440/l-76/059a
   II
      Development         for
      Final Effluent
    New
               for the
      MINERAL MINING AND
      PROCESSING INDUSTRY
        Point
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

              JUNE 1976

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            DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
                     for
                INTERIM FINAL
       EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
                     and
          STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
   MINERAL MINING AND PROCESSING INDUSTRY
              Russell E. Train
                Admini strator

        Andrew W. Breidenbacn* Ph.D.
         Assistant Administrator for
        Water and Hazardous Materials

               Eckardt C, Beck
     Deputy Assistant Administrator for
        Water Planning and Standards
                Ernst P. Hall
Acting Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

            Michael W. Kosakowski
               Project Officer
                  June 1976

        Effluent Guidelines Division
   Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
          Washington, B.C.   20460

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                            ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of  the
mineral  mining  and  processing  industry  for  the  prupose  of
developing effluent limitations  guidelines  for  existing  point
sources  and  standards of performance and pretreatment standards
for new sources, to implement Sections 301, 304, 306 and  307  of
the  Federal  Water  Pollution Control Act, as amended (33 U.S.C.
1551, 131U, and 1316, 86 Stat. 816 et. seg.) (the "Act").

Effluent limitations guidelines contained herein  set  forth  the
degree  of  effluent reduction attainable through the application
of the best practicable control  technology  currently  available
(BPCTCA)  and the degree of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable  (BATEA)  which  must  be  achieved  by existing point
sources by July 1, 1977 and  July  1,  1983,   respectively.   The
standards  of  performance  (NSPS) and pretreatment standards for
new sources contained herein set forth  the  degree  of  effluent
reduction  which  are  achievable  through the application of the
best  available  demonstrated  control   technology,   processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives.

Supporting  data  and  rationale  for development of the proposed
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance  are
contained in this report.
                                11

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                            CONTENTS
Section
         Abstract
   I     Conclusions
  II     Recommendations
 III     Introduction
  IV     Industry Categorization
   V     Water Use and Waste Characterization
  VI     Selection of Pollutant Parameters
 VII     Control and Treatment Technology
VIII     Cost, Energy and Non-Water Quality Aspects
  IX     Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
           Application of the Best Practicable
           Control Technology Currently Available
   X     Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
           Application of the Best Available
           Technology Economically Achievable
  XI     New Source Performance Standards and
           Pretreatment Standards
 XII     Acknowledgements
XIII     References
 XIV     Glossary
1
1
3
7
79
83
219
229
295
385

407

413

419
421
425

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                             FIGURES


Figure

    1    Dimension Stone Distribution                       14

    2    Crushed Stone Distribution                         18

    3    Sand and Gravel Distribution                       22

    4    Industrial Sand Deposits                           27

    5    Gypsum and Asbestos Operations                     33

    6    Lightweight Aggregates, Mica and Sericite          33
         Operations

    7    Barite Processing Plants                           43

    8    Fluorspar Processing Plants                        46

    9    Potash Deposits                                    47

    10   Borate Operations                                  47

    11   Lithium, Calcium and Magnesium                     48

    12   Rock Salt Mines and wells                          48

    13   Phosphate Mining and Processing Locations          55

    14   Sulfur Deposts                                     55

    15   Supply-Demand Relationships for Clays              62

    16   Dimension stone Mining and Processing              87

    17   Crushed Stone Mining and Processing                91

    18   Sand and Gravel Mining and Processing              97

    19   Industrial Sand Mining and Processing              104

    20   Gypsum Mining and Processing                       109

    21   Bituminous Limestone Mining and Processing,        112
         Oil Impregnated Diatomite Mining and Processing,
         and Gilsonite Mining and Processing

    22   Asbestos Mining and Processing                     114

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23   Wollastonite Mining and Processing                  116

24   Perlite Mining and Processing, Pumice Mining and    118
     Processing, and Vermiculite Mining and Processing

25   Mica Mining and Processing                          121

26   Barite Mining and Processing                        126

27   Fluorspar Mining and Processing                     131

28   Minerals Recovery from Searles Lake,                137
     Minerals Recovery at Great Salt Lake, and
     Lithium Salt Recovery Natural Brine,
     Silver Peak Operations

29   Borate Mining and Processing                        141

30   Potassium Chloride Mining and Processing From       144
     Sylvinite Ore, Langbeinite Mining and Processing,
     and Potash Recovery by Solution Mining of  Sylvinite

31   Trona Ore Processing by the Monohydrate             148
     Process and Trona Ore Processing by the
     Sesguicarbonate Process

32   Sodium Sulfate from Brine Wells                     152

33   Rock Salt Mining and Processing                     154

34   Phosphate Mining and Processing                     157

35   Sulfur Mining and Processing  (Frasch Process)       163

36   Mineral Pigments Mining and Processing              167

37   Spodumene Mining and Processing  (Flotation         169
     Process)

38   Bentonite Mining and Processing                     173

39   Fire Clay Mining and Processing                     175

40   Fuller's Earth Mining and Processing                177

41   Kaolin Mining and Processing     -                  180

42   Ball Mining and Processing                          183

43   Feldspar Mining and Processing                      185

44   Kyanite Mining and Processing                       189
                            VI

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45   Magnesite Mining and Processing                     192

46   Shale Mining and Processing                         195

47   Aplite Mining and Processing                        197

48   Talc, Steatite, Soapstone and Pyrophyllite          200
     Mining and Processing

49   Talc Mining and Processing                          202

50   Pyrophyllite Mining and Processing  (Heavy           204
     Media Separation)

51   Garnet Mining and Processing                        207

52   Tripoli Mining and Processing                       209

53   Diatomite Mining and Processing                     211

54   Graphite Mining and Processing                      214

55   Jade Mining and Processing                          216

56   Novaculite Mining and Processing                    218

57   Normal Distribution of Log TSS for  a Phosphate      269
     Slime Pond Discharge

58   Bleedwater Treating Plant                           278
                           vii

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                             TABLES
Table                                                     Page
    1    Recommended Limits and standards                  4
    2    Data Base                                         10
    3    Production and Employment                         12
    1    Dimension stone by Use and Kind of Stone          15
    5    Size Distribution of Crushed Stone Plants         17
    6    Uses of Crushed Stone                             21
    7    Size Distribution of Sand and Gravel Plants       24
    8    Uses of Sand and Gravel                           26
    9    Uses of Industrial Sand                           28
    10   Industry Categorization                           80
    11   Dimension Stone Water Use                         89
    12   Settling Pond Performance Stone, Sand and         236
           Gravel Operations
    13   Fluorspar Mine Dewatering Data                    265
    14   Sulfur Facilities, Comparison of Discharges       276
    15   Dimension Stone Treatment Costs                   300
    16   Crushed Stone (Wet Process) Treatment Costs       302
    17   Construction Sand and Gravel  (Wet Process)        305
           Treatment costs
    18   Industrial Sand (Wet Process) Treatment Costs     312
    19   Industrial sand (Acid and Alkaline Process)       314
           Treatment Costs
    20   Industrial Sand (HF Flotation) Treatment Costs    315
    21   Gilsonite Treatment Costs                         320
    22   Vermiculite Treatment Costs                       333
    23   Mica Treatment Costs                              325
                               IX

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24   Barite  (Wet Process) Treatment Costs               330
25   Barite  (Flotation Process) Treatment Costs         333
26   Fluorspar  (HMS Process) Treatment Costs            335
27   Fluorspar  (Flotation Process) Treatment Costs      337
28   Borates Treatment Costs                            339
29   Potash  (Carlsbad Operations) Treatment Costs       341
30   Potash  (Moab Operations) Treatment Costs           342
31   Trona Treatment Costs                              344
32   Rock Salt Treatment Costs                          348
33   Phosphate Rock  (Eastern) Treatment Costs           351
34   Phosphate Rock  (Western) Treatment Costs           353
35   Sulfur  (Anhydrite) Treatment Costs                 355
36   Sulfur  (On-Shore Salt  Dome) Treatment Costs        357
37   Sulfur  (Off-Shore Salt Dome) Treatment Costs       359
38   Mineral Pigments Treatment costs                   361
39   Lithium Minerals Treatment Costs                   363
40   Attapulgite Treatment  Costs                        365
41   Montmorillonite Treatment Costs                    366
42   Montmorillonite Mine Water Treatment Costs         367
43   Wet Process Kaolin Treatment Costs                 370
44   Ball Clay Treatment Costs                          372
45   Wet Process Feldspar Treatment Costs               374
46   Kyanite Treatment Costs                            377
47   Wet Process Talc Minerals Treatment Costs         381
48   Conversion Table                                   432

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                            SECTION I


                           CONCLUSIONS
This  study  included  the  non-metallic  minerals   given  in the
following  list  with  the  corresponding    Standard   Industrial
Classification  (SIC) code.
    Dimension Stone
    Crushed Stone  (1422, 1423, 1429)
    Construction Sand and Gravel  (1442)
    Industrial Sand  (1446)
    Gypsum  (1492)
    Asphaltic Minerals  (1499)
         a. Bituminous Limestone
         b. Oil Impregnated  Diatomite
         c. Gilsonite
    Asbestos and Wollastonite  (1499)
    Lightweight Aggregate Minerals  (1499)
         a. Perlite
         b. Pumice
         c. Vermiculite
    Mica and Sericite  (1499)
    Barite  (1472)
    Fluorspar  (1473)
    Salines from Brine Lakes (1474)
    Borates  (1474)
    Potash  (1474)
    Trona Ore  (1474)
    Phosphate Rock  (1475)
    Rock Salt  (1476)
    Sulfur  (Frasch)  (1477)
    Mineral Pigments  (1479)
    Lithium Minerals  (1479)
    Sodium Sulfate  (1474)
    Bentonite  (1452)
    Fire Clay  (1453)
    Fuller's Earth  (1454)
         A. Attapulgite
         B. Montmorillonite
    Kaolin and Ball Clay  (1455)
    Feldspar (1459)
    Kyanite  (1459)
    Magnesite  (Naturally Occurring)  (1459)
    Shale and other Clay Minerals  (1459)
         A. Shale
         B. Aplite
    Talc, Soapstone, Pyrophyllite,  and  Steatite  (1496)
    Natural Abrasives  (1499)

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     A. Garnet
     B. Tripoli
Diatomite  (1499)
Graphite  (1499)
Miscellaneous Non Metallic Minerals  (1U99)
     A. Jade
     B. Novaculite

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                           SECTION II
                         R ECOMMENDATIONS
The  recommended effluent limitations are listed in Table 1.  The
parameter pH should be maintained between 6.0 and  9.0  units  at
all times.

The  pretreatment  standards will not limit compatible pollutants
such as total suspended solids or pH, unless there is  a  problem
regulated by 40 CFR 128.  Limitations for incompatible pollutants
are  recommended  to  be the same as for best practicable control
technology currently available (for existing sources) and for new
source performance standards (for new sources).

The  limitations  for  the  following  subcategories  are  either
promulgated or proposed at this time:

    crushed stone (process and mine dewatering)
    construction sand and gravel (process and mine dewatering)
    industrial sand (process and mine dewatering)
    gypsum (no scrubbers)
    asphaltic minerals
    asbestos and wollastonite
    phosphate rock (process and mine dewatering)
    barite (dry)
    fluorspar (dry)
    salines from brine lakes
    borax
    potash
    sodium sulfate
    Frasch sulfur (anhydrite)
    bentonite
    magnesite
    diatomite
    jade
    novaculite
    tripoli (dry)
    graphite (process and mine)

All other limitations are in draft form only.

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                                                   TABLE  1
                                       Recommended  Limits  and  Standards
The following apply to process waste  water except  where  noted.

Subcategory
          BPCTCA
max. avg.  of  30
consecutive days
                                                max.  for
                                                any one day
Dimension stone
    Mine dewateMng
Crushed stone
    Mine dewaterlng
Construction Sand and Gravel
    Mine dewaterlng
Industrial Sand
    Dry processing,
    Wet processing. &
    Non HF flotation
    HF flotation
                                       No
             discharge
                    TSS
          No di scharge
                    TSS
          No d1scharge
                    TSS
    30 mg/1

    30 mg/1

    30 mg/1
          BATEA and NSPS
max. avg. of 30     max. for
consecutive days    any one day

          No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          NO discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          No discharge
TSS 0.023 kg/Kkg    TSS 0.046 kg/kKg
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                             F 0.003 kg/kkg
    Mine debater ing
Gypsum
    Dry &
    Heavy Media Separation
    Wet Scrubbers
    Mine dewatering
Bituminous limestone,
011 - impregnated diatomite, &
Gl1soni te
Asbestos. Woliostonite
    Mine dewaterlng
Perlite. Pumice, Vermlcultte
  & Expanded lightweight aggregates
    Mine dewaterlng
M1ca & Sericlte
    Dry processing.
    Wet processing &
    Wet processing and
     general clay recovery
    Wet processing and
    Ceramic grade clay
       recovery
    Mine dewaterlng
Ban te
    Dry
    Wet « Flotation
    Tai1 ings pond
    storm overflow
    Mine dewaterlng
    (acid)
    Mine dewaterlng
    (non acid)
                    F 0.006 kg/kkfl
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          No d1scharge
          No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          No discharge
          No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1
          No discharge

                    TSS 30 mg/l
                                                                                         TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge

                                        TSS 30 mg/1
          No di scharge
                              No discharge
TSS 1.5 kg/kkg
TSS 3.0 kg/kkQ
TSS 30 mg/1
TSS 1.5 kg/kkg
TSS 3.0 kg/kkg
TSS 30 mg/J
          No d1scharge
          No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1

TSS 35 mg/1         TSS 70 mg/1
Total Fe 3.5 mg/1    Total  Fe 7.0 mg/1
                    TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                    TSS 35 mg/1
                    Total  F« 3.5 mg/1
                    TSS 70 mg/1
                    Tolal Fe 7.0 mg/1
                    TSS 35 mg/1

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FIuorspar
    Heavy Media Separation
    & Drying and Palletizing
    Flotation                TSS
                             F  0
    Mine Drainage
Salines from Brine Lakes**
Borax
Potash
Trona (process waste water &
  mine debater 1ng)
Sodi urn Sulfate
Rock Salt (process waste water  &
  mine dewatertngj           TSS  0.02 kg/kkg
    Sa1t pile runoff
Phosphate ROCK
    Flotation unit process
          No discharge
    0.6 kg/kkg      TSS 1.2 kg/kkg
    2 Kg/kkg        F  0.4 kg/kkfl
                    TSS 30 mg/J
          No d1scharge
          No di scharge
          No discharge
          No discharge
          No di scharge
                    TSS 0.04 kg/kkg
    and mine dewaterlng      TSS
    Other unit processes
Sulfur (Frasch)
    fcnhydri te
    Salt domes(land and      TSS
      marsh operations
      we 11  bleed water )
     Land avallable          SI
     Land avallabf11ty       S 5
      )imi tat tons
     Wei 1 seal water
Mineral Pigments
    Mine dewaterlng
Lithium***
    Tailings dam seepage &
    storm overflow
    Mine dewatering
Bentoni te
    Mine dewaterlng
Fire clay
    Non-Acid mine dewaterlng
    Acid Mine dewaterlng

Attapulgite
    Mine dewaterlng
Montmor11Ion1te
    Mine dewaterlng
Kaol1n
    Dry processing
    Wet processing
    30 mg/1          TSS 60 mg/1
          No discharge

          No discharge
    50 mg/1*        TSS 100 mg/1*
    mg/1
    mg/1
                                       No
          No
          No

          No

TSS 35 mg/1
Total  Fe 3.5
          No

          No
          No
Turbidity 50
TSS 45 mg/1
Zn 0.25 mg/1
Turbidity 50
    Mine dewaterlng          iui-uiuii.y -
         (ore slurry pumped) TSS 45 mg/1
    Mine dewatertng
         (ore dry transported)
S 2 mg/1
S 10 mg/1
discharge
       TSS 30 mg/1
d1scharge

       TSS 50 mg/1
       TSS 35 mg/1
discharge
       TSS 35 mg/1
di scharge
       TSS 35 mg/1
       TSS 70 mg/1
mg/1    Total Fe 7 mg/1
di scharge
       TSS 35 mg/1
di scharge
       TSS 35 mg/1

di scharge
JTU    Turbldi ty 100 JTU
       TSS 90 mg/1
       Zn 0.50 mg/1
JTu    Turbidity 100 JTU
       TSS 90 mg/1
       TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                    TSS 0.6 kg/kkg      TSS 1.2 kg/kkg
                    F 0.1  kg/kkg        F 0.2 kg/kkg
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                              No discharge

                              No discharge
                              No discharge

                    TSS 0.002 kg/kkg    TSS 0.004 kg/kKg
                              No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1          TSS 60 mg/1
                              No discharge
                    TSS 30 mg/1*
S 1 mg/1
S 1 mg/1
                    TSS 60 mg/1*
                                               S 2
                                               S 2
mg/1
mg/1
                    TSS 30 mg/1*        TSS 60 mg/1*
                    S 1 mg/1            S 2 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              NO discharge

                                        TSS 50 mg/1
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                    TSS 35 mg/1         TSS 70 mg/1
                    Total Fe 3.5 mg/1   Total Fe 7 mg/t
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                    Turbldi ty 50 JTU
                    TSS 45 mg/1
                    Zn 0.25 mg/1
                    Turbidity 50 JTU
                    TSS 45 mg/1
                    Turbtdlty 100 JTU
                    TSS 90 mg/1
                    Zn 0.50 mg/1
                    Turbidity 100 JTU
                    TSS 90 mg/1
                    TSS 35 mg/1

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Ball Clay
    Dry processing
    Wet processing
    Mine dewaterlng
Feldspar
    Non-Flotation plants
    Flotation plants***

    Mine dewaterlng
Kyanite
    Mine dewatertng
Mageslte
Shale and Common Clay
    Mine dewatering
Apllte
    Mine dewaterlng
Talc. Steatite. Soapstone
    Dry processing &
      Washing plants
    Flotation and HMS
    plants
    Mine dewatertng
Garnet
TrIpoli
    Mine dewaterlng
01 atornite
    Mine dewatermg
Graphite (process and
    Mine dewaterlng)
Jade
Novacul1te
             No discharge
             No di scharge
                       TSS 35 mg/1

             No d1scharge
   TSS 0.6 kg/kkg      TSS 1.2 kg/kkg
   f 0.175 kg/kkg      F 0.35 kg/kkg
                       TSS 30 mg/1
             No di scharge
                       TSS 35 mg/1
             No discharge
             No discharge
                       TSS 35 mg/1
             No discharge
                       TSS 35 mg/1
and Pyropnyl1ite
             No discharge
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35
                                               mg/1
                              No discharge
                    TSS 0.6 kg/kkg      TSS 1.2 kg/kkg
                    f 0.13 kg/kkg       F 0.26 kg/kkg
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 35 mg/1
                              No discharge
   TSS 0.5 kg/kkg
TSS 1.0 kg/kkg
TSS 0.3 kg/kkg
                       TSS  30  mg/1
   TSS 30 mg/!          TSS  60  mg/1
             No discharge
                       TSS  30  mg/1
             No discharge
                       TSS  30  mg/1
   TSS 10 mg/1          TSS  20  mg/1
   Total  Fe  1 mg/1      Total Fe  2 mg/)
             No discharge
             No discharge
TSS 0.6 kg/kkg

TSS 30 mg/1
TSS 60 mg/1
                    TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                              No discharge
                                        TSS 30 mg/1
                    TSS 10 mg/1          TSS 20 mg/1
                    Total  Fe 1  mg/1      Total  Fe 2 mg/1
                              No discharge
                              No discharge
pH  6-9 for all subcategories
No discharge - No discharge of process waste  water  pollutants
kg/kkg - kg of Pollutant/kkg of product
* standard is to apply as net 1f oxidation  ditches  are  used and Intake  Is  from  the  same  navigable
     water as the discharge.
** standards are to be applied as net  1?  discharge  1s to  the sam«  navigable  water as  brine  Intake
*** kg of pollutant/kkg of ore processed
BPCTCA - best practicable control technology  currently  available
BATEA - best available technology economically achievable
NSPS - new source performance standard

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                           SECTION III


                          INTRODUCTION
The  United  States  Environmental  Protection  Agency  (EPA)   is
charged under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act  Amendments
of  1972  with  establishing  effluent  limitations which must be
achieved by point sources of discharge into the navigable  waters
of  the  United  States.   Section 301(b) of the Act requires the
achievement  by  not  later  than  July  1,  1977,  of   effluent
limitations   for   point  sources,  other  than  publicly  owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of  the  best
practicable  control technology currently available as defined by
the Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act.  Section
301(b) also reguires the achievement by not later  than  July  1,
1983,  of  effluent  limitations  for  point  sources, other than
publicly  owned  treatment  works,  which  are   based   on   the
application   of   the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable which  will  result  in  reasonable  further  progress
toward  the  national  goal  of  eliminating the discharge of all
pollutants, as determined in accordance with  regulations  issued
by  the  Administrator  pursuant  to  Section  304 (b) of the Act.
Section 306 of the Act requires the achievement by new sources of
a Federal standard of performance providing for  the  control  of
the discharge of pollutants which reflects the greatest degree of
effluent  reduction  which  the  Administrator  determines  to be
achievable  through  the  application  of  the   best   available
demonstrated control technology, processes, operating methods, or
other  alternatives,  including,  where  practicable,  a standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.  Section 304 (b) of the Act
requires  the  Administrator  to  publish  within  one  year   of
enactment   of  the  Act  regulations  providing  guidelines  for
effluent  limitations  setting  forth  the  degree  of   effluent
reduction   attainable   through  the  application  of  the  best
practicable control technology currently available and the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application  of  the
best   control   measures   and  practices  achievable  including
treatment  techniques,   process   and   procedure   innovations,
operating   methods  and  other  alternatives.   The  regulations
proposed  herein  set  forth  effluent   limitations   guidelines
pursuant  to  Section  304(b) of the Act for the minerals for the
construction  industry  segment  of  the   mineral   mining   and
processing  industry  point  source category.  Section 306 of the
Act requires the Administrator, within one year after a  category
of  sources  is  included in a list published pursuant to Section
306(b)  (1) (A) of the Act, to  propose  regulations  establishing
Federal  standards  of  performances  for new sources within such
categories.  The Administrator published in the Federal  Register
of  January  16,  1973  (38  F.R.  1624),  a  list  of  27 source

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categories.  Publication of an amended list on October   16,   1975
in   the   Federal   Register  constituted  announcement   of   the
Administrator's intention of  establishing,  under  section   306,
standards  of  performance  applicable  to new sources within the
mineral mining and processing industry.

The products covered in this report are listed below  with their
SIC designations:

    Dimension stone  (1411)
    Crushed stone  (1422,  1423, 1429, 1499)
    Construction sand and gravel  (1442)
    Industrial sand  (1446)
    Gypsum  (1492)
    Asphaltic Minerals  (1499)
    Asbestos and Wollastonite  (1499)
    Lightweight Aggregates  (1499)
    Mica and Sericite  (1499)
    Barite  (1472 and 3295)
    Fluorspar  (1473 and 3295)
    Salines from Brine Lakes  (1974)
    Borax  (1474)
    Potash  (1474)
    Trona Ore  (1474)
    Phosphate Rock  (1475)
    Rock Salt  (1476)
    Sulfur  (1477)
    Mineral Pigments  (1479)
    Lithium Minerals  (1479)
    Sodium Sulfate  (1474)
    Bentonite  (1452)
    Fire Clay  (1453)
    Fuller's Earth  (1454)
    Kaolin and Ball Clay  (1455)
    Feldspar  (1459)
    Kyanite  (1459)
    Magnesite  (1459)
    Shale and other clay  minerals, N.E.C.  (1459)
    Talc, Soapstone and Pyrophyllite  (1496)
    Natural abrasives  (1499)
    Diatomite mining  (1499)
    Graphite  (1499)
    Miscellaneous non-metallic minerals,
      N.E.C.  (1499)

Some  of  the  above minerals which are processed only  (SIC  3295)
are also included.

-------
The data for identification and  analyses  were  derived  from  a
number   of   sources.    These  sources  included  EPA  research
information,   published    literature,    qualified    technical
consultation,  on-site  visits  and interviews at numerous mining
and processing facilities throughout  the  U.S.,  interviews  and
meetings  with  various  trade  associations,  and interviews and
meetings with various regional  offices  of  the  EPA.   Table  2
summarizes  the  data  base for the various subcategories in this
volume.  The 1972 production and employment figures  in  Table  3
were   derived  either  from  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  (U.S.
Department  of  Commerce)   publications  or  the  Commodity  Data
Summaries  (1974) Appendix I to Mining and Minerals Policy, Bureau
of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior.

                   DIMENSION STONE (SIC 1411)

Rock which has been specially cut or shaped for use in buildings,
monuments,   memorial   and   gravestones,   curbing,   or  other
construction or special uses is called  dimension  stone.   Large
quarry  blocks  suitable  for  cutting to specific dimensions are
also classified as  dimension  stone.   The  principal  dimension
stones  are  granite,  marble,  limestone,  slate, and sandstone.
Less common are diorite, basalt, mica schist, quartzite,  diabase
and others.

Terminology in the dimension stone industry is somewhat ambiguous
and  frequently  does  not  correspond  to the same terms used in
mineralogical rock descriptions.  Dimension granites include  not
only   true   granite,  but  many  other  types  of  igneous  and
metamorphic rocks  such  as  quartz  diorites,  syenites,  quartz
porphyries, gabbros, schists, and gneisses.  Dimension marble may
be  used  as  a term to describe not only true marbles, which are
metamorphosed limestones, but also any limestone that will take a
hicrh  polish.   Many  other  rocks  such  as  serpentines,  onyx,
travertines,  and  some  granites are frequently called marble by
the dimension  stone  industry.   Hard  cemented  sandstones  are
sometimes called quartzite although they do not specifically meet
the mineralogical definition.

Many  of the States possess dimension stone of one kind or other,
and many have one or more producing operations.  However, only  a
few have significant operations.  These are as follows:

    Granite   -    Minnesota
                   Georgi a
                   Vermont
                   Massachusetts
                   South Dakota

    Marble    -    Georgia
                   Vermont
                   Minnesota  (dolomite)

-------
                                TABLE 2

                               DATA BASE
Subcategory
No.
Plants
Dimension Stone          194
Crushed Stone
  Dry                  3,200
  Wet                  1,600
  Flotation                8
  Shell Dredging          50
Construction Sand
  Gravel
  Dry                    750
  Wet                  A,250
  Dredging (on-land)      50
  Dredging (on-board)    100
Industrial Sand
  Dry                     20
  Wet                    130
  Flotation (Acid &       17
  Alkaline)
  Flotation (HF)           1
Gypsum
  Dry                     73
  Wet Scrubbing            5
  HMS                      2
Asphaltic Minerals
  Bituminous Limestone     2
  Oil Impreg.Diatomite     1
  Gilsonite                1
Asbestos
  Dry                      4
  Wet                      1
  Wollastonite             1
Lightweight Aggregates
  Perlite                 13
  Pumice                   7
  Vermiculite              2
Mica & Sericite
  Dry                      7
  Wet                      3
  Wet Beneficiation        7
Barite
  Dry                      9
  Wet                      14
  Flotation                4
Fluorspar
  HMS                      6
  Flotation                6
  Drying and               2
     Pelletizing
No Plants

Visited
20
5
26
2
4
0
46
8
3
0
3
4
1
5
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
2
5
2
5
4
7
3
4
4
1
Data
Available
20
52
130
3
4
50
100
15
25
5
10
10
1
54
8
2
2
1
1
4
1
1
4
7
2
7
3
7
8
14
4
6
5
2

Sampled
5
*
9
1
0
*
15
0
0
*
2
2
1
2
1
*
*
*
1
1
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
1
*
2
*
                                      10

-------
Salines from
  Brine Lakes
Borax
Potash
Trona Ore
Phosphate Rock
Eastern
Western
Koc* «alt
Sulfur
Anhydrite
On-Shore
Off-Shore
Mineral
Pigments
Lithium
Minerals
Sodium
Sulfate
Bentonite
Fire Clay
Fuller's Earth
Attapulgite
Montmor .
Kaolin
Dry
Wet
Ball Clay
Feldspar
Wet
Dry
Kyanite
Magnesite
Shale and Common
Clay
Aplite
Talc Minerals
Dry
Washing
EMS, Flotation
Natural Abrasives
Garnet
Tripoli
Diatomite
Graphite
Misc. Minerals
Jade
Novaculite
1
5
4

22
6
21

2
9
2
11

2

6

37
81

10
4


37 total
12

5
2
3
1
129

2

27
2
4

3
4
9
1

est. 10
1
1
4
2

21
6
11

1
7
1
3

2

2

2
9

4
3

4
6
4

5
2
2
1
10

2

12
1
4

2
2
3
1

1
1
Total
11,019
312
                                                       1
                                                       5
                                                       4

                                                      20.
                                                       6
                                                      15

                                                       2
                                                       9
                                                       1
                                                       3
                                                       2
                                                       9

                                                       5
                                                       3

                                                       4
                                                       7
                                                       4

                                                       5
                                                       2
                                                       2
                                                       1
                                                      20
 20
  2
  4

  2
  4
  3
  1

  1
  1

735
                                             3
                                             a
                                             3
                                             5
                                             1
                                             2
                                             3

                                             *
                                             0
                                             0

                                             5
                                             *
                                             *
                                             *
                                                                   0
                                                                   *
77
*There is no discharge of process waste water in the subcategories
 under normal operating conditions.
                                    11

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                                   TABLE 3
                          Production and Employment
SIC Code    Product

1411        Dimension stone-limestone
1411        Dimension stone-granite
1411        Dimension stone-other*
1422        Crushed & broken stone-
              limestone
1423        Crushed & broken stone
              granite
1429        Crushed & broken stone NEC
1499        Crushed & broken stone shell
1442        Construction sand & gravel
1446        Industrial sand
1492        Gypsum
1499        Bituminous limestone
1499        Oil-impregnated diatomite
1499        Gilsonite
1499        Asbestos
1499        Wollastonite
1499        Perlite
1499        Pumice
1499        Vermiculite
1499        Mica
1472        Barite
1473        Fluorspar
1474        Borates
1474        Potash  (K2) equiv.
1474        Soda  Ash "(trona only)
1474        Sodium  sulfate
1475        Phosphates
1476        Salt  (mined only)
1477        Sulfur  (Frasch)
1479        Mineral  pigments
1479        Lithium minerals
1452        Bentonite
1453        Fire  clay
1454        Fuller's earth
1455        Kaolin
1455        Ball  clay
1459        Feldspar
1459        Kyanite
1459        Magnesite
1459        Aplite
1459        Crude common  clay
1496        Talc
1496        Soapstone
1496        Pyrophyllite
1499        Abrasives
            Garnet
            Tripoli
 1499        Diatomite
1499        Graphite
1499        Jade
 1499        Novaculite

*Sandstone, marble, et  al
**Includes ball  clay
1272 Production
tOte-Kfcg 1000 tons
542
357
559
542,400
95,900
113,000
19,000
650,000
27,120
11,200
1 ,770
109
45
120
63
589
3,460
306
145
822
228
1,020
^,410
2,920
636
37,000
12,920
7,300
63
Withheld
2,150
3,250
896
4,810
612
664
Est. 108
Withheld
190
41 ,840
1,004
17
80
522
Withheld
.107
Withheld
598
394
616
598,000
106,000
124,600
20,900
717,000
29,999
12,330
1,950
120
50
132
70
649
3,810
337
160
906
251
1,120
2,660
3,220
701
40,800
14,200
8,040
70

2,767
3,581
988
5,318
675
732
Est. 120

210
46,127

19
88
576

.118

Employment
2,000 combined
SIC 1411

29,400
4,500
7,400
Unknown
30,300
4,400
2,900
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
400
70
100
525
225
75
1,025
270
1,800
1,200
1,070
100
4,200
2,800
2,900
Unknown
approx. 250
900
500
1,200
3,900**

450
165
Unknown
Unknown
2,600
950
Unknown
Unknown
500
54
Unknown
15
                                          12

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    Limestone -    Indiana
              -    Wisconsin

    Slate     -    Vermont
                   New York
                   Virginia
                   Pennsylvania

    Sandstone,-    Pennsylvania
    Quartz, and    Ohio
    Quartzite      New York

Figure 1 gives the U. S. production on a state basis for granite,
limestone,   sandstone,   quartz  and  quartzite  which  are  the
principal stones quarried as shown in Table 4.   There  are  less
than  500 dimension stone mininq activities in  the U.S.  Present
production methods for dimension stone ranqe from the inefficient
and antiquated to the technologically modern.  Quarrying  methods
include  the  use  of  various  combinations  of  wire  saws, jet
torches, channeling  machines,  drilling  machines,  wedges,  and
broaching tools.  The choice of equipment mix depends on the type
of  dimension  stone,  size  and  shape  of  deposit,  production
capacity,  labor  costs,  financial   factors,   and   management
attitudes.

Blasting  with  a  low  level explosive, such as black powder, is
occasionally done.  Blocks cut from the face are sawed  or  split
into smaller blocks for ease in transportation and handling.  The
blocks  are  taken to processing facilities, often located at the
quarry site, for final cutting and finishing  operations.   Stone
finishing equipment includes: (a)gang saws  (similar to large hack
saws)   used  with water alone or water with silicon carbide  (SiC)
abrasive added, and recently,  with  industrial  diamond  cutting
edges;   (b)wire  saws  used  with  water alone, or with water and
quartz sand, or  water  with  SiC;  (c)diamond  saws;   (d)profile
grinders;   (e)guillotine  cutters;  (f)pneumatic actuated cutting
tools   (chisels);  (g)sand  blasting  and   shot   peening;   and
(h) polishing mills.

             CRUSHED STONE (SIC 1422, 1423 and 1429)

This  stone  category  pertains to rock which has been reduced in
size after mininq to meet various consumer requirements.  As with
dimension stone,  the  terminology  used  by  the  crushed  stone
producing   and  consuming  industries  is  not  consistent  with
mineralogical definitions.  Usually all of  the  coarser  grained
igneous  rocks are called granite.  The term traprock pertains to
all dense, dark, and fine-grained igneous rocks.   Quartzite  may
describe any siliceous-cemented sandstone whether or not it meets
the   strict  mineralogical  description.   Approximately  three-
fourths of all crushed stone is limestone.
                               13

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                    FIGURE   1

     DIMENSION  STONE  DISTRIBUTION
                    DIKENStOMM, C
                   1972- 1000  uliort tone
* Producing States (total • 214)     Data from: Minerals Yearbook- 1972,
 National Total - 621.2                       Vol.  I, Table 5, p. 1164

                    DIMENSIONAL LIMESTONE
  * Producing States  (Total * 54.8)       Data from: Minerals Yearbook
  National Total -  411.1 (excluding P.R.)  1972,  Vol,,I, Table 6,p.  1164
                    DIMENSIONAL SANDSTONE,
                       QUARTZ,  QUARTZITE
 * ProducinR States  (Total - 22.3)    Dnta from: Minerals Yearbook-1072
 National Total -  230.7                        Vol.I, Table 7,  p.l
                    14

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                                         TABLE  4
                  DIMENSION  STONE BY USE  AND KIND OF STONE
                                          (1972)
Kind of stone end use
   GRANITE
                            1000 short tctus
                                                         Kind of stone and use
                                                              continued
                                                   Dressed:
                                                                                         1000 short tons

Rough :
Architectural
Construction
Monumental
Other rough stone
Dressed :
Cut
Sawed
House stone veneer
Construction
Monumental
Cvirbing
Flagging
Paving blocks
Other dressed stone

Total
Value ($1000)

LIMESTONE AKD DOLOMITE

Rough :
Architectural
Construction
Flagging
Other roufth stone
Dressed:
Cut
Saved
House stone veneer
Construction
Flagging
Other dressed stone
Total
Value ($1000)
MARBLE

Rough i Architectural
Dressed:
Cut
Sawed
Kouda stone veneer
Construction and Monumental

Total
Value ($1000)

SANDSTONE, QUAKTZ & QUARTZITE

Rough:
Architectural
Coniitructiun
Flucglng
Other rough stone







46
54
287
__

—
14
6
10
33
130
—
—
42

621
42,641




175
56
18
1

49
30
68
12
2
1
411
14,378


9

21
S
9
27

71
16. 541




42
74
18
1





Cut
Curbing
Sawed
House stone veneer
Flagging
Other uses not listed

Total
Value ($1000)

SLATE

Roofing slate

Mlllstock:
Structural and sanitary
Blackboards, etc.
Billinrd table tops

Total

Flagging
Other uses not listed

Total
Value ($1000)

OTHER STONE

Rough :
Architectural
Construction
Dressed:
Cut
Construction
Flagging
Structural and sanitary purpose*
Total
Value ($1000)

TOTAL STONE

Rough I
Architectural
Construction
Monumental
Flagging
Other rough stone
Uroseed:
Cut
Saved
House stone veneer
Construction
Roofing (slate)
Millstock (elate)
Monumental
Curbing
Flogging
Other UBCO not lilted
Total
Value ($1000)
21
—
_~
27
17
32

231
7,684



12


14
1
4

19

36
14

80
7,404



U
43
2
4
66
1,964




286
239
287
36
2

117
65
no
32
12
19
65
130
61
31
1,490
90,763
                      Minerals Y
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Riprap is large irregular stone used chiefly in river and  harbor
work  and  to  protect  highway  embankments.    Fluxing  stone is
limestone, usually 4 to 6 inches in cross section,  which is  used
to form slag in blast furnaces and other metallurgical processes.
Terrazzo is sized material, usually marble or limestone, which is
mixed  with  cement  for pouring floors and is smoothed to expose
the chips after the floor has hardened.  Some guartzose  rock  is
also  used  for  flux.  Stucco dash consists of white or brightly
colored stone, 1/8 to 3/8 inches  in  size,  for  use  in  stucco
facing.   Ground  limestone  is  used to significantly reduce the
acidity of soils.

The crushed stone industry is widespread and varied  in  size  of
facilities   and   types  of  material  produced.   The  size  of
individual firms varies from  small  independent  producers  with
single  facilities  to  large diversified corporations with 50 or
more  crushed  stone  facilities  as  well  as  other   important
interests.   Facility  capacities  range  from  less  than 22,700
kkg/yr  (25,000 tons/yr) to about 13.6 million kkg/yr (15  million
tons/yr).   As  Table  5  shows  only  about  5.2  percent of the
commercial facilities are of a 816,000 kkg  (900,000 ton) capacity
or larger, but these  account  for  39.5  percent  of  the  total
output.  At the other extreme, facilities of less than 22,700 kkg
(25,000  ton)  annual  capacity made up 33.3 percent of the total
number but produce  only  1.3  percent  of  the  national  total.
Geographically,  the  facilities  are  widespread with all States
reporting production.  In general, stone output of the individual
States correlates with  population  and  industrial  activity  as
shown  by  Figure  2.   This is true because of the large cost of
shipment in relation to the value of the crushed stone.

Most crushed and  broken  stone  is  presently  mined  from  open
guarries,  but  in many areas underground mining is becoming more
frequent.  Surface mining  equipment  varies  with  the  type  of
stone,   the  production  capacity  needed,  size  and  shape  of
deposits, estimated  life  of  the  operation,  location  of  the
deposit  with  respect  to  urban  centers,  and  other important
factors.   Ordinarily,  drilling  is  done  with  tricone  rotary
drills,  long-hole  percussion  drills  including "down the hole"
models, and churn drills.  Blasting  in  smaller  operations  may
still  be  done  with  dynamite,  but  in most sizable operations
ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures  (AN/FO)  are  used,  which  are
much lower in cost.  Secondary breakage increasingly is done with
mechanical equipment such as drop hammers to minimize blasting in
urban  and residential areas.

Underground operations are becoming more common as the advantages
of  such facilities are increasingly recognized by the producers.
Underground mines can be operated on a year-round,  uninterrupted
basis;  do  not  require  extensive removal of overburden; do not
produce much  if any waste requiring subsequent disposal;  require
little surface area which becomes of importance in areas of high
                                16

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                                TABLE 5

                 SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF CRUSHED STONE PLANTS*
ANNUAL PRODUCTION
     TONS
NUMBER OF
QUARRIES
  TOTAL ANNUAL
   PRODUCTION
   1000 TONS
 PERCENT
 OF TOTAL

25,000
50,000
75,000
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000

< 25,000
- 49,999
- 74,999
- 99,999
- 199,999
- 299,999
- 399,999
- 499,999
- 599,999
- 699,999
- 799,999
- 899,999
> 900,000
                                   1,600
                                     600
                                     339
                                     253
                                     634
                                     308
                                     233
                                     182
                                     126
                                      98
                                      76
                                      51
                                     248
                13,603
                24,221
                20,485
                21,941
                90,974
                75,868
                80,946
                80,956
                68,903
                62,730
                56,694
                42,718
               418,502
                     1.3
                     2.3
                     1.9
                     2.1
                     8.6
                     7.2
                     7.6
                     7.7
                     6.5
                     5.9
                     5.4
                     4.0
                    39.5
        TOTAL
4,808
1,058,541
100,0
   U.S. Deaprtment of the Interior
   Bureau of Mines
   Division of Nonmetallic Minerals
    1973
                                17

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                                    FIGURE   2

                     CRUSHED STONE DISTRIBUTION
                                       CRUSHED GRANITE
                                   1972/1,000.000 short tons
* Other producing States (tota.1 • 13.9)
National Total - 106.3
Dat» From:  Minerals Yearbook  - 1972. Vol.  I
             Table 11. p. 1168
                                     CRUSHED LIMESTONE
                                       AND DOLOMITE
                                  1972/1.000.000 short tons
*• Total stone - crushed * dimensional
*  Other producing States (total • 8.2)
National total (excluding P.ft. i territories) • 663.3
                                                                         'Pacific  Islands • .9
   Data From:  Mineral  Yearbook -  1972. Vol.  I
                Table  13, p. 1170
                                              18

-------
land  cost  and  finally,  greatly   reduce   the   problems   of
environmental   disturbance   and   those  of  rehabilitation  of
mined-out  areas.   An  additional   benefit   from   underground
operations, as evidenced in the Kansas City area, is the value of
the underground storage space created by the mine - in many cases
the  sale  or rental of the space produces revenue exceeding that
from the removal of the stone.

Loading and hauling equipment  has  grown  larger  as  increasing
demand for stone has made higher production capacities necessary.
Track-mounted  equipment is still used extensively but pneumatic-
tire-mounted hauling equipment is predominant.

Crushing and screening facilities have  become  larger  and  more
efficient,  and  extensive  use  is  made  of  belt conveyors for
transfer of material from the  pits  to  the  loading-out  areas.
Bucket elevators are used for lifting up steep inclines.  Primary
crushing  is  often  done  at  or  near  the  pit, usually by jaw
crushers or gyratories, but impact crushers and special types may
be used for nonabrasive stone, and for stone which tends to  clog
the  conventional  crushers.  For secondary crushing a variety of
equipment is used depending on  facility  size,  rock  type,  and
other  factors.  Cone crushers and gyratories are the most common
types.  Impact types including hammer mills are often used  where
stone  is  not  too abrasive.  For fine grinding to produce stone
sand, rod mills predominate.

For screening, inclined vibrating  types  are  commonly  used  in
permanent  installations,  while horizontal screens, because they
require less space, are used extensively in portable  facilities.
For  screening  large sizes of crushed stone, heavy punched steel
plates are used, while woven wire screens are  used  for  smaller
material  down to about one-eighth of an inch.  Air and hydraulic
separation and classifying equipment is ordinarily used  for  the
minus 1/8 inch material.

Storage  of  finished crushed stone is usually done in open areas
except for the small quantities that go to the load-out bins.  In
the larger and more efficient facilities the stone is  drawn  out
from  tunnels  under  the  storage  piles,  and  the eguipment is
designed to blend any  desired  mixture  of  sizes  that  may  be
needed.

Oyster  shells,  being  made  of very pure calcium carbonate, are
dredged for use in the  manufacture  of  lime  and  cement.   The
industry  is large and active along the Gulf Coast, especially at
New Orleans, Lake Charles, Houston, Freeport, and Corpus Christi.
In Florida, oyster shell was recovered from fossil beds  offshore
on both Atlantic and Gulf coasts.  Production in 1957 amounted to
1,364,000  kkg  (1,503,964 tons), used principally for road metal
and a  small  amount  as  poultry  grit.   This  figure  included
coquina,   a  cemented  shell  rock  of  recent  but  not  modern
                               19

-------
geological time, which is dredged for the manufacture  of  cement
near  Bunnell  in  Flagler  County.  It is used widely on lightly
traveled sand roads along the east coast.  Clam shells used to be
dredged from fresh water streams in  midwestern  states  for  the
manufacture  of  buttons,  but  the  developments in the plastics
industry have impacted heavily.  Table 6 gives a breakdown of the
end uses of crushed stone.  The majority of crushed stone is used
in road base, cement and concrete.

             CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL  (SIC 1442)

Sand and gravel are products of the weathering of rocks and  thus
consist predominantly of silica but often contain varying amounts
of  other  minerals  such as iron oxides, mica and feldspar.  The
term sand is used to describe  material  whose  grain  size  lies
within  the  range of 0.065 and 2 mm and which consists primarily
of silica but may also  include  fine  particles  of  any  rocks,
minerals  and slags.  Gravel consists of naturally occurring rock
particles larger than about 4 mm but less than 64 mm in diameter.
Although silica usually predominates in gravel,  varying  amounts
of  other rock constituents such as mica, shale, and feldspar are
often present.  Silt is a term used to  describe  material  finer
than  sand,  while  cobbles  and boulders are larger than gravel.
The term "granules" describes material in the  2  to  4  mm  size
range.   The  descriptive  terms and the size ranges are somewhat
arbitrary although standards have to some extent  been  accepted.
For most applications of sand and gravel there are specifications
for  size,  physical  characteristics,  and chemical composition.
For construction uses, the specifications depend on the  type  of
construction  (concrete or bituminuous roads, dams, and buildings)
the  geographic  area,  architectural standards, climate, and the
type and guality of sand and gravel available.

