This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for
publication. Copies of this report are available through the Library Services
Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27711; or, for a fee, from the National technical Information
Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication Mo. EPA-450/2-88-001
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-. Region 5, Library (5PL-16)
2JQ G, Dcprborn Street, Room
Chicae-, --I 50604
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CONTENTS
Page
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
A. Introduction 1-1
B. Air Quality Trends, Monitoring, and Modeling 1-1
C. Air Pollution Research Programs 1-3
D. Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 1-7
E. Assessment and Control of Toxic Air Pollutants .... 1-8
F. Status of Air Quality Management Programs 1-10
G. Control of Stationary Source Emissions 1-12
H. Stationary Source Compliance 1-12
I. Control of Mobile Source Emissions 1-15
J. Stratospheric Ozone Protection 1-18
K. Radon Assessment and Remediation 1-18
L. Litigation 1-19
II. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
.1
A. National Air Quality and Emission Trends II-l
B. Ambient Air Monitoring 11-4
C. Air Quality Modeling II-6
D. Integration of Air Data Systems II-8
E. Emission Factor Development 11-9
F. References 11-9
III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
A. Introduction III-l
B. General Air Pollution Research Activities III-l
C. Acid Deposition Research Activities 111-10
D. References 111-15
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR DUALITY STANDARDS
A. Description of Activities IV-1
R. References IV-2
V. ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
A. Introduction V-l
B. Assessment and Regulatory Decisions V-l
C. Federal Regulatory Program - Stationary Sources . . . V-l
D. Mobile Sources V-4
E. Specific Point Sources V-4
F. Assessing Urban Risk V-4
G. Building State and Local Air Toxics Control Programs . V-5
H. References V-6
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VI. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. Development of Policy and Regulations VI-1
B. Prevention of Significant Deterioration and
Nonattainment New Source Reviewjftctitfities VI-4
C. Implementation Overview and Assistance VI-6
D. Air Pollution Training VI-9
-£.- References . . ... . ,., .;-. <. . >--..--. ,:;., . ..--. _.-. . .. .v -V-I--*)
VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE- EMISSIONS --. . - ''-,<
A. New Source Performance "Standards (.NSPSJ . . . . . . . VII-1
B. BACT/LAER Clearinghouse > ...--. . « . .: ?.- . . .,..; VI1-4
C. References . .. .-.,.-. ^ _.._,. _,-;.... ,.: .-, .,,-.. -.,-->: ,; .-.::. '.-;.£ Vl-I'-l'
i" ^ , " "»"
VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. General . . . » .--., ... . .,-. . -. -. =.; . . . -. w '. -. . .VILI-1
B. Litigatiorv . ,: .- . ._,". -,£ .'
C. Compliance and[Enforcement-,
D. Compliance by Federal^F^cili.ties- ,; . . ,. .> . .:.^-p v .: .: -Vill-r7
E. List of Violating Facil.iti-es;.-^.. . . . < v . >- . V .---,. VI;LI-7-
IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
- > f i -\ . r . - . j- .. - ; - , i ; f '-."*'-,"''""' .~t. ' ?. n I ' 1 '
A. Introduction : ^JX-,1. ;
B. Ozone Control IX-?
L»» Hi P 1 O X"l CS "; -' 1"»f» * ' l^» " *^ ' i »M ' # -- « " _ U\~ ^ ^
D. Standard Setting ..',,. ._:.-,: I.X»4-
E. Preproduction Compliance IX-5
F. Vehicle Inspection Program IX-5
G. Mobile Source Enforcement IX-6
H. Imports IX-8
I. Litigation IX-9
,). References IX-10
X. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
A. Description of Activities X-l
B. References X-3
XI. RADON ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION XI-1
XII. LITIGATION
A. Introduction XII-1
B. Landmark Decisions XII-1
C. Other Significant Decisions XII-1
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PREFACE-
The Clean-'Air Act, as -amended,- authori-ze-s -a -national- program of :ai'r pollution
research, regulation, and enforcement activities. This program is directed at
the Federal level by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency' (EPA). "-However, '-
primary responsibility for the prevention and control of air pollution continues
to rest with State and local governments. The BPA^'s ;rol;e "is" tfo conduct research
and development programs, set national -standards and regulations, provide technical
and financial -assistance to- tJie State-s, a-nd-, where necess-ary,- supplement'^tate
implementation programs.
Section 313 of the Clean Air Act requires the Administrator to report on
measures ta-kerv toward- implementing the purpose and intent- of the -Act. This report
covers the period January 1- to December- 3-1,- 1:986,~ and- describes- the issues involved
in the prevention and control- of air poIT-ution ^and the^ major ^elements of progress
toward that goal that have been-made during that time. In addition, this report
also includes two other- EPA. reports to Congress1'required under the- Clean Air Act,
as amended:
1. Section 306 report on Federal procurement and violating facilities
(Chapter VIILK and ,.....- ........ ...-
2. Section 202(b)(4) report on measures taken- in re-lation to motor "vehicle
emissions control (Chapter -IX).
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I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
A. IHTRODIICTION
This report, which has been prepared in order to satisfy the
requirements of sections 313, 202(b)(4), and 306 of the Clean Air Act (Act),
describes the progress that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
made in the prevention and control of air pollution during 1986. The
following paragraphs summarize the contents of the remaining chapters of
this report, especially insofar as those chapters illuminate current
understanding of air quality problems, controls, and administrative
apparatus.
B. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
Since it takes approximately 1 year to assemble, analyze, and report
air quality and emissions data on a national basis, the latest air quality
and emissions data available for this report are for the year 1985.
All of the criteria pollutants showed improvements in air quality and
emissions between 1976 and 1985. Between 1984 and 1985, all of the pollut-
ants declined with major decreases observed for both carbon monoxide and
lead. Specific details on air quality and emissions levels, for each of
the pollutants to which national ambient air quality standards (NAAOS)
apply, are as follows:
o Annual average ambient total suspended particulate (TSP) levels
decreased 24 percent between 1976 and 1985, while TSP emissions
decreased 24 percent. Between 1984 and 1985, ambient TSP levels
declined 4 percent, while TSP emissions declined 3 percent.
o Annual average ambient sulfur dioxide levels decreased 42 percent
between 1976 and 1985, while total sulfur oxide emissions decreased
21 percent. Between 1984 and 1985, ambient sulfur dioxide levels
declined 5 percent, while total sulfur oxide emissions declined
3 percent.
o Ambient carbon monoxide levels decreased 36 percent between 1976
and 1985, while total carbon monoxide emissions decreased 21 percent.
Between 1984 and 1985, ambient carbon monoxide levels decreased
10 percent. These changes reflect the continuing reductions in
carbon monoxide emissions brought about by the Federal Motor Vehicle
Control Program, the change in the vehicle mix, and the possible
influence of meteorological conditions in some geographic areas.
o Annual average ambient nitrogen dioxide levels decreased 11 percent
between 1976 and 1985. Between 1976 and 1985, total nitrogen oxide
emissions decreased by 1 percent, but highway vehicle emissions,
the source category likely impacting the majority of nitrogen dioxide
monitoring sites, decreased by 4 percent. Between 1984 and 1985,
ambient nitrogen dioxide levels decreased 2 percent, while total
nitrogen oxide emissions increased 2 percent.
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o The compos j-te -averag%, of, fthe second h/iglrest daily maximum 1-hour
ambient ozone values- Jdec neased 19 percent between 1976 and 1985,
while volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions decreased 11
percent. The decrease in ambient- ozone .levels is complicated by
the change in the ozone calibration, procedure _which took place ..
between 1978 and- 19-79-. - In the .post-calibration period (1979- ?- - - :
1985), ambient ozone levels decreased :1Q percent, while V-QC '.. ' :.,-: *
emissions decreased 12 percent* the ozone trend in the 19#0's ^:or
shows that the 1980 and 1983 values were higher than those in
1981, 1982, 1984 and 1985. While 1985 levels are similar to
1984 levels, there was a slight improvement of 2 percent in' the
national composite average between these 2 years.
o Ambient lead levels decreased 79 percent between 1976 and 1985,
while lead emissions decreased 86 percent. Between 1984 and 1585,
ambient lead levels declined 32 percent, while lead emissions
declined 48 percent. This is the largest percentage decrease for
any 2 consecutive years. .
The EPA promulgated regulations in 1979 which required States to establish
and operate air monitoring networks and to report the -data to EPA. Two types
of permanent stations are provided for in the regulations: State 'and Local
Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS) and National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS).
The SLAMS, which were designed to meet the overall monitoring requirements of
State implementation plan (SIP) activities, were required to meet all' provisions
of the regulations by January 1, 1983. Through December 1986., 4545 SLAMS -
monitors were operating in accordance with all requirements of the regulations. "
The NAMS, which are .a subset of the SLAMS, network, are- designed to" provide a, "
national monitoring network as required by section '319;of -the Act. Through
December 1986, 1325 NAMS monitors were operating in accordance with* all.
requirements of the regulations. -. . - -..
To accompany the proposed revisions to the NAAf)S for participate matter,
EPA on March 20, 1984, also proposed amendments to 40 CFR 58 (Air Quality
Surveillance and Reporting Regulations). The proposed revisions to Part 58
would establish ambient air quality monitoring requirements for particles
nominally 10 micrometers and smaller in diameter (PMirj) as measured by a new
reference method proposed as Appendix J of 40 CFR Part 50 or an equivalent
method. Specialized training was provided by EPA in 1986 to State and local
agency personnel on the operation and maintenance of the PM^f) samplers.
<\lso, in addition to using funds supplied by EPA, the States -and local agencies"
have separately purchased PM]_n, samplers bringing the total number of operating
samplers to 877 as of December 31, 1986.
Ambient hydrocarbon data were collected at 23 sites in order to measure
nonmethane organic compounds in various cities. Results from this activity
will be used in estimating the amount of source control needed to attain the
ozone air quality standard. - - ,<
In the air quality modeling area, EPA evaluated eight short-term,
long-range transport models during 1986. This effort resulted from a coopera-
tive agreement between EPA and the American Meteorological Society. In
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addition, EPA developed a technique for statistically intercomparing the
performance of air quality models. This techhi"queF'-wfl1v'be refined in 1987
and tested for implementation in 'particular re*guTatbTy 'situations.
In the area of modeling support to air toxics- control activities ,
EPA developed and implemented a simple screening model for relief valve
discharges. Efforts were initiated to develop a more refined model for
these releases. A major effort during 1986 was the development and
adaptation of models for air emissions from facilities handling hazardous
wastes.
The oxidant modeling for the New York Metropolitan Area Project
was completed in 1986 via cooperative agreements with the States of Mew
York and Connecticut. The program was designed to perform photochemical
modeling of the New York metropolitan area, including parts of New Jersey
and Connecticut. '
The EPA continued its modeling clearinghouse activities to ensure
that the use of nonguideline techniques does not lead to inconsistent
regulatory decisions. In addition, EPA improved the software for the
Chemical Mass Balance receptor model to make the results more informative
and the diagnostics easier to use. The EPA also continued to provide
technical support and review of ozone model applications using the
Empirical Kinetics Modeling Approach (EKMA) in 1986.'
The Aerometric Information Reporting System (AIRS) i's a new integrated
data system being developed by EPA to replace entirely the existing data
systems now used by the 'EPA for storing and retrieving ambient air quality
data, stationary source and-emissions data, and source compliance data.
The AIRS will be composed of an air quality component and1 a facility data
component. In 1986, major efforts continued on the air1 quality component
of AIRS with this segment expected to be fully available for use by EPA
Headquarters and Regional Offices by mid-1987 with pilot installations in
some States begun by- the end of 1987.
In 1986, EPA completed major revisions to emission factors for use
by States and others to estimate source emissions and to compile emission
inventories. Nearly all the revisions involve the addition of size-
specific emission factors with emphasis on
The EPA distributed guidance in 1986 on procedures for estimating
emissions for selected, potentially toxic pollutants. Final reports were
distributed for ethyl ene oxide and chlorobenzenes. Reports are now in
preparation for polycyclic organics, polychlorinated biphenyls and benzene.
C. AI-R POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
In 1986, EPA's research emphasis shifted further toward indoor air
pollution research, radon mitigation, and studies on problems associated
with complex mixtures of air pollutants. Within the area of criteria
pollutant research, priorities included development of VOC control tech-
nology, transport of ozone over distances, the health effects of alternative
fuels and fuel additives, -and the health effects of pollutants for which
national ambient air quality standards exist. In the mobile sources area,
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the focus remained on characterizing evaporative and exhaust. emissions
from vehicles using alternative fuels such as methanol.
Several advances were made in the area of ambient monitoring in
support of the new requi rements for measuring PM-|Q. Studies of two
instruments were conducted to develop an appropriate Federal Reference
Method. In addition, a field monitoring project was initiated in the
summer of 1986 to obtain data needed by EPA before considering revisions
to the ozone air quality standards.
A number of exposure studies were undertaken in 1986. Studies were
completed which describe the amount of ozone removed in the nasal
passages and in the lungs of individuals while they breathe ozone. Other
studies examined airway resistance occurring in a group of moderately
exercising asthmatics exposed to nitrogen dioxide. Two clinical studies of
sulfur dioxide were completed in 1986. The first study described the
concentration-response range of mildly asthmatic volunteers exposed to
various sulfur dioxide concentrations. Another clinical study investigated
the effects of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric .acid mist on mild
asthmatics.
A study of lead neurotoxicity in children aged 3 to 7 years was
conducted in 1986 which examined the relationship between blood lead level
and Stanford-Binet IQ, a measure of cognitive function. An analysis of
audiometric data was initiated to investigate the relationship of blood
lead levels and hearing thresholds. A study of the neurophysiological
effects of lead exposure in monkeys was also completed.
Two promising procedures for sampling source emissions of PM^Q were
field tested and a series of source category reports were completed on
major sources of PM^o emissions in order to assist States in developing
SIP's. Two manuals were completed and distributed to Regional and State
personnel involved in inspection and permitting of particulate control
systems for electric utility coal-fired boilers.
A major achievement in flue gas desulfurization research was the
development of improved calcium sorbents for low-cost retrofit sulfur
dioxide control. Up to 95 percent sulfur dioxide removal has been achieved
in a pilot plant using duct injection of dry sorbent in a humidified flue
gas followed by a fabric filter.
The EPA undertook a number of activities related to air quality
modeling in 1986. An improved mechanism was developed to quantify the
atmospheric formation of ozone from its precursors. The first generation
regional oxidant model was evaluated and improvements are being made.
The Regional Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution (RELMAP) was completed in
1986 in support of the proposed PMjQ air quality standard. A user's guide
for the second pollution episodic model (PEM-2) was completed. AROSOL,
an urban scale aerosol model, was modified to include two modules for
conversion of sulfate, thereby allowing AROSOL to be operated either as a
lumped sulfate model or as a model which predicts the particle size and
composition distributions. Version Six of the User's Network for Applied
Modeling of Air Pollution (UNAMAP) program was disseminated to the user
community.
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In addition, version one of the Meteorological Processor for niffusion
Analysis was completed, resulting, in a format easily used by air- quality
dispersion models. A complex terrain workshop, vyas held to review the
preliminary version of the sulfur dioxide-Complex Terrain Dispersion Model...,
The EPA continued a number of .research-efforts to.support regulatory- -^
activities related to hazardous air pollutants. Final comprehensive health -:
assessment documents for asbestos and nickel were completed and an external
review draft on beryllium was released,to the public-for comment. Monitoring
for VOC's through the Toxic Air Monitoring System (JAMS) continued throughout .
the year at Houston, Boston, and Chicago. Validated TAMS data from these,,- -
sites were obtained and incorporated into EPA's.air toxics data base. An
earlier study which used the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
to measure personal exposures and breath-.concentrations .of VOC's generated -,./
data from 600 individuals. The data wer-e. partially analyzed in 1986., -An. . .
analysis of the risks of organic chemicals in,,the .-home was presented at
the annual meeting of the Air Pol lution .Contno,] ^.Association in Minneapolis.
The Total Human Exposure Research Council was formed to enhance communications
on research projects concerning human exposures to chemicals, including
hazardous air pollutants. In addition, an Interdivisional Air Toxics
Study (IATS) was initiated to study the health effects of inhaled hazardous
air pollutants (HAP's). Compounds under study were- selected based on
high production and potential human exposure.,. .---.
Important advances were made,in developing' and. validating test methods .
to determine the neurotoxic potential of HAP's. A study to evaluate the
visual function effects of sulfolane, an industrial solvent, was completed.
More cost effective and better predictive .indicators- of; reproductive
dysfunction were studied to evaluate potential HAP',s. Two,wood stove
emission control technologies were studied and final results-will be ,
published following the 1986-87 heating season. Progress was made in
research on atmospheric formation and fate of toxic air pollutants.
A number of research activities in 1986 were directed toward EPA's
mobile source regulatory program. As recommended by EPA's Science Advisory
Roard, validation of the Simulation of Human Air Pollutant Exposure
(SHAPE) "and the NAAQ.S, Exposure Model (NEM) .began, using field data collected
during a carbon monoxide exposure study. Analyses were completed which
related carbon monoxide exposure profiles with estimated carboxyhemoglobin
(COHb) levels a.nd measurements of carbon, monoxide in the breath of subjects.
Research was conducted to characterize organic emissions from motor
vehicles operated at reduced ambient temperatures.
The EPA initiated several changes in its indoor air research program
in 1986 including the establishment of a new indoor air policy staff to
assist in guiding indoor air research and decision-making. Work was
begun on an extensive bibliography of the world literature on indoor air
and total human exposure, emphasizing concentrations measured in indoor
microenvironments. The exposure portion of a clinical study of children
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with parents who smoke was completed. A pilot field study was completed
on the mutagenicity of emissions from several in-home combustion sources,
including convective and radiant kerosene heaters, gas stoves, fireplaces,
and cigarettes. Preliminary studies of organic compound emissions from
kerosene space heaters were completed. The results suggested that emissions-
of carcinogens may be significant for certain heater types under specific
operating conditions. Laboratory studies of organic vapor emission rates
from selected indoor building materials and consumer products were conducted
and reported in 1986.
Field testing to develop and demonstrate low-cost techniques for
reducing radon concentrations in homes was continued in 1986. The tech-
niques selected for testing in each home vary according to type of house,
foundation, local geology and meteorology, and other factors. A technical
manual for installers of radon mitigation techniques was issued in August
1986. A Radon Mitigation Test Matrix was developed and reviewed by EPA's
Science Advisory Board.
Initiation of studies on control technology and strategies for controlling
stratospheric ozone-depleting substances resulted in identification of sources
for which additional studies need to be conducted. National and international
workshops were held on control strategies for stratospheric modification. In
addition to continued research regarding the potential impact of increased levels
of solar UV-B radiation on U.S. agriculture, silviculture, and marine fisheries,
work is ongoing on a regulatory impact analysis for possible domestic and
international controls on CFC's and other potential ozone-depleting trace gases.
These analyses will support later EPA regulatory determinations.
The EPA continued to perform research in a number of areas related
to acid deposition. In 1986, acid deposition research produced scientific
information on the chemical status of a representative sample of lakes in
the eastern United States, and developed a preliminary 1985 manmade
emissions data base. The program established a cloud chemistry network
to cover the major high altitude forest system in the eastern part of the
nation. A dry deposition monitoring network (30 sites) was begun, and
significant progress was made in determining the effects of acidic
deposition on southern conifer and spruce/fir forests.
The deposition monitoring research program continued to provide the
deposition data on wet precipitation through the National Trends Network
(NTN). The network consisting of 150 stations operated at full capacity.
Since dry deposition may account for a larger proportion of total deposition
than wet deposition, implementation of a dry deposition network was begun
in 1986 with a five-station dry deposition pilot network.
The EPA continued to improve the field data bases on atmospheric
transport, transformation, and deposition of acidic substances in order to
develop more scientifically acceptable, yet simplified models, to meet
assessment and policy needs. In 1986, the preliminary evaluation of the
full Regional Acid Deposition Model (RAOM) using the Oxidation and
Scavenging Characteristics of April Rains (OSCAR) meteorology and wet
chemical deposition data was reported. In addition, EPA conducted
research into acid deposition effects on fish and other aquatic organisms
and drinking water quality.
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Various adverse changes in forest conditions have been observed in
the United States since the early 1980's. A joint EPA/U.S. Forest Service
research program, the Forest Response Program, was established in 1985 to
investigate the extent of damage to forest ecosystems which night be
caused by acid deposition, cause and effect relationships, and dose
response relationships.
The EPA's materials effects research is directed toward understanding
the quantitative relationships between the various forms of acidic deposi-
tion and the resulting damage rates to materials and identifying the
geographical extent of materials at risk. The materials research program
was reconstructed in 1986. A major initiative was the development of a
research program to determine the effects of acid deposition on paint/
substrate systems.
The EPA continues to develop limestone injection multistage burner
(LIMB) technology that is designed to reduce emissions of both sulfur oxide
and nitrogen oxide, the two major acid deposition precursors. In 1986,
work continued on the development of high surface area sorbents and
sorbents treated with "promoters" to improve the sulfur capture ability
of the LIMR technology. The design phase of the wall-fired, full-scale
LIMR demonstration was completed.
0. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA regularly to review and,
if appropriate, to revise all of the NAAQS. Reviews of the NAAOS for
carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide were completed in 1985; reviews of
the remaining four NAAOS were in progress in 1986.
In 1984, EPA proposed changes to the NAAOS for participate matter.
The proposal was reviewed at a Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee
(CASAC) meeting in December 1985 and CASAC recommended that because of
new data published since the combined participate matter/sulfur oxide
criteria document was prepared in 1981, EPA should prepare addenda to the
criteria document and the sulfur oxide and the particulate matter staff
papers. The CASAC reviewed the addenda in October 1986 and submitted
their final written comments on the particulate matter addenda in December.
Final promulgation of the particulate matter standards is planned for the
spring of 1987. Activities on the sulfur oxide NAAOS review in 1986 focused
on refinements to the exposure analysis for various 1-hour standard
alternatives and the preparation and CASAC review of addenda to the
criteria document and the staff paper. Revised or reaffirmed sulfur
oxide standards are scheduled to be proposed in 1987.
In May 1986, CASAC reviewed a third draft of the criteria document
revision for lead and a second draft of the lead staff paper. In April
1986, CASAC reviewed revised drafts of the criteria document for ozone
and the ozone staff paper; CASAC completed their review of the criteria
document in October 1986.
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E. ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
In 1985, EPA announced its strategy for the control of both routine
and accidental releases of toxic air pollutants. Considerable progress
was made in 1986 to implement this strategy. In 1986, EPA continued to
implement an active program to screen and assess potentially toxic air
pollutants for possible regulation under the Act or other environmental
authorities. A total of 38 chemicals or emission mixtures were in various
stages of assessment at the end of the year. In addition, draft reports
were completed for Tier 4 of the National Dioxin Study, a coordinated
effort of various EPA programs to assess the potential extent of contamination
of the environment with chlorinated dioxin compounds. Tier 4 focuses on
combustion sources and deals primarily with emissions to the atmosphere.
National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP)
were promulgated in 1986 for arsenic emissions from glass manufacturing,
high arsenic feedstock primary copper smelters, low arsenic feedstock
primary copper smelters, and radionuclide emissions from uranium mill
tailings piles licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Nork was
initiated to develop implementation procedures for facilities subject to
the radionuclide NESHAP. Work will continue through 1987 and will lead
to full implementation in 1988. Revisions to the vinyl chloride NESHAP
were also promulgated. Work continued in 1986 on a source assessment for
benzene emissions from gasoline marketing and on promulgation of the
NESHAP for coke-by-product plants. Work also continued in 1986 on revising
the NESHAP for asbestos and for mercury. The NESHAP development continued
in 1986 for chromium emissions from electroplating and industrial cooling
towers and for coke oven emissions sources in the iron and steel industry.
Work commenced in 1986 on a NESHAP for ethylene oxide, 13 source categories
in the organic chemicals industry, perchloroethylene emissions from the
dry cleaning industry, emissions from phosphogypsum piles, and a NESHAP
for solvent degreasing equipment. The sources of cadmium were still
under review at the end of 1986. Decisions on any cadmium source categories
which warrant regulation will be made in 1987. In addition, a detailed
risk and control technology assessment for municipal waste combustion was
initiated in 1986.
Preliminary assessments show that emissions to the air from hazardous
waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF's) may pose significant
health and environmental risks. Current EPA plans call for development
of TSDF regulations in three phases. "rhe first group of standards addresses
sources for which EPA can develop standards relatively quickly because
similar sources have already been regulated under the Act. These standards
address air emission vent and fugitive emissions from some of the treatment
devices that will be used to meet the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act land disposal restrictions. The second group of standards, which
addresses the bulk of the TSOF sources,, is scheduled for proposal in 1988
and final action in 1989. The third group of regulations will cover
certain subsets of the seven TSDF source categories for which EPA will
likely be unable to develop rules during the second round.
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In 1986, EPA continued to pursue that portion of its air toxics
strategy that provides State and local air pollution control agencies
with funding and technical support to evaluate specific point sources.
Sources that are candidates for this program include those that have been
identified through the Federal toxic air pollutant assessment program but
which do not warrant Federal regulations. This program was initiated in
1984 with a pilot program involving the chemical acrylonitrile, a
carcinogen for which the public health risks are limited due to the
existence of only a few industrial facilities. Evaluations involving all
26 acrylonitrile facilities in 14 States have been completed and the
reports accepted by the appropriate State and local agencies. Control
efforts have been .initiated in several States based on these evaluations.
State evaluations for 9 additional source types were funded in 1986 and
evaluations at the State/local level were begun.
In 1986, EPA initiated planning and activities to encourage States
to undertake new efforts toward assessing the scope and seriousness of
current exposures to the mixtures of air toxic compounds which are believed
commonplace in large metropolitan areas. A program was developed which
provides funding and technical assistance to States to encourage them to
undertake such assessment efforts in at least 30 targeted areas with
populations over one million people. Also closely related, activity on
several Integrated Environmental Management Projects (IEMP) was continued.
