operations. Standards development
programs now underway are planned to result in the promulgation of 10
standards, the proposal of 8 standards, completion of reviews for 6
existing NSPS, and publication of 5 CTG's for volatile organic compound
sources in 1984.
B. NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAP)
° Arsenic -- During 1983, NESHAP were proposed for three arsenic
sources (high arsenic feedstock primary copper smelters, low arsenic
feedstock primary copper smelters, and glass manufacturing plants).16
Promulgation of standards for all of these sources is scheduled for 1984.
o
Asbestos -- Revisions to the asbestos standard to reinstate work
practices and to reorganize the NESHAP for clarity were proposed in 1983
and are scheduled for promulgation in 1984. The work practices were
promulgated under the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1970. The Supreme
Court held that work practices were not emission standards and were not
authorized under the 1970 Act. The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments allowed
work practices to be used when emission standards are not feasible, hence,
the proposed revisions. A revision of the demolition and renovation
standards for asbestos is also scheduled for proposal in 1984.
o
Benzene — Standards development work continued in 1983 for major
benzene emission sources in the chemicals and petroleum industries. A
proposed NESHAP for benzene emissions from coke oven by-product plants is
planned in 1984. A NESHAP for fugitive leaks of benzene in petroleum and
chemical plants is scheduled for promulgation in 1984. A proposal to
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withdraw proposed regulations for control of benzene emissions in maleic
anhydride plants, ethylbenzene/styrene plants, and benzene storage facilities
is scheduled to be published in 1984. The withdrawal is based on the fact
that public health risks for these sources were determined not to be significant
0 Coke Oven Emissions— Standards development work continued in 1983
for coke oven emissions sources in the iron and steel industry. A proposed
NESHAP for coke oven emissions (wet charging and topside leaks) is planned for
1984.
C. DELEGATION OF NSPS AND NESHAP
EPA continued to make progress in 1983 in delegating responsibility
for implementing the NSPS and NESHAP programs to the State and local air
pollution control agencies. At the beginning of 1983, 31 States or local
agencies had accepted delegation of all applicable NSPS and 45 had accepted
delegation of all applicable NESHAP. The number of applicable NSPS and
NESHAP vary for each State or local agency depending on the types of source
catgories that either exist or are likely to be built in the future. At
the end of 1983, these delegations increased to 42 for NSPS and 47 for
NESHAP. These numbers represent delegation of approximately 95 percent of
applicable NSPS and 95 percent of applicable NESHAP nationwide.
D. BACT/LAER CLEARINGHOUSE
New or modified facilities that are to be constructed in areas of the
country that are currently attaining the national ambient air quality
standards are required by the Clean Air Act to install best available
control technology (BACT). In those areas of the country that have not yet
achieved compliance with the air quality standards, new or modified facilities
are required to meet the lowest achievable emission rate (LAER) for that
particular type of source. Permits to construct new or modified sources are
issued by State and local agencies only after the sources agree to comply
with either BACT or LAER requirements. Often an air pollution control
agency will need to establish BACT or LAER requirements either for a source
type completely new to them or for a source type with which they have had
only minimal experience. In these cases, the permitting agency may not be
knowledgable of the more recent advances in control technology for such
sources and it is extremely helpful if the agency can refer to BACT or LAER
determinations made by other control agencies.
EPA established the BACT/LAER Clearinghouse several years ago in order
to assist State and local air pollution control agencies by promoting the
sharing of air pollution control technology information. The primary
output of the Clearinghouse is an annual report of information about BACT/
LAER determinations made by the various control agencies. The most recent
report contains over 800 BACT/LAER determinations.^ An updated compilation
containing approximately 950 determinations is scheduled to be distributed
in 1984. The report is available in hard copy and through an automated
system. The automated data base can be accessed by both the public and the
private sectors.
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VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. GENERAL
The goal of the Clean Air Act is to protect public health and welfare
and enhance the quality of the nation's air. The stationary source
compliance program is designed to assure compliance with air emission
standards by stationary sources of air pollution, including such major
facilities as power plants, steel mills, smelters, and refineries. In
addition to ensuring compliance with emission limitations contained in
State Implementation Plans (SIP's), EPA and delegated States are responsible
for ensuring that sources comply with new source performance standards
(NSPS) and national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants
(NESHAP).
Through the combined efforts of industry, States, and the Federal
government, as of the end of 1983 approximately 89 percent of the sources
in the country were reported as achieving initial compliance and an
additional 3 percent were in compliance with schedules to install controls.
These efforts have largely been focused on sources which emit particulates
and sulfur dioxide; now, however, the program is directing increased
attention toward other problems of significance, most notably the control
of volatile organic compounds (VOC's).
Beginning in 1983, EPA initiated a major effort working with States
to improve the compliance data base and initiate enforcement actions
relating to VOC sources. These sources are major contributors to the
ozone nonattainment problem and may emit compounds which are highly toxic
in nature which may be reduced through an aggressive program to enforce
VOC standards. Generally speaking, widescale regulation of VOC was
initiated by the SIP's which were developed in response to that part of
the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments that pertain to areas that had not
attained the national ambient air quality standards. As part of those
SIP's, many States adopted regulations requiring sources to comply with
applicable regulations on or before December 31, 1982. It was the relatively
recent passage of these compliance dates which created the need to increase
the attention devoted to compliance efforts for VOC sources.
Another major component of the stationary source compliance program
is the effort to return to compliance those sources meeting the definition
of a "significant violator." The universe of sources covered by the
program includes sources that are in violation of NESHAPs and NSPS regula-
tions and sources in violation of a SIP if the source is of sufficient
size (presumptively 250 tons/year potential emissions or 100 tons/year
actual emissions of any pollutant) and is located in or impacts on a
nonattainment area for the pollutant for which the source is in violation.
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In the first 21 months of the significant violator program, considerable
progress was made. An initial list of 482 sources was established and an
additional 340 sources were identified after the initial list was established
In this same period, 484 sources (representing the vast majority of the
original list) were brought into compliance or placed on an acceptable
compliance schedule.