In summary for the glaciated areas in the  northern  States,  and
for  a  hundred  miles  or  more  south  of  the limit of glacial
intrusion, the principal sand and  gravel  resources  consist  of
various  types  of  outwash  glacial  deposits  and glacial till.
Marine terraces, both ancient  and  recent  are  major  sand  and
gravel  sources  in  the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains.  River
deposits are the  most  important  sand  and  gravel  sources  in
several  of  the Southeastern and South Central States.  Abundant
sand and gravel resources exist in the mountainous areas and  the
drainage  from the mountains has created deposits at considerable
distances from the initial sources.  Great Plains sand and gravel
resources consist mainly of stream-worked material from  existing
sediments.  On the West Coast, deposits consist of alluvial fans,
river deposits, terraces, beaches, and dunes.  Figure 3 shows the
production and facility distribution for the United States.
                                20

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                                              TABLf 6
                                      USES OF CRUSHED.  STONE
Kind of Mtonc  d roadstone      3,281
                  Cement and lire nianufatture                           5,67^
                  Other uses                                            5,98«
                       Total                                           16, «0
                       Value ($1000)                                   29,571

                                     TRAPROCK

                  Agricultural purposes                                   ******
                  Concrete aggregate (coarse)                           6,643
                  Bituminous aggregate                                 11,469
                  Macadam aggret'.tjte                                     1,438
                  Dense graded road base stone                         19,361
                  Surface treatment aggregate                           5,341
                  Unspecified construction aggregate and roadstono     23,811
                  Riprap and jc'tty stone                                3,673
                  Railr id bailout                                      2,332
                  Filter stone                                            117
                  Manufactured fine aggregate  (stone sand)                231
                  Fill                                                  1.686
                  Other uses                                            3,966
                       Total                                           80,462
                       Value  ($1000)                                   170,823

                                        OTHER STONE

                  Concrete aggregate (cjarse)                            1,159
                  Bituminous aggregate                                   2,202
                  Macadam aggregate                                        278
                  Dense graded raod base stone                           3,051
                  Surface treatment aggregate                              591
                  Unspecified construction aggregate and roadstone       2,911
                  Riprap and jetty stone                                 1,738
                  Railroad ballast                                         —
                  Mineral filJers, extenders and whiting
                  Fill                                                     578
                  Other uses                                             1,789
                       Total                                            U.298
                       Value ($1000)                                     24,442

                                  TOTAL STONE

                  Agricultural purposes                                 23,393
                  Concrete aggregate (coarse)                          133,473
                  Bituminous Aggregate                                  82,560
                  Macadam aggregate                                     33,110
                  iJenoe graded road base stone                         210,013
                  Surface treatment a£xregate                           51,943
                  Unspecified construction aggregate and roadstonc     113,406
                  Riprap and jetty stone                                24,560
                  Railioad ballast                                      18,021
                  Filter stone                                              636
                  Manufactured tine aggregate (stone sand)                5,869
                  Terrazzo and exposed aggregate                            402
                  Cement r.anul.ic turc                                    108,857
                  Lime iranufacturc                                       30,051
                  Dead-burned dolomite                                    1,670
                  Fertoalllcon                                            1,257
                  Flux stone                                             25,830
                  Ketrnctory stone                                          605
                  Chemical stone for alkali worko                         4,199
                  Special uiiea and products                               1,071
                  Mineral tillers, extenders and whiting                  4,423
                  Fill                                                    6,630
                  CJfiBB                                                   2,718
                  Expanded  ulatc                                          1,270
                  Other IKJCB                                             31,394
                       Total                                            922,361
                       Value- ($1()',0)                                    1,592,569
                  Htnoraln Yr>ai lii-nlt
                   H'ji ,>«u nf Mint'n
                                     J','72, U.S. Uriuitiuvnt
                                                              l.h«'  Interior
                                           21

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                                     FIGURE   3

                     SAND AND  GRAVEL  DISTRIBUTION
                                           PRODUCTION
                                     1972/1,000,000 short tons
Nation*! Tot*l (excluding P.R.) • 913.2
Data From:  Minerals Yearbook - 1972, Vol.  t
            Table 3. o. 1111-1112
          Bureau of Mines
                                                   Data From:  Minerals Yearbook - 1972
                                                               Vol II
                                                             Bureau of Mines
                                                22

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The crushed stone and sand and gravel industries, on the basis of
tonaqe  are  the  largest nonfuel mineral industries.  Because of
their widespread occurrence and the necessity for producing  sand
and gravel near the point of use, there are more than 5,000 firms
engaged in commercial sand and gravel output, with no single firm
being  large  enough  to  dominate  the industry.  Facility sizes
range from very small producers of  pit-run  material  to  highly
automated permanent installations capable of supplying as much as
3.6  million  kkg  (<*  million tons)  yearly of closely graded and
processed products; the average commercial facility  capacity  is
about  108,000  kkg/yr  (120,000  tons/yr).  As seen from Table 7
about 40 percent of all commercial facilities are  of  less  than
22,600 kkg (25,000 tons) capacity, but together these account for
only  4 percent of the total commercial production.  At the other
extreme, commercial operations with production capacities of more
than 907,000 kkg  (1 million tons) account for less than 1 percent
of the total number of facilities and for 12 to 15 percent of the
commercial production.

Geographically the sand and gravel industry  is  concentrated  in
the  large  rapidly  expanding  urban  areas  and on a transitory
basis, in areas  where  highways,  dams,  and  other  large-scale
public  and  private works are under construction.  Three-fourths
of the total domestic output of sand and gravel is by  commercial
firms, and one-fourth by Government-and-contractor operations.

California  leads in total sand and gravel production with a 1972
output more than double that of any other State.  Production  for
the  State  in 1968 was 113 million kkg (125 million tons), or 1H
percent of the national total.  Three of the 10 largest producing
firms are located in California.  The next five producing  States
with respect to total output all border on the Great Lakes, where
ample  resources,  urban and industrial growth, and low-cost lake
transportation are all favorable factors.

Mining equipment used varies from small,  simple  units  such  as
tractor-mounted  high-loaders  and  dump  trucks to sophisticated
mining  systems  involving  large   power   shovels,   draglines,
bucket-wheel  excavators,  belt  conveyors  and other components.
Sand and gravel is also dredged from river and lake bottoms  rich
in such deposits.

Processing  may consist of simple washing to remove clay and silt
and screening to produce two or more products, or it may  involve
more   complex   heavy  medium  separation  of  slate  and  other
lightweight  impurities  and  complex  screening   and   crushing
equipment designed to produce the optimum mix of salable sand and
gravel  sizes.   Conveyor  belts,  bucket  elevators,  and  other
transfer equipment are used extensively.  Ball milling  is  often
required   for   production  of  small-size  fractions  of  sand.
Permanent installations are built where large deposits are to  be
operated  for  many  years.   Semiportable units are used in many
                               23

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                                TABLE 7

                 Size Distribution of Sand and Gravel Plants
                                                          Production
                                                  Thousand          Percent
Annual Production
(short tons)
Less than 25,000
25,000 to 50,000
50,000 to 100,000
100,000 to 200,000
200,000 to 300,000
300,000 to 400,000
400,000 to 500,000
500,000 to 600,000
600,000 to 700,000
700,000 to 800,000
800,000 to 900,000
900,000 to 1,000,000
1,000,000 and over
Plants
Number
1,630
850
957
849
400
217
134
79
71
56
26
27
88
short
tons
17,541
30,508
68,788
121,304
97,088
75,157
59,757
42,924
46,036
41,860
22,310
25,666
136,850
of
total
2.2
3.9
8.8
15.4
12.4
9.6
7.6
5.5
5.9
5.3
2.8
3.3
17.3
    Total
5,384
785,788
100.0
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior,
 Bureau of Mines, Vol I, page 1120

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pits which have an intermediate working life.  Several such units
can be tied together to obtain large initial production  capacity
or  to add capacity as needed.  In areas where large deposits are
not available, use is made of mobile screening facilities,  which
can  be  quickly  moved from one deposit to another without undue
interruption or loss of production.  Table 8 breaks down the  end
uses of sand and gravel.

                   INDUSTRIAL SAND (SIC 1446)

Industrial  sands  includes  those  types of silica raw materials
that have been segregated and refined by natural  processes  into
nearly  monomineralic deposits and hence, by virtue of their high
degree of purity, have become the sources of  commodities  having
special   and  somewhat  restricted  commercial  uses.   In  some
instances, these raw materials occur in nature as  unconsolidated
quartzose  sand or gravel and can be exploited and used with very
little preparation  and  expense.   More  often,  they  occur  as
sandstone, conglomerate quartzite, quartz mica schist, or massive
igneous  quartz  which  must  be  crushed,  washed, screened, and
sometimes  chemically  treated  before  commodities  of  suitable
composition and texture can be successfully prepared.  Industrial
silica   used   for  abrasive  purposes  falls  into  three  main
categories:   (a)  blasting sand;  (b) glass-grinding sand; and  (c)
stonesawing  and  rubbing  sand.   Figure  4 locates the domestic
industrial sand deposits.  Table 9 gives  the  breakdown  of  the
uses of industrial sand.

Blasting  sand  is  a sound closely-sized quartz sand which, when
propelled  at  high  velocity  by  air,  water,   or   controlled
centrifugal  force,  is effective for such uses as cleaning metal
castings, removing paint and rust, or  renovating  stone  veneer.
The  chief  sources  of  blasting  sands  are  in Ohio, Illinois,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New Jersey,  California,  Wisconsin,
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Idaho.

Glass-grinding  sand  is  clean,  sound,  fine  to medium-grained
silica sand, free from foreign material and  properly  sized  for
either  rough grinding or semifinal grinding of plate glass.  Raw
materials suitable for processing into these commodities comprise
deposits of clean, sound sand, sandstone, and quartzite.  As this
commodity is expensive to  transport  sources  of  this  material
nearest  to  sheet and plate glass facilities are the first to be
exploited.

Stonesawing and rubbing sand is  relatively  pure,  sound,  well-
sorted,  coarse-grained,  siliceous  material free from flats and
fines.  It is used for sawing and rough-grinding dimension stone.
Neither textural nor quality specifications are rigorous on  this
type  of  material  as  long  as it is high in free silica and no
clay, mica, or soft rock fragments are present.  Chert  tailings,
known as chats in certain mining districts, are used successfully
                               25

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                                 Table  8
                           Uses  of  Sand and  Gravel
                  Use                         Quantity
                                     1000 kkg     1000 short tons
        Building
           Sand                       170,329       187,794
           Gravel                     139,001       153,25A

        Paving
           Sand                       119,182       131,402
           Gravel                     254,104       280,159

        Fill
           Sand                        44,050        48,567
           Gravel                      39,416        43,458

        Railroad Ballast
           Sand                           948         1,045
           Gravel                       2,022         2,229

        Other
           Sand                         8,685         9,575
           Gravel                      11,682        12,880

        Total                         789,419       870,363
        Value ($1000)                            1,069,374
        Value ($/Quantity)               1.35          1.23
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior
 Bureau of Mines

                                       26

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        FIGURE 4
INDUSTRIAL SAND DEPOSITS
                           From Glass Sand and Abrasives chart-pg.184
                           The National Atlas of The USA
                           USGS-1970

-------
                                 Table 9
                           Uses of Industrial Sand
        Use
         Quantity
1000 kkg    1000 short tons
                 Value
              $/kkg    $/ton
Unground
  Glass
  Molding
  Grinding and polishing
  Blast sand
  Fire or furnace
  Engine (RR)
  Filtration
  Oil Hydrofrac
  Other

Ground Sand

Total
  9821
  6822
   238
   972
   638
   545
   212
   256
  3187

  4092

 26784
10828
 7522
  262
 1072
  703
  601
  234
  282
 3514

 4512

29530
4.20
3.64
3.08
6.46
3.52
2.54
5.53
4.18
3.73
3.81
3.30
2.79
5.86
3.19
2.30
5.02
3.79
3.38
5.26
4.20
4.77
3.81
Minerals Yearbook, 1972, U.S. Department of the Interior,
 Bureau of Mines
                                 28

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in  some  regions as stonesawing and rubbing sand.   River terrace
sand, and glacial moraine materials, which have been  washed  and
screened  to  remove  oversize  and  fines,  are  often employed.
Several important marble  and  granite  producing  districts  are
quite  remote from sources of clean silica sand and are forced to
adapt to less efficient sawing and grinding materials.

Glass-melting and chemical sands are quartz sands  of  such  high
purity that they are essentially monomineralic; permissible trace
impurities  vary according to use.  Grain shape is not a critical
factor, but size frequency distribution  can  vary  only  between
narrow  limits.  Appropriate source materials are more restricted
than for any other industrial silica  commodity  group.   Because
the   required   products  must  be  of  superlative  purity  and
consequently are the most difficult  and  expensive  to  prepare,
they  command  higher  prices  and  can  be  economically shipped
greater distances than nearly any other class  of  special  sand.
To  qualify  as  a  commodity in this field the product must be a
chemically pure  quartz  sand  essentially  free  of  inclusions,
coatings, stains, or detrital minerals.  Delivery to the customer
in  this  highly  refined state must be guaranteed and continuing
uniformity must be maintained.  At the present time the principal
supply of raw materials for  these  commodities  comes  from  two
geological  formations.  The Oriskany quartzite of Lower Devonian
aqe occurs as steeply dippinq beds in the Appalachian  Highlands.
Production, in order of importance, is centered in West Virqinia,
Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia.   The  St. Peter sandstone of Lower
Ordovician age occurs as flatlying beds in  the  Interior  Plains
and  Hiqhlands  and  is  exploited  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  and
Arkansas.

Metallurgical pebble is clean graded silica in gravel sizes  that
is low in iron and alumina.  It is used chiefly as a component in
the preparation of silicon alloys or as a flux in the preparation
of elemental phosphorus.  A quartzite or quartz gravel to qualify
as   a   silica   raw   material   must  meet  rigorous  chemical
specifications.  Metallurgical gravel is no exception, and in the
production of silicon alloys, purity is paramount.   Such  alloys
as calcium-silicon, ferrosilicon, silicon-chrome, silicon copper,
silicomanganese,  and silicon-titanium are the principal products
prepared  from   this   material.    The   better   deposits   of
metallurgical grade pebble occur principally as conglomerate beds
of  Pennsylvanian  age,  and  as  gravelly  remnants of old river
terraces developed from  late  Tertiary  to  Recent  times.   The
significant  producing  area is in the Sharon conglomerate member
of the Pottsville formation in  Ohio.   Silica  pebble  from  the
Sewanee  conglomerate is produced in Tennessee for alloy and flux
use.  Past production for metallurgical use  has  come  from  the
Olean  conglomerate  member  of  the  Pottsville formation in New
York, and  the  Sharon  conglomerate  member  of  the  Pottsville
formation  in  Pennsylvania.   Production from terrace gravels is
done in North Carolina, Alabama, South Carolina, and  Florida  in
                               29

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roughly   decreasing  order  of  economic  importance.    Marginal
deposits of coarse quartzose gravel occur in  Kentucky.    Terrace
deposits  of  vein  guartz  gravel  in  California  have supplied
excellent material for ferrosilicon use.

Industrial silica used principally for its refractory  properties
in the steel and foundry business is of several types:  core sand,
furnace-bottom sand, ganister mix, naturally bonded molding sand,
processed  molding  sand,  refractory pebble, and runner sand.  A
foundry sand used in contact with molten  metal  must  possess  a
high  degree of refractoriness; that is, it must resist sintering
which would lead to subsequent adhesion and  penetration  at  the
metal-sand  interface.   To  be  used successfully as a mold or a
core into which or around which molten metal  is  cast,   it  also
must  be  highly  permeable.  This allows the escape of steam and
gases generated by action of  the  hot  metal  upon  binders  and
additives  in  the mold or core materials.  Such a sand must have
sufficient strength under  compression,  shear,  and  tension  to
retain  its  molded  form  not  only  in  the green state at room
temperature, but also after drying and baking, and later  at  the
elevated  temperatures  induced  by pouring.  Finally,  it must be
durable and resist deterioration  and  breakdown  after  repeated
use.

Core  sand is washed and graded silica sand low in clay substance
and of a high permeability, suitable for core-making  in  ferrous
and nonferrous foundry practice.  Furnace bottom sand is unwashed
and  partially  aggregated  silica  sand  suitable for lining and
patching open hearth and electric steel furnaces which utilize an
acid process.  The term  fire  sand  is  often  employed  but  is
gradually  going out of use.  As for core sands, source materials
for this commodity are guartz sands and  sandstones  which  occur
within  reasonable  shipping  distances  of  steelmaking centers.
Chief production centers are in Illinois,  Ohio,  Michigan,  West
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

Ganister  mix  is  a  self-bonding,  ramming  mixture composed of
varying proportions of crushed guartzose rock  or  guartz  pebble
and  plastic fire clay, suitable for lining, patching,  or daubing
hot metal vessels and certain types of furnaces.  It is variously
referred to as Semi-silica or Cupola daub.  As in molding  sands,
there  are  two broad classes of materials used for this purpose.
One is a naturally-occuring mixture of quartz sand and refractory
clay, and the other is a prepared mixture of  quartz  in  pebble,
granule,  or  sand  sizes bonded by a clay to give it plasticity.
Naturally occuring ganister mix is  exploited  in  two  areas  in
California and one in Illinois.  The California material contains
roughly  75  percent  quartz  sand  between  50 and 200 mesh; the
remaining portion is a refractory clay.   However,  the  bulk  of
this  commodity  is  produced  in  the East and Midwest where the
foundry and steel  business  is  centered.   A  large  volume  is
produced  from  pebbly phases of the Sharon conglomerate in Ohio.
                               30

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The Veria sandstone of Mississippian age is crushed  and  pellet-
ized  for  this  purpose in Ohio.  In Pennsylvania it is prepared
from the Chickies quartzite of Lower Cambrian age, although  some
comes  from  a pebbly phase of the Oriskany.  In Massachusetts, a
post-Carboniferous hydrothermal quartz is used and in  Wisconsin,
production comes from the Pre-Cambrian Baraboo quartzite.

Naturally  bonded  molding  sand  is crude silica sand containing
sufficient indigenous  clay  to  make  it  suitable  for  molding
ferrous  or  non-ferrous  castings.   Natural  molding  sands are
produced in New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio.   Coarse-grained
naturally  bonded  molding sand with a high permeability suitable
for steel castings is produced to some extent wherever the  local
demand exists.  Large tonnages are mined from the Connoquenessing
and  Homewood  sandstone  members  of the Pottsville formation in
Pennsylvania, the  St.  Peter  sandstone  in  Illinois,  and  the
Dresbach sandstone of Upper Cambrian age in Wisconsin.  Processed
molding  sand  is  washed  and  graded  quartz  sand  which, when
combined with appropriate  bonding  agents  in  the  foundry,  is
suitable  for  use  for cores and molds in ferrous and nonferrous
foundries.  The source materials  which  account  for  the  major
tonnage  of  processed  molding  sand  are primarily from the St.
Peter formation in Illinois and Missouri, the Oriskany  quartzite
in  Pennsylvania  and West Virginia, the basal Pottsville in Ohio
and Pennsylvania, and the Tertiary sands in New Jersey.

Refractory pebble is clean graded silica in gravel sizes, low  in
iron  and  alumina,  used  as  a  raw material for superduty acid
refractories.   With  few  exceptions,  bedded  conglomerate  and
terrace  gravel  furnish  the  bulk  of the raw material.  Silica
pebble from the Sharon conglomerate in  Ohio  and  the  Mansfield
formation  in Indiana are utilized.  Significant production comes
from a coarse phase of the Oriskany in Pennsylvania  as  well  as
from  deposits  of  Bryn  Mawr  gravel  in  Maryland.   Potential
resources of conglomerate and terrace gravel of present  marginal
quality  occur  in  other  areas  of  the  United  States.  Other
quartzitic  formations  are  currently  utilized  for   superduty
refractory  work.   Notable  production  comes  from  the Baraboo
quartzite in Wisconsin, the Weisner  quartzite  in  Alabama,  and
from  quartzite  beds  in  the  Oro Grande series of sediments in
California.

Runner sand is a crude  coarse-grained  silica  sand,  moderately
high  in  natural clay bond, used to line runners and dams on the
casting floor of blast furnaces.  Runner sand is also used in the
casting of pig iron.  The term Casthouse sand also is used in the
steel industry.  Coal-washing sand is a washed and graded  quartz
sand of constant specific gravity used in a flotation process for
cleaning anthracite and bituminous coal.  Filter media consist of
washed  and graded quartzose gravel and sand produced under close
textural control for  removal  of  turbidity  and  bacteria  from
municipal     and     industrial     water     supply    systems.
                               31

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Hydraulic-fracturing sand  is  a  sound,  rounded,   light-colored
quartz  sand  free  of  aggregated  particles.   It possesses high
uniformity in specified size ranges which,  when  immersed  in  a
suitable   carrier   and  pumped  under  great   pressure  into  a
formation,  increases  fluid  production  by  generating  greater
effective  permeability.   It is commonly referred to as Sandfrac
sand in the trade.

                        GYPSUM  (SIC 1492)

Gypsum is a hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSOjJ»2HJ2O)  generally  found
as  a  sedimentary bed associated with limestone,  dolomite, shale
or clay in strata deposited from early Paleozoic to recent  ages.
Most  deposits  of gypsum and anhydrite  (CaSOJt)  are considered to
be chemical precipitates formed  from  saturated  marine  waters.
Deposits   are   found   over  thousands  of  square  miles  with
thicknesses approaching  549  meters   (1800  feet),  example  the
Castle  anhydrite  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico.    Field  evidence
indicates that most deposits were originally anhydrite which  was
subsequently converted by surface hydration to gypsum.

Commercial  gypsum  deposits  are  found  in many states with the
leading producers being California, Iowa, Nevada,  New York, Texas
and Michigan and lesser amounts being produced in  Colorado,  and
Oklahoma.   Figure 5 shows the domestic  locations of gypsum.  The
ore is mined underground and from open pits with the latter being
the more general method because of lower costs.   In 1958,  44  of
the  62  mining  operations  were  open  pits,  while three of the
remainder were combinations of open pit  and  underground  mines.
In  quarrying  operations, stripping of  the overburden is usually
accomplished with drag lines or with tractors.    Quarry  drilling
methods vary with local conditions; blasting is accomplished with
low-speed,  low density explosives.  The fragmented ore is loaded
with power shovels onto trucks or rail cars for transport to  the
processing  facility.  Generally, the primary crushing is done at
the quarry site.  Second-stage crushing  is  usually  accomplished
with  gyratory  units,  and  final  crushing almost invariably by
hammermills.  The common unit for  grinding  raw  gypsum  is  the
air-swept  roller  mill.   Ground  gypsum is usually termed "land
plaster" in the industry, because either sacked or in bulk, it is
sold for agricultural purposes.

In recent years, a trend has started towards the beneficiation of
low-grade gypsum deposits where strategic location has made  this
economically   feasible.    The   heavy-media   method  has  been
introduced in two Ohio facilities; screening and  air  separation
have  been  employed  for improving purity in a limited number of
other operations.  The tonnage of  gypsum  thus  beneficiated  is
still a small part of the total output.
                               32

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                     FIGURE  5
           GYPSUM AND ASBESTOS OPERATIONS
                                                GYPSUM
                                              • ASBESTOS
                     FIGURE  6
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES, MICA AND SERICITE OPERATIONS
             AAtA*
MICA AND SERICITE

PERLITE
PUMICE
VERMICULITE
                      33

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Most  crushed gypsum is calcined to the hemi-hydrate stage by one
of  six  different   methods   -   kettles,   rotary   calciners,
hoilow-flight  screw  conveyers,  impact  grinding  and calcining
mills, autoclaves, and beehive ovens.   The  calcined  gypsum  is
used  for  various  types of plasters, board and block, preformed
gypsum tile, partition tile, and roof plank.  By far the  largest
use  of  calcined gypsum (stucco)  is for the manufacture of board
products.  Gypsum board is  a  sandwich  of  gypsum  between  two
layers  of specially prepared paper.  It is manufactured in large
machines that mix stucco with water, foam and  other  ingredients
and  then  pour  this  mixture upon a moving, continuous sheet of
special heavy paper.  Under "master rolls" the  board  is  formed
with  the  bottom  paper  receiving  the  wet  slurry and another
continually moving sheet of paper  being  placed  on  top.   This
sandwich is then compacted, cut, and dried.

                       ASPHALTIC MINERALS

The  bitumens  are defined as mixtures of hydrocarbons of natural
or  pyrogenous  origin  or  combinations  of   both,   frequently
accompanied  by  their derivatives, which may be gaseous, liquid,
semisolid or solid and which are  completely  soluble  in  carbon
disulfide.   Oil  shale  and  like  materials which are mined for
their energy content are not covered by this subcategory.

The principal bituminous materials of commercial interest are:

(1) Native asphalts, solid or semisolid, associated with  mineral
    matter  such as Trinidad Lake asphalt.  Selenitza, Boeton and
    Iraq asphalts.
(2) Native Asphaltites, such as gilsonite, grahamite  and  glance
    pitch,   conspicuous   by  their  hardness,  brittleness  and
    comparatively high softening point.
(3) Asphaltic bitumens obtained from non-asphaltic and  asphaltic
    crude  petroleum  by  distillation,  blowing with air and the
    cracking of residual oils.
(4) Asphaltic pyrobitumens of which wurtzilite and elaterite  are
    of  chief  interest  industrially  as  they depolymerize upon
    heating, becoming fusible and soluble in  contrast  to  their
    original properties in these respects.
(5) Mineral waxes, such as ozokerite, characterized by their high
    crystallizable paraffine content.

There are several large deposits of  bituminous  sand,  sandstone
and  limestone  in  various  parts of the world but those of most
commercial importance  are  located  in  the  United  States  and
Europe.  Commercial deposits of bituminous limestone or sandstone
in  the  United  States  are found in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana,
Utah, Arkansas, California, and Alabama.  The bitumen content  in
these deposits range from 4 to 14 percent.  Some of the sandstone
in California has a 15 percent content of bitumens, and a deposit
in  Oklahoma  contains as high as 18 percent.  The Uvalde County,
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Texas deposit is a conglomerate containing 10 to  20  percent  of
hard  bitumen  in  limestone  which  must  be mixed with a softer
petroleum bitumen and an  aggregate  to  produce  a  satisfactory
paving  mixture.   Commercially,  rock asphalt in this country is
used almost exclusively for the paving of streets  and  highways.
Rock  asphalt  is  mined  from  open  quarries by blasting and is
reduced to fines in a. series of crushers and then  pulverized  in
roller  mills to the size of sand grains varying from 200 mesh to
    inch in size.
Gilsonite, originally known as uintaite is found  in  the  Uintah
basin in Utah and Colorado.  Gilsonite is a hard, brittle, native
bitumen  with  a variable but high softening point.  It occurs in
almost vertical fissures in  rock  varying  in  composition  from
sandstone  to  shale.   The veins vary in width from 0.025 to 6.7
meters  (1 in to 22 ft) and in length from a few kilometers to  as
much  as  U8  km  (30 mi) .  The depth varies from a few meters to
over 460 m  (1500 ft) .  Mining difficulties, such as the  creation
of  a  very  fine  dust  which in recent years resulted in two or
three serious  explosions,  and  the  finding  of  new  uses  for
gilsonite necessitated one company to supplement the conventional
pick- and- shovel  method   by  the  hydraulic system.  However, on
some  properties  the  mining  is  still  done  by  hand   labor,
compressed air picks, etc.

Grahamite  occurs  in many localities in the United States and in
various  countries  throughout  the  world  but  never  in  large
amounts .   The  original  deposit was discovered in West Virginia
but has long been exhausted.  Deposits in Oklahoma were exploited
to a great extent for years but little is now mined in commercial
quantities.  The material differs from gilsonite and glance pitch
having a much higher specific gravity and fixed carbon, and  does
not melt readily but intumesces on heating.

Glance  pitch  was first reported on the island of Barbados.  The
material is intermediate between gilsonite and grahamite.  It has
a specific gravity at 15.6°C of 1.09 to 1.15, a  softening  point
(ring  and  ball)   of  135° to 20U<>C and fixed carbon of 20 to 30
percent.

Wurtzilite, sometimes referred to as elaterite,  is  one  of  the
asphaltic  pyrobitumens  and is distinguished by its hardness and
infusibility.  It is found in Uintah County,  Utah,  in  vertical
veins varying from 2.5 cm to 63.5 cm (1 in to 25 in) in width and
from  a  few hundred meters to 1.8 km (3 miles) in length.  It is
used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, as an  extender  in
hard rubber compounds, and various weatherproof ing and insulating
compounds .

Ozokerite  is  a  solid  waxlike  bitumen the principal supply of
which is found in the Carpathian mountains in Galicia.   A  small
amount  of  it  is also found in Rumania, Russia and the state of
                               35

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Utah.  The hydrocarbons of  which  it  is  composed  are  solids,
resembling  paraffin  scale  and  resulted  from  evaporation and
decomposition of paraffinaceous petroleum.  It occurs in either a
pure state or it may be mixed with  sandstone  or  other  mineral
matter.   The  material is mined by hand and selected to separate
any  material  containing  extraneous  matter.   Ozokerite   when
refined  by heating to about 182°C (360°F), treated with sulfuric
acid, washed with alkali and filtered through fuller's  earth  is
called "ceresine."

                       ASBESTOS  (SIC 1499)

Asbestos  is  a broad term that is applied to a number of fibrous
mineral silicates which are incombustible and which, by  suitable
mechanical  processing,  can  be separated into fibers of various
lengths and thicknesses.  There are generally  six  varieties  of
asbestos   that  are  recognized:  the  finely  fibrous  form  of
serpentine known as chrysotile and five members of the  amphibole
group,  i.e., amosite, anthophyllite, crocidolite, tremolite, and
actinolite.  Chrysotile, which presently constitutes  93  percent
of   current   world   production,   has  the  empirical  formula
3MgO. 2SiO_2.2H2!O and in the largest number  of  cases  is  derived
from  deposits  whose  host  rocks are ultrabasic in composition.
The bulk of chrysotile  production  comes  from  three  principal
areas:   the  Eastern Townships of Quebec in Canada, the Bajenova
District in the Urals of USSR and from South Central Africa.  The
ore-body of greatest known content in the United States is  found
in  the serpentine formation of Northern Vermont which is part of
the Appalachian belt extending into Quebec.  Figure 5  shows  the
domestic asbestos operations.

In  North  America  the  methods  of asbestos mining are  (1) open
quarries,  (2) open pits with glory holes,  (3) shrinkage  stoping,
and   (U)  block  caving;  the tendency is toward more underground
mining.  In guarrying, the present trend is to work high  benches
up  to  46  meters   (150  feet)  high  and  blast down 91,000 kkg
(100,000 tons) or more of rock at a shot.  An interesting feature
of asbestos mining is that no wood may be used  for  any  purpose
unless it is protected, because it is impossible to separate wood
fiber  from  asbestos  in  processing.   Since the fiber recovery
averages only 5 to 6  percent  of  the  rock  mined,  very  large
tonnages  must  be  handled.   A  capacity  of 910 kkg/day  (1,000
tons/day) is about the minimum for profitable operation.

Milling methods vary in detail, but they  are nearly all identical
in principle.  The objects of processing  are to recover  as  much
of  the  original  fiber as possible, free from dirt and adhering
rock; to expand and fluff up the fiber;   to  handle  the  ore  as
gently  as  possible to minimize the reduction in fiber length by
attrition; and to grade the fibers into different  length  groups
best  suited  to  use reguirements.  The  general method in use is
(1) coarse crushing in  jaw or gyratory crushers, sometimes in two
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stages, to 3.8 to 5.1 cm (1-1/2 to 2 in);  (2) drying to 1 percent
or less moisture in rotary or vertical inclined-plane driers;  (3)
secondary crushing in short head cone  crushers,  gyratories,  or
hammer  mills; (H) screening, usually in flat shaking or gyratory
screens;  (5) fine-crushing and fiberizing in stages,  each  stage
followed by screening, during which air suction above the screens
effects  separation of the fiber from the rock; (6) collection of
the fiber in cyclone separators, which also remove the dust;   (7)
grading  of fibers in punched-plate trommel screens; (8) blending
of products to make specification grades;  and  (9)  bagging  for
shipment.

Fiberizing or opening up the bundles of fiber (step 5)  is done in
a  special  type  of  beater  or impact mill designed to free the
fiber from the rock and fluff up the fiber without  reduction  in
fiber  length.   The  screening  operations  are perhaps the most
critical.  The air in the exhaust hoods over each screen must  be
so  adjusted  that  only  the properly fiberized material will be
lifted, leaving the rock and unopened fiber bundles  for  further
fiberizing.   The  air  system uses 20 to 25 percent of the total
power consumed in a process facility.

                     WOLLASTONITE (SIC 1499)

Wollastonite is a naturally occurring, fibrous calcium  silicate,
CaSiOj,  which  is  found  in  metamorphic  rocks in New York and
California, as well as several foreign locations.    In  the  U.S.
the mineral is mined only in New York.  The material is useful as
a  ceramic  raw  material,  as  a filler for plastics and asphalt
products, as a filler and an extender for paints,  and in  welding
rod  coatings.   Due  to  its  fibrous,  non-combustible  nature,
wollastonite is also being considered as  a  possible  substitute
for  asbestos in a number of product situations in which asbestos
is objectionable.  Wollastonite ore is mined by underground  room
and  pillar  methods and trucked to the processing facility.  The
ore is crushed in three  stages,  screened,  dried,  purified  of
garnet  and  other  ferro-magnesium impurities via high-intensity
magnetic separation and then ground to the desired product size.

           LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS  (SIC 1499)

                             PERLITE

Perlite is a natural glassy rhyolitic rock that is essentially  a
metastable  amorphous  aluminum silicate.  It has an abundance of
spherical or convolute cracks which cause it to break into  small
pearl-like masses usually less than a centimeter in diameter that
were  formed by the rapid cooling of acidic lavas.  Since natural
geological processes tend  to  work  towards  devitrification  by
progressive  recrystallization  and  loss  of  water,  most useful
deposits of vitrified lava  will  be  in  recent  lava  flows  of
Tertiary  or  Quarternary  age.   Thus,  most  of the significant
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deposits of perlite in the United States are found in the Western
states where active volcanism was recent enough that the  perlite
deposits  are preserved.   At the present time,  the most important
commercial deposit is in New Mexico.

Mining operations are open pit in locations chosen so that little
overburden removal is required and where topographic factors  are
favorable  for drainage and haulage of the crude ore.  The ore is
mined by loosening the perlite with a ripper and picked up with a
pan scraper.  In some  cases  fragmentation  is  accomplished  by
blasting followed by a power shovel loading.

Milling proceeds in a jaw crusher and secondary roll crusher with
the normal screening operations.  The sized ore, after removal of
fines which constitute roughly 25 percent of the process facility
feed,  is  dried  in a rotary kiln to a residual moisture content
below 1 percent and sent to storage for  subsequent  shipment  to
final processors.

The  commercial  uses  of  perlite  depend upon the properties of
expanded perlite.  When rapidly heated to 850-1100°C  the  glassy
nature  of  the  natural  material, coupled with the inclusion of
considerable moisture, results in the rapid  evolution  of  steam
within  the softened glass, causing an explosive expansion of the
individual fragments and producing a frothy mass having 15 to  20
times the bulk of original material.   The term perlite is applied
to both the crude ore and the expanded product.  Approximately 70
percent  of  consumption is as an aggregate for plaster, concrete
and  for  prefabricated  insulating  board  wherein  the  perlite
inclusion  results in an increase in the fireproof rating as well
as a significant reduction in weight.  The fact that  perlite  is
relatively chemically inert, is relatively incompressible and has
a  large  surface  area  to  volume  ratio, makes it useful as an
important filter-aid material  in  the  treatment  of  industrial
water  and  in  the  beverage, food and pharmaceutical processing
industry.  Figure 6 locates the domestic perlite operations.

                             PUMICE

Pumice is a rhyolitic  (the  volcanic  equivalent  of  a  granite)
glassy  rock of igneous origin in which expanded gas bubbles have
distended  the  magma  to  form  a  highly  vesicular   material.
Pumicite  has  the  same  origin, chemical composition and glassy
structure as pumice, but during formation the pumicite was  blown
into  small  particles.   Hence the distinction is largely one of
particle size in that pumicite has a particle size of less than  4
mm in diameter.  Commercial usage has  resulted  in  the  generic
term pumice being applied to all of the various rocks of volcanic
ash  origin.   The  chemical composition of pumice varies from 72
percent  silica,  14  percent  alumina  and  H  percent  combined
calcium,  magnesium  and iron oxides for the most acidic types to
approximately 45 percent  silica,  16  percent  alumina,  and  30
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percent combined calcium, magnesium, and iron oxides for the most
basic types.

The distribution of pumice is world wide, but due to metamorphism
only  those  areas  of  relatively  recent volcanism yield pumice
deposits of commercial importance.  One great belt of significant
deposits borders the Pacific Ocean; the  other  trends  generally
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to the Himalayas and thence to the
East Indies where it intersects  the  first  belt.   The  largest
producers  within  the  United States are found in California and
Idaho.

Mining operations are currently by  open  pit  methods  with  the
overburden  removed  by  standard  earth moving equipment.  Since
most  commercial   deposits   of   pumice   are   unconsolidated,
bulldozers,  pan scrapers, draglines or power shovels can be used
without prior fragmentation.  When pumice is  used  for  railroad
ballast  or  road construction, the processing consists of simple
crushing  and  screening.   Preparation  for  aggregate   usually
follows  a  similar  procedure  but  with  somewhat more involved
sizing to conform to rigorous specifications.  Occasionally,  the
ore  requires  drying  in  rotary  dryers  either before or after
crushing.  Pumice prepared for abrasive use  requires  additional
grinding  followed by sizing via screening or air classification.
The domestic pumice operations are located in Figure 6.

                           VERMICULITE

Vermiculite is the generic name applied to a family of  hydrated-
ferro-magnesium-aluminum  silicates  which,  in the natural state
readily split like mica  into  their  laminaie  which  are  soft,
pliable,  and  inelastic.   Vermiculite  deposits  are  generally
associated with ultrabasic igneous host rocks such as  pyroxenite
or  serpentine  from  which  the  vermiculite  seems to have been
formed by hydrothermal activity.  Biotite  and  phlogopite  mica,
which frequently occur with vermiculite, are considered to have a
similar  origin.   When  heated  rapidly,  to temperatures of the
order of 1050-1100°C,  vermiculite  exfoliates  by  expanding  at
right  angles  to  the cleavage into long wormlike pieces with an
increase in bulk of from 8 to 12 times.  The term vermiculite  is
applied  both  to  the  unexpanded  mineral and to the commercial
expanded product.

The bulk of domestically mined vermiculite comes either from  the
extensive deposit at Libby, Montana or from the group of deposits
near  Enoree,  South Carolina.  Mining operations are by open pit
with   removal   of   alluvial   overburden    accomplished    by
tractor-driven  scrapers.   The  ore can be dug directly by power
shovel or dragline excavator.  Dikes or barren host rock  require
fragmentation  by  drilling  and  blasting prior to removal.  Ore
beneficiation is accomplished by wet processing operations  using
hammer  mills,  rod  mills,  rake  classifiers,  froth flotation.
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cyclones, and screens.  Centrifuges and rotary driers are used to
remove excess moisture following beneficiation.   Exfoliation  is
carried  out  in  vertical  furnaces  wherein  the  crude,  sized
vermiculite is  top  fed  and  maintained  at  temperatures  from
900-1100°C  for  a to 8 seconds.  The expanded product is removed
by suction fans and passed through a classifier system to collect
the product and to remove excessive fines.  Figure 6 locates  the
domestic vermiculite operations.

                         MICA (SIC 1199)

Mica  is  a  group name for a number of complex hydrous potassium
aluminum silicate minerals differing in chemical compositions and
in physical  properties,  but  which  are  all  characterized  by
excellent  basal  cleavage  that facilitates splitting into thin,
tough, flexible, elastic sheets.  There are four principal  types
of  mica  named  for  the  most  common  mineral  in  each type -
muscovite, phlogopite,  biotite  and  lepidolite  with  muscovite
(potassium mica) being commercially the most important.  Mica for
commercial reasons is broken down into two broad classifications:
sheet  mica which consists of relatively flat sheets occurring in
natural books or runs, and flake and scrap  mica  which  includes
all other forms.

Muscovite  sheet  mica  is recovered only from pegmatite deposits
where books or runs of mica occur sporadically as crystals  which
are approximately tabular hexagons ranging from a few centimeters
to several meters in maximum dimension.  Mica generally occurs as
flakes  of  small  particle size in many rocks.  In addition, the
mica content of some schists and kaolins is sufficiently high  to
justify recovery as scrap mica.

Domestic  mica mining has been confined mainly to pegmatites in a
few well-defined areas of the country.  The largest area  extends
from  central  Virginia southward through western North and South
Carolina  and  east-central  Alabama.    A   second   area   lies
discontinuously  in  the New England States, where New Hampshire,
Connecticut, and Maine each possess mica bearing  pegmatites.   A
third  region  comprises  districts  in  the Black Hills of South
Dakota and  in  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  New  Mexico.   Additional
sources  of  flake  mica  have  been  made  available through the
development of technology to extract  small  particle  mica  from
schists  and other host rocks.  Deposits containing such mica are
available throughout the U.S.

Sheet mica mines are usually small-scale  operations.   Open  pit
mining  is used when economically feasible, but many mica bearing
pegmatites are mined by underground methods.  During mining, care
must be taken to avoid drilling through good mica crystals.  Only
a few holes are shot at one time to avoid the destruction of  the
available mica  sheet.  Presently there is no significant quantity
of  sheet  mica mined in the U.S.  Larger scale guarrying methods

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are  used   to   develop   deposits   for   the   extraction   of
small-particle-size mica and other co-product minerals.

Flake  mica  that  is recovered from pegmatites, schist, or other
rock is obtained by crushing and  screening  the  host  rock  and
additional  beneficiation by flotation methods in order to remove
mica and other  co-product  minerals.   Then  it  is  fed  to  an
oil-fired  rotary  dryer.   The  dryer discharge goes to a screen
from which the fines are  either  wasted  or  saved  for  further
recovery.

Raw  material  for  ground  mica  is  obtained  from  sheet  mica
processing operations, from crushing and processing  of  schists,
or as a co-product of kaolin or feldspar production.  Buhr mills,
rodmills,   or   high-speed  hammer  mills  have  been  used  for
dry-grinding  mica.   An  air  separator  returns  any   oversize
material  for  additional  grinding and discharges the fines to a
screening operation.  The various sized fractions are bagged  for
marketing.  The ground mica yield from beneficiated scrap runs 95
to 96 percent.

"Micronized"  mica  is produced in a special type of dry-grinding
machine,  called  a  Micronizer.   This  ultrafine  material   is
produced  in  a  disintegrator  that has no moving parts but uses
jets of high-pressure superheated steam or air to reduce the mica
to micron sizes.  This type of mica is produced in particle  size
ranges of 10 to 20 microns and 5 to 10 microns.

Wet-ground  mica is produced in chaser-type mills to preserve the
sheen or luster of the mica.  This consists of cylindrical  steel
tank that is lined with wooden blocks laid with the end grain up.
Wooden  rollers  are generally used, which revolve at a slow rate
of 15 to 30 revolutions per minute.   Scrap  goes  to  the  mill,
where water is added slowly to form a thick paste.  When the bulk
of  the  mica  has been ground to the desired size, the charge is
washed from the process facility into settling bins where  gritty
impurities  sink.   The  ground mica overflows to a settling tank
and is dewatered by centrifuging and  steam  drying.   The  final
product  is  obtained  by  screening  on  enclosed  multiple-deck
vibrating screens, stored and then bagged for shipment.  Figure 6
locates the domestic mica and sericite operations.

                    BARITE (SIC 1472 S 3295)

Barite, which is also called barytes, tiff, cawk or  heavy  spar,
is  almost  pure barium sulfate and is the chief source of barium
and  its  compounds.   Barite  deposits  are  widely  distributed
throughout  the  world,  and  can  be  classified into three main
types: (a) vein and cavity filling deposits;  (b) bedded deposits;
and (c) residual deposits.
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(a)  Vein and cavity-filling  deposits  are  those  in  which  the
    barite  and  associated  minerals  occur  along  fault lines,
    bedding planes, breccia zones and solution channels.    Barite
    deposits  in  the Mountain Pass district of California are of
    this variety.

(b)  Bedded deposits are those in which the barite  is  restricted
    to  certain  beds or a seguence of beds in sedimentary rocks.
    The  major  commercial  deposits   in   Arkansas,   Missouri,
    California and Nevada are bedded deposits.

(c)  Residual deposits occur in unconsolidated material  that  are
    formed  by  the  weathering  of  pre-existing deposits.  Such
    deposits  are  abundant  in  Missouri,  Tennessee,   Georgia,
    Virginia  and Alabama where the barite is commonly found in a
    residuum of limestone and dolomites.

Mining methods used in the barite industry vary with the type and
size of deposit and type of product made.  Figure 7 displays  the
barite  processing  facilities  in  the  United States.  Residual
barite  in  clay  is  dug  with  power  shovels  from  open  pits
(Missouri,  Tennessee,  Georgia).   Stripping  is  practiced when
overburden is heavy, and the barite is then removed by  dragline,
tractors,  scrapers,  or power shovel.  Overburden in Missouri is
rarely over 0.6 or 0.9 meters (2 or 3 feet), but  in  Georgia  it
may  range from 3 to 15 meters (10 to 50 feet).  Hydraulic mining
has been used at times  in  Georgia  where  overburden  has  been
heavy,   where   troublesome   limestone   pinnacles   have  been
encountered, or where tailing ponds have been reclaimed.    Barite
veins  or  beds  are  mined  underground   (Nevada, Tennessee, and
Arkansas).  Massive barite is blasted  from  open  guarries  with
little or no subseguent sorting or beneficiation  (Nevada).

Methods  used  in  the beneficiation of barite depend both on the
nature of the ore and on the type of product to be made.   For the
largest use, well-drilling mud, the only requirements  are  small
particle  size  (325 mesh) , chemical inactivity, and high specific
gravity.  White  color  is  not  essential,  and  purity  is  not
important in many cases.

The  essential features of the milling of residual barite in clay
(Missouri, Georgia, and Tennessee, in part)  include  washing  to
remove  the  clay,  hand  picking to save lump barite, jigging to
separate coarse concentrates, and tabling to  recover  fine  con-
centrates.   Further  refinements may include magnetic separation
to remove iron from concentrate fines and froth flotation to save
the very finest barite.  In Missouri, where the ore  is  so  soft
that  crushing  is unnecessary and individual deposits tend to be
small, simple and  inexpensive  facilities  that  can  be  easily
dismantled  and  moved  are  common.   Missouri mills may consist
essentially of only a double log washer, trommel, and  jigs,  but
there  are  a few large mills.  Hard, vein barite is usually pure

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                                                     FIGURE  7
                                            BARITE  PROCESSING PLANTS
LO
                                                             Data From:  Industrial and Chemical Mineral
                                                                           Chart - p. 184
                                                                         The National Atlas of the USA
                                                                           USGS - 1970

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enough to be shipped without beneficiation except  hand  sorting.
In  Georgia,  the ore is hard and usually must be crushed to free
the barite from the gangue; facilities  tend  to  be  large  with
several stages of crushing, screening, jigging and tabling.

The  development  of  froth flotation methods have made deposits,
such as those of Arkansas and Georgia, commercially valuable  and
have   greatly   increased   recovery  possibilities  from  other
deposits.  The Arkansas ore is particularly difficult  to  treat,
since  the  barite is finely divided and so intimately mixed with
the impurities  that  grinding  to  325  mesh  is  necessary  for
complete liberation of the component minerals.  The ground ore is
then  treated  by froth flotation.  Concentrates are filtered and
dried in rotary kilns at  temperatures  high  enough  to  destroy
organic  reagents that might interfere with use in drilling muds.
In Georgia, flotation is being used to recover barite fines  from
washer tailings..

The methods used in grinding barite depend upon the nature of the
product to be ground and upon the use for which the ground barite
is  to  be  sold.   If  white  color  is  not  important,  as for
well-drilling  mud  and  off-color  filler  uses,  iron  grinding
surfaces  may be used.  Where the color is naturally a good white
and bleaching is not required, grinding is  done  with  iron-free
grinding  surfaces,  such  as a dry pebble mill in closed circuit
with an air separator.

The principal use  of  barite  in  the  United  States  is  as  a
weighting  agent  for drilling muds used in the oil industry.  In
addition, ground barite is used in the manufacture of  glass  and
as a heavy filler in a number of products where additional weight
is desirable.