These projects, though multimedia in nature, focus a major portion of
study on the air toxics aspects of the urban environment. In 1986, efforts
were completed for the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Santa Clara,
California areas as a result of work in previous years. Initial studies
were concluded in the Kanawha Valley, West Virginia, and Baltimore,
Maryland. Additional major monitoring efforts will be conducted in -
Baltimore in 1987. A new IEMP study was also initiated in Denver, Colorado.
The EPA also distributed guidance in 1986 on procedures for estimating
emissions for selected potentially toxic pollutants. Final reports were
distributed for ethylene oxide and chlorobenzenes. Reports are now in
preparation for polycyclic organics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and benzene.
The EPA has established a goal of having quality air toxics control
programs in every State and major local agency. During 1986, considerable
progress was made toward meeting this goal. The progress was in part due
to the establishment of a new program to enhance State and local program
development. This program uses available grant funds to promote multiyear
planning on the part of State and local agencies for building their
air toxics capabilities and programs. In 1986, EPA received 63 multiyear
development plans from 48 States and 15 local agencies. The major emphasis
of the current State and local activities within these plans is now on
development of toxics emissions inventories and modifying existing new source
review permit systems to incorporate consideration of air toxic concerns.
In order to help the current and future implementation of scheduled multi-
year development plan activities, EPA expanded its program of technical
support in 1986. The EPA developed several technical documents on topics
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relevant to air toxics, began trial operation of a control technology
center, and designed national workshops to assist State and local agencies
in the basic aspects of program development and implementation. In addition,
the National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse was significantly expanded
through the implementation of a computerized data base.
F. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
As mentioned earlier, EPA proposed revised NAAQS for particulate
matter in 1984 that would apply to a size range of particles nominally 10
micrometers and smaller in diameter (P^io)» an^ an annual total suspended
particulate (TSP) secondary standard. In 1985, EPA published a Federal
Register notice which solicited public comments on various matters related
to implementing the PM-^ NAAOS. Seventy-two comment letters were received
mostly from industry. Public comments were summarized in 1986 and issues
identified for resolution. At the end of 1986, EPA was in the process
of resolving the issues raised and developing regulations to implement the
revised standards.
The EPA continued to analyze the issue of widespread nonattainment
of the ozone air quality standard in 1986. A number of regulatory areas
were examined which could result in emission reductions due to improve-
ments in the current control program and from various new control
initiatives. Building upon analyses conducted in 1986, EPA plans to
continue to involve Congressional, State and local government, and industry
and environmental representatives in developing a national ozone control
strategy. The EPA plans to formally present this policy in 1987.
In 1986, EPA completed a number of actions related to visibility
protection. These actions were either promulgations of Federal implemen-
tation plans or else approval of State-submitted plans dealing with
visibility monitoring and new source review.
In July 1985, EPA adopted revisions to regulations originally
promulgated in 1982 which prohibit reliance by stationary sources on
stack heights in excess of "good engineering practice" or on any other
dispersion techniques in lieu of emission controls. In accordance with
the Act, States were given 9 months to review their rules and source
emission limitations and to revise their SIP's and resubmit them to EPA
as necessary. At the end of 1986, EPA was in the process of reviewing
SIP revisions submitted by the States in response to these regulations.
Also in 1986, EPA proposed a new, modified visible emission test
method for evaluating compliance with certain types of SIP opacity standards
where the State has not specified a test method in the SIP. At the end
of 1986, EPA was reviewing the comments submitted in response to the proposal
The EPA made significant progress in 1986 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Act regarding the preconstruction review of
new and modified stationary sources. In 1986, EPA continued to emphasize
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the importance of high quality transfers to the States of the prevention
of significant deterioration (PSD) and new source review programs. As of
the end of the year, 44 State and local agencies had either full delegation
of the PSD program or a PSD SIP, and 8 more had partial resoonsibility
for the PSD program.
An important related matter of controversy has been the definition
of "source" for the purposes of nonattainment new source review since the
Act is not clear in this area. In 1986, EPA worked on the development of
a policy which will aid the Regions in processing proposed SIP's for
which source definition is a problem.
In 1984, EPA proposed to include surface coal mining fugitive
emissions when calculating whether a source is major for purposes of
new source review. A regulatory impact analysis was prepared on that
proposal and was made available for public comment in early 1986.
Resolution of this issue is expected in 1987.
The EPA published its final Emissions Trading Policy Statement in
December 1986. The policy sets forth detailed criteria under which
companies may substitute or "trade" extra emission reductions from sources
less costly to control for emissions from sources that have higher control
costs. The final policy authorizes the use of environmentally sound
bubbles (emission trades between existing sources) in all areas of the
country, as an important component of the nation's effort to achieve and
maintain air quality standards.
The National Air Audit System (NAAS) was first developed in 1983.
The NAAS started operating on a 2-year cycle in 1986 and all State
agencies will be audited in the 1986-1987 cycle. A national report covering
the results of these audits will be prepared at the end of 1987.
At the end of 1986, EPA and the States had completed rulemaking for
29 of the 36 State plans which implement the NAAOS for lead.
In 1985, EPA initiated a number of studies related to acid deposition
implementation issues. These studies, called State Acid Rain (STAR)
projects, were to be conducted by individual States although the results
could have broad applicability to other States that might be involved in a
possible acid rain control program. A total of 37 projects were eventually
funded. In 1986, work on the STAR projects continued, and EPA began review-
ing and synthesizing available results from the projects. The EPA has also
been able to use the preliminary findings and experiences of the STAR
projects in evaluating proposed acid rain control legislation, particularly
in regard to implementation schedules and requirements. A second national
STAR workshop, held in October 1986, provided States the opportunity to
present their initial findings and discuss implementation requirements of
hypothetical acid rain legislation.
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Ouring 1986, EPA continued to support the VOC Reasonably Available
Control Technology (RACT) Clearinghouse. The purpose of this clearinghouse is
to provide a means by which State and local air pollution control agencies
can exchange technical information, minimize duplication of effort and
resources, and provide guidance regarding VOC controls for various industrial
operations and other sources. The VOC RACT Clearinghouse output takes
several forms, including a VOC RACT Clearinghouse Newsletter. Ouring 1986,
three newsletters were issued.
In 1986, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. This training included short course presenta-
tions, self-study courses, technical assistance to others who conduct
training, and the support of traineeships and fellowships for graduate air
pollution training. Ouring 1986, EPA conducted 30 short courses in 20
different subject areas for a total of 852 students. Technical assistance
was provided to States and EPA Regional Offices for conducting 21 additional
courses reaching a total of 656 students. Also in 1986, 1128 students
applied for the 30 self-study courses presently available. As an additional
means of developing qualified personnel, EPA supported 17 graduate traineeships/
fellowships to employees of State and local air pollution control agencies.
R. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
In 1986, work progressed on the development of emissions standards
for those major source categories not yet regulated under new source
performance standards (NSPS) and on the revision of various NSPS as
appropriate. During 1986, NSPS were promulgated for emissions of particulate
matter and nitrogen oxides from the industrial boiler source category.
The existing NSPS for basic oxygen process furnaces, asphalt concrete plants,
and kraft pulp mills were revised. Standards were proposed for calciners
and dryers, plastic business machines, magnetic tape, and sulfur dioxide
emissions from industrial boilers. A revision to the existing NSPS was
proposed for sewage sludge incineration.
The EPA established the best avai'able control technology/lowest
achievable emission rate (BACT/LAER) Clearinghouse several years ago in
order to assist State and local air pollution control agencies by promoting
the sharing of air pollution control technology information. The primary
output of the Clearinghouse is an annual report of information about BACT/
LAER determinations made by the various control agencies. The report
published in 1986 contains over 1120 RACT/LAER determinations.
H. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
The EPA currently monitors the compliance status of about 32,000
stationary sources of air pollution. Approximately 28,000 of these sources
are Class A SIP sources, about 3,000 are NSPS sources, and about 1,000
are NESHAP sources. At the end of 1986, as has been the case since the
late 1970's, the compliance rates were high and generally stable. Roth
Class A SIP sources and NSPS sources had a compliance rate of over 91
percent and NESHAP sources were over 36 percent. In 1986, EPA conducted
2,353 overview inspections of Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP sources.
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The Act provides a variety of administrative enforcement mechanisms
for dealing with both special situations and relatively easily corrected
violations. During 1986, EPA issued immediate compliance orders under
section 113(a) of the Act to 117 sources and issued or approved delayed
compliance orders under section 113(d) for 11 sources. In addition,
there were 71 Federal civil actions filed in 198fi against stationary sources
for violations of the Act. As of January 1987, a total of 122 such actions
were pending with the U.S. District Courts.
A major focus of the stationary source compliance program is the
effort to return to compliance those sources considered to be "significant
violators." For fiscal year 1986, EPA identified 647 significant
violators pending at the beginning of the fiscal year. By the end of the
fiscal year, 511 had been addressed. In addition, 489 significant violators
were newly-identified during 1986 and, of these, 144 were addressed by the
end of the fiscal year.
In 1984, EPA first issued guidance onsthe "timely and appropriate"
EPA/State enforcement response for significant air violators. In 1986,
this guidance was reissued to include NESHAP violators. In 1986, for
the second consecutive year, EPA evaluated the implementation of the "timely
and appropriate" guidance. The evaluation showed that all Regions have
systems in place to monitor the timeliness of enforcement actions after
findings of noncompliance. The "timely and appropriate" guidance also
requires assessment of penalties under certain circumstances. Evaluation
revealed that in 1986 penalties were generally collected by the States and
EPA where the guidance requires.
In 1986, EPA continued its major initiative to ensure that demolition
and renovation sites are in compliance with asbestos NESHAP regulations.
During 1986, EPA and the States received 26,993 asbestos demolition or
renovation notifications, conducted 15,060 asbestos inspections, and found
2,179 violations. The EPA issued 454 notices of violation or deficiency,
issued 59 administrative actions, and initiated 33 civil actions for
violations of asbestos demolition and renovation regulations. Delegated
States also conducted a high level of asbestos enforcement actions during
1986. The States issued 535 notices of violation or deficiency, issued
124 administrative orders, and initiated 26 civil actions. In January
1986, the Department of Justice, on behalf of EPA, filed 11 cases
nationwide for violations of the asbestos NESHAP in the course of demolitions
and renovations. The initiative was designed to heighten public awareness
of the dangers of asbestos exposure due to demolitions and renovations
and EPA's regulations applicable to these activities.
On July 11, 1984, EPA issued a vinyl chloride NESHAP enforcement
strategy which facilitates the development of civil complaints against
violators of vinyl chloride regulations. The EPA filed one new civil
action during 1986 for violations of the vinyl chloride standards. At
the end of 1986, 14 enforcement actions for violation of these standards
were in litigation.
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The EPA has been conducting pilot programs to improve implementation
of its continuous compliance strategy. One of these programs was a 2-year
pilot in Virginia on methods to improve the effectiveness and efficiency
of the inspection process. Another pilot, conducted primarily in Missouri,
evaluated the effectiveness of a continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS)
program as a component of a multifaceted compliance monitoring effort.
Finally, in 1986, EPA continued pilot programs in Michigan and Colorado to
develop more sophisticated methods for targeting compliance monitoring
inspections.
A number of significant enforcement actions were concluded in
In one case, the Supreme Court construed the Act as conferring broad
inspection powers on EPA. All nine Justices agreed that EPA could hire a
commercial photographer to fly over a plant owned by now Chemical Company
and take pictures. They ruled that regulatory authority generally carries
with it the ability to employ all useful modes of investigation. In
another action, the court held that the building owner is liable for
violations of regulations controlling the release of asbestos from demolition
activities, along with the contractor who actually did the demolition work.
Also in 1986, the presiding Administrative Law Judge ruled in favor
of EPA in an action in which EPA alleged that International Harvester
exceeded Ohio SIP limitations governing VOC emissions at its Springfield
truck assembly plant. In March 1986, a consent decree was entered resolving
an action which alleged violations by Jefferson Smurfit Corporation of
Ohio SIP provisions regulating VOC emissions. The basic terms of settlement
were the defendant's agreements to bring its offending operations into
compliance by March 31, 1987, by installation of pollution control equip-
ment, and to pay a civil penalty of $1?0,000. In October 1986, the U.S.
District Court for Arizona entered a consent decree resolving Act violations
at Phelps Hodge Corporation's Douglas Reduction Works copper smelter in
Douglas, Arizona. The smelter achieved compliance with the Act and the
Arizona sulfur dioxide and particulate matter SIP limits by permanently
ceasing smelting operations on January 15, 1987. In addition, Phelps
Dodge was fined $400,000 in civil penalties, and was required to meet
stringent interim emissions curtailment requirements.
In June 1986, EPA filed eight civil cases under the Act against
metal parts manufacturing and coating facilities located in the Los
Angeles area to enforce California SIP emissions limits for VOC's. Six
of the eight cases were settled in December 1986. The remaining two
cases are expected to be settled early in 1987.
In June 1986, EPA issued its final inspection frequency guidance for
stationary sources of air pollution. For the past ?. years, the guidance
has been modified in response to both State and EPA Regional concerns
about the need for added flexibility, national consistency, and quality.
The guidance also freezes any additional changes while it is being
implemented.
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During 1986, Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP Federal facilities demonstrated
a good record of compliance with applicable air pollution regulations. As
of the end of 1986, 313 (88 percent) of the 354 operating Federal facilities
are in compliance, 12 are meeting schedules that will bring them into
compliance, 25 are in violation and not yet on an acceptable schedule, and
4 are of unknown compliance status.
Four facilities were placed on the List of Violating Facilities in
1986. This list is established by section 306 of the Act for the purpose
of preventing the Federal government from doing business with facilities
which have violated selected sections of the Act.
I. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
The EPA's mobile source control program continued work on several
areas in 1986 directly aimed at the goal of reducing ground-level ozone
levels. One of the key actions was oriented toward controlling excess
evaporative emissions through regulation of in-use gasoline volatility.
The EPA held a hearing and workshop in 1986 on gasoline volatility. In
1986, EPA also analyzed whether refueling emission controls are necessary
and whether the control should be at the gas station or on the vehicle.
A third ozone-related action was an advance notice of proposed rulemaking
released in 1986 to tighten light-duty truck exhaust hydrocarbon standards.
The EPA undertook three initiatives on air toxics related to vehicle
fuels in 1986. One action was to prepare a study of costs and benefits in
reducing the amount of sulfur in diesel fuel. Another was to begin develop-
ment of testing protocols to determine the health effects of fuels and
fuel additives and to develop an inventory of current commercially
available fuel additive materials. Another was to hold an internal workshop
on formaldehyde exposure.
The EPA has established a nationwide fuels enforcement program to
ensure that affected retail outlets comply with regulations aimed at
protecting the catalytic converters on 1975 and later model year cars. This
program includes sampling of the fuel at retail outlets by EPA field
inspectors and private or State inspectors under EPA contract in order to
measure the fuel's lead content. The EPA conducted 15,000 inspections
under this program during 1986.
Also related to lead emissions, EPA's promulgated rule which reduced
allowable lead in gasoline from 1.1 grams per leaded gallon to 0.1 gram per
leaded gallon took effect January 1, 1986. In addition, in accordance with
the Food Security Act of 1985, EPA conducted tests of farm machinery run
on leaded, no-lead, low-lead, and additive gasoline. This testing sought
to assess the degree of premature wear in engines built to use leaded
gasoline exclusively. In anticipation of the elimination of lead in the
in-use fuel, EPA proposed elimination of lead in test fuel in 1986.
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The EPA mobile source control program began to shift its enforcement
efforts from the area of fuel switching during 1986 by instituting a fuel
refiner/importer audit program to assure compliance with the lead phasedown
regulations. Investigations of 11 refiner facilities were conducted
during 1986 and several notices of violations were issued with proposed
penalties of over $40 million.
The EPA produced a number of accomplishments in the area of mobile
source standard setting during 1986. In anticipation of the development
of methanol as an alternative fuel, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking was
published in 1986, which proposed emission standards for methanol-fueled
vehicles. In addition, EPA defended its March 1985 heavy-duty diesel
engine rulemaking in court. The court upheld the original rulemaking in
nearly all respects. Also, EPA continued to promulgate nonconformance
penalties for those engine families unable to meet certain standards
applicable to a given model year. The EPA also published a study on the
economics of trading and banking emissions of particulate matter and
oxides of nitrogen from heavy-duty diesel engines in 1986.
One of EPA's key techniques for assuring the compliance of vehicles
with the motor vehicle emissions standards is the preproduction certifica-
tion program. Initiated in 1968, the program involves the engineering
review and testing by EPA staff of engine families representing new
vehicles which are to be sold in the United States. This procedure
identifies and resolves potential problems which could result in excessive
in-use emissions. As a result of a series of regulatory reforms implemented
over the last several years, the certification process has become a much
stronger, flexible, and more efficient program. Effective use of computeri-
zation has eliminated redundancy, resulted in administrative streamlining,
and eased the procedural burden to the manufacturers, while still retaining
the full effectiveness of the program.
In 1986, EPA continued to promote the implementation of vehicle
inspection/maintenance (I/M) programs In each locality where it is required
by the Act. By the end of the year, 58 of 62 areas had initiated I/M
programs. In order to assure that operating I/M programs actually achieve
the planned emissions reductions, EPA has initiated a systematic I/M audit-
ing plan. In 1986, EPA audited 13 I/M programs and conducted 6 follow-up
audits. In addition to I/M programs, EPA has promoted the implementation
of State and local antitampering enforcement programs. Ry the end of
1986, 32 programs had been implemented.
In order to assure that production vehicles and heavy-duty engines
are built in accordance with emissions standards, EPA conducts Selective
Enforcement Audit (SEA) test programs at manufacturers' facilities. As a
direct result of the SEA program, most light-duty vehicle and heavy-duty
engine manufacturers also perform internal quality assurance emission
testing of their production. This information is supplied to EPA by
manufacturers and provides additional assurance that production vehicles
and heavy-duty engines are meeting emission standards. In 1986, EPA
conducted 17 SEA's, including 4 at foreign manufacturers' facilities. In
addition, the first SEA's of heavy-duty engines were conducted in 1986.
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Section 207(c) of the Act authorizes EPA to order the recall of
vehicles if a substantial number of any class of vehicles do not conform
to emissions standards during their useful lives. During 1986, a total
of 1,012,000 vehicles were recalled by or as a result of EPA investigations.
Of these vehicles, 435,000 were recalled to correct excessive exhaust
hydrocarbon emissions, and 53,000 were recalled to correct excessive
evaporative hydrocarbon emissions. In the same period, manufacturers
voluntarily recalled an additional 569,000 vehicles to correct emissions
problems.
The EPA is also responsible for carrying out programs designed to
deter tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or using leaded
fuel in vehicles which require unleaded fuel. Tampering enforcement
activities increased in 1986, resulting in 73 notices of violation with
proposed penalties of $1.4 million. The EPA settled a total of 352 fuels
and tampering cases during the year for total penalties of $1.4 million.
A critical element of State and local tampering inspections is the
availability of replacement emission control components. In 1986, EPA
published an interim and proposed enforcement policy for new and used
aftermarket catalytic converters which gives specific criteria which
must be met by all manufacturers of new and recycled catalytic converters.
The EPA is also responsible for assessing whether the Federal emission
warranty requirements of sections 207(a) and (b) of the Act are imple-
mented. During 1986, EPA responded to a total of 1175 inquiries. Of
these, 188 were complaints specifically related to warranty coverage and
were referred to the appropriate vehicle manufacturer for resolution.
The control of emissions from imported vehicles which do not conform
to applicable air pollution control regulations has become a major issue
in recent years. The importation of these vehicles increased from 1,500
in 1980 to a high of 68,000 in 1985. In 1986, EPA received 36,500 appli-
cations for imported vehicles and 32,700 inquiries concerning these
automobiles. The decline of imported vehicles in 1986 was primarily due
to the less favorable exchange rate between the U.S. dollar and the
German mark.
A vigorous enforcement program was undertaken against unskilled and
fraudulent emission laboratories. The EPA has been investigating
various laboratories to ensure that nonconforming imports have been
properly tested to demonstrate conformity with U.S. emission standards.
In 1986, EPA successfully prosecuted one laboratory for falsifying test
results, resulting in three individual convictions and one corporate
conviction. In addition, at the end of 1986, there were three other
ongoing investigations which could result in prosecution.
In the area of mobile source-related litigation in 1986, a judgment
for "5160,000 was issued against a corporation for a violation of section
211 of the Act, which pertains to the regulation of fuels. In addition,
cases were initiated against seven defendants in Houston, Texas, for
distributing leaded gasoline as unleaded. In another action, EPA proposed
a $2,573,090 penalty against a refiner that exceeded allowable lead limits
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during calendar quarters from October ], 1983, through December 31, 1984.
Also in 1986, EPA cited 16 repair facilities in Indiana, New York, and
Colorado for tampering violations. In addition, EPA successfully prosecuted
a muffler repair shop for the removal of catalytic converters on 14
vehicles.
J. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
In 1980 EPA issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking discussing
possible further limits on domestic production of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC's) under section 157 of the Act. This was done in order to lessen
potential depletion of stratospheric ozone and thereby lessen the amount
of potentially harmful ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface.
However, some of the scientific information summarized in that notice was
outdated by more recent work in the field, and there have been substantial
changes in the research community's understanding of the issue since
then. In general, the more recent work demonstrated that possible changes
in the stratospheric ozone layer are affected by a more complex array of
'physical and chemical forces than previously thought. In addition, EPA
believes that any decision on further regulation of domestic CFC production
or use should be evaluated in the context of possible international regula-
tory actions. Accordingly, EPA developed a program for further examination
and resolution of this issue which it published in January 1986. This
program integrates the diverse scientific and economic research being
carried on by EPA and by other organizations into a framework for future
EPA decision-making on both the domestic and international aspects of this
issue.
K. RADON ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION
Radon is a radioactive gas produced by the radioactive decay of radium-226,
which occurs naturally in almost all soils and rocks. The Reading Prong
area of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York are the best known high-radon
areas in the United States at this time. However, indoor radon is poten-
tially a widespread problem as high radon levels have been found in many
States. Initial efforts of the EPA Radon Action Program in 1985 were
concentrated in the Reading Prong with neasurement assistance being
provided to States in that area. The program was expanded in 1986 in
response to increased awareness of the magnitude of the problem and the
associated health risks.
The EPA developed a national strategy to assist State governments
and the private sector in assessing and reducing health risks due to
indoor radon. The goals of the EPA strategy are to~determine the national
frequency distribution of radon concentrations and identify high risk
areas, to remediate exposure in existing structures, to prevent exposure
in future construction, and to provide for limited, yet essential, overall
Federal program direction and coordination.
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L. LITIGATION
During 1986 two highly significant precedent-setting cases involving
the Act were decided by the courts. In a major ruling on EPA's obligations
under section 115 of the Act, the D.C. Circuit held that two letters
forwarded by former Administrator Costle to the Secretary of State and to
Senator George Mitchell did not trigger a nondiscretionary duty on the
part of the current Administrator to issue calls for SIP revisions in
States allegedly contributing to acid deposition in Canada. In a second
action, the Supreme Court ruled that EPA acted within' its statutory authority
under the Act in inspecting a Dow chemical plant by taking aerial photographs.
The case is broadly significant because of its ruling that EPA is free to
use this inspection technique without transgressing constitutional guarantees
against unreasonable searches and seizures.
In another action, a judge in the Eastern District of Michigan
issued an order in 1986 enjoining EPA from taking action to withdraw or
modify a PSD permit issued by the State of Michigan under delegated
federal authority. The court ruled that EPA has no authority to terminate
or modify a PSD permit once it is issued except under narrow circumstances.
With one significant exception, the courts uniformly rejected challenges
to EPA actions in approving or disapproving particular SIP's plans during
1986. In Bethlehem Steel Corp. v. EPA, the Seventh Circuit rejected
challenges to EPA's partial disapproval of Indiana coke oven rules. In
Michigan v. Thomas the Sixth Circuit upheld EPA's disapproval of purported
RACT requirements for fugitive dust sources, which EPA believed were
vague and unenforceable. In Council of Commuter Organizations v. Thomas,
the Second Circuit upheld EPA's approval of the New York SIP for ozone
and carbon monoxide against a citizen group argument that the state had
failed to meet the Act requirement that the existing transportation
system meet "basic transportation needs." In New Mexico Environmental
Improvement Division v. Thomas, the court upheld EPA's imposition of
restrictions on air grants to the State air pollution control agency for
failure to submit an adequate I/M program for Albuquerque, against a
challenge by the State agency mainly on the grounds that the formula
selected by EPA for apportioning the restriction between the State and
local agencies was arbitrary and capricious. In Ohio v. EPA, however,
the Sixth Circuit, ignoring its own precedents to the contrary, overturned
EPA's approval of revised sulfur dioxide SIP limits for two power plants
operated by the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, on the grounds
that EPA had failed to verify modeling results against field data. On
EPA's petition for rehearing, the court narrowed its holding to reflect
its concern that the model failed adequately to account for lakeshore
fumigation effects.
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The EPA settled a lawsuit under section 122 of the Act challenging
EPA's decision not to regulate polycyclic organic matter. The settlement
agreement requires EPA to take a number of regulatory and nonregulatory
actions, including conducting a rulema
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TI. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
This chapter describes current trends in ambient air quality levels
(the concentration of a given pollutant in the atmosphere), as well as
trends in estimated emissions into the air of various pollutants. In
addition, the chapter discusses the topics of air quality monitoring and
air quality modeling. Data on ambient air quality levels and emissions
are through 1985, the latest year for which EPA has complete statistics.
A. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION TRENDS
While considerable progress has been made over the years in reducing
air pollution levels, millions of people still continue to breathe air
that is in violation of the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS).
In 1985, 76.4 million people were living in counties with measured air
quality levels that violated the NAAQS for ozone. This compares with
47.8 million people for total suspended particulate, 39.6 million
people for carbon monoxide, 7.5 million people for nitrogen dioxide, 4.5
million people for lead, and 2.?, million people for sulfur dioxide.
Nationally, long-term 10-year (1976 through 1985) improvements can
be seen for TSP, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
and lead. The trend in ozone is complicated by a major drop in measured
concentration levels which occurred between 1978 and 1979, largely due to
a change in the ozone measurement calibration procedure. Therefore,
special attention is given to the period after 1979, because the change
in the calibration procedure is not an influence during this time.