EPA developed during 1983 a compliance strategy for stationary sources
of air pollution which defines in one document the major thrusts of the
stationary source compliance program. Implementation of this strategy
will be the principal focus of the compliance program in the next few
years. The strategy continues the emphasis on resolving violations by
sources meeting the definition of a significant violator. The strategy
reaffirms that the present program is sound and should be continued in
the future.
This strategy does suggest three significant changes that will receive
increasing emphasis, beginning in 1984 and continuing into 1985. The
first suggested change will allow States more flexibility in carrying out
their inspection programs. The second change will increase the use of
continuous emission monitoring and similar techniques within the compliance
and enforcement program. The third change will emphasize the compliance
of sources violating the VOC provisions of the SIPs. The strategy also
outlines additional guidance that will be developed during 1984 concerning
specific aspects of the compliance program, including a more comprehensive
approach to assuring compliance on a more continuous basis.
B. POST-1982 ENFORCEMENT POLICY
On September 20, 1982, EPA issued a policy on enforcement against
sources in primary nonattainment areas (other than areas which received
an attainment date extension in accordance with the provisions of the
1977 Amendments to the Act) not in compliance with the Clean Air Act on
or after December 31, 1982. The policy recognized that courts have
jurisdiction to fashion relief that allows a source to continue operating
in violation beyond 1982 while taking steps to come into compliance
expeditiously. The policy also set forth criteria to determine the
relief the Agency should seek in each case, particularly whether a compliance
schedule with civil penalties would be appropriate or whether the Agency
should seek closure of the source.*
As a part of the Agency's implementation of the Post-1982 Enforcement
Policy, a separate tracking system was established for the 226 sources
subject to the policy as of the end of 1982. By the end of 1983, of
*NOTE: On January 11, 1984, the Deputy Administrator modified some
procedural aspects of the policy. The Agency can now enter into consent
decrees, rather than stipulations, to settle enforcement actions provided
that they are consistent with the policy.
VIII-2
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these 226 sources, 140 sources had been brought into final compliance or
been placed on Federal or State compliance schedules. Of the remaining
86 sources on the list, 35 sources had a Federal or State civil action
proceeding and 12 were subject to SIP revisions which appear to be approvable
and would bring the source into compliance. The remaining 39 sources
generally had some form of Federal or State action pending which should
resolve the violation. Progress also was good in identifying and resolving
new violators subject to the policy.
C. ENFORCEMENT OF NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
EPA directed much of its air enforcement effort in 1983 toward
compliance with the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants,
particularly vinyl chloride. During the year, the government settled two
and filed eleven cases to enforce the standard for vinyl chloride. In
addition, the government filed two cases to enforce the standard for
asbestos. Consent decrees were lodged in both of these cases in 1983.
EPA expects to place greater emphasis on enforcement of the asbestos
standard following repromulgation, which is now planned for 1984, and on
all aspects of the vinyl chloride standard.
D. STEEL INDUSTRY COMPLIANCE EXTENSION ACT AND ASSOCIATED ENFORCEMENT
ACTIONS
During 1983, the air enforcement program completed action on all
applications submitted under the Steel Industry Compliance Extension Act
(SICEA) by filing implementing decrees for those companies found to be
eligible under the Act and by pursuing enforcement actions against those
companies found not to be eligible. Under SICEA, Congress gave the EPA
Administrator authority to extend, for eligible corporations, deadlines
for meeting air pollution requirements for up to three years if the
company agreed to -invest an amount at least equal to the deferred cost of
pollution control equipment in modernization to improve the efficiency
and productivity of its steel making facilities. The terms of an extension,
offsetting modernization requirements, and compliance schedules were to
be set forth in consent decrees.
In 1983, consent decrees implementing favorable findings under SICEA
were entered for the Sharon Steel Corporation, the United States Steel
Corporation, and the Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel Corporation. (Relief had
previously been granted to Ford Motor Company and Alabama By-Products
Corporation.)
Three contempt actions were filed against the Jones and Laughlin
Steel Corporation on January 6-7, 1983, based upon judicial decree violations
at its plants located in the States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana.
A contempt action was filed on April 21, 1983, against the National Steel
Corporation based upon judicial decree violations at National's Granite
City Steel Division in Illinois. National Steel had withdrawn its SICEA
application, and Jones and Laughlin Steel's application had been denied
by EPA.
VIII-3
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Enforcement actions previously initiated against National Steel's
facilities in West Virginia and Michigan were resolved in 1983. A consent
decree resolving violations at National's Weirton (West Virginia) Steel
Division was entered on July 5, 1983. On May 23, 1983, a judicial decision
resolved the government's enforcement action against National's Great
Lakes (Michigan) Steel Division by requiring compliance "forthwith" and
assessing significant stipulated penalties. A judgment order resolving
consent decree violations by the Inland Steel Corporation was entered on
June 28, 1983, and a contempt action against the Kaiser Steel Corporation
for violations of a consent decree covering the corporation's coke batteries
was resolved in January 1983 through entry of an amended decree. (Both
Inland Steel and Kaiser Steel had withdrawn their SICEA applications.)
The Agency had additional steel-related enforcement actions pending
at the end of 1983, including cases against Kaiser Steel (blast furnaces),
Bethlehem Steel, Republic Steel, Chattanooga Coke and Chemical Company,
and Bayou Steel Corporation.
E. OTHER CIVIL LITIGATION
During 1983, there were 62 stationary air cases filed in the U.S.
District Courts. In addition, 33 civil actions were concluded by consent
decrees or judgment orders.
F. COMPLIANCE BY FEDERAL FACILITIES
During 1983, Federal facilities demonstrated a good record of compliance
with applicable air pollution regulations. As of the end of 1983, 315
(92 percent) of the 341 significant Federal facilities met applicable
emissions limitations. Of the 26 remaining facilities, 18 (5 percent)
are meeting compliance schedules that will bring them into compliance.