                      FLUORSPAR (SIC 1U73)

Fluorine  is derived from the mineral fluorite, commonly known as
fluorspar.  Steadily increasing quantities are required in  steel
production  where  fluorite  is  useful  as  a  slag  thinner; in
aluminum production, where  cryolite  is  necessary  to  dissolve
alumina  for  the  electrolytic  cells;  and  in  ceramics, where
fluorite is a flux and opacifier.  Fluorine demand is strong  for
an important group of fluorocarbon chemicals which are formulated
into  refrigerants,  plastics, solvents, aerosols, and many other
industrial products.

In the Illinois-Kentucky district fluorspar occurs  as  veins  in
limestone, shale, and sandstone along faults ranging in thickness
from  a  mere film to a width of more than 9 meters (30 feet) and
in extensive flat-lying replacement-type deposits  in  limestone.
Residual  deposits, resulting from weathering of fluorite-bearing
veins, are also fairly common in the district and often  indicate
the presence of vein deposits at greater depth.

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In  the  western States, fluorspar occurs under a wide variety of
conditions such as fillings in fractures and shear zones  forming
more  or  less  well-defined  veins  and  as  replacements in the
country rock.  Much  occurs  in  igneous  formations.   Figure  8
depicts  the  locations  of  barite  processing facilities in the
United States.

Mining is done by shafts, drifts, and open cuts  with  the  mines
ranging  in size from small operations using mostly hand-operated
equipment to large fully mechanized mines.  Top slicing, cut-and-
fill, shrinkage, and open stoping are among  the  mining  methods
commonly used.  Bedded deposits are usually worked by a room-and-
pillar   system.    Some  of  the  large  mines  are  extensively
mechanized, using diesel-powered hauling and loading equipment.

The crude ore requires beneficiation to yield a finished product.
Processing techniques range from rather simple methods,  such  as
hand  sorting,  washing, screening and gravity separation by jigs
and tables, to sink-float  and  froth-flotation  processes.   The
flotation  process permits.recovery of the lead, zinc, and barite
minerals often associated with the fluorspar ores.  Flotation  is
used  where  a  product of fine particle size is desired, such as
ceramic- and acid-grade fluorspar.   The  heavy-medium  or  sink-
float process is usually employed where a coarse product, such as
metallurgical-grade gravel is desired.

               SALINES FROM EFINF. LAKES (SIC 1474)

A  number  of  the  potash, soda and borate minerals are produced
from the brines of Western lakes that have evaporated  over  long
periods  of  time  to  a  high  concentration  of  minerals.  The
significant commercial exploitation of these lake  brines  is  at
Searles  Lake in California and the Great Salt Lake in Utah.  Two
facilities are operated at Searles Lake  that  employ  a  complex
series  of  evaporation  steps  to  recover minerals and, in some
instances, produce other derived products  such  as  bromine  and
boric  acid.  The process sequence is called the "Trona Process",
which should not be  confused  with  trona  ore   (natural  sodium
carbonate) mining that takes place in Sweetwater County, Wyoming.
One  facility  utilizes  an evaporative process at the Great Salt
Lake to produce sodium  sulfate,  salt,  potassium  sulfate,  and
bittern  liquors.   Figure  9  shows  the  potash deposits in the
United States including brine recovery.  Figure 10 shows  all  of
the  borate  deposits.  Figure 11 shows the calcium and magnesium
brine locations.

                       BORATES (SIC 1474)

While boron is not an extremely rare  element,  few  commercially
attractive deposits of boron minerals are known.  It is estimated
that about half of the commercial world boron reserves, estimated
at  about  65  million  kkg  (72  million  tons), are in southern
                               45

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          FIGURE  8
FLUORSPAR PROCESSING PLANTS
                  From Industrial and Chemical Minerals chart-pg.184
                  The National Atlas of The USA
                  USGS-1970

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     FIGURE  9
POTASH DEPOSITS
»-Mines
• -Wells
 -Surface brim-
                                    From  Salines chart-pg.181
                                    The National Atlas of The USA
                                    USGS-1970
              FIGURE 10
       BORATE  OPERATIONS
                                    From Saline1; rh.nt-m.181
                                    The National Ail.r. of The USA
                                    USGS-1970
            47

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                FIGURE  11
LITHIUM,  CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM
•	Lithium
•	Cal d urn conipniuuK (Hr1 ne)
*	Magnesium comp.(Brine)
                                         From Salines Chart-pg.181
                                         The National Atlas of The USA
                                         USGS-1970
                  FIGURE 12
     ROCK  SALT MINES AND WELLS
                                         From S,ilinc r.h.irt-pq.181
                                         The Njtion.il /Ulas of The USA.
                                         USfiS-19/0

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California as  bedded  deposits  of  borax   (sodium  borate)  and
colemanite   (calcium  borate),  or  occur  as  solutions of boron
minerals in Searles Lake brines.  Figure 10  shows the location of
the United States operations.  The United States is  the  largest
producer  of  boron,  supplying 71 percent of the world demand in
1968, and also the largest consumer, requiring  about  36 percent
of the world output.

Many  minerals  contain  boron,  but  only a few are commercially
valuable as a source of boron.  The principal boron minerals  are
borax  (tincal) , Na.2B4p7«10H.2O; kernite (rasorite) , NalBOpV^tHttO;
colemanite      (borocalcite) ,       Ca_2B6OJM«5H2O;       ulexite
(boronatrocalcite) ,    CaNaBj3O9«8H2O;    priceite   (pandermite) ,
5CaO«6B203«9H20;  boracite   (stassfurtite) ,   Mg7Cl2B16O.30;   and
sassolite    (natural  boric  acid),  H_3BOJ.   The  sodium  borate
minerals borax and kernite   (rasorite)   constitute  the  bulk  of
production  in the United States.  A small quantity of colemanite
and ulexite is also mined.

The borate deposit in the Kramer  district  of  California  is  a
large, irregular mass of bedded crystalline  sodium borate ranging
from  24  to  about  305  meters  (80 to 1,000 feet) in thickness.
Borax, locally called  tincal,  and  kernite  are  the  principal
minerals.   Shale  beds  containing  colemanite  and  ulexite lie
directly over and under the sodium borate body.

One company mines the ore by open-pit methods.  It is blended and
crushed to produce a minus 1.9 centimeters   (3/4  inch)   feed  of
nearly  constant  boric  oxide  (B.2O_3) content.  Weak borax liquor
from the refinery is mixed with the crushed ore and heated nearly
to boiling point in steam-jacketed tanks to dissolve  the  borax.
The  concentrated  borax  liquor  is  processed  in  a  series of
thickeners, filtered and pumped to vacuum crystallizers.  One  of
the  crystallizers  produces  borax  pentahydrate,  and the other
produces borax decahydrate.

Sodium borates are also extracted from Searles Lake brines  by  a
company  whose  primary  products  are  soda  ash, salt cake, and
potash.  Searles Lake is a dry lake covering about 88  square  km
(34  square  miles) in San Bernardino County, California.  Brines
pumped from beneath the crystallized  surface  of  the  lake  are
processed   by   carbonation,  evaporation,  and  crystallization
procedures,  producing  an  array  of  products  including  boron
compounds.

Ferroboron  is  a  boron  iron alloy containing 0.2 to 24 percent
boron, and is marketed in various grain sizes.  Boric oxide is  a
hard,  brittle,  colorless solid resembling glass.  It is marketed
in powder or granular forms.
                               49

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Borax (Naj2B4Q7»10H2O) , the most commonly known boron compound, is
normally marketed with 99.5 percent purity.  It is also available
in technical, U.S.P.,  and special-quality grades.  In addition to
the decahydrate, the pentahydrate  (Na2BUO_7«5H2O)  and  anhydrous
forms are sold.  The various grades are available in crystalline,
granular,  or  powder  forms.  Boric acid  (R3BQ3) is a colorless,
odorless,  crystalline  solid  sold  in  technical,  U.S.P.,  and
special   quality   grades.   It  is  available  in  crystalline,
granular, or powder forms.

Boron compounds are mined in a remote desert area where  tailings
and  waste  dumps  do not encroach on residential, industrial, or
farm land.  Atmospheric pollution is not a problem, although some
processing odors and dust are produced.

                        POTASH (SIC 147U)

The term "potash" was  derived  from  the  residues,  pot  ashes,
originally obtained by evaporating in iron pots solutions leached
from  wood  ashes.   The  present  worldwide meaning of potash is
twofold.  When used as a noun, it represents K20 equivalent,  and
when  used  as  an  adjective,  it  means  potassium compounds or
potassium-bearing  materials.   Sylvinite,  the  major  ore   for
producing  potash,  comes  from  underground mines in New Mexico,
Canada and Europe, and is  a  mineralogical  mixture  of  sylvite
(KC1) and halite  (NaCl) .

Domestic  sources  for  potassium  are  of two types:  brines and
bedded deposits.  Currently  84  percent  of  domestic  production
comes  from  the  bedded deposits in southeastern New Mexico near
Carlsbad.  The higher grade  (20 to 25 percent K2O) commercial ore
in this area is nearing depletion and most of the seven producing
firms are estimated to have  only a 6- to 10-year supply.   U.  S.
production  reached a peak output in 1966  and has since declined.
Figure 9 shows the locations of the domestic deposits.

In the conventional  shaft-type  mining  operations,  large  con-
tinuous  mining  machines  are  used  in   both the New Mexico and
Canadian mines.  Poom-and-pillar mining methods are used  in  New
Mexico  with   a first-run extraction of about 65 percent while in
the deeper Canadian mines the  first-run   extraction  is  in  the
order  of 35 percent.  On the second pass  in the New Mexico mines
at least 55 percent  of  the  remining  potash  is  recovered  by
"pillar  robbing"  for  a total extraction of about 83 percent of
ore body.  As  much as 90 percent recovery  has  been  claimed  for
some  operations.   Pillar robbing is not  practiced in Canada and
because of the greater mine  depth it is not  likely  to  be  with
present technology.
                                50

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Two  basic  methods  of  ore  treatment, flotation and fractional
crystallization, are used both in the Carlsbad area and in Canada
to recover sylvite from the ore.  In general, the crushed ore  is
mixed  with  a  brine  saturated  with  both sodium and potassium
chlorides and deslimed to remove most  of  the  clay  impurities.
The  pulp is conditioned with an amine flotation reagent and sent
to flotation cells  where  the  sylvite  is  separated  from  the
halite,  the principal impurity.  The halite fraction is repulped
and pumped to the tailings  areas;  the  sylvite  concentrate  is
dried, sized, and shipped or sent to storage.

Fractional crystallization is based on the specific difference in
the  solubility-temperature  relationships of sodium chloride and
potassium chloride in saturated solution.  Crushed ore  is  mixed
with  hot,  saturated  sodium  chloride  brine, which selectively
dissolves the potassium  chloride.   The  brine  is  then  cooled
causing  the  potassium  chloride  to crystallize as a 99 percent
pure product.

Langbeinite is separated from halite, its principal impurity,  by
the  selective  solution of the halite.  The flotation process is
also used to separate langbeinite from sylvite.

Potassium compounds are recovered from brines,  including  brines
from    solution    mining,   by   evaporation   and   fractional
crystallization.  The sodium salts in  Searles  Lake  brines  are
separated in triple-effect evaporators, leaving a hot liguor rich
in  potash  and borax.  Rapid cooling of the sodium-free solution
under vacuum causes the  potassium  salts  to  crystallize.   The
crystals  of  potassium  salts  are  then removed by settling and
centrif uging.
About 8 t percent of the domestic potash  is  produced  in  a
square  km  (55-square  mile)   area  21  km  (15  miles)   east of
Carlsbad,  New  Mexico.   There  are  eight  refineries  in  this
district,  each requiring large tailing disposal areas consisting
largely of sodium chloride salt; consequently,  areas covered with
this waste are incapable of supporting  any  plant  growth.   The
operation near Moab, Utah, is similarly located, but extreme care
is exercised to prevent pollution of the nearby Colorado River.

The  brine  operation  in  Utah  requires  large evaporating pans
covering many acres of the land surface.   The  process  involved
here  involves  evaporation  of  Great  Salt Lake waters first to
recover common salt (NaCl) and then potassium sulfate.   Residual
brines,   containing  mostly  magnesium  and  lithium  salts  are
returned to the lake.
                               51

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                        TRONA (SIC 1474)

Trona (Na2CC31SlaHC03»2H2O)  is the  most  common  sodium  carbonate
mineral found in nature.  It crystallizes when carbon dioxide gas
is  bubbled  through  solutions  having a concentration of sodium
carbonate  greater   than   9 percent.    Carbonation   of   less
concentrated  solutions  precipitates  sodium  bicarbonate.   The
largest known deposit of relatively  pure  trona  in  the  United
States was discovered in southwest Wyoming in 1938 while drilling
for  oil  near  Green  River.   The deposit is relatively free of
chlorides and sulfates and contains  5  to  10 percent  insoluble
matter  and  constitutes  the  only  mineable  quantity  of  this
material.  It is also  the  world's  largest  natural  source  of
sodium carbonate (soda ash).,

Trona  is a sedimentary deposit precipitated in the bottom of the
ancient Eocene Lake Gosiute.  Subsequent deposits of  oil  shale,
siltstone  and sandstone covered the trona, and the beds that are
mined 240 to 460 meters (800 to 1500  feet)  below  the  surface.
Approximately  25  different  trcna-bearing  beds  lie  buried at
depths of 130 to 1100 meters (440 to 3500 feet).

Trona ore mining is carried out near Green River, Wyoming by four
corporations.  Only three have soda ash  refining  facilities  on
site  at the present time.  The increasing industrial use of soda
ash, together with the phasing out of obsolete and  controversial
synthetic  soda  ash  facilities  in  the East has caused a great
spurt of growth in the trona ore industry from the early  1960's.
The  mineable resources of trona in this area have been estimated
to be 45 billion kkg (50 billion short tons).

                         SODIUM SULFATE

Natural sodium sulfate is derived from the brines of Searles Lake
in California, certain underground brines in Texas, and dry  lake
brines   in  Wyoming.   Sodium  sulfate  is  also  derived  as  a
by-product from rayon production,  which  requires  that  caustic
solutions  used in processing cellulose fiber be neutralized with
sulfuric  acid.   Other  sources  of  by-product  sodium  sulfate
include  the  chemical  processes that produce hydrochloric acid,
cellophane, boric acid, lithium  carbonate,  phenol,  and  formic
acid.

The  natural  sodium  sulfate  is  produced  by six facilities in
California, Utah, and  Texas.   Three  facilities  in  California
produce 74 percent of the natural product.

                      ROCK SALT  (SIC  1476)

Sodium  chloride,  or  salt,  is the chief source of all forms of
sodium.  Salt is produced  on  a  large  scale  from  bedded  and
dome-type  underground  deposits  and by evaporating lake and sea
                               52

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brines.  Increasing  quantities  of  two  commercially  important
sodium  compounds, sodium carbonate (soda ash)  and sodium sulfate
(salt  cake),  are  produced  from  natural  deposits  of   these
compounds, although salt is still the main source of both.

Bedded  salt deposits are formed when a body of sea water becomes
isolated from the circulating ocean currents by a reef,  sandbar,
or  other  means,  and  under  suitably  dry  and  warm  climatic
conditions evaporation proceeds until the salts are partially  or
entirely  deposited.   With  continuous or periodic influx of sea
water to replace evaporation, large deposits of  salt  have  been
built  up  in  some  instances  to  several  thousand  meters  in
thickness.  Deposits of this type have also been called lagoonal.
During the Permian geologic age two famous salt deposits  of  the
lagoonal  type  were  laid  down, one in northern Germany and the
other in eastern New Mexico.  A second large  bedded  deposit  in
the  United  States is the Silurian salt deposit, which underlies
Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and  West  Virginia.   it
was  formed  in  much  the same manner as the Permian beds by the
evaporation of a large inland sea which became separated from the
ocean and gradually evaporated.

Playa  deposits  were  formed  by  the  leaching  of  surrounding
sediments   with   water,   which  subsequently  drained  into  a
landlocked  area  and  evaporated,  leaving   the   salts.    The
composition  of  the  brines  and  salt  beds  of  these deposits
generally does not resemble that of sea water;  playa deposits  of
California  and  Nevada  also  contain  sodium  carbonate, sodium
sulfate, potash and boron.

Salt domes are large vertical structures of salt, resulting  from
the  deformation  of  deeply  buried salt beds by great pressure.
The plastic nature of halite under high temperature and  pressure
and  its low density, compared with that of the surrounding rock,
permited deeply buried sedimentary deposits to be  forced  upward
through  zones  of  weakness  in  the  overlying  rocks,  forming
vertical columns or domes  of  salt  extending  several  thousand
meters in height and cross section.  If the bedded deposit at the
base of the dome is sufficiently large, the salt columns may rise
to  the surface.  There are reportedly 300 salt domes in the Gulf
coast area from Alabama to Mexico.

Rock salt is mined on a large scale in Michigan, Texas, New York,
Louisiana,   Ohio,   Utah,   New   Mexico,   and   Kansas,   with
room-and-pillar  the principal mining method.  Rooms vary in size
depending on the thickness of the seam and other factors.  In one
mine an undercutter cuts a slot 3 meters  (10 feet)   deep  at  the
base  of  the wall, which is then drilled and blasted.  About 0.2
kg of dynamite per kkg of salt is required.  The broken  salt  is
transported  by various mechanical means such as loaders, trucks,
and belt conveyors to the underground crushing  area.   The  salt
may  be  processed  through  a  number  of crushing and screening
                               53

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stages prior to being hoisted to  the  surface  where  the  final
sizing  and  preparation  for  shipment or further use is carried
out.

About  57  percent  of  the  U.S.  salt  output  is  produced  by
introducing water into a cavity in the salt deposits and removing
the   brine.    This  procedure  is  relatively  simple  and  has
particular advantage when the salt is to be used as a  brine  as,
for  example,  in  chemical  uses  such  as  soda ash and caustic
manufacture.  Holes are drilled through the overburden  into  the
deposit  and  cased with iron pipe.  Water is introduced into the
deposit through a smaller  pipe  inside  the  casing.   A  nearly
saturated  brine is formed in the cavity at the foot of the pipe.
This brine is pumped  or  airlifted  through  the  annular  space
between the pipes.  Figure 12 shows the locations of current rock
salt operations in the United States.

                    PHOSPHATE ROCK  (SIC 1475)

The  term  "phosphate  rock"  includes  phosphatized  limestones,
sandstones, shales,  and  igneous  rocks  which  do  not  have  a
definite  chemical composition.  The major phosphorus minerals of
most  phosphate  rock  are  in  the  apatite  group  and  can  be
represented  by  the generalized formula Ca5_(POj»).3 -  (F, Cl, OH).
'The  (F, Cl,  OH)  radical  may  be  all  fluorine,  chlorine,  or
hydroxyl  ions or any combination thereof.  The  (POJI) radical can
be partly replaced by small quantities of VOjt, AsOj*,  SiOjJl,  SOU,
and  CO3.   Also,  small quantities of calcium may be replaced by
elements such as magnesium, manganese, strontium,  lead,  sodium,
uranium,  cerium, and yttrium.  The major impurities include iron
as limonite, clay, aluminum, fluorine, and silica as quartz sand.
Phosphate rock occurs as nodular phosphates,  residual  weathered
phosphatic  limestones,  vein  phosphates,  and  consolidated and
unconsolidated phosphatic  sediments.   The  best  known  of  the
apatite minerals, fluorapatite is widely distributed.  Relatively
small  deposits of fluorapatite occur in many parts of the world.
The domestic deposits that  are  currently  being  exploited  are
indicated in Figure 13.

Phosphate  ore is mined by open pit methods in all four producing
areas:  Florida,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  the  Western
States.   In  the Florida land-pebble deposits, the overburden is
stripped and the ore mined by large electric dragline  excavators
equipped with buckets, with capacities up to 123 cubic meters  (U9
cubic  yards).   The  ore  is  slurried and pumped to the washing
facility, in some instances several miles from the mine.  In  the
Tennessee  field and the open pit mines in the western field, the
ore  is mined by smaller dragline excavators, scrapers or  shovels
and  trucked  to  the  facilities.  In North Carolina a 180 cubic
meter  (72 cubic yard) dragline is used for stripping, and the ore
is then hydraulically transported to the washer.

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                     FIGURE 13
PHOSPHATE  MINING AND  PROCESSING  LOCATIONS
                                           From Industrial and Chemical
                                             Minerals chart-pg.184.
                                           The National Atlas of The USA
                                           USGS-1970
                    FIGURE  14
               SULFUR  DEPOSITS
                                  From Industrial and Chemical Minerals chart-
                                      p.|.1R4
                                  The flit! .nal Atlas of The USA
                                  uses-rim
                   55

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Washing is accomplished by sizing screens, log  washers,  various
types  of  classifiers,  and mills to disintegrate the large clay
balls.  The fine slime, usually minus 150 mesh, is discarded.  In
the Florida land-pebble field, the plus 14 mesh material is dried
amd marketed as high-grade rock or  sometimes  blended  with  the
fine  granular  material  (minus 1U, plus 150 mesh)  that has been
treated in flotation cells, spirals, cones or tables.  Losses  in
washing  and flotation operations, which range from UO percent of
the phosphorus in the Florida operations to more than 50  percent
in some Tennessee areas, occur in the form of slimes containing U
to  6  percent solids.  These slimes are discharged into settling
ponds, where initial settling occurs, and substantial  quantities
of  relatively  clear water is returned to the mining and washing
operations.

Some of  the  western  field  phosphate  rock  production  is  of
suitable  grade  as  it comes from the mine.  Siliceous phosphate
ore and mixtures of phosphate rock and clay minerals are amenable
to benefication, and in 1968 three companies in the western field
were beneficiating  part  of  their  production.   Two  flotation
facilities  and  several  washing facilities were in operation in
1968.

Several environmental problems are associated with the phosphorus
and phosphate industry.  In the southeastern  states  mining  and
processing  of  phosphate  rock is located close to developed and
expanding urban areas.  In the Florida land-pebble  district  the
phosphate  matrix  (ore) underlies 1.2 to 18 meters  (4 to 60 feet)
of overburden consisting mostly of sand and  clay  requiring  the
use  of  large  draglines  to  remove  the overburden.  The major
mining companies, together and individually, have embarked upon a
continuing program of reclamation  of  mined-out  areas  and  are
planning  mining operations to provide easier and more economical
methods of reclamation.  Many thousands of  acres  of  land  have
been reclaimed since the program started.

The  Florida  phosphate  rock  washing operations, because of the
nature of the material, produces large quantities of a slurry  of
verv  fine  clay and phosphate minerals called slimes.  This is a
waste product and must be contained in  slime  ponds  that  cover
large  areas  since  many  years  of settling are required before
these pond areas can be reclaimed.  Much research effort has been
expended by both government and industry to  solve  this  problem
which   is  not  only  an  environmental  one  but  also  one  of
conservation since about 33 percent of the phosphorus values  are
wasted.   Some progress has been made and old slime ponds are now
being reclaimed for recreational, agricultural, and  other  uses.
The greatest problems of this nature exist in central Florida but
similar situations prevail in northern Florida and Tennessee.
                                56

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                        SULFUR (SIC 1477)

Elemental  sulfur  is  found  in  many  localities  generally  in
solfataras and gypsum-type deposits.  By far, most of the world's
supply of sulfur comes from the  gypsum-type  deposits  where  it
occurs  as  either crystalline or amorphous sulfur in sedimentary
rocks in close association with gypsum and limestone.  The origin
of such deposits has been  variously  attributed  to  geochemical
processes involving the reduction of calcium sulfate by carbon or
methane   followed  by  oxygenation  of  the  resulting  hydrogen
sulfide; or to biochemical processes involving the  reduction  of
sulfate to sulfide by various microorganisms.

The major domestic sources of sulfur are associated with the Gulf
Coast salt domes which characteristically are circular or oval in
cross-section  with  the  sulfur-bearing  cap  rock  occurring at
depths of less than 900 meters (3000 feet).  The diameter of  the
domes  may  vary  from  0.8  to 8 km (0.5 to 5 miles) with a dry,
compact, coarsely crystalline salt column  below  the  cap  rock.
Most  of  the  elemental  sulfur  is  found  in  the limestone or
carbonate zone of the cap rock with a horizon which may vary from
nearly zero to several hundred meters in thickness having  sulfur
content which.may range from traces to more than 40 percent.

The sulfur formations in West Texas are in porous zones of gently
dipping  dolomitic  limestone, silty shale, anhydride and gypsum.
The sulfur deposits are low grade and  the  layers  that  contain
sulfur are thin.  Depths of the sulfur deposits range from 200 to
460  meters   (700 to 1,500 feet).  Surface exposures of sulfur in
porous gypsum and anhydrite are distributed  over  a  rectangular
area  about 64 km long and 48 km wide (40 miles long and 30 miles
wide) in both Culberson and Reeves counties.

Mining of sulfur is accomplished  by  the  Frasch  or  hot  water
process.  In the Frasch process, the sulfur is melted underground
by  pumping  super  heated water in to the formation.  The molten
sulfur is then raised to the surface through the drill  pipe  and
stored   in   liquid   form   in  steam-heated  tanks.   In  most
installations, the liguid sulfur is pumped directly  into  heated
and  insulated  ships  or barges that can transport the sulfur in
liguid form.   Approximately  15  percent  of  the  total  sulfur
produced  in  the  U.S. is metered and pumped to storage vats for
cooling and solidifying before it is sold in dry form.

Sulfur has widespread use in the  manufacturing  of  fertilizers,
paper,  rubber,  petroleum  products, chemicals, plastics, steel,
paints  and  other  commodities,  with  the  fertilizer  industry
consuming  approximately  50  percent  of  the  total U.S. sulfur
production.  The locations of the United States  sulfur  deposits
are shown in Figure 14.
                               57

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                        MINERAL PIGMENTS

The mineral pigments consist of three general groups:

(1) Those consisting mostly of iron oxides such as  hematite  and
    limonite.
(2) Those containing large amounts of clay or noncoloring matter,
    such as ocher, sienna, umber and colored shales.
(3) Those whose color is not due to iron oxide  such  as  Vandyke
    brown, graphite and terre-verte.

Since  the  coloring  power of the natural yellow, red, and brown
mineral pigments is due principally to the content and  condition
of  iron  oxide,  the  occurrence  of  mineral  pigments  in many
instances is closely allied to that of the  iron  ores.   Pigment
materials  and  iron ores often are mined in the same localities,
and iron ores are used at times for mineral pigments of  the  red
and  brown  varieties.   The  iron  oxides are almost universally
distributed.

Replacement or precipitation deposits are the  principal  sources
of  limonite  and ocherous minerals.  They have been deposited in
cavities by ground waters charged with iron  salts  removed  from
the  weathering  of  impure  limestone,  sandstones,  and shales,
especially when  pyrite  was  an  accessory  mineral.   The  most
important deposits are found usually in the fractured and faulted
zones  of rocks of all ages, including the Cambrian quartzites of
Georgia, the Paleozoic limestones and quartzites of Pennsylvania,
and the unconsolidated Tertiary clays, sands, manganese ores, and
lignites of Vermont.

In Virginia, deposits of residual limonite occur  in  two  belts,
one  extending along the west slope of the Blue Ridge from Warren
to Roanoke County and the other along the east side  of  the  New
River-Cripple  Creek  district,  Pulaski  County,  and  near  the
boundary of Wythe and Carroll Counties.  The latter deposits  are
associated  with  Cambrian  quartzites.   The deposits in Pulaski
County have produced ochers of high iron content somewhat similar
in analyses and properties to the Georgia ocher.

The chief production of earth pigments in the  United  States  in
recent  years  has  come  from  Pennsylvania, Virginia, Illinois,
Minnesota, Georgia, California, and New York.   In  Pennsylvania,
ocher is mined both by opencut methods and shafts, and in Georgia
by  opencut  methods.   In most deposits the pockety character of
the ore and the uncertain market for the product do  not  justify
elaborate equipment.

The  soft,  claylike pigments are treated by comparatively simple
washing processes, followed  by  dehydration  and  pulverization.
Log  washers  and blungers are used for dispersion; trough, cone,
and bowl classifiers separate the sand from the fine  suspension.
                               58

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A  portion  of  the  water  is  removed in settling tanks and the
remainder is extracted  by  filter  presses  and  rotary  driers.
Hammer  type pulverizers reduce the pigment to powder for packing
and shipment and a final air separation may be interposed for the
better grades.

                   LITHIUM MINERALS (SIC 1479)

Spodumene, petalite, lepidolite, and ainblygonite are the minerals
from which lithium is derived.   Brines  are  another  source  of
lithium.   Domestic  spodumene  is recovered by mechanical mining
and milling processes, and either an acid or an alkali method  is
used to extract lithium compounds from the spodumene ore.

Lithium  minerals have been mined from pegmatite depostis by open
pit and underground  methods.   Other  minerals  such  as  beryl,
columbite,  feldspar,  mica, pollucite, quartz, and tantalite are
often  extracted  and  recovered  as  coproducts  in  the  mining
process.

In  North  Carolina spodumene is recovered from the pegmatite ore
by crushing, screening,  grinding,  and  flotation,  and  lithium
compounds are recovered from spodumene concentrates by an acid or
an  alkali treatment.  In the method employing acid, spodumene is
changed from the alpha form to the  beta  form  by  calcining  at
982°C   (1,800°F).   Next  it  is  added  to sulfuric acid and the
mixture is heated until lithium sulfate is formed.   The  sulfate
is  then  leached  from the mass, neutralized with limestone, and
filtered.  Soda ash is added to the sulfate solution in order  to
precipitate  lithium  carbonate  from  which  most  of  the other
compound forms are prepared.  In the alkali treatment,  spodumene
is  stage-calcined  with  powdered  limestone and hydrolyzed with
steam to produce a water-soluble  lithium  oxide.   This  can  be
easily recovered and converted to the desired lithium compound.

Certain  natural brines are also a source of lithium.  At Searles
Lake, California, brine (0.033 percent lithium chloride)  is first
concentrated in evaporators causing several salts to precipitate,
including dilithium sodium  phosphate,  sodium  chloride,  and  a
mixture    of   other   sodium   salts.    Through   a   combined
leach-flotation process the  lithium  compound  is  recovered  as
crystals  and  then fed to a chemical facility to be converted to
lithium carbonate.  The brines  at  Silver  Peak,  Nevada  (0.244
percent  LiCl) are concentrated to a LiCl content of 6 percent by
solar evaporation.  This concentrate is then pumped to  a  nearby
mill  where  a  soda  ash  process  changes the chloride to solid
lithium carbonate.  Lithium metal is produced by the electrolysis
of lithium  chloride.   Figure  11  shows  the  domestic  lithium
deposits.
                               59

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                            CLAYS

Clays and other ceramic and refractory materials differ primarily
because  of  varyinq  crystal  structure, presence of significant
non-clay materials, variable ratios of alumina  and  silica,  and
variable  degrees  of  hydration  and  hardness.   This industry,
together with ore mining and coal mining,  differs  significantly
from   the  process  industries  for  which  effluent  limitation
guidelines have  previously  been  developed.   The  industry  is
characterized  by an extremely variable raw waste load, depending
almost entirely upon the characteristics of the natural  deposit.
The  prevalent  pollutant problem is suspended solids, which vary
significantly in quantity and treatability.

For the purpose  of  this  section  we  will  define  clay  as  a
naturally  occurring,  fine-grained material whose composition is
based on  one or more clay minerals and contains impurities.  The
basic formula is AlJ2O3Si Si8O22(OH) 4• (\H2O.
The unit structure of illite resembles  that  of  montmorillonite
except  that aluminum ions replace some of the silicon ions.  The
resultant charge  imbalance is neutralized  by  the  inclusion  of
potassium ions between units.

Most  clays are pined from open pits, using modern surface mining
equipment such as draglines, power shovels,  scraper loaders,  and
shale  planers.   A  few  clay pits are operated using crude hand
mining methods.   A  small  number  of  clay  mines   (principally
underclays  in  coal  mining  areas)  are  underground operations
                                60

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employing mechanized room and pillar methods.  Truck haulage from
the pits to processing  facilities  is  most  common,  but  other
methods  involve  use  of  rail  transport,  conveyor  belts, and
pipelines in the case of kaolin.  Recovery is near 100 percent of
the minable beds in open pit mines, and perhaps 75 percent in the
underground operations.  The waste to clay ratio is  highest  for
kaolin   (about  7:1)  and  lowest  for  miscellaneous clay (about
0.25:1) .

Processing of clays  ranges  from  very  simple  and  inexpensive
crushing  and  screening  for some common clays to very elaborate
and expensive methods necessary to produce  paper  coating  clays
and high quality filler clays for use in rubber, paint, and other
products.   Waste  material  from  processing  consists mostly of
quartz, mica, feldspar, and iron minerals.

Clays are classified into six groups  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines,
kaolin,  ball  clay,  fire  clay,  bentonite, fullerfs earth, and
miscellaneous clay.   Halloysite  is  included  under  kaolin  in
Bureau of Mines statistical reports.  Specifications of clays are
based  on  the  method of preparation (i.e. crude, air separated,
water washed, delaminated,  air  dried,  spray  dried,  calcined,
slip, pulp, slurry, or water suspension), in addition to specific
physical    and    chemical    properties.    The   supply-demand
relationships for clays in 1968 are shown in Figure 15.

                      BENTONITE  (SIC 1452)

Bentonites are fine-grained clays containing at least 85  percent
montmorillonite.   The  swelling  type  has  a  high  sodium  ion
concentration which causes a material increase in volume when the
clay is wetted with water, whereas the nonswelling types  usually
contain  high  calcium  ion  concentrations.   Standard grades of
swelling bentonite increase from 15 to 20 times their dry  volume
on  exposure  to  water.   Specifications  are based on pertinent
physical and  chemical  tests,  particularly  those  relating  to
particle  size and swelling index.  Bentonite clays are processed
by weathering, drying, grinding, sizing, and granulation.

The principal uses of bentonites are for drilling muds,  catalyst
manufacture,  decolorizing  agents, and foundry use.  However the
properties within the bentonite group vary  such  that  a  single
deposit  cannot serve all the above mentioned functions.  Because
of the high montmorillonite content, bentonites are an  important
raw  material  in  producing  fuller's  earth.   The  distinction
between these two clays is not clearly  defined,  except  by  end
usage.

The  bentonites  found in the United States were deposited in the
Cretaceous age as fine air-borne volcanic  ash.   Advancing  salt
water  seas  and groundwater had resulted in cationic exchange of
iron and magnesium.   The  placement   of  the  relatively  large
                               61

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  WORLD PRODUCTION
  •/ 350,000
1
Oiher
Nortl* Amertco
*/ 12.767

South Amtrlco
-V 12.000

USSR.
1/55,000

Wo$t Germany
-S/25,000

Jopon
«/ 28,000

France
«/!6,000

Other Asia
«/ 37,000

Africa
.1/10,000

Holy
J/ 17.000

Gttor Coy^'rlei
i/ 61, 000






1
Unit ft d States
5T.233

United King(fcff
S/ 16,000
Unitt:




KEY
Thousand «^o








'

— i
n
^ i
— i
rt lo
Kaolin
4.201

Ball clay
630

Firs cl«»
8,054

Btntonlt*
2.436

Fullari eortli
922

Olh«r elay«
40,939

Import], kaolin
75

Imports, ball
IS

ImpcrH.oilttr
4
r>*

	
l^i^BI

•—^m

, U.S.t«»pl» . U.S.dtmand
37,529 ^^ 59,810

Exports
1,320

                  i/ Esllmau
                 SIC Standard Industrial Classification









„

ractorlii

i
u





	 !












Structure! clay product
23,636

Hydraulic ctmint
11,264

Cipandedthaltand
clay
(SIC3II3I
9.280

Iron ond ttcel
isienin
2,400

.Jonferrout mtloll
ISICJli. 33411
1.125

Clots
IS 1C Jtll-Jtlll
477

Paper mtllt
ISIC3IIII
1.800


ISIC313SI
650

Psiteryond related
products
tsicstt) '
494

Drilling mud
If 1C I >S)I
520

Iron ore
410

Older
3.714
Figure  1 5
Supply-Demand Relationships for Clays,  1968.

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sodium  and calcium ions between the silica and alumina sheets in
the basic montmorillonite lattice structure are  responsible  for
the important property of swelling in water.  Sodium bentonite is
principally  mined in Wyoming while calcium bentonite is found in
many states, but principally Texas, Mississippi and Arizona.

                      FIRE CLAY (SIC 1453)

The terms "fire clays" and "stoneware clays" are based on refrac-
toriness or on the intended usage for  refractories;  hence  they
are  also  called  refratory  clays,  and stoneware clay for such
items as crocks, jugs, and jars.  Their most notable property  is
their  high  fusion point.  Fire clays are principally kaolinitic
containing other clay minerals and  impurities  such  as  quartz.
Included  under  the  general  term  fire  clay are the diaspore,
burley, and burley flint clays.  Fire clays are  usually  plastic
in  nature  and are often referred to as plastic clays, but flint
clays  are  exceedingly  hard  due  to  their  high  content   of
kaolinite.   The  fired  colors  of fire clays range from reds to
buffs and grays.  Specifications are based on pertinent  physical
and  chemical  properties  of the clays and of products made from
them.  In general the higher the alumina content is,  the  higher
the  fusion  point.   Impurities  such as lime and iron lower the
fusion point.  Fire clays  are  mined  principally  in  Missouri,
Illinois,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania
and Maryland.  Fire clays are processed  by  crushing,  calcining
and final blending.

                    FULLER'S EARTH (SIC IH5H)

The  term "fuller's earth" is derived from the first major use of
the material, which was for cleaning wool by  fullers.   Fuller's
earths  are  essentially montmorillonite or attapulgite for which
the  specifications  are  based  on  the  physical  and  chemical
requirements  of  the  products.   As  previously  mentioned  the
distinction between  fuller's  earth  and  bentonite  is  in  the
commercial   usage.    Major  uses  are  for  decolorizing  oils,
beverages,  and  cat  litter.   The  fuller's  earth  clays   are
processed  by blunging, extruding, drying,  crushing, grinding and
finally sizing according to the requirements of its eventual use.

                 KAOLIN AND BALL CLAY (SIC 1455)

Kaolin is the name applied to the troad class  of  clays  chiefly
comprised  of the mineral kaolinite.  Although the various kaolin
clays do differ in chemical  and  physical  properties  the  main
reason for distinction has been commercial usage.  Both fire clay
and  ball  clay  are  kaolinic  clays.   Kaolin is mined in South
Carolina and Georgia and is used as fillers and  pigments.   Ball
clays  consist principally of kaolinite, but have a higher silica
to alumina ratio than is found in most  kaolins  in  addition  to
larger  quantities  of  mineral impurities, the presence of minor
                               63

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quantities of montmorillonite and  organic  material.   They  are
usually  much finer grained than kaolins due to their sedimentary
origin and set the standards for plasticity of clays.  Ball clays
are mined in western Kentucky, western Tennessee and New  Jersey.
Specifications for ball clays are based on methods of preparation
 (crude,   shredded,  air  floated)   and  pertinent  physical  and
chemical properties, which are much the same as those for kaolin.
The prinicpal use for ball clay is in whitewares (i.e. china).

                       MISCELLANEOUS CLAYS

Miscellaneous   clays   may   contain    some    kaolinite    and
montmorillonite, but usually illite predominates, particularly in
the  shales.   There  are  no specific recognized grades based on
preparation, and very little based on usage, although such a clay
may sometimes be referred to as common,  brick,  sewer  pipe,  or
tile clay.  Specifications are based on the physical and chemical
characteristics    of    the    products.     The   environmental
considerations are significant, not because  the  waste  products
from  clay  mining are particularly offensive, but because of the
large number of operations and the necessity for locating them in
or near heavily populated consumption centers.

                       FELDSPAR (SIC 1459)

Feldspar is a general term used to designate a group  of  closely
related  minerals,  especially  abundant  in  igneous  rocks  and
consisting essentially of aluminum silicates in combination  with
varying  proportions  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  calcium.  The
feldspars are the most abundant minerals  in  the  crust  of  the
earth.    The   principal  feldspar  species  are  orthoclase  or
microcline  (both K2O«Aj.2O3»6Siq2) , albite (Na20«Al2O.3«6SiO.2) , and
anorthite   (CaO»Al_2O_3«2SiOji!) .   Specimens  of  feldspar   closely
approaching  the  ideal  compositions  are  seldom encountered in
nature,  however,  and  nearly  all  potash   feldspars   contain
significant proportions of soda.  Albite and anorthite are really
the  theoretical end members of a continuous compositional series
known as the plagioclase feldspars, none of which,  moreover,  is
ordinarily without at least a minor amount of potash.

Originally,  only  the  high  potash  feldspars  were regarded as
desirable for most industrial purposes.  At present, however,  in
many  applications  the potash and the soda varieties, as well as
mixtures  of  the  two,  are  considered  to  be  about   equally
acceptable.  Perthite is the name given to material consisting of
orthoclase or microcline, the crystals of which are intergrown to
a  variable degree with crystals of albite.  Most of the feldspar
of commerce can be classified correctly as  perthite.   Anorthite
and   the   plagioclase   feldspars  are  of  limited  commercial
importance.

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Until a few decades ago virtually all the  feldspar  employed  in
industry  was material occurring in pegmatite deposits as massive
crystals pure enough to require  no  treatment  other  than  hand
cobbing  to  bring  it  to usable grade.  More recently, however,
stimulated by  the  often  unfavorable  location  of  the  richer
pegmatite  deposits  relative  to  markets and by the prospect of
eventual exhaustion of such sources, more than 90 percent of  the
total  current  domestic  supply  is extracted from such feldspar
bearing rocks as alaskite and from beach sands.  A large part  of
the material obtained from beach sands is in the form of feldspar
silica  mixtures  that  can be used, with little or no additional
processing, as furnace feed ingredients  in  the  manufacture  of
glass.   In fact, this use is so prominent that feldspathic sands
are considered under industrial sands.

Nepheline syenite is a feldspathic, igneous reck  which  contains
little   or   no   free   silica,   but  does  contain  nepheline
(KjJO«3Na_2O»4Al2q3»9Si(D2).  The valuable properties  of  nepheline
are  the same as those of feldspar, therefore, nepheline syenite,
being a mixture of the two, is a desirable ingredient  of  glass,
whiteware  and  ceramic  glazes  and  enamels.   A  high  quality
nepheline syenite is mined  in  Ontario,  Canada,  and  is  being
imported into the U.S. in ever increasing quantities for ceramics
manufacture.   Deposits  of  the  mineral  exist  in  the U.S. in
Arkansas, New Jersey, and Montana,  but  mining  occurs  only  in
Arkansas,  just  outside  of  Little Rock.  There, the mineral is
mined in open pits as a secondary product to crushed rock.  Since
this is the only mining of this material in the U.S.  it will not
be considered further.

Rocks that are high in feldspar and low in  iron  and  that  have
been  mined for the feldspar content have received special names,
for instance aplite (found near Piney River, Virginia),  alaskite
(found near Spruce Pine, North Caroline) and perthite.   The major
feldspar producing states are North Carolina, Calfironia, the New
England states, Colorado ,and South Dakota.

Feldspar  and  feldspathic  materials  in  general  are  mined by
various systems depending upon the nature of the  deposits  being
exploited.   Because  underground operations entail higher costs,
as long  as  the  overburden  ratio  will  permit  and  land  use
conflicts  are not a decisive factor, most feldspathic rocks will
continue to be quarried by open pit procedures using  drills  and
explosives.   Feldspathic  sand  deposits  are  mined by dragline
excavators.  High grade, selectively mined feldspar  from  coarse
structured  pegmatites  can  be crushed in jaw crushers and rolls
and then subjected to dry milling in flint lined pebble mills.

Feldspar ores of the alaskite type  are  mostly  beneficiated  by
froth  flotation  processes.  The customary procedure begins with
primary and  secondary  comminution  and  fine  grinding  in  jaw
crushers,  cone  crushers,  and  rod  mills,  respectively.   The
                               65

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sequence continues with acid circuit flotation in  three  stages,
each  staqe preceded fcy desliming and conditioning.  In the first
flotation step an amine collector floats off mica, and the second
uses sulfonated oils to  separate  iron  bearing  minerals.   The
third  step  floats  the  feldspar  with another amine collector,
leaving behind a residue that consists chiefly of quartz.

                       KYANITE (SIC 1459)

Kyanite  and  the  related  minerals,  andalusite,   sillimanite,
dumortierite, and topaz, are natural aluminum silicates which can
be  converted  by  heating  to  mullite,  a stable refractory raw
material  with  some  interstitial  glass  also   being   formed.
Kyanite,  and  alusite  and  sillinanite  have  the basic formula
A1203_.SiO_2.  Dumortierite  contains  boron,  and  topaz  contains
fluorine, both of which vaporize during the conversion to mullite
(3Al203.2Si02) .

With  the  exception  of  the  production  of  a  small amount of
by-product kyanite and sillimanite  from  Florida  heavy  mineral
operations,  the  bulk  of domestic kyanite production is derived
from two mining operations in  Virginia,  operated  by  the  same
company, and one in Georgia.  The mining and process methods used
by  these  producers are basically the same.  Mines are open pits
in which the hard rock must be blasted loose.  The ore is  hauled
to  the  nearby facilities in trucks where the ore is crushed and
then reduced in rodmills.   Three  stage  flotation  is  used  to
obtain a kyanite concentrate.  This product is further treated by
magnetic separation to remove most of the magnetic iron.  Some of
the  concentrate is marketed as raw kyanite, while the balance is
further ground and/or calcined to produce mullite.

Florida beach sand deposits are worked primarily for  zircon  and
titanium  minerals,  but  the  tailings  from the zircon recovery
units contain appreciable quantities of sillimanite and  kyanite,
which  can  be  recovered  by flotation and magnetic separations.
Production and  marketing  of  Florida  sillimanite  and  kyanite
concentrates started in 1968.  The principal end uses for kyanite
are  iron  and  steel,  primary nonferrous metals, secondary non-
ferrous metals, boilers and glass.

                      MAGNESITE (SIC 1459)

Magnesium is the eighth most plentiful element in the earth  and,
in  its  many  forms, comprises about 2.06 percent of the earth's
crust.  Although it is found in 60 or more minerals,  only  four,
dolomite,  magnesite, brucite, and olivine, are used commercially
to produce magnesium compounds.  Currently dolomite is  the  only
domestic  ore  used  as  principal  raw  material  for  producing
magnesium metal.  Sea water and brines are also principal sources
of magnesium.  It is the third most abundant element dissolved in
sea  water,  averaging  0.13   percent   magnesium   by   weight.
                               66

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Extraction  of  magnesium from sea water is so closely associated
with the manufacture of refractories that it is discussed in  the
clay and gypsum products point source category.

Dolomite is the double carbonate of magnesium and calcium, and is
a sedimentary rock commonly interbedded with limestone, extending
over  large  areas of the United States.  Most dolomites probably
result  from  the  replacement  of  calcium   by   magnesium   in
preexisting  limestone  beds.   Magnesite,  the  natural  form of
magnesium carbonate, is found in bedded deposits, as deposits  in
veins,  pockets, and shear zones in ferro-magnesium rocks, and as
replacement  bodies  in  limestone  and  dolomite.    Significant
deposits  occur  in Nevada, California, and Washington.  Brucite,
the natural form of magnesium hydroxide, is found in  crystalline
limestone  and  as a decomposition product of magnesium silicates
associated with serpentine, dolomite,  magnesite,.  and  chromite.
Olivine,  or  chrystolite,  is  a magnesium iron silicate usually
found in association with other igneous rocks such as basalt  and
gabbro.   It  is  the  principal  constituent  of a rock known as
dunite.  Commercial deposits occur in Washington, North Carolina,
and Georgia.