Air pollution trends were also examined over the most recent 5-year
period (1981 through 1985) to take advantage of the larger number of
monitoring sites and the fact that the data from the post-1980 period
should be of the highest quality, with sites meeting uniform siting
criteria and high standards of quality assurance. Nationally, improvements
can be seen for all the pollutants during the 5-year period. Between
1984 and 1985, all of the pollutants declined with major decreases
observed for carbon monoxide (10 percent), and lead (32 percent).
All of the ambient air quality trend analyses which follow are based
on monitoring sites which recorded data in at least 8 of the 10 years in
the period 1976 through 1985. In each of these years, an annual data
completeness criteria also had to be met. As a result of these criteria,
only a subset of the total number of existing sites are used for trend
purposes.
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Total Suspended Participate (TSP) - Annual average TSP levels, measured
at 1400 sites, decreased 24 percent between 1976 and 1985. This corresponds
to a 24 percent decrease in estimated particulate emissions for the same
period. The EPA has found that the TSP data collected during the years 1979-1931
may be biased high due to the glass fiber filter used during these years,
and that most of the large apparent 2-year decrease in pollutant concentrations
between 1981 and 1982 can be attributed to a change in these filters. As
reported in last year's report, there was a slight increase in particulate
air quality levels between 1983 and 1984 due to a return of rainfall to
more normal levels and an increase in particulate emissions. Between 1984
and 1985, particulate air quality levels declined 4 percent, while emissions
declined 3 percent. An examination of regional trends patterns indicates
decreases in TSP were evident in most Regions between 1984 and 1985. Two
of the EPA Regions, Region V (the Great Lakes States) and Region VI (the
South Central States) were among the group of Regions showing the largest
particulate air quality improvements arid were also the only Regions experiencing
increases in precipitation. Correspondingly, it is likely that some of
these Regional improvements were due to 1985 being a wetter year.
Sulfur Dioxide - Annual average sulfur dioxide levels measured at
264 sites with continuous sulfur dioxide monitors decreased 42 percent
from 1976 to 1985. A comparable decrease of 44 percent was observed in
the trend in the composite average of the second maximum 24-hour averages.
An even greater improvement was observed in the estimated number of
exceedances of the 24-hour standard, which decreased 95 percent. Corres-
pondingly, there was a 21 percent drop in sulfur oxide emissions. The
difference between emissions and air quality can be attributed to several
factors. Sulfur dioxide monitors are mostly urban population oriented
and as such do not monitor many of the major emitters which tend to be
located in more rural areas. The residential and commercial areas, where
most monitors are located, have shown sulfur oxide emission decreases
comparable to sulfur dioxide air quality improvement. Between 1984 and
1985, nationwide average sulfur dioxide levels decreased 5 percent. The
decrease in ambient levels corresponds to a 3 percent decrease in sulfur
oxide emissions.
Carbon Monoxide - Nationally, the second highest nonoverlapping
8-hour average carbon monoxide levels, at 163 sites decreased 36 percent
between 1976 and 1985. The median rate of improvement has been about 5
percent per year, but the 1984-85 decrease was twice as large, about in
percent. The estimated number of exceedances of the 8-hour NAAOS decreased
92 percent between 1976 and 1985. Carbon monoxide emissions decreased 21
percent during the same period. Because carbon monoxide monitors are
typically located to identify potential problems, they are likely to be
placed in traffic-saturated areas that may not experience significant
increases in vehicle miles of travel. As a result, the air quality
levels at these locations generally improve at a rate faster than the
nationwide reduction in emissions. Between 1984 and 1985, carbon monoxide
levels decreased 10 percent. These changes reflect the continuing reductions
in carbon monoxide emissions brought about by the Federal Motor Vehicle
Control Program, the change in the vehicle mix, and the possible influence
of meteorological conditions in some geographic areas.
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Nitrogen Dioxide - Annual average nitrogen dioxide levels,
measured at 108 sites, increased from 1976 to 1979, and decreased through
1985, except for a slight increase in 1984. The 1985 composite nitrogen
dioxide average, however, is 11 percent lower than the 1976 level indicating
a downward trend during the overall period. The trend in the estimated
nationwide emissions of nitrogen oxides is similar to the nitrogen dioxide
air quality trend, between 1976 and 1985, total nitrogen oxide emissions
decreased by 1 percent, and highway vehicle emissions, the source category
likely impacting the majority of nitrogen dioxide monitoring sites, decreased
by 4 percent. Between 1984 and 1985, the nitrogen dioxide composite
average decreased by 2 percent, while the estimated emissions of nitrogen
oxides increased by 2 percent. This small year-to-year difference between
the ambient levels and the emissions percent change is likely not significant
given the relatively low ambient nitrogen dioxide levels.
Ozone - Nationally, the composite average of the second highest daily
maximum 1-hour ozone values, recorded at 183 sites, decreased 19 percent
between 1976 and 1985. Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions decreased
11 percent during the same period. Although the 1985 composite average for
the 163 trend sites is 19 percent lower than the 1976 average, the
interpretation of this decrease is complicated by a calibration change for
ozone measurements that occurred in the 1978-79 time period. In the post
calibration period (1979 to 1985), ozone levels decreased 10 percent, while
VOC emissions decreased 12 percent. The estimated number of exceedances
of the ozone standard decreased 38 percent between 1979 and 1985. The ozone
trends in the 1980's show that the 1980 and 1983 values were higher than
those in 1981, 1982, 1984, and 1985. Previous reports have discussed the
likelihood that the higher 1983 levels were influenced by meteorological
conditions in that year that were more conducive to ozone formation than
conditions in adjacent years. While 1985 levels are similar to 1984
levels, there was a slight improvement of 2 percent in the national
composite average between these 2 years.
Lead - The composite maximum quarterly average of ambient lead
levels, recorded at 53 urban sites, decreased 79 percent between 1976 and
1985. Lead emissions declined 86 percent during the same period. In
order to increase the number of trend sites, the 1981 to 1985 time period
was examined. A total of 241 trend sites (1981 to 1985) measured a 50
percent decline in lead levels, corresponding to a 62 percent decrease in
estimated lead emissions. Between 1984 and 1985 ambient lead levels
declined 32 percent, while lead emissions are estimated to have declined
48 percent. This is the largest percentage decrease for any 2 consecutive
years. The decrease in ambient lead levels results from three EPA programs.
First, regulations issued in the early 1970's resulted in the lead content
of all gasoline being gradually reduced over a period of years. Second,
unleaded gasoline was introduced in 1975 for use in automobiles equipped
with catalytic control devices. Third, lead emissions from smelters
and other stationary sources have been reduced by the TSP and lead control
programs.
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B. AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
General
Section 110(a)(?)(C) of the Clean Air Act (Act) requires State
implementation plans to include provisions for establishment and operation
of systems for monitoring ambient air quality. In addition, section 319
of the Act requires the development of uniform air quality monitoring
criteria and methods and the establishment of an air quality monitoring
system throughout the United States which uses uniform monitoring criteria
and methods. To satisfy these requirements, EPA promulgated regulations
in 1979 which required States to establish and operate air monitoring
stations and report the data to EPA1. The two principal types of stations
in the State networks are State and Local Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS)
and National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS). The monitoring stations of
the SLAMS and NAMS must adhere to the uniform monitoring criteria described
in the regulations. These criteria cover quality assurance, monitoring
methods, network design, and probe siting. January 1, 1981, was the
deadline by which all NAMS were to meet all of the requirements in the
regulations. The SLAMS had until January 1, 1983, to meet all of the
provisions in the regulations. Rased on 5 years of operating experience
with the MAMS and SLAMS networks, some relatively minor modifications
of the 1979 regulations were promulgated in the Federal Register in 1985.2
These modifications were intended to simplify and improve the overall monitoring
program required by the Act.
Overall, State and local progress in meeting the requirements of the
regulations continues to be excellent. Table 1 shows the status of the SLAMS
network at the end of 1986. There are a total of 4545 operating monitors in
the network meeting requirements of the regulations. Table ? shows that 1325
NAMS were in operation and meeting the requirements of the regulations through
December 1986. Table 3 lists, by pollutant, the number of SLAMS and NAMS.
Table 1. SLAMS Status through December 1986
Number of
Monitors
Monitors operational through 12/86 4545
Total planned network for 1937* 4400
*Includes NAMS monitors and reflects small reductions and additions
planned by a number of control agencies.
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Table 2. NAMS Status Through December 1986
Monitors operational through 12/86
Total planned network for 1987
Number of
Monitors
1325
1297
Table 3. National Summary of Operating Air
Monitoring Stations (as of 12/86T
Pollutant
TSP
S02
N02
cn
03
Pb
TOTAL
SLAMS
(including NAMS)
2350
524
227
443
599
402
4545
NAMS
617
201
59
117
218
113
1325
Particulate Monitoring
To accompany the proposed revisions to the NAAOS for particulate
matter discussed elsewhere in this repurt, EPA on March 20, 1984, also
proposed amendments to 40 CFR 58 (Air Quality Surveillance and Reporting
Regulations).3 The proposed revisions to Part 58 would establish ambient
air quality monitoring requirements for particulate matter as measured by
a new reference method proposed as Appendix J of 40 CFR Part 50 or an
equivalent method. The proposed requirements are comparable to those
already established for the other criteria pollutants for which air
quality standards have been set. These include requirements for reporting
and assuring the quality of ambient particulate matter data, designing
monitoring networks, and the siting of samplers. Since most areas of the
country did not have particulate matter ambient monitoring data, EPA, in
late 1984, procured 662 particulate matter samplers for distribution to
State and local agencies. Since then funds have been allocated each year
to procure additional particulate matter samplers. Specialized training
was provided by EPA to State and local agency personnel on the operation
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and maintenance of the participate matter samplers. Also, the States and
local agencies have separately purchased participate matter samplers
bringing the total number of operating particulate matter samplers to 877
as of December 31, 1986. The data from these sites will be used by the
States in developing particulate matter State implementation plans which
will be required upon promulgation of a particulate matter air quality standard,
Nonmethane Organic Compounds Monitoring
During 1986, ambient hydrocarbon data were collected at 23 sites.
This was the third consecutive summer of field studies to measure nonmethane
organic compounds (NMOC) in various cities. These data are needed to
derive NMOC/oxides of nitrogen ratios, an important factor in predicting
the effect of control programs to reduce ozone. As in past years, data
capture was high and results were reproducible using different measurement
techniques. Need for a similar program is envisioned in 1987 and in 1988.
C. AIR QUALITY MODELING
An air quality model is a set of mathematical equations that describes the
atmospheric transport, dispersion, and transformation of pollutant emissions.
By means of these equations, a model can be used to calculate or predict the
air quality impacts of emissions from proposed new sources, emissions from
existing sources, or changes in emissions from either of these source cate-
gories. These models are of great utility because they provide a means
whereby the effectiveness of air pollution controls can be estimated before
action is taken.
During 1986, EPA continued its program to evaluate several categories
of models. This program was developed in response to recommendations of
the American Meteorological Society (AMS) under its cooperative agreement
with EPA.4 The evaluation of eight short-term, long-range transport
models was completed^ in a manner consistent with earlier evaluations of
four other categories of models. The results clarified the similarities
and differences among several of these models for the two data bases
considered. Two of the models appeared to provide somewhat more accurate
estimates than the others. A scientific review will be conducted in 1987.
A technique has also been developed for statistically intercomparing the
performance of air quality models. The technique makes use of a unique
statistical procedure to provide estimates of the degree to which one model
outperforms another. The technique addresses both the operational and the
scientific component of model evaluation. During 1987, the technique will
be refined to allow integration of the operational and scientific components
and results from multiple data bases into a single definitive outcome. A
protocol will be developed and tested for implementing the procedure in
regulatory applications that provides for both generic selection of a best
model for widespread use or for case-by-case model selection for use in
particular regulatory settings. If feasible, the protocol will incorporate
minimum standards of performance that may be used to eliminate poor or non-
competitive models from the selection process.
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Activities begun in 1985 to support major new initiatives in the area
of air toxics regulation accelerated during 1986. A simple screening model
for relief valve discharges was developed and implemented while efforts were
initiated to develop a more refined model for such releases. These models
address the potentially significant effects of negative buoyancy which is
commonly associated with high pressure gas releases. A model for ground
level, heavier than air, gas releases was acquired and implemented. A pre-
liminary study comparing the model to alternative models and to observed
data was completed. Efforts continued on the development and application
of a model for estimating airborne concentrations from mechanical draft
cooling tower drift emissions. A major effort during 1986 was the develop-
ment and adaptation of models for air emissions from facilities handling
hazardous wastes. This included the integration of emissions and dispersion
models, particularly for large area type sources (e.g., surface impoundments
and landfills). Recause volatile organic emissions from such facilities
are reactive and lead to the formation of ozone over long transport times,
regional scale photochemical modeling covering the eastern U.S. was initi-
ated to determine their importance in contributing to the ozone nonattain-
ment problem. A systematic look at projected air toxics modeling needs was
initiated during 1986, directed toward planning of future model evaluation
efforts.
The Oxidant Modeling for the New York Metropolitan Area Project
(OMNYMAP) was completed in 1986 via cooperative agreements with the
States of New York and Connecticut. The program was designed to perform
photochemical modeling of the New York metropolitan area, including parts
of New Jersey and Connecticut. As part of this effort, applications of
the Urban Airshed Model (Airshed) were made for 5 high ozone days within
the metropolitan area. In general, model predictions of peak ozone
values were within plus or minus 30 percent of corresponding concentrations
observed at monitoring sites. This level of model performance is consistent
with findings from prior Airshed evaluations for St. Louis, Philadelphia,
and Tulsa. In addition, several control strategies were tested and the
sensitivity of predicted ozone to incoming ozone/precursor transport was
examined to a limited extent. The results indicate that the implementation
of the emissions reductions, including "extraordinary" measures, would
not reduce peak ozone concentrations to below the level of che ozone
air quality standards on the days simulated. Moreover, the sensitivity
analysis suggests that attainment in the metropolitan area is not likely
without a reduction in pollutant transport. The EPA is currently exploring
several approaches for further investigations of the impact of transport
on control strategies in the Northeast.
Efforts to improve guidance on air quality models and to ensure
consistency in their use have also continued.6 Model Clearinghouse activities
were maintained to ensure that use of nonguideline techniques does not lead
to inconsistent regulatory decisions. A workshop was held with modeling
contacts in EPA's ten Regional Offices and four representative State agencies
to improve communications on the use of models and to resolve common problems.
Regulatory action on the "Guideline on Air Ouality Models (Revised)" was
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completed with a notice in the Federal Register that incorporated the
guideline by reference in regulations oh prevention of significant
deterioration.7 The guideline lists the air quality models and data bases
required to assess impact and to estimate ambient concentrations due to
certain sources of air pollutants. The revision had been the subject of
a public hearing and extensive comment. In response to the public comment,
a supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking was published that proposes
to augment the guideline with four additional models that have unique
applications.^ The public comment period closed in December 1986 and the
regulatory action will be completed by mid-1987.
Receptor Model Activities
During 1986, EPA improved the software for the Chemical Mass Balance
receptor model to make the results more informative and to make the
diagnostics easier to use. The user's manual for the model is being
rewritten to reflect these changes. In addition, draft guidance describing
a protocol to ensure that a receptor model application is a valid one was
completed. A draft protocol to resolve conflicting results between
receptor and dispersion models was also completed. The user's manual and
two protocols will be finalized and made available for use in regulatory
applications during 1987.
Ozone Modeling
During 1986, EPA continued to provide technical support and review of
ozone model applications using the Empirical Kinetics Modeling Approach
(EKMA). The EKMA is widely used by State and local agencies to estimate
emission controls necessary to attain the ambient air quality standard for
ozone. Efforts to improve data needed as inputs to the model were continued.
A series of draft recommendations related to modeling assumptions, supporting
data, and interpretation of results in applications after 1987 were made.
During 1987 these draft recommendations will be subject to wider public review.
D. INTEGRATION OF AIR DATA SYSTEMS
The Aerometric Information Reporting System (AIRS) is a new integrated
data system being developed by EPA to replace entirely the existing data
bases, files, and software now used by the EPA for storing and retrieving
ambient air quality data, stationary source and emissions data, and source
compliance data. The AIRS will be composed of two relatively separate
components (air quality and facility data) but will use common sets of geo-
graphical and other codes and draw upon a state-of-the-art data base
management system.
In 1986, major efforts continued on the air quality component of
AIRS. This segment is expected to be fully available for use by EPA
Headquarters and Regional Offices by mid-1987 with pilot installations in
some States begun by the end of 1987. Oesign of the integrated emissions/
compliance subsystem proceeded well during 1986.
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E. EMISSION FACTOR HEVELOPMENT
In 1986, EPA completed major revisions to emission factors for use
by States and others to estimate source emissions and to compile emission
inventories. Emission factor information is published and distributed for
criteria pollutants in a publication entitled Compilation of Air Pollution
Emission Factors.9 The revisions will be issued in early 1987 as
Supplement A to this publication.in Nearly all the revisions involve the
addition of size-specific emission factors, with emphasis on particles
less than 10 microns in diameter (PM^Q) in anticipation of the PM^Q ambient
air quality standard promulgated during 1987.
The EPA distributed guidance in 1986 on procedures for estimating
emissions for selected, potentially toxic pollutants. Final reports were
distributed for ethylene oxide and chlorobenzenes. Reports are now in
preparation for polycyclic organics, polychlorinated biphenyls and benzene.
Issuance of these additional documents is scheduled for 1987, pending the
completion of peer review for each document. New work is also planned on
improving emission factors for various area sources of toxic air pollutants.
F. REFERENCES
1. 44 FR 27558, May 10, 1979.
2. 50 FR 9538, March 8, 1985.
3. 49 FR 10436, March 20, 1984.
4. n. Fox, "Judging Air Quality Model Performance," Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society, 62(5):599-609, 1981.
5. A. Policastro, et al., "Evaluation of Short-Term Long-Range Transport
Models, EPA-450/4-86-016a,b, 1986.
6. "Guideline on Air Quality Models (Revised)," EPA 450/2-78-027R, 1986.
7. 51 FR 32176, September 9, 1986.
8. 51 FR 32180, September 9, 1986.
9. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, Volume I: Stationary
Point and Area Sources, AP-42, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, N.C.,
September 1985.
10. Supplement A to Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume I:
Stationary Point and Area Sources, AP-42, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle
Park, N.C., November 1986.
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III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
A. INTRODUCTION
In support of the Clean Air Act, EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD) provides health and ecological effects data bases,
monitoring and modeling methods, risk assessments, emission reduction and
mitigation technologies, and the corresponding quality assurance and
technical assistance to develop regulations. In addition, ORD assists
States in developing State implementation plans by providing improved
monitoring, modeling, and control technology as they become available.
In areas where EPA's responsibility is limited to providing technical and
public assistance, such as indoor air quality and radon, ORD research
provides essential information on risks, prevention, and mitigation.
R. GENERAL AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
In 1986, research emphasis shifted further toward indoor air pollution
research, radon mitigation, and studies on problems associated with complex
mixtures of air pollutants. Within the area of criteria pollutant research,
priorities included development of volatile organic compound control tech-
nology, transport of ozone over distances, the health effects of alterna-
tive fuels and fuel additives, and the health effects of pollutants for
which national ambient air quality standards exist. In the mobile sources
area, the focus remained on characterizing evaporative and exhaust emissions
from vehicles using alternative fuels such as methanol.
1. Scientific Support to Develop and Review National Ambient
Air Quality Standards
(a) Air quality criteria documents
The Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee of EPA's Science
Advisory Roard reviewed a second external review draft of the air quality
criteria document for ozone in April of 1986. In September 1986, a final
ozone document was completed^ as was a final addendum for the lead air
quality criteria document.? These documents provide evaluations of the
latest scientific knowledge which will serve as the basis for review and
possible revision of the ambient air quality standards for these pollutants.
(b) Ambient monitoring
Several advances were made in the area of ambient monitoring in
support of the new requirements for measuring particulate matter less
than or equal to 10 micrometers in size (PM]_n). Studies of two instruments
were conducted to develop an appropriate Federal reference method). Further
testing is being done on these instruments to correct deficiencies.^»^
A field monitoring project was initiated in the summer of 1986 to obtain
data needed by the agency before considering revisions to the ozone air
quality standards. This field study made use of new technology developed
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by EPA to measure non-methane organic compounds in ambient air.5 The
Standard Reference Photometer Network is now in regular use, thus
enabling State and local air monitoring agencies to compare their ozone
standards with authoritative standards which are maintained and operated
under closely controlled conditions. Quality assurance was provided for
air programs in an effort to ensure that measurement data are of known
accuracy and precision.^?'5* A report published in 1986 indicated that
improvements have occurred in the precision and accuracy of monitoring
data obtained in regional and national measurements.
(c) Ozone and nitrogen oxide studies
A number of controlled human exposure studies were undertaken in
1986. Studies were completed which describe the amount of ozone removed
in the nasal passages and in the lungs of individuals while they breathe
ozone.^ These studies provided information which is important in determin-
ing the dose of ozone reaching target tissues in the lungs and for risk
assessment analyses in man. Other studies examined airway resistance
occurring in a group of moderately exercising asthmatics exposed to
nitrogen dioxide.^ Substantial progress was made in a wide-ranging study
of the chronic effects of long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide and ozone.
The study focuses on the ability of oxidant gases to cause chronic lung
disease, as reflected by biochemical, structural, and functional changes
in the lung.
(d) Sulfur dioxide clinical studies
Two clinical studies of sulfur dioxide were completed in 1986.
The first study described the concentration-response range of mildly
asthmatic volunteers exposed to sulfur dioxide concentrations between
0.25 and 1.0 ppm.H Another clinical study showed that exposure to a mixture
of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid mist did not affect mild asthmatics
more than exposure to either chemical alone.12
(e) Lead studies
A study of lead neurotoxicity in children aged 3 to 7 years was
conducted in 1986 which examined the relationship between blood lead
level and Stanford-Binet 10, a measure of cognitive function. The 10
decreased linearly as blood lead increased.13 An analysis of audiometric
data was initiated to investigate the relationship of blood lead levels
and hearing thresholds. Results indicated that the probability of hearing
threshold changes increases significantly with increasing blood lead levels
at the frequencies tested (0.5, 1.2 and A.OKHz).^ A study of the neuro-
physiological effects of lead exposure in monkeys was also completed. This
study, which is part of a larger investigation of the effects of perinatal
lead exposure, indicated prenatal or postnatal exposure to lead resulted
in abnormal neurophysiological processing of complex auditory stimuli.15,16,17
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(f) Crop loss studies
Analysis of the ozone data obtained by the National Crop Loss
Assessment Network (NCLAN) showed that substantial dollar losses could be
attributed to ozone damage. Nineteen manuscripts were published in 1986
on various aspects of the NCLAN findings.^"^6 Planning was completed for
the International Conference on Assessment of Crop Loss from Air Pollutants.
This conference, to be held in 1987, will include full reports on the
NCLAN research.
(g) Visibility studies
In 1986, several studies were completed on the causes of
visibility degradation. One study examined the volatility of light-
scattering aerosols collected in ambient air samples. The study found
evidence that some light-scattering aerosols may volatize from the air
sample before actual detection using conventional measurement procedures.^7
In addition, a new approach for selecting chemical and physical rate
parameters was developed to be used in a regional air quality model to
estimate sourcereceptor relationships.-^ This approach is unique on a
regional scale and can be applied to estimate best fit rate constants for
the simulation of sulfur transport, transformation, and removal.
2. Scientific Support to Develop New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) and State Implementation Plans (SIP's)
(a) Particulate matter activities
Two promising procedures for sampling source emissions of PMjQ
were field tested. One method involves the use of a modified Hi-Vol
sampler with a size selective inlet.3q The other uses a modified dichotomous
sampler.40 One of these methods will be chosen as the standard, based on
its performance during the evaluations. In addition, a series of source
category reports were completed on major sources of PMjf) emissions to
assist States in developing SIP's.41 The Sixth Symposium on the Transfer
and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology was held jointly with
the Electric Power Research Institute to transfer information and program
results to users and other interested parties.42
Two manuals were completed and distributed to Regional and State
personnel involved in inspection and permitting of particulate control
systems for electric utility coal-fired boilers.43,44 /\n interactive
computer model for electrostatic precipitators was developed which allows
prediction of electrical operating conditions and particle collection
efficiencies for any arrangement of round wire discharge electrodes.
(b) Flue gas desulfurization activities
A major achievement in flue gas desulfurization research was
the development of improved calcium sorbents for low-cost retrofit sulfur
dioxide control. 'Ip to 95 percent sulfur dioxide removal has been achieved
in a pilot plant using duct injection of dry sorbent in a humified flue
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gas followed by a fabric filter. A Line/Limestone Flue Gas nesulfuriz'ation
Inspection and Performance Evaluation Manual was published for use by
Regional and State personnel involved in inspection and permitting
of flue gas desulfurization systems for electric utility coal-fired
boilers.*5
(c) Modeling support activities
An improved mechanism was developed to quantify the atmospheric
formation of ozone from its precursors., This mechanism will afford
increased accuracy in air quality simulation models.^6 The first generation
regional oxidant model was evaluated arid improvements are being made.47
When completed, this model will be used to evaluate the impact of various
control strategies on ozone air quality.
In support of the proposed PMig air quality standard, the Regional
Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution (RELMAP) was completed in 1986.^ RELMAP
simulates ambient concentrations and wet and dry deposition of sulfur
dioxide, sulfates, and fine and coarse particles over the eastern U.S.
and southeastern Canada. A user's guide for the second pollution episodic
model (PEM-2) was completed.4q Results of an evaluation of the PEM-2, an
urban scale particulate model, showed that background concentrations of
particles contribute significantly to urban particulate pollution.50
AROSOL, an urban scale aerosol model, was modified to include two
modules for conversion of sulfate, thereby allowing AROSOL to be operated
either as a lumped sulfate model or as a model which predicts the particle
size and composition distributions.51
Version Six of the User's Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution
(IINAMAP) program was disseminated to the user community. UNAMAP is a
collection of models and data bases on magnetic tape which is made available
to users through the National Technical Information Service.