G. LIST OF VIOLATING FACILITIES
The list of violating facilities, under Section 306 of the Clean Air
Act, is designed to prevent the Federal government from subsidizing certain
Clean Air Act violators with contract, grant, or loan monies. No violators
were listed under Section 306 of the Act in 1983.
VIII-4
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IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
Control of motor vehicle emissions has been a Federal responsibility
since 1968. The requirements of the Clean Air Act (CAA) relating to
mobile sources have been subsequently refined several times, most recently
in 1977. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 established an ambitious
regulatory program which addressed remaining problems in the motor vehicle
emissions control program and bolstered efforts to attain and maintain
the national ambient air quality standards for carbon monoxide (CO) and
ozone (03). Below are listed some of the the mobile source provisions
of the 1977 Act.
- A schedule was established for implementation of stringent emissions
standards for automobiles—0.41 grams per mile (gpm) for hydrocarbons
(HC), 3.4 gpm for CO, and 1.0 gpm for oxides of nitrogen (NOX).
The table below displays the level of control mandated by the
standards:
New Light-Duty Vehicle Emissions
Without 1977 CAA Percent
Control Standard Reduction
Hydrocarbons 8.8 gpm .41 gpm 95%
Carbon Monoxide 87.0 gpm 3.40 gpm 96%
Oxides of Nitrogen 3.6 gpm 1.00 gpm 72%
- Similarly, the amendments tightened standards for emissions of the
above mentioned pollutants from heavy-duty engines.
- Standards for the control of particulate emissions from diesel
engines were legislated.
- Areas not meeting CO and 03 ambient air quality standards were
required to implement motor vehicle inspection and maintenance
(I/M) programs.
Since the enactment of the 1977 Amendments, the Environmental Protection
Agency has made steady progress toward achieving the Act's goals, even
while addressing the economic problems that the automotive industry has
faced in recent years. The Agency has made a number of modifications to
its motor vehicle emissions standards in order to assure that they attain
the goal of cleaner air as effectively and efficiently as possible. In
1983, EPA made significant progress toward the implementation of this
program.
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B. STANDARD SETTING
Light-Duty Vehicles
During 1983, the primary focus of EPA in the regulation of light-duty
vehicles (LDV's) and light-duty trucks (LDT's) was the control of emissions
from vehicles in high altitude areas and the control of diesel particulate
emissions.
- Section 206(f)(l) of the Clean Air Act requires that 1984 and
later model year LDV's comply with national emission standards
regardless of the altitude at which they are sold. In 1983 EPA
promulgated final rules for 1984 and later model year LDV's and
LDT's implementing this section. In addition, the Agency modified
existing regulations concerning earlier model year vehicles to
allow the sale of low altitude vehicles in high altitude areas
that already conform to national ambient air quality standards.*
- In 1983 EPA also promulgated a final rule allowing manufacturers
to demonstrate compliance with diesel particulate emission standards
on a fleetwide average rather than for each vehicle.2 This inno-
vation will permit manufacturers to select the most cost-effective
technologies while attaining the same overall reduction in controlling
particulate emissions.
Heavy-Duty Vehicles
With the achievement of effective reductions of passenger car emissions,
EPA has increasingly turned its regulatory focus toward the development
of parallel standards for heavy-duty trucks and other commercial vehicles.
Projections indicate that these vehicles will contribute an ever-increasing
percentage of the mobile source emissions generated for the rest of this
century. It is therefore important to establish standards for these
vehicles to help insure better air quality. Accomplishments in this area
during 1983 include the following:
- EPA promulgated a new standard for evaporative emissions from
heavy-duty trucks with gasoline engines.^ This regulation will
reduce non-methane hydrocarbon emissions from these vehicles by
92 percent over uncontrolled levels.
- The Agency also proposed to modify the full-life useful life
definition and the half-life useful life definition for LDT's and
heavy-duty engines.^ These new definitions reflect real-life
conditions more closely. They will enable EPA to more accurately
evaluate the effectiveness of various emission control systems
over the life of these vehicles.
IX-2
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- EPA revised HC and CO standards for emissions from 1985 and later
model year heavy-duty trucks.^ This regulation established a new
transient test procedure and more realistic useful life provisions.
It also included a modification of the standards, delaying imple-
mentation of them from 1984 to 1985, and further revising standards
for model year 1987 in order to enable manufacturers to avoid the
cost of developing catalytic converter technology for larger
engines. This adaptation will cause virtually no delay in achieving
ambient air quality standards for geographical areas not currently
meeting those standards.
- EPA also moved forward in its development of standards for particulate
and NOX emissions for heavy-duty diesel engines. Proposed regulations
are scheduled to be published in 1984.
Other Vehicle Categories
- EPA promulgated several changes in HC, CO, and visible smoke
standards for jet engines in 1983, enhancing the enforceabi1ity of
these standards in light of advances in technology. These changes
more accurately reflect the performance characteristics of modern
jet engines.
- EPA also made modifications to its rules concerning evaporative
emissions from motorcycles. Previous regulations required motor-
cycles to meet standards that applied to automobiles and trucks
and were physically impossible for them to comply with by design.
- The Agency also moved forward in its study of railroad emissions,
due to be published in 1984.
Fuels
- In October 1982, EPA published a rule revising the standards
applicable to lead in gasoline. This rulemaking, expected to
reduce airborne lead 34 percent more by 1990 than under the rule
previously in effect, was challenged by several refiners. In 1983,
EPA promulgated an amended definition of small refinery to allow
small refiners more time to comply with the new regulation.^
- EPA continued to process applications for fuel additive waivers,
primarily for methanol blends, in 1983.
- The Agency also promulgated rules substituting antiknock index for
research octane number in rating unleaded gasoline in 1983.8 j^
change brings EPA into conformity with industry standards of
measurement.