Evaporites are deposits formed by  precipitation  of  salts  from
saline  solutions.   They  are  found  both  on  the  surface and
underground.  The Carlsbad, New Mexico, and the Great  Salt  Lake
evaporite  deposits are sources of magnesium compounds.  The only
significant commercial source of magnesium  compounds  from  well
brines is in Michigan, although brines are known to occur in many
other  areas.   This  form  of  mining  is  included in the clay,
gypsum, ceramics and  refractory  products  report  since  it  is
closely related to refractories manufacturing.

Selective  open-pit  mining  methods  are being used to mine mag-
nesite at Gabbs, Nevada.  This facility is the  only  known  U.S.
facility   that   produces   magnesia  from  naturally  occurring
magnesite ore.

Magnestie and  brucite  ore  are  delivered  from  the  mines  to
gyratory  or  jaw  crushers  where  it  is  reduced to a minus 13
centimeter  (5 inch) size.  It is further  crushed  to  minus  6.U
centimeters   (2.5   inches)   and  conveyed  to  storage  piles.
Magnesite ore is either used directly or  beneficiated  by  heavy
media  separation  or  froth  flotation.   Refractory magnesia is
produced by blending, grinding and briquetting various grades  of
magnesite   with  certain  additives  to  provide  the  desirable
refractory product.  The deadburning takes place in rotary  kilns
which  develop  temperatures in the range of 1490-1760°C (2700 to
3200°F).
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When the source of magnesia is  sea  water  or
waters  are  treated with calcined dolomite or
oyster shell  by  calcining,  to  precipitate
magnesium  hydroxide.  The magnesium hydroxide
to remove water, after which it is conveyed to
to temperatures that may be as high  as  1850°C
calcined  product  contains  approximately  97
principal uses for magnesium compounds follow:
                   well  brine,  the
                  lime obtained from
                  the  magnesium  as
                  slurry is filtered
                  rotary kilns fired
                    (3,360°F).   The
                   percent MgO.  The
Compound and grade

Magnesium oxide:
    Refractory grades

    Caustic-calcined
          Use
    U.S.P. and technical
    grades
Precipitated magnesium
carbonate
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium chloride
Basic refractories.

Cement, rayon, fertilizer,
insulation, magnesium metal,
rubber, fluxes, refractories,
chemical processing and manu-
facturing, uranium processing,
paper processing.

Rayon, rubber  (filler and
catalyst), refractories, medi-
cines, uranium processing,
fertilizer, electrical insula-
tion, neoprene compounds and
other chemicals, cement.

Insulation, rubber pigments
and paint, glass, ink, ceramics,
chemicals, fertilizers.

Sugar refining, magnesium oxide,
Pharmaceuticals.

Magnesium metal, cement, ceramics,
textiles,  paper, chemicals.
Basic refractories used in metallurgical  furnaces  are  produced
from  magnesium  oxide and accounted for over 80 percent ot total
domestic demand for magnesium in 1968.  Technological advances in
steel production required higher temperatures which were  met  by
refractories  manufactured  from  high purity magnesia capable of
withstanding temperatures above 1930°C (3,500°F).

            SHALE AND OTHER CLAY MINERALS (SIC 1459)
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                             SHALES

Shale  is  a  soft  laminated  sedimentary  rock  in  which   the
constituent  particles are predominantly of the clay grade.  Just
as clay possesses varying properties and uses, the  same  can  be
said  of  shale.   Thus, the word shale does not connote a single
mineral, inasmuch as the properties of a given shale are  largely
dependent on the properties of the originating clay species.  The
mining  of  shales  depends on the nature of the specific deposit
and on the amount and  nature  of  the  overburden.   While  some
deposits  are  mined  underground, the majority of shale deposits
are worked as open guarries.

Shales  and  common  clays  are  used  interchangeably   in   the
manufacture '  of  formed  and  fired  ceramic  products  and  are
freguently mixed prior to processing for optimization of  product
properties.   Ceramic  products  consume  about 70 percent of the
shale production.  Certain impure shales  (and  clays)   have  the
property  of  expanding to a cellular mass when rapidly heated to
1000 - 1300°C.  On sudden cooling, the melt forms a  porous  slag
like material which is screened to produce a lightweight concrete
aggregate  with  a  density  of  960-1800 kg/m3 (60-110 lb/ft.3).
Probably 20 to 25 percent of the total market for shale goes into
aggregate production.

                             APLITE

Aplite is a granitic rock of variable  composition  with  a  high
proportion of soda or lime soda feldspar.  It is therefore useful
as  a  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  container glass.
Processing of the ore primarily achieves particle size  reduction
and  removal  of  all  but  a very small fraction of iron bearing
minerals.  Aplite is produced in the U.S. from  only  two  mines,
both  in Virginia (Nelson County and Hanover County).  The aplite
rock in Hanover County has been decomposed so completely that  it
is mined without resort to drilling or blasting.

      TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE  (SIC 1496)

The   mineral   talc  is  a  soft,  hydrous  magnesium  silicate,
3MgO«4SiO.2«H2;O.  The talc  of  highest  purity  is  derived  from
sedimentary  magnesiuir carbonate rocks; less pure talc from ultra
basic igneous rocks.

Steatite has been used to designate a grade  of  industrial  talc
that  is  especially  pure  and is suitable for making electronic
insulators.  Block steatite is a massive form of talc that can be
readily machined, has a uniform low shrinkage in all  directions,
has  a  low  absorption when fired at high temperature, and gives
proper electrical  resistance  values  after  firing.   Phosphate
bonded  talc  which  is approximately equivalent to natural block
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can be manufactured in any desired amount.   French  chalk  is  a
soft, massive variety of talc used for marking cloth.

Soapstones  refer  to the sub-steatite, massive varieties of talc
and mixtures of magnesium silicates  which  with  few  exceptions
have a slippery feeling and can be carved by hand.

Pyrophyllite  is  a  hydrous aluminum silicate similar to talc in
properties  and  in  most  applications,  and  its   formula   is
Al2q3*4Si02«H20.   It  is  principally  found  in  North Carlina.
Wonderstone is a term applied to  a  massive  block  pyrophyllite
from  the  Republic  of  South  Africa.  The uses of pyrophyllite
include wall tile, refractories, paints, wallboard, insecticides,
soap, textiles, cosmetics, rubber, composition battery boxes  and
welding rod coatings.

During  1968  talc  was  produced from 52 mines in Alabama, Cali-
fornia, Georgia,  Maryland,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  York,  North
Carolina,  Texas,  and  Vermont.   Soapstone was produced from 13
mines  in  Arkansas,  California,   Maryland,   Nevada,   Oregon,
Virginia,  and  Washington.   Pyrophyllite  was  produced from 10
mines in California and North Carolina.  Sericite schist, closely
resembling pyrophyllite in physical and chemical properties,  was
produced  in  Pennsylvania  and  included  with  the pyrophyllite
statistics.

The facility size breakdown is as follows:
    Numbers of                         Production
    Facilities                         tons/yr

       6                              < 1,000
      22                             1,000 - 10,000
      20                            10,000 - 100,000
       3                           100,000 - 1,000,000

Slightly  more  than  half  of  the  industrial  talc  is   mined
underground  and  the  rest  is  quarried  as  is  soapstone  and
pyrophyllite.  Small quantities of block talc also are removed by
surface methods.  Underground  operations  are  usually  entirely
within the ore body and thus reguire timber supports that must be
carefully placed because of the slippery nature of the ore.

Mechanization  of  underground  mines has become common in recent
years, especially in North Carolina and California where the  ore
body  ranges  in thickness from 3 to 4.6 meters  (10 to 15 ft) and
dips 12 to 19 degrees from horizontal.  In those mines where  the
ore  body  suffers  vein dips of greater than 20 degrees, complex
switchbacks are introduced to provide the  gentle  slopes  needed
for  easier truck haulage of the ore.  At one quarry in Virginia,
soapstone  for  decorative  facing  is  mined  in  large   blocks
approximately  1.2  by  2.H by 3.0 meters  (U by  8 by 10 ft) which
are cut into slices by gang saws with blades spaced about 7.6  cm
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 (3  in)  apart.   In  the mining of block talc of crayon grade, a
minimum of  explosive  is  used  to  avoid  shattering  the  ore;
extraction  of  the  blocks is done with hand equipment to obtain
sizes as large as possible.

When mining ore of different  grades  within  the  same  deposit,
selective  mining  and  hand sorting must be used.  Operations of
the  mill  and  mine  are  coordinated,  and   when   a   certain
specification is to be produced at the mill, the desired grade of
ore  is  obtained  at  the mine.  This type of mining and/or hand
sorting is commonly used for assuring the proper quality  of  the
output of crude talc group minerals.

Roller mills, in closed circuit with air separators, are the most
satisfactory for fine grinding  (100 to 325 mesh) of soft talcs or
pyrophyllites.   For  more  abrasive  varieties, such as New York
talc and North Carolina ceramic grade pyrophyllite,  grinding  to
100  to  325  mesh is effected in quartzite or silex lined pebble
mills, with guartzite pebbles as a grinding medium.  These  mills
are   ordinarily  in  closed  circuit  with  air  separators  but
sometimes are used as batch grinders, especially if reduction  to
finer particle sizes is required.

Talc and pyrophyllite are amenable to processing in an additional
microgrinding  apparatus.   Microgrinding  or micronizing is also
done in fluid systems with subsequent air drying of the  product.
The  principal  end  uses  for  talc and its related minerals are
ceramics,  paint,  roofing,  insecticides,  paper,  refractories,
rubber and toilet preparations.

                  NATURAL ABRASIVES (SIC 1«»99)

Abrasives  consist of materials of extreme hardness that are used
to shape other materials by grinding or  abrading  action.   Such
materials  may  be classified as either natural or synthetic.  Of
interest  here  are  the  natural  abrasive  minerals  cleamorid,
corundum,   emery,   pumice,   tripoli  and  garnet.   Of  lesser
importance are feldspar, calcined clays, chalk and silica in  its
many  forms  such  as  sandstones,  sand,  flint  and  diatomite.
Abrasive sand is covered in industrial sand.

                            CORUNDUM

Corundum is  a  mineral  with  the  composition  A.12O3  that  was
crystallized  in  a  hexagonal  form  by  igneous and metamorphic
processes.  Abrasive grade corundum has not  been  mined  in  the
United  States  for  more than 60 years.  There is no significant
environmental problem posed by the processing of some  2,360  kkg
of    imported   corundum  per  year  (1968  data),  and  further
consideration will be dropped.
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                              EMERY

Emery  consists  of  an  intimate  admixture  of  corundum   with
magnetite  or  hematite,  and  spinel.  The major domestic use of
emery involves its  incorporation  into  aggregates  as  a  rough
ground  product  for use as heavy duty, non-skid flooring and for
skid resistant highways.  Additional quantities  (25  percent  of
total  consumption)  are  used  in general abrasive applications.
Recent statistics show the  continuing  downturn  in  demand  for
emery  resulting  from the increasing competition with such arti-
ficial abrasives as A1J2CX3 and Sic.  Production is estimated to be
11,000 kkg/yr  (10.000 tons/yr).  Emery is not considered  further
in  this report because it is not economically significant and no
environmental problems are noted.

                             TRIPOLI

Tripoli is the generic name applied to a number of fine  grained,
lightweight,   friable,  minutely  porous,  forms  of  decomposed
siliceous rock, presumably derived from siliceous  limestones  or
calcareous  cherts.  Tripoli is often confused, in both the trade
and technical literature, with tripolite,  a  diatomaceous  earth
(diatomite)  found in Tripoli, North Africa.

The  two  major  working deposits of tripoli occur in the Seneca,
Missouri  area  and  in  southern  Illinois.   The  Missouri  ore
resembles tripolite and was incorrectly named tripoli.  This name
has  persisted for the ore from the Missouri-Oklahoma field.  The
material from the southern Illinois area is often refered  to  as
"amorphous"  or "soft" silica.  In both cases the ore contains 97
to 99 percent Si02 with minor additions of alumina,  iron,  lime,
soda  and  potash.  The rottenstone obtained from Pennsylvania is
of higher density and has a composition approximately 60  percent
silica,  18  percent  alumina,  9  percent iron oxides, 8 percent
alkalies and the remainder lime and magnesia.

Tripoli mining involves two different processes depending on  the
nature  of  the  ore  and  of  the  overburden.  In the Missouri-
Oklahoma area, the shallow overburden of approximately  2  meters
(six  ft) in thickness coupled with tripoli beds ranging from 0.6
to 4.3m  (2 to 14 ft) in  thickness,  lends  itself  to  open  pit
mining.   The tripoli is first hand sorted for texture and color,
then piled in open sheds to air dry (the native ore is  saturated
with  water)  for  three  to  six  months.  The dried material is
subsequenly crushed with hammer mills and rolls.

In the southern Illinois field, due to the terrain and the  heavy
overburden,  underground  mining using a modified room-and-pillar
method is practiced.  The resulting ore is  commonly  wet  milled
after  crushing  to 0.63 to 1.27 cm (C.25 to 0.50 in); the silica
is fine ground in  tube  mills  using  flint  linings  and  flint
pebbles  in  a  closed circuit system with bowl classifiers.  The
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resulting sized  product  is  thickened,  dried  and  packed  for
shipment.

Tripoli  is  primarily used as an abrasive or as a constituent of
abrasive materials polishing and buffing copper, aluminum,  brass
and  zinc.  In addition, the pulverized product is widely used as
the abrasive element in scouring soaps and powders,  in  polishes
for  the metal working trades and as a mild mechanical cleaner in
washing  powders  for  fabrics.   The  pure  white  product  from
southern Illinois, when finely ground, is widely used as a filler
in  paint.  The other colors of tripoli are often used as fillers
in the manufacture of  linoleum,  phonograph  records,  and  pipe
coatings.   Total U. S. production of tripoli in  1971 was of the
order of 68,000 kkg, some 70 percent of  which  was  used  as  an
abrasive, the remainder as filler.

                             GARNET

Garnet   is   an   orthosilicate   having   the  general  formula
3RO«XJ2OJ«3Si02 where the  bivalent  element  R  may  be  calcium,
magnesium,  ferrous  iron  or manganese; the trivalent element X,
aluminum, ferric ircn or chromium, rarely titanium; further,  the
silicon is occasionally replaced by titanium.

The  members of the garnet group of minerals are common accessory
minerals in a large variety of rocks,  particularly  in  gneisses
and   schists.   They  are  also  found  in  contact  metamorphic
deposits,  in  crystalline   limestones;   pegmatites;   and   in
serpentines.   Although  garnet  deposits  are  located in almost
every state of the United States and in many  foreign  countries,
practically  the  entire world production comes from New York and
Idaho.  The Adirondack deposit consists of an  alamandite  garnet
having  incipient lamellar parting planes which cause it to break
under pressure into thin chisel edge plates.  Even  when  crushed
to  very fine size this material still retains this sharp slivery
grain shape, a feature of particular  importance  in  the  coated
abrasive field.

The  New  York mine is worked by open guarry methods.  The ore is
guarried in benches about 10.7 m  (35 ft) in  height,  trucked  to
the  mill and dumped on a pan conveyor feeding a 61 - 91 cm (2U x
36 in) jaw crusher.  The secondary crusher which is a standard  4
foot  Symonds cone is in closed circuit with a 1-1/2 inch screen.
The minus 3.8 cm  (1 1/2 in)  material is screened  on  a  10  mesh
screen.   The  oversize  from  the  screen  goes to a heavy media
separation  facility  while  the  undersize  is  classified   and
concentrated  on  jigs.   The  very  fine  material is treated by
flotation.   The  combined  concentrates,  which  have  a  garnet
content  of  about  98  percent, are then crushed, sized and heat
treated.  It has been found that heat treatment, to about 700  to
800°  C will improve the hardness, toughness, fracture properties
and color of the treated garnets.
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The only other significant production of garnets  in  the  United
States  is  situated  on  Emerald Creek in Benewah County, Idaho.
This deposit is an alluvial deposit of alamandite garnets  caused
by  the  erosion of soft mica schists in which the garnets have a
maximum grain size of about 4.8 mm (3/16 in).  The garnet bearing
gravel is mined by drag line, concentrated on trommels  and  jigs
then  crushed  and  screened  into various sizes.  This garnet is
used mainly for sandblasting and as filtration media.

Approximately 45 percent of the garnet marketed is  used  in  the
manufacture  of  abrasive  coated papers, about 35 percent in the
glass and optical industries and the remainder for sand  blasting
and miscellaneous uses.

                      DIATOMITE (SIC 1499)

Diatomite  is  a  siliceous  rock of sedimentary origin which may
vary in the degree of consolidation, but which consists mainly of
the fossilized remains of the protective silica shells formed  by
diatoms,  single  celled  non-flowering  microscopic plants.  The
size, shape and structure of the  individual  fossils  and  their
mass   packing   characteristics  result  in  microscopic  porous
material of low specific gravity.

There are  numerous  sediments  which  contain  diatom  residues,
admixed  with  substantial  amounts  of other materials including
clays, carbonates or silica; these materials  are  classified  as
diatomaceous  silts,  shales  or mudstones; they are not properly
diatomite, a designation restricted to material of  such  quality
that  it is suitable for commercial uses.  The terms diatomaceous
earth and kieselgur are  synonymous  with  diatomite;  the  terms
infusorial   earth   and   tripolite   are  considered  obsolete.
Diatomaceous silica is the most appropriate  designation  of  the
principal  component  of diatomite.  Commercially useful deposits
of diatomite show SiO2 concentrations ranging from a  low  of  86
percent   (Nevada) to a high of 90.75 percent  (Lompoc, California)
for the United States producers;  the  Si
-------
processes would not have altered the diatomite to the rather more
indurated materials such as porcelanite and the opaline cherts.

The upper tertiary period was the period of maximum diatom growth
and  subsequent  deposit  formation.  The great beds near Lompoc,
California are upper Miocene and lower Pliocene (about 20 million
years old); formations of similar origin and age occur along  the
California coast line from north of San Francisco to south of San
Diego.   Most  of  the  dry  lake deposits of California, Nevada,
Oregon and Washington are of  freshwater  origin  formed  in  the
later tertiary of the Pleistocene age (less than 12 million years
old) .

Currently,  the  only  significant production of diatomite within
the U.S. is in the western states, with  California  the  leading
producer,  followed  fcy Nevada, Oregon and Washington.  Commonly,
beds of ordinary sedimentary rocks such as shales, sandstones, or
limestone overlie and underlie the diatomite beds; thus the first
step in mining reguires the  removal  of  the  overburden,  which
ranges from zero to about 15 times the thickness of the diatomite
bed,  by  ordinary earth moving machinery.  The ore is ordinarily
dug by power shovels usually without the  necessity  of  previous
fragmentation by drilling or blasting.

Initial  processing  of  the  ore  involves  size  reduction by a
primary crusher followed by further  size  reduction  and  drying
(some  diatomite ores contain up to 60 percent water)  in a blower
hammer mill combination  with  a  pneumatic  feed  and  discharge
system.   The suspended particles in the hot gases pass through a
series of cyclones and a. oaghouse where they are  separated  into
appropriate particle size groups.

The  uses  of  diatomite result from the size (from 10 to greater
than 500 microns in diameter), shape  (generally  spiny  structure
of  intricate  geometry)  and  the packing characteristics of the
diatom shells.  Since physical  contact  between  the  individual
fossil  shells  is  chiefly  at the outer points of the irregular
surfaces,  the  resulting  compact  material  is  microscopically
porous  with an apparent density of only 80 to 260 kg/m3  (5 to 16
lbs/ft3)  for  ground  diatomite.   The  processed  material  has
dimensional  stability  to  temperatures  of the order of 400° C.
The principal end uses  for  diatomite  are  thermal  insulation,
industrial  and municipal water treatment, and food, beverage and
pharmaceutical processing.

                       GRAPHITE  (SIC 1499)

Natural graphite is the mineral form of elemental  carbon,  crys-
tallized  predominately  in  the  hexagonal  system  and found in
silicate minerals of varying  kind  and  percentage.   The  three
principal  types of natural occurrence of graphite are classified
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as  lump,  amorphous  and  crystalline  flake,   based  on   major
differences in geologic origin and occurrence.

Lump graphite occurs as fissure filled veins wherein the graphite
is  typically  massive  with particle size ranging from extremely
fine grains to coarse, platy intergrowths or fibrous to  acicular
aggregates.   The  origin of vein type deposits is believed to be
either hydrothermal or pneumatolytic since there is  no  apparent
relationship  between  the veins and the host rock.  A variety of
minerals generally in the form of  isolated  pockets  or  grains,
occur  with graphite, including feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene,
zircon, rutile, apatite and iron sulfides.

Amorphous graphite, which is  fine  grained,  soft,  dull  black,
earthy  looking  and ususally somewhat porous,  is formed by meta-
morphism of coalbeds by nearby intrusions.  Although  the  purity
of  amorphous graphite depends on the purity of the coalbeds from
which it was derived, it is usually associated  with  sandstones,
shales,  slates  and  limestones  and contains accessory minerals
such as guartz, clays and iron sulfides.

Flake graphite, which is believed to have been  formed  by  meta-
morphism  from  sedimentary  carbon  inclusions  within  the host
rocks, commonly occurs disseminated in  regionally  metamorphosed
sedimentary  rocks  such  as  gneisses, schists and marbles.  The
only domestic producer is located near Burnet,  Texas  and  mines
the  flake graphite by open pit methods utilizing a 5,5 m  (18 ft)
bench pan.  The ore is hard and  tough  and  thus  reguires  much
secondary  blasting.  The broken ore is hauled by motor trucks to
the mill.

Because of the  premium  placed  upon  the  mesh  size  of  flake
graphite,  the  problem in milling is one of grinding to free the
graphite without reducing the flake  size  excessively;  this  is
difficult because during grinding, the graphite flakes are cut by
guartz  and  other  sharp gangue materials, thus rapidly reducing
the flake size.  However, if the flake can be removed  from  most
of  the  guartz  and other sharp minerals soon enough, subseguent
grinding will usually reduce the size  of  the  remaining  gangue
with  little  further reduction in the size of the flake.  Impact
grinding or ball milling reduces flake size  rather  slowly,  the
grinding characteristics of flake graphite under these conditions
being similar to those of mica.

Graphite  floats readily and does not require a collector; hence,
flotation  has  become  the  accepted  method  for  beneficiating
disseminated   ores.    Although   high  recoveries  are  common,
concentrates  with  acceptable  graphitic  carbon   content   are
difficult  to  attain  and indeed with some ores impossible.  The
chief problem lies with the depression  of  the  gangue  minerals
since  relatively  pure  grains of guartz, mica, and other gangue
minerals inadvertently become smeared with fine graphite,  making
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them  floatable  and  resulting  in  the  necessity  for repeated
cleaning of the  concentrates  to  attain  high  grade  products.
Regrinding  a rougher concentrate reduces the number of cleanings
needed.  Much  of  the  natural  flake  either  has  a  siliceous
skeleton  (which can be observed when the carbon is burned) or is
composed of a layer of mica  between  outer  layers  of  graphite
making  it  next  to impossible to obtain a high grade product by
flotation.

               MISCELLANEOUS NON-METALLIC MINERALS
                            (SIC 1499)

                              JADE

The term jade is applied primarily to the  two  minerals  jadeite
and  nephrite,  both  minerals being exceedingly tough with color
varying from white to green.  Jadeite, which is a sodium aluminum
silicate  (NaAlSi2:oj>) contains varying amounts  of  iron,  calcium
and magnesium is found only in Asia.  Nephrite is a tough compact
variety  of the mineral tremolite (Ca2Mg5Si8O.22(OH) 2)  which is an
end member of an isomorphous  series  wherein  iron  may  replace
magnesium.   In  the U.S. production of jade minerals is centered
in Wyoming, California and Alaska.

                           NOVACULITE

Novaculite is a generic name for massive and.  extensive  geologic
formations  of hard, compact, homogenous, microcrystalline silica
located in the vicinity of  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.   There  are
three  strata  of  novaculite  	 lower, middle, and upper.  The
upper strata is not compacted and is a highly friable  ore  which
is   guarried,   crushed,  dried  and  air  classified  prior  to
packaging.  Chief uses are as  filler  in  plastics,  pigment  in
paints, and as a micron sized metal polishing agent.

                            WHETSTONE

Whetstones,  and  other  sharpening stones, are produced in small
volume across the U.S. wherever deposits of very  hard  silaceous
rock  occur.   However,  the  largest  center of sharpening stone
manufacture is in the Hot Springs, Arkansas, area.  This area has
extensive out-cropping deposits  of  very  hard  and  guite  pure
silica,  called  "Novaculite", which are mined and processed into
whetstones.  Most of the mining and processing is done on a  very
small  scale  by  individuals or very small companies.  The total
production in 1972 of all special silica stone products (grinding
pebbles,   grindstones,   oilstones,   tube-mill   liners,    and
whetstones)  was  only  2,940  kkg  (3,240  tons) with a value of
$670,000.   This   production   is   neither   economically   nor
environmentally  significant  and  will not be treated further in
this report.
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                           SECTION IV


                     INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
The first cut in subcategorization was made on a commodity basis.
This was necessary because of the large number of commodities and
in  order  to  avoid  insufficient  study  of   any   one   area.
Furthermore,  the  economics  of  each  commodity differs, and an
individual assessment is necessary to insure  that  the  economic
impact   is  not  a  limiting  factor  in  establishing  effluent
treatment technologies.  Table 10 lists the subcagegories in this
report.

Manufacturing Processes

Each commodity can be  further  sutcategorized  into  three  very
general  classes  -  dry  crushing and grinding, wet crushing and
grinding (shaping), and  crushing  and  beneficiation  (including
flotation,   heavy  media,  et  al).   Each  of these processes is
described in detail in Section V of this  report.   The  type  of
manufacturing  process  can  significantly  affect the amount and
type of pollutants generated  and  their  treatability.   It  can
therefore  be  a basis for further subcategorization.  Water from
the  mine,   such  as  mine  pumpout  and  runoff,  is  considered
separately  from  process water unless the two are technically or
economically inseparable.

Raw Materials

The raw materials used are principally  ores  which  vary  across
this  segment  of  the  industry  and  also  vary  within a given
deposit.  Despite these variations, differencies in ore grades do
not  generally  affect  the  ability  to  achieve  the   effluent
limitations.   In  cases  where  it does, different processes are
used, and subcategorization is better applied by process type  as
described in the above paragraph.

Product Purity

The  mineral  extraction  processes  covered in this report yield
products which vary in purity from what  would  be  considered  a
chemical  technical  grade  to  an essentially analytical reagent
quality.  Pure product manufacture usually generates  more  waste
than  the  production of lower grades of material, and thus could
be a basis for subcategorization.  As is the case  for  variation
of  ore  grade  discussed  under  raw  materials previously, pure
products usually result from different  beneficiation  processes,
and subcategorization is better applied there.
                               79

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                                   TABLE 10
                         Industry Categorization
Commodity

Dimension Stone
Crushed stone
Construction
  Sand and Gravel
Industrial Sand
Gypscji
Asphaltle Minerals
Asbestos and
  Wollastonlte

Lightweight
  Aggregates

Mica sad Sericite
                         SIC Codu
1422. 1423,
1429, 1499

1442
1446



1492


1499


1499


1499


1499
Barite
Fluorspar
Salines from
  Brine Lakes
Borax
Potash
Trona
Sodlua Sulfate
Bock Salt
Phosphate Rock

Sulfur (Frasch)
Mineral Figments
Lithium Minerals
Bentonite
Fire Clay
Fuller's Earth

Kaolin
 Ball  Clay

 Feldspar

 Kyanlte
 Magnetite
 Shale & Common
   Clay, NEC
 Talc Minerals Croup
 Natural Abrasives

 Dlatomlte
 Graphite
 Misc. Minerals.
   Not Elsewhere
   Classified
1472. 3295


1473, 3295


various

1474
1474
1474
1474
1476
1475

1477
 1479
 1479
 1452
 1453
 1454

 1455
 1455

 1459

 1459
 1459
 1459

 1496
 1499

 1499
 1499
 1499
Subcategory

No further aubcategorizatlon
Dry
Wet
Flotation
Dry
Wet
Dredging, on-land processing
Dredge water plant intake vater
Dry
Wet
Flotation (acid and alkali)
Flotation (HF)
Dry
Dry, wet scrubbers
EMS
Bituminous limestone
Oil impregnated diatonlte
Silaonlte
Asbestos, Dry
Asbestos, Wet
Kollastonite
Ferllte
Pumice
Vermiculice
Dry
Wet
Wet beneficlatlon
either no clay CT
general purpose
clay by-product
Wet beneficlation
cer. gr. by-product
Dry
Wet
Flotation
Heavy media separation
notation
Drying and pelletl^lng
No further subcategorization

No further subcategorization
No further subcategorization
No further subcategorizatioa
No further subcategorization
No further subcategorization
Flotation units
Non-flotation units
Anhydrite
On-shore
Off-shore
No further subcategorization
No further subcategorization
No further subcategorization
No further subcategorization
Attapulglte
Montnorillonlte
Dry Kaolin mining  and processing
Kaolin mining and  wet processing
  for high-grade product
Ball clay - dry processing
 Ball  clay - wet processing
 Feldspar wet  processing
 Feldspar dry  processing
 No further  subcacegorization
No further  aubcategorlzation
 Shale  and common  clay
 Apllte
 Talc  minerals group, dry process
 Talc  minerals Group, ore mining
   & washing
 Talc  minerals group, ore mining,
   heavy media and flotation
 Garnet
 Tripoli
 No further subcategorization
 No further subcategorization
 Jad*
 Novocul Ite
                                              80

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Facility Size

For  this  segment of the industry, information was obtained from
more than 600 different mineral mining  sites.   Capacity  varied
from  as  little as 1 to 12,500 kkq/day.  Setting standards based
on kg pollutant ioer kkg of production minimizes  the  differences
in  facility  sizes.   The  economic  impact  on facility size is
addressed in the economic analysis study.

Facility Age

The newest facility studied was less than  a  year  old  and  the
oldest  was  150  years  old.   There  is  no correlation between
facility age and the ability to  treat  process  waste  water  to
acceptable  levels  of  pollutants.   Also  the  eguipment in the
oldest facilities either operates on the  same  principle  or  is
identical  to  eguipment  used  in modern facilities.  Therefore,
facility age was not an acceptable criterion for categorization.
                               81

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                            SECTION V
              WATER USE ANE WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Waste water originates  in  the  mineral  mining  and  processing
industry from the following sources.

(1) Non-contact cooling water
(2) Process generated water - wash water
                              transport water
                              scrubber water
                              process and product consumed water
                              miscellaneous water
(3) Auxiliary process water
(H) Storm and ground water - mine dewatering
                             mine runoff
                             plant runoff

Non-contact  cooling water is defined as that cooling water which
does not come into direct contact with any raw  material,  inter-
mediate  product, by-product or product used in or resulting from
the process or any process water.  The largest use of non-contact
cooling water is for the cooling  of  crusher  bearings,  dryers,
pumps and air compressors.

Process  generated waste water is defined as that water which, in
the mineral processing operations such as crushing, washing,  and
benefication,  comes  into  direct contact with any raw material,
intermediate product, by-product or product used in or  resulting
from  the  process.   Examples  of  process generated waste water
follow.  Insignificant guantities of contact  cooling  water  are
used  in this segment of the mineral mining industry.  When used,
it usually either evaporates or remains with the  product.   Wash
water  is  used to remove fines and for washing of crushed stone,
sand and gravel.  Water is widely  used  in  the  mineral  mining
industry  to  transport ore between various process steps.  Water
is used to move crude ore from mine to  mill,  from  crushers  to
grinding  mills  and  to  transport  tailings  to final retention
ponds.  Particularly in dry processing wet scrubbers are used for
air pollution control.  These scrubbers  are  primarily  used  on
dryers,   grinding   mills,   screens,  conveyors  and  packaging
equipment.  Product consumed water is often evaporated or shipped
with the product as a slurry or wet filter  cake.   Miscellaneous
water  uses  vary  widely among the facilities with general usage
for floor washing  and  cleanup.   The  general  practice  is  to
discharge  such  streams  without  treatment or combine them with
process water prior to treatment.   Another  miscellaneous  water
use  in  this industry involves the use of sprays to control dust
at crushers,  conveyor  transfer  points,  discharge  chutes  and
                               83

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stockpiles.   This  water  is  usually  low  volume and is either
evaporated or adsorbed on the ore.

Auxiliary process water is defined as  that  used  for  processes
necessary for the manufacture of a product but not contacting the
process   materials,   for   example  influent  water  treatment.
Auxiliary process water includes blowdowns from  cooling  towers,
boilers  and water treatment.  The volume of water used for these
purposes in this industry is minimal.

Water will enter the mine area from three natural sources, direct
precipitation, storm runoff and ground  water  intrusion.   Water
contacting  the  exposed  ore  or  disturbed  overburden  will be
contaminated.   Storm  water   and   runoff   can   also   become
contaminated  at  the processing site from storage piles, process
eguipment and dusts that are emitted  during  processing.   Plant
runoff  that  does  not co-mingle with process waste water is not
process waste water.  This includes storage pile runoff.

The quantity of water usage ranges from 0  to  726,400,000  I/day
(191,900,000  gal/day).   In  general,  the facilities using very
large quantities of water use  it  for  heavy  media  separation,
flotation, wet scrubbing and non-contact cooling.

                   DIMENSION STONE (SIC 1411)

The quarrying of dimension stone can be accomplished using one of
six  primary  techniques.  some can be used singly; most are used
in  various  combinations.   These  techniques,  their  principal
combinations, and their areas of use, are discussed as follows:

(1) Drilling, with or without broaching, is done dry or wet.   On
occasion,  shallow  drilling  of holes a few centimeters apart is
the prelude to insertion of explosive charges, or to insertion of
wedges,  or  wedges  with  two  especially  shaped  iron   strips
("plugs-and-feathers").   On  other  occasions,  drilling  deeper
holes, followed by removal of stone between holes  (broaching)  is
the  primary  means  of stone cutting.  Drilling is either dry or
wet with water serving to suppress dust, to wash away stone chips
from the working zone, and to keep the drills  cool  and  prolong
the  cutting  edge.   Drilling  to  some  extent  is necessary in
virtually all dimension stone quarrying.

(2) Channel   machines   are   simple,   long,    semi-automated,
    multiple-head   chisels.   They  are  electrically  or  steam
    powered  (with the steam generating unit an integral  part  of
    each machine), and are primarily used on limestone along with
    other  technigues.   The machines are always used with water,
    primarily to remove stone chips which are formed  by  machine
    action.

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(3)  Wire saving is another technique requiring the use of  water.
    Generally,  a slurry of hard sand or silicon carbide in water
    is used in connection with the saw.  The use of wire saws  is
    probably  not  justified  in  small  quarries, as the initial
    setup is time consuming and costly.  However, the use of wire
    saws permits decreased effort later at the saw facility,  and
    will  result  in decreased loss of stone.  Wire saws are used
    chiefly on granite and limestone.

(4)  Low level explosives, particularly black powder, are used  in
    the quarrying of slate, marble, and mica schist.

(5)  Jet piercing is used primarily with granite in the  dimension
    stone  industry.   This technique is based on the use of high
    velocity  jet  flames  to  cut  channels.   It  involves  the
    combustion of fuel oil fed under pressure through a nozzle to
    attain jet flames of over 2600°C  (5000°F).  A stream of water
    joins  the  flame  and  the  combined  effect is spalling and
    disintegration of the rock into fragments which are blown out
    of the immediate zone.

(6)  Splitting techniques of one sort or another seem to  be  used
    in  the  quarry  on  nearly  all dimension stones.  Splitting
    always requires the initial spaced drilling of holes  in  the
    stone,  usually  along  a  straight  line,  and following the
    "rift" of the stone if it is well defined.  Simple wedges, or
    "plugs-and-feathers" are inserted in the holes and a  workman
    then  forces splitting by driving in the wedges with a sledge
    hammer.  This technique appears crude,  but  with  a  skilled
    workman good cuts can be made.

After a large block of stone is freed, it is either hoisted on to
a  truck  which  drives  from  the  floor  of  the  quarry to the
facility, or the block is removed from the quarry by means  of  a
derrick, and then loaded on a truck.

Most  dimension  stone  processing  facilities  are located at or
close to the quarry.  On occasion, centrally  located  facilities
serve  two  or  more quarries (facilities 3029, 3038, 3053, 3007,
3051).  To a much lesser extent, one quarry can serve two or more
processors (facilities 330U and 3305).  Also in a  well  defined,
specialized  producing  area  such  as  Barre, Vermont, two large
quarriers, who are also  stone  processors,  sell  blocks  and/or
slabs  to  approximately 50 processors.  However, the most common
situation is that in which the processor has his own quarry.   In
this  study, no situation was seen in which a quarry was operated
without an accompanying processing facility.

In dimension stone processing, the  first  step  is  to  saw  the
blocks into slabs.  The initial sawing is accomplished using gang
saws  (large  hack  saws),  wire  saws, or occasionally, rotating
diamond saws.  All saw systems use considerable water for cooling
                               85

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and  particle  removal,  but  this  water  is  usually  recycled.
Generally,  the  saw  facility  is  operated at the same physical
location as the finishing facility,  and  without  any  conscious
demarkation or separation, but in a few cases the saw facility is
either  at a separate location (facilities 303U and 3051), is not
associated with any finishing operations (facilities  3008,  3010
and  5600),  or is separately housed and operated but at the same
location  (facilities 3007 and 3001).

After the initial sawing of  blocks  to  slabs  of  predetermined
thickeness,  finishing  operations  are initiated.  The finishing
operations used on the stone are varied and are a function of the
properties of the  stone  itself,  or  are  equally  affected  by
characteristics  of  the end product.  For example, after sawing,
slate is hand  split  without  further  processing  if  used  for
structural  stone,  but  is  hand  split, trimmed, and punched if
processed into shingles, and it is  hand  split  and  trimmed  if
processed into flagstone.  Slate is rarely polished, as the rough
effect of hand splitting is desirable.  Mica schist and sandstone
are  generally  only  sawed,  since  they  are used primarily for
external  structural stone.  Limestone cannot be polished, but  it
can   be  shaped,  sculptured  and  machined  for  a  variety  of
functional and/or primarily  decorative  purposes.   Granite  and
marble are also multi-purposed stones and can take a high polish.
Thus  polishing  eguipment  and  supplies,  and  water usage, are
important considerations for these two large categories of stone.
Dolomitic limestone can be polished, but not to the  same  degree
as  granite  or  marble.   Generally  most  of this stone is used
primarily for internal or  external  structural  pieces,  veneer,
sill  stone,  and  rubble  stone.   A  schematic  flow  sheet for
dimension stone quarrying and processing is given in Figure 16.

Extremely large quantities of stone are quarried in the dimension
stone industry, and yields of good quality stone  are  quite  low
and  variable,  from 15 percent to 65 percent and with 0.5 to 5.7
kkg of waste stone per kkg of product.   The  lowest  yields  are
characteristic  of the stones which are generally highly polished
and therefore require the most perfection (granite  and  marble).
Low  yields   (18  percent)  also  occur  in  slate  due  to large
quantities of extraneous rock.  Most of the losses occur  at  the
quarry  but  some  unavoidable  losses  also  occur  in  the  saw
facilities and finishing facilities.

Some quarries require no water: mica schist, dolomitic limestone,
slate and sandstone, (facilities 5600, 3017,  3018,  3053,  3039,
3040),    as  do  some  marble,  travertine  marble,  and  granite
 (facilities 3051, 3034, 3001, 3029).  Ground or  rain  waters  do
accumulate  in  these  quarries.  Most limestone and some granite
quarries  do use water for sawing or channel cutting,   (facilities
3038, 330U, 3305, 3306, 3007, 3008, 3009, 3010) therefore, ground
and  rain  water is retained, and other sources of water may also
be tapped for makeup.  This water is continuously  recycled  into
                               86

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__WATER_	
 \ OPTIONAL)"
                     QUARRY
*S*
                        1 _____ J
oo
                                          MAKE-UP
                                           WATER
                                                  RECYCLE
                 SAW PLANT
                                             W
                                          POND OR
                                         ABANDONED
                                          QUARRY
                                        MAKE-UP
                                         WATER
                                                                        RECYCLE
                                   FINISHING
                                    PLANT
• PRODUCT
                                        SETTLING
                                         PONDS
DIMENSION
                      FIGURE  16
                 STONE MINING
                                                          AND PROCESSING

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the  quarry sump and is rarely discharged.  Water is also used in
wet drilling, but this quantity is small.

All saw facilities use water  and  the  general  practice  is  to
recycle  after  settling  most  of the suspended solids.  The raw
waste load of TSS from saw facilities can  be  significant.   The
same  is  true  of untreated effluents from finishing facilities.
In many cases, the saw facilities and  the  finishing  facilities
are  under  the  same roof, in which case the water effluents are
combined.

In Table 11, water use data are  presented  for  dimension  stone
facilities having reliable data available.  Combined saw facility
and  finishing  facility  raw  water effluents vary from 4,340 to
43,400 1/Wcg of product (1,040 to 10,400 gal/ton).   Water  usage
varies  due  to  varying stone processes, water availability, and
facility attitudes t>n water usage.

The quality of intake water used in  dimension  stone  processing
appears to be immaterial.  For the most part, river, creek, well,
abandoned  quarry,  or  lake  water is used without pretreatment.
Occasionally  pretreatment  in  the  form  of  prior   elementary
screening or filtration is performed  (facilities 3018, 3051), and
in only two instances is city water used  (facility 3007, 3029) as
part of the makeup water.
                                88

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                             TABLE 11
                    Dimension Stone Water Use
Stone and
Plant
Mica Schist
5600
Slate
3053
Dolomitic
Limestone
3039
3040
Limestone
3007
3009
3010*
Granite
3001
3029
3038
Marble
3051
3304
3305
3306
Makeup Water
1/kkg of
stone processed
(gal/ton)
20 (5)
450 (110)
1,250 (300)
13,000 (3100)
540 (130)
unknown
unknown
unknown
840 (200)
1,600 (390)
100,000 (24,000)
590 (140)
unknown
1,300 (300)
Water Use,
processed
Saw Plant
4,460
unknown
unknown
unknown
16,600
unknown
9,800
7,350
unknown
unknown
100,000
unknown
unknown
unknown
1/kkg of stone
(gal/1000 Ib)
Finish Plant
none
unknown
unknown
unknown
1,600
unknown
7,360
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Combined
4,460
4,550
unknown
13,000
18,200
6,030
9,800
14,700
3,900
43,400
unknown
5,940
39,800**
6,500
*  No finishing plant
** Primarily a saw plant which ships slabs to 3304 for finishing.
                                   89

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              CRUSHED STONE (SIC 1U22, 1423, 1429)

Three  basic  methods  of extraction are practiced: (1) removal of
raw material from an open face quarry; (2) removal of raw material
from an  underground  mine  (approximately  5  percent  of  total
crushed  stone  production) ;  and  (3) shell dredging, mainly from
coastal waterways (approximately 1 percent of total crushed stone
production) .  Once the raw material is extracted, the methods  of
processing   are  similar,  consisting  of  crushing,  screening,
washing, sizing, and stockpiling.  For approximately 0.2  percent
of  total  crushed  stone  production,  flotation  techniques are
employed to obtain a calcite (CaCO_3)  product.  The  industry  was
divided into the following subcategories:

(1) Dry process
(2) Wet process
(3) Flotation process
    Shell dredging
These facilities contacted are located in 38 states in all  areas
of  the  nation  representing various levels of yearly production
and  facility  age.   Production  figures  range  from  36,000
1,180,000  kkg/yr   (40,000-1,300,000  tons/yr)  and facility ages
vary from less than one year to over 150 years  old.   Figure  17
shows the different methods of processing.

                           DRY PROCESS

Most  crushed stone is mined from guarries.  After removal of the
overburden, drilling and  blasting  techniques  are  employed  to
loosen  the  raw material.  The resulting quarry is characterized
by steep, almost vertical  walls,  and  may  be  several  hundred
meters  deep.   Excavation  is  normally  done  on  a  number  of
horizontal levels, termed benches, located at various depths.  in
most cases, front-end loaders and/or power shovels  are  utilized
to  load  the raw material into trucks which in turn transport it
to the processing facility.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  raw
material  is  moved  to  the  facility  by a conveyor belt system
perhaps preceded by a primary crusher.  Another variation is  the
use  of portable processing facilities which can be situated near
the blasting site, on one of the quarry benches or on  the  floor
of  the  quarry.   In  this  situation,  the  finished product is
trucked from the quarry to the stockpile area.  Specific  methods
vary with the nature and location of the deposit.

No  distinction is made between permanent facilities and portable
facilities since the individual operations therein are  basically
identical.   At  the processing facility, the raw material passes
through screening and crushing  operations  prior  to  the  final
sizing  and  stockpiling.   Customer  demands for various product
grades determine the number  and  position  of  the  screens  and
crushers.  No process water is used in the crushing and screening
                                90

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                        FIGURE   17
                                                                  PSOOUCT
PIT PUMPOUT
                CRUSHED STONE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                (DRY)
           PIT
         PUMPOUT
                                                          OOOCT
                                  EFFLUENT  RECYCLE
               CRUSHED STONE MIN'IWS AND  PROCESSING
                               (WET)
                                  CONDITIONERS
FROTHERS 1
WATER | WATER j WATER VENT

QUARRY
j Ml 1 t
— — fj CRiJSHif.'O
JsCRrCNING
OR
' I V/CT
I ''
-_
FLOTATION
j- 1 WET
MILLING
(. | j 1
PITP,,..=>
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of  dry  process  crushed  stone.   Many  operators dewater their
quarries because  of  ground  water,  rain,  or  surface  runoff.
Approximately half of the quarries studied dewater their quarries
either  on  an intermittent or continual basis.  Incidental water
uses  include  non-contact  cooling  water  for  cooling  crusher
bearings  and  water used for dust suppression, which is adsorbed
onto the product and does not result in a discharge.

                   CRUSHED STONE, WET PROCESS

Excavation and transportation of crushed stone for wet processing
are identical to those for dry processing.  Wet processing is the
same as dry processing with the exception that water is added  to
the  system  for  washing  the  stone.   This is normally done by
adding  spray  bars  to  the  final  screening  operation   after
crushing.  In many cases, not all of the product is washed, and a
separate washing facility or tower is incorporated which receives
only  the  material  to  be  washed.   This  separate system will
normally only include a set  of  screens  for  sizing  which  are
equipped with spray bars.  In the portable processing facility, a
portable  wash  facility  can also be incorporated to satisfy the
demands for a washed material.  At facility  5662,  the  finished
product  from  the  dry  facility  is  fed  into  a separate unit
consisting of a logwasher and screens equipped with  spray  bars.
Incidental  water  is  used  for  non-contact cooling and/or dust
suppression.  Use varies widely as the following shows:
Facility

1001
1002
1003
1004
1021
1022
1023
1039
1040
1212
1213
1215
1221
1974
5640
     Hater Use
1/kkg of product fgal/1000 Ib)
Non-contact Cooling      Dust Suppression
None
None
None
None
None
8
Unknown
None
None
None
None
290
None
17
None
None
None
None
None
500
None
16
Unknown
13
None
None
8
None
60
None
Water necessary  for  the washing operations is drawn from any  one
or   combination  of   the  following   sources:   quarries,  wells,
rivers, company  owned ponds, and  settling ponds.  There is no set
quantity of water  necessary for   washing  crushed  stone  as  the
amount  required is  dependent upon the deposit  from which the raw
                                92

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material is  extracted.   A  deposit  associated  with  a  higher
percentage of fine material will require a larger volume of water
to  remove  impurities than one with a lower percentage of fines.
A second factor affecting the amount of washwater is  the  degree
of  crushing involved.  The amount of undesirable fines increases
with the  number  of  crushing  operations,  and  consequently  a
greater the volume of water is necessary to wash the finer grades
of material.