Version One of the Meteorological Processor for Diffusion Analysis
(MPDA-1) was completed, resulting in a format easily used by air quality
dispersion models.52 An adjustable buoyancy balloon tracer of atmospheric
motion (Phase III) was improved.53 The tracer was developed to evaluate
the accuracy of air pollution transport models and has application through-
out the atmospheric sciences. A complex terrain workshop was held to
review the preliminary version of the s,ulfur dioxide Complex Terrain
Dispersion Model.54 Several recommendations emerged from the workshop
which will be incorporated into future versions of the model.
3. Scientific Support to Develop Regulations for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (HAP's)
(a) Health assessment documents
Final comprehensive health assessment documents for asbestos
and nickel were completed.55,56 /\n external review draft of a health
assessment document on beryllium was released to the public for comment.57
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Tier I health effects summaries were prepared for ten compounds.58-67
These documents summarize available scientific literature on the health
effects of a compound, thus enabling EPA to ascertain whether or not a
comprehensive health effects document is needed for a specific compound-.
(b) Ambient measurement techniques
A number of advanced ambient measurement techniques were investigated,
such as combined mass spectrometry, gas chromatography/Fourier transform
infrared spectrometry, supercritical fluid chromatography, tunable atomic
line mass spectrometry and cryogenic concentration. Several techniques
were investigated in order to improve surveillance and control of industrial
sources. One promising technique involves the use of specially prepared
stainless steel canisters, which inhibit reactions with pollutants collected.^
(c) Toxic air monitoring system
Monitoring for volatile organic compounds through the Toxic Air
Monitoring System (TAMS) continued throughout the year at Houston, Roston,
and Chicago. Validated TAMS data from these sites were obtained and
incorporated into EPA's air toxics data base. A second monitoring location
in each of the above three cities has been selected and monitoring equipment
is being installed.69
(d) Personal exposure studies
An earlier study which used the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology
(TEAM) to measure personal exposures and breath concentrations of volatile
organic compounds generated data from 600 individuals.7^ The data were
partially analyzed in 1986. Indoor and in-vehicle sources were found to
be much more important than outdoor sources, even in the extremely concentrated
petrochemical refinery areas of northern New Jersey and Los Angeles. The
major source of exposure to benzene and styrene was cigarette smoking.
Chloroform exposure was primarily due to shower use. Room air deodorizers
and moth crystals were the major sources of exposure to para-dichlorobenzene.
Exposure to tetrachloroethylene comes mainly from dry-cleaned clothes. The
study results were presented at the annual meeting of the American Chemical
Society. An analysis of the risks of organic chemicals in the home was
presented at the annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association
in Minneapolis.7^
(e) Enhanced communications
The Total Human Exposure Research Council (THERC) was formed to
enhance communication on research projects concerning human exposures to
chemicals, including hazardous air pollutants (HAP's). An important
objective of THERC is to develop a strategic, 5-year plan for all research
on human exposure methodology and assessments conducted by EPA. As a
first step toward this goal, a paper was published which summarizes total
human exposure concepts, and a second paper was published which reviews
EPA's research program on total human exposure to environmental
pollution.7?»73
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In 198fi, ORf) conducted a workshop to foster EPA and industry
communications with regard to controlling air toxics. Partially as a
result of this workshop, prevention reference manuals are being developed
which will cover how to evaluate processes and facilities for accidental
release potential, detailed descriptions of pertinent controls (prevention,
protection, and mitigation), and specific evaluations for individual
chemicals.
(f) Health effects studies
An Interdivisional Air Toxics Study was initiated to study
the health effects of inhaled HAP's. Compounds under study were selected
based on high production and potential human exposure. As part of this
effort, studies of p-xylene, toluene, and phosgene exposures were
completed.74'77
Important advances were made in developing and validating test
methods to determine the neurotoxic potential of HAP's. In particular,
studies using discrete lesions in the visual cortex are beginning to
elucidate the relationships between neural structures in the visual system
and individual components of the flash-evoked potential, which is commonly
used to measure neurotoxicity.7^ Another significant advance in test
method development was provided by studies to evaluate nervous system
specific proteins as biochemical markers for neurotoxicity.7^
A study to evaluate the visual function effects of the industrial
solvent, sulfolane, was completed.3n The results indicated that high
dosages were required to produce effects, thereby indicating that the visual
system is not particularly sensitive to this compound. These data are in
contrast to previous work which has shown that neurotoxic effects such as
increased susceptibility to seizures are produced by lower dosages of
sulfolane.
More cost effective and better predictive indicators of reproductive
dysfunction were studied to evaluate potential HAP's. An evaluation of
age dependent gastrointestinal adsorption of ^304, which is a combustion
product of the fuel additive methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl
(MMT), was conducted to evaluate the fate of inhaled particles translocated
to the gut. Results indicate higher absorption and retention in young
rats than in adults, resulting in greater exposure for younger animals
and an increased possibility of toxicity.^1
Two wood stove emission samples showed a dose-related tumorigenie
response in the Sencar Mouse Skin Tumor Initiation/Promotion Assay. These
two samples are from an airtight wood «;tove burning oak or a softwood
mixture.
(g) Wood stove control studies
Two wood stove emission control technologies were studied--existing
catalytic secondary combustors and advanced noncatalytic secondary
combustors. Final results will be published following the 1986-87 heating
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season. The advanced noncatalytic secondary combustion development work
focused on the use of a small secondary heat source to maintain a stable
secondary flame at the low, smoldering burn rates commonly encountered
in wood stoves. Laboratory tests on experimental units of both types
retrofitted into an existing stove show that this technique is capable of
reducing carbon monoxide and total hydrocarbons by more than 95 percent.
(h) Atmospheric formation of HAP's
Progress was made in research on the atmospheric formation and
fate of toxic air pollutants. A report on the results of a HAP field
measurements program was published which summarizes the atmospheric
concentrations of a variety of HAP's observed in selected U.S. cities.^ A
study was completed on the mutagenic activity of wood smoke emissions
under typical atmospheric conditions.^ This study indicated that the
mutagenicity of wood smoke emissions was enhanced under conditions simulating
sunlight. Smog chamber studies which can simulate a variety of atmospheric
conditions and can provide information that can be used to predict atmospheric
lifetimes and daughter products were conducted on several candidate HAP's
in 1Q86.
(i) Integrated air cancer program
Through the Integrated Air Cancer Program, data collected during
1985/86 sampling in Raleigh, N.C., and Albuquerque, N.M., were analyzed.
Two manuscripts were reviewed and submitted for publication. One of these
described effective techniques for measuring the mutagenic activities of
gas and particulate-phase photo-oxidation products from wood smoke.^ .
The other evaluated the effectiveness of specially coated silica gel
cartridges for sampling aldehydes and ketones in the air. Rioassay data
were used in the source receptor modeling analysis for the first time.
Results from the Albuquerque site show that an average of 50 percent of the
ambient particulate mutagenicity was from wood stoves and 50 percent from
automobiles.^5
4. Scientific Support to the Mobile Source Regulatory Program
(a) Exposure modeling
As recommended by EPA's Science Advisory Hoard, validation of the
Simulation of Human Air Pollutant Exposure (SHAPE) and the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards Exposure Model (NEM) began, using field data collected
during a carbon monoxide exposure study. These models predict human
exposure frequency distributions by modeling human activity patterns and
the concentrations associated with particular microenvironments. A paper
was completed which describes preliminary information on-the field performance
of SHAPE and its validation using the Henver data base.86 Additional
analyses of the Denver data base were conducted to determine the relationship
between fixed monitoring stations and microenvironmental carbon monoxide
concentrations.^ Analyses were completed which related carbon monoxide
exposure profiles with estimated carboxyhenoglobin (COHb) levels and measure-
ments of carbon monoxide in the breath of subjects. A model for calculating
the carbon monoxide concentrations in the passenger compartment of motor
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vehicles moving in traffic was tested using the field data from the
Washington, D.C., microenvironment study.89-91 A field study was conducted
in Honolulu to measure carbon monoxide exposures while people performed such
activities as automobile and bus commuting, jogging, shopping, eating in
restaurants, and office work.92
Exposure to carbon monoxide elevates COHb levels in the blood.
COHb, therefore, is a good indicator of carbon monoxide dose level. In
1986, a study was completed which provides evidence for cardiovascular
effects at 4 percent and 6 percent COHb levels in angina patients.93,94
Another study of carbon monoxide toxicity was completed in 1986 which showed
that carbon monoxide exposure diminishes hand-eye coordination.95
(b) Emissions studies
Research was conducted to characterize organic emissions from motor
vehicles operated at reduced ambient temperatures. The results showed
that formaldehyde emissions did not increase in idling cars fueled by
gasoline or methanol. It is hypothesized, however, that further studies,
under actual operating conditions, will show increased formaldehyde
levels as temperatures drop. Such studies will be conducted in 1987.
5. Scientific Support to Determine the Impact of the Quality of
Global and Microenvironments on Public Health and the Environment
(a) Indoor air activities
The EPA initiated several changes in its indoor air'research program
in 1986. The ORD and the Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) are working
closely to develop a long-range plan for indoor air. The OAR established a
new indoor air policy staff to assist in guiding indoor air research and
decision-making. A review of EPA's plans for the indoor air research
program was conducted by the Science Advisory Board (SAB). The SAB
encouraged EPA to proceed with a research needs assessment, the results
of which will guide future research for indoor air.
Work was begun on an extensive bibliography of the world literature
on indoor air and total human exposure, emphasizing concentrations measured
in indoor microenvironments. The bibliography will be completed in 1987.
The EPA also developed the computerized Bibliographic Literature Information
System (BLIS) to search and retrieve abstracts of the indoor air quality
literature rapidly using a personal computer.96
Protocols were prepared for a chamber study designed to replicate
and extend earlier findings regarding the neurobehavioral and pulmonary
physiology effects of inhaling volatile organic compounds. Additional
research on the neurobehavioral effects of these compounds was begun in
several areas. The exposure portion of a clinical study of children with
parents who smoke was completed, as were analyses of nicotine in indoor
air, blood, and urine cotinine (a metabolite of nicotine), air and urine
mutagenicity, COHb, particulates, and organics. A pilot field study was
initiated which examines the levels of nicotine in the children of smoking
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parents and evaluates indoor levels of nicotine and other pollutants in
the homes where the children live. A second pilot field study was com-
pleted on the mutagenicity of emissions from several in-home combustion
sources, including convective and radiant kerosene heaters, gas stoves,
fireplaces, and cigarettes. The data are being analyzed and will be
published within a year.
Preliminary studies of organic compound emissions from kerosene space
heaters were completed. Measurements were made of products of incomplete
combustion, and bacterial mutagenesis bioassays were conducted on emission
samples. The results suggested that emissions of carcinogens may be
significant for certain heater types under specific operating conditions.
Laboratory studies of organic vapor emission rates from selected indoor
building materials and consumer products were conducted and reported in
1986. Sources studied include floor adhesive, caulking compound,
particle board, acrylic floor wax, moth crystals, and paints. Interlabo-
ratory comparisons of formaldehyde emissions were conducted as part of a
long-term effort to standardize emission testing procedures. Several
papers on testing procedures and results were presented and published.
A prototype version of a computerized data base on sources of indoor
air pollutants was developed and distributed for review by a small group
of indoor air quality researchers and the regulatory office in 1986. A
revised version will be distributed for general use in 1987.
(b) Radon activities
Field testing for the purpose of developing and demonstrating
low-cost techniques for reducing radon concentrations in homes was continued.
The techniques selected for testing -in each home vary according to type
of house, foundation, local geology and meteorology, and other factors.
Through 1986, 30 homes in eastern Pennsylvania and 10 homes in Clinton,.New
Jersey, have had radon reduction techniques installed. Reductions in most
homes ranged from 90 percent to over 99 percent. Based largely on the
experience in eastern Pennsylvania, a brochure for homeowners and a
technical manual for installers of radon mitigation techniques were
issued in August 1986.97,98 These will be updated in 1987, using the results
of ongoing field projects in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. A Radon
Mitigation Test Matrix was developed and reviewed by EPA's Science Advisory
Board. Initial estimates show a need to perform mitigation studies on
about 600 existing houses and 100 new houses. As a result, the Radon
Mitigation Demonstration Program was expanded in 1987 to meet these
objectives within a reasonable timeframe.
(c) Stratospheric ozone
In addition to continued research regarding the potential impact of
increased levels of solar IJV-B radiation on U.S. agriculture, silviculture,
and marine fisheries, work is ongoing on a regulatory impact analysis for
possible domestic and international controls on CFC's and other potential ozone-
depleting trace gases. These analyses will support later EPA regulatory deter-
minations. Initiation of studies on control technology and strategies for
controlling stratospheric ozone depleting-substances resulted in identification
of sources for which additional studies need to be conducted. National and
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international workshops were held on control strategies for stratospheric
modification. A workshop also was held specifically on nitrous oxide (N20)
emissions from combustion.^ This worxshop helped to define analytical
approaches for measurement of N20 and examined the relative strength of
various emission source sectors. The available data indicate that stationary
combustion sources are the major contributors of N20 emissions.
6. Radiation Monitoring and Quality Assurance to Federal,
State, and Local Laboratories
Each year, ORO provides technical assistance to the nepartment of
Energy in the form of radiation safety monitoring, long-term hydrological
monitoring, a human surveillance investigation program, and maintenance
of a radiation data base. The ORD also provides radiochemical analyses of
environmental samples for Regions, States, and contractor laboratories.
Support to both of these activities continued in 1986 with a stable
level of effort.100'10?
C. ACID DEPOSITION RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
1. Acid Deposition - General
Research on acid deposition i:; coordinated through the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), which is administered by the Inter-
agency Task Force on Acid Precipitation. The term "acid rain" means the
atmospheric deposition of acidic or acid-forming compounds in either dry or
wet form. These compounds exist in the atmosphere as gases or aerosol parti-
cles containing sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, sulfuric
acid, nitric acid and certain sulfate and nitrate compounds. The objective
of acid deposition research is to develop the necessary data to fully
understand the sources and characteristics of acid deposition, the extent
of damage or potential damage, and the corrective measures that may be
used to diminish the problem.
In 1986, acid deposition research produced scientific information on
the chemical status of a representative sample of lakes in the eastern
United States, and developed a preliminary 1985 man-made emissions data
base. The program established a cloud chemistry network to cover the major
high altitude forest system in the eastern part of the nation. A dry
deposition monitoring network (30 sites) was begun, and significant progress
was made in determining the effects of acidic deposition on southern
conifer and spruce/fir forests.
?. Long-term Deposition Monitoring Data (Both Wet and Hry) to
Provide Trends Analyses, Evaluate Atmospheric Models, and Determine
Exposure in Effects Studies
In 1986, the deposition monitoring research program continued to
provide the deposition data on wet precipitation through the National
Trends Network (NTN). The network, consisting of 150 stations, operated
at full capacity. A series of data reports covering the first four
years of operation of the deposition were published.
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Since dry deposition may account for a larger proportion of total
deposition than wet deposition, implementation of a dry deposition network
was begun in 1986 with a five-station dry deposition pilot network. A
contract was awarded for installation of the first 30 sites of a more
extensive network and field evaluations of proposed concentration monitors
were conducted.
3.
Activities to Improve the Scientific Understanding of Atmospheric
Processes
Improvements are needed in both the scientific understanding,
and the field data bases on atmospheric transport, transformation, and
deposition of acidic substances in order to develop more scientifically
acceptable, yet simplified models, to meet assessment and policy needs.
In 1986, the preliminary evaluation of the full Regional Acid Deposi-
tion Model (RAOM) using the Oxidation and Scavenging Characteristics of
April Rains (OSCAR) meteorology and wet chemical deposition data were
reported.104 yne gas-phase chemistry module was compared with both smog
chamber data and the more complex chemical mechanisms. The RADM cloud
processes and aqueous phase chemistry module was subjectively evaluated
against limited field data and more complex models. Recause of lack of
appropriate data, the dry deposition module was not evaluated. Much
larger and extensive data bases are required to test the system thoroughly.
Several sensitivity tests were also conducted in which emissions in the
Ohio Valley were theoretically reduced by 50 percent and 90 percent and
resultant calculated deposition patterns were analyzed.
A detailed operational plan and feasibility analysis for the intensive
field studies and the atmospheric model evaluation effort were completed.1^5
Oraft performance evaluation statements and data quality objectives were
provided for nine experimental tasks required for the operational and diag-
nostic model evaluation field studies. The report indicates that the
operational evaluation of RAOM is feasible and the diagnostic evaluation
of the model is currently being ascertained.
The Regional Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution (RELMAP) has been applied
and evaluated for the entire year of 1980 as part of the International Sul-
fur Deposition Model Evaluation (ISDME). Assessments have been made of
the sensitivity of the predictions of sulfur dioxide, sulfates, and total
sulfur wet deposition to the process rates; i.e., the modeled rates at
which sulfur dioxide transforms to sulfates and sulfur dioxide and sulfates
wet/dry deposition occur. The RELMAP sensitivity studies also address
single-layer versus multilayer model applications.
4. Activities to Improve the Scientific Understanding of the Aquatic
Effects of Acid Deposition on Surface Waters, Watersheds, and
Aquatic Biota
Acid deposition is believed to be a major contributing factor to
chronic depressions of pH and possible episodic depressions in aquatic
systems. Effects which may result include effects on fish and other
III-ll
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aquatic organisms and drinking water quality. The population-at-risk".
of surface waters and aquatic biota in the United States is only partially
known. Improvements are needed in both the scientific understanding and
the field data bases which define the processes affecting (1) the
current status of surface waters and watersheds including episodes; (2)
the chemical and biological changes to those resources; and (3) the rate
of change resulting from current and altered loadings of acidic or neutra-
lizing substances. These improvements will allow the development of more
scientifically acceptable, yet simplified relationships and models for
assessment and policy needs.
The National Surface Water Survey (NSHS) addresses the current status of
resources. Results of Phase I activity are nearing completion with the recent
publication of data and analysis of the Eastern Lake Survey106 and Stream
Survey (Pilot), and the imminent release of the report on the Western
Lake Survey.1(*' The Stream Survey (Mid-Appalachian Region) report will be
released in 1987.
The rate of change of systems is being investigated by the Direct/
Delayed Response Project. Three different levels of modeling activities
will supply target loading predictions by region. Verification of predic-
tion of the Direct/Delayed Response Project will be undertaken by field
and pilot level manipulations of watersheds as part of the Watershed
Manipulation Project. The research plan for this project was developed
and reviewed in 1986 so that manipulations can begin within 1987.
Long-term monitoring provides the ultimate verification of model
predictions by producing information on water quality trends, especially in
sensitive systems. The Long-term Monitoring Project was evaluated and
redesigned based on the results of the Eastern Lakes Survey to maximize its
applicability to detecting changes in sensitive surface waters.
5. Activities to Improve the Scientific Understanding of the Terrestrial
Effects of Acid Deposition on Forests, Soils, and Watersheds
Various adverse changes in forest condition have been observed in
the United States since the early 1980's. Apparently increased forest
mortality has been observed in high elevation stands of red spruce and
balsam fir. Also there is some indication that annual increment growth
is reduced in these stands. These observed symptoms are nonspecific and
could be caused by several different factors or combination of factors.
Acidic deposition and its associated pollutants have been implicated as
causal factors.
A joint F.PA/U.S. Forest Service research program, the Forest Response
Program (FRP), was established in 1985 to investigate (1) extent of damage
to forest ecosystems which might be caused by acid deposition, (?,} cause
and effect relationships, and (3) dose response relationships. During 1985
and 1986 the FRP established the Spruce-Fir, Southern Commercial, Eastern
Hardwoods, and Western Conifer research cooperatives. Also, the National
Vegetation Survey was implemented and a Synthesis and Integration Team
has been established. All of these activities have produced detailed
research plans which have passed peer review.
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(a) Spruce-Fir Research Cooperative
Following peer review in March 1986, a meeting with the Federal
Management Group was held and, as a result of that meeting and subsequent
reprogramming, 21 projects were funded in 1986. These are aimed at
addressing the question of extent of forest damage and at investigating
most of the major hypotheses of cause and effect related to the impact of
atmospheric deposition on forests.
(b) Southern Commercial Forest Research Cooperative
In 1986, three controlled exposure laboratory studies were
funded at Texas A&M University, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and North
Carolina State University. Controlled exposure-field research was conducted
in 1986 at Oak Ridge and at the nuke Forest Primary Research Site. In
mid-March a request for proposals was issued with two objectives: (1) to
study plant physiology in natural stands on the Duke Forest and stand
representation of the region, and (2) to study the feasibility of field
fumigation techniques. Two projects have been identified for funding.
Four secondary research sites have been identified and will be established
in 1987. Planning for the development of a central testing facility
began in 1986 on a site at the Forest Service greenhouse facility in
Macon, Georgia.
(c) Eastern Hardwood Research Cooperative
The Eastern Hardwood Cooperative initiated three projects in
1986. These concentrated mainly on the spatial extent and temporal
development of adverse changes in forest condition in eastern hardwood
species. Also included are studies concerning the effects of atmospheric
deposition on physiological and nutritional processes.
(d) Western Conifers Research Cooperative
Seven projects were funded by the Western Conifers Cooperative
in 1986. Similar to Eastern Hardwood, the thrust of this cooperative is
problem definition. The concentration of effort in 1986 was on questions
of the extent of damage with a smaller effort addressing effects mechanisms.
(e) National Vegetation Survey
Fourteen projects were undertaken by the National Vegetation
Survey in 1986, exploring the questions of the temporal development and
spatial extent of changes in forest condition. These include both analysis
of available data, field observations, and two studies along known deposition
gradients.
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(f) Synthesis and Integration
A computerized data base system was developed to track the outputs
and the status of the Forest Response Drogram projects. The data base will
be expanded to include key bibliographic information as well as other
pertinent data. Two research projects were initiated. These deal with
the assessment of physiological characteristics for use in developing
models of whole-tree processes and with the evaluation and development of
statistical techniques for the analysis of dendrochronological data.
6. Activities to Improve the Scientific Understanding of the Effects
of Acid Deposition on Materials
The materials effects research program is directed toward
understanding the quantitative relationships between the various forms of
acidic deposition and the resulting damage rates to materials and identify-
ing the geographical extent of materials-at-risk. As a result of major
program and project reviews conducted with NAPAP, the materials research
program was reconstructed in 1986. A najor initiative was the development
of a research program to determine the effects of acid deposition on
paint/substrate systems.
A preliminary physico-chemical model of acid deposition on galvanized
steel was prepared. This demonstrated the ability to predict damage in the
field from information gathered in the laboratory. Additional laboratory and
field studies are being conducted to refine and test the model. Field studies
on other common metals are in progress at five materials exposure sites.
Initial results of the field study were published that indicate the sensitivity
of metal surfaces to acid deposition changes over time as a corrosion layer is
formed. This has led to the development of a model of deterioration based on
the formation of a carbonate layer as a rate-controlling step in deposition.
7. Provision of Additional Information to Document the Reliability and
Cost-Effectiveness of the Limestone Injection Multistage Burner
(LIMB) Control Technology to Reduce Sulfur Oxides and Nitrogen~0xides
The EPA continues to develop LIMB technology that is designed to reduce
emissions of both sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, the two major acid
deposition precursors. The LIMB emission reduction technology is designed
to be retrofitable to both large and small existing coal-fired boilers.
In 1Q86, work continued on the development of high surface area sorbents
and sorbents treated with "promoters" to improve the sulfur capture ability
of the LIMB technology. The design phase of the wall-fired, full-scale LIMB
demonstration was completed. Also, EPA continued the laboratory and pilot-
scale research of the LIMB process to improve engineering knowledge of the
effects of operating parameters and systems variables associated with nitrogen
oxides control and sulfur dioxide capture. In addition, EPA initiated a
competitive procurement for a tangentially-fired, full-scale LIMB demonstration.
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n. REFERENCES
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986) Air Quality Criteria
for Ozone and other Photochemical Oxidants. Research Triangle Park,
N.C.: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental
Criteria and Assessment Office; EPA report EPA/600/8-84/020F.
Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA.; PB-87-142949.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986) Addendum to Air Quality
Criteria for Lead: New Findings Concerning Cardiovascular, Fetal,
and Postnatal Development Effects. Research Triangle Park, N.C.:
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria
and Assessment Office; EPA report EPA/600/****/****. Available
from NTIS, Springfield, VA.; PR-**.******.
3. Purdue, L., Status Report on Amendments to 40 CFR Parts 50, 53 With
Respect to PM^f). Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C. 27711 (June 1986) Available directly.
4. Woods, M., et al. "The PM^f) Sampler Evaluations Program: January
1985 to July 1986." Research Triangle Institute, Box 12194, RTP, NC
27707 (Report on EPA Contract 68-02-3992. Available directly from
author.
5. McElroy, F., et al. "A Cryogenic Preconcentration - Direct FID (PDFID)
Method For Measurement of NMOC In Ambient Air." EPA report
EPA 600/S4-85/063. (January 1986)
6. Rhodes, R.C., et al. "Precision and Accuracy Assessments for State
and Local Air Monitoring Networks, 1985": Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, RTP, NC 27711 (September 1986). Available directly,
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Audits of Analytical Proficiency 1985": Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, RTP, NC 27711 (September 1986). Available directly,
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and Local Air Monitoring Networks, 1983": EPA publication
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J.J. Extrathoracic and Intrathoracic Removal of Ozone in Tidal
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10. Horstman, D., Roger, L.J., McDonnell, W., Kehrl H., Seal, E., Chapman,
R., and Massaro, E. Pulmonary Effects in Asthmatics Exposed to 0.3
ppm N02 During Repeated Exercise. Submitted to the American Journal
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11. Roger, L.J., Kehrl, H., Hazucha, M., and Horstman, D. Pulmonary
Effects in Asthmatics Exposed to SO;? During Repeated Exercise. J.
Appl. Physiol. 59:784, 1985b.
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12. Horstman, D., Roger, I...)., Kehrl, H., and Hazucha, M. Ai rway-s
Sensitivity of Asthmatics to Sulfur Dioxide. Tox. and Indus. Health
2:289, 1986.