IX-3
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C. PREPRODUCTION COMPLIANCE
One of EPA's long-standing techniques for assuring compliance with
motor vehicle emissions standards is the preproduction certification
review program. Initiated in 1968, the program entails engineering
review by EPA staff of engine families representing new vehicles to be
sold in the United States. Steps in the process include submission by
manufacturers of technical data about respective vehicles, emissions
testing of prototypes by manufacturers, review of engineering data and
test results by EPA, and, in certain cases, confirmatory testing of
prototypes at EPA's laboratory facility in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
In 1983 EPA extended a pilot program allowing alternative methods in
determining the durability of emission control systems in LDV's and
LDT's.^ This ruling reduces the cost of certification of vehicles
without weakening emission control standards. The Agency continues to
develop other refinements to the certification process in order to enhance
its effectiveness, reduce its burden on EPA and manufacturers, and assure
its consistency with new developments in vehicle technology.
D. INSPECTION/MAINTENANCE
A strategy for dealing directly with in-use emissions problems is
the encouragement of motor vehicle inspection and maintenance (I/M)
programs. EPA's basic approach in this area was determined by the 1977
amendments to the Clean Air Act. Urban areas of the country which obtained
an extension in the deadline for attaining the ambient air quality standards
for automotive-related pollutants beyond 1982 are required by the Act to
implement an I/M program. In August 1983, EPA issued a policy statement
reaffirming its commitment to I/M as a vital component of pollution control
plans in non-attainment areas.^ In the statement, it reinforced its
position on funding restrictions and construction moratoriums in areas
which have not implemented I/M programs in the time mandated by the Act.
Consistent with this guidance, EPA took steps to assure implementation
of an I/M program in each locality where it is required by the Clean Air
Act. By the end of 1983, 20 areas in 31 States had initiated I/M programs.
E. ALTERNATIVE COMPLIANCE MEASURES
In recent years, increasing attention has focused on the problem of
excessive emissions from in-use vehicles. This emphasis has resulted
from the perception that the Nation's considerable investment in vehicle
emissions control technology can be squandered if for any reason the
equipment does not perform as anticipated in actual use.
EPA is now proceeding with a study whose goal is to identify the
most efficient way or ways to achieve in-use vehicle compliance with
emissions standards. It is possible that an alternative approach could
entail an expanded role for emissions averaging. An ongoing in-use
vehicle testing effort is aimed at generating data for this study.
Interim findings will be issued in 1984.
IX-4
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F. MOBILE SOURCE ENFORCEMENT
The EPA mobile source enforcement program is directed primarily
toward achieving compliance with motor vehicle emissions standards and
fuel regulations as required by the Clean Air Act. The major goals and
objectives are to: (1) assure that both new and in-use vehicles meet
emissions standards; (2) assure that emissions control systems are not
removed or rendered inoperative; (3) assure that harmful additives are
not present in gasoline; (4) administer statutory and California emissions
standards waivers; and (5) administer the statutory emissions warranties.
Recall Program
Section 207(c) of the Clean Air Act authorizes EPA to order the
recall of vehicles if a substantial number of any class of vehicles do
not conform to emissions standards in actual use. During 1983, 2,441,000
vehicles were recalled either by direct order of EPA or as a result of an
EPA investigation. In the same period, manufacturers voluntarily recalled
1,090,000 vehicles to correct emissions problems. EPA conducted a total of
25 recall investigations in 1983, and performed 634 tests of in-use
vehicles at laboratory facilities in Springfield, Virginia and Ann Arbor,
Michigan. In order to assure that emissions control systems operate
properly throughout their useful lives, EPA has focused increasingly on
testing and investigation of high mileage vehicles. However, a December
1983 decision of a panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals curtailed EPA's
authority to recall high mileage vehicles. EPA has sought review of this
decision by the full Court of Appeals.
Emissions Standards Waivers
During 1983, EPA issued decisions on 5 requests from automobile
manufacturers for waiver of the 1981-1984 model year oxides of nitrogen
(NOX) emissions standard for diesel engine powered automobiles. This
enabled manufacturers to continue to make and sell diesel engines while
developing technology capable of meeting stricter standards.
Selective Enforcement Auditing
In order to assure that production vehicles are made in accordance
with emissions standards, EPA conducts Selective Enforcement Audit (SEA)
test programs at manufacturers' facilities. EPA has found that the SEA
program encounters few failures, because automobile manufacturers routinely
test on a voluntary basis many more vehicles than are strictly required
through SEA orders. Therefore, beginning in 1981, EPA changed its SEA
policy to place greater reliance on manufacturer testing programs and
less on EPA-mandated audits. In 1983, EPA conducted 17 SEA test programs,
including four at foreign manufacturers' facilities.
Unleaded Gasoline Enforcement Program
EPA has responsibility for enforcing Section 211 of the Clean Air
Act, relating to the regulation of fuels and fuel additives. One of the
regulations under this section of the Act is aimed at protecting the
catalytic converters on 1975 and later model year cars.
IX-5
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EPA has established a nationwide fuels enforcement program to ensure
that affected retail outlets comply with these regulations. This program
includes sampling of the fuel at retail outlets by Regional EPA field
inspectors and private or State inpectors under EPA contract, in order to
measure the fuel's lead content. EPA conducted 14,360 inspections under
this program during 1983.
As mentioned before in a related area, EPA developed new enforcement
procedures for the revised lead phasedown program, aimed at controlling
the lead content of gasoline at the refinery level. The result was a 10
percent reduction of lead use in 1983.
Tampering/Fuel Switching
EPA is also responsible for carrying out programs designed to deter
tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or using leaded fuel in
vehicles which require unleaded fuel. Surveys undertaken by EPA have
shown tampering and fuel switching to be continuing serious problems
which undermine the emissions control performance of many in-use vehicles.
The latest survey indicates that about 17 percent of the vehicle fleet is
subject to gross tampering, and about 12 percent to fuel switching.
Federal efforts alone cannot effectively address these problems.
Consequently, EPA has promoted the implementation of State and local
antitampering enforcement programs. In 1983, six local antitampering
programs were set up as a result of this initiative.
EPA also has prepared a document developing guidelines for State and
local antitampering and anti-fuel switching enforcement programs. This
document determines the impact of tampering and fuels programs on HC, CO,
and NOX nonattainment areas, evaluating them as part of state implementation
programs for those areas.