                             Washwater

                   Percent of          1/kkg of
Facility           washed material     product (gal/tony

5663               8                   40  (10)
5640               15                  670 (160)
1439               40                  1050 (250)
1219               50                  1250 (300)
1004               100                 330 (80)
1003               100                 690 (165)

Less than 10 percent of all crushed limestone operators dry their
product.  Approximately 5 percent of these operators employ a wet
scrubber  in  conjunction  with  the  dryer  as  a  means  of air
pollution  control.   Facility  1217  uses  a  rotary  dryer  for
approximately  30-40  percent  of the total production time.  The
wet scrubber associated with this dryer  utilizes  water  at  the
rate of 2,600 1/kkg of dried product (690 gal/ton).

The  quantity  of  raw waste varies as shown by the tabulation as
follows:

Facility      Paw Waste      Facility       Raw waste
              Load, kg/kkg                  Load, kg/kkg
              of Product                    of Product

1001          40             1212           270
1002          50             1213           30
1003          40             1215           10
1004          150            1221           130
1021          80             1974           22
1023          20             5640           10
1039          20             5664           180

                CRUSHED STONE, FLOTATION PROCESS

Marble or other carbonaceous rock is transported from the  quarry
to  the  processing facility where it is crushed, screened or wet
milled and fed to flotation cells.  Impurities are removed in the
overflow and the product is collected from the underflow.  It  is
further  wet  milled  to  achieve  a  more uniform particle size,
dried, and shipped.
                               93

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The water use for the three facilities is  outlined  as  follows.
There  are  considerable  variations  in process and mine pumpout
waters,

                   1/kkg of product  (gal/ton)
Type            1975          3069           1021
process       151,000        1,900          2,570
              (36,000)       (1,170)        (610)

cooling       22,700         850            -----
              (5,400)        (200)

dust control  1,510          1,400
              (360)          (335)
boiler        	         6,600          	
                             (1,580)

mine          unknown        none           16,000
pumpout                                     (3,800)

Facility 1975 also employs some of this  process  water  to  wash
other materials.

Process  raw  wastes  consist of clays and fines separated during
the initial washing  operations  and  iron  minerals,  silicates,
mica, and graphite separated by flotation.

              kg/kkg jof product (lfc/1000 Ib)
waste          1975           3069

clays and     1,000          unknown
fines

flotation     50-100         50-100
wastes
(solids)

In  addition  to the above, the flotation reagents added  (organic
amines,  fatty  acids  and  pine  oils)  are  also  wasted.   The
quantities  of these materials are estimated to range from 0.1  to
1.0 kg/kkg of material.

                         SHELL DREDGING

Shell dredging is the hydraulic mining of semi-fossil oyster  and
clam  shells  which  are  buried in alluvial estuarine sediments.
Extraction is  carried  out  using  floating,  hydraulic  suction
dredges  which  operate  in open bays and sounds, usually several
miles from shore.  This activity is conducted along  the  coastal
Gulf  of  Mexico and to a lesser extent along the Atlantic coast.

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Shell dredges are self-contained and support an average  crew  of
12 men working 12 hours/day in two shifts.

All  processing  is  done  on  board  the  dredge and consists of
washing  and  screening  the  shells  before  loading   them   on
tow-barges  for  transport  to shore.  Shell is a major source of
calcium carbonate along the Gulf Coast states  and  is  used  for
construction  aggregate and Portland cement manufacturing.  Shell
dredging and on-board processing is regulated under  section
of the Act, Permits for Dredged or Fill Material.
                               95

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             CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (SIC 14U2)


Three  basic methods of sand and gravel extraction are practiced:
(1)dry pit mining above the water table; (2)wet pit mining  by  a
dragline or barge-mounted dredging equipment both above and below
the water table; and (3)dredging from public waterways, including
lakes,   rivers,   and  estuaries.   Once  the  raw  material  is
extracted, the methods of processing are similar for  all  cases,
typically  consisting  of  sand and gravel separation, screening,
crushing, sizing, and stockpiling.  The industry was divided into
dry process, wet process and dredging  with  on-land  processing.
The  facilities contacted are located in 22 states in all regions
of the nation representing production levels from  10,800  kkg/yr
(12,000  tons/yr)  to  over 1,800,000 kkg/yr (2,000,000 tons/yr).
Facility ages varied from less than a year old to  more  than  50
years old.  Figure 18 shows the different methods of processing.

                           DRY PROCESS

After  removal  of  the overburden, the raw material is extracted
via front-end loader, power shovel or scraper and conveyed to the
processing unit by conveyor belts or trucks.  At  the  processing
facility,  the  sand  is  separated  from the gravel via inclined
vibrating screens.  The larger  sizes  are  used  as  product  or
crushed  and  re-sized.   The  degree  of  crushing and sizing is
highly dependent on the needs of the user.

No water is used in the dry processing of sand and gravel.   Mine
pumpout  may occur during periods of rainfall or, in the cases of
portable  or  intermittent  operations,  prior  to  the   initial
start-up.   Most  pumpout  occurs  when the water level reaches a
predetermined height in a pit or low-area sump.  Incidental water
uses may include non-contact cooling water for  crusher  bearings
and water for dust suppression.  This latter water either remains
with the product or evaporates.

                           WET PROCESS

Sand and gravel operations reguiring extraction from a wet pit or
guarry typically use a dragline or a hydraulic dredge to excavate
the material.  The hydraulic dredge conveys the raw material as a
wet  slurry  to  the  processing  facility.  After removal of the
overburden, the  raw  material  from  a  dry  pit  or  guarry  is
extracted  via  front-end  loader,  power  shovel or scraper, and
conveyed to the processing facility on conveyor belts or in  haul
trucks.

Water  in  this  subcategory  is  used  to wash the clay or other
impurities from the sand and gravel.  State, local,  and  Federal
specifications for construction aggregates reguire the removal of
clay   fines  and  other impurities.  The sand and gravel deposits
                               96

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                                                                          FIGURE   18
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                                                                                                                                                            .own.
                                                                                                                                                             nooucr
                                   SAND  AND GRAVEL Mlf.'lNG  AND PROCESSING
                                                     (DRY)
                                 KTTUMG JUO	*»
                                             uivr  WATER
                                                                                 »«UVCL MWOUCT


                                                                                 » SMO f
                                                                                                                SAND AND GRAVEL MINIMG AND P30CESSIN6
                                                                                                                                (WET)
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                                                                                                ftW»WLrf™T"*"|

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SCREEN
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WET
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                                                                                                       1 ___ -. ____ SMOOL ____ |
                                     SAND  AND GRAVEL UXUNB AND PROCESSING
                                                      (HMS)
        SAND Ai4D GRAVEL  MINI.VS AfJD
            (DREDGING WITH CN-LAND PROCESSING)

-------
surveyed during this study ranged  from  5  to  30  percent  clay
content.   Facility  processing  includes washing, screening, and
otherwise classifying to size,  crushing  of  oversize,  and  the
removal   of   impurities.    Impurities  which  are
suspendable in water  (e.g.,  clays)   generally  are  washed  out
satisfactorily.   A typical wet processing facility would consist
of the following elements:

(1) A hopper, or equivalent, receives material  transported  from
the  deposit.   Generally,  this  hopper  will  be covered with a
"grizzly" of parallel bars to screen out rocks too  large  to  be
handled by the facility.

(2) A  scalping  screen  separates  oversize  material  from  the
smaller marketable sizes.

(3) The material passing through the scalping screen is fed to  a
battery  of  screens,  either vibrating or revolving, the number,
size, and arrangement of which will depend on the number of sizes
to  be  made.   Water  from  sprays  is  applied  throughout  the
screening operation.
    From  these  screens  the  different  sizes  of  gravel   are
discharged  into bins or onto conveyors to stockpiles, or in some
cases, to crushers and other screens for further processing.  The
sand fraction passes to classifying and dewatering equipment  and
from  there  to  bins and stockpiles.  Classifiers are troughs in
which sand particles will settle at different points according to
their weight.  The largest and  heaviest  particles  will  settle
first.   The  finest  will overflow the classifier and be wasted.
Screens are used to separate the sand from the gravel and to size
sand larger than 20 mesh.  Finer sizes of sand  are  produced  by
classification equipment.

A  small  number  of facilities must remove deleterious particles
occurring  in  the  deposit  prior  to  washing  and   screening.
Particles  considered  undesirable  are  soft fragments, thin and
friable particles,  shale,  argillaceous  sandstones  and  limes,
porous  and  unsound  cherts, coated particles, coal, lignite and
other   low   density   impurities.     Heavy-media    separation
(sink- float)  is  used  for  the separation of materials based on
differing specific gravities.  The process consists  of  floating
the lightweight material from a heavy "liquid" which is formed by
suspension of finely ground heavy ferromagnetic materials such as
magnetite and/or ferrosilicon in water.  The "floated" impurities
and the "sink" product  (sand and gravel) are passed over separate
screens  where  the  magnetite and/or ferrosilicon are removed by
magnetic separation and recycled.   The  impurities  are  usually
disposed  of  in  nearby pits while the product is transported to
the facility for routine washing and sizing.
                               98

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Process water includes water used to separate, wash, and classify
sand and  gravel.   Incidental  water  is  used  for  non-contact
cooling  and  dust  suppression.   Water used for sand and gravel
separation enters a rotary scrubber or is sprayed via spray  bars
onto  a  vibratory  inclined  screen to separate the sand and the
clay from the gravel.  The sand slurry is further  processed  via
hydraulic classification where additional water is usually added.
As the source of the raw material constantly changes, so does the
raw  waste  load and the amount of water required to remove these
wastes.  The following tabulates process water  use  at  selected
facilities:

Facility                     1/kkg of       gal/ton
                             product

1006                         2500           600
1012                         9400           2250
1055                         3400           820
1391                         1430           340
5630                         1460           350
5656                         750            180
5666                         7400           1800
5681                         2000           480

Facilities  1012  and  5666  have markedly higher hydraulic loads
than the others because they use hydraulic suction line dredges.

Raw wastes consist of clays, fine mesh sands  (usually  less  than
150  mesh),  and  other impurities.  Oversize material is usually
crushed to size and processed.  The amounts of these  wastes  are
variable,  depending  on  the  nature  of the raw material (i.e.,
percent  of  clay  content)  and  degree  of  processing  at  the
facility.   Facility  1981, using heavy-media separation prior to
wet processing, floats out 150 kg/kkg of the total  raw  material
fed  to  the facility.  The following lists the rate of raw waste
generation at several other facilities:

Facility      kg/kkg of raw material (lb/1000 Ib)

1006               140
1007               480
1055                50
1056               250
1391                80
3091               110

                DREDGING WITH ON-LAND PROCESSING

The raw material is extracted from rivers and estuaries  using  a
floating,  movable  dredge  which  excavates  the bottom sand and
gravel deposit by cne of the following general methods: a suction
dredge with or without cutter-heads, a  clamshell  bucket,  or  a
                               99

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bucket  ladder  dredge.   After  the  sand  and gravel is brought
on-board, primary sizing and/or  crushing  is  accomplished  with
vibrating  or  rotary screens, and cone or gyratory crushers with
oversize boulders being  returned  to  the  water.   The  general
practice in this subcategory is to load a tow-barge which is tied
alongside  the  dredge.  The barge is transported to a land-based
processing facility where the material is  processed  similar  to
that described for wet processing of sand and gravel.   The degree
of sand and gravel processing on-board the dredge is dependent on
the  nature  of  the  deposit and customer demands for aggregate.
Dredges  1010,  1052  and  1051  extract  the  raw  material  via
clamshell  or  bucket ladder, remove oversize boulders, size, and
primary crush  on-board.   Dredges  1046  and  1048  extract  via
clamshell,   but  have  no  on-board  crushing  or  sizing.   The
extracted material for all the above-mentioned  dredges  is  pre-
dominantly  gravel.   This  gravel must undergo numerous crushing
and sizing steps on land to manufacture a sand product  which  is
absent in the deposit.

Dredges  1011  and  1009  excavate  the  deposit with cutter-head
suction line dredges since the deposit is dominated by  sand  and
small  gravel.   Dredge  1011  pumps  all  the raw material to an
on-land processing facility.  Dredge 1009, due  to  the  lack  of
demand  for  sand  at its location, separates the sand and gravel
on-board the dredge with the sand fraction being returned to  the
river.  The gravel is loaded onto tow barges and transported to a
land  facility  where  it  is wet processed.  The dredges in this
subcategory vary widely in capital investment and  size.   Dredge
1046  consists  of  a  floating  power shovel powered by a diesel
engine which digs the deposit and loads it onto a tow  barge.   A
shovel  operator  and  a  few  deck hands are on-board during the
excavation which is usually only  an  eight-hour  shift.   Dredge
1009  is  much larger and sophisticated since it requires partial
on-board separation of sand and gravel.  This dredge is manned by
a twelve-man crew per shift, with complete crew live-in  guarters
and attendant facilities.  This dredge operates 24 hours/day.

Water  use  at  the  land facilities is similar to wet processing
subcategory facilities.  Process water is used to separate, wash,
and  classify  sand  and  gravel.   Incidental   water   includes
non-contact  cooling  and  dust suppression.  Water used for dust
suppression averages 15 1/kkg  (3.8 gal/ton) of gravel  processed.
Water  use  at the dredge depends on the excavation method.  Some
clamshell and ladder bucket dredges  do  not  use  process  water
because there is no on-board washing.  Suction line dredges bring
up the raw material as a slurry, remove the aggregate, and return
the water to the river.  Water use at land facilities is variable
depending  on  the raw material and degree of processing as shown
below:
                               100

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Facility                1/kkq          gal/ton
                        of feed

1009                    2200           530
1010                    1400           340
1046                    1000           240
1048                    3440           825
1051                    1300           320
1052                    1500           360

Raw wastes consist of oversize  or  unusable  material  which  is
discarded  at  the  dredge  and undersize waste fines (-150 mesh)
which are handled at the  land-based  processing  facility.   The
amount of waste material is variable depending on the deposit and
degree  of processing.  On the average, 25 percent of the dredged
material  is  returned  to  the  river.   Waste  fines  at   land
facilities  average  10  percent.   The following tabulates waste
loads at selected operations:

                   At Dredge           At Land Facility
                   kg/kkg of feed      kg/kkg of feed
Dredge              (lb/1000 Ib)        (Ib/lOOO Ib)

1009               460                 100

1010               none                400

1011               none                150

1046               none                110

1048               none                120

1051               250                 60

1052               180                 120

The clay content of dredged sand and  gravel,  usually  averaging
less  than  5  percent, is less than that of land deposits due to
the natural rinsing action of the river.   Unsaleable  sand  fines
resulting  from crushing of gravel to produce a manufactured sand
represent the major waste load at the land facilities.

                DREDGING WITH ON-BOARD PROCESSING

The raw material is extracted from rivers and estuaries  using  a
floating,  movable  dredge  which  excavates  the bottom sand and
gravel deposit by  one  of  the  following  general  methods:   a
suction  dredge with or without cutter-heads, a clamshell bucket,
or a bucket ladder dredge.  After the sand and gravel is  brought
on-board,  complete material processing similar to that described
in the wet process subcategory, occurs prior to  the  loading  of
                              101

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tow-barqes  with  the  sized  sand  and gravel.  Typical on-board
processing includes:  screening, crushing of  oversize,  washing,
sand  classification  with  hydraulic  classifying  tanks, gravel
sizing, and product loading.  Numerous variations to this process
are demonstrated by the dredges visited.  Dredges 1017  and  1247
use  a  rotary scrubter to separate the sand and gravel which has
been excavated from land pits, hauled to  the  lagoon  where  the
dredge  floats,  and  fed  into  a  hopper  ahead  of  the rotary
scrubber.  Dredge 1008 excavates with  a  revolving  cutter  head
suction  line  in  a  deposit  dominated  by  sand.   The sand is
separated from the gravel and deposited into  the  river  channel
without processing.  Only the gravel is washed, sized, and loaded
for  product as there is little demand for sand at this location.
Dredge 1050 employs bucket ladders,  rough  separates  sand  from
gravel,  sizes  the  gravel  crushing  the  oversize, and removes
deleterious materials from the gravel by  employing  heavy  media
separation   (HMS) .   HMS  media   (magnetite/ferrous  silica)   is
recovered,  and  returned  to  the  process.   Float   waste   is
discharged  into  the  river.   Dredge  1049, a slack-line bucket
ladder dredge normally works a river  channel.   However,  during
certain  periods  of  the year it moves into a lagoon where water
monitors "knock down" a shoreline sand and  gravel  deposit  into
the  lagoon  in  front  of  the buckets.  All of the dredges pump
river water for washing  and  sand  classification.   Periods  of
operation  are  widespread  for the dredges visited.  Dredge 1008
operates all year, 24 hours per day (two-12 hour shifts).  Dredge
1049 operates two 8 hour shifts for 10 months.  Dredging for sand
and gravel in navigable waters is regulated under section 404  of
the Act.
                              102

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                   INDUSTRIAL SAND  (SIC U46)

The three basic methods of extraction are:

 (1) Mining of sand from open pits;
 (2) Mining of sandstone from quarries; and
 (3) hydraulic dredging from wet pits.

Once the raw material is extracted, the basic operations involved
in  the  production  of  all  types  of   industrial   sand   are
classification   and   removal  of  impurities.   The  amount  of
impurities in the raw material is dependent upon  the  percentage
of  silica  in  the  deposit.  The subsequent level of technology
involved in the  removal  of  these  impurities  depends  on  the
desired  grade  of  product.  Glass sand, for example, requires a
higher degree of purity than does foundry sand.  The industry was
divided into the following subcategories:

 (1) Dry Process
 (2) Wet Process
 (3) Flotation Process

Two of the wet process facilities also use flotation on  a  small
percentage  of  their  finished  product, and are included in the
flotation process subcategory.   Production,  in  the  facilities
contacted,  ranges  from  32,600  -  1,360,000  kkg/yr  (36,000 -
1,500,000 tons/yr)  and facility ages vary from less than one year
to 60 years.  Figure 19 shows the different types of processing.

                           DRY PROCESS

Approximately 10 percent of the industrial sand  operations  fall
into  this  subcategory,  characterized by the absence of process
water for sand classification and fceneficiation.  Typically,  dry
processing of industrial sand is limited to scalping or screening
of  sand grains which have been extracted from a beach deposit or
crushed from sandstone.  Facilities 1106 and 1107  mine  a  beach
sand  which  has been classified into grain sizes by natural wind
action.  Sand, of a  specific  grain  size,  is  trucked  to  the
facility  where  it  is  dried  and  cooled,  and coarse grain is
scalped and stored.  Processing of beach sand which is  excavated
at  differing  distances from the shoreline, enables the facility
to process a number of grain sizes which can be blended  to  meet
customer specifications.

Facilities  1109  and  1110  quarry  a sandstone, crush, dry, and
screen the sand prior to sale as a foundry sand.   Facility  1108
is  able  to  crush,  dry,  and screen a sandstone of high enough
purity to be used for glassmaking.  Most of the facilities use  a
dust  collection  system  at  the  dryer  to  meet  air pollution
requirements.  Dust collection systems are both dry (cyclones and
                              103

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                                   FIGURE  19
SANDSTONE
CUM^Y



OUST
COLLCCTISN
(Y,'£T AND DRY)
1

DRY






SCREEN
                    	I
                                                           WASTE
                                                           FINES
WASTE
FINES
                           INDUSTRIAL SAND P/!r!iN3 AND PROCESSING
                                             (DRY)
SCREEN
SOLID


DESLIMINO
4NO
DEWATERING
1
1
THICKENER
OR
CLARirltR
.ri
                                                                                    PRODUCT
I	I	SS5J2™	SETTLING PON-D  *
                                                                                       • PRODUCT
                         INDUSTRIAL  SAND MINING AND PROCESSING
                                            (WET)
                     HF FLOTATION PROCESS-HF-
           ALKALINE FLOTATION PROCESS- CAUSTIC -

                      JFLOTiTlO^ ASENTS,
                      J F^DThE^S, COKDITICMERS
           ALL PROCESSES<
                      I SUUFUR1C ACID
                                                                VEMT
                                    LAGCCNS AND/OR THICKENERS
                                                                                         •PRODUCT
                                                                                       to FELDSPAR
                                                                                        CO-PRODUCT
                          INDUSTRIAL  SAND  MINING  AND  PROCESSING
                                     (FLOTATION  FhOCESScS)
                                          104

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baqhouses  in  facilities  1106,  1109  and  1110)  or  wet   (wet
scrubbers in facilities 1107 and 1108).

No  water  is used to wash and classify sand in this subcategory.
Facilities 1108 and 1107 use a wet dust collection system at  the
dryer.  Water flows for these two wet scrubbers are shown below:

Wet Scrubber Water Use       Facility 1107       Facility 1108

total flow, 1/min            9460 (2500)         115 (30)
  (gal/min)
amount recirculated,         9390 (2480)         0
  1/min  (gal/min)
amount discharged            0                   115 (30)
  1/min  (gal/min)
amount makeup, 1/min         76 (20)              115 (30)
  (gal/min)

Although the five facilities surveyed in this subcategory did not
use   non-contact   cooling  water,   it  may  be  used  in  other
facilities.

                           WET PROCESS

Mining methods vary with  the  facilities  in  this  subcategory.
Facility  3066 scoops the sand off the beach, while facility 1989
hydraulically mines the raw material from an open pit.    Facility
1019  mines  sandstone  from a quarry.  At this facility water is
used as the transport medium and also for  processing.    Facility
1019  dry  crushes  the  raw  material prior to adding water.  An
initial  screening  is  usually  employed  by   most   facilities
consisting  of  a system of scalpers, trommels and/or classifiers
where extraneous rocks, wood, clays, and other matter is removed.
Facility 1102 wet mills the sand to  produce  a  finer  grade  of
material.   At all facilities water is filtered off, and the sand
is then dried, cooled, and screened.  Facility 3066  magnetically
separates  iron  from the dried product.  The finished product is
then stored to await shipment.  Facility 3066 mines a feldspathic
sand.  This, however, does not require any  different  method  of
processing.

There is no predetermined quantity of water necessary for washing
industrial  sands  as  the  amount required is dependent upon the
impurities in the deposit.   Typical  amounts  of  process  water
range from 170 to 12,000 1/kkg product.

                        FLOTATION PROCESS

Within this subcategory, three flotation techniques are used:
                              105

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(1)  Acid flotation to effect removal of iron oxide  and  ilmenite
    impurities,
(2)  Alkaline flotation to remove aluminate bearing materials, and
(3)  Hydrofluoric acid flotation for removal of feldspar.

In acid flotation, sand or quartzite is crushed, and milled  into
a  fine  material  which is washed to separate adhering clay-like
materials.  The washed sand is slurried with water  and  conveyed
to the flotation cells.  Sulfuric acid, frothers and conditioning
agents  are  added  and the silica is separated from iron-bearing
impurities.  The reagents include sulfonated oils,  terpenes  and
heavy alcohols in amounts of up to 0.5 kg/kkg of product.  In the
flotation cells, the silica is depressed and sinks, and the iron-
bearing  impurities  are  "floated" away.  The purified silica is
recovered, dried and stockpiled.   The  overflow  containing  the
impurities is sent to the wastewater treatment system.

In  alkaline  flotation,  the  process  is  very  similar to that
described  above  with  the  following  difference:   before  the
slurried,  washed  sand  is  fed  to  the  flotation  cell, it is
pretreated with acid.  In the cell, it is treated  with  alkaline
solution  (aqueous caustic, soda ash or sodium silicate), frothers
and  conditioners.   The  pH is generally maintained at about 8.5
(versus about 2 in acid flotation).  Otherwise,  the  process  is
the  same  as for acid flotation.  Materials removed or "floated"
by alkaline flotation are aluminates and zirconates.

In hydrofluoric acid flotation operations, after the raw sand has
been  freed  of  clays  by  various  washing  operations,  it  is
subjected  to  a preliminary acid flotation of the type described
above.  The underflow from this step is  then  fed  to  a  second
flotation circuit in which hydrofluoric acid and terpene oils are
added  along  with  conditioning  agents  to float feldspar.  The
underflow from this  second  flotation  operation  is  collected,
dewatered  and  dried.   The  overflow,  containing  feldspar, is
generally sent to the waste water treatment system.

Facility water uses are shown as follows.  Most of the  water  is
recycled.  The unrecycled water for the alkaline and HF processes
is used for the flotation steps.  For the acid flotation at least
two  facilities   (1101  and  1980)  have  achieved total recycle.
Facility  1019 impounds process discharge as wet sludge.  Facility
1103 returns process waste water to the same wet  pit  where  the
raw material is extracted, adding make-up water for losses due to
evaporation.
                               106

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Facility

Process
Recycle

Process
Discharge

Scrubber
(recycle)

Total
     1101
           1/kkg of product
        1019   1980    1103   5691
     25,400  2,580  23,200  27,300 8,400


             none*  none     6,830 5,250
none
     none
        none
 50
(10)
none  none
5980

24,200


   914


   none
     25,400  2,930  23,250  34,130 13,650   25,700
*  As impounded wet sludge

Process  raw wastes from all three flotation processes consist of
muds separated in the initial  washing  operations,  iron  oxides
separated magnetically and materials separated by flotation.  The
amounts of wastes are given as follows.
                        Amount kg/kkq of raw material (lb/1000 Ib)
Waste
Source
          1101  1019
        1980
      1103   5691
       5980
Clays     Washing
Flotation Flotation
  tailings
Iron      Magnetic
  oxides separation
Acid &    Flotation
  flotation
  agents*
Fluorides HF Flota-
  (as HF) tion tailings
10
50
none

530
20
none

48
60
12

36
140
none
0.055
3
17
none

165
135
34
0.3
               none  none
                       none
              none
             none
       0.45
* Generally flotation agents consist of oils and petroleum
  sulfonates and in some cases, minor amounts of amines.
                              107

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                             GYPSUM

Although   some   underground  mining  of  gypsum  is  practiced,
guarrying is the dominant  method  of  extraction.   The  general
procedure for gypsum processing includes crushing, screening, and
processing.  An air-swept roller mill is most commonly used.  Two
facilities  use  heavy  media  separation  for beneficiation of a
low-grade gypsum ore prior to processing.  Ninety percent of  all
gypsum ore is calcined into gypsum products including wall board,
lath,  building  plasters  and tile.  The remaining 10 percent is
used as land plaster for agricultural  purposes  and  in  cement.
The manufacture of gypsum products is not covered in this report.
The  cutoff  out  point  between  gypsum  processing  and  gypsum
products is just prior to calcination.

Thirty-six companies mined crude gypsum at 65 mines in 21  states
in  1972.   Five major companies operate 32 mines from which over
75 percent of the total crude gypsum is  produced.   Based  on  5
facility  visits and 36 facility contacts  (63% of the total), the
industry was divided into the following sutcategories:

(1) Dry
(2) Wet scrubbing
(3) Heavy media separation

The  facilities  studied  were  in  all  regions  of  the  nation
representing  various  levels  of yearly production and age.  The
different methods of processing are shown in Figure 20.

                           DRY PROCESS

Underground mining is carried out in most mines by the  room-and-
pillar  method,  using trackless mining equipment.  In guarrying,
stripping is  accomplished  both  with  draglines  and  tractors.
Quarry  drilling  methods  are  adapted to meet local conditions.
Low-density, slow-speed  explosives  are  employed  in  blasting.
Loading  is  commonly  done  with  diesel  or  electric  shovels.
Transportation may be by truck or rail from quarry  to  facility.
Primary  crushing is done at most guarries using gyratory and jaw
crushers  and  impact  mills.   Secondary  crushing  is   usually
accomplished   by  gyratory  units,  and  final  crushing  almost
exclusively by hammermills.  The common  unit  for  grinding  raw
gypsum  is  the  air-swept roller mill.  Ground gypsum is usually
termed "land plaster" since in this form it is sacked or sold  as
bulk for agricultural purposes.

No  process water is used in the mining, crushing, or grinding of
gypsum.  However, mine or quarry pumpout is necessary in a number
of facilities.  Pumpout is not related to a  production  unit  of
gypsum,  and  the  flow  is  independent  of  facility processing
capacities.  Most pumpouts are controlled with a pit or  low-area
sump  which  discharges  when  the  water level reaches a certain
                               108

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      FIGURE 20
VENT
t



DRY
DUST




COLLECTOR
A
MINE
OR
QUARRY


PRIMARY
AND
SECONDARY
CRUSMWC


GRINDING
i
PIT PUWPOUT
1



                                           • PRODUCT
GYPSUM  MINING AND PROCESSING
              (DRY)
  RECYCLE
   WATER
HCCYCLE
 WATER
RECYCLE
 WATER
SCREEN
AND
WASH
1

POS'D
1
1
SUMP






tflTAtfY
VEDiA
SEPARATION
' I
WASH





I ,






1i
MiDIA
RECOVERY



                                                          •PRODUCT
  RECYCLE
 TO FACCESS
   GYPSUM  MINING Afs'D PROCESSING
              (HM3)
               109

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height.  Incidental water use includes non-contact cooling  water
for crusher bearings.

                          WET SCRUBBING

Since  the  completion  of  the  contractor's  study,  all gypsum
processing facilities have either changed to dry dust  collection
systems or employ total containment/recycle systems.

                     HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

Two  facilities  at  the  same general location beneficiate crude
gypsum  ore  using  heavy  media  separation    (HMS)   prior   to
processing.   Both  facilities  follow  the  same  process  which
includes quarrying, primary and secondary crushing, screening and
washing, heavy media separation,  washing,  processing  of  float
gypsum   ore   and   stockpiling  of  sink  dolomitic  limestone.
Magnetite and ferrous silica are used in both facilities  as  the
separation  media,  with  complete  recirculation of the media or
pulp.

Facility 1100 uses 1270 1/kkg  (305 gal/ton) of ore  processed  in
heavy  media  separation screening and washing which accounts for
all process water.  Additional  water  includes  quarry  pumpout.
During  periods  of  heavy rainfall, a discharge of up to 189,000
I/day  (50,000 GPD) of quarry sump water may occur.  As is typical
with quarry pumpout, discharge is controlled by a  sump,  located
at  the  low  end of the quarry.  Facility 1100 does not use non-
contact cooling water for gypsum teneficiation.
                               110

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                  ASPHALTIC MINERALS (SIC 1U99)

This category of  materials  encompasses  three  basic  types  of
materials  produced  by  three  different  processes:  bituminous
limestone  which  is  dry  quarried;  oil  impregnated  diatomite
produced  by  dry  methods;  and  gilsonite  and other bituminous
shales produced  by  wet  processes.   The  processing  of  these
minerals are depicted in Figure 21.

                      BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE

Bituminous  limestone is dry surface mined, crushed, screened and
shipped as product.

                    OIL IMPREGNATED DIATOMITE

This material is produced at only one site (facility 5510).   Oil
impregnated  diatomite  is  surface  mined, crushed, screened and
then calcined (burned) to free it of oil.  The calcined  material
is  then  ground  and  prepared for sale.  The only process water
usage is a wet scrubber used to treat the  vent  gases  from  the
calcination step.  The scrubber waters are recycled.

                            GILSONITE

Gilsonite  is  mined  underground.   The  ore  is conveyed to the
surface as a slurry and separated into  a  gilsonite  slurry  and
sand,  which is discarded as a solid waste.  The gilsonite slurry
is screen separated to recover product.   Further  processing  by
centrifuge  and  froth  flotation  recover  additional  material.
These solids are then dried and shipped as product.  Water use at
facility 5511 is given below.  A considerable  amount  of  intake
water  is  used  for  non-process  purposes  (i.e.,  drinking and
irrigation).  All process and mine pumpout waters  are  currently
discharged.

                   1/kkg of product (gal/ton)

intake             5,700 (1,400)

process            3,400 (820)

mine pumpout       U70 - 1,800  (110-U30)

drinking and
 irrigation        2,300 (550)
                              111

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                     FIGURE   21
SIPrACE
i;
-------
                    ASBESTOS AND WOLLASTONITE

                       ASBESTOS  (SIC 1U99)

Processing   of   asbestos   ore  principally  involves  repeated
crushing,  fiberizing,  screening,  and  air  separation.    Five
facilities  mine  and process asbestos in the United States, four
process by dry methods the fifth by wet methods.  Figure 22 shows
the different methods of processing.

                      ASBESTOS, DJRY PROCESS

Asbestos ore is usually extracted from an open pit or quarry.  At
three facilities the fiber-bearing rock is removed from  an  open
pit.   At  facility  1061  the ore is simply "plowed", allowed to
air-dry, and the coarse fraction is screened out  from  the  mill
feed.  After quarrying, the asbestos ore containing approximately
15%  moisture  is  crushed, dried in a rotary dryer, crushed, and
then sent to a series of shaker screens where the asbestos fibers
are separated from the  rock  and  air  classified  according  to
length  into  a  series of grades.  The collection of fibers from
the shaker screens is accomplished with cyclones, which also  aid
in    dust   control.    Asbestos   processing   involves   fiber
classification based on length, and as such, the raw waste  loads
consist of both oversize rock and undersize asbestos fibers which
are  unusable  due to their length  (referred to as "shorts").  At
facility 1061 28 percent of  the  asbestos  ore  is  rejected  as
oversize waste.  At the processing facility another 65 percent of
the  feed  are  unusable  asbestos  fiber  wastes  which  must be
disposed of.

No process water is used for the dry processing  of  asbestos  at
any  of  the  four facilities in this subcategory.  Facility 3052
must continuously dewater the quarry of  rain  and  ground  water
that  accumulates.  The flow is from 380 1/min to 2270 1/min (100
to 600 gal/min)depending on rainfall.  The quantity of  discharge
is  not  related  to  production rate of asbestos.  Facility 1061
uses water for dust suppression which is  sprayed  onto  the  dry
asbestos  tailings to facilitate conveying of tailings to a waste
pile.  The water absorbed in this manner amounts to 17  1/kkg  of
tailings (U gal/ton) .
                              113

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      FIGURE  22

QUARRY I— s>
PRIMARY
CRUSHER
PUVPOUT CVER3IZE
WASTE
—OS
DRY
DUST
COLLECTOR
I
DRY
DUST
COLLECTOR
L. . T r
DRY

SECONDARY SCREEN
^^ Cr.UCHER ^^ omtfcN
— c>

GRADE
WATER 	 cJ
WASTE
FINES
                                                     PRODUCT
ASBESTOS MINING AND PROCESSING
              (DRY)
                                           VENT
WASTE DUMP
                                                     • PRODUCT
                                             ESPECIAL  PRODUCT
  ASBESTOS  MINING  AMD PROCESSING
              (WET)
                111*

-------
                      ASBESTOS, WET PROCESS

The  only  facility in this sufccategory, facility 1060, mines the
asbestos ore from a quarry located approximately  50  miles  from
the  processing  facility.   The  ore  is  "plowed" in horizontal
benches, allowed to air-dry,  screened  and  transported  to  the
facility  for  processing.  Processing consists of screening, wet
crushing, fiber classification, filtering, and  drying.   Process
water  is  used  for  wet  processing and classifying of asbestos
fibers.  Facility  1060  uses  4,300  1/kkg  (1,025  gal/ton)  of
asbestos  milled.   Approximately  4  percent  of  the  water  is
incorporated into the end product  which  is  a  filter  cake  of
asbestos  fibers (5Q% moisture by weight).  Eight percent is lost
in the tailings disposal.  Sixty eight  percent  is  recirculated
back  into  the  process, and 20 percent is eventually discharged
from the facility.  The  following  tabulates  estimated  process
water use at facility 1060:

                             1/kkg          gal/ton
                            of feed         of feed

process water                4,300          1,025
water lost with product        150             36
water lost in tailings         350             8U
water recirculated           2,900            700
water discharged to
  settling pond                860            205

This  facility  is  unable  to  recirculate  the  water  from the
settling pond because of earlier  chemical  treatment  given  the
water  in  the  course of production of a special asbestos grade.
The recirculation of this effluent would affect  the  guality  of
the special product.  In addition to process water, facility 1060
uses  2,100  1/kkg  of  feed (500 gal/ton) of non-contact cooling
water, none of which is recirculated.

                     WOLLASTONITE (SIC 1499)

There is only one producer of wollastonite in the U.S.  (facility
3070).   Wollastonite ore is mined by underground room and pillar
methods, and is trucked to the processing  facility.   Processing
is  dry  and  consists  of 3 stage crushing with drying following
primary crushing.  After screening,  various  sizes  are  fed  to
high-intensity  magnetic  separators  to  remove garnet and other
ferro-magnetic impurities.  The  purified  wollastonite  is  then
ground in pebble or attrition mills to the desired product sizes.
A general process diagram is given in Figure 23.  Municipal water
serves  as  the  source  for the sanitary and non-contact cooling
water used in the facility.  This amounts to 235 1/kkg of product
(56 gal/ton) .
                              115

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MINE
— o
CRUSH
AND
SCREEN


DRY


CRUSH
AND
SCREEN


MAGNETIC
SEPARATORS
_
MILL
AND
CLASSIFY
                                                            PRODUCT
                              WASTEPILE
             FIGURE   23
Yi/OLLASTONlTE  MINING AND PROCESSING

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            LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (SIC 1499)

                             PERLITE

New Mexico produces 87 percent of the U.S. crude perlite.    Three
of  four  major  perlite  producers in New Mexico were inspected.
All U.S. perlite facilities are in the  same  geographic  region,
and  the  processes are all dry.  All the operations are open pit
quarries using either front-end loaders or blasting to remove the
ore from the quarry.  The ore is then  hauled  by  truck  to  the
mills  for  processing.   There the ore is crushed, dried, graded
(sized), and stored for shipping.  A general process  diagram  is
given in Figure 24.

Perlite  is  expanded  into  lightweight  aggregate  for  use  as
construction aggregate, insulation material, and  filter  medium.
Expansion of perlite is done by injection of sized crude ore into
a  gas-  or oil-fired furnace above 760°C (1,400°F).  The desired
temperature is the point at  which  the  specific  perlite  being
processed  begins  to  soften  to  a plastic state and allows the
entrapped water to be released as steam.   This  rapidly  expands
the  perlite  particles.  Horizontal rotary and vertical furnaces
are commonly used for expanding perlite.  In either  case,  there
is   no  process  water  involved.   Horizontal  rotary  furnaces
occasionally require  non-contact  cooling  water  for  bearings.
Facility 5500 does dewater the quarry when water accumulates, but
this water is evaporated on land.

The  oversize materials, processing and baghouse fines are hauled
to the mine areas and land-disposed.  There is work being done by
facilities 5501 and 5503 to reclaim further product  grades  from
the waste fines.  Facility 5501 is investigating the use of water
to  make  pellets  designed to make land-disposal of fines easier
and more efficient.

                             PUMICE

Pumice is surface mined in open pit operations.  The material  is
then  crushed, screened, and shipped for use as either aggregate,
cleaning powder or abrasive.  A process  flowsheet  is  given  in
Figure  24.   At  most operations, no water is employed.  This is
true for facilities 1702, 1703, 1704, 5665, 5667  and  5669.   At
facility  1701  a  small amount of water  (10.55 1/kkg product) is
used for dust control purposes,  but  this  is  absorbed  by  the
product  and  not discharged.  At facility 1705 a wet scrubber is
used for dust control purposes.
                              117

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                  FIGURE 24
                      VENT
                                                     PRODUCT
                                                      RODUCT
    PERLITE  MINING AND PROCESSING
SURFACE
 MINING
pmoucr
     PUMICE  MININ3 AND PROCESSING
OPEN
PIT
MINE


GRIN'D,
\WS.H
AND
CCREEN


MAKE-UP WATER 	 S»
•r


FLOTATION

RECYCLE
i

.


DRY
1 ,
RECYOE 1




SCREEN

RECYCLE
PCNDS

  VEfvMiCULITC MINING AND PROCESSING
            118

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                           VERMICULITE

The mininq of vermiculite at facility 5506 is conducted by  bench
quarrying using power shovels and loaders.  Occasionally blasting
is  necessary to break up irregularly occurring dikes of syenite.
Trucks  then  haul  the  ore  to  the  process   facility.    The
vermiculite  is  concentrated  by a series of operations based on
mechanical screening and flotation, a new process  replacing  one
more  dependent  on  mechanical separations.  Sizer screens split
the raw ore into  coarse  and  fine  fractions.   The  fines  are
washed,  screened,  and  floated.   After  another  screening the
product is dewatered, dried and sent to the screening facility at
another location.  The coarse fraction  is  re-screened  and  the
fines  from  this screening are hydraulically classified.  Coarse
fractions from screening and classification are  sent  to  a  wet
rod-processing  operation  and  recycled.   The coarsest fraction
from the hydraulic classification becomes  tailings.   The  fines
from  hydraulic classification are screened, floated, re-screened
and sent to join the  other  process  stream  at  the  dewatering
stage.

The  mining  of vermiculite at facility 5507 is conducted by open
pit mining  using  scrapers  and  bulldozers  to  strip  off  the
overburden.   The  ore  is  then  hauled  to the facility on dump
trailer-tractor haul units.  The overburden and sidewall waste is
returned to the mine pit when it is reclaimed.   The  vermiculite
ore  is  fed  into  the  process  facility where it is ground and
deslimed.  The vermiculite is  then  sent  to  flotation.   After
flotation,  the  product  is dried, screened, and sent to storage
for eventual shipping.  Figure 2<* is a flow diagram  showing  the
mininq and processing of vermiculite.

Facility  5507  uses  surface  springs  and  runoff as source and
make-up water.  At facility  5506,  water  from  2  local  creeks
provides  both  source  and  make-up  water  for  the vermiculite
operations.  In dry weather a nearby river  becomes  the  make-up
water  source.   A  well  on  the  property provides sanitary and
boiler water.  Since the only water loss is  through  evaporation
during  drying operations and some unknown amount is lost through
seepage from the ponds to ground water, the net amount of make-up
water reflects this loss.  There  is  also  some  water  loss  in
processing.

At  facility  5506  waste  is  generated  from the two thickening
operations, from boiler water bleed, and from the washdown stream
that is applied  at  the  coarse  tails-solids  discharge  point.
(This  is  used  to avoid pumping a wet slurry of highly abrasive
pyroxenite coarse solids.)   At facility 5507, there is one  waste
stream from the desliming,  flotation and drying operations.   This
stream  consists of mineral solids, principally silicates such as
actinolite, feldspar, guartz, and  minor  amounts  of  tremolite,
talc, and magnetite  (1,600 kq/kkg product).
                              119

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                  MICA AND SERICITE (SIC 1499)

Mica  and  sericite  are  mined  in  open pits using conventional
surface mining techniques.  Sixteen significant  U.S.  facilities
producing  flake,  scrap  or  ground mica were identified in this
study.  Six of  these  facilities  are  dry  grinding  facilities
processing  either  mica  obtained  from  company-owned  mines or
purchased mica from an outside supplier.   Three  facilities  are
wet  grinding  facilities,  and  seven are wet mica beneficiation
facilities   utilizing   froth    flotation    and/or    spirals,
hydroclassifiers  and  wet  screening techniques to recover mica.
Additionally there are four known sericite producers in the  U.S.
Three  of  these  companies  surface mine the crude ore for brick
facilities and a fourth company has a dry grinding  facility  and
sells the sericite after processing.  Figure 25 shows the various
methods of processing.

                DRY GRINDING OF MICA AND SERICITE

Dry grinding facilities are of two types, those which process ore
obtained   directly  from  the  mine  and  others  which  process
beneficiated scrap and flake mica.  The  ore  from  the  mine  is
processed through coarse and fine screens before processing.  The
wastes  generated  from  the  two screening operations consist of
rocks, boulders, etc., which are bulldozed into stockpiles.   The
crude  ore  is  next fragmented, dried and sent to a hammer mill.
In those facilities which process scrap and flake mica, the  feed
is  sent  directly into the hammer mill or into a pulverizer.  In
both types of facilities, the milled product is passed through  a
series  of vibrating screens to separate various sizes of product
for bagging.  The waste material from  the  screening  operations
consists of quartz and schist pebbles.

In some facilities either the screened ore or the scrap and flake
mica is processed in a fluid energy process facility.  The ground
product,  in  these  facilities,  is  next classified in a closed
circuit air classifier to yield various grades of products.   Dry
grinding facilities utilize baghouse collectors for air pollution
control.   The  dust  is  reclaimed  from  these  collectors  and
marketed.

                WET GRINDING OF MICA AND SERICITE

In a typical wet grinding facility, scrap and flake mica is batch
milled in a water slurry.  The mica  rich  concentrate  from  the
process  facility  is decanted, dried, screened, and then bagged.
The mica product from these facilities is primarily used  by  the
paint,  rubber,  and  plastic  industries.  The tailings from the
process facility are dewatered to remove the sand.  The effluents
emanating from the decanting and dewatering operations constitute
the waste stream from the facility.  At one facility visited  the
scrap  and  flake  mica  is  processed  in a fluid energy process
                               120

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                               FIGURE  25
    LEGEND:
     	SCRAP AW IMC KKt
                                  MICA MINING  AND  PROCESSING
                                             fDRY)
SCRAP MICA—*.
              WATCT
                                                                   WHTEK-
GRjr.'O'N'S
W.LLS



RIFFLE
LAUNCcR
1

                                                                                        UICA
                                                                                        PTOOUCT
                                   WATER RECYCLED
                                   TO GRINDING KILLS
                                MICA MINING AND PROCESSING
                                           (V/ET)
  	  rionrioN
  	SPt-AL
                                                               CENTRIFUGE
                                tMCA  MINING  AND PKOCS'SSING
                             (FLOTATION Cn SPIRAL  SEPARATION)
                                      121

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facility using steam.   The  waste  streams  emanating  from  the
boiler  operations  are  sludge  generated  from the conventional
water softening process, filter  backwash,  and  boiler  blowdown
wastes.

Facilities  2059 and 2055 consume water at 4,900 and 12,500 1/kkg
product (1,300 and  3,000 gal/ton),  respectively.   At  facility
2055,  about  80 percent  of  the  water  used  in the process is
make-up water, the remainder is recycled water from the decanting
and dewatering operations.  At  facility  2059  makeup  water  is
1,500 1/kkg   of  product  (360 gallons/ton);  the  remainder  is
recycled from the settling pond.

         WET BENEFICIATION PROCESS OF MICA AND SERICITE

These ores contain approximately 5 to 15 percent  mica.   At  the
beneficiation  facility,  the  soft  weathered  material from the
stockpiles is hydraulically sluiced into  the  processing  units.
The  recovery  of  mica  from  the  ore reguires two major steps,
first, the coarse flakes are recovered by spirals and/or  trommel
screens and second, fine mica is recovered by froth flotation.