13. Hawk, R.A., Schroeder, S.R., Robinson, G., Otto, 0., Mushak, P.,
Kleinbaum, D., and Dawson, G. Relation of Lead and Social Factors to
10 of Low-SES Children: A partial replication. American Journal of
Mental Deficiency, 9:178-182, 1986.
14. Schwartz, J., Otto, D. Blood Lead, Hearing Thresholds, and
Neurobehavioral Development in Children and Youth. Archives of
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15. Laugh!in, N., Hecox, K., Boye;;, W., and Creason, J. Background
Noise Disrupts Electrophysiological Indices of Audiometry Following
Neonatal Lead Exposure in Monkeys. Abstract to be published in
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16. Molfese, D.L., Laugh!in, N.K... Morse, P.A., Linnville, S., and
Wetzel, F. Neuroelectrical Correlates of Categorical Perception for
Place of Articulation in Normal and Lead-treated Rhesus Monkeys.
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neurophysiology. 8:680-696, 1986,
17. Morse, P.A., Molfese, D.L., Laugh!in, N.K., Linnville, S., and Wetzel,
F. Categorical Perception for Voicing Contrasts in Normal and Lead-
treated Rhesus Monkeys: Electrophysiological Indices. Brain and
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18. Adams, R.M., Agriculture, Forestry and Related Benefits of Air Pollu-
tion Control: A Review and Some Observations. American Journal of .
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Pollution Control: The Case of Ozone and U.S. Agriculture. American
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20. Amundson, R.G., R.M. Raba, A.W. Schoettle and P.B. Reich. Response
of Soybean to Low Concentrations of Ozone: Ii. Effects on Growth,
Biomass Allocation and Flowering. Journal of Environmental Ouality
15:161-167, 1986.
21. Cure, W.W., J.S. Sanders and A.S. Heagle. Crop Yield Response
Predicted with Different Characteristics of the Same Ozone Treatments.
Journal of Environmental Ouality 15:251-254, 1986.
22. Garcia, P., B.L. Dixon, J. Mjelde, and R.M. Adams. Measuring the
Benefits of Environmental Change Using a Ouality Approach: The Case
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Economics and Management 13:69-80, 1986.
23. Heagle, A.S., W.W. Heck, V.M. Lesser, J.O. Rawllngs, and F.L. Mowry.
Injury and Yield Response of Cotton to Chronic Hoses of Ozone and
Sulfur Dioxide. Journal of Environmental Ouality 15:375-382, 1986.
Ill-lfi
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24. Heagle, A.S., V.M. Lesser, J.O. Rawlings, W.W. Heck, and R.B.
Philbeck. Response of Soybeans to Chronic Doses of Ozone Applied as
Constant or Proportional Additions to Ambient Air. Phytopathology
76:51-56, 1986.
25. Kohut, R.J. The National Crop Loss Assessment Network (NCLAN): An
Update of Research Results and a Program Review, pp. 132-143. Evalu-
ation of the Scientific Basis for Ozone/Oxidant Standards. S.D.,
Lee (ed.).Air Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, PA. 1986.
26. Kohut, R.J., R.G. Amundson and J.A. Laurence. Evaluation of Growth
and Yield of Soybean Exposed to Ozone in the Field. Environmental
Pollution (Series A) 41:219-234. 1986.
27. Kress, L.W., J.E. Miller, H.J. Smith and J.O. Rawlings. Impact of
Ozone and Sulfur Dioxide on Soybean Yield. Environmental Pollution
(Series A) 41:105-123, 1986.
28. Lefohn, A.S., W.E. Hogsett and D.T. Tingey. A Method for Developing
Ozone Exposures that Mimic Ambient Conditions in Agricultural Areas.
Atmospheric Environment 20:361-366, 1986.
29. McCarl, B.A., D. Rrown, R.M. Adams and J. Pheasant. Linking Farm
and Sector Models in Spatial Equilibrium Analysis: An Application
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Methods for Market Oriented Economic Analysis Over Space and Time.
W. Labys, T. Takayama and N. Uri, (eds.).JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.,
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30. Olszyk, D.M. and D.T. Tingey. Joint Action of 03 and SO;? in Modifying
Plant Gas Exchange. Plant Physiology 82:401-405", 1986.
31. Reich, P.Ft., A.W. Schoettle, R.M. Raba and R.G. Amundson. Response
of Soybean to Low Concentrations of Ozone: I. Reduction in Leaf
and Whole Plant Net Photosynthesis and Leaf Chlorophyll Contents.
Journal of Environmental Ouality 15:31-36, 1986.
32. Rodecap, K.D., and D.T. Tingey. Ozone-induced Ethylene Release from
Leaf Surfaces. Plant Science 44:73-76, 1986.
33. Taylor, G.E., Jr., D.T. Tingey and C.A. Gunderson. Photosynthesis,
Carbon Allocation, and Growth of Sulfur Dioxide Ecotypes of Geranium
Carolinianum L. Occologia 68:350-357, 1986.
34. Temple, P.M. Stomatal Conductance and Transpirational Responses of
Field-grown Cotton to Ozone. Plant, Cell and Environment 9:315-321,
1986.
35. Temple, P.J., O.C. Taylor and L.F. Benoit. Yield Response of Head
Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L.) to Ozone. Environmental Experimental
Botany 20:53-58, 1986.
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36. Tingey, O.T. The Impact of Ozone on Agriculture and Its Consequences.
Acidification and Its Policy Implications. T. Schneider (ed.).
Elsevier Science Publishers R.V., Amsterdam, pp. 55-63, 1986.
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Light Scattering Aerosol Between 50°C and 220°C," Submitted for
Publication, Atmospheric Environment.
33. Husar, R., D. Patterson, and W. Wilson, "A Semi-Empirical Approach
for Selecting Rate Parameters for a flonte Carlo Regional Air Duality
Model," Submitted for Publication, Atmospheric Environment.
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Respect to PMio, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, RTP, NC
27711 (June 1986). Available directly.
40. Woods, M., et al, "The PMjQ Sampler Evaluation Program: January 1985
to July 1986", Research Triangle Institute, Rox 12194, RTP, NC 27707
N (Report on EPA Contract 68-02-3992.) Available directly.
41. Streib, E.W., et al, "A Summary of the 1985 EPA National Performance
Audit Program on Source Measurements," Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, RTP, NC 27711 (September 1986). Available directly.
42. Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on the Transfer and Utilization of
Particulate Control Technology EPA/600/9-85/031 A, S, C. (Hecember
1986) Available directly.
43. Operation and Maintenance Manual for Electrostatic Precipitators, EPA
publication EPA/625/1-86/017 (September 1986).
44. Operation and Maintenance Manual for Fabric Filters. EPA publication
EPA/625/1-86/020 (June 1986).
45. Lime/Limestone Flue Gas Hesi.il furizati on Inspection and Performance
Evaluation Manual, EPA/600/1-86/029 (September 1986).
46. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of a Detailed Reaction
Mechanism: Volumes I and II, EPA/600/3-86/031 a and b. Available from
NTIS, Springfield, VA. PR86-212404 and PR86-212412, May 1986.
47. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Regional Oxidant Model, ROM 1
Evaluation for 2-4 August 1979, EPA/600/3-86/032.Available from NTIS,
Springfield, VA. PB86-215886, "May 1986.
48. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RELMAP: A Regional Lagrangian
Model (Version-2). EPA/600/8-86/013. Available from NTIS, Springfield,
VA. PR86-171394, March 1986.
49. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. User's Guide for PEM-2: Pollution
Episodic Model (Version 2), EPA/600/3-86/040.Available from NTIS,
Springfield, VA. PR87-132098, December 1986.
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50. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of the PEM-2 Using
the 1982 Philadelphia Aerosol Field Study Data Rase, EPA/600/3-86/016.
Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA.PB86-167921, March 1986.
51. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Urban Aerosol Modeling: Incor-
poration of an SO? Photochemical Oxidation Module in AROSOL, EPA/600/
3-86/048. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA. PB86-242856, August 1986.
52. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, MPOA-1: A Meteorological
Processor for Diffusion Analysis - User's Guide, EPA/600/8-86/011.
Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA.PB86-171402, March 1986.
53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Development of Adjustable
Buoyancy Balloon Tracer of Atmospheric Motion: Phase II Development
of Operational Prototype, EPA/600/3-86/050.Available from NTIS,
Springfield, VA. PB87-100525, August 1986.
54. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, A Workshop Report on the Complex
Terrain Model Development Project (February 4-6, 1986), EPA/600/9-86/026.
Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA.PB87-100681, September 1986.
55. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Airborne Asbestos
Health Assessment Update. Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of
Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and
Assessment Office: EPA report EPA/600/8-84-003F. Available from
NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-86-2428564/AS.
56. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Health Assessment
Document for Nickel. Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health
and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office: EPA report EPA/600/8-83-012FF. Available from NTIS,
Springfield, VA; PB-86-232212.
57. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Health Assessment
Document for Beryllium [External Review Draft!. Research Triangle
Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environ-
mental Criteria and Assessment Office: EPA report EPA/600/8-
84-026B. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-86-183944/AS.
58. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Phenol. Research Triangle Park,
NC: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental
Criteria and Assessment Office: EPA report EPA/600/8-86-003F.
Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB-86-178076.
59. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Ammonia [OAQPS Review Draft].
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
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60. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride
[OAOPS Review Draft"]. Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health
and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment
Office.
61. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Methyl Isocyanate and Toluene
Di isocyanate [OAQPS Review Draft"). Research Triangle Park, NC:
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Environmental Criteria
and Assessment Office.
62. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Naphthalene [OAQPS Review Draft!.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
63. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Propylene [OAOPS Review Draft!.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
64. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Propylene Oxide [OAQPS Review Draft!,
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
65. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Styrene [OAOPS Review Draft!.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
66. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Xylene [OAOPS Review Draft!.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
67. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1986). Summary Review of
the Health Effects Associated with Zinc and Zinc Oxide [OAQPS Review
Draft!. Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Health and Environ-
mental Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
68. Lewis, Robert G., "Development of New Sampling and Analysis Techniques
for Hazardous Air Pollutants in Ambient and Indoor Air," EPA
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park,
NC, December 1986. Available directly.
69. Evans, Gary F., "Status Report on Sampling Conducted at Three TAMS
Locations," EPA Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC, December 1936. Available directly.
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70. Wallace, L. A., (1986). "Personal Exposures, Indoor and Outdoor Air
Concentrations, and Exhaled Breath Concentrations of Selected Volatile
Organic Compounds Measured for 600 Residents of New Jersey, North
Dakota, North Carolina, and California." In press, Toxicological and
Environ. Chem.
71. Wallace, L.A., (1986). "Cancer Risks from Organic Chemicals in the
Homes," Paper Presented at APCA Specialty Conference on Risk
Assessment, Chicago, April 14-16, 1986.
72. Ott, Wayne R., "Total Human Exposure: An Emerging Science Focuses on
Humans as Receptors of Environmental Pollution," Environmental
Science and Technology, Vol. 19, Mo. 10, October 1985, pp. 880-886.
73. Ott, Wayne R., Lance Wallace, David Mage, Gerald Akland, Robert Lewis,
Harold Sauls, David Kleffman, Donna Kuroda, and Karen Morehouse,
"The Environmental Protection Agency's Research Program on Total Human
Exposure," Environment International, Vol. I?., 1986.
74. Bushnell, P.J., and D.R. Peele, Concentration-dependent Conditioned
Flavor Aversions Induced by Inhaled P-xylene. Toxicologist 7:?5?, 1987,
75. Rosen, M.B., K.M. Crofton and N. Chernoff, Postnatal Evaluation of
Prenatal. Tox. Lett. 34:223-229, 1986.
76. Hatch, G.E., R. Slade, A.G. Stead, and J.A. Graham, Species Compari-
son of Acute Inhalation Toxicity of Ozone and Phosgene. J. Tox.
Environ. Health 19:43-532, 1986.
77. Franch, S., and G.E. Hatch, Pulmonary Biochemical Effects of Inhaled
Phosgene in Rats. J. Tox. Environ. Health 19:413-423, 1986.
78. Dyer, R.S., K.F. Jensen and W.K. Boyes, Focal Lesions of Visual
Cortex - Effects on Visual Evoked Potentials in Rats. Experimental
Neurology, 95:100-115, 1987.
79. O'Callaghan, J.P., Neurotypic and Gliotypic Proteins as Biochemical
Indicators of Neurotoxicity. In: Neurotoxicology, and ed. M.R. Abou-
Donia, Oxford University Press, 1987 (in press).
80. Dyer, R.S., W.K. Boyes and R.E. Hetzler, Acute Sulfolane Exposure
Produced Temperature-Independent and Dependent Changes in Visual Evoked
Potentials. Meurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 8:687-693, 1986.
81. Rehnberg, G.L., ,J.F. Hein, S.D. Carter, and J.W. Laskey, Age
Dependent Changes in Gastrointestinal Transport and Retention of
Participate Manganese Oxide in the Rat. J. Tox. Environ. Health,
16:887-889.
82. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Toxic Chemicals in the Environ-
ment: A Program of Field Measurements, EPA/600/3-86/047.Available
from NTIS, Springfield, VA. PB-86-239910, July 1986.
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83. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mutagenic Activities of. Wood
Smoke Photo-oxidation Products, EPA/600/3-86/049.Available from
NTIS, Springfield, VA. PB-86-239837, August 1986.
84. Kleindienst, I.E., P.R. Shepson, E.O. Edney, L.D. Claxton, and
L.T. Cupitt, Wood Smoke: Measurement of the Mutagenic Activities of
Its Gas-and Particulate-Phase Photooxidation Products. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 20:493, 1986.
85. Lewis, C.W., R.E. Baumgardner, L.D. Claxton, J. Lewtas, and R.K.
Stevens, The Contribution of Woodsmoke and Motor Vehicle Emissions to
Ambient Air Mutagenicity. Submitted to Nature.
86. Ott, Wayne, Jacob Thomas, David Mage, and Lance Wallace, "Validation
of the Simulation of Human Activity and Pollutant Exposure (SHAPE) Model
Using Paired Days from the Denver, Colorado, Carbon Monoxide Field
Study," Atmospheric Environment, in press, 1987.
87. Johnson, Ted, Jim Capel, and Luke Wijnberg, "Selected Data Analyses
Relating to Studies of Personal Carbon Monoxide Exposure in Denver and
Washington, DC," Report Under EPA Contract No. 68-02-3496. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC, February 1986. Available directly.
88. Wallace, Lance, Jacob Thomas, David Mage, and Wayne Ott, "Comparison
of Breath CO, CO Exposure, and Coburn Model Predictions in the U.S.
EPA Washington-Denver CO Study," Atmospheric Environment, in press,
1987.
89. Flachsbart, Peter G., Gregory A. Mack, James E. Howes, and Charles E.
Rodes, "Carbon Monoxide Exposures of Washington Commuters," Journal of
the Air Pollution Control Association, Volume 37, No. 2, pp. 135-
142, February 1987.
90. Flachsbart, Peter G., "Prototypal Models of Commuter Exposure to CO
from Motor Vehicle Exhaust," Paper No. 85-39.6 Presented at the 78th
Annual Meeting of the Air Polljtion Control Association, Detroit,
Michigan, June 16-21, 1985.
91. Flachsbart, Peter G., and Clayton Ah Yo, "Test of a Theoretical
Commuter Exposure Model to Vehicle Exhaust in Traffic," Paper No. 86-
79.4 Presented at the 78th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 22-27, 1986.
92. Flachsbart, Peter G., and Dennis E. Brown, "Merchant Exposure to CO
from Motor Vehicle Exhaust at Honolulu's Ala Moana Shopping Center,"
Paper No. 85-85.3 Presented at the 78th Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, Detroit, Michigan, June 16-21, 1985.
93. Sheps, D.S., K.F. Adams, G.M. Goldstein, J.J. O'Neil, D. Horstman,
G. Koch, and P.A. Bromberg. Effect of Low Levels of Carboxy-
hemoglobin on Cardiovascular Function in Patients with Ischenmc
Heart Disease. Arch. Environ. Health. March/April 1987.
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94. Adams, K.F., 8. Chattergee, G. Koch, C.J. Price, G. Goldstetn,
J. O'Meil, and n.S. Sheps, Earlier Onset of Ischemia After Exposure
to Low Level Carbon Monoxide in Patients with Ischemic Heart Disease.
Accepted for Presentation at American College of Cardiology. Spring
1987. Abstract.
95. Benignus, V.A., K.V. Muller, C.N. Barton, and J.D. Prah, Effect
of Low Level Carbon Monoxide on Compensatory Tracking and Event
Monitoring. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. (in press) (May/June
issue, 1987).
96. Shackelford, James M., and Wayne R. Ott, "A Users Manual for the
Bibliographic Literature Information System," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, February 11,
1987.
97. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Radon Reduction Methods: A
Homeowner's Guide," EPA 625/6-86-005, July 1986.
98. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Radon Reduction Techniques
for Detached Houses: Technical Guidance," EPA 625/5-86-019,
August 1986.
99. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Workshop on Global Atmospheric
Change and EPA Planning," EPA 600/9-86-016, July 1986.
100. Stuart C. Black, et al, "Off-Site Monitoring for the Mighty Oak
Muclear Test," EPA 600/4-86-030, July 1986.
101. R.F. Grossman, et al, "Off-Site Monitoring Report: Radiation
Monitoring Around U.S. Nuclear Test Areas, C.Y. 1985," EPA
600/4-86-022, April 1986.
102. A.N. Jarvis, et al, "Annual Report on the Laboratory Radionuclide
Intercomparison Studies: July 1, 1984-June 30, 1985, October 1986.
(Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV.)
103. Report: Siting Selection for Dry Deposition Network, December, 1985.
104. Preliminary Evaluation Studies with the Regional Acid Deposition Model
(RADM), February, 1986.
105. Regional Eulerian Model Field Study and Evaluation: Proposed Manage-
ment and Technical Approaches, August, 1986.
106. Characteristics of Lakes in the Eastern United States, Volume I, II,
III; EPA 600/4-86/007 a, b and c; June 1986.
107. National Surface Water Survey: National Stream Survey Phase I -
Pilot Survey; EPA 600/4-86/026.
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IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
A. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA regularly to review and,
if appropriate, to revise all of the national ambient air quality standards
(NAAOS). Reviews of the NAAOS for carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide were
completed in 1985; reviews of the remaining four NAAQS were in progress in
1986.
On March 20, 1984, EPA proposed changes to the NAAOS for participate
matter (PM)1. The EPA proposed to replace the current 24-hour and annual
primary (health-related) standards for total suspended particulate matter
(TSP) with standards that include only those particles less than 10 micro-
meters in diameter (PMio). The EPA proposed to establish an annual secondary
(welfare-related) TSP standard and to revoke the current 24-hour secondary
standard. The EPA also solicited public comment on the option of making
the secondary standards equivalent in all respects to the proposed primary
standards. The proposal was reviewed at a Clean Air Scientific Advisory
Committee (CASAC) meeting in December 1985 and CASAC recommended that
because of new data published since the combined PM/sulfur oxides criteria
document was prepared in 1981, EPA should prepare addenda to the criteria
document and the sulfur oxides and the PM staff papers. The CASAC also
concluded that the available data do not support a TSP-based secondary
standard. The CASAC reviewed the addenda in October 1986 and submitted
their final written comments on the PM addenda in December.2.3 Final
promulgation of the PM standards was completed in 1987.
Activities on the sulfur oxide NAAOS review in 1986 focused on refinements
to the exposure analysis for various 1-hour standard alternatives and the
preparation and CASAC review of addenda to the criteria document and the
staff paper (see preceding paragraph on PM).^ Revised or reaffirmed
sulfur oxide standards are scheduled to be proposed in 1987.
In May 1986, CASAC reviewed a third draft of the criteria document revision
for lead and a second draft of the lead staff paper. The CASAC completed their
review of the criteria document but had significant comments on the exposure
analysis portion of the staff paper.4 The CASAC will review a revised draft
of the staff paper in late 1987.
In April 1986, CASAC reviewed revised drafts of the criteria document for
ozone and the ozone staff paper; CASAC completed their review of the criteria
document in October 1986.5 On the staff paper, issues were raised as to
whether a longer-term standard could or should be set to protect against
chronic health effects and effects on vegetation.
IV-1
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B. REFERENCES
1. 49 FR 10408, March 20, 1984.
2. "Second Addendum to Air Quality Criteria for Participate Hatter
and Sulfur Oxides (1982): Assessment of Newly Available Health
Effects Information," EPA-600/8-86-020F, December 1986.
3. "Review of the National Ambient Air Ouality Standards for
Participate Matter: Assessment of Scientific and Technical
Information," (Addendum to the 1982 OAQPS Staff Paper),
EPA-450/5-86-012, December 1986.
4. "Air Quality Criteria for Lead," EPA-600/8-83-028 aF thru dF,
October 1986.
5. "Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants,"
EPA-600/8-84-020 aF thru eF, August 1986.
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V. ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
A. INTRODUCTION
In 1985, EPA announced its strategy for the control of both routine
and accidental releases of toxic air pollutants.'- The following sections
discuss the activities and progress made in 1986 to implement this strategy.
B. ASSESSMENT AND REGULATORY DECISIONS
In 1986, EPA continued to implement an active program to screen and
assess potentially toxic air pollutants for possible regulation under the
Clean Air Act or other environmental authorities. As shown in Table V-l,
38 chemicals or emission mixtures were in various stages of assessment at
the end of 1986. Decisions not to pursue a regulatory program directed
specifically at phenol^ and certain nickel compounds^ were published in
1986. Decisions on whether to regulate 10-12 additional pollutants are
expected in 1987.
In 1986, draft reports were completed for Tier 4 of the National
Oioxin Study, a coordinated effort of various EPA programs to assess
the potential extent of contamination of the environment with chlorinated
dioxin compounds. Tier 4 focuses on combustion sources and deals primarily
with emissions to the atmosphere. Summary reports were completed for re-
view by the Science Advisory Board (SAB) in August 1986. Final technical
reports reflecting SAR and other comments are to be completed and released
in early 1987.
C. FEDERAL REGULATORY PROGRAM - STATIONARY SOURCES
1. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
0 Arsenic - The NESHAP for glass manufacturing, high arsenic
feedstock primary copper smelters, and low arsenic feedstock primary
copper smelters were promulgated in August 1986.4
0 Benzene - Work continued in 1986 on a source assessment for benzene
emissions from gasoline marketing and on promulgation of the NESHAP for coke
by-product plants.
0 Asbestos - Work continued on revising the asbestos NESHAP during
1986. The revision will cover the demolition and renovation provisions and
is scheduled for proposal in early 1987.
0 Mercury - Work continued in 1986 on the revision of the mercury
NESHAP. Promulgation is planned for early 1987.
0 Vinyl chloride - Revisions to the vinyl chloride NESHAP were
promulgated in September 1986.5
V-l
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0 Chromium - During 1986, NESHAP development continued for chromium
emissions from electroplating and industrial cooling towers. Regulations
to prohibit the use of chromium in comfort cooling towers are being
considered under the authority of the Toxic Substances Control Act. Other
chromium sources still under consideration for NESHAP include utility
boilers, industrial boilers, chromium chemical manufacturing, steel production,
refractory manufacturing, sewage sludge incinerators, municipal incinerators,
cement manufacturing, chromite ore refining, and ferrochromium production.
0 Coke oven emissions - Standards development work continued in 1986
for coke oven emissions sources in the iron and steel industry. A proposed
NESHAP for coke oven emissions is planned for 1987.
° Ethylene Oxide - Work commenced in 1986 on a NESHAP for commercial
sterilization.
0 Hazardous Organic NESHAP (HON) - The HON is an accelerated NESHAP
development effort that will cover eight organic compounds (ethylene
oxide, methylene chloride, ethylene dichloride, perchloroethylene, trichloro-
ethylene, butadiene, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride) for which an
intent to list under either section 11? of the Clean Air Act or section 4(f)
of the Toxics Substance Control Act has been published. The HON will cover
13 source categories in the organic chemicals industry. Publication of a
proposed rule is scheduled for 1987.
0 Perchloroethylene - Work commenced in 1986 on a NESHAP for the
dry cleaning industry.
0 Radionuclides - Standards were promulgated for Nuclear Regulatory
Commission-Ticensed uranium mill tailings piles.^ Work continued on studying
emissions from phosphogypsum piles. In 1986, EPA initiated the development
of implementation procedures and guidance for the five radionuclide NESHAP.
The program consists of three elements: (1) completion of reserved sections
of the NESHAP rules, (2) development of guidance and criteria for the Regions
and States, and (3) initial implementation assistance. This initial program
will be fully in place in 1988. Post-1988 efforts will concentrate on a
national data base, assistance to the Regions and States, generic guidance
and oversight, training programs, and special studies.
0 Solvent Degreasing - Work commenced in 1986 on a NESHAP for solvent
degreasing equipment. The NESHAP will address emissions of perchloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, and methylene chloride.
0 Cadmiurn - The sources of cadmium were still under review at the end
of 1986. Decisions on any source categories which warrant regulation will be
made in 1987. The categories under consideration are primary cadmium
smelters, lead smelters, copper smelters, pigments manufacturing, stabilizers
manufacturing, and zinc and zinc oxides production.
0 Municipal Waste Combustion (MWC) - A detailed risk and control
technology assessment was initiated in 1986. Emissions of concern from
MWC are particulates (including chromium and cadmium), acid gases, and
organic compounds (including dioxin and polycyclic organic matter). A
regulatory decision is scheduled in 1987.
V-?
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2. Hazardous Haste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities (TSDF)
In November 1984, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
was reauthorized. Section 3004(n) of the reauthorization states that not
later than 30 months after the date of enactment (i.e., May 1987) the
Administrator shall promulgate such regulations for the monitoring and
control of air emissions at hazardous waste TSDF's as may be necessary to
protect human health and the environment. Air emission sources of concern
include surface impoundments, landfills, land treatment units, waste
piles, wastewater treatment systems, pretreatment units, and transfer,
storage and handling operations. The number of TSOF facilities is currently
estimated at between 2,000 - 3,000.
Preliminary assessments of the industry show that TSDF's may pose
significant health and environmental risks to the air. Emissions of volatile
organic compounds (VOC's), which lead to ozone formation, may be as high as
10 percent of the total nationwide VOC emissions. In addition, cancer
incidence from toxic compounds may be as high as 240 cases per year. There
is a great deal of uncertainty in these estimates, and a better understanding
will be gained over the course of the regulatory development process.