G. IMPORTS
The control of emissions from imported vehicles has become a major
issue in recent years. Due to various reasons, vehicle imports have
vastly increased their share of the U.S. auto market. Correspondingly,there
has been a significant increase in the number of independent auto importers
bringing cars into this country for resale. This has created several
problems in regulating the emissions from these cars. In 1983 EPA received
6,000 applications and 22,000 inquiries concerning the importation of
nonconforming autos into the U.S. In response, the Agency has modified
its imports program to handle this increase in demand, and is revising
its regulations to make the process work more smoothly and efficiently.
Workshops were held in November and December 1983 to discuss the impact
of the regulations and listen to public recommendations on changing them.
IX-6
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X. LITIGATION
A. INTRODUCTION
The United States Courts of Appeals decided 15 cases under the Clean
Air Act in 1983. The most important single decision sustained new EPA
controls on the lead content of gasoline. Four more cases fell in a
somewhat related field, involving challenges to EPA regulations implementing
portions of the control scheme for mobile sources of air pollution under
Title II of the Act.
Five of the cases decided in 1983 involved EPA practice in controlling
emissions of sulfur oxides under the Clean Air Act. Three of these
involved challenges to EPA practice in approving relaxations of control
requirements for sulfur oxides contained in State Implementation Plans
(SIP's). One involved the grounds on which EPA could permissibly tighten
these requirements. The remaining decision reviewed EPA's rules for
determining the extent to which sources would be allowed to take credit
for the dispersion effects of "tall stacks" in calculating the degree of
emission reduction needed to meet air quality standards.
Two of the remaining five cases involved various features of the
Act's prevention of significant deterioration (PSO) system, and two
involved the system for attaining air quality standards. The last upheld
EPA's regulations for assessing penalties under Section 120 of the Clean
Air Act.
EPA was a party to all but two of these cases. It won eight of them
and lost four while, in the remaining case, the decision was too mixed to
characterize one way or the other.
B. MOBILE SOURCE CASES
Lead in Gasoline
In Small Refiner Lead Phase-Down Task Force v. EPA, 705 F.2d. 506,
the O.C. Circuit upheld most aspects of EPA's decision to reformulate its
lead-in-gasoline regulations in a way that would increase their stringency
over time, eliminate separate more lenient lead-in-gasoline standards for
small refiners after a transition period, and tighten the definition of
small refiners entitled to separate treatment even during this transition
period.
The court upheld these regulations almost in their entirety. It
found that EPA was justified in finding that airborne lead remained a
topic of health concern, that no special standard for small refiners was
required by the Clean Air Act, and that the exact standard chosen was, on
the whole, adequately explained and justified by the record.
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The court invalidated EPA's establishment of a new transitional
standard for small refiners tighter than the existing standard, holding,
in language of some potential importance for administrative law generally,
that adequate notice of the proposed tightening of the standard had not
been given.
Motor Vehicle Emission Controls
In the first of three cases reviewing aspects of the emissions
warranty for new motor vehicles cases to be decided, Motor Vehicle Manu-
facturers Ass'n v. Ruckelshaus, 719 F.2d. 1159, the D.C. Circuit considered
whether EPA had properly found that "short tests" of vehicle emissions
performance had been developed that correlated reasonably with results
obtained on the longer and more elaborate Federal Test Procedure used to
measure prototype compliance with emissions standards. The court had
little difficulty in rejecting industry arguments that EPA could not
compensate for the lack of perfect correlation between the two tests by
adjusting upward the emission levels at which a vehicle would fail the
short test, thus resolving any uncertainties in correlation by passing
the vehicles that fell in the gray area.
In Automotive Parts Rebuilders Ass'n v. EPA, 720 F.2d. 142, the same
court considered rules established by EPA to implement the extended
emissions warranty manufacturers are required to offer for new cars. The
court agreed with EPA that for the first two years or 24,000 miles after
a new car is sold, manufacturers are responsible for repairing any part
of the car that causes failure of a "short test," not just those parts
typically associated with emission controls. The court also accepted
EPA's view that a vehicle manufacturer must honor a warranty claim even
when another company's defective part causes the "short test" failure,
provided the part was certified for emissions equivalency under EPA's
part certification program.
However, the court concluded that EPA had to provide a mechanism for
auto manufacturers to be reimbursed for warranty costs by the manufacturers
of the defective part. And, in Specialty Equipment Market Ass'n v.
Ruckelshaus, 720 F.2d, 124, the court found EPA's reimbursement scheme to
be inadequate, and remanded to EPA to develop a more effective scheme.
The court also concluded that EPA had failed to articulate a reasoned
basis for its decision to exclude "specialty parts" -- mostly parts
designed to enhance fuel economy or performance -- from the parts certi-
fication program.
Finally, in General Motors Corp. v. Ruckelshaus, the court, by a
vote of two to one, held that EPA could not require the recall for repair
of vehicles that had exceeded the "useful life" of five years or 50,000
miles during which emissions standards apply at the time they came in for
repair, even if they had been within their useful lives when they first
began to violate standards. One of the judges dissented vigorously and
X-2
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agreed with EPA that the Agency may require manufacturers to repair, at
any time, vehicles that were within their "useful lives" when they first
failed to meet the standards.
EPA has requested the court to rehear this case en bane.
C. SULFUR OXIDES CONTROL
In 1983, the Sixth and Seventh Circuits both upheld EPA's present
policy on approving relaxations of sulfur oxides (S02) SIP requirements
without detailed consideration of the long-range impact of any resulting
S02 increases. They accepted EPA's position that the rapid drop-off of
S02 concentrations with distance from the source strongly indicates that
long-range effects of these emissions are likely to be minimal, and that
evaluating the transformation of S02 into particulates, particularly over
long distances, presents technical and scientific problems that the Agency
has not yet successfully resolved and therefore should not be compelled
to deal with in the regulatory context. New York v. EPA, 710 F.2d. 1210
(6th Cir. 1983), New York v. EPA, 716 F.2d. 440 (7th Cir. 1983).*
These decisions probably terminate litigation of this question for the
immediate future.