Five of the seven facilities discussed below use a combination of
spiral classifiers and flotation techniques and the remaining two
facilities  use  only  spirals to recover the mica from the crude
ore.  Beneficiation includes crushing, screening, classification,
and processing.  The larger mica flakes are then  separated  from
the  waste  sands in spiral classifiers.  The fine sand and clays
are deslimed, conditioned and sent to the flotation  section  for
mica  recovery.   In facilities using only spirals, the underflow
is screened to recover flaked mica.  In both types of facilities,
the mica concentrate or the flake mica is centrifuged, dried, and
ground.

Although all flotation facilities use the same general processing
steps, in some facilities,  tailings  are  processed  to  recover
additional  by-products.   Facility 2050 processes the classifier
waste stream to produce clays for use by the brick  industry  and
also  processes  the mica flotation tailings to recover feldspar.
Facilities 2052 and 2057 process the classifier waste to  recover
a high grade clay for use by the ceramics industry.

The water used in these facilities is dependent upon the quantity
and  type  of  clay  material in the crude ore.  These facilities
consume  water  at   69,500   to   656,000   1/kkg    (16,700   to
157,000 gal/ton)  of  product.   The  hydraulic  loads  of  these
facilities are summarized as follows:
                               122

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                   Process Water Used
Facility
2050
2051
2052
2053
205U
2057
2058
Facility
1/kkg of product
95,200
240,000
125,000
110,000
69,500
143,000
656,000
Other Water Consumption
gal /ton
22,800
57,600
30,000
26,400
16,700
34,000
157,000

1/kkq of product (gal/ton)
process discharge loss due evaporation.

percolation and
spills
2050

2051

2052

2053

2054

2057

2058
none

none

75,200 (18,000)

none

69,500 (16,7CO)

86,000 (20,600)

none
negligible

negligible

50,600 (12,100)

80 (20)
57,000 (13,700)
The raw waste load in these facilities consists of mill tailings,
thickener overflow, and wastes from the various dewatering units.
In some facilities, waste water from wet scrubbing operations  is
used  for  dust  control purposes.  The raw waste loads for these
facilities are given as follows:
                              123

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                   Clay, slimes, mica fines and sand wastes
Facility                kg/kkg of product (lb/1000 Ibl

2050                    600

2051                    14,400

2052                    2,600

2053                    4,000

2054                    4,700

2057                    2,900

2058                    6,300
                               124

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                        BARITE (SIC 1472)

There are  twenty-seven  significant  U.S.  facilities  producing
either barite ore or ground barite.  Nine of these facilities are
dry  grinding  operations,  fourteen  use log washing and jigging
methods to  prepare  the  ore  for  grinding  and  four  are  wet
flotation  facilities  using  froth  flotation technigues for the
beneficiation of the washed and/or jigged ore.  Figure 26 depicts
the different types of processing.

                      BARITE (DRY PROCESS)

The methods used in grinding barite depend upon  the  nature  and
condition  of  the  ore to be ground and upon the application for
which the mineral is to be sold.   In a dry grinding mill, the ore
from stockpiles is batched in ore bins.  In most  facilities  the
ore  is  soft  and crushing is not necessary prior to the milling
operation.  In other cases, the ore is hard and must  be  crushed
before  grinding  to free barite from the gangue material.  After
milling, the ground ore passes through a cyclone and a  vibrating
screen  before being pumped into the product silos.  From here it
is either pumped to bulk hopper cars or to the bagging  facility.
The  only waste is dust from baghouse collectors which is handled
as a dry solid.  No water is used  in  dry  grinding  facilities.
There is no pumping of mine water in this subcategory.

    BARITE - WET PROCESS  (LOG WASHING AND JIGGING OPERATIONS)

The  wet  processing facilities use washers or jigs to remove the
clay from the barite ore.  The mined ore is soft  and  is  passed
through  a  breaker and then fed to a log washer.  The washed ore
is next screened in a trommel circuit, dewatered and then  jigged
to separate gravel from the barite product.

In  facility 2013, the ore is first processed on a trommel screen
to separate the fines  (-3/4" material).  The +1 1/2" material  is
then  crushed and the resulting -1" barite product is sent to the
stockpile.  The +3/1 to 1 1/2" material is processed  by  jigging
to separate gravel from the barite product.

In  all  these  facilities, barite is mined in dry open pits.  In
most facilities, the clay strata is excavated by power shovel  or
dragline  and  hauled to the washing facility by dump trucks.  In
facility 2013, the barite and the waste (chert) is  separated  in
the pit by a dozer, the ore is then dried in place, and the fines
are  separated by means of a trommel.  Several caterpillar dozers
with rippers are used to excavate and push the ore into piles  to
be loaded and hauled to the crusher at the processing facility.

The  quantity  of the clay, sand and gravel, and rock in the ores
mined in these facilities varies from location to location.   The
pure  barite  amounts  to  3-7 percent  by weight of the material
                              125

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                                    FIGURE 26
   ORE
ORE-
1
Cr'_
. CRUSHING 	 J 0':
CIRCUIT
c
SOI 10
ViASTE
MAXE-U1
F

BREAKER — «• ^5^
SOLID WASTE WASTE
TO
STTTI 1KB POND
r"-'; 	 	
wz _ _ |
"'" *l ccr-v/
i-f.TOR (/ \VLYC? 	
	 	 r»i -
't
,,-,V',:,D J
rEBSLE 	 Cl CYCLOME
an 'IT ""^ -

""" SCREEN

BARITE MINING AND PROCESSING
(DRY GRINDING PROCESS)
> WATER AND RECYCLED WATER
ROM THE TAILINGS POND
• ,
; ;
~* ™CREENL — °EWATER -* J1GS
, ~l
SOLID WASTE WASTE [_
SETTLING POND
BULK
>7C/DJCT
< . ._ r> EULK
^ PR50UCT
Vll VF PRDDUCT
r'f.C.'.E.T LOAD N3
1
DUST
COLLECTOR


\
V/ATcR TO
SETTLING PONO
-««| DrAATER j 	 to 6RAV
WATER
TO
SETTUNC PONO
    ORE-

                            BARITE  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                   (V;ET  PROCESS)
WATER y»ATW
AND
Vr'ASH


JIG
                          J
                    rfLl
          SOLID SLII.-E  ORA.'EL SLIME
          WASTE SALVA5E  TO SALVAfS
                   WASTE
STEAM   WATER

  K«"ENTS \
                                                           flLTKATE
                                  >. BARiTE
                                   PROOUST
FLOTATION
SECTION
1


TWCXENINS
CIRCUIT


FILTER,
DRY
ANO
COOL
— PRO^T

                                                TAIL1NI5S PONS
                             BAFxITE  MNING ANO PROCESSING
                                 (FLOTATION  PROCESS)
                                     126

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mined.  Some waste material is  removed at the mine  site  without
use of water.

The  quantity  of the water used in these facilities  depends  upon
the quality of the  ore  and  the  type  of  the  waste   material
associated with the ore as qiven as follows:

              water consumption in 1/kkq
              of product  (gal/ton)
         barite recovery                    sanitary  and
Facility from feed  (%}   process water      misc. usage

2011     63               62,600  (15,000)   650  (150)
2012     63              110,200  (33,600)   	
2013     77                7,200  (1,725)
2015     5.7             162,700  (39,000)   	
2016     4.8             239,400  (57,400)   	
2017     3.3             291,300  (69,800)   12,380  (3,270)
2018     3.9             246,500  (59,100)    8,382  (2,215)
2020     54               62,600  (15,000)      650  (150)
2046     63              140,200  (33,600)   	

The  exceptional  facility  in  the  above  table   is  2013.   This
facility uses water at an average of  only  7,200   1/kkg  product
(1,725 qal/ton)  because  only  30-40 percent  of   the ore   qoes
through jigging.  The majority  of the barite at this  facility is
dry ground.  In facilities 2012, 2013 and 2046, the process water
volumes  given  include the water used for sanitary purposes.  In
all facilities, the process water is recycled.  Makeup water  may
be required in some of these facilities.

The  process  raw  wastes in this subcategory consist  of  the  mill
tailings from the washing and jigging circuits.  These clay  and
sand wastes range from 230 to 970 kg per kkg of feed.

                   BARITE (FLOTATION PROCESS)

Processing  in  these  facilities consists of crushing the ore to
free it from the gangue  material,  washing  the  barite  ore to
remove  the  clay, jigging the  washed ore to separate  the gravel,
grinding, and beneficiation by  froth flotation to recover  barite
concentrates.   The  concentrates  are  then  filtered and dried.
Drying is at temperatures high  enough  to  destroy the  organic
reagent  used in the flotation.  The dried product  is  then cooled
and  bagged  for  shipment.    At  facility  2019,   two   separate
flotation  circuits are used to recover barite fines  from the log
washer and jig tailings.  In facility 2014, the ore from the  mine
is free from clays and sands, and this facility processes its ore
without a washing and jigging operation.
                              127

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The ma-jor process raw waste emanating from  these  facilities  is
the  flotation mill tailings.  The solids in the raw waste stream
was reported to be an  average  of  24,750 mg/1  and  maximum  of
50,000 mg/1  for facility 2019.  The quantities of the wastes are
given as follows:
Facility

Mill tailings
Washdown water
 from mill

Spent brine from
 water softening
 operation
                        I/day  (gal/day)
2010

530,000
(140,000)

265,000
(70,000)
2014

660,000
(173,500)

110,000
(29,000)

19,000
(5,000)
2019

4,730,000
(1,250,000)
unknown
Facility 2010 consumes  water  at  an  average  of  45,000  1/kkg
product  (10,800 gal/ton) on a total recycle basis.  This includes
about  1,655  1/kkg  product used for non-contact cooling, boiler
feed and sanitary purposes.  Most of the process  water  used  in
this  facility,  13,025,000 I/day  (3.44 mgd), is recycled back to
the facility from the thickening operations.  At  facility  2014,
well  water  is  used  both  in the flotation circuit and for the
milling operation.  This facility consumes 2,500 1/kkg of product
 (595 gal/ton).   Approximately  35 percent  of  this   water   is
recycled  from the thickening operations.  The flotation tailings
and some overflow from the thickener are  sent  to  the  tailings
pond.   At facility 2019 untreated river water is used as process
water.  This facility consumes  an  average  of  33,700 1/kkg  of
product   (8,900 gal/ton)  on a once through basis.  The hydraulic
load of these facilities are given as follows:
                               128

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Facility

Makeup water


Recycled water


Process consumed


Non-contact
 cooling

Sanitary


Boiler feed
I/day (gal/day)
2010

2,725,000 max.
(720,000 max.)

13,025,000
(3,440,000)

15,750,000
(4,160,000)

530,000
(140,000)

37,900
(10,000)

37,900
(10,000)
Brine & back flush 	
 Srinse water used
 in water softening

Misc. housekeeping 	
2014

792,000
(208,980)

427,000
(112,520)

872,000
(230,000)
218,000
(57,500)
               19,000
               (5,000)
               110,000
               (29,000)
2019

4,731,000
(1,250,000)
4,731,000
(1,250,000)
                              129

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                      FLUORSPAR (SIC It73)

There are fifteen significant facilities in  the  U.S.  producing
either  fluorspar  concentrates  and/or  finished  acid grade and
metallurgical grade fluorspar products.  Six of these  facilities
are wet heavy media separation (HMS) facilities, producing both a
finished   product   (metallurgical   gravel)   and  upgraded  and
preconcentrated feed for flotation.  Five  facilities  use  froth
flotation  for  the production of fluorspar alone or with barite,
zinc, or lead;  three  are  fluorspar  drying  facilities  drying
imported  filter  cakes  in  kilns  or  air  driers, and one is a
fluorspar pelletizing facility, where spar filter cake is pressed
to pellets, dried and shipped.  Figure  27  shows  the  different
methods of processing.

       FLUORSPAR - HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION  (HMS) OPERATIONS

An  HMS  facility may serve two purposes.  First, it upgrades and
preconcentrates the ore to  yield  an  enriched  flotation  feed.
Second,  it  produces  a  metallurgical grade gravel.  The ore is
crushed to proper size in the crushing circuit, then  washed  and
drained  on  vibrating  screens  to  eliminate  as  many fines as
possible.  The oversize material from this operation is  recycled
back  to  the  screen.    The  undersize  is  sent  into  a spiral
classifier for recovery of a portion of  the  flotation  facility
feed.   The  HMS  cone feed consists of the middle size particles
resulting from the  screening  operation.   The  separatory  cone
contains  a  suspension  of  finely  ground  ferro-silicon and/or
magnetite  in  water,  maintained  at  a  predetermined  specific
gravity.   The  light  fraction  (HMS  tailings)  floats  and  is
continuously removed by overflowing a weir.  The heavy  particles
(flotation feed) sink and are continuously removed by an airlift.

The  float  overflow  and  sink  airlift discharge go to drainage
screens where 95 percent of the medium carried with the float and
sink drains through the screen, is  magnetically  separated  from
the  slimes,  and is returned to the circuit.  The float and sink
products are passed over dewatering  screens  and  the  water  is
pumped back to the facility.

Water  consumption  in  these  facilities  ranges from 96 to 2700
1/kkg of feed to the facility  (650-2300 gal/ton  of  feed).   The
hydraulic loads for the HMS facility were not known in two of the
facilities    (2008  and  2009)  because  the  HMS  and  flotation
facilities are located at the same site.  They are operated as  a
combined unit and water consumption values were available for the
combined  operation.   The  hydraulic  loads  for  the  remaining
facilities are given as follows:
                               130

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                                FIGURE  27
FLOTATION
  FEED
         CRUSHING
           AND
         RECYCU
      WATER
CRUSHING  FOfi
  AN3  RECYCLE
RECYCLE
LEGEND:
 	OVfRjIZE
 	UNOERSIZE
                         FLUORSPAR MINING "AND PROCESSING
                                   (HMS PROCESS)
                                                                                       PROOOCT
                                                                                 ZINC BY-PRODUCT
                                                                           WATER
                                                                            FOR
                                                                          RECOVERY
                         FLUORSPAR IWNING AND PROCESSING
                                (FLOTATION  PROCESS)
                                       131

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Water Consumption       1/kkq of feed (gal/ton)
Facility                2004      2005      2006      2007

                        9,600     2,710     3,670     5,550
                        (2,300)    (650)      (880)     (1,330)

Raw wastes in this subcategory consist primarily of  slimes  from
fines  separation.  At five of the facilities in this subcategory
(facilities 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2009), there is  no  waste
discharge  from  the  HMS  process.    The  water  used  in  these
facilities is recycled back through closed circuit  impoundments.
At  facility  2007  the  raw  waste, consisting of the classifier
overflow is discharged into a settling pond prior  to  discharge.
The average value of the raw slime waste for facility 2007 is 340
kg/kkg of product.

                 FLUORSPAR-FLOTATION OPERATIONS

There  are  currently five fluorspar flotation mills in operation
in the U.S.  Three of these operations are  discussed  below.    A
fourth  facility  is  in  the  startup  stage  and  operating  at
30-40 percent of design capacity.

In froth  flotation  facilities,  fluorspar  and  other  valuable
minerals  are  recovered  leaving  the  gangue  minerals  as mill
tailings.   Facility  2000  recovers  fluorspar,  zinc  and  lead
sulfides.   Facility 2003 recovers fluorspar only.  At facilities
2000 and 2001, lead  and  zinc  sulfides  are  floated  ahead  of
fluorspar  using  appropriate reagents as aerofloats, depressants
and frothers.  At facility  2000,  barite  is  floated  from  the
fluorspar rougher flotation tailings.

In  all  these  facilities,  steam is added to enhance the selec-
tivity of the operation.   The  various  grades  of  concentrates
produced  are  then stored in thickeners until filtered.  Barite,
lead sulfide, and zinc sulfide concentrates are  sold  in  filter
cake form.  The fluorspar concentrates are dried in rotary kilns.
The  dried  concentrates  are  then shipped.  At facility 2001, a
portion of the fluorspar  filter  cake  is  sent  to  the  pellet
facility  where  it  is  mixed,  pressed  into pellets, dried and
stored.

The ores have  different  physical  characteristics  and  require
different  quantities  of process water.  A maximum of 20 percent
of the process  water  is  recycled  from  the  thickeners.   The
remainder  is  discharged  into  a ponding system.  The hydraulic
loads for these facilities are:
                               132

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                             1/dav   fmgd)
Process

Boiler feed

Non-contact cooling

Dust control

Sanitary uses


Process waste

Water recycled or
  evaporated
facility water use

process waste
2000

1,700,000
(0.45)
30,000
(0.008)
38,000
(0.010)
120,000
(0.032)
4,000
(0.001)

1,515,000
(0.40)
377,000
(0.103)
     2001

     3,425,000
     (0.905)
     54,000
     (0.014)
     2,500
     (0.0008)

     3,260,000
     (0.865)
     196,500
     (0.055)
           2003

           1,090,000
            (0.288)
           54,500
            (0.014)
                        1/kkg of product  (cral/ton)
11,900
(2,860)
9,540
(2,290)
     20,200
     (4,840)
     19,100
     (4,580)
            1,144,500
            (0.302)
            21,030
            (5,040)
            0
The process  raw  wastes  in  this  sutcategory  consist   of   the
tailings  from  the  flotation  sections.  At facilities  2000  and
2001, the tailings contain 14 to  18 percent solids, which  consist
of 4-5 percent CaF2, 20-25 percent CaCO3,  25-30 percent SiO2,  and
the remainder is primarily shale  and clay.  The average values of
the raw wastes are:
                        kg/kkg of product
                        2000      2001
flotation tailings
1,800
2,000
(Ib/lOOO  Ib)
  2003

  2,000
          FLUORSPAR  (DRYING AND PELLETIZING OPERATIONS)

There are presently three fluorspar drying facilities in  the U.S.
In these facilities imported filter cakes  are  dried  and  sold.
The filter cake has about 9-10 percent moisture which is  dried  in
kilns  or  in  air  driers.   Two  of  these  facilities  have  no
discharge.  They use baghouse collectors for dust  control.   The
third  drying  facility  is  located  at  the  same  site as the
company's hydrofluoric acid facility.  This drying  facility  has
an  effluent from the wet scrubber on the drier, which is treated
in the gypsum pond along with the acid  facility  effluent.   The
                               133

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combined  effluent  stream  has  teen covered under the Inorganic
Chemical Manufacturing category.

There are two pelletizing facilities in the U.S.   One  of  these
operations   has   been   discussed  previously  under  flotation
(facility 2001).   A  second  facility   manufactures   fluorspar
pellets  only.   At  this facility fluorspar filter cake is mixed
with some additives, pressed into pellets, dried and stored.   No
pollutants are generated at this facility site.

             MINE DISCHARGE IN FIUCRSPAR OPERATIONS

There are presently seven fluorspar active mines in the U.S.  Six
of  these  mines  are  underground  operations  (2088, 2089, 2090,
2091, 2092 and 2093) and one  is  a  dry  open-pit  mine   (2091).
Additionally,   there   are   three   underground  mines  in  the
development stage (2085, 2086, 2087) with no  current  production
and  five other mines with no production but are dewatered  (2080,
2081, 2082, 2083 and 208U).

Mine 2080 is used as an emergency escape shaft,  air  shaft,  and
also  to  help  dewater mine 2088.  There are no discharge waters
pumped from either mines 2081 and 2087.  What water there  is  in
these  mines  drains underground and eventually enters mine 2083.
It has keen estimated that mine 2085 will have a discharge volume
in  the  vicinity  of  3,800,000 I/day   (1 mgd).    The   present
discharge  is  only a small fraction of the anticipated volume of
water from this mine.  At  mines 2091  and  2093,  about  62  and
UO percent,  respectively, of the mine discharge water is used at
the mills.  The remaining drainage is then discharged.
                              134

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               SALINES PROM ERIN! LAKES (SIC 14710

The extraction of several mineral products from  lake  brines  is
carried   out  at  three  major  U.S.  locations:  Searles  Lake,
California; Silver Peak, Nevada; and the Great Salt  Lake,  Utah.
The  operations  at  these locations are integrated and the water
and waste handling cannot be readily attributed to  the  separate
products.   The facilities at Searles Lake operate what is called
the "Trona Process", not to be confused with the trona ore mining
in Sweetwater County, Wyoming, discussed elsewhere.  This complex
process produces many products based on the  brine  constituents.
The  process  operated  at the Great Salt Lake produces a smaller
number of products.  However, the  waste  handling  and  disposal
techniques at all locations are quite similar.

                     SEARLES LAKE OPERATIONS

Several minerals such as borax, lithium salts, salt cake, natural
soda  ash and potash are produced from the brine of Searles Lake,
California, by a series of processing steps involving evaporation
of the brine in stages with selective precipitation  of  specific
ingredients.   The recovery processes and raw material are unique
to this location.  These processes are carried out  in  a  desert
area  adjacent  to  Searles Lake, a large residual evaporate salt
body filled with saline brines.  About 14  percent  of  the  U.S.
potash  production  is  from  this source, TH percent of the U.S.
natural sodium sulfate, 17 percent of the U.  S.  borax,  and  12
percent of the natural soda ash.

At  facility 5872, the brines are the raw material and are pumped
into the processing facilities where  the  valuable  constituents
are  separated and recovered.  The residual brines, salts and end
liquors including various added process waters  are  returned  to
the  lake  to  maintain  the  saline  brine  volume and to permit
continued extraction of the valuable constituents in  the  return
water.  There is no discharge as the recycle liquors are actually
the  medium  for  obtaining  the  raw material for the processes.
Total brine flow into  the  facility  is  about  33,600,000 I/day
(9,0 mgd)  with about one quarter being lost by evaporation.  The
total recycle back to the salt body is the same volume, including
added process waters.

For potash production at  Searles  Lake,  a  cyclic  evaporation-
crystallization  process  is used in which about 16,350,000 I/day
(1.32 mgd) of saline brine are evaporated to dryness.  The brine,
plus recycle mother liquor,  is  concentrated  in  triple  effect
steam  evaporators  to  produce a hot concentrated liguor high in
potassium chloride and borax.   As  the  concentration  proceeds,
large  amounts  of  salt (NaCl) and burkeite (Na2CO.3, Na2!SOtt)  are
crystallized and separated.  The former is returned to  the  salt
body  and  the  latter,  which  also  contains  dilithium  sodium
phosphate is transported to another process for  separation  into
                              135

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soda  ash  (Na2icq3) ,  salt  cake  (Na2SO4) ,  phosphoric  acid and
lithium carbonate.  The hot concentrated liquor is cooled rapidly
in vacuum crystallizers and potassium chloride is  filtered  from
the  resulting  slurry.   Most of the potassium chloride is dried
and packaged while a portion is  refined  and/or  converted  into
potassium  sulfate.   The  cool  liquor,  depleted  in  potassium
chloride, is held in a second set of crystaliizers to  allow  the
more  slowly crystallizing borax to separate and be filtered away
from  the  final  mother  liquor  which  is   recycled   to   the
evaporation-concentration  step  to  complete  the process cycle.
The  borax,  combined  with  borax  solids  from   the   separate
carbonation-refrigeration     process,     is     purified     by
recrystallization, dried, and packaged.  A process flow sheet  is
given in Figure 28.

The  wastes  from  the basic evaporation-crystallization process,
including the processes for potassium chloride, borax, soda  ash,
and  salt  cake, are weak brines made up of process waters, waste
salts and end liquors.  These are returned to the salt body in an
amount essentially equal to the feed rate to  the  process—about
16,350,000 I/day   (U.32 mgd).  The recycle liquors enter both the
upper and lower structures of the salt body.  In the case of  the
carbonation-refrigeration   system,   the  entire  brine  stream,
depleted in sodium carbonate and borax, is recycled to  the  salt
body  to  continue  the solution mining.  The overall water usage
for the two facilities is about 33,6CO,OOC I/day  (8.88  mgd)  of
Searles  Lake  brine with about one-third of this volume of fresh
water used for washing operations.

               GREAT SALT LAKE RECOVERY OPERATIONS

At the present time four mineral products are  produced  at  this
location:  sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate and
bittern liquors.  Recovery of pure lithium and magnesium salts is
being planned for the  future.   About  20 percent  of  the  U.S.
natural sodium sulfate comes from this location.

Brine  from  the  north  arm  of Great Salt Lake is pumped into a
series  of  evaporation  ponds.    Partial   evaporation   occurs
selectively  precipitating  out  sodium  chloride.   The residual
brine  is  pumped  to  a  second  series  of  ponds  for  further
evaporation and the precipitated salts are harvested.

In  the  second series of ponds, further evaporation of the brine
occurs to precipitate sodium sulfate.  The concentrated  residual
brine is pumped to a third series of ponds and the sodium sulfate
is  harvested.  In the third series of ponds, further evaporation
occurs  effecting  precipitation  of  potassium   sulfate.    The
residual  brine  is  then  pumped to a fourth series of ponds for
bittern recovery and the potassium sulfate is harvested.
                               136

-------
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              137

-------
The harvested raw salts are  treated  in  the  following  manners
prior to shipment:

(a) Sodium chloride  is  washed  with  fresh  water,  dried,  and
    packaged.
(b) sodium sulfate is  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  sodium
    chloride.
(c) Potassium sulfate is dissolved in fresh water, recrystallized
    from solution, dried, and packaged.

The washwaters from the sodium sulfate and chloride purifications
and waste water from the recrystallization of  potassium  sulfate
are  discharged  to  the Great Salt Lake.  A process flowsheet is
given in Figure 28.  There is also some discharge due  to  yearly
washout of the evaporation ponds with fresh water.  These are all
returned to the Great Salt Lake.

Eleven  million  liters  per  day (2.9 mgd) of waste water arises
from two sources:  washing of the recovered sodium chlorides  and
sulfate,  and  recrystallization  of recovered potassium sulfate.
The waste water from these operations contains these  three  sub-
stances  as  constituents  along  with minor amounts of materials
present in lake trine bitterns  (i.e.,  magnesium  salts).   Since
the waste water constituents are similar to the lake brine, these
wastes  are  discharged  without treatment back to the Great Salt
Lake.  The compositions of the intake  brine  and  effluent  wash
water are, in terms of mg/1:

                   lake brine          facility discharge

sodium                 96,800            33,450
magnesium              49,600            99,840
chloride              160,000            78,000
sulfate                1U,500            55,500
TSS                     1945                703

                 SILVER PEAK, NEVADA, OPERATIONS

This  facility  manufactures lithium carbonate.  Brine containing
lithium salts is pumped to the  surface to  form a  man-made  brine
lake.   This  consists  of  a   series  of  evaporation  ponds for
preliminary concentration.  After this step, the  brine  is  then
treated   with   lime  to  precipitate  magnesium  salts  as  the
hydroxide.  The magnesium  hydroxide  is  recovered  periodically
from the ponds as a precipitant.

The  treated brine is then further concentrated by evaporation to
partially precipitate sodium  and  potassium  salts.   These  are
periodically  harvested  from   the  ponds  and  stored for future
processing to recover potash values.  The  concentrated  brine  is
again  reacted  with  soda  ash,  and  the  precipitated  lithium
carbonate is filtered, dried, and packaged.  The spent  brine  is
                              138

-------
returned  to  the  preliminary  evaporation ponds for mixing with
fresh material.  A process flowsheet is given in Figure 28.

Facility water consists of brine from an underground  source  and
fresh  water  used  for  washout  purposes.  All of this water is
evaporated during the process and all of the wastes  produced  as
solids.

                             1/kkg of product (gal/ton)

Process brine                1,500,000 (360,000)

Process washout water           36,800 (8,500)
                              139

-------
                        BORAX (SIC 1474)

The  whole  U.S. production of borax is carried out in the desert
areas of California by two processes:  the mining  of  borax  ore
and  the  Trona  process.    This  latter  process is discussed in
detail in the section on salines from brine lakes.  The mining of
ore accounts  for  about  three-fourths  of  the  estimated  U.S.
production  of  borax.  The facility discussed herein is the only
U.S. producer by this method.

Borax is prepared by extraction from a dry mined ore which is  an
impure  form  of sodium tetraborate decahydrate (borax).  The ore
is crushed, dissolved in water  (mother liguor), and the  solution
is  fed  to  a thickener where the insolubles are removed and the
waste is sent to percolation- proof evaporation ponds.  The borax
solution is piped to crystallizers  and  then  to  a  centrifuge,
where solid borax is recovered.  The borax is dried, screened and
packaged  and  the  mother  liquor recycled to the dissolvers.  A
process flow diagram is given in Figure 29.

Fresh water consumption at the facility  amounts  to  2,840 1/kkg
(680 gal/ton).   An additional 835 1/kkg  (200 gal/ton) enters via
the ore.  Most of the cooling  water  is  recycled  and  all  the
process waste water is sent to evaporation ponds.
                               140

-------
WATER
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              BORATE MiNING AND PROCESSING

-------
                        POTASH (SIC 117U)

Potash  is  produced in four different geographical areas by four
different processing methods.  These methods are:

(1)  Dry mining of sylvinite ores  is  followed  by  flotation  or
    selective  crystallization  to  recover  potash  as potassium
    chloride from the sylvinite and  dry  mining  of  langbeinite
    ores is followed by leaching to recover potash as langveinite
    from the ores.  A portion of the leached langbeinite, usually
    fines  from  product  screening,  is reacted in solution with
    potassium chloride to produce potassium sulfate and magnesium
    chloride.  The latter is either recovered as a co-product  or
    discarded  as  a  waste.  These are the processes employed in
    the Carlsbad, New Mexico, area operations.

(2)  Solution mining of Searles Lake brines is followed by several
    partial evaporation and selective  crystallization  steps  to
    recover  potash as KC1.  During the several process steps, 12
    other mineral products are also recovered.  This is discussed
    earlier.

(3)  Solution mining is performed from  Utah  sylvinite  deposits.
    This  method  is  used to recover potash as a brine, which is
    then evaporated.  The solids are separated  by  flotation  to
    recover  potassium  chloride.  The sodium chloride is a solid
    waste.

(<»)  Evaporation of Great Salt  Lake  brines  is  similar  to  the
    Searles  Lake  operation  in  that the brine is evaporated in
    steps to selectively recover sodium chloride and sulfate  and
    potassium   sulfate.   The  latter  product  is  purified  by
    recrystallization.  All of the wastes from this process which
    consist of unrecovered salts are returned to the lake.   This
    is also discussed earlier.

                       CARLSBAD OEPRATIONS

There  are  two  processes  employed  in  the  six  Carlsbad area
facilities which account for about 8H percent of  the  U.S.  pro-
duction  of  potash.   One  is  used  for  recovery  of potassium
chloride  and  the  other  for   processing   langbeinite   ores.
Sylvinite ore is a combination of potassium and sodium chlorides.
The ore is mined, crushed, screened and wet ground in brine.  The
ore  is  separated  from  clay impurities in a desliming process.
The clay impurities are fed to a gravity separator which  removes
some of the sodium chloride precipitated from the leach brine and
the  insolubles  for disposal as waste.  After desliming, the ore
is prepared for a flotation process, where potassium  and  sodium
chlorides  are  separated.  The tailings slurry and the potassium
chloride slurry are centrifuged, and the brines are  returned  to
the  process  circuit.   These  tailings are then wasted, and the
                              142

-------
sylvite product is dried, sized and shipped or stored.  A process
flowsheet is given  in  Figure  30.   Langbeinite  is  a  natural
sulfate   of   potassium   and  magnesium,  K2Mq2 (SO4)_3,  and  is
intermixed with sodium chloride.  This ore is mined, crushed, and
the sodium chloride is  removed  ty  leaching  with  water.   The
resulting  langbeinite slurry is centrifuged with the brine being
wasted and the langbeinite dried, sized, shipped or stored.

A portion of the langbeinite, usually the fines from sizing,  are
reacted  in  solution  with  potassium chloride to form potassium
sulfate.  Partial evaporation of a portion of the liquors is used
to increase recovery.  The remaining liquor from the  evaporation
step  is  either  wasted  to an evaporation pond or evaporated to
dryness to recover  magnesium  chloride  as  a  co-product.   The
disposition  of the waste liquor is determined by the saleability
of the magnesium chloride co-product and the cost of water to the
facility.  The potassium sulfate slurry from the reaction section
is centrifuged with the liquor returned to the facility  circuit,
and  the  resulting  potassium  sulfate  product is dried, sized,
shipped or stored.  A simplified process flowsheet  is  given  in
Figure 30.

All  six  facilities  at  Carlsbad  processing  sylvinite ore are
described above.  Two process  langbeinite  only.   One  facility
processes  langbeinite  ore  in  addition  to sylvinite.  In that
case, the ore is dry mined, crushed and cold  leached  to  remove
sodium and potassium chlorides.  The material is then washed free
of clays, recovered, dried and packaged.

Water  use  at  sylvinite  ore  processing facilities is shown as
follows:

                             1/kkg of product (gal/ton)
Facility                     5838                5843

input:
 fresh water                 6,420 (1,540)        1,750  (421)
 brine                       not known           3,160  (760)

use:
 process contact             34,600 (8,300)       11,900 (2,900)
 cooling                     0                   0
 boiler feed                 0                   205 (50)

consumption:
 process waste               6,420 (1,540)        4,710  (1,130)
 boiler blowdown             0                   205 (50)
                              143

-------
                      FIGURE  30



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                     144

-------
Water use at langbeinite ore processing facilities is shown
as follows:

                             1/kkg of product  (gal/ton)
Facility                     5813                5822

input:
    fresh water              8,360 (2,000)       4,800  (1,200)

use:
    leaching and washing     5,000 (1,200)       4,800  (1,200)
    cooling                  30,000  (7,200)      0

consumption:
    process evaporation      0-1,670  (400)       0
    process waste            0-1,670  (400)       4,800  (1,200)
    cooling water evapora-   6,700 (1,600)       0
         tion

For sylvinite ore processing, the raw wastes consist  largely  of
sodium  chloride and insoluble impurities  (silica, alumina, etc.)
present in the ore.  In langbeinite  processing  the  wastes  are
insolubles  and  magnesium  chloride.   A  comparison  of the raw
wastes of two sylvinite facilities   (facilities  5838  and  5843)
with  langbeinite  raw wastes (facilities  5813 and 5822) is given
below.  Differences in ore grades account  for differences in  the
clay and salt wastes:

                             kg/kkg of product (lb/1000 Ib)
Facility                     5838           5843

wastes:
 clays                       75             235
 NaCl  (solid)                 3,750          2,500
 NaCl  (brine)                 1,400          1,000
 KCl  (brine)                 75             318
 MgSQ4                       640            75
 K2SO4                       440            0

Facility                     5813           5822

A small percentage of the wastes of facility 5838 is sold.
Part of the magnesium chloride from langbeinite processing is
periodically recovered for sale and part of the remaining
brine solution is recycled as process water.
These brines contain about 33 percent solids.
The wastes consist of muds from the ore dissolution and the
wasted brines.
The latter brine can sometimes be used for MgCl2 production
if high grade, low sodium content langbeinite ore is used.
The composition of the brines after K2SO4  recovery is:
                              145

-------
         potassium
         sodium
         magnesium
         chloride
         sulfate
         water
3.29%
1.3%
5.7%
18.5%
U.9%
66.7%
                         UTAH OPERATIONS

Solution  mining  of  sylvinite is practiced at two facilities in
Utah.  The sylvinite (NaCl,  KCl)   is  solution  mined,  and  the
resulting  saturated  brine drawn to the surface is evaporated to
dryness in large surface ponds.  The dried recovered material  is
then  harvested  from  the  ponds and separated by flotation into
sodium and potassium chlorides.  The sodium chloride tailings are
discarded as a waste and the recovered potassium chloride is then
dried and packaged.  A process flowsheet is given in Figure 30.

Fresh water is used for process purposes at facility 5998 in  the
following  amounts:   10,600,000 I/day  (2.8 mgd) and 11,700 1/kkg
(2,8CO gal/ton).  Water is used first in  the  flotation  circuit
and  then in the solution mining.   The resulting brine from these
operations is evaporated and  then  processed  in  the  flotation
unit.  There is no discharge of process water.
                               146

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                        TRONA (SIC 114714)

All  U.S.  mining of trona ore (impure sodium sesquicarbonate) is
carried out. in Sweetwater County, Wyoming,  in  the  vicinity  of
Green  Fiver.  The deposits are worked at four facilities.  Three
mine trona ore and process it to the pure sodium carbonate  (soda
ash).   One  of these three facilities also produces other sodium
salts using soda ash as a raw material.  The fourth facility  has
only  mining  operations  at this time, but plans to build a soda
ash processing facility on the site in the near future.  The 1973
production of soda ash from these deposits amounted to  3,100,000
kkg  (3,400,000 tons).  This corresponds to about 5,800,000 kkg of
trona ore mined  (6,500,000 tons).

The  facility  data  contained  herein  are  current  except  for
facilities 5962 and 5976 which are appropriate to the 1971 period
when the discharge permit applications were processed.  The trona
ore mining  rate  in  1971  was  approximately  4,000,000  kkg/yr
(4,UOO,000 tons/yr).    Rapid  expansion  in  capacity  of  these
facilities has been taking place in recent years and continues at
this time.  Since the mining and ore  processing  operations  are
integrated  at  these  facilities, they are covered as a whole by
this analysis.  All four facilities are represented in the data.

The trona deposits lie well beneath  the  surface  of  this  arid
region  and  are  worked  by  room  and pillar mining or longwall
mining at depths of 240 to 460 m  (800 to 1500  ft).   The  broken
ore  is  transported  to  the  surface and stockpiled for further
processing.  The mining is a dry  operation  except  for  leakage
from  overlying strata through which the mine shafts were sunk or
from underlying  strata  under  pressure.   All  four  facilities
experience such mine leakage.

The  on-site  refining  process  for  trona  ore  consists of its
conversion to the pure sodium carbonate, called "soda ash".   The
processing  includes  the removal of insoluble impurities through
crushing,  dissolving  and   separation,   removal   of   organic
impurities  through  carbon  absorption, removal of excess carbon
dioxide and water by calcining  and  drying  to  soda  ash.   Two
variations of the process are used, the "sesquicarbonate" process
and  the  "monohydrate"  process.   At present all three soda ash
refineries use  the  monohydrate  process.   One  also  uses  the
sesquicarbonate  process.   General process flow diagrams of both
processes are shown in Figure  31  with  the  raw  materials  and
principal  products  material  balances  given in units of kg/kkq
soda ash product.

These processes both require  large  quantities  of  process  and
cooling  water  for  efficient operation, but the arid climate in
this area (average annual precipitation of 7 to 8 inches)   allows
for disposal of waste water through evaporation in ponds.
                              147

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                           FIGURE 31

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-------
Raw  wastes  from  these operations come from three sources: mine
pumpout  water,  surface  runoff  and  ground  water,   and   ore
processing  water.   The wastes in the mine and surface water are
principally saline materials   (dissolved  solids)  and  suspended
solids.   The  ore  processing  raw  wastes  are  principally the
impurities present in the trona ore plus some unrecovered  sodium
carbonates,  carbon, filter aids, and treatment chemicals as well
as any minerals entering with the makeup water.  The average mine
pumpout  at  these  facilities  ranges  from  less  than  19   to
1,110 1/min (5 to 500 gpm).

waste materials              5962           5976
(mg/1)

dissolved solids             74,300         11,500
suspended solids             369            40
COD                          346            2.1
ammonia                                     8.1
fluoride                                    11
lead                                        0.023
chloride                                    1,050
sulfate                                     655

High  ground  water levels during the March through August period
give a seasonal water flow in the 5962 facility containing  2,160
kg/day  (4,750  Ib/day)  of  total  solids, principally dissolved
solids.  This particular ground water problem apparently does not
exist  at  the  other  facilities.   Rainwater  and  snow  runoff
discharges  are highly variable and also contain saline dissolved
solids and suspended solids.

Unlike the  foregoing  wastes,  the  ore  processing  wastes  are
principally  related to the production rate and, hence, are given
on the basis of a unit weight of ore:

waste material                         kg/kkg of ore (Ib/lCOO Ib)

ore insolubles  (shale and shortite)         100-140
iron sulfide (FeS)                          0-1
sodium carbonate                            60-130
spent carbon and
filter aids (e.g., diatomaceous
earth, perlite)                             0.5-2

The composition of the mill tailings  water  flow  from  facility
5933 to the evaporation ponds, is:

    total dissolved solids:       15,000 mg/1
    total suspended solids:        2,000 mg/1
    total volatile solids:         2,500 mg/1
    chloride:                      3,400 mg/1
                              149

-------
Water  use  at the mines having attached refineries is determined
principally by the refining process.  The only  water  associated
with  the  mines  is mine pumpout, dust control water and sewage,
the latter two being rather small.

Relative flow per unit production values for the mine pumpout are
not useful since the flow is not influenced by  production  rate.
There  are  three  major routes of consumption of the water taken
into these facilities:  evaporation in the course of refining via
drying operations and cooling water recycling, discharge of waste
water to evaporation ponds  (both process and  sanitary),  and  by
discharge  of  wastes to waterways.  The consumption of water for
the three soda ash refiners via these routes is:

total consumption       106 I/day  (mqd)      1/kkg of product
                                                 (gal/ton)

average                 9.3                 2,840  (680)
range of averages       7.08-10.6           2,250 - 3,200
                        (1.9-2.8)           (540-760)

evaporation in processing

average                 3.4 (0.9)           1,100  (260)
range of averages       3.0-3.8             940 - 1,200
                        (0.8-1.0)           (230-280)

netflow to evaporation ponds

average                 5.8 (1.5)           1,800  (430)
range of averages       4.1-6.8             1,300 - 2,000
                        (1.1-1.8)           (320-490)

discharge

average                 23,000  (0.006)      8  (2)
range of averages       0-45,000  (0-0.012)  0-13  (0-3)

A significant variation in the above flows during the course of  a
year  would  be  the  effect  of  increase  in  production   rate
occasioned by a facility expansion.
                               150

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                   SODIUM SULFATE  (SALT CAKE)

Sodium  sulfate   (salt  cake) is produced from natural sources in
three different geographical areas by three different  processing
methods  because  of  differences in the ores or brines utilized.
Salt cake is also recovered as a by-product of numerous inorganic
chemical industry processes.  The three mining processes are:

(a) Recovery from Great Salt Lake brines as part  of  a  stepwise
    evaporation  process.   Sodium chloride and potassium sulfate
    are recovered as co-products.  This process was discussed  in
    Salines from Brine Lakes.
(b) Recovery from Searles Lake brines  as  part  of  an  involved
    evaporative  series  of processes which generate 13 products.
    This process was also discussed in Salines from Brine Lakes.
(c) Recovery   from   West   Texas   brines   by   a    selective
    crystallization process.

There  are two facilities mining sodium sulfate from brine wells.
Sodium sulfate natural brines are pumped from wells,  settled  to
remove  suspended  muds and then saturated with salt (NaCl).  The
brine mixtures are cooled to  precipitate  sodium  sulfate.   The
precipitated  solids  are  recovered  by filtration and the spent
brine is fed to an evaporation pond as a  waste.   The  recovered
solids  are  melted,  calcined  to effect dehydration, cooled and
packaged.  A process flowsheet is shown in Figure 32.
                              151

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                              STEAM VENT
SODIUM
SU1 FATE
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SODIUM SULFATE FROM BRINE WELLS

-------
                      POCK SALT (SIC 1176)

There are approximately 21 producers of rock salt in  the  United
States.    Eleven   facilities  were  visited  representing  over
90 percent of the salt production.  The operations and  the  type
of  waste  generated  are  similar  for the entire industry.  The
sources of  waste  and  the  methods  of  disposition  vary  from
facility  to  facility.   This  study covers those establishments
engaged in mining, crushing and screening rock salt.

The salt is mined from a salt dome or horizontal beds at  various
depths  by conventional room and pillar methods.  The face of the
material is undercut, drilled and blasted  and  the  broken  salt
passed  through  a multiple stage crushing and screening circuit.
The products normally 1" and smaller are hoisted to  the  surface
for  further  screening  and sizing and preparation for shipment.
The extent of the final crushing and screening carried out on the
surface  varies  and  in  some  cases  practically  all  is  done
underground.  See Figure 33 for a typical process flow diagram.

The  waste water from these salt facilities consists primarily of
a salt solution of varying sodium chloride content and comes from
one or more of the following sources:

(1)  Wet dust collection in the screening and sizing steps,

(2)  Washdown of miscellaneous spills in the  operating  area  and
    dissolving of the non-salable fines,

(3)  Mine seepage.

    Storage pile runoff.
In the mining and processing of rock salt, water  consumption  is
variable due to the miscellaneous nature of its use.  Routine use
is  for  cooling,  boilers  (heating)  and sanitation with a small
volume  consumed  in  the  process  for  dissolving   anti-caking
reagents.   Variable  volumes  are  used  in  dust collection and
washdown of waste  salt  including  non-salable  fines  from  the
operating areas.
                              153

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                                                                                           PRODUCT
POCK SALT
LEGEND:
UNDERCUTTING,
CRSLLIN3
A?.D
BLASTING


MULTIPLE
STAGE
CRUSHING
A?\=D
SCREENING
         ALTERNATE OR
         CPT.CbAL PROCESS
1
1
1
ui
1

CRUSHING
/•- *:r>
SCREENING




PRODUCT
PREPARATION
AND
PACKAGING
                                                                                      ---SS-PRODUCT
                                      UNDERGROUND
          SURFACE
FIGURE
                                                    33
                            ROCK SALT MiNIKG AND  PROCESSi.NG

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                    PHOSPHATE ROCK (SIC 1U75)

Phosphate  ore  mining  and  processing  is  carried  out in four
different regions of the United States.  These  areas  and  their
contribution  to  the  total  output  are  Florida,  78%; Western
states, 12%; North Carolina, 5%; and Tennessee, 5%.  Eighteen  to
twenty different companies with about 25 to 30 operations account
for  greater  than  95 percent  of  the  output.   Data collected
through visits to most of the operating facilities  are  analyzed
in this section.

Eighty-three percent  of  the ore is processed by flotation.  The
major wastes associated with phosphate production are the  slimes
and  flotation  tailings  which  consist  primarily  of clays and
sands.  These are  separated  from  the  phosphate  rock  through
various   processing  techniques  such  as  grinding,  screening,
crushing, classification, and finally, desliming or a combination
of desliming and flotation.  The method of processing does  merit
subcategorization  in  that  economics can preclude the extensive
use of recycled water in flotation processing.

                            FLOTATION

The  flotation  operations  include  all  in  Florida  and  North
Carolina  and  one in Utah.  The ore which lies at varying depths
from the surface is mined from open pits by use of draglines  and
dumped  into  pits  adjacent  to the mining cut.  The material is
slurried with the use of high  pressure  streams  of  water  from
hydraulically  operated  guns  and  pumped  to  the beneficiation
facility where  it  enters  the  washer  section.   This  section
separates  the  pebble  phosphate  rock  from the slurry which is
accomplished by a series  of  screening,  scrubbing  and  washing
operations.   The coarse fraction termed pebble is transferred to
product storage and the fine phosphatic material is collected and
pumped to surge bins for further processing.

The next step in the process is the removal by  cyclones  of  the
-150 mesh  fraction  referred  to  as slimes,  colloidal clays and
very fine  sands,  which  are  pumped  to  settling  ponds.   The
oversize  material is transferred to the flotation section, where
it is conditioned for the first  stage  flotation.   The  floated
material  may  be  stored  "as  is"  or de-oiled, conditioned and
directed to a second stage flotation.  The phosphate rock product
is dried and stored.  The tailings   (sands)   from  the  flotation
steps  are  discharged  as  a  slurry to mined out areas for land
reclamation.