Current plans call for development of TSDF regulations in three
phases:
0 The first group of standards addresses sources for which EPA can
develop standards relatively quickly because similar sources have already
been regulated under the Clean Air Act. These standards address air
emission vent and fugitive emissions from some of the treatment devices
that will be used to meet the RCRA land disposal restrictions. The
standards were proposed in early 1987.
0 The second group of standards, which addresses the bulk of the
TSOF sources, is scheduled for proposal in early 1988 and final action in
1989.
0 The third group of regulations will cover certain subsets of the
seven TSOF source categories for which EPA will likely be unable to develop
rules during the second round. These include dewatering devices (belt
presses, filter presses, and centrifuges) and waste fixation in the
pretreatment source category and operations associated with containers
(filling, emptying, cleaning, etc.). Less data exist on these sources to
quantify the extent of the problem or to address the solution. In addition,
the land ban rules being developed under other sections of RCRA will
require treatment before disposal of hazardous wastes. This program is
expected to cause major shifts in the TSOF industry and could cause new
sources of air pollution which need to be addressed as the industry develops
new treatment technologies. Work on the third group of TSDF's is expected
to begin in 1988.
V-3
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D. MOBILE SOURCES
(Mobile source activities related to air toxics are described in
Chapter IX of this report.)
E. SPECIFIC POINT SOURCES
In 1986, EPA continued to pursue that portion of its overall strategy
to control emissions of air toxics that provides State and local air pollution
control agencies with funding and technical support to evaluate specific
point sources. Sources that are candidates for this program include those
that have been identified through the federal toxic air pollutant assessment
program but which do not warrant Federal regulations. This program was
initiated in 1984 with a pilot program involving the chemical acrylonitrile,
a carcinogen for which the public health risks are limited due to the
existence of only a few industrial facilities. Evaluations involving all
26 acrylonitrile facilities in 14 States have been completed and the reports
accepted by the appropriate State and "'oca! agencies. Using the completed
reports, State and local agencies have released the information to the
public and are making regulatory decisions and recommendations. The State
of Ohio, with 6 facilities, has concluded their acrylonitrile effort with a
commitment to develop technology-based regulations covering process emissions,
leaks, and emissions from storage tanks. Facilities in Iowa, West Virginia,
South Carolina, and Virginia have initiated controls through consent decrees,
adherence to State ambient guidelines, and permit modifications. For certain
acrylonitrile facilities in Connecticut, Delaware, Alabama, Texas, and
California, the States concluded after 'evaluation that existing controls
were either adequate or represented state-of-the-art control technology.
In 1986, State evaluations for 9 additional source types were funded
and evaluations at the State/local level were begun. In 1987, it is antici-
pated that as many as 20 additional evaluations will begin.
F. ASSESSING URBAN RISK
In 1986, EPA initiated planning and activities to encourage States to
undertake new efforts toward assessing the scope and seriousness of current
exposures to the mixtures of air toxic compounds which are believed common-
place in large metropolitan areas. A program has been developed which pro-
vides funds under section 105 of the Clean Air Act and technical assistance
to States to encourage them to undertake such assessment efforts in at
least 30 targeted areas with populations over one million people. Although
the program does not mandate a particular assessment approach, it is expected
that States' efforts will, result in ambient monitoring, source/emission
inventory analyses, and risk assessment activities to define whether the
perceived problems indeed exist and, if so, how serious they are. A sub-
stantial effort in 1986 was the communication of needs to State and local
agencies and other similar outreach activities.
In addition, activity on several Integrated Environmental Management
Projects (IEMP) was continued. These projects, though multimedia in nature,
focus a major portion of study on the air toxics aspects of the urban
V-4
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environment. In 1986, efforts were completed for the Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, and Santa Clara, California, areas as a result of work in
previous years. In the Kanawha Valley, West Virginia, and Baltimore,
Maryland, initial studies were concluded. Additional major monitoring efforts
will be conducted in Raltimore in 1987. A new IEMP study was also initiated
in Denver, Colorado.
The EPA also distributed guidance in 1986 on procedures for estimating
emissions for selected potentially toxic pollutants. Final reports were
distributed for ethylene oxide^ and chlorobenzenes.^ Reports are now in
preparation for polycyclic organics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and benzene.
Issuance of these additional documents is scheduled for 1987, pending the
completion of peer review for each document. New work is also planned on
improving emission factors for various area sources of toxic air pollutants.
G. BUILDING STATE AND LOCAL AIR TOXICS CONTROL PROGRAMS
The EPA has established a goal to have quality programs in every
State and major local agency which are adequate to carry out certain
roles envisioned for them within the national air toxics strategy. These
roles are: (1) accepting delegation and enforcing national emission
standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP), (2) identifying, evaluat-
ing, and mitigating (as necessary) point sources of local concern not
addressed by NESHAP, (3) addressing urban problems arising from complex
multisource, multipollutant interactions, and (4) enhancing program capabilities
to conduct applicable activities in the first three areas and to facilitate
implementation of other programs specific to the needs of each State or
community. During 1986, considerable progress was made toward meeting this
goal. The progress was in part due to the establishment of a new program
to enhance State and local program development. This program uses available
grant funds to promote multiyear planning on the part of State and local
agencies for building their air toxics capabilities and programs. Within a
multiyear development plan, State and local agencies were encouraged to
conduct the above-mentioned activities. In response, EPA received 63
multiyear development plans from 48 States and IS local agencies. The
major emphasis of the current State and local activities within these plans
is now on development of toxics emissions inventories and modifying existing
new source review permit systems to incorporate consideration of air toxic
concerns. The amount of emphasis on additional technical skill development
to handle risk assessment and toxic consideration varies greatly among the
agencies and is usually proportional to the size of the agency and their
perceived toxics problem.
In order to help the current and future implementation of scheduled
multiyear development plan activities, EPA expanded its program of technical
support in 1986. The EPA developed several technical documents on topics
relevant to air toxics including guidance on ambient monitoring, modeling,
emission inventory development, control technology evaluation, and control
program development. Trial operation of a control technology center was
also begun which will offer States and locals a variety of case-by-case
technical assistance in making their control decisions. Finally, a series
V-5
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of national workshops were designed to assist State and local agencies in
the basic aspects of program development and implementation. These workshops
will be given by EPA in conjunction with the State and Territorial Air
Pollution Program Administrators (STAPPA) and the Association of Local Air
Pollution Control Officials (ALAPCO) ii 1987.
In 1986, the National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse (NATICH)
was significantly expanded through the implementation of a computerized
data base. Established in 1983, the Clearinghouse provides a tangible
method of improving communication among EPA and State and local agencies.
The Clearinghouse is funded by EPA and is a cooperative effort among EPA,
STAPPA, and AlAPCO. The goal of the Clearinghouse is to disseminate in-
formation about activities under way to solve toxic air pollutant problems
and to reduce duplication of effort. 'Some of the kinds of information
included in the Clearinghouse are: (1) regulatory program activities,
including acceptable ambient limits and emergency response program
development; (2) source permit information, such as types and quantities
of pollutants permitted and required control technology; (3) source test
and ambient monitoring methods in use; (4) emission inventory information;
and (5) selected EPA risk analysis results. With the implementation of
the NATICH data base, the Clearinghouse users (e.g., State, local air
quality management agencies, EPA, industry, environmental groups, and the
public) may now have direct access to the Clearinghouse information through
interactive programs. In addition to direct computer access to the data
base, hardcopy reports of the data base information are printed and distributed
annually. Other publications on air toxics distributed in 1986 included
four issues of the Clearinghouse newsletter, a bibliography of reports and
Federal Register notices related to air toxics,q a listing of EPA and
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ongoing research and
regulatory development projects,^ a report on methods for selecting and
prioritizing toxic air pollutants of concern,H a report that details how the
Clearinghouse can be used to address air toxics questions^ and a set of
reports summarizing data submitted by State and local agencies.13 Plans for
1987 include continuation af the prior publications, publication of a
special report on carcinogenic risk assessment procedures, plus implementa-
tion of a new set of computer programs to enable authorized State and local
agencies to directly enter and edit their data in the Clearinghouse files.
H. REFERENCES
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "A Strategy to Reduce Risks
to Public Health From Air Toxics," .June 1985.
2. 51 FR 22854, June 23, 1986.
3. 51 FR 34135, September 25, 1986.
4. 51 FR 27956, August 4, 1986.
5. 51 FR 34904, September 30, 1986.
6. 51 FR 34056, September 24, 1986.
V-6
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7. Locating and Estimating Emissions from Sources of Ethylene Oxide,
EPA 450/4-84-0071, September 1986.
8. Locating and Estimating Emissions from Sources of Chlorobenzenes,
EPA 450/4-84-007m, September 1986.
9. Bibliography of Selected Reports and Federal Register Notices
Related to Air toxics, EPA-450/5-86-008, July 1986.
10. Ongoing Research and Development Projects, EPA-450/5-86-007,
June 1986.
11. Methods for Pollutant Selection and Prioritization, EPA-450/5-86-010,
July 1986.
1?. NATICH: How The Clearinghouse Can Help To Answer Your Air Toxics
Questions, EPA-450/5-86-009, July 1986.
13. NATICH Data Base Report on State and Local Agency Air Toxics
Activities, 1986, Vol. I, EPA-450/5-86-011a; Vol. II, EPA-450/5-86-011b,
July 1986.
V-7
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VI. STATUS OF AIR DUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. DEVELOPMENT OF POLICY AND REGULATIONS
Emissions Trading
The EPA published its final Emissions Trading Policy Statement (the
"bubble policy") in December 1986.! The policy sets forth detailed
criteria under which companies may substitute or "trade" extra emission
reductions from sources less costly to control for emissions from sources
that have higher control costs. The final policy authorizes the use of
environmentally sound bubbles (emission trades between existing sources)
in all areas of the country, as an important component of the nation's
effort to achieve and maintain air quality standards.
The EPA issued the first emissions trading document in 1979, to
address the issue of achieving air quality standards, maintaining economic
growth, and to establish an incentive for innovative pollution control
programs. A 198? Interim Policy enlarged that early effort, integrated
the bubble with other incentive-based approaches, and streamlined bubble
approval processes. As a result, the EPA had, by the end of 1986,
approved or proposed for approval over 50 bubbles as individual State
implementation plan (SIP) revisions. In total, over 250 existing source
bubbles were approved, proposed, or under development in ?9 States.
The final Emissions Trading Policy Statement establishes a framework
that will guide development of future bubbles. The policy addresses and
clarifies previously issued guidance on emissions trading. In order to
ensure the environmental integrity of future emissions trades, the policy
also significantly tightens requirements applicable to certain trading
actions, particularly existing source bubbles in primary nonattainment
areas which require but lack demonstrations of attainment.
Implementation Policy and Guidance for Revised Particulate Matter
Standards
As discussed in Chapter IV of this report, EPA proposed revised
health-based (primary) national ambient air quality standards for
particulate matter in 1984 that would apply to a size range of particles
nominally 10 micrometers and smaller in diameter (PM^n), and an annual
total suspended particulate (TSP) secondary (welfare-based) standard. The
focus of the proposed primary standards on a new particle size range has
necessitated preparation of regulations, policy, and technical guidance
so that SIP's for PM^Q can be developed.
vi-1
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On April 2, 1985, EPA published a Federal Register notice which
solicited public comments on (1) regulatory amendments which would accom-
modate the focus of the primary standards on the PMjQ size range and which
would integrate PM^o requirements into new source review programs, (2) a
policy for SIP development for primary and secondary standards and the
EPA's interpretation of the Clean Air Act which results in that policy,
and (3) technical guidance specific to dealing with the PM^Q size range.
The proposed regulatory amendments would focus the health-protecting air
pollution episode programs on P^m rather than TSP and would describe the
requirements for a dual new source review system, i.e., new sources would be
reviewed for both PM^Q and TSP emissions. The SIP development policy would
establish timeframes for SIP development for the primary and secondary
standards. The PM^ technical guidance addresses development of emission
inventories, dispersion and receptor modeling, ambient monitoring and data
reporting, using ambient TSP data where PMjQ data are not available, and
monitoring for prevention of significant deterioration purposes.
Seventy-two comment letters were received, mostly from industry. The
issue most frequently commented upon was the legal interpretation of the
Clean Air Act as it would apply to primary PMjQ standards. Other items
addressed frequently were the need for ambient PM^Q data before SIP
development, the fugitive dust policy, the construction ban, continuation
of stringent nonattainment area offset requirements for particulate
matter, and the need for two different sets of prevention of significant
deterioration (PSD) increments for particulate matter (i.e., TSP and
increments).
Public comments have been summarized and issues identified for
resolution. At the end of 1986, EPA was in the process of resolving
the issues raised and developing regulations to implement the revised
standards.
Ozone Nonattainment Policy
In 1985, EPA began reviewing the problem of continuing nonattainment
of the ozone air quality standard in almost all urban areas despite past
efforts by States and EPA to reduce precursor emissions. The Clean Air Act
deadline for attaining the ozone standard is the end of 1987; however,
about 60 metropolitan areas were projected to not likely attain the
standard by then. In 1986, EPA continued to analyze the post-1987 non-
attainment problem and to identify and evaluate alternative approaches to
solving the problem. A number of regulatory areas were examined in early
1986 for potential emission reductions which could result from improvements
to the existing program and from new control initiatives. Ouring 1986
EPA examined a number of possible control measures in detail and discussed
the features of a national ozone policy with State and local air agencies,
environmental and industrial organizations, and Congressional staff.
VI-?
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The EPA also continued to examine the overall options for responding
to the nonattainment problem in light of the Clean Air Act's lack of
specific direction in this area. Although the Clean Air Act did not
address post-1987 nonattainment directly, EPA wanted to follow a course
that had as solid a legal foundation as possible, while at the same time
continuing an effective dialogue with Congress that could result in
legislative actions if needed. To fully understand the range of optional
approaches that EPA might choose or be required to follow, EPA began
investigation in late 1986 of an option under which EPA would disapprove
inadequate SIP's and develop and implement Federal implementation plans
(HP's). The EPA expects to use the results of the FTP analysis, the
examination of alternative control measures, and the continuing dialogue
with State and local air agencies and officials, environmental and industrial
organizations, and Congressional committees and staff in the development
of a national ozone policy. This policy will be proposed in 1987.
Visibility Protection
Section 169A of the Clean Air Act establishes as a national goal
"the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impair-
ment of visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas which impairment
results from manmade air pollution." On December 2, 1980, EPA promulgated
regulations implementing this section.3 All States which contained
mandatory Class I Federal areas were to develop and submit SIP revisions to
EPA which implemented these regulations.
On December 20, 1982, a number of plaintiffs filed suit in the
United States District Court for the Northern District of California
seeking to compel EPA to promulgate State plans for visibility protection
undwr section 110(c) of the Clean Air Act for those States which had not
submitted such plans. During 1983, EPA and the plaintiffs negotiated and
signed a settlement agreement which was accepted by the court on April
20, 1984. The settlement agreement calls for a two-part implementation
of the 1980 rules. New source review requirements and a visibility
monitoring strategy were proposed for the 34 deficient States in
October 198fi. In a series of actions started on July 12, 1985, and
finishing in 1986, EPA promulgated FIP's or approved State-submitted
implementation plans to deal with visibility monitoring and new source
review.
On September 9, 1986, the Court approved a revision to the settlement
agreement. Under that revised agreement, EPA can delay proposing portions
of the implementation plans dealing with existing impairment until August
1988. However, the remaining portions of the plans must be proposed by
February 1987.
Tall Stacks and Other Dispersion Techniques
In July 1985, EPA adopted revisions to regulations originally
promulgated in 1982 which prohibit reliance by stationary sources on
stack heights in excess of "good engineering practice" or on any other
VI-3
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dispersion techniques in lieu of emission controls.4 In accordance with
the Clean Air Act, States were given 9 months to review their rules and
source emission limitations and to revise their SIP's and resuhmit them
to EPA as necessary. During 1986, EPA received SIP revisions from the
States in response to the stack height regulations. These revisions were
being processed by EPA at the end of 1986.
Several interested parties filed for judicial review of the revised
stack height regulations and, in addition, several of those parties also
filed petitions for reconsideration of those regulations. Some of the
petitions which dealt with a specific source were denied in April 1986.^
Since the other petitions dealt with tne basic -legal foundations for the
regulations, EPA is deferring responding to them until judicial review of
the revised regulations is completed.
Federal Enforcement of Visible Emissions
In August 1986, EPA proposed a new, modified visible emission test
method for evaluating compliance with certain types of SIP opacity standards
where the State has not specified a test method in the SIP.fi The existing
method for Federal enforcement of SIP opacity limits in such cases is
Test Method Number 9 of 40 CFR 60. If adopted, this revised procedure
would provide EPA with an expanded array of specific visible emissions
testing procedures for various types of SIP opacity emission limitations
and would allow EPA to better enforce SIP provisions. At the end of
1986, EPA was reviewing the comments submitted in response to the proposal.
Restructuring SIP Preparation Regulations
In November 1986, EPA published final changes to the SIP preparation
regulations of 40 CFR 51.? The rulemaking deleted obsolete provisions and
rewrote the regulations in a new, shorter, and better-organized format.
States using the revised regulations to prepare SIP's will find them more
current and easier to follow than the old regulations. The new fornat
also has a flexible structure into which future requirements can be more
easily incorporated.
B. PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION AND NONATTAINMENT NEW
SOURCE REVIEW ACTIVITIES
The EPA made significant progress in 1986 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Clean Air Act regarding the preconstruction
review of new and modified stationary sources. Major 1986 activities
are described below.
PSD Program Transfer
The EPA continues to emphasize the importance of high quality transfers
of PSO and new source review programs. In addition to the strong legal
and resource reasons for implementation by State and local authorities
vi-a
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rather than EPA, the EPA believes that the critical growth decisions
associated with the preconstruction review process should be made at the
State and local level. The permitting process, once transferred, forms
the key for minimizing source-specific. SIP revisions in the future. In
lQ8fi, EPA continued its progress in transferring implementation of the
PSD program to State and local agencies. The majority of PSD permits are
now issued by these agencies. Although several transfers are presently
being held up by litigation and resulting policy clarification, progress
was made nevertheless. As of the end of 198fi, 44 State and local agencies
had either full delegation of the PSO program or a PSD SIP, and 8 more
had partial responsibility for the PSD program.
Chemical Manufacturers Association v. EPA
As previously reported, the EPA's PSD and nonattainment new source
review regulations have been challenged by a variety of entities. These
challenges were consolidated as Chemical Manufacturers Association v. EPA
(CMA), n.C. dr. No. 79-111?. On February 22, 1982, EPA entered into a
litigation settlement with the industry petitioners in which it agreed to
propose certain regulatory changes. An important part of the settlement
agreement was satisfied by EPA's Federal Register proposal of August 1983.^
That proposal addressed the topics of fugitive emissions in new source
review applicability determinations, Federal enforceability of various
emissions reductions, "buffer zones" around Class I areas, review of
secondary emissions, and offset credit for past source shutdowns. At
the end of 1985, EPA had prepared final action on a significant portion
of the settlement. These documents underwent internal EPA review
during 1986. Publication is planned for 1987.
An important related matter of controversy has been the definition
of "source" for the purposes of nonattainment new source review. The
Clean Air Act is not clear in this area. In 1980, EPA promulgated a dual
source definition that minimized the opportunity for modifications to
sources to avoid review in nonattainment areas.^ This was challenged by
industry in the CMA suit, but was not of primary concern in the settlement
because EPA had replaced it with a "plantwide" definition in its rulemaking
of October 14, 1981.ir) The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRnc) claimed
that the plantwide definition is inconsistent with the Clean Air Act and, on
August 17, 1982, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in their favor.
Roth EPA and industry representatives appealed this ruling, and on June
?5, 1984, the Supreme Court decided in favor of EPA and the industry
litigants. The EPA is presently developing a policy which will aid the
Regions in processing proposed SIP's converting to a plantwide definition.
Resolution of the definition of source should significantly accelerate
the processing of revisions to the nonattainment portions of SIP's.
In an August 7, 1980, promulgation, EPA listed 30 source categories
for which fugitive emissions would be included in PSD applicability
determinations.^ Surface mining operations were not among these. The
Sierra Club sued EPA on this point and on August ?fi, 1983, the n.C.
VI -5
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Circuit Court of Appeals remanded this matter to the EPA for explanation
of its position. In October 1984, EPA published final action on this
issue, reaffirming its current requirements for the inclusion of fugitive
emissions in calculating whether a source is "major" for purposes of new
source review.^ The EPA further proposed to extend the requirements for
inclusion of fugitive emissions to surface coal mining operations.^
According to the rulenaking criteria established by EPA, the proposed
listing of surface coal mines is only a presumption which can be overcome
if the rulemaking record reveals that the costs associated with listing
are unreasonable relative to the corresponding benefits. A regulatory
impact analysis has been prepared on that proposal and was made available
for public comment in early 1986. Resolution of this issue is expected
in 1987.
C. IMPLEMENTATION OVERVIEW AND ASSISTANCE
National Air Audit System
The National Air Audit System (NAAS) was developed in 1983 as a
joint effort by EPA, the State and Territorial Air Pollution Program
Administrators (STAPPA), and the Association of Local Air Pollution
Control Officials (ALAPCO). The primary goals of the NAAS are to identify
any obstacles that are preventing State and local air pollution control
agencies from implementing effective air quality management programs and
to provide EPA with quantitative information for use in defining more
effective and meaningful national programs. The five air quality
management areas of motor vehicle inspection maintenance, air quality
planning and SIP activities, new source review, compliance assurance, and
air monitoring are included in the NAAS. The NAAS started operating on a
2-year cycle in 1986 and all State agencies will be audited in the 1986-1987
cycle. A national report covering the results of these audits will be
prepared at the end of 1987. EPA-specific deficiencies identified in
the audits are being corrected through agreements between the EPA Regional
Offices and the audited agencies.
State Implementation Plans for Lead
In July 1982, the NROC filed suit to require EPA to approve, or
disapprove and promulgate, lead SIP's for States that did not submit
adequate SIP's. The EPA negotiated a settlement with the NRDC giving
States and EPA additional time for completing the SIP's. During the time
provided for in the settlement agreement, the EPA and the States completed
rulemaking for 29 of the 36 outstanding lead plans. Twenty rulemakings
were completed prior to the NRDC suit. On August 30, 1986, the NRDC
filed a motion with the n.C. District Court to force the EPA to a revised
schedule for completion of actions on lead SIP's for four States. At the
end of 1986, EPA was working with the NRDC and the Court to establish a
revised schedule for completing rulemaking on all seven remaining plans.
A new schedule was provided to the court in 1987.
VI-6
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During 1986, the EPA approved three lead SIP's: Alabama (except for
Jefferson County), 13 Northern Marianas Islands (except for new source review)
and New Jersey (except for three sources).1^ In addition, EPA proposed
approval of the lead SIP for Jefferson County, Alabama.^
Acid Deposition Implementation Issues
In 1984, EPA initiated an effort to explore with the States the
potential issues that could arise in implementing possible acid deposition
control programs that might be required. Accomplishment of this effort
was planned in three phases--identifying key implementation issues and
major options for dealing with them, evaluating various options using
both "in-the-field" and "in-house" approaches, and preparing preliminary
or prototype guidance on the issues. Major progress was made in 1984 on
the first phase as EPA, in coordination with State and local air agencies,
produced an initial listing and description of over 200 implementation
issues.
In 1985, the focus shifted to analyzing the issues and evaluating
the options for dealing with them, particularly through "in-the-field"
studies. These studies, called State Acid Rain (STAR) projects, were to
be conducted by individual States although the results could have broad
applicability to other States that might be involved in a possible acid
rain control program. The projects were eligible for S3 million in
section 105 funds that Congress had appropriated for this effort.
In application for this funding, State and local agencies submitted
53 proposals, and EPA, after consulting with STAPPA/ALAPCO, selected 31
projects for an initial round of funding. The EPA later reviewed the range
of issues covered by the projects and identified six additional STAR
projects for funding. In all, the section 105 special appropriation was
able to fund 37 of the 59 project proposals. The projects were generally
scheduled to be completed within a 1- to 2-year time period. Thirty-
seven States were involved in the effort directly and special procedures
were established to allow other States to participate in the review and
evaluation of the projects. A national STAR workshop was held in November
1985 for EPA and the States to discuss and review the progress of the
STAR projects thus far.
In 1986, work on the STAR projects continued, and EPA began reviewing
and synthesizing available results from the projects. The EPA has also
been able to use the preliminary findings and experiences of the STAR
projects in evaluating proposed acid rain control legislation, particularly
in regard to implementation schedules and requirements. A second national
STAR workshop, held in October 1986, provided States the opportunity to
present their initial findings and discuss implementation requirements of
hypothetical acid rain legislation.
VI-7
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Volatile Organic Compound RACT Clearinghouse
In conformance with the Clean Air Act, sources of volatile organic
compounds (VOC's) for which a control technique guideline (CTG) has'been
issued by EPA (as well as non-CTG sources with a potential to emit inn
tons of VOC per year or greater) are required to install reasonably
available control technology (RACT). This requirement is applicable in
areas that have requested an extension until December 31, 1987, to demon-
strate attainment of the ozone standard and in areas for which EPA requires
a SIP revision for failure to attain the ozone standard by December 31,
1982. RACT for these sources must be determined on a case-by-case basis.
RACT is the lowest emission limit that a particular source is capable of
meeting by the application of control technology that is reasonably
available considering technological and economic feasibility.
The purpose of the VOC RACT Clearinghouse is to provide a means by
which State and local air pollution control agencies can exchange technical
information, minimize duplication of effort and resources, and provide
guidance regarding VOC controls for various industrial operations and
other sources. The VOC RACT Clearinghouse is a cooperative effort with
STAPPA/ALAPCO and EPA.
The VOC RACT Clearinghouse output takes several forms, including a
VOC RACT Clearinghouse Newsletter. During 1986, three newsletters were
issued. Other outputs included a VOC HACT Clearinghouse Newsletter
subject index and an update to the index of article titles.