In Wisconsin Electric Power Co. v. Costle. 715 F.2d. 323 (7th Cir.
1983), the court upheld both EPA's decision to use running averages
rather than block averages to conclude that a given area was not meeting
the air quality standard for S02 and to rely on modeling results, rather
than monitoring data, to reject a subsequent petition to redesignate the
area back to attainment again.
Finally, in Sierra Club v. EPA, [719 F.2d 436], the O.C. Circuit
reviewed and, in major part, invalidated EPA's regulations prescribing
the degree to which sources could take credit for the dispersion effects
of a "tall stack" in calculating the degree of emission reduction needed to
meet air quality standards.
D. PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION
Two cases decided in 1983 involved the Act's prevention of
significant deterioration system.
In Sierra Club v. EPA, [715 F.2d 653] the D.C. Circuit remanded to
EPA for reconsideration its decision not to include surface mines in the
list of sources whose fugitive emissions will be counted in determining
whether they are major emitters of air pollution for purposes of new
source review under the Clean Air Act. The court found the reasons EPA
gave for not including surface mines inconsistent with the reasons it had
given for including certain other sources.
*In a third suit, the Sixth Circuit decided in EPA's favor in an
unpublished order. New York vs. EPA, No. 82-3426 (order issued
August 12, 1983).
X-3
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In Kerr-McGee Chemical Corporation v. Interior Dept., 709 F.2d. 597
(9th Cir. 1983), a case to which EPA was not a party, the court rejected
a company's claim that the Interior Department had to meet certain sub-
stantive and procedural requirements before recommending to a State that
it provide additional air quality protection to a national monument.
It found no justifiable injury had occurred because, under the statute, the
decision whether to actually provide this protection is reserved to the
State, and the State had not acted.
E. OTHER APPELLATE DECISIONS
In Duquesne Light Co. v. EPA, 698 F.2d. 456, the D.C. Circuit upheld
in virtually all respects EPA's regulations under Section 120 of the
Clean Air Act for assessing administrative penalties against sources that
delay compliance with emissions standards. In particular, the court
upheld the details of the mathematical model used to calculate these
penalties.
In Bethlehem Steel v. EPA, [723 F.2d 1303] the court ruled that
only a State, not EPA, can now change the designation of an area as
"attainment," "nonattainment," or "unclassifiable" under Section 107 of
the Clean Air Act.
In Sierra Club v. Indiana-Kentucky Electric Corp., 716 F.2d. 1145
(1983), a case to which EPA was not a party, the Seventh Circuit ruled
that a State Implementation Plan that has been invalidated as State law
by the State courts cannot be enforced as Federal law either.
F. OTHER LITIGATION
In 1983, the Supreme Court granted certiorari to review the D.C.
Circuit's decision in NRDC v. Gorsuch, 685 F.2d. 718 (1982). The case
was largely briefed in 1983 and is scheduled for oral argument and decision
in 1984.
Two district court cases in 1983 split on whether the present emissions
standards under Section 112 of the Act for vinyl chloride contain "work
practice" requirements of a sort that would require further rulemaking to
be validly promulgated.
Compare United States v. Borden, Inc., 572 F. Supp. 684 (D. Mass.) (no
such defect) with United States v. Ethyl Corp. [No. 83-3537 (N.D. LA,
July 6, 1983)] (standard contains work practice requirements).
Finally, in another of the numerous schedule suits that mark the
history of the Clean Air Act, EPA was ordered to propose hazardous emissions
standards for arsenic. New York v. Gorsuch, 554 F. Supp. 1060 (S.D.N.Y.).
X-4
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XI. REFERENCES
Chapter II
1. "National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1982," EPA-450/4-84-
002, March 1984.
2. 44 Federal Register 27558 (May 10, 1979).
3. D. Fox, "Judging Air Quality Model Performance," Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, 62(5):599-609, 1981.
4. R. Londergan, et al., "Evaluation of Urban Air Quality Simulation
Models," EPA-450/4-83-020, 1983.
5. A. Policastro, et al., "Evaluation of Two Short-Term Long-Range Transport
Models With Field Data," Presented at APCA Conference on the Meteorology
of Acidic Deposition, Hartford, CT, 1983.
6. R. Londergan, et al., "Evaluation of Rural Air Quality Simulation Models,"
EPA-450/4-83-003, 1983.
7. American Meteorological Society, "Synthesis of the Rural Model Review,"
EPA-600/3-83-108, 1983.
8. American Meteorological Society, "Review of the Attributes and Performance
of Six Urban Diffusion Models," Report Prepared by the American Meteoro-
logical Society Under a Cooperative Agreement with EPA, Research Triangle
Park, N.C., 1983.
9. A Thrall, T. Stockenius, and C. Burton, "Consideration of the 'Bootstrap'
Technique for use in Evaluating the Effect of Modeling Uncertainty on
the Determination of Emission Limits," EPA Contract No. 68-02-3582,
Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1983.
10 "Guideline on Air Quality Models," EPA 450/2-78-027, 1978.
11. "Receptor Model Technical Series Volume III: User's Manual for Chemical
Mass Balance Model," EPA-450/4-83-014, July 1983.
12. "Receptor Model Technical Services Volume IV: Summary of Particle
Identification Techniques," EPA-450/4-83-018, June 1983.
Chapter III
1. J. L. McElroy, et al, 1982. "Airborne Downward Looking LIDAR Measurements
During the South Coast Air Basin/Southeast Desert Oxidant Transport
Study: Operations and Data Report," T.S.-AMD-82133.
-------
J. L. McElroy, et al , 1983. "Airborne Downward Looking LIOAR
Measurements During the San Diego Oxidant Transport Study: Operations
and Data Report," T.S.-AMD-83612.
2. Workshop on Fundamental Approaches to Extrapolation Modeling of Inhaled
Toxicants: Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide. June 27-29, 1983; Washington, D.C,
3. Chemical Coaters Association. "Environmental and Energy Benefits of
Microprocessors Used for Oven Air Flows From Metal Painting Operations,"
EPA-600-S-7-83-037; NTIS PB83-225250, October 1983.