Facility 1022 is  the  only  Western  facility  that  includes  a
flotation  step.   After  the  cycloning  or  desliming step, the
material is fed to a flotation circuit consisting of conditioning
with rougher and  cleaner  cells.   The  flotation  tailings  are
                              155

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combined  with  slimes and thickened prior to being discharged to
the settling pond.

Facility 4003 differs in processing from the general  description
in  the first part of the mill operation.  The ore feed slurry is
passed through a multiple stage  screening  step  separating  the
-14 mesh  for  flotation and the oversize is discarded.  The mine
operation is unigue in that the ore lies some 30 m (100 ft) below
the  surface.   To  maintain  a  dry  pit,  it  is  necessary  to
de-pressurize an underlying high yield artesian aquifer.  This is
accomplished   through  use  of  a  series  of  deep  well  pumps
surrounding the pit that removes sufficient water to  offset  the
incoming  flow refilling the zone.  See Figure 34 for the process
flow diagram of flotation operations.

Almost all water used in the beneficiation of  phosphate  ore  is
for  processing  purposes.   Only  minimal  volumes  are used for
non-contact cooling and sanitary purposes.  A typical usage is in
the range of 41,000 1/kkg   (10,000 gal/ton)  of  product  with  a
considerable  variation  occurring within the various facilities.
The wide range of water usage may be attributed to the  operating
procedures  and  practices,  the  weight recovery (product/ton of
ore), the percent of ore feed processed  through  flotation,  the
ore  characteristics,  and  the  facility  layout  and  equipment
design.

A comparison of water usage  in  the  various  facilities  is  as
follows:
Facility 10* I/day
4002
4003
4004a
4004b
400 5a
400 5b
4005c
4007
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019a
401 9b
4019c
4020a
4020b
4022
248.1
411.4
205.9
121.9
246.5
107.7
370.9
none
313.0
182.1
726.4
358.2
355.0
573.8
255.9
257.4
174.1
 mgd

65.5
108.7
54.4
32.2
65.0
28.5
98

82.7
48.1
191.9
94.6
93.8
151.6
67.6
68
46
1/kkg gal/ton    Percent
                 Recycle

25,800 6200         85
45,300 10,900       60
Not Available       74
Not Available       74
18,100 4300         95
14,200 3400         95
30,600 7300         95
none (mine only)     N/A
45,500 10,900       90
31,800 7600         84
91,400 21,900       90
66,600 15,900       N/A
64,300 15,400       N/A
78,000 18,700       N/A
81,100 19,400       N/A
21,300 5,100        80
32,200 7,700        85
11,200  2,700       66
                               156

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             FIGURE  34

RECYCLE

\WT6R WATER

1 i
SLIMES
R2/.3VAL






I
T**
1
CONDITIONER, CC'iCH
FLCTAT'ON -|-W DE-OIL — !> PLOT
 PROCESSING
                    EASTERN
                                                                   •PRODUCT
                                                              —^•PRODUCT
           SLIMES AND TAILINGS TO SETTLING POND
       PHOSPHATE  MINING AND PROCESSING
                    WESTERN
                        157

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The  sources  of  the  process water consist primarily of recycle
 (from ponds) with additional makeup coming from wells and natural
streams.  Generally no  additional  treatment  of  the  water  is
carried out prior to reuse.


The  wastes  associated  with  the  various  facilities and their
quantities follow:
         kg/kkg (lb/1000 Ibl of product
                                       Mine Pit   Dust Scrubber
Facility Slimes
               Tailings
4002
4003
4004a
4004b
4005a
400 5b
4007
4005c
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019a
401 9b
4019c
4020a
4020b
4022
790            1380
370            840
information not available
information not available
1180           900
1160           1290
no (a mine only)
1050           1520
1000           1000
1300           1300
860            2440
770
900
1290
1030
1330
1710
2140
2610
2100
1230
1570
Seepage

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
runoff only
yes
yes
yes
yes

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
Slurry

    no
    yes
    yes
    no
    yes
    no
    no
    yes
    yes
    yes
    yes

    yes
    yes
    yes
    yes
    yes
    no
In addition to the slimes and tailings, facility 4003 disposes of
about 120 kg/kkg product as solid waste from the initial stage of
beneficiation.

                             WASHING

Facilities 4006, 4008 and  4025,  located  in  Tennessee  do  not
include the flotation step.  The processing is complete after the
washing  and  desliming  stages and, in some cases, after a final
filtering of the product.  The locations of the mines are usually
some distance from the beneficiation  facility  and  the  ore  is
brought in dry, as mined, by truck or rail.

The   Western   producers  of  phosphate  rock  contribute  about
12 percent of the  total  U.S.  production.   All  of  the  major
operations   in   this  geographical  area  were  visited.   They
represent four companies and five different operating areas.  The
higher net evaporation rate is the major factor  responsible  for
making  it  feasible  to  attain  no discharge.  Only one Western
plant utilizes a flotation process.
                              158

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The western bedded and  inclined  ore  deposits  lie  at  varying
depths  and  are  mined  by open pit methods.  The mining methods
generally involve the use of scrapers,  rippers  and/or  drilling
and  blasting.   The  ore  is transported to the facility area by
truck or rail where it enters the first  stage  of  beneficiation
which  consists  of crushing and/or scrubbing.  Subseguent sizing
is  accomplished   through   further   crushing,   grinding   and
classification,  with  the  sized  feed  being  directed  to  the
desliming section for removal of the minus 325  material.   These
slimes  are  discharged  either  directly  to  a tailings pond or
through a thickener.  The underflow product  from  the  desliming
step is filtered.  The filtered material may be further processed
through  a  drying  and/or calcining step prior to shipment.  See
Figure 34 for the process flow diagram.  Facilities 4024 and 1030
do not beneficiate.  The  ore  is  mined  and  shipped  to  other
locations for processing.

At  all  operations  where  ore beneficiation occurs, the process
water recycle is 65 percent or greater.  Most  of  the  remaining
percentage  of  water  is  tied  into  the  settled  slimes.  The
overflow from the settling pond is returned to the process.   The
water  usage  is almost totally for processing (>95 percent) with
only a minimal volume used in other areas of the facility such as
non-contact cooling and sanitary.  A comparison of water usage in
each facility is as follows:

         1/kkg                    Makeup
         (gal/ton)       Percent        water
Facility Product        Recycle        Source

4006     20,400         0
         (4,900)

4008     18,400         66
         (4,400)

4025     25,500         80
         (6,100)

4023      3,500         60             wells
          (830)

4029      5,000         66             wells
          (1,200)

4031      8,300         75             wells
          (2,000)
                              159

-------
The raw wastes are the  slimes  from  desliming  cones.   In  the
mining  area  of all facilities the only waste water occurring is
normal surface runoff.

Facility           Slimes kg/kkg (lb/1000 Ibi of Product

4006               1000

4008                580

4025               1010

4023                500

U029                U84

4031                580

The disposition  of  the  wastes  from  these  facilities  is  to
settling   ponds.    In  the  operations  that  have  dryers  and
calciners, the dust from the scrubber system is discharged to the
slimes waste stream.
                               160

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                   SULFUR (FRASCH) (SIC 1477)

There are currently thirteen known significant U.S. Frasch sulfur
facilities producing molten sulfur.  Two of these facilities  are
located  in  anhydrite deposits and eleven on salt domes.  Two of
the salt-dome facilities are offshore operations.   Only  one  of
the  offshore  facilities  is in production.  The second facility
will resume operation in  1975.   All  of  these  facilities  are
designed  for  a  maximum  hot  water  generation  capacity.  The
sulfur-to-water ratio varies greatly from formation to formation,
from location to location, and from time  to  time.   The  latter
occurs  because  normally  as  a  mine ages, the water to sulphur
ratio increases.  Therefore, the quantity of water used  in  this
industry  category  is  not  determined solely by the quantity of
product.   More  than  85 percent  of  the  sulfur  delivered  to
domestic  markets  remains  as  a  liquid, from well to customer.
Liquid shipments are made in heated ships, barges, tank cars  and
trucks.  Molten sulfur is solidified in vats prior to shipment in
dry form.

                      ANHYDRITE OPERATIONS

A  Frasch  installation  starts  with  a  borehole  drilled  by a
conventional rotary rig to the top of cap rock.  A  steel  casing
is  then  lowered  into the borehole.  Drilling is then continued
into the sulfur formation.   A  liner,  which  has  two  sets  of
perforations,  is set from the surface into the sulfur formation.
The first set of perforations is several feet from the bottom and
the second set is about five feet above the first set.  A  second
pipe,  of  smaller  diameter, is placed inside the liner with the
lower end open and a few inches above the bottom.  A  ring-shaped
seal  is  placed  around the smaller pipe between the two sets of
perforations to close off the circulation in the annular space of
the two concentric pipes.

Incoming water  is  treated  either  by  hot  lime  or  the  cold
clarification  process  plus softening, and a portion goes to the
boilers.  steam  from  the  boilers  is  used  to  superheat  the
remaining  water.   Superheated  water,  under  pressure and at a
temperature of about 163°C  (325°F), is pumped  down  the  annular
space  between  the  two  pipes,  and, during the initial heating
period, dcwn through  the  sulfur  pipe.   The  hot  water  flows
through  the holes at the bottom into the sulfur-bearing deposit.
As the temperature rises, the sulfur melts.  Because  the  liquid
sulfur is heavier than the water, it sinks to the bottom where it
enters  the  lower  liner  perforations.   Pumping water down the
sulfur pipe is then discontinued.   Following  the  direction  of
least  pressure,  the  liquid  sulfur  moves up through the small
pipe.   Its  upward  motion  is  aided  by  the  introduction  of
compressed  air  through  a  one-inch  pipe.   After reaching the
surface, the liquid sulfur is collected and  pumped  into  steam-
                              161

-------
heated  tanks or barges for direct shipment to the customer or it
is transported to a shipping center.

In the start up of new and existing wells  some  hot  water  will
preceed  the  upcoming sulfur and this water will be bled, in the
case of estuary operations directly to surface waters.   This  is
called   sealing   water.    In   addition  to  producing  wells,
"bleed-off" wells must be drilled  in  appropriate  locations  to
control  dome  pressure and permit continuous introduction of hot
water.

At facilities located  in  anhydrite  deposits,  the  "bleed-off"
water is heated and reused in the system.  In general, 50 percent
of  the process water used in these facilities is recovered.  The
remainder is lost in the sulfur-bearing formation.  At facilities
located on salt domes, the "bleed-off" water is saline because of
the association of the sulfur  deposits  with  salt  domes.   The
bleedwater  is  the  major waste water of these facilities, since
the water is too corrosive to reuse.

Removal  of  large  quantities  of  sulfur  from  the   formation
increases  the  voids  and  cavities underground.  Subsidence and
resulting  compaction  eliminate  most  of  these  void   spaces.
Drilling  muds  are  also  used to fill some of the areas already
mined.  Some of these facilities mix the  sludge  generated  from
their water softening and treating operation with clay and use it
as  a  substitute drilling mud.  Generalized process diagrams for
mines located in an anhydrite deposit and in salt domes are given
in Figure 35.

The process raw waste consists of the  sludge  (primarily  CaC03)
which  originates from the water purification operation.  The raw
waste loads are presented as follows:

Waste Material     kg/kkg of product  fib/1000 Ib)
,at Facility              2020                2095

Water softener           9.6                 15.3
  sludge

Facility 2020  consumes  water  at  an  average  of  6,970  1/kkg
(1,670 gal/ton)  of product, 50 percent of which is recycled back
to the system and the remainder is  lost  in  the  sulfur-bearing
formation.   This  includes about 5 liters of non-contact cooling
water per kkg  (1.3 gal/ton) of product used in  their  compressor
circuit.    Facility   2095   uses  on  the  average  8,470 1/kkg
(2,030 gal/ton) of product.  It recovers  10-60 percent  of  this
water from its bleedwells.
                               162

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                         TREATMENT
                         CHEMICALS
SEA WATER
    I
o\
u>
i

WATER
0^a'1*' • Tr>r/>i"n]uo _ —^ iwi roc ^ LJ~..
^!CK PLANT
i *
i i
t ' n
" i *
SLOWDOWN SLOWDOWN
1
1
LEGEWD:
*'


HEAT
EXCHANGERS

1
f
SLOWDOWN
""



SULFUR
1 *' UhPOSII
i t
i * '
i
HEATER '
1
i








i
                                                                                                        MOLTEN
                                                                                                       • SULFUR
                                                                                                        PRODUCT
                    ANHYDRITE DEPOSITS
                    CONVENTIONAL SALT DOME OPERATION

                    PROPRIETARY SALT DOME OPERATION
                        BLEED WATER
                        TO TREATMENT
                        AND DISPOSAL
                                                    FIGURE    35
                                       SULFUR  MINING  A&D PROCESSING
                                                (FRASCH  PROCESS)

-------
                      SALT DOME OPERATIONS

The   process   is  the  same  as  that  described  in  Anhydrite
Operations.  Raw wastes from  these  operations  come  from  five
sources:

(a) bleed water,
(b) sludge from water treating and softening operations,
(c) surface runoff,
(d) mining water used in sealing wells, and
(e) miscellaneous sanitary  waste,  power  facility  area  waste,
    cooling  water,  boiler  blowdown, steam traps, and drips and
    drains.

The bleedwater from the mines is saline  and  contains  dissolved
solids  which  have a high content of sulfides.  Its guantity and
chemical composition is  independent  of  the  sulfur  production
rate.
Data on bleedwater follows:
Plant

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028
         liters/day
         JMGDl

         74,000,000
         (19.5)  (1)
         18,000.000
         (4.7)
         428,000,000
         (113.0)  (2)
         19,000,000
         (5.0)
         38,000,000
         (10.0)
         17,000,000
         (4.5)
         23,000,000
         (6.0)
         11,500,000
         (3.0)
TSS
mg/liter

<5

<5

<5

<5

39
sulfide
mg/liter

600 -
1,000
600 -
1,000
600 -
1,000
600 -
1,000
84
          1,050
chloride
mg/liter

38,500

31,500

59,200

14,600

25,400



23,000
 (1) Includes 69,400,000 liters per day   (18.3  MGD)   of   seawater
    used in final dilution and treatment  step.

 (2) Includes power plant discharge, sludge  from   hot   lime  water
    softening   process,   miscellaneous  drips   and   drains   and
    401,000,000 liters per day  (106  MGD)   of  seawater   used   in
    final dilution and treatment  step.


The  sludge from the water treating operations varies in  chemical
composition and quantity depending on the type of water   used   in
                               164

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the process.  In some facilities, only drinking water and a small
part  of  process water is softened and sea water constitutes the
remainder of the process water.  In other facilities, fresh water
is used as process water and a portion of the facility  water  is
softened by hot lime process prior to usage.

Information  on  runoff  was  obtained from four facilities.  The
runoff values given below  are  based  on  a  one-inch  rain  and
100 percent  runoff.  The average yearly rainfall for these areas
is estimated to be 54 inches.  Information on sealing well  water
was  available  for facilities 2021 and 2024.  In some facilities
this waste is separate from their tleedwater waste stream and  in
others separate from the facilities miscellaneous wastes.

Facility                2021           2024

Flow, I/day (gal/day)    5,700  (1,500)  18,900 (5,000)
pH                      7.9            7.5
TSS, mg/1               62             20
Sulfide, mg/1           7.8            57.2
BOD, mg/1               3.3            8.1
COD, mg/1               219            42

The waste stream for facility 2021 includes miscellaneous treated
sanitary waste, drips and drains.
                              165

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            MINEEAL PIGMENTS (IRON OXIDES) (SIC 1479)

The category "mineral pigments" might be more directly classified
as  "iron  oxide  pigments"  as they are the only natural pigment
mining and processing operations found.  The quantity of  natural
iron  oxide  pigments  sold by processors in the United States in
1972 was just under 63,500 kkg (70,000 tons).

One minor  and  two  larger  processors  of  natural  iron  oxide
pigments  were  contacted.   These  three  companies  account for
approximately 20 percent of the total U.S. production.

Iron oxide pigments are mined in open pits using power shovels or
other  earth  removing  equipment.   At  some   locations   these
materials  are a minor by-product of iron ore mined primarily for
the production of iron and steel.  Some overburden may be removed
in mining.

Two processes are used, depending on the source and purity of the
ore.  For relatively pure ores,  processing  consists  simply  of
crushing  and  grinding followed by air classification.  A drying
step can be included (facility 3019).  Facility 3022 and facility
3100 are dry operations.  Alternatively, for the less pure  ores,
a  washing  step  designed to remove sand and gravel, followed by
dewatering and drying is used  (facility 3022).  Solid wastes  and
waste  waters  may  be  generated  in this latter process.  These
processes are shown in Figure 36.

In the wet processing of iron oxide  for  pigment,  approximately
27,800   1/kkg  product  of  water  (6670  gallons/ton)  is  used
(facility 3022).  This process water is  obtained  from  a  large
settling   pond  with  no  additional  treatment.   Approximately
95 percent  of   this   water    (26,400 1/kkg   of   product   or
6,330 gal/ton)   overflows  from the rake thickener, and drains to
the settling pond, while the remaining 5 percent  (1,400 1/kkg  or
about 340 gal/ton) is evaporated on the drum dryer.
                              166

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                                                OVEFS
MINE
CRUSHER


ROTARY
DRYER
f
1 ROLLER
MILL




AIR

CLASSIFICATION
                                            STEAM
                                                                         •PRODUCT

fc«*5i
S
V\

LOG
WASHER
1 1
OLID
ASTE


RECYCLE

RAKE
THICKENER
i
POND


«

-------
                   LITHIUM MINERALS (SIC 1479)

There  are  two  producers  of  lithium minerals, excluding brine
operations, and both sources are  from  spodumene  ore  which  is
separated  from  pegmatite  ores  by  flotation.    The  method of
concentrating  the  spodumene  and  the  handling  of  the  waste
generated are very similar for both facilities.

The spodumene ore is produced from an open pit using conventional
methods  of  mining.   The  ore is sized for flotation by passing
through a multiple stage  crushing  system  and  then  to  a  wet
grinding  mill in closed circuit with a classification unit.  The
excess fines in the ground ore, the major  waste  component,  are
separated  through  the  use  of  cyclones  and  discharged  to a
settling pond.  The coarse fraction is  conditioned  through  the
addition  of various reagents and pumped to the flotation circuit
where  the  spodumene  concentrate  is  produced.   This  primary
product, dependent upon the end use, is either filtered or dried.
The  tailings from the spodumene flotation circuit which consists
primarily of feldspar, mica and guartz are either  discharged  to
the  slimes-tailings  pond  or  further  processed  into  salable
secondary products and/or solid waste.  The secondary  processing
consists  of  flotation, classification and desliming.  The waste
generated in this phase of the operation is handled similarly  to
those in the earlier steps of the process.  A generalized diagram
for the mining and processing of spodumene is given in Figure 37.

Reagents  used  in  these  facilities  are:  fatty acids; amines;
hydrofluoric acid; sulfuric acid; and sodium hydroxide and  other
anionic  collectors.  The flocculants used for waste settling are
alum and anionic-cationic polymers.

The  two  waste  streams  common  to  both  facilities  are   the
slimes-tailings  from the flotation process and the mine pumpout.
The volume of waste from the process being discharged as a slurry
to the settling pond or stored as dry solids is directly  related
to  the  guantity of secondary products recovered.  An additional
waste stream which is unique to facility  4009  arises  from  the
scrubbing  circuit  of the low iron process which removes certain
impurities from a portion of the spodumene  concentrate  product.
Information on the wastes from each facility is as follows:
                               168

-------
SPCD'JMENE
ORE {OPEN
PIT MINING)
CRUSHING'
  AND
GRINDING
 SLIMES
REMOVAL
LEGEND:
         ALTERNATE OR
         OPTIONAL  PROCESS
-«s
SPODUMENE
FLOTATION
                                              BY-PRODUCT
                                              FLOTATION
                                                 AND
                                            CLASSIFICATION
                      SLIMES-TAILINGS  TO SETTLING POND
                      (OVERFLOW RECYCLED TO PROCESS )
                                                                       WASTE
FILTER
                                                                                    T
                                                                                     I
                                                                                    ±
SPODUMENE
CONCENTRATE
PRODUCT
                                                                                   DRYER
                                                               MAGNETIC
                                                              SEPARATION
                                                                                     i
                                                                                     t
                                                                                 LOW IRON
                                                                                PROCESSING
                                                                                SPODUMENE
                                                                               -CONCENTRATE
                                                                                PRODUCT
                                                                                                  • BY-PRODUCT
                                                                                                  CERAMIC
                                                                                                  SPCDUMENE
                                                                                                  PRODUCT
                                                                                LOW IRON
                                                                                *SPODU:/EN
                                                                                PRODUCT
             SPODUMENE
                       (
                                              FIGURE
                                               MINING
                AMD PROCESSING
                PROCESS)

-------
Facility 4001


Waste Material

Slimes

Tailings

Mine water

Facility 1009

Waste Material

Slimes & tailings

Mine water


Scrubber slurry
     Source

     flotation

     dewatering

     mine pit



     Source

     flotation

     mine pit


     Low iron
     process
kcr/kkg of feed
(Ibs/lOOO Ib)

100

unknown

(intermittent, unknown)
kg/kkg of feed
(lbs/1000 Ib)

620

 568,000 I/day
(0.15 mgd) est.

95,000 I/day
(0.025 mgd) est.
At  both  facilities  the  process water recycle  is  90 percent  or
greater.  With the exception  of  the   above  mentioned   scrubber
slurry,  the  process  waters  are  discharged to a  settling  pond
where a major part of the overflow is   returned   for re-use.   A
breakdown of water use at each facility follows.
Facility UP01

1. Water Usage




    Process
    Non-contact
    cooling

    Total
1/kkg
of ore
{gal/ton)

12,500 (3,000)
   250 ( 60)
12,750 (3,060)
Water
Source         Recycle

a) Settling    95
pond overflow
b) Mine pumpout
c) Well

Well           100
2. Water  Recycled   12,100  (2,900)
                               170

-------
Facility 4009

1. Water Usage
    Process
    Non-contact
    cooling
    Boiler

    Sanitary

    Total
1/kkg
of ore
(gal/ton)

26,900 (6,450)
 1)  380 (90)


 2)    270 (60)

40 (10)

190 (50)

27,780  (6,660)
                                       Water
                                       Source
               Recycle
a) Settling    90
pond overflow
b) Creek

a) Settling    90
pond overflow
b) Creek
Municipal      0
Municipal
2. Water Recycled  24,600  (5,900)
                              171

-------
                      EENTONITE (SIC 1452)

Bentonite  is  mined  in  dry,  open  pit  quarries.   After  the
overburden is stripped off, the fcentonite ore is removed from the
pit using bulldozers, front end  loaders,  and/or  pan  scrapers.
The  ore  is  hauled by truck to the processing facility.  There,
the bentonite is crushed, if necessary, dried,  sent  to  a  roll
mill,  stored,  and  shipped,  either  packaged or in bulk.  Dust
generated in drying, crushing, and other facility  operations  is
collected using cyclones and bags.  In facility 3030 this dust is
returned  to  storage  bins  for  shipping.   A  general  process
flowsheet is given in Figure 38.

There is no water used in the mining or processing of  bentonite.
Solid  waste  is generated in the mining of bentonite in the form
of overburden, which must  be  removed  to  reach  the  bentonite
deposit.   Solid  waste  is  also  generated in the processing of
bentonite as dust  from  drying,  crushing,  and  other  facility
operations.
                               172

-------
CO
CRUSHER
„_. , 	 , 	 ., VFNT
! i t
I
OPEN PIT !
QUARRY ""*"'cu

DRYER
1
i
SCREENS

ID 1701 1 Mil 1 to STORAGE
88 ROLL M|LL •* BINS
4 A
i 1
i i
	 i i
i
_j
                                                                         PRODUCT
                                          FIGURE  38
                             BENTONITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
                      FIRE CLAY (SIC 1453)

Fire  clay  is  principally  kaolinite but usually contains other
minerals such as diaspore, boehmite, gibbsite and illite.  It can
also be a ball clay, a bauxitic clay, or a shale.  Its  main  use
is  in  refractory  production.   Fire clay is obtained from open
pits  using  bulldozers  and  front-end  loaders.   Blasting   is
occasionally  necessary  for removal of the hard flint clay.  The
clay is then transported by truck to the facility for processing.
This  processing  includes   crushing,   screening,   and   other
specialized  steps,  for example, calcination.  There is at least
one case (facility  3017)   where  the  clay  is  shipped  without
processing.   However,  most  of the fire clay mined is used near
the mine site for  producing  refractories.   A  general  process
diagram is given in Figure 39.

There  is  no  water  used  in fire clay mining.  However, due to
rainfall and ground water  seepage,  there  can  be  water  which
accumulates  in  the  pits  and must be removed.  Mine pumpout is
intermittent depending on  the  frequency  of  rainfall  and  the
geographic location.  Flow rates are not generally available.  In
many  cases  the  facilities  provide protective earthen dams and
ditches to prevent intrusion of external storm  runoff  into  the
clay  pits.  No process water is used.  The solid waste generated
in fire clay mining is  overburden  which  is  used  as  fill  to
eventually reclaim mined-out areas.

-------
OPEN
 PIT
 T
CRUSH
H
SCREEN
REFRACTORY
OPERATIONS
•^PRODUCT
                               CALCINE
                                                  PRODUCT
  l_
                                                                  PRODUCT
                             FIGURE    39
                 FIRE CLAY MINING  AND PROCESSING

-------
                    FULLER'S EARTH (SIC 1454)

Fuller's  Earth  is  a  clay, usually high in magnesia, which has
decolorizing and  absorptive  properties.   Production  from  the
region that includes Decatur County, Georgia, and Gadsden County,
Florida,  is  composed predominantly of the distinct clay mineral
attapulgite.  Most of the Fuller's Earth occurring in  the  other
areas of the U.S. contains primarily montmorillonite.

                           ATTAPULGITE

Attapulgite  is  mined from open pits, with removal of overburden
using scrapers and draglines.  The clay  is  also  removed  using
scrapers  and  draglines  and  is  trucked  to  the  facility for
processing.   Processing  consists  of  crushing  and   grinding,
screening  and  air classification, pug milling  (optional), and a
heat treatment that may vary from simple  evaporation  of  excess
water  to  thermal  alteration  of  crystal structure.  A general
process diagram is given in Figure 40.

No water is used in the mining, but  rain  and  ground  water  do
collect  in  the  pits,  particularly  during  the  rainy season.
Untreated creek water serves as make-up for facilities  3058  and
3060.   Water  is used by facility 3058 for cooling, pug milling,
and during periodic overload for  waste  fines  slurrying.   This
slurrying   has  not  occurred  since  installation  of  a  fines
reconstitution system.  However it is  maintained  as  a  back-up
system.   Facility  3060  also  uses  water  for  cooling and pug
milling, and, in addition, uses water in dust scrubbers  for  air
pollution control.  Typical flows are:

                        1/kkq of product
                         (gal/ton)
                        3058           3060

Intake:
  Make-up               ft60  (110)      unknown

Use:
  cooling               184  (44)       unknown
  waste disposal        230  (55)       345-515
    and dust collection                (82-122)
  pug mill              46  (11)        42  (10)

Discharge:
  cooling water         none           unknown
  process discharge     none           none
  evaporation           230  (55)       42  (10)
                               176

-------
                              FIGURE  40

OPEN
PITS
warra—

CRUSHING
SCREENING
i
PUS _
MILL

HA.cR 	 »
VENT
SCRUBBERS
i

,-, ROTARY
DRYERS
A
1
1
	 1



1

1

MILLS

POND



NOTE

SCREENS
R — 	 *"•!
r
PONQ
i
                            EFFLUENT
                                               EFFLUENT
 > ALTERNATE PTOCESS W3UTES


•/
                                                      J
                                                      TJ
                     FULLER'S EARTH  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                   (ATTAPULGITE)
                                                                                       • PRODUCT
                                                                                        PRODUCT
PIT


CRUSHING


DRYER AND COOLER
 LEGEND:

  	ALTERNATE AIR
        POLLUTION TREATMENTS
                           CLAY SU'OGE
                             TO MINE
                                                                                   > PRODUCT
                                          DUST AND FINES TO MINE
                       FULLER'S EARTH MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                  (MONTMORILLONITE)
                                    177

-------
                         MONTMORILLONITE

Montmorillonite  is  mined from open pits.  Overburden is removed
by scrapers and/or draglines,  and  the  clay  is  draglined  and
loaded  onto  trucks  for  transport to the facility.  Processing
consists of crushing, drying,  milling,  screening,  and,  for  a
portion  of  the  clay,  a  final  drying  prior to packaging and
shipping.  A general process diagram is given in Figure 40.

There is no water used in the mining operations.   However,  rain
water  and  ground  water  collect  in  the  pits forming a murky
colloidal suspension of  the  clay.   This  water  is  pumped  to
worked-out  pits  where  it settles to the extent possible and is
discharged intermittently to a nearby body of  water,  except  in
the case of facility 3073 which uses this water as scrubber water
makeup.  The estimated flow is up to 1110 I/day (300 gpd).
Water  is  used  in  processing  only in dust scrubbers.  Typical
flows are:

                   1/kkq product (gal/ton)
Facility           3059           3072      3073      3323

Dust Scrubbers     1,930  («»60)    500  (120) 1U3 (34)  3,650  (876)
Discharge          none           150  (36)  none      	

Solid waste generated in  mining  montmorillonite  is  overburden
which  is  used  as  fill  to  reclaim worked-out pits.  Waste is
generated  in  processing  as  dust  and  fines   from   milling,
screening,  and  drying operations.  The dust and fines which are
gathered in bag collectors from  drying  operations  are  hauled,
along with milling and screening fines, back to the pits as fill.
Slurry  from  scrubbers  is sent to a settling pond with the muds
being returned to worked-out pits after recycling the water.
                               178

-------
                        KAOLIN  (SIC 1455)

                           DRY PROCESS

The clay is mined  in  open  pits  using  shovels,  caterpillars,
carry-alls  and  pan  scrapers.   Trucks  haul  the kaolin to the
facility for processing.  At facilities 3035, 3062, 3063 the clay
is crushed, screened, and used  for  processing  into  refractory
products.   Processing  at  facility  3036  consists of grinding,
drying,  classification  and  storage.   A  general  dry  process
diagram  is  given  in  Figure 41.  There is no water used in the
mining or processing of kaolin at these four  facilities.   There
is  rainwater  and ground water which accumulates in the pits and
must be pumped out.  There is no waste generated in the mining of
the kaolin other than overburden, and in  the  processing,  solid
waste is generated from classification.

                           WET PROCESS

Sixty percent of the U.S. production of kaolin is by this general
process.   Mining  of  kaolin  is  an  open  pit  operation using
draglines or pan scrapers.  The  clay  is  then  trucked  to  the
facility  or,  in  the  case  of  facility 3025, some preliminary
processing is performed near the mine site including blunging  or
pug milling, degritting, screening and slurrying prior to pumping
the  clay to the main processing facility.  Subsequent operations
are  hydroseparation  and  classification,   chemical   treatment
(principally  bleaching  with zinc hydrosulfite), filtration, and
drying via tunnel  dryer,  rotary  dryer  or  spray  dryer.   For
special  properties,  other  steps  can be taken such as magnetic
separation, delamination or  attrition   (facility  3024) .   Also,
facility  3025  ships  part  of  the  kaolin  product  as  slurry
(70% solids) in tank cars.  A  general  wet  process  diagram  is
given in Figure 41.

Water  is  used  in  wet  processing  of  kaolin for pug milling,
blunging, cooling, and slurrying.  At  facility  3024,  water  is
obtained from deep wells, all of which is chlorinated and most of
which  is  used  as  facility  process  water  with  no  recycle.
Facility 3025 has a company-owned ground water system as a source
and also incoming slurry provides some water to the process  none
of which is recycled.  Typical water flows are:

                        1/kkg product (gal/ton)
                        3024                3025

water intake            4,250  (1,020)       4,290 (1030)

process waste water     3,400  (810)         4,000 (960)

water evaporated, etc.  850 (210)           290 (70)
                              179

-------
                   FIGURE  41
            TRUCK
                                     DRYING
                                      AND
                                 CLASSIFICATION
                                                   • PRODUCT TO SHIPPING
                                                — -^TO ON-SITE REFRACTORY
                                                    MANUFACTURING
                                     SOLID
                                     WASTE
EFFLUENT
              DRY KAOLIN MINING  AND  PROCESSING
                  FOR GENERAL PURPOSE USE
   WATER
                                  ZINC
                               HYDROSULFITE
OEOR{TT,NO _^ «£*$
CLASSIFICATION | TCRf$=
WATERBORNE
TAILINGS TO
SETTLING PCND
OR BY-PROOUCT
RECOVERY
ING
'R _ . -n PIITR
AL T^ FILTR
ENT I
LIME 	 1»
	 1
ATION

POND
EFFLUENT


1

KAOLIN
i
BULK
SLURRY
                                                                        •PRODUCT
                                                                          70%
                                                                         SLURRY
                                                                         PRODUCT
            WET KAOLIN  MINING AND PROCESSING
                   FOR  HIGH GRADE PRODUCT
                         180

-------
These facilities do not recycle their process water but discharge
it  after  treatment.   Recycle  of  this  water  is  claimed  to
interfere with the chemical treatment.

Waste is generated  in  kaolin  mining  as  overburden  which  is
stripped  off  to  expose the kaolin deposit.  In the processing,
waste  is  generated  as  underflow  from   hydroseparators   and
centrifuges  (facility  3024),  and sand and muds from filtration
and separation operations.  Zinc originates  from  the  bleaching
operations.  The raw waste loads at these two facilities are:
Waste Material

zinc

dissolved solids

suspended solids
kg/kko product (lb/1000 Ibl
3024           3025
0.37

8

35
0.5

10

100
The  dissolved  solids  are principally sulfates and sulfites and
the suspended solids are ore fines and sand.
                              181

-------
                      BALL CLAY (SIC 1455)

After overburden is removed, the clay is  mined  using  front-end
loaders  and/or  draglines.   The clay is then loaded onto trucks
for transfer to the processing facility.  Processing consists  of
shredding,  milling,  air  separation  and  bagging for shipping.
Facilities  5684  and  5685  have  additional  processing   steps
including  blunging,  screening, and tank storage for sale of the
clay  in  slurry  form,  and  rotary  drying  directly  from  the
stockpile  for  a  dry  unprocessed ball clay.  A general process
diagram is given in Figure 42.

There is no water used in ball clay mining.  However,  when  rain
and  ground  water  collects in the mine there is an intermittent
discharge.  There is usually  some  diking  around  the  mine  to
prevent run-off from flowing in.  In ball clay processing, two of
the  facilities visited use a completely dry process.  The others
produce a slurry product using water for  blunging  and  for  wet
scrubbers.   Well  water  serves as the source for the facilities
which use water in their processing.  Typical flows are:

                        1/kkg of product (gal/ton)
                   5684           5685           5689

 Blunging          unknown        42 (10)        none
 Scrubber          88  (21)        1,080          4,300
                                  (260)          (1,030)

Water used in blunging  operations  is  either  consumed  in  the
product  and  or  evaporated.   Scrubber  water  is  impounded in
settling ponds and eventually discharged.   Facilities  5685  and
5689 use water scrubbers for both dust collection from the rotary
driers  and  for  in-facility dust collection.  Facility 5684 has
only the former.

Ball clay mining generates a large amount of overburden which  is
returned to worked-out pits for land reclamation.  The processing
of  ball  clay  generates  dust  and  fines  from milling and air
separation operations.  These fines are gathered in baghouses and
returned to the process as  product.   At  the  facilities  where
slurrying  and  rotary  drying  are  done,  there  are additional
process wastes generated.  Blunging and screening  the  clay  for
slurry  product  generates  lignite  and  sand solid wastes after
dewatering.  The drying operation uses wet scrubbers which result
in a slurry of dust and water sent to a settling pond.  There are
no data available on the amount of wastes generated in  producing
the  slurry  or  the  dry  product,  but  the waste materials are
limited to fines of low solubility minerals.
                              182

-------
                                                           HOT
                                                           AIR
PITS


SHRED
                                  H
                              STOCKPILE

1 HAMMER
MILL

CYCLONES
,f


— »
BAG
HOUSE
t
PARATOR
1
1


      LEGEND:
CO
OJ
> ALTERNATE PROCESS ROUTES

                                                      ROTARY
                                                      DRYER
                                                               WATER
                                                         SCRUBBERS
                         CHEMICALS -

                            WATER-
                       BLUN6ER
POND
                                       SCREEN
                                      SOLID WASTE
                                     (LIGNITE, SAND)
                                           EFFLUENT
                                                    BAGGED
                                                    PRODUCT
                                                                                                BULK
                                                                                                PRODUCT
                                                                                  	to SLURRY
                                                                                                 PRODUCT
                                                      FIGURE   42
                                        BALL  CLAY  MINiNG  AND PROCESSING

-------
                            FELDSPAR

Feldspar mining and/or processing  has  been  sub-categorized  as
follows: flotation processing and non-flotation (dry crushing and
classification).    Feldspathic   sands   are   included  in  the
Industrials Sands sutcategory.

                      FFiDSPAR - FLOTATION

This subcategory of feldspar mining  and  processing  is  charac-
terized  by  dry operations at the mine and wet processing in the
facility.  About 73 percent of the total tonnage of feldspar sold
or used in 1972 was produced by this process.  Wet processing  is
carried  out  in  five facilities owned by three companies.  Data
was obtained from all five of these facilities (3026, 3054, 3065,
3067, and 3068).  A sixth facility is now coming into  production
and will replace one of the above five facilities in 1975.

At  all  five  facilities,  mining  techniques are quite similar:
after overburden is removed, the  ore  is  drilled  and  blasted,
followed by loading of ore onto trucks by means of power shovels,
draglines,  or  front  end loaders for transport to the facility.
In some cases, additional break-up of ore is accomplished at  the
mine  by  drop-balling.   No  water  is  used  in  mining  at any
location.  The first step in processing the ore is crushing which
is generally done at the facility,  but  sometimes  at  the  mine
(Facility   3068).   Subsequent  steps  for  all  wet  processing
facilities vary in detail, but the basic flow sheet, as given  in
Figure 43, contains all the fundamentals of these facilities.

By-products  from  flotation  include  mica, which may be further
processed for sale  (Facilities 3054, 3065, 3067, and  3068),  and
quartz  or sand  (Facilities 3026, 3054, and 3068).  At Facilities
3065 and 3067, a portion of the total flow to the third flotation
step is diverted to dewatering, drying,  guiding,  etc.,  and  is
sold  as  a feldspathic sand.  Water is not used in the quarrying
of feldspar.  There is occasional drainage  from  the  mine,  but
pumpout  is  not generally practiced.  Wet processing of feldspar
does result in the use of quite significant amounts of water.  At
the facilities visited, water was obtained from  a  nearby  lake,
creek,  or  river and used without any pre-treatment.  Recycle of
water is minimal, varying from zero at several  facilities  to   a
maximum of about 17 percent at Facility 3026.  The primary reason
for  little  or  no  water  recycle  is  the possible build-up of
undesirable soluble organics and fluoride ion  in  the  flotation
steps.  However, some water is recycled in some facilities to the
initial  washing and crushing steps, and some recycle of water in
the fluoride flotation step is practiced at facility 3026.
                               184

-------
           FIGURE 43
QUARRY


/»« KiUPpJC



BALL
MILLS


AIR
CLASSIFICATION
                                                    •PRODUCT
   FELDSPAR MINING AND PROCESSING
                   (DRY)
WATER
            WATER
                      FLOTATION
                       AGENTS
              1	1
              CLASSIFICATION,
               CONDITIONING,
                  AND
                FLOTATION
              (3 REPETITIONS)
                IRON
                SOLID
                WASTE
                                                                 PRODUCT
PRODUCT
                                                                BY-PRODUCT
                                                                MICA FROM
                                                              -*.FRST FLOAT
            WASTE
           SLURRIES
              TO
             PONO
                                                                •BY-PRODUCT
                                                                 SAND FROM
                                                                 THIRD FLOAT
   FELDSPAR  MINING AND  PROCESSING
                  (WET)
                185

-------
Total  water  use  at  these  facilities  varies  from  7,000  to
22,200 1/kkg  of ore processed (1,680 to 5,300 gal/ton).  Most of
the process water used in these facilities is  discharged.   Some
water  is  lost  in tailings and drying.  This is of the order of
1 percent of the water use at  facility 3065.   The  use  of  the
process water in the flotation steps amounts to at least one-half
of  the  total water use.  The water used in the fluoride reagent
flotation step ranges from 10 to 25 percent  of  the  total  flow
depending on local practice and sand-to-feldspar ratio.   Only two
of  these five facilities use any significant recycling of water.
These are:

         facility 3026 - 17 percent of intake (on the average)

         facility 3067 - 10 percent of intake

Mining operations at  the  open  pits  result  in  overburden  of
varying  depth.   The  overburden is used for land reclamation of
nearby worked-out mining areas.  Waste recovery and  handling  at
the  processing  facilities  is  a  major consideration, as large
tonnages are involved.  Waste varies from a low of 26 percent  of
mined  ore  at  Facility 3065 to a high of 53 percent at Facility
3067.  The latter value is considerably larger due  to  the  fact
that  this  facility  does  not  sell  the sand from its feldspar
flotation.  Most of the other facilities are able to sell all  or
part  of  their by-product sand.   Typical flotation reagants used
in  this  production  subcategory  contain   hydrofluoric   acid,
sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, frothers, amines and oils.  The raw
waste   data   calculated  from  information  supplied  by  these
facilities are:

                        kg/kkg of ore
                        processed fib/1000 lb>
facility      ore tailings and slimes       fluoride

3026               270                      0.22

3054               U10                      0.2U

3065               260                      0.20

3067               530                      est. 0.25

3069               350                      est. 0.25


                    FELDSPAR - NON-FLOTATION

This subcategory of feldspar mining  and  processing  is  charac-
terized  by  completely  dry  operations at both the mine and the
facility.  Only two such facilities were found to  exist  in  the
U.S.   and   both   were   visited.    Together   they  represent
                               186

-------
approximately 8.5 percent  of  total  U.S.  feldspar  production.
However,  there  are two important elements of difference between
these  two  operations.   All  of  facility  3032  production  of
feldspar  is  sold for use as an abrasive in scouring powder.  At
facility 3064, the high quality  orthoclase  (potassium  aluminum
silicate)  is  primarily  sold  to  manufacturers  of  electrical
porcelains and ceramics.

Underground mining is done at Facility 3032 on  an  intermittent,
as-needed,  basis using drilling and blasting techniques.  A very
small amount of water is used for dust control  during  drilling.
At  Facility 3064, the techniques are similar, except that mining
is in an open pit and is carried on for 2-3  shifts/day  and  5-6
days/week   depending   on   product  demand.   Hand  picking  is
accomplished prior to truck transport of ore to the facility.

At the two facilities the ore processing operations are virtually
identical.   They  consist  of  crushing,   ball   milling,   air
classification,  and  storage prior to shipping.  Product grading
is performed by air classification.  A schematic  flow  sheet  is
shown in Figure 43.

At  the mine 3032, water is used to suppress dust while drilling.
It is spilled on the ground and is readily  absorbed;  volume  is
only  about  230 I/day  (about  60 gpd).   No  water  is used for
processing at the mine.  At Facility 3064, no water  is  used  at
the  mine.   Water  is  used  at  a  daily  rate  of <1,900 I/day
(500 gpd) to suppress dust in the crushers.  No pre-treatment  is
applied to water used at either facility.

At  Facility 3032, there are no mine wastes generated, and only a
small quantity  of  high-silica  solid  wastes  result  from  the
facility,  and  the  material  is used as land fill.  At Facility
3064, the rejects from hand picking are used as mine fill.  There
is very little waste at the facility.
                              187

-------
                             KYANITE

Kyanite is produced in the U.S. from 3 open  pit  minesr  two  in
Virginia  and  one  in Georgia.  In this study two of these three
mines  were  visited,  one  in  Virginia,  and  one  in  Georgia,
representing  approximately  75 percent of the U.S. production of
kyanite.

Kyanite is mined in dry open quarries, using blasting to free the
ore.  Power shovels are used to load the ore  onto  trucks  which
then  haul  the  ore  to  the  processing  facility.   Processing
consists of crushing and milling, classification  and  desliming,
flotation  to remove impurities, drying, and magnetic separation.
Part of the kyanite is converted to mullite via high  temperature
firing at 15UO°-1650°C (2800-3000°F) in a rotary kiln.  A general
process diagram is given in Figure 4*».

Water is used in kyanite processing in flotation, classification,
and  slurry  transport of ore solids.  This process water amounts
to:

                   1/kkq of kyanite (gal/ton)

facility 3015           29,200  (7,000)

facility 3028           87,600  (21,000)

The process water is recycled, and any losses due to  evaporation
and  pond seepage are replaced with make-up water.  Make-up water
for  facility  3028  is  used  at  a  rate   of   4,200,000 I/day
(0.288 mgd)  and facility 3015 obtains make-up water from run-off
draining into the settling pond and also from an artesian well.

Wastes are  generated  in  the  processing  of  the  kyanite,  in
classification,  flotation  and  magnetic  separation operations.
These  wastes  consist  of  pyrite  tailings,  quartz   tailings,
flotation  reagents, muds, sand and iron scalpings.  These wastes
are greater than 50 percent of the total mined material.

         waste material      kg/kkg of kvanite (lb/1000

facility 3015 tailings            2.500

facility 3028 tailings            5,700
                               188

-------
00
10
WATER
WATER . RECYCLE w;
j rn



CLASS
-» COND
FLO


FLOTATION
REAGENTS
*T.ER j VENT
IFICATION, MAGNETIC
ITIONING, 	 » DRYING — — •• grpADATiON
fATION StPARATIOIN
UNDERFLOW
TAILINGS SCA
i ' f
TO WASTE
POND

* KYANITE

'
to ROTARY fc MULLITE
KILN rnUUUv* 1
LPINGS
                                          RGURE    ^

                                KYANITE MINING  AND PROCESSING

-------
                            MAGNESITE

There is only one known U.S. facility that produces magnesia from
naturally occurring magnesite ore.  This facility, facility 2063,
mines and beneficiates magnesite ore from which caustic and  dead
burned  magnesia  are produced.  The present facility consists of
open pit mines, heavy media  separation  (HMS)   and  a  flotation
facility.