Status of Nonattainment Areas
The following table lists by pollutant those areas of the country
that were designated as nonattainment 'For the national ambient air quality
standards as of the end of 1986. Note that totals are not shown since the
same area may be nonattainment for more than one pollutant. A significant
portion of the carbon monoxide and ozone nonattainment areas shown below
are areas which received an attainment date extension under the Clean Air
Act to December 31, 1987.
Pollutant Number of Nonattainment Areas*
Carbon Monoxide 152
Nitrogen Dioxide 4
Ozone 358
Sulfur Dioxide 58
Total Suspended Particulates 284
Areas listed are either counties or portions of counties.
VI-8
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n. AIR POLLUTION TRAINING
In 1986, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. This training included short course presenta-
tions (3 to 5 days in length), self-study courses, technical assistance to
others who conduct training, and the support of. traineeships and fellowships
for graduate air pollution training.
During 1986, EPA conducted 30 short courses in 20 different subject
areas for a total of 852 students. These courses were presented in locations
across the U.S. by seven universities designated as area training centers.
Technical assistance was provided to States and EPA Regional Offices for
conducting 7.1 additional courses reaching a total of 656 students.
In support of the delegation of more air quality management
responsibilities to the States, EPA continued emphasis on self-study courses
as a means of providing training to more air pollution personnel. During
1986, 1128 students applied for the 30 self-study courses presently available.
As an additional means of developing qualified personnel, EPA supported
17 graduate traineeships/fellowships to employees of State and local air
pollution control agencies. These awards are for both part-time and full-
time graduate study in the field of air pollution control.
E. REFERENCES
1. 51 FR 43814, December 4, 1986
2. 50 FR 13130, April 2, 1985
3. 45 FR 80084, December 2, 1980
4. 50 FR 27892, July 8, 1985
5. 51 FR 15885, April 29, 1986
6. 51 FR 31076, August 29, 1986
7. 51 FR 40656, November 7, 1986
8. 48 FR 38742, August 25, 1983
9. 45 FR 52676, August 7, 1980
10. 46 FR 50766, October 14, 1981
11. 49 FR 43202, October 25, 1984
12. 49 FR 43211, October 26, 1984
13. 51 FR 25366, July 14, 1986
14. 51 FR 40798, November 10, 1986
15. 51 FR 42565, November 25, 1986
16. 51 FR 25715, July 16, 1986
VI-9
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VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
Section 111 of the Clean Air Act provides authority for EPA to regulate
new stationary sources of air pollution from source categories which cause,
or contribute significantly to, air pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or welfare. During 1986, NSPS were
promulgated under this section for emissions of participate matter and
nitrogen oxides from the industrial boiler source category.1 The existing NSPS
for basic oxygen process furnaces, asphalt concrete plants, and kraft
pulp mills were revised.2»3»4 Standards were proposed for calciners and
dryers, plastic business machines, magnetic tape, and for sulfur dioxide
emissions from industrial boilers.5,6,7,8 A revision to the existing
NSPS was proposed for sewage sludge incineration.*5
R. BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY/LOWEST ACHIEVABLE EMISSION RATE
(BACT/LAER) CLEARINGHOUSE
New or modified facilities that are to be constructed in areas of the
country that are currently attaining the national ambient air quality
standards are required by the Clean Air Act to install BACT. In those
areas of the country that have not yet achieved compliance with the air
quality standards, new or modified facilities are required to meet the
LAER for that particular type of source. Both BACT and LAER requirements
are determined on a case-by-case basis. Often an air pollution control
agency will need to establish BACT or LAER requirements for a source type
that is completely new to them or for which they have had only minimal
experience. In these cases, the permitting agency may not be knowledgeable
of the more recent advances in control technology for such sources and it
is extremely helpful if the agency can refer to BACT or LAER determinations
made by other control agencies.
The EPA established the RACT/LAER Clearinghouse several years ago in
order to assist State and local air pollution control agencies by promoting
the sharing of air pollution control technology information. The primary
output of the Clearinghouse is an annual report of information about BACT/
LAER determinations made by the various control agencies. The report
published in 1986 contains over 1120 BACT/LAER determinations.10 The report
is available in hard copy or through an automated system. The automated data
base can be accessed by both the public and private sectors.
C. REFERENCES
1. 51 FR 42768, November 25, 1986.
2. 51 FR 150, January 2, 1986.
3. 51 FR 3298, January 24, 1986.
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4. 51 FR 18538, May ?0, 1986.
5. 51 FR 15438, April 23, 1986.
6. 51 FR 854, January 8, 1986.
7. 51 FR 2996, January 22, 1986.
8. 51 FR 22384, June 19, 1986.
9. 51 FR 13424, April 18, 1986.
in. "BACT/LAER Clearinghouse - A Compilation of Control Technology Determinations,
First Supplement to 1985 Edition." May 1986.
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VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. GENERAL
The goal of the Clean Air Act is to protect public health and
welfare and to enhance the quality of the nation's air. The stationary
source compliance program is designed to assure compliance with air
emission standards by stationary sources of air pollution, including
such major facilities as power plants, steel mills, smelters, and
refineries. In addition to ensuring compliance with emission
limitations contained in State implementation plans (SIPs), EPA and
delegated States are responsible for ensuring that sources comply with
new source performance standards (NSPS) and national emission standards
for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP).
The EPA closely monitors the compliance status of about 32,000
stationary sources of air pollution. Approximately 28,000 of these
sources are Class A SIP sources,* about 3,000 are NSPS sources, and
about 1,000 are NESHAP sources. At the end of 1986, as has been the
case since the late 1970's, the compliance rates were high as shown in
the table below:
Compliance Status of Federally Tracked Stationary Sources
In In Violation, In Violation, Status
Source Type Compliance Meeting Schedule No Schedule Unknown
Class A SIP 92.5% 2.1% 4.1% 1.2%
NSPS 91.0% 1.9% 4.9% 2.2%
NESHAP 86.9% 3.2% 6.2% . 3.2%
The compliance status of stationary sources is determined and
tracked principally by the States. The States (and EPA) have the
authority to enter and inspect stationary sources in order to obtain
information for determining compliance status or preparing possible
enforcement actions or for other purposes. In 1986, the States
conducted 28,463 inspections and source tests of Class A SIP, NSPS, and
NESHAP sources.
The EPA overviews the States' compliance monitoring activities and
supplements their enforcement efforts to resolve violations of air quality
regulations. In 1986, EPA conducted 2,353 inspections and source tests
of Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP sources.
*A Class A SIP source is a stationary source which, while operating at
design capacity, has actual or potential uncontrolled emissions equal
to or greater than 100 tons per year of any regulated air pollutant.
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The Clean Air Act provides a variety of administrative enforcement
mechanisms for dealing with both special situations and relatively
easily corrected violations. During 1986, EPA issued immediate
compliance orders under section 113(a) of the Clean Air Act to 117
sources and issued or approved delayed compliance orders under section
113(d) for 11 sources.
Section 120 of the Clean Air Act i<; an administrative remedy designed
to recoup the economic benefit which may come from violating air pollution
control regulations. Eleven section 120 cases were initiated in
The EPA is also authorized to file civil and criminal actions in
Federal District Court to compel a source to comply with applicable
requirements, to pay penalties, or both. There were 71 Federal civil
actions filed in 1986 against stationary sources for violations of the
Clean Air Act. As of January 1987, a total of 12?. such actions were
pending with the U.S. District Courts. During 1986, two corporations
were convicted of criminal violations of the Clean Air Act. In one case
a $24,000 criminal fine was imposed for violations of the asbestos
handling requirements. The other case represented the first conviction
for violations of a SIP, and resulted in a $10,000 fine against a corpora-
tion operating a refuse incinerator without a certification. In addition,
two cases of alleged illegal asbestos handling operations were referred
to the Department of Justice for criminal prosecution during 1986.
A major focus of the stationary source compliance program is the
effort to return to compliance those sources considered to be "significant
violators." The universe of sources cohered by this program includes
those that are in violation of NESHAP or NSPS regulations, and non-
compliant Class A SIP sources which contribute significantly to non-
attainment. For FY 1986 (the period starting October 1, 1985 and" ending
September 30, 1986), EPA identified 647 significant violators pending at
the beginning of the fiscal year. By the end of the fiscal year, 511 had
been addressed. Of these, 244 were returned to compliance, 121 were
placed on an acceptable compliance schedule, and 146 had an enforcement
action pending. In addition, 489 significant violators were newly-identified
dun'ng FY 1986 and, of these, 144 were addressed by the end of the fiscal
year.
In 1984, EPA issued guidance on the "timely and appropriate" EPA/
State enforcement response for significant air violators. On April 11,
1986, this guidance was reissued to include NESHAP violators. The guidance
provides timelines for action, addresses EPA issuance of notices of
violation (particularly when the primary agency does not take action),
and discusses when penalties must be obtained. In 1986, for the second
consecutive year, EPA evaluated the implementation of the "timely and
appropriate" guidance. The evaluation showed that all Regions have
systems in place to monitor the timeliness of enforcement actions after
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findings of noncompliance. Also, Regions are doing a better job in
issuing Federal notices of violation within timeframes set by the guidance;
improvement in this area is still expected, however.
The "timely and appropriate" guidance also requires assessment of
penalties under certain circumstances. Evaluation revealed that in 1986
penalties were generally collected by the States and EPA where the guidance
requires. Finally, all EPA Regional Offices continued to feel that the
guidance has had a positive effect on the compliance and enforcement
programs. Both States and Regions want the guidance to remain basically
unchanged for the near future.
An area of intensive effort for the last 3 years is the regulation of
sources of volatile organic compounds. These sources are major contribu-
tors to the ozone nonattainment problem and some emit compounds which are
highly toxic in nature. In response to requirements contained in the
1977 Clean Air Act Amendments, many States adopted regulations requiring
compliance of such sources on or before the end of 1982. Carrying out
these regulations has led to a large growth in the number of significant
violators.
In 1986, the stationary source compliance program continued its
major initiative to ensure that demolition and renovation sites are in
compliance with asbestos NESHAP regulations. The demolition and renovation
of old buildings, often in highly populated urban areas, can be a major
source of asbestos exposure. Because of the large number of demolition
sites, a strong State and EPA effort is necessary to the success of the
program. The program addresses training, inspection techniques, compliance
tracking, enforcement mechanisms, and other aspects essential for ensuring
compliance.
During 1986, EPA and the States received 26,993 asbestos demolition
or renovation notifications, conducted 15,060 asbestos inspections, and
found 2,179 violations. The EPA issued 454 notices of violation or
deficiency, issued 59 administrative actions, and initiated 33 civil
actions for violations of asbestos demolition and renovation regulations.
Delegated States also conducted a high level of asbestos enforcement
actions during 1986. The States issued 535 notices of violation or
deficiency, issued 124 administrative orders, and initiated 26 civil
actions.
On July 11, 1984, EPA issued a vinyl chloride NESHAP enforcement
strategy which facilitates the development of civil complaints against
violators of vinyl chloride regulations. The EPA filed one new civil
action during 1986 for violations of the vinyl chloride standards. At
the end of 1986, 14 enforcement actions for violation of these standards
were in litigation.
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In the decade of the 1970's, the stationary source compliance program
focused on ensuring that major sources of particulates and sulfur dioxide
achieved initial compliance with the Clean Air Act regulations, generally
by either installing required control equipment or by switching to cleaner
fuels. The more recent focus of attention is concerned with the continuous
compliance of particulate and sulfur dioxide sources (while continuing
work to ensure initial compliance for sources of volatile organic compounds)
The current continuous compliance strategy, initiated in 1984, builds
upon use of on-site inspections as a major compliance monitoring method.
It outlines a number of areas, such as unannounced inspections, better
targeting of sources, and improved inspection techniques to produce
inspections more useful for determining the compliance status of sources
during day-to-day operation. The strategy also calls for an increased
use of continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS) data, supported by an
EPA initiative to enhance CEMS usage. Ouring FY 1986 and FY 1987, in
support of this strategy, EPA has required agency tracking and reporting
of CEMS usage for NSPS sources required to install CEMS. Also in 198fi,
EPA issued guidance on using CEMS data to assess compliance, target
inspections, and support enforcement.
The EPA has been conducting pilot programs to improve implementation
of the continuous compliance strategy. A 2-year (1984-1985) pilot in
Virginia on methods to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the
inspection process found that specialized training can improve inspection
quality and save resources, different levels of inspection are appropriate
if combined with a targeting strategy, and inspection results should be
used as part of the inspection planning process. Another pilot, conducted
primarily in Missouri, evaluated the effectiveness of a CEMS program as a
component of a multifaceted compliance monitoring effort and found it to
be a useful tool for targeting inspections. Finally, in 1986, EPA continued
pilot programs in Michigan and Colorado to develop more sophisticated
methods for targeting compliance monitoring inspections.
R. LITIGATION
The following are examples of significant enforcement actions which
were concluded in 1986.
1. Significant Judicial Decisions
How Chemical Co. v. United States, 106 S. Ct. 1819 (1986)
In this case, the Supreme Court construed the Clean Air Act as
conferring broad inspection powers on EPA. All nine Justices agreed that
EPA could hire a commercial photographer to fly over a plant owned by the
now Chemical Company and take pictures. They ruled that regulatory
authority generally carries with it the ability to employ all useful
modes of investigation. Even though the statutory section dealing with
inspections did not mention aerial photography, the Court found that EPA
needed no explicit authorization to use methods of observation commonly
available to the public at large. On fourth amendment issues, the Court
VIII-4
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divided five to four with the majority holding that the overflights did
not require a warrant. The majority believed that trade secrets law was
irrelevant to defining the scope of fourth amendment protection. Despite
the dissenters' concerns about commercial privacy interests, the majority
relied on the lack of physical entry to uphold the search.
United States v. Geppert Bros., Inc., 638 F. Supp. 996 (1986)
Regulations controlling the release of asbestos from demolition
activities apply to the "owner or operator" of a demolition or renovation
operation. In this case, the court held that the building owner is
liable for violations, along with the contractor who actually did the
demolition work. Relying on a published response to comments during the
rulemaking as well as the text of the regulation, the court concluded
that the building owner is the owner of the "source" from which pollution
is emitted. Moreover, the court found that a demolition contract with
salvage rights did not transfer ownership of the building to the contractor.
The court noted that imposing the obligation on both parties was important
to further the regulatory purpose of insuring that buildings are demolished
in a way that minimizes release of asbestos dust.
2. Significant Administrative Decision
In the Matter of International Harvester Company,
Docket No. CAA-120-V84-1
On December 19, 1986, the presiding Administrative Law Judge (AD)
ruled in favor of EPA with respect to liability in this action, brought
under section 120 of the Clean Air Act. The EPA's Notice of Noncompliance
alleged that International Harvester exceeded Ohio SIP limitations governing
volatile organic compound emissions at its Springfield truck assembly
plant. In his decision, the judge rejected the company's allegations
that service of the notice was defective, that the pertinent SIP provision
does not regulate paint booths lacking bake ovens, that certain of its
painting operations were exempt from regulation under the SIP provision's
"refinishing" exemption, and that the provision in issue does not regulate
the company's nonmetallic painting operations.
3. Significant Settlements
United States v. Jefferson Smurfit Corporation, et al.,
Civil No. C-184-1617 (S.D. Ohio)
On March 25, 1986, a consent decree was entered resolving this
action, which alleged violations by the defendant of Ohio SIP pro-
visions regulating volatile organic compound emissions. The basic terms
of settlement were the defendant's agreements to bring its offending
operations into compliance by March 31, 1987, by installation of pollution
control equipment, and to pay a civil penalty of $120,000. The injunctive
relief and civil penalty obtained are significant in the context of volatile
VIII-5
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organic compound enforcement actions against sources which assert--
unreasonably, in EPA's viewthat they can comply by use of reformulated
coatings not yet developed. This decree is clear evidence that EPA can
insist on installation of controls and that the court may levy substantial
fines when air pollution regulations are violated.
U.S. v. Phelps Dodge Corp., C.A. No. CIV 86-424
TUC WDB (P. Az.)
On October 20, 1986, the U.S. district Court for Arizona entered a
consent decree resolving Clean Air Act violations at Phelps Dodge
Corporation's Douglas Reduction Works copper smelter in Douglas, Arizona.
The smelter achieved compliance with the Clean Air Act and the Arizona
sulfur dioxide and particulate matter SIP limits by permanently ceasing
smelting operations on January 15, 1987. In addition, Phelps Dodge was
fined $400,000 in civil penalties, and was required to meet stringent
interim emissions curtailment requirements. The State of Arizona and the
Environmental Defense Fund joined the settlement as plaintiff-intervenors.
4. Enforcement Initiatives
Asbestos Multicase Initiative
On January 16, 1986, the Department of Justice, on behalf of EPA,
filed eleven cases nationwide for violations of the asbestos NESHAP
in the course of demolitions and renovations. The initiative was designed
to heighten public awareness of the dangers of asbestos exposure due to
demolitions and renovations, and EPA's regulations applicable to these
activities. The initiative received considerable attention from the news
media, including coverage on two network television and two network radio
news shows. Four of these cases have been settled so far for civil
penalties ranging from $10,000 to $32,000.
I..A. Basin VOC Initiative
On June 30, 1986, EPA filed eight civil cases under the Clean Air Act
against metal parts manufacturing and coating facilities located in the
Los Angeles area, to enforce California SIP emissions limits for volatile
organic compounds. Six of the eight cases were settled in December 1986,
with expeditious compliance schedules and civil penalties in the $17,000
to $50,000 range. The remaining two cases are expected to be settled in
1987.
C. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT GUIDANCE
On June 11, 1986, EPA issued its final inspection frequency guidance
for stationary sources of air pollution. For the past 2 years the
guidance has been modified in response to both State and EPA Regional
concerns about the need for added flexibility, national consistency and
quality. The guidance also freezes any additional changes while it is
being implemented.
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Other important guidance issued in 1986 includes guidance on granting
compliance date extensions for individual volatile organic compounds
sources in ozone nonattainment areas (issued August 7, 1986), guidance on
reasonable installation timeframes for sources proposing use of low-solvent
technology as a means to comply with volatile organic compound emission
regulations (also issued August 7, 1986), a revised "timely and appropriate"
policy expanding the coverage to include NESHAP sources (issued April 11,
1986), guidance on what constitutes a Federal reportable violation (issued
April 11, 1986), guidance to assist in the implementation and enforcement
of the arsenic NESHAP for glass manufacturing (issued October 1, 1986),
final enforcement guidance advocating increased use of continuous emission
monitoring system data for direct Federal enforcement of stationary
source air pollution requirements (issued April 22, 1986), two policies
to provide guidance on enforcing regulations for controlling emissions of
volatile organic compounds which are precursors to ozone (issued January 17,
1986), and a revised civil penalty policy for cases involving the vinyl
chloride NESHAP (issued April 18, 1986).
0. COMPLIANCE RY FEDERAL FACILITIES
During 1986, Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP Federal facilities
demonstrated a good record of compliance with applicable air pollution
regulations. As of the end of 1986, 313 (88 percent) of the 334 operating
Federal facilities are in compliance, 12 are meeting schedules that will
bring them into compliance, 25 are in violation and not yet on an acceptable
schedule, and 4 are of unknown compliance status.
E. LIST OF VIOLATING FACILITIES
The List of Violating Facilities, established by section 306 of the
Clean Air Act, is designed to prevent the Federal government from doing
business with facilities which have violated selected sections of the
Clean Air Act.
Four facilities were placed on this list in 1986:
0 The R.F. Goodrich Company's Louisville, Kentucky, facility was
placed on the list on February 10 1986, for violations of 40 C.F.R.
section 61.64(a)(2) (reactor opening losses) and section 61.64(e)(1)(ii)
(emissions from sources following strippers).
0 The Waterbury House Wrecking Company, in Waterbury, Connecticut,
and the Old Pin Shop in Oakville, Connecticut, were both placed on the
list as a result of their criminal convictions on December 19, 1985, for
violations of section 113(c)(l) of the Clean Air Act (failure to properly
remove asbestos prior to demolition of a building).
o
Robert E. Oerecktor of Rhode Island, Inc.'s Middletown, Rhode Island
facility was placed on the list as a result of its criminal conviction
on December 29, 1986, under section 113(c)(l) of the Clean Air Act for
violations of NESHAP work practice standards while removing asbestos.
(Note that Derecktor also was placed on the list for violations of section
309(c) of the Clean Water Act.)
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Under the regulations issued to implement EPA's listing authority,
a facility may correct the violation which caused it to be listed and
petition EPA's Assistant Administrator for Enforcement and Compliance
Monitoring to be removed from the List,. On February 10, 1986, the Assistant
Administrator determined that Sierra Transit Mix, Inc.'s Las Vegas, New
Mexico facility had corrected the conditions which caused it to be listed
and removed Sierra Transit from the list. Two of the above facilities
currently on the list have submitted petitions requesting removal. The EPA
is currently investigating the validity of each claim.
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IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
Control of motor vehicle emissions has been a Federal responsibility
since 1968. The requirements of the Clean Air Act relating to mobile
sources have been subsequently refined several times, most recently in
1977. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 established an ambitious
regulatory program which addressed remaining problems in the motor vehicle
emissions control program and bolstered efforts to attain and maintain
the national ambient air quality standards for carbon monoxide and ozone.
Below are listed some of the mobile source provisions of the 1977 Clean
Air Act Amendments.
A schedule was established for implementation of stringent
emissions standards for automobiles 0.41 grams per mile (gpm)
for hydrocarbons, 3.4 gpm for carbon monoxide and 1.0 gpm for
oxides of nitrogen. The table below displays the level of
control mandated by the standards.
New Light-Duty Vehicle Emissions
Hydrocarbons
Carbon Monoxide
Oxides of Nitrogen
Without
Control
8.8 gpm
87.0 gpm
3.6 gpm
1977 CAA
Standard
.41 gpm
3.40 gpm
1.00 gpm
Percent
Reduction
95%
96%
72%
Similarly, the amendments tightened standards for emissions of
the above-mentioned pollutants from heavy-duty engines.
Standards for the control of particulate emissions from heavy-duty
diesel engines were mandated.
Areas not meeting carbon monoxide and ozone ambient air quality
standards were required to implement motor vehicle inspection
and maintenance (I/M) programs.
Since the enactment of the 1977 amendments, EPA
progress toward achieving the Clean Air Act's goals.
has made steady
The EPA has made
a number of modifications to its motor vehicle emissions standards in
order to assure that they attain the goal of cleaner air as effectively
and efficiently as possible. In 1986, EPA made significant progress in
the implementation of this program.
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R. OZONE CONTROL
With the increased focus on reducing ozone levels, EPA has continued
work on several areas directly aimed at this goal. One of the key actions
is controlling excess evaporative emissions through regulation of in-use
gasoline volatility. The EPA held a hearing and workshop in 1986 on
gasoline volatility. Rased on industry comments, certain technical and
cost models for the refining industry have been revised. A proposed rule
for gasoline volatility was published in 1987.
A second action aimed at ozone reduction is control of refueling
emissions. The EPA expanded its efforts in 1986 with an analysis of
whether refueling emission controls are necessary, whether the control
should be at the gas station or on the vehicle, and development of a
refueling test procedure based on industry comments and a computer model
of the refueling system. A proposed rule was published in 1987, along with
the gasoline volatility proposal.
A third ozone-related action is the tightening of light-duty truck
exhaust hydrocarbon standards. An advance notice of proposed rulemaking
was released in 1986.1 Continued rulemaking activity is expected.
C. AIR TOXICS
Three initiatives on air toxics were related to vehicle fuels:
In 1986 EPA prepared a study of costs and benefits in reducing
the amount of sulfur in diesel fuel. Reductions of sulfur and
the aromatic content of diesel fuel may lead to significant
reductions in potentially toxic particulate emissions from
diesel engines. A comprehensive study on diesel fuel sulfur
was published in 1987. A decision on whether to pursue
rulemaking is expected by the end of 1987.
Development of testing protocols was begun to determine the
health effects of fuels and fuel additives. An inventory of
current commercially available fuel additive materials was
developed and an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking was
prepared for publication in 1987.
An internal workshop on formaldehyde exposure was held in 1986
and work was recommended for 1987.
The EPA also has responsibility for enforcing section 211 of the Clean
Air Act relating to the regulation of fuels and fuel additives. One of
the regulations under this section is aimed at protecting the catalytic
converters on 1975 and later model year cars. The EPA has established a
nationwide fuels enforcement program to ensure that affected retail
outlets comply with these regulations. This program includes sampling of
the fuel at retail outlets by EPA field inspectors and private or State
inspectors under EPA contract in order to measure the fuel's lead content.
The EPA conducted 15,000 inspections under this program during 1986.
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The EPA's promulgated rule which reduced allowable lead in gasoline
from 1.1 grams per leaded gallon to fl.l gram per leaded gallon took
effect January 1, 1986.? As a result of this rulemaking, actual lead used
was reduced considerably in 1986. About in billion grams of lead will have
been used; this is a 95 percent reduction from the ?00 billion grams used
in the mid-1960's. During 1986, in accordance with the Food Security Act
of 1985, EPA conducted tests of farm machinery run on leaded, no-lead,
low-lead, and additive gasoline. This testing sought to assess the
degree of premature wear in engines built to use leaded gasoline exclusively.
In 1987, EPA will report to Congress findings concerning this study.
The EPA Mobile Source program has substantially shifted its enforcement
efforts into this area during 1986 by instituting a fuel refiner/importer
audit program to assure compliance with the lead phasedown regulations.
Investigation and enforcement in this area involve extensive analysis of
the production, importing and blending of gasoline, gasoline blendstocks,
and lead additives. The EPA also tracks the banking and withdrawal of lead
rights and related documents and records. The EPA has successfully conducted
a number of these audit-type investigations. Computer programs have been
developed to help analyze the refiners' records and a strategy is presently
being developed to integrate and evaluate all sources of data available
(i.e., EPA, Department of Energy, Customs Service, etc.) to identify
potential refiners and importers for investigation. The EPA conducted
investigations of 11 refiner facilities during 1986 and several Notices
of Violation have been issued with proposed penalties of over $40 million.
Future cases of this type will likely involve significant violations with
proposed penalties in the multi-million dollar range.