4. G. England, et al . "Evaluation and Demonstration of Low NOX Burner
Systems for TEOR Steam Generators - Test Report: Preliminary Evaluation
of Commercial Prototype Burner," EPA-600/7-83-061; NTIS PB84-128727,
January 1984.
5. R. J. Tidona, et al . "Evaluation of Combustion Variable Effects on
NOX Emissions From Mineral Kilns," EPA-600/7-83-045; NTIS
PB83-259655, August 1983.
6. C. Castaldini and L. R. Waterland. "Environmental Assessment of a
Reciprocating Engine Retrofitted with Non-Selective Catalytic Reduction,"
Accurex Draft Report, April 1984.
7. R. J. Tidona, et al . "Refinery Process Heater NOX Reduction Using
Staged Combustion Air Lances," EPA-600-7-83-022; NTIS PB83-193946,
March 1983.
8. "Photochemical Reactivity of Perchloroethylene," EPA-600-3-83-001,
January 1983.
9. Health Assessment Document for Carbon Tetrachloride, March 1983,
EPA-600-8-82-001. (revised draft)
10. Health Assessment Document for Nickel, May 1983, EPA-600/8-83-012.
(Draft)
11. Updated Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity of Cadmium, June 1983,
EPA-600/8-83-025A. (Draft)
12. Health Assessment Document for Manganese (Parts 1 and 2), June 1983,
EPA-600/8-83-014A. (Draft)
13. Health Assessment Document for Chromium, June 1983,
EPA-600/8-83-014A. (Draft)
14. Health Assessment Document for Vinylidene Chloride, October 1983,
EPA-600/8-83-031A. (Draft)
XI-2
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15. Health Assessment Document for Epichlorihydrin, October 1983,
EPA-600/8-83-032A. (Draft)
16. Health Assessment Document for Trichloroethylene, December 1983,
EPA-600/8-82-006B. (Draft)
17. Health Assessment Document for Tetrachloroethylene, (Perchloro-
ethylene), December 1983, EPA-600/8-82-005B. (Draft)
18. Health Assessment Document for Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride),
December 1983, EPA-600/8-82-004B. (Draft)
19. Asbestos Health Assessment Update, February 1984, EPA-600/8-84-003A.
(Draft)
20. Health Assessment Document for Hexachlorocyclopentadiene, February
1984, EPA-600/8-84-001A. (Draft)
21. Health Assessment Document for Chloroform (Parts 1 and 2), March
1984, EPA-600/8-84-004A. (Draft)
22. Health Assessment Document for Ethylene Oichloride, April 1984,
EPA-600/8-83-006A. (Draft)
23. Health Assessment Document for Ethylene Oxide, April 1984,
EPA-600/8-84-009A. (Draft)
24. Health Assessment Document for Toluene, August 1983,
EPA-600/8-82-008F; NTIS PB84-100056.
25. Health Assessment Document for Acrylonitrile, October 1983,
EPA-600-8-82-007F; NTIS PB84-149152.
26. Health Assessment Document for 1,1,2-Tn'chloro-l ,2,2-Trifluoro-
ethane (Chlorofluorocarbon CFC-113), September 1983,
EPA-600/8-82-002F; NTIS PB84-118843.
27. Carcinogen Assessment of Coke Oven Emissions, February 1984,
EPA-600/6-82-003F; NTIS PB84-170182.
28. Health Assessment Document for 1,1,1-Trichlorethane (Methyl
Chloroform), February 1984, EPA-600/8-82-003F; NTIS number
not yet available.
29. Health Assessment Document for Inorganic Arsenic, March 1984,
EPA-600/8-83-021F; NTIS number not yet available.
XI-3
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30. J. 0. Pleil, W. A. McClenny. "Reduced Temperature Preconcentration
and Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Ambient Vapor Phase Organic
Compounds: Systems Automation," Submitted to Analytical Chemistry,
(in press), 1984.
M. V. Holdren, R. N. Smith, W. A. McClenny. "Reduced Temperature
Preconcentration and Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Ambient Vapor
Phase Organic Compounds" Systems Performance," Submitted to Analytical
Chemistry, (in press) 1984.
31. "Volatile Organic Chemicals in the Atmosphere: An Assessment of
Available Data," EPA-600/3-83-027A, April 1983.
32. "Measurement of Hazardous Organic Chemicals in Ambient Atmosphere,"
EPA-600/3-83-002, January 1983.
33. Air Quality Criteria for Lead, Volumes, I, II, III, and IV, August and
October 1983, EPA-600/8-83-028A (draft).
34. R. P. VanNess, L. R. Woodland, and E. D. Gibson. "Full-Scale Dual
Alkali FGD Demonstration at Louisville Gas and Electric Company,"
EPA-600/7-83-039; NTIS PB83-241 364, August 1983.
35. "Capsule Report: Adipic Acid-Enhanced Lime/Limestone Test Results at
the EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility," EPA-625/2-82-029, April 1982.
"Adipic Acid Enhanced Lime and Limestone Testing at the EPA Alkali
Scrubbing Test Facility," Vol. I, Basic Report: EPA-600/7-82-010
NTIS PB82-230 624; Vol. II, Appendices: EPA-6uOO/7-82-010B,
PB82-230632, March 1982.
36. P. A. Clarke, R. W. Gerstle, 0. S. Henzel , K. W. Mason, and
S. R. Sabatini. "The Adipic Acid Enhanced Flue Gas Desulfurization
Process for Industrial Boilers," Volume I, Field Test Results:
EPA-600/7-82-065A; NTIS PB83-144 774, November 1982.
G. P. Behrens and 0. W. Hargrove. "The Adipic Acid Enhanced Flue Gas
Desulfurization Process for Industrial Boilers," Volume 2, Technical
Assessment: Radian 68-02-3171 T35; NTIS PB83-144782.
37. "A Study of Sodium for Improved Hot Side ESP Performance," Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Volume 31, #3 (March 1981).