In anticipation of the elimination of lead fn in-use fuel, EPA proposed
elimination of lead in test fuel.3 This will mean that manufacturers of
engines not requiring catalysts, such as certain heavy-duty gas-powered
engines, must meet emission standards using only unleaded gasoline. A
final rule is expected in 1987.
In 1986, the Fuel and Fuel Additive Registration System was
transferred from EPA's Office of Research and Development to EPA's
Office of Air and Radiation. This registration function assures that
EPA is knowledgeable about the chemical content of fuels and fuel additives.
In conjunction with EPA's development of test protocols for assessing
health effects, it will enable EPA to assure that proper restrictions are
placed on substances which cause harm to the environment and/or public
health. Further, the registration system permits EPA to better monitor
the compliance of fuel and fuel additive manufacturers with the requirements
of section 211 of the Clean Air Act concerning waivers for new fuels or
additives.
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0. STANDARD SETTING
With the achievement of effective tightening of passenger car standards,
EPA has increasingly turned its regulatory focus toward the development
of parallel standards for heavy-duty trucks and other commercial vehicles.
Projections indicate that these vehicles will contribute an ever-increasing
percentage of the mobile source emissions generated for the rest of this
century.
Accomplishments in this area during 1986 include the following:
In anticipation of the development of methanol as an alternative
fuel, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking was published in 1986
proposing emission standards for methanol-fueled vehicles.4
Methanol has the potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from
gasoline engines and particulate emissions from diesel engines.
A hearing was held to solicit public comments, and a final
rulemaking is planned for the spring of 1988.
- EPA defended the March 1985 heavy-duty diesel engine rulemaking^
in court. Environmental groups believed the standards were too
lenient, while manufacturers believed the standards were too
strict. The court upheld most aspects of the promulgatd standards
but required that the effective date of certain standards for
oxides of nitrogen be delayed for 2 years.
- EPA continued to promulgate nonconformance penalties for those
engine families unable to meet certain standards applicable to
a given model year. This mechanism assures that no manufacturer
benefits financially from nonconformance, and that the least
effective technology does not determine the stringency of
standards for the entire industry. Rulemaking proposals for
1991 and later light-duty diesel truck particul ate emissions,
and 1991 and later heavy-duty diesel engine particulate and
oxides of nitrogen emissions are planned for 1987.
- EPA also published a study on the economics of trading and
banking emissions of particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen
from heavy-duty diesel engines in 1986.6 After consideration
of public comments, EPA may make further trading and banking
proposals in 1987.
- The EPA incorporated newly received emissions data into a
study of railroad emissions which it has been conducting.
The complete study is scheduled for release in 1987.
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E. PREPRODIICTION COMPLIANCE
One of EPA's key techniques for assuring the compliance of vehicles
with the motor vehicle emissions standards is the preproduction certification
program. Initiated in 1968, the program involves the engineering review
and testing by EPA staff of engine families representing new vehicles
which are to be sold in the United States. This process includes the
submission of technical data from manufacturers about prospective production
vehicles, emissions testing of prototypes by manufacturers, a review of
engineering data and test results by EPA personnel, and, in certain
cases, confirmatory testing of prototypes at EPA's National Motor Vehicle
Emissions Laboratory in Ann Arbor, Michigan. This procedure identifies
and resolves potential problems which could result in excessive in-use
emissions. Correcting these problems at the preproduction stage assures
maximum environmental benefits and reduces compliance cost to the industry
compared to correcting the problems when discovered in use.
The certification program is the only vehicle emission compliance
program which evaluates all vehicle designs from each manufacturer. It
is also the only program which screens vehicles for elements of design
known as defeat devices. A defeat device allows a vehicle to pass emission
standards when tested according to Federal test procedures but produce
unacceptably higher emissions when operated under other conditions.
Coupled with the Selective Enforcement Audit and in-use compliance test
programs, the certification program provides the necessary oversight to
assure vehicles are adequately designed and constructed for satisfactory
in-use emissions performance.
As a result of a series of regulatory reforms implemented over the
last several years, the certification process has become a much stronger,
flexible, and more efficient program. Effective use of computerization has
eliminated redundancy, resulted in administrative streamlining and eased
the procedural burden to the manufacturers, while still retaining the
full effectiveness of the program.
The current emphasis is on assuring maximum in-use benefit from the
preproduction certification program. This emphasis includes three parts:
(1) careful monitoring to confirm full compliance with existing regulation;
(?) in-use vehicle testing to quantify the level of emissions performance
deterioration between the preproduction prototype vehicle certification test
results and actual in-use vehicle emission performance; and (3) identification
of potential certification program changes to improve cost effectiveness.
F. VEHICLE INSPECTION PROGRAM
An effective strategy for dealing directly with in-use emissions
problems is the establishment of motor vehicle I/M programs. EPA's basic
approach in this area was determined by the 1977 amendments to the Clean
Air Act. Urban areas of the country which obtained an extension in the
deadline for attaining the ambient air quality standards for automotive-
related pollutants beyond 1982 are required by the Clean Air Act to
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implement an I/M program. In 1986, EPA continued to promote the
implementation of I/M programs in each locality where it is required by
the Clean Air Act. By the end of the year, 58 of 62 areas had initiated
I/M programs.
To assure that operating I/M programs actually achieve the planned
emissions reductions, EPA has initiated a systematic I/M auditing plan.
In 1986, EPA audited 13 inspection and maintenance programs and conducted
six follow-up audits. Auditing and thorough follow-up by Federal, State,
and local officials will pinpoint and lead to correction of any major
deficiencies in individual I/M programs.
In addition to I/M programs, EPA has promoted the implementation of
State and local antitampering enforcement programs. By the end of 1986,
2?. programs had been implemented. These 32 programs include five statewide
programs which cover 13 post-1987 nonattainment areas.
R. MOBILE SOURCE ENFORCEMENT
The EPA mobile source enforcement program is directed primarily
toward achieving compliance with motor vehicle emissions standards and
fuel regulations as required by the Clean Air Act. The major goals and
objectives are to: (1) assure that both new and in-use vehicles meet
emissions standards; (2) assure that emissions control systems are not
removed or rendered inoperative; (3) assure that harmful additives are
not present in gasoline; (4) administer statutory and California emissions
standards waivers; and (5) administer the statutory emissions warranties.
To accomplish these goals, EPA maintains a number of basic motor
vehicle enforcement programs:
Selective Enforcement Auditing
In order to assure that production vehicles and heavy-duty engines
are built in accordance with emissions standards, EPA conducts Selective
Enforcement Audit (SEA) test programs at manufacturers' facilities. The
SEA program is a highly leveraged one. For every car EPA requires manu-
facturers to test during an audit, over a hundred cars are voluntarily
tested by auto producers to assure that the audits do not result in a
failure which could affect vehicle production. Since this close scrutiny
by manufacturers results in the repair of vehicle classes that are only
marginally meeting requirements, EPA has been able to reduce the number
of audits it requires. In 1986, EPA conducted 17 SEA's, including four
at foreign manufacturers' facilities. The first SEA's of heavy-duty
engines were conducted in 1986. These audits were preceded by thorough
inspections of the manufacturers' testing facilities to assure adequate
procedures were in place and that testing equipment was ready.
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Recall Program
Section 207(c) of the Clean Air Act authorizes EPA to order the
recall of vehicles if a substantial number of any class of vehicles do
not conform to emissions standards during their useful lives. Huring
1986, a total of 1,012,000 vehicles were recalled either by direct order
of EPA or as a result of an EPA investigation. Tn the same period,
manufacturers voluntarily recalled 569,000 vehicles to correct emissions
problems. The EPA conducted a total of 28 recall investigations in 1986,
and performed 635 tests of in-use vehicles at laboratory facilities in
Springfield, Virginia, and Ann Arbor, Michigan.
The recall program has traditionally focused on light-duty vehicle
exhaust emissions. However, as new categories of emissions come under
stringent control, the recall strategy must be applied to them. Therefore,
in 1986, EPA performed a significant number of tests to monitor evaporative
emissions from passenger cars and tested several classes of in-use light
duty trucks to determine whether they continued to comply with the stringent
standards to which they were built.
Fuels Enforcement Program
As mentioned before, rules expediting the lead phasedown schedule
took effect as part of EPA's air toxics control effort in 1986. These rules
are creating a demand for other additives which may have a harmful impact
on auto emissions. The EPA expects that the proliferation of additives will
create a need to monitor the composition of vehicle fuels even more
closely than in the past.
In a related area, EPA reconsidered and revised restrictions on a
fuel additive regulation's waiver for a methanol blend in 1986. This is
expected to become an increasingly important area in response to the
ongoing lead phasedown program, as refiners experiment with various
additives as substitutes for lead in vehicle fuel.
Tampering/Fuel Switching
The EPA is also responsible for carrying out programs designed to
deter tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or using leaded
fuel in vehicles which require unleaded fuel. Surveys undertaken by EPA
have shown tampering and fuel switching to be continuing serious problems
which undermine the emissions control performance of many in-use vehicles.
The 1985 Motor Vehicle Tampering Survey indicates that about 20 percent
of the vehicle fleet is subject to gross tampering, and about 10 percent
to fuel switching. Tampering enforcement activities increased in 1986,
resulting in 73 notices of violation with proposed penalties of Si.4
million. Similarly, EPA settled a total of 352 fuels and tampering
cases during the year for total penalties of $1.4 million.
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A critical element of State and local tampering inspections is the
availability of replacement emission control components. The EPA published
an interim and proposed enforcement policy for new and used aftermarket
catalytic converters. This policy gives specific criteria which must be
met by all manufacturers of new and recycled catalytic converters. The
primary purpose of this policy is to ensure that converters would be
available in the aftermarket at a reasonable cost, yet would still provide
significant emissions reductions.
Emission Warranty Enforcement
The EPA is also responsible for assessing whether the Federal emission
warranty requirements of sections 207(a) and (b) of the Clean Air Act are
implemented. During 1986, EPA responded to a total of 1,175 inquiries.
Of these, 188 were complaints specifically related to warranty coverage
and were referred to the appropriate vehicle manufacturer for resolution.
A pamphlet outlining the 207(b) performance warranty was printed and made
available to State and local I/M programs.
H. IMPORTS
The control of emissions from imported vehicles has become a major
issue in recent years. Due to the desire for luxury imported cars and
the strong dollar throughout most of this decade, the importation of
cars which do not conform to applicable air pollution control regulations
increased from 1500 in 1980 to a high of 68,000 in 1985. In 1986, EPA
received 36,500 applications and 32,700 inquiries concerning these auto-
mobiles. The EPA believes the decrease in imports from its 1985 peak is
largely attributed to the dollar's decline in exchange value in foreign
markets, rather than a change in consumer taste. The EPA has substantially
automated the processing of applications and test data for cars which
have been modified for compliance with emission standards. In 1986, EPA
moved forward on revising its regulations controlling these automobiles
with the goal of streamlining the process of testing and certification to
demonstrate compliance with Federal emission requirements. A final rule
is expected to be published in 1987.
The EPA has also been investigating various laboratories to ensure
that nonconforming imports have been tested properly to demonstrate con-
formity with U.S. emissions standards. These laboratories are required
to conduct a Federal test procedure and submit the results to EPA for
approval. Some laboratories, however, have been falsifying the results
of these tests. In 1986, EPA successfully prosecuted a laboratory,
resulting in three individual convictions and one corporate conviction.
In addition, at the end of 1986, there were three more ongoing
investigations which may result in prosecution.
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I. LITIGATION
Fuels Enforcement
On June 18, 1986, a U.S. nistrict Court in Kansas City, Missouri,
imposed a judgment for $160,000 against a corporation for a violation of
section 211 of the Clean Air Act. The case is significant since it
awarded per-day penalties for each and every day of the continuance of
the violation. In addition, Federal District Court cases were initiated
against seven defendants in Houston, Texas, for distributing leaded
gasoline as unleaded. The U.S. is requesting $10,000 for each violation.
Lead Phasedown
Quarterly reporting of lead usage is required by EPA of all refiners
of gasoline. On April 11, a Federal grand jury in Houston handed down an
indictment against two employees of an independent refiner charging each
with a single count of criminal conspiracy and four counts of knowingly
submitting false lead additive reports to EPA in violation of Title 18 of
the United States Code. In May 1986, EPA proposed a $2,573,090 penalty
against the refiner. The EPA alleged in the notice that the refiner exceeded
the allowable lead limits during 5 calendar quarters from October 1, 1983,
through December 31, 1984.
Tampering
The EPA, in separate violation notices, cited 16 repair facilities in
Indiana, New York, and Colorado for Clean Air Act tampering violations by
allegedly removing catalytic converters from 33 vehicles so that converter
replacement pipes could be installed. The EPA also alleges that the manu-
facturers of the catalyst replacement pipes and six distributors of auto-
mobile parts caused the tampering violations to occur by making and selling
pipes that were used to replace catalytic converters. The EPA proposed
a $147,500 penalty against the manufacturer and a $290,000 penalty against
the distributors and installers. Investigations of two other manufacurers
of catalytic converter replacement devices are ongoing. A Federal District
Court case is pending against a fourth company based in Atlanta, Georgia.
These actions mark the first time EPA has proceeded with cases based on the
"causing" language of section 203 of the Clean Air Act.
In the Federal District Court for the Northern District of Georgia,
EPA successfully prosecuted a muffler repair shop for the removal of
catalytic converters on 14 vehicles. Penalties of $1500 per violation
were awarded by the court. This was the highest dollar amount per violation
in a section 203 case ever awarded by a Federal Court. This case is also
significant because the court stated that the shop owner was jointly and
severally liable along with the company. Court fees were assessed against
the defendant as well.
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J. REFERENCES
1. 51 FR 32032 (August 8, 1986)
2. 50 FR 9386 (March 7, 1985)
3. 51 FR 24614 (July 7, 1986)
4. 51 FR 30984 (August 29, 1986)
5. 50 FR 10606 (March 15, 1985)
6. 51 FR 31959 (September 8, 198(5)
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X. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
A. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
The stratospheric ozone layer acts as an important shield protecting
human health, welfare, and the environment from harmful solar ultraviolet
(UV-B) radiation. The possibility that the production, use, and release
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) could cause the depletion of stratospheric
ozone was first theorized in 1974. If a net depletion of stratospheric
ozone occurred, more UV-B radiation would penetrate to the earth's surface.
This could result in a number of possible adverse health and environmental
effects. Although less was known about the possible causes and effects
of ozone depletion in the mid-1970's, there was sufficient evidence of
potential damage to human health, welfare, and the environment to cause the
EPA and other agencies to respond to concerns about this issue by promulgat-
ing regulations in 1978 limiting the use of CFC's as a propellant in non-
essential aerosol spray cans.l By significantly reducing CFC use and
therefore the risks of ozone depletion, this action provided more time to
consider the complex scientific questions involved in addressing those
risks.
In 1980 EPA issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking discussing
possible further limits on domestic production of CFC's under section 157
of the Clean Air Act.^ However, some of the scientific information
summarized in that notice was outdated by more recent work in the field,
and there have been substantial changes in the research community's
understanding of the issue since then. In general, the more recent work
demonstrated that possible changes in the stratospheric ozone layer are
affected by a more complex array of physical and chemical forces than
previously thought. In addition, EPA believes that any decision on
further regulation of domestic CFC production or uses should be evaluated
in the context of possible international regulatory actions.
The EPA developed a program for further examination and resolution of
this issue which it published in 1986.3 jne EPA's Stratospheric Ozone
Protection Program integrates the diverse scientific and economic research
being carried on by EPA and by other organizations into a framework for
future EPA decision making on both the domestic and international aspects
of the issue. The three primary elements of the plan are: (1) conducting
analyses and research across a range of economic, engineering, health, and
ecological subjects aimed at narrowing uncertainties; (2) participating
in a series of workshops and conferences both in the United States and
abroad aimed at improving understanding of all aspects of this issue; and
(3) deciding by May 1987 whether additional domestic regulations of
ozone-depleting substances are warranted, and issuing a final regulation
by November 1987. The EPA subsequently announced that it had extended
its decision timetable until December 15, 1987, for a proposed action and
August 1, 1988, for a final decision. A court order requires EPA action
by that time.
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Key areas of analysis have included the future growth in emissions
and concentrations of CFC's and other trace gases, their effect on the
stratosphere, the harmful effects of U1/-R radiation on human health,
welfare and the environment, and the costs and benefits of regulatory
actions.
The EPA sponsored and participated in a series of domestic and
international workshops that focused on future demand, technical controls,
and control strategies for stratospheric ozone-modifying chemicals, e.g.,
CFC's and organobromines. Future supply and demand for CFC's and other
trace gases, and potential control technologies were discussed at a
domestic workshop held in Washington, D.C., in March 1986 and a companion
international workshop, co-sponsored with the United Nations Environment
Programme (IJNEP), in Rome in May 1986. An evaluation of various control
strategies was undertaken at a domestic workshop in Washington, D.C., in
July 1986 and at a companion international workshop cosponsored with UNEP
in Leesburg, Virginia, in September 1986.
The effects of trace gases on the stratosphere are summarized in a
three-volume international assessment coordinated by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, IJNEP, and the World Meteorological Organization.
To consider the effects of UV-R radiation on human health, welfare, and
the environment, in .lune 1986, EPA cosponsored with UNEP the International
Conference on the Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Modification
and Climate Change in Washington, n.C. Over 70 technical papers were
presented by representatives from 18 nations.
The EPA integrated the results of these analyses in its March 1987
report, An Assessment of the Risks of Stratospheric Modification, which
was approved by the Science Advisory Board in March 1987.This assessment
will serve as the technical basis for future EPA decision making.
In addition to continued research regarding the potential impact of
increased levels of solar UV-R radiation on U.S. agriculture, silviculture,
and marine fisheries, work is ongoing on a regulatory impact analysis for
possible domestic and international controls on CFC's and other potential
ozone-depleting trace gases. These analyses will support later EPA
regulatory determinations.
The EPA participation in international efforts to protect stratospheric
ozone is proceeding on a parallel track. In addition to its participation
in international workshops on CFC demand and control technologies, control
strategies, and the effects of UV-B radiation, EPA has assisted the
Department of State in international negotiations conducted under the
auspices of UNEP. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer, ratified by the Senate in July 1986, establishes a framework for
scientific and economic research on the stratosphere. The government is
currently involved in negotiations under the auspices of IJNEP to develop
a protocol to the convention which limits the future use and emissions ot
CFC's.
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R. REFERENCES
1. 43 FR 11301, March 17, 1978
?.. 45 FR 66726, October 7, 1980
3. 51 FR 1257, January 10, 1986
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XI. RADON ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION
Radon is a radioactive gas produced by the radioactive decay of
radium-226, which occurs naturally in almost all soils and rocks. The
Reading Prong area of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York are the best
known high-radon areas in the United States at this time. However, indoor
radon is potentially a widespread problem as high radon levels have been
found in many States.
Initial efforts of EPA Radon Action Program in 1985 were concentrated
in the Reading Prong with measurement assistance being provided to States
in that area. The program was expanded in 1986 in response to increased
awareness of the magnitude of the problem and the associated health risks.
A national strategy was developed to guide EPA efforts in assisting
State governments and the private sector in assessing and reducing health
risks due to indoor radon. The strategy builds upon existing knowledge and
focuses not only on reducing significant current risks, but also on reversing
trends in structure design, siting, construction, and maintenance that
could increase future risks.
The goals of the EPA strategy are as follows:
1. Determine national frequency distribution of radon
concentrations and identify high risk areas.
2. Remediate exposure in existing structures.
3. Prevent exposure in future construction.
4. Provide for limited, yet essential, overall Federal
program direction and coordination.
The EPA's Office of Radiation Programs is responsible for coordinating
EPA's indoor radon program with Federal agencies and the States. The Radon
Management Committee, comprised of senior-level management officials from
various headquarters and Regional Offices within EPA, was established and
met regularly in 1986 to provide policy advice and identify priority actions
for the Radon Action Program.
In 1986, the major program activities for the Radon
Action Program included:
1. Providing technical assistance in developing a
comprehensive measurement program to ensure consis-
tency and utility of collected data;
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2. Reducing radon exposure in existing homes through
remediation demonstrations and house evaluation
programs;
3. Working with public and private sector organizations
to prevent excessive exposure in new homes through
development of better construction designs, and
identification of criteria for high-risk lands;
4. Providing technical training In measuring and
diagnosing radon problems, working in cooperation with
States to share technical and other information, and
encouraging development of private sector programs; and
B. Disseminating public information on the risks of
indoor radon exposure and ways; to reduce exposure.
Also in 1986, Congress passed Title IV of the Superfund Amendments
and Reauthorization Act of 1986 requiring EPA to formally establish a
program for radon gas and indoor air quality. This Act requires EPA to
gather data on indoor air pollution; coordinate Federal, State, local, and
private research and development efforts; and assess appropriate Federal
action to mitigate the environmental and health risks associated with indoor
air quality problems. Reginning in 1987, the Act specifies a number of
activities which EPA is expected to include as part of its Radon Action
Program. These activities include technical assistance to the States, a
national assessment of radon levels in structures, and a demonstration
program to test mitigation methods.
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XII. LITIGATION
A. INTRODUCTION
During 1986 two highly significant precedent-setting cases involving
the Clean Air Act were decided by the courts. These are discussed below.
Following those cases are discussed a number of others that have significant
program implications but are not as broadly significant.
R. LANDMARK DECISIONS
1. Acid Rain Decision: Thomas v. New York
In a major ruling on EPA's obligations under section 115 of the
Clean Air Act, the D.C. Circuit held that two letters forwarded by former
Administrator Costle in 1981 to the Secretary of State and to Senator
George Mitchell did not trigger a nondiscretionary duty on the part of
the current Administrator to issue calls for State implementation plan
(SIP) revisions in States allegedly contributing to acid deposition in
Canada. The court reversed a prior adverse ruling by Judge Norma Holloway
Johnson of the District Court for the District of Columbia. The O.C.
Circuit denied petitions for rehearing filed by the petitioners, several
environmental groups and northeastern States. These parties have since
petitioned for Supreme Court review.
?.. Overflight Inspection Case: Dow Chemical Co. v. United States
On May 19, the Supreme Court ruled that EPA acted within its
statutory authority under the Clean Air Act in inspecting a Dow chemical
plant by taking aerial photographs. The case is broadly significant
because of its ruling that EPA is free to use this inspection technique
without transgressing constitutional guarantees against unreasonable
searches and seizures.
C. OTHER SIGNIFICANT DECISIONS
1. Detroit Incinerator Rest Available Control Technology (RACT)
Decision: Greater Detroit Resource Recovery Authority v. Adamkus
Judge Barbara Hackett of the Eastern District of Michigan issued
an order on October 8 enjoining EPA from taking action to withdraw or
modify a prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) permit issued by
the State of Michigan under delegated Federal authority. The permit
authorizes the construction of a large municipal resource recovery facility
whose potential dioxin and furan emissions are of serious concern to the
Canadians. The court ruled that EPA has no authority to terminate or
modify a PSD permit once it is issued except under narrow circumstances.
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?.. With one significant exception, the courts uniformly rejected
challenges to EPA actions in approving or disapproving particular
SIP's during 1986. The principal decisions were:
a. Bethlehem Steel Corp. v. EPA (Bethlehem IV), where the
Seventh Circuit rejected challenges to EPA's partial disapproval
of Indiana coke oven rules. Among other rulings, the court
rejected industry arguments that EPA may not require reasonably
available control technology (RACT) in nonextension areas after
1982, and denied the citizen groups' request that EPA be ordered
to promulgate new and more stringent coke oven rules in nonattainment
areas.
b. Michigan v. Thomas (Michigan RACT Case), in which the
Sixth Circuit upheld EPA's disapproval of purported RACT
requirements for fugitive dust sources, which EPA believed
were vague and unenforceable. The court held that EPA
was not bound to approve such requirements even though it
had earlier done so for other States; the EPA showed that
its experience with those other States supported its view
that they did not yield RACT-level controls, and should
therefore no longer be approved.
c. Council of Commuter Organizations v. Thomas, (New York
Carbon Monoxide and Ozone SIP Case), where the Second Circuit
upheld EPA's approval of the New York SIP for ozone and carbon
monoxide against a citizen group argument that the State had
failed to meet the Clean Air Act requirement that the
existing transportation system meet "basic transportation
needs."
d. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division v. Thomas,
in which the court upheld EPA's imposition of restrictions
on air grants to the State Air Pollution Control Agency for
failure to submit on adequate inspection/maintenance program
for Albuquerque, against a challenge by the State agency mainly
on the ground that the formula selected by EPA for apportioning
the restriction between the State and local agencies was
arbitrary and capricious.
In Ohio v. EPA, however, the Sixth Circuit, ignoring its own
precedents to the contrary, overturned EPA's approval of revised sulfur
dioxide SIP limits for two power plants operated by the Cleveland Electric
Illuminating Company, on the grounds that EPA had failed to verify modeling
results against field data. On EPA's petition for rehearing, the court
narrowed its holding to reflect its concern that the model failed adequately
to account for lakeshore fumigation effects.
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3. Polycyclic Organic Matter (POM) Settlement: New York v. Thomas
The EPA settled a lawsuit under section 122 of the Clean Air Act
(Listing of Certain Unregulated Pollutants) challenging EPA's decision not
to regulate POM. The settlement agreement requires EPA to take a number
of regulatory and nonregulatory actions, including conducting a rulemaking
under section 111 of the Clean Air Act for wood stoves, and determining
whether to list municipal waste combustor emissions as hazardous air
pollutants under section 112.
4. Heavy-Duty Vehicle Standards Case: NRDC v. Thomas
The D.C. Circuit largely rejected petitions for review filed by
environmental groups and industry challenging the stringency and timing
of recently promulgated emission standards for heavy-duty vehicles. The
court deferred to EPA's "reasonable" reading of the statute as requiring
technology-forcing standards that most manufacturers could meet in the
available lead time. The court declined to decide several other substantive
issues because the petitioners had not raised the issues in the rulemaking.
The court overruled only EPA's promulgation of a nitrogen oxides standard
with less lead time than the statute required, finding that the statutory
requirement could not be avoided even where EPA had missed the statute's
deadline for promulgating the standard and manufacturers required less
lead time than the Clean Air Act provided.
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