38. The results of work at Bull Run are in the final report "Pilot Evaluaiton
of Fine Particle High Resistivity Electrostatic Precipitator." (An
EPA number has not been assigned to the report.)
XI-4
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39. "Electrostatic Augmentation of Fabric Filtration: Pulse-Jet Pilot
Unit Experience," EPA-600/7-82-062.
40. "Pollution Episodic Model User's Guide," EPA-600/8-84-008,
March 1984.
41. R. K. Stevens and T. Pace, 1984. "Status of Source Apportionment
Methods: Quail Roost II," EPA-600/D-83-022.
42. C. Lewis and R. K. Stevens, 1983. "Comparison of Factors Influencing
Visual Air Quality During the Winter in Denver from Measurements Made
by General Motors and Motor Vehicle Manufacturers in 1978 and EPA in
1982," Submitted to Coloroado Air Quality Commission, December 1983.
43. R. K. Stevens. "Analytical Measurements for Use in Source Apportionment
Studies to Determine the Impact of Woodburning on Air Quality," (in
press), Environment International.
44. T. G. Dzubay, R. K. Stevens, and P. L. Haagenson, 1984. "Composition
and Origin of Aerosols at a Forested Mountain in Sovient Georgia," (in
press), Atmospheric Environment.
- R. K. Stevens, T. G. Dzubay, C. W. Lewis, and R. W. Shaw, 1984
"Source Apportionment Methods Applied to the Determination of the
Origin of Ambient Aerosols that Affect Visibility in Forested
Areas," Volume 18, Page 261-272, Atmospheric Environment.
45. Irwin, J. S., 1983. "Estimating Plume Dispersion - A comparison of
Several Sigma Scheme," Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology,
22, 99-114.
- Irwin, J. S., 1984. "Site-to-Site Variation in Performance of
Dispersion Parameter Estimation Schemes," pp. 605-616, Ai r
Pollution Modeling and Its Application, III, (C. De Wispelaere,
Ed.) Plenum Publication, Corporation, N.Y.
46. Irwin, J. S. 1983. "Preparing Meteorological Data for Use in Routine
Dispersion Calculations - Work Group Summary Report."
NOAA-TR-ERL/ARL-122.
47. "Users Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution (UNAMAP)
[Version 5], Magnetic Tape and Users Guides," NTIS PB83-244368.
48. Revised Evaluation of Health Effects Associated with Carbon Monoxide
Exposure, August 1983, EPA-600/8-83-033A. (Draft)
49. "The Acidic Deposition Phenomena and Its Effects: Critical Assessment
Review Papers," EPA-600/8-83-0160, May 1983.
XI-5
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Chapter IV
1. 48 Federal Register 628 (January 5, 1983).
2. 45 Federal Register 55066 (August 18, 1980).
3. 48 Federal Register 41608 (September 16, 1983).
4. "Revised Evaluation of Health Effect
Chapter VI
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9,
10.
48 Federal Register
48 Federal Register
48 Federal Register
45 Federal Register
47 Federal Register
48 Federal Register
47 Federal Register
46 Federal Register
43 Federal Register
"Compilation of Air
supplements 1-15, U
4972 (February 3, 1983).
5022 (February 3, 1983).
50686 (November 2, 1983).
80084 (December 2, 1980).
5864 (February 8, 1982).
38742 (August 25, 1983).
27554 (June 25, 1982).
50766 (October 14, 1981).
46246 (October 5, 1978).
Pollution Emission Factors
.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC
Chapter VII
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
Federal
"BACT/LAER
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Register
Clearingl
AP-42, including
January 1984.
48368 (October 18
48328 (October 18
1056 (January 10,
37578 (August 18,
38728 (August 25,
5452 (February 4,
7128 (February 17
48932 (October 31
57538 (December
279 (January 4,
2276 (January 18,
2676 (January 20,
39566 (August 31 ,
50671 (November 2.
48960 (October 21.
333112 (July 20,
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
30, 1983).
1983)
Determination" (Apri
1983).
1983)
1983).
1983).
1983).
1983).
32126 (July 13, 1983).
ouse - A Compilation of Control Technology
1 1983).
XI-6
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Chapter IX
1. 48 Federal Register
2. 48 Federal Register
3. 48 Federal Register
4. 48 Federal Register
5. 48 Federal Register
6. 48 Federal Register
7. 48 Federal Register
8. 48 Federal Register
9. 48 Federal Register
10. 48 Federal Register
41296 (September 14, 1983),
33456 (July 21, 1983).
1430 (January 12, 1983).
1472 (January 12, 1983).
52170 (November 16, 1983).
29692 (June 28, 1983).
50482 (November 1, 1983).
4286 (January 31, 1983).
22546 (May 19, 1983).
35312 (August 3, 1983).
XI-7
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
/Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Progress in the Prevention and Control of
Air Pollution in 1983
7 W#fm> Project Officer
William F. Hamilton
9 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Control Programs Development Division
Mail Drop 15
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D. C. 20460
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
January 1985*
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT N
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1 1. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVEREI
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES .,«,.... _,. _. j. i n j_ j_ • A j_ j. L.
AnnuaT report of the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to the
Congress under Section 313, 202, and 306 of the Clean Air Act
16. ABSTRACT
The report addresses the progress made in the prevention and control of air
pollution in 1983. It covers the areas of air quality trends and monitoring,
development of air quality criteria and standards, the status of State Imple-
mentation Plans, the control of stationary and mobile source emissions,
enforcement, and litigation. The report is the annual report of the Administrator
of EPA to the Congress in compliance with Sections 313, 202(b)(4), and 306 of
the Clean Air Act, as amended.
17.
a.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Air Pollution
Environmental Engineering
Pollution Abatement
Pollution Regulations
Public Health
18
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited. Available
through NTIS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
19 SEC'Jt=IT ( CLASS /This Repur'l
Unclassified
20 SECURITY CLASS /"hi* page:
Unclassified
c. COSATI I idd/Group
21 NO Cr- PAGES
6%
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77^ PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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