All  mining  operations  are accomplished by the open pit method.
The deposit is chemically variable, due to the interlaid horizons
of dolomite and magnesite, and megascopic identification  of  the
ore  is  difficult.   The company has devised a selective quality
control system to obtain the various grades of  ore  required  by
the  processing  facilities.   The  pit  is  designed  with walls
inclined at 60°, with 6 m (20 ft) catch benches every  15  m  (50
ft)  of  vertical  height.   The crude ore is loaded by front end
loaders and shovels and then trucked to the primary crusher.  The
quarry is located favorably so that there is about 2 km (1.25 mi)
distance to  the  primary  crusher.   About  2260  kkg/day  (2500
tons/day)  of  ore  are crushed in the mill for direct firing and
beneficiation.  There is about 5 percent  waste  at  the  initial
crushing  operation  which results from a benefication step.  The
remainder of  the  crusher  product  is  further  processed  thru
crushing, sizing and beneficiating operations.
  *
The  flow  of  material  through the facility,  for direct firing,
follows  two  major  circuits:   (1)  the  dead  burned  magnesite
circuit, and  (2) the light burned magnesite circuit.  In the dead
burned magnesite circuit, the ore is crushed to minus 1.9 cm  (3/U
in)  in  a cone crusher.  The raw materials are dry ground in two
ball mills that are in closed circuit  with  an  air  classifier.
The  minus  65 mesh product from the classifier is transported by
air slides to  the  blending  silos.   From  the  silos  the  dry
material  is  fed  to pug mills where water and binding materials
are added.  From the pug mills the material is briquetted, dried,
and stored in feed tanks ahead  of  rotary  kilns.   The  oil  or
natural   gas  fired  kilns  convert  the  magnesite  into  dense
magnesium clinker of  various  chemical  constituents,  depending
upon  the  characteristics desired in the product.  After leaving
the kiln, the clinker is cooled by  an  air  quenched  rotary  or
grate type coolers, crushed to desired sizes, and stored in large
storage silos for shipment.

In  the  light  burned  magnesite  circuit, minus 1.9 cm  (3/4 in)
magnesite is fed tc two Herreshoff furnaces.  By controlling  the
amount  of  CO2  liberated  from the magnesite a caustic oxide is
produced from these furnaces.  The magnesium oxide is cooled  and
ground  in a ball mill into a variety of grades and sizes, and is
either bagged or shipped in bulk.
                              190

-------
Magnesite is beneficiated at facility 2063 by either heavy  media
separation  (HMS)  and/or  froth  flotation  methods.  In the HMS
facility, the feed is  crushed  to  the  proper  size,  screened,
washed  and  drained on a vibratory screen to eliminate the fines
as much as possible.  The screened feed is fed to the  separating
cone  which  contains a suspension of finely ground ferro-silicon
and/or magnetite in water, maintained at a predetermined specific
gravity.  The light fraction floats and is  continuously  removed
by  overflowing  a  weir.   The  heavy  particles  sink  and  are
continuously removed by an airlift.

The float weir overflow  and  sink  airlift  discharge  go  to  a
drainage  screen  where 90 percent of the medium carried with the
float and sink drains through the screen and is returned  to  the
separatory  cone.   The  "float" product passes from the drainage
section of the screen to the washing section where the fines  are
completely  removed  by  water sprays.  The solid wastes from the
wet screening operations contain -0.95 to +3.8 cm  (-3/8  to  +1-
1/2in)  material  which is primarily used for the construction of
settling  pond  contour.   The  fines  from  the   spray   screen
operations,  along  with the "sink" from the separating cone, are
sent into the product thickener.  In the flotation facility,  the
feed  is  crushed,  milled, and classified and then sent into the
cyclone  clarifier.   Make-up  water,  along  with  the   process
recycled  water,  is introduced into the cyclone classifier.  The
oversize from the  classifier  is  ground  in  a  ball  mill  and
recycled back to the cyclone.  The cyclone product is distributed
to  the rougher flotation process and the floated product is then
routed to cleaner cells which operate in series.   The  flotation
concentrate  is  then  sent  into  the  product  thickener.   The
underflow from  this  thickener  is  filtered,  dried,  calcined,
burned, crushed, screened and tagged for shipment.

The  tailings  from  the  flotation  operation  and  the filtrate
constitute the waste streams of these  facilities  and  are  sent
into  the  tailings  thickener for water recovery.  The overflows
from  either  thickener  are  recycled  back  to  process.    The
underflow from the tailings thickener containing about HO percent
solids  is  impounded in the facility.  A simplified flow diagram
for this facility is given in Figure 15.

This facility's fresh water system is serviced  by  eight  wells.
All  wells  except  one  are hot water wells, 50 to 70°C (121° to
160°P).  The total mill intake water is 2,200,000 I/day  (580,000
gal/day),  88  percent  of  which  is cooled prior to usage.  The
hydraulic load of this facility is given below:
                              191

-------
          ORE
        CRUSHERS
10
po
        1      i
 5%
FINES
 TO
WASTE
15%
TO
KILN
-»»
x5C
<-30
-*»

CRUSHER
%
%
CRUSHERS
ROD MILLS
AND
CLASSIFIERS
t
	 „,


1 OVERFLOW

RECYCLED
WATER
I
HEAVY
MEDIA
SEPARATION
PLANT
SOLID
WASTE
FLOTATION
AGENT
i
ROUGHER
AND
CLEANER
CELLS




i RECYCLE

TAILINGS
THICKENER

VENT
t
BAG
HOUSE
T 1
DRYING,
CONCENTRATE VACUUM ^Slir6"
THICKENER h" *H F.LTERS — gjgjjj^
1 1 croccwiMn



FILTRATE

                                                                                                              MAGNESIA
                                                                                                              PRODUCT
                              MAKE-UP WATER
                                                UNDERFLOW
                                          40% SOLIDS
                                        TO SETTLING POND
                                                      FIGURE      45
                                         MAGNESITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
water consumption            1/dav  (gal/day)
process water to refine the
 product                          163rOOO  (43,000)
road dust control                 227,000  (60,000)
sanitary                            11r360  ( 3,000)
tailing pond evaporation          492,000  (130,000)
tailing pond percolation          757,000  (200,000)
evaporation in water sprays.
  Baker coolers & cooling towers  545,000  (144,000)

The raw waste from this facility consists of the  underflow  from
the   tailings   thickeners  and  it  includes  about  40 percent
suspended solids amounting to 590,000 kg/day  (1,300,000 Ib/day).
                              193

-------
                      SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

Shale is a consolidated sedimentary rock composed chiefly of clay
minerals, occurring in varying degrees of hardness.   Shales  and
common  clays  are  for  the  most  part  used by the producer in
fabricating or manufacturing structural clay products (SIC  3200)
so  only  the mining and processing is discussed here.  Less than
10 percent of total clay  and  shale  output  is  sold  outright.
Therefore,  for  practical  purposes,  nearly  all such mining is
captive to ceramic or refractory manufactures.  Shale and  common
clay  are mined in open pits using rippers, scrapers, bulldozers,
and front-end loaders.  Blasting is needed to  loosen  very  hard
shale  deposits.   The  ore is then loaded on trucks or rail cars
for  transport  to  the  facility.   There,   primary   crushing,
grinding,  screening,  and  other  operations  are  used  in  the
manufacture  of  many  different  structural  clay  products.   A
general  process  diagram  is given in Figure 46.  Solid waste is
generated in mining as  overburden  which  is  used  as  fill  to
reclaim mined-out pits.  Since ceramic processing is not covered,
no processing waste is accounted for.

There  is  no water used in shale or common clay mining, however,
due to rainfall and ground water  seepage,  there  can  be  water
which accumulates in the mines and must be removed.  Mine pumpout
is  intermittent  depending  on rainfall frequency and geographic
location.  In many cases, facilities  will  build  small  earthen
dams  or  ditches  around the pit to prevent inflow of rainwater.
Also shale is, in most cases, so hard that run off water will not
pickup  significant  suspended  solids.   Flow  rates   are   not
generally available for mine pumpout.

-------
                                                         COARSE
to
in

SHALE 1 J PRIMARY
PIT (I CRUSHER


1
GRIND




SCREEN
                                                                                    PRODUCTS
                PIT

              PUMPOUT
                                             FIGURE     46

                                   SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
                             APLITE

Aplite  is  found in quantity in the U.S. only in Virginia and is
mined and processed by only two facilities,  both  of  which  are
discussed   below.    The  deposit  mined  by  facility  3016  is
relatively soft and the  ore  can  be  removed  with  bulldozers,
scrapers, and graders, while that mined by facility 3020 requires
blasting  to  loosen  from the quarry.  The ore is then loaded on
trucks and hauled to the processing facility.

Facility 3016  employs  wet  crushing  and  grinding,  screening,
removal   of  mica  and  heavy  minerals  via  a  series  of  wet
classifiers, dewatering and drying, magnetic separation and final
storage prior to shipping.  Water is used at  facility  3016  for
crushing, screening and classifying at a rate of 38,000,000 I/day
(10,000,000 gpd)   which  is  essentially  100X  recycled.   Dust
control requires about  1,890,000 I/day  (500,000 gpd)  of  water
which  is  also  recycled.   Any  make-up  water  needed  due  to
evaporation losses comes  from  the  river.   There  is  no  mine
pumpout  at facility 3016 and any surface water which accumulates
drains naturally to a nearby river.

Facility 3020 processing  is  dry,  consisting  of  crushing  and
drying, more crushing, screening, magnetic separation and storage
for  shipping.   However,  water  is  used  for  wet scrubbing to
control air pollution.  A process flow diagram is given in Figure
47 depicting both processes.  This water totals  1,230,000  I/day
(324,000 gpd) with no recycle.  There is occasional mine pumpout.

                        1/kkq product    (gal/ton)
process use;            3016                3020

 scrubber or dust       3,600 (870)         5,900 (1,420)
 control
 crush, screen,         12,700  (3,040)      0
 classify

net discharge  (less     approx. 0           5,900 (1,420)
 mine pumpout)
mine pumpout            0                   not given
make-up water           not given           5,900 (1,420)
intake

Mining  waste  is  overburden   and  mine pumpout.  The processing
wastes are dusts and fines from air classification, iron  bearing
sands  from  magnetic separation, and tailings and heavy minerals
from wet classification operations.  The latter wastes  obviously
do not occur at the dry facility.
                               196

-------
    LEGEND:
               DRY PROCESS

       	  WET PROCESS
WATER-
SCRUBBERS
                                                                              DUST, FINES
to



t I
' 1
i i
i
SCREENING 	 -to CYCLONE •
1

, CRUSHING . CLASSIFY
SCREENING ^^* CLASSIFY




MAGNETIC
SEPARATION
1
VENT
t
DRYING
---to CLASSIFY -— ^ AND
SCREENING

i»_J





!





1 *
                                                                                           IRON SANDS
                                                                                           TO LANDFILL
                                                                                          OR 8EACH SAND
                   I	
                                         POND
	I
                                                                                                      ,L
                                                                                                           , APLITE
                                                                                                            PRODUCT


                                                                                                           , AP'JTE
                                                                                                            PRODUCT
                                        POND
                                                    FIGURE     47
                                         APLITE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                                                                                   EFFLUENT

-------
                                                 kq/kkq
              Waste               kkq/vear       product
              Materials            (ton/vrl        (lb/1000  Ib)

facility 3016 tailings and         136,000        1,000
(wet)          heavy minerals       (150,000)
              and fines

facility 3020 dust and fines       9,600          175
(dry)                               (10,600)

Other  solid  wastes  come  from  the magnetic  separation  step at
facility 3020.
                               198

-------
           TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTCNE AND PYROPHYLLITE

There are  33  known  facilities  in  the  U.S.  producing  talc,
steatite,  soapstone  and  pyrophyllite.   Twenty-seven  of these
facilities  use  dry  grinding   operations,   producing   ground
products.   Two  utilize log washing and wet screening operations
producing either crude talc or ground talc.  Four are  wet  crude
ore beneficiation facilities, three using froth flotation and one
heavy media separation techniques.

DRY GRINDING

In  a  dry grinding mill, the ore is batched in ore bins and held
until a representative ore sample is analyzed by the  laboratory.
Each  batch  is  then  assigned  to  a  separate  ore  silo,  and
subsequently dried and crushed.  The ore,  containing  less  than
12%  moisture  is sent to fine dry grinding circuits in the mill.
In the pebble mill (Hardinge circuit), which includes  mechanical
air  separators in closed circuit, the ore is ground to minus 200
mesh rock powder.  Part of the grades produced  by  this  circuit
are  used  principally  by the ceramic industry; the remainder is
used as feed to other grinding or classifying circuits.  In a few
facilities, some of this powder  is  introduced  into  the  fluid
energy  mill  to  manufacture a series of minus 325 mesh products
for the  paint  industry.   Following  grinding  operations,  the
finished grades are pumped, in dry state, to product bulk storage
silos.   The  product  is either pumped to bulk hopper cars or to
the bagging facility where it is packed in bags for shipment.   A
generalized  process  diagram for a dry grinding mill is given in
Figure U8.

There is no water used in dry grinding  facilities.   Bag  housed
collectors  are  used  throughout this industry for dust control.
The fluid energy mills use steam.  The steam generated in boilers
is used in process and vented to atmosphere  after  being  passed
through  a  baghouse dust collector.  The waste streams emanating
from the boiler operations originate  from  conventional  hot  or
cold  lime softening process and/or zeolite softening operations,
filter backwash, and boiler blowdown wastes.  Even  though  these
facilities  do  not  use  water in their process, some of them do
have mine water discharge from their underground mine workings.

                  LOG WASHING AND WET SCREENING

At log washing facility 2031  and  wet  screening  facility 2035,
water  is  used  to  wash  fines  from  the crushed ore.  In both
facilities, the washed  product  is  next  screened,  sorted  and
classified.  The product from the classifier is either shipped as
is  or  it is further processed in a dry grinding mill to various
grades of finished product.
                              199

-------
                                      FIGURE 48
TALC ORE-

JAW WET
AUD ___,„ «*T 	 „
CRUSHERS BIN *

r

• HNS „_„ — '
CRUSHING _ S?L COA
PEBBLE
KILL
GR.t.-^ING
CluCUIT
«e5
fJD t>r;YING ~~"^ c0^, VATtRiAL
CIRCUIT SILOS __,









STEAM
OR
COMPRESSED
AIR
FLUID
ENERGY 	
GRINDING — •^'WUCTt
CIRCUIT


DRY
COLLECTOR
^PRODUCT
           TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                           (DRY)
               ORE-


              W&TER-
LOS
WASHER


VIBRATING
SCREEN


SCREW
CLASSIFIER
                                       OVERSIZE TO
                                       STOCKPILE
                                       AND MILLING
                                                           (FINES
                                                      KYDROCLONE
                                             SLIMES TO
                                           SETTLING POND
                                                              ••PRODUCT
             TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                  (LOG  WASHING  PROCESS)
   CRUDE ORE
—tt] CRUSHEl
                            TAILINGS TO FOND
                                                                                      OUCT
                                               SLIMES   CVC'ISIIE
                                               TO PONO  TO DUMP
           TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYRCPHYLLITE  MINING AND  PROCESSING
                                 (WET  SCREENING PROCESS)
                                      200

-------
At facility 203ft wash water is sent into a hydroclone system  for
product  recovery.   The  slimes  from  the  hydroclone  are then
discharged into a settling pond for evaporation and  drying.   At
facility  2C35,  the wash water, which carries the fines, is sent
directly into a settling pond.

The wet facilities in  this  subcategory  are  operational  on  a
six-month   per  year  basis.   During  freezing  weather,  these
facilities  are  shut  down.   Stockpiles  of  the  wet  facility
products  are accumulated in summer and used as source of feed in
the dry grinding facility in  winter.   Simplified  diagrams  for
facilities 203ft and 2035 are given in Figure ft8.

Both  facilities  are  supplied by water wells on their property.
Essentially all water used is process water.  Facility 203ft has a
water intake of 182,000 I/day (48,000 gal/day) and facility  2035
has a water intake of 363,000 I/day  (96,000 gal/day).

The  raw waste from facility 203ft consists of the slimes from the
hydroclone operation; that  of  facility  2035  is  the  tailings
emanating  from  the  wet screening operation and the slimes from
the classifiers.

              FLOTATION AND HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

All four facilities in this subcategory use either  flotation  or
heavy  media separation techniques for upgrading the product.  In
two of the  facilities  (2031  and  2032)  the  ore  is  crushed,
screened,  classified  and  milled  and  then  taken  by a bucket
elevator to a storage bin in the flotation section.   From  there
it  is  fed  to a conditioner along with well and recycled water.
The conditioner feeds special processing  equipment,  which  then
sends  the  slurry  to a pulp distributor.  In facility 2031, the
distributor  splits  the   conditioner   discharge   over   three
concentrating  tables  from  which  the  concentrates, the gangue
material, are sent to the tailings pond.  The talc middlings from
the tables are then pumped to the flotation  machines.   However,
in  facility  2032,  the  distributor  discharges  directly  into
rougher flotation machines.  A reagent is added directly into the
cells and the floated product next goes to cleaning  cells.   The
final  float  concentrate feeds a rake thickener which raises the
solids content of the flotation product from  10  to  35 percent.
The  product  from  the  thickener  is  next filtered on a rotary
vacuum filter, and water from the  filter  flows  back  into  the
thickener.   The  filter  cake  is  then  dried  and the finished
product is sent into storage bins.  The flotation tailings, along
with thickener overflow,  are  sent  to  the  tailings  pond.   A
simplified flow diagram is given in Figure ft9.
                              201

-------
                                       FIGURE 49
  TALC ORE •

CRUSHING 1
DRYir-'G, .— * CO
1

FLOTATION
WATER | 	 REAGCNTS
V | 7
1
1
_—- __ I
P'
DISTF
A
CONCE'
TA
T^L-__


•3UTOR DISTRIBUTOR THICKENER
TRATlrlG FL5IA,'LON FILTER
;LES CELLS
	 1
If < '
TAILINGS BASIN
  LEGEND:
                              i	i
   	"\
           ALTERNATE PROCESSES
CLARIFICATION
   BASINS
                                                       EFFLUENT
                                   TALC MINING AND PROCESSING
                                       {FLOTATION FRGCtaS)
CRUDE ORE1
                                                                                               •PRODUCT
          LIME
                                        TO SETTLING POND
                                   TALC  MINING AND PROCESSING
                                           (IMPURE  ORE)
                                           202

-------
The  flotation  mill  at  facility  2031  consumes  water, on the
average, 25,400 1/kkg (6,070 gal/ton)  of product.  This  includes
200 1/kkg product of non-contact cooling water  (48 gal/ton) which
is used in cooling the bearings of their crushers.  Facility 2032
consumes 17,200 1/kkg (4150 gal/ton) product; 40 percent of which
may  be  recycled back to process, after clarification.  Recycled
water is used  in  conditioners  and  as  coolant  in  compressor
circuits and for several other miscellaneous needs.

Facility  2033  processes  ores which contain mostly clay, and it
employs somewhat different processing steps.  In  this  facility,
the  ore is scrubbed with the addition of liquid caustic to raise
the pH, so as to suspend the red clay.  The scrubbed ore is  next
milled  and  sent through thickening,  flotation and tabling.  The
product from the concentrating tables is acid treated to dissolve
iron oxides and other possible impurities.  Acid treated material
is next passed through the product thickener, the underflow  from
which  contains the finished product.   The thickener underflow is
filtered, dried, ground and bagged.  The waste streams consist of
the flotation tailings, the overflow from the  primary  thickener
and  the filtrate.  A generalized flow diagram is given in Figure
49.  Facility 2033 consumes 16,800 1/kkg  (4000 gal/ton)  product;
20 percent  of which is recycled back to process from the primary
thickener operation.  Facility 2044 consumes on the average 1/kkg
(1,305 gal/ton) total product.

Facility 2044 uses heavy media separation (HMS) technique for the
beneficiation of a portion of their product.  At  this  facility,
the ore is crushed in a jaw crusher and sorted.  The minus 2 inch
material   is   dried   btfore  further  crushing  and  screening
operations; the plus 5.1 cm (2 in) fraction is crushed,  screened
and  sized.   The minus 3 to plus 20 mesh material resulting from
the final screening operation is sent to the  HMS  unit  for  the
rejection  of  high silica grains.  The minus 20 mesh fraction is
next separated into two sizes by  air  classification.   Facility
2044  uses a wet scrubber on their 11  drier for dust control.  On
drier  #2  (product drier)  a  baghouse  is  used  and  the  dust
recovered  is  marketed.   A  simplified process flow diagram for
this facility is given in Figure 50.  The hydraulic load of these
facilities is summarized as follows:

Consumption             I/day (gal/day)
at Facility No.    20\31       2032          2033      2044

Process         730,000    2,200,000     757,000   1,135,000
consumed       (192,000)    (583,000)    (200,000)  (300,000)

Non-contact      37,000       	         54,000    	
cooling          (9,600)                  (14,000)

In facilities 2031 and 2032, the raw waste consists of  the  mill
tailings emanating from the flotation  step.   In facility 2033, in
                              203

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ORE
AIR


rR 	 g,

PRIMARY
CRUSHER
1
DRYER
1
WET
SCRUBBER
1
SETTLING
POND




CRUSHING
AND
SCREENING
.
f
PEBBLE
MILLS




AIR
CLASSIFIER
WATER
I
HEAVY
MEDIA
PLANT

r
SCREENING
AND
SCREW
CLASSIFIERS




(
CRUSHING
SCREENING



                 T
               EFFLUENT
                                                                                          PYROPHYLLITE
                                                                                          PRODUCT
                                                                                           WET SAND
                                                                                           BY-PRODUCT
                                       ANDALUSiTE
                                       BY-PRODUCT

                                       PYROPHILLITE
                                       BY-PRODUCT
    WASTE
TO SETTLING POND
                                            FIGURE    5n
                             PYROPHYLLITE MINING AND PROCESSING
                                   (HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION)

-------
addition  to  the  mill  tailings, the waste contains the primary
thickener overflow and the filtrate from  the  product  filtering
operation.   In  facility  2044  the  raw  waste  stream  is  the
composite of the HMS tailings and the process waste  stream  from
the scrubber.  The average values given are listed as follows:

Waste Material     kg/kkq of flotation product (lb/1000 Ib)
at Facility No.        2031      2032      2033     2044

TSS                    1800   1200-1750    800      26
                              205

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                        NATURAL ABRASIVES

Garnet  and  tripoli are the major natural abrasives mined in the
U.S.  Other minor products, e.g. emery and  special  silica-stone
products,  are of such low volume production (2,500-3,000 kkg/yr)
as to be  economically  insignificant  and  pose  no  significant
environmental problems.  They will not be considered further.

                             GARNET

Garnet  is mined in the U.S. almost solely for use as an abrasive
material.  Two garnet abrasive producers, representing more  than
80 percent  of  the  total U.S. production, provided the data for
this section.  There are 4 facilities  in  the  U.  S.  producing
garnet,  one  of which produces it only as a by-product.  The two
garnet operations studied  are  in  widely  differing  geographic
locations,  and so the garnet deposits differ, one being mountain
schists  (3071), and the other an alluvial deposit (3037).

Facility 3071 mines by open pit methods  with  standard  drilling
and blasting eguipment.  The ore is trucked to a primary crushing
facility  and  from  there  conveyed to the mill where additional
crushing and screening occurs.  The screening produces the coarse
feed to the heavy-media section and a fine  feed  for  flotation.
The  heavy-media  section  produces  a  coarse  tailing  which is
dewatared and stocked, a garnet concentrate, and a middling which
is reground and sent to flotation.   The  garnet  concentrate  is
then dewatered, filtered, and dried.

Facility  3037 mines shallow open pits, stripping off overburden,
then using a drc.gline to  feed  the  garnet-bearing  earth  to  a
trumble   (heavy  rotary  screen).  Large stones are recovered and
used for road building or to refill the pits.  The smaller stones
are trucked to a jigging operation where the  heavier  garnet  is
separated from all impurities except for some of the high density
kyanite.   The raw garnet is then trucked to the mill.  There the
raw garnet is dried, screened,  milled,  screened  and  packaged.
Figure 51 gives the general flow diagram for these operations.

Untreated  surface  water  is pumped to the pits at facility 3037
for initial washing and screening  operations  and  for  make-up.
This  pit  water  is  recycled  and  none is discharged except as
ground water.   Surface  water  is  also  used  for  the  jigging
operation,  but  is  discharged  after passage through a settling
pond.

At facility 3071, water is collected  from  natural  run-off  and
mine  drainage  into  surface reservoirs, and 24,600 1/kkg  (5,900
gal/ton) of product is used in both the heavy media and flotation
units.  This process water amounts to approximately 380-760 1/min
 (100-200 gpm) of which half is recycled.   Effluent  flow  varies
                              206

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               QUARRY
    WATER-
PO
o
         T RECYCLE
   TRUMBLE
             ARC
LARGE
STONES
 FOR
 FILL
         WATER-
          JIG
                   SETTLING
                     POND
                       i



                      rLU!
                                    WATER•
                      COARSEs
                  CRUSHING
                                   HEAVY
                                   MEDSA
                                   PLANT
                                              I       A <- RECYCLE
                                             i	P
                                             DEWATERING
                                               SCREEN
                                                            WATER
                                COARSE TAILINGS
                               SOLD AS ROAD GRAVEL
                                                  FLOTATION
                                                                   DRYING
                                                                        RECYCLE
                                                              THICKENER
                                                              SETTLING
                                                               PONDS
                                                               EFFLUENT
        EFFLUENT
                                                     FIGURE   51
                                          GARNET MINING AND PROCESSING
 MILLING
   AND
SCREENING
h-
PRODUCT

-------
seasonally  from a springtime maximum of 570 1/min (150 gpm)  to a
minimum in summer and fall.

In the processing of the garnet ore, solid waste in the  form  of
coarse  tailings  is  generated  from the heavy-media facility at
facility 3071.  These tailings  are  stocked  and  sold  as  road
gravel.   The  flotation underflow at facility 3071 consisting of
waste fines, flotation reagents and water  is  first  treated  to
stabilize  the pH and then is sent to a series of tailings ponds.
In these ponds, the solids settle and are removed  intermittently
by a dragline and used as landfill.

                             TRIPOLI

Tripoli  encompasses  a  group  of  fine-grained,  porous, silica
materials which have similar properties and uses.  These  include
tripoli, amorphous silica and rottenstone.  All four producers of
tripoli provided the data for this section.

Amorphous  silica   (tripoli)  is  normally mined from underground
mines using conventional room-and-pillar techniques.  There is at
least one open-pit mine  (5688) .   Trucks  drive  into  the  mines
where  they  are loaded using front-end loaders.  The ore is then
transported to the facility for processing.  Processing  consists
of  crushing,  screening,  drying, milling, classifying, storage,
and packing for shipping.  A general process diagram is given  in
Figure 52.  At one facility only a special grade tripoli  (a minor
portion  of the production, value approximately $250,000/year) is
made by a unigue process using wet-milling and scrubbing.

There is no watpr used in mining, nor is there any  ground  water
or rain water accumulation in the mines.  The standard process is
a  completely dry process.  Both facilities report no significant
waste in processing.  Any dust generated in screening, drying, or
milling operations is gathered in cyclones  and  dust  collectors
and returned to the process as product.  Mining generates a small
amount  of  dirt which is piled outside the mine and gravel which
is used to build roads in the mining areas.  The  product  itself
is of a very pure grade so no other mining wastes are generated.
                               208

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ro
o
          MINE
CRUSH
SCREEN
DRY
MILL
                                                                             BAG
                                                                            HOUSES
                                                                          1
                                                                       CYCLONES
                                                    I
  AIR
CLASSIFY
PRODUCT
                                               RGURE    52
                                     TRIPOLI MINING  AND PROCESSING
                                       BY THE  STANDARD PROCESS

-------
                        DIATOMITE MINING

There  are nine diatomite mining and processing facilities in the
U.S.  The data from three are included in  this  section.   These
three  facilities produce roughly one-half of the U.S. production
of this material.

After the overburden is removed  from  the  diatomite  strata  by
power-driven  shovels,  scrapers and bulldozers, the crude diato-
mite is dug from the ground and loaded onto  trucks.   Facilities
5501  and 5505 haul the crude diatomite directly to the mills for
processing.   At  facility  5500  the  trucks  carry  the   crude
diatomite  to  vertical storage shafts placed in the formation at
locations above a tunnel system.  These shafts have gates through
which the crude diatomite is fed to an electrical rail system for
transportation to the primary crushers.

At  facility  5500,  after  primary   crushing,   blending,   and
distribution,  the material moves to different powder mill units.
For "natural" or uncalcined powders, crude diatomite  is  crushed
and  then  milled and dried simultaneously in a current of heated
air.  The dried powder is sent through separators to remove waste
material and is further divided into coarse and  fine  fractions.
These  powders  are  then  ready  for  packaging.   For  calcined
powders, high temperature rotary kilns are continuously employed.
After classifying, these powders are collected and packaged.   To
produce  flux-calcined  powders,  particles are sintered together
into microscopic clusters, then classified, collected and bagged.

At facilities 5504 and 5505, the ore is crushed, dried, separated
and classified, collected, and stored in bins for shipping.  Some
of the diatomite is calcined at facility 5505  for  a  particular
product.  These processes are diagrammed in Figure 53.

One facility surface-quarries an oil-impregnated diatomite, which
is  crushed,  screened,  and  calcined to drive off the oil.  The
diatomite is then cooled, ground, and packaged.  In  the  future,
the  material  will be heated and the oil vaporized and recovered
as a petroleum product.

Water is used by facility 5500 in the principal process for  dust
collection and for preparing the waste oversize material for land
disposal.   In  addition, a small amount of bearing cooling water
is used.  Water is used in the process at facility 5505  only  in
scrubbers  used to cut down on dust fines in processing, which is
recycled from settling ponds  to  the  process.   The  only  loss
occurs  through  evaporation  with  make-up  water  added  to the
system.  Water is used in the process at facility 5504 to  slurry
wastes to a closed pond.  This water evaporates and/or percolates
into  the  ground.   As yet there is no recycle from the settling
pond.
                              210

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LEGEND:
                             WATER

                             RECYCLE (
    pnwn
    POND
                         WATER
MINE


CRUSH
          GENERAL PROCESS FLOW
         > ALTERNATE PROCESS

         I ROUTES
 SCRUBBERS


—i—
                                                          VENT
                 BAG HOUSE
                                                           T DUST    J
                                                                             BINS
                                                                  •*» PRODUCT
DRY


AIR CLASSIFY
                                                                            REAGENT
                                ROD MILL
                                             l_.

                                                                    •1
                                                                      I
                                       i
                                                                           CALCINE
                                                                                             CLASSIFY
                                                                    •PRODUCT
                                                                                                           •PRODUCT
                                                                     WATER
                                CYCLONE

                                 TRAPS

                         PUG MILL
                             I
                             I


                    WASTE TO LAND DISPOSAL

             RGURE    53

DIATOMITE  MINING  AND PROCESSING

-------
                   1/kkg ore processed
                                   (gallon/ton)
                   5500                5505           5501

Intake:
 make-up water     2,800               880            3,800
                   (670)               (210)           (910)

Use:
 dust collection   2,670               8,700          3,800
 and waste disposal  (640)              (2,090)         (910)

 bearing coolinq   125-160  (30-38)     	           	

Consumption:
 evaporation       2,800               880            3,800
 (pond and process)  (670)              (210)           (910)

The much lower consumption of water at 5505 is due to the use  of
recycling from the settling pond to the scrubbers.

Wastes  from  these  operations  consist  of  the  oversize waste
fraction from the classifiers and  of  fines  collected  in  dust
control  equipment.   The amount is estimated to be 20 percent of
the mined material at facility 5500, 16-19  percent  at  facility
5504  and 5-6 percent solids as a  slurry from scrubber operations
at facility 5505.

waste material               kq/kkg ore  (lb/1000 Ib)

Facility 5500, oversize,           200
    dust fines

Facility 5504, sand, rock,         175
    heavy diatoms

Facility 5505, dust                45
    fines (slurry)
                               212

-------
                            GRAPHITE

There is one producer of natural graphite in the  United  States.
The  graphite ore is produced from an open pit using conventional
mining methods of benching, breakage and  removal.   The  ore  is
properly  sized  for  flotation  by passing through a 3-stage dry
crushing and sizing system and then to  a  wet  grinding  circuit
consisting  of  a  rod  mill in closed circuit with a classifier.
Lime is added in the rod mill to adjust pH for optimum flotation.
The classifier discharge is pumped to the flotation circuit where
water additions are made and various reagents added at  different
points in the process flow.  The graphite concentrate is floated,
thickened,  filtered  and dried.  The underflow or waste tailings
from the cells are discharged as a slurry  to  a  settling  pond.
The process flow diagram for the facility is shown in Figure 54.

The  source  of  the  intake water is almost totally from a lake.
The exceptions are that the drinking water is taken from  a  well
and  a  minimal  volume  for emergency or back-up for the process
comes from an impoundment of an intermittent flowing creek.  Some
recycling of water takes place through  the  reuse  of  thickener
overflow,  filtrate  from  the  filter  operation and non-contact
cooling water from compressors and vacuum pumps.

water consumption       1/metrie tons of product
                                  (gal/ton)

total intake                 159,000 (38,000)

process waste discharge      107,000 (26,000)

consumed  (process, non-
contact cooling, sani-       52,000    (12,000)
tation)

There are three sources of waste  associated  with  the  facility
operation.   They  are  the  tailings  from the flotation circuit
 (36,000 kg/kkg product), low pH seepage water from  the  tailings
pond  (19,000 1/kkg product) and an intermittent seepage from the
mine.  The flotation reagents used in this process  are  alcohols
and pine oils.
                              213

-------
  GRAPHITE ORE
                                   LIME       WATE

                                    1	I
                                 MAKE-UP
                  WATER  REAGENTS   WATER
           GRINDING
             AND
         CLASSIFICATION
ro
                 I   MINE
-•   at
u
 t-'-
                 I ------ 1
                                 SEEPAGE
=AGE
LIME
TREAT

TAILINGS
SUMP
^-

TAII IM
                                                   TAILINGS
                                                     POND
                                                      I
                                                 PLANT EFFLUENT

                                                       FIGURE    54
                                          GRAPHITE MINING AND PROCESSING
PRODUCT
                                                                                                                     PRODUCT

-------
                              JADE

The  jade  industry  in  the  U.S.  is  very small.  One facility
representing 55 percent of total U.S.  jade  production  provided
the data for this section.

The jade is mined in an open pit quarry, with rock being obtained
by  pneumatic  drilling  and wedging of large angular blocks.  No
explosives are used on the jade itself, only on  the  surrounding
host  rock.   The  rock  is  then  trucked  to  the  facility for
processing.  There  the  rock  is  sawed,  sanded,  polished  and
packaged  for  shipping.   Of the material processed only a small
amount  (3 percent) is processed  into  gems  and  47  percent  is
processed   into  floor  and  table  tiles,  grave  markers,  and
artifacts.  A general process diagram is given in Figure 55.

Well water is used in the process for the wire saw, sanding,  and
polishing  operations.   This  water  use  amounts  to  190 I/day
(50 gpd) of which none is recycled.  Approximately 50 percent  of
the  rock  taken  each  year  from  the  guarry  is  unusable  or
unavoidably wasted in processing, amounting to 26.7 kkg/yr   (29.5
tons/yr).    There  is  no  mine  pumpout  associated  with  this
operation.
                              215

-------
ro
•-•
Ol

QUARRY

w/
w
GF
'ATER SiC
1 i
WIRE
SAW


WATER
AND
POLISHING
OIL WATER SiC AGENTS
U II L.
tf^ RECYCLE
DIAMOND
SAW
1 |
r
SETTLING
TANK

1
SETTLING
TANK
1 J 1
ATER TAILINGS TAILINGS
TO TO TO
JOt'ND LANDFILL LANDFILL




* * r


i i
^RE
AG
PO
                                                            PRODUCT
                                                      RECYCLE POLISHING
                                                      AGENTS TO EXTENT
         FIGURE    55
JADE MINING AND  PROCESSING

-------
                           NOVACULITE

Novaculite, a generic name for large geologic formations of pure,
microcrystalline  silica,  is  mined  only  in  Arkansas  by  one
facility.  Open quarries are mined by drilling and blasting, with
a  front-end  loader  loading  trucks  for  transport  to covered
storage at the facility.  Since the quarry  is  worked  for  only
about  2  weeks  per  year, mining is contracted out.  Processing
consists of crushing, drying,  air  classification  and  bagging.
Normally  silica  will  not  require  drying  but  novaculite  is
hydrophilic and will absorb water up to 9 parts per 100  of  ore.
Part  of the air classifier product is diverted to a batch mixer,
where  organics  are  reacted  with  the  silica  for   specialty
products.  A general process jdiaqram is given in Figure 56.

No  water  is  used  in  novaculite  mining  and the quarry is so
constructed that no water accumulates.  Total water usage at  the
facility  for  bearing  cooling  and  the  dust  scrubber  totals
approximately 18,900 I/day  (5,000 gpd) of city  water.   Of  this
total  amount  7,300-14,500 I/day  (1,900-3,800 gpd)  is used for
bearing cooling and an equivalent amount is used as make-up water
to the dust scrubber.

Wastes generated in the mining of novaculite remain in the quarry
as reclaiming fill, and processing generates only scrubber  fines
which are settled in a holding tank and eventually used for land-
fill.   However,  a  new facility dust scrubber will be installed
with recycle of both water and fines.
                              217

-------
                                             VENT
                                                                         DRY
                                                                         MIX
SPECIALTY
PRODUCTS
                                              t
oo
QUARRY


poi icucp
unuoncn


rtRYFR
ur\ i en


' AIR
CLASSIFY



                                                        PEBBLE
                                                        MILL
                                             RGURE   56
                                NOVACULITE  MINING AND PROCESSING

-------
                           SECTION VI


                SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Total suspended solids, dissolved solids,  sulfide,  iron,  zinc,
fluoride  and pH were found to be the major waste water pollutant
parameters.  The rationale for inclusion of these parameters  are
discussed as follows.

DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Total  dissolved  solids  are  a  gross  measure of the amount of
soluble pollutants in  the  waste  water.   It  is  an  important
parameter   in   drinking  water  supplies  and  water  used  for
irrigation.  Dissolved solids are found in significant quantities
in rock salt, brine and trona operations.  In natural waters  the
dissolved   solids   consist  mainly  of  carbonates,  chlorides,
sulfates,  phosphates,  and   possibly   nitrates   of   calcium,
magnesium,  sodium  and potassium, with traces of iron, manganese
and other substances.

Some communities in the United States and in other countries  use
water  supplies  containing  2,000 to 1,000 mg/liter of dissolved
salts, when no better water is available.  Such  waters  are  not
palatable,  may not quench thirst, and may have a laxative action
on new users.  Waters containing  more  than  1,000  mg/liter  of
total  salts  are  generally  considered  unfit  for  human  use,
although in hot climates such higher salt concentrations  can  be
tolerated  whereas  they  could  not  be  in  temperate climates.
Waters containing 5,000 mg/liter  or  more  are  reported  to  be
bitter  and  act  as  bladder  and  intestinal  irritants.  It is
generally agreed that the salt concentration of  good,  palatable
water should not exceed 500 mg/liter.

Limiting  concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water fish
may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/liter, according to species and
prior acclimatization.  Some fish are adapted to living  in  more
saline  waters,  and a few species of fresh-water forms have been
found in natural waters with a salt concentration  of  15,000  to
20,000  mg/liter.   Fish can slowly become acclimatized to higher
salinities, but fish in waters of  low  salinity  cannot  survive
sudden  exposure to high salinities, such as those resulting from
discharges of oil-well brines.  Dissolved  solids  may  influence
the  toxicity  of  heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and
other aquatic life, primarily because of the antagonistic  effect
of  hardness  on  metals.  Water with total dissolved solids over
500 mg/liter  water  has  little  or  no  value  for  irrigation.
Dissolved  solids  in  industrial  waters  can  cause  foaming in
boilers and cause interference with cleanness, color, or taste of
                              219

-------
many finished products.  High concentrations of dissolved  solids
also tend to accelerate corrosion.

Dissolved  solids  are only regulated in cases where no discharge
of pollutants is specified.  This is usually by  means  of  solar
evaporation,   total   recycle  or  covered  storage  facilities.
Reduction of TDS by other means such as ion exchange is judged to
be economically infeasible.

FLUORIDE

Fluorine is the most reactive of the nonmetals and is never found
free in nature.  It is a constituent of  fluorite  or  fluorspar,
calcium fluoride, cryolite, and sodium aluminum fluoride.  Due to
their  origins, fluorides in high concentrations are not a common
constituent of natural surface waters; however, they may occur in
hazardous concentrations in ground waters.

Fluoride can be found in plating  rinses  and  in  glass  etching
rinse  waters.   Fluorides  are  also  used  as  a  flux  in  the
manufacture of steel, for preserving wood  and  mucilages,  as  a
disinfectant and in insecticides.

Fluorides in sufficient quantities are toxic to humans with doses
of  250  to  U50  mg giving severe symptoms and 1.0 grams causing
death.  A concentration of 0.5  g/kg  of  body  weight  has  been
reported as a fatal dosage.

There  are  numerous articles describing the effects of fluoride-
bearing waters on dental enamel cf children; these  studies  lead
to  the generalization that water containing less than 0.9 to 1.0
mg/1 of fluoride will seldom cause mottled  enamel  in  children,
and  for  adults,  concentrations  less  than 3 or 4 mg/1 are not
likely  to  cause  endemic  cumulative  fluorosis  and   skeletal
effects.   Abundant  literature  is also available describing the
advantages of maintaining 0.8 to 1.5  mg/1  of  fluoride  ion  in
drinking   water  to  aid  in  the  reduction  of  dental  decay,
especially among children.  The  recommended  maximum  levels  of
fluoride  in  public  water  supply sources range from 1.4 to 2.U
mg/1.

Fluorides may be  harmful  in  certain  industries,  particularly
those   involved   in   the   production   of   food,  beverages,
pharmaceutical, and medicines.   Fluorides  found  in  irrigation
waters in high concentrations  (up to 360 mg/1) have caused damage
to  certain  plants  exposed  to  these waters.  Chronic fluoride
poisoning of livestock has been observed  in  areas  where  water
contained 10 to 15 mg/1 fluoride.  Concentrations of 30 - 50 mg/1
of  fluoride  in the total ration of dairy cows is considered the
upper safe limit.   Fluoride  from  waters  apparently  does  not
accumulate  in  soft  tissue  to  a  significant degree and it is
transferred to a very  small  extent  into  the  milk  and  to  a
                              220

-------
somewhat greater degree into eggs.  Data for fresh water indicate
that  fluorides  are  toxic to fish at concentrations higher than
1.5 mg/1.

Fluoride is found in the industrial sand, fluorspar and  feldspar
subcategories.

PH

Although  not  a specific pollutant, pH is related to the acidity
or alkalinity of a waste water stream.  It is  not  a  linear  or
direct  measure  of either, however, it may properly be used as a
surrogate to control both excess acidity and excess alkalinity in
water.  The term pH is  used  to  describe  the  hydrogen  ion
hydroxyl  ion  balance in water.  Technically, pH is the hydrogen
ion concentration or activity present in a  given  solution.   pH
numbers   are   the  negative  logarithim  of  the  hydrogen  ion
concentration.  A pH of 7 generally  indicates  neutrality  or  a
balance  between free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions.  Solutions
with a pH above 7 indicate that the solution is alkaline, while a
pH below 7 indicate that the solution is acid.

Knowledge of the  pH  of  water  or  waste  water  is  useful  in
determining  necessary  measures for corrosion control, pollution
control, and disinfection.   Waters  with  a  pH  below  6.0  are
corrosive  to  water  works  structures,  distribution lines, and
household  plumbing  fixtures  and   such   corrosion   can   add
constituents  to  drinking  water  such  as  iron,  copper, zinc,
cadmium, and lead.  Low pH  waters  not  only  tend  to  dissolve
metals  from  structures and fixtures but also tend to redissolve
or leach metals from sludges and bottom sediments.  The  hydrogen
ion  concentration  can  affect the "taste" of the water and at a
low pH, water tastes "sour".

Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or
kill  aquatic  life  outright.   Even   moderate   changes   from
"acceptable"  criteria  limits  of  pH  are  deleterious  to some
species.  The relative toxicity to aguatic life of many materials
is  increased  by  changes  in  the  water  pH.    For   example,
metalocyanide  complexes can increase a thousand-fold in toxicity
with a drop of 1.5 pH units.  Similarly, the toxicity of  ammonia
is a function of pH.  The bactericidal effect of chlorine in most
cases  is  less  as  the  pH  increases,  and  it is economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Suspended solids include both organic  and  inorganic  materials.
The  inorganic  compounds  include  sand,  silt,  and  clay.  The
organic fraction includes such materials as grease, oil, tar, and
animal and vegetable waste products.  These solids may settle out
rapidly and bottom deposits are often a mixture of  both  organic
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and  inorganic  solids.   Solids  may be suspended in water for a
time, and then settle to the bed of the stream  or  lake.    These
solids   discharged  with  man's  wastes  may  be  inert,   slowly
biodegradable  materials,  or  rapidly  decomposable  substances.
While  in  suspension,  they increase the turbidity of the water,
reduce light penetration and impair the  photosynthetic  activity
of aquatic plants.

Suspended   solids   in  water  interfere  with  many  industrial
processes,  cause  foaming  in  boilers  and   incrustations   on
equipment  exposed  to  such water, especially as the temperature
rises.  They  are  undesirable  in  process  water  used  in  the
manufacture  of  steel, in the textile industry, in laundries, in
dyeing and in cooling systems.

Solids in suspension are aesthetically  displeasing.   When  they
settle  to  form  sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they
are  often  damaging  to  the  life  in  water.    Solids,   when
transformed  to  sludge  deposits,  may  do a variety of damaging
things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed  and  thereby
destroying  the  living  spaces  for those benthic organisms that
would otherwise occupy the habitat.  When of an  organic  nature,
solids  use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen available in
the area.  Organic materials also serve  as  a  food  source  for
sludgeworms and associated organisms.

Disregarding  any toxic effect attributable to substances leached
out by water, suspended solids may kill  fish  and  shellfish  by
causing   abrasive   injuries  and  by  clogging  the  gills  and
respiratory  passages  of  various  aquatic  fauna.   Indirectly,
suspended solids are inimical to aquatic life because they screen
out  light,  and  they  promote  and  maintain the development of
noxious conditions through oxygen depletion.  This results in the
killing of fish and fish food organisms.  Suspended  solids  also
reduce the recreational value of the water.

Total  suspended  solids  are the single most important pollutant
parameter found in the mineral mining and processing industry.

TURBIDITY

Turbidity of water is related to  the  amount  of  suspended  and
colloidal   matter  contained  in  the  water.   It  affects  the
clearness and penetration of light.  The degree of  turbidity  is
only  an  expression  of  one effect of suspended solids upon the
character of the water.  Turbidity can reduce  the  effecteveness
of chlorination and can result in difficulties in meeting BOD and
suspended  solids  limitations.  Turbidity is an indirect measure
of suspended solids.

SULFIDES
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Sulfides may be present in significant amounts in the  wastewater
from   the  manufacture  of  rock  salt  and  sulfur  facilities.
Concentrations in the range of 1.0 to 25.0 mg/1 of  sulfides  may
be lethal in 1 to 3 days to a variety of fresh water fish.

IRON (Fe)

Iron  is  an abundant metal found in the earth's crust.  The most
common iron ore is  hematite  from  which  iron  is  obtained  by
reduction  with  carbon.   Other  forms  of  commercial  ores are
magnetite  and  taconite.   Pure  iron  is  not  often  found  in
commercial  use,  but  it is usally alloyed with other metals and
minerals, the most common being carbon.

Iron is the basic element in the production of  steel  and  steel
alloys.   Iron  with carbon is used for casting of major parts of
machines and it  can  be  machined,  cast,  formed,  and  welded.
Ferrous  iron  is  used  in  paints,  while  powdered iron can be
sintered and used in powder metallurgy.  Iron compounds are  also
used  to  precipitate  other metals and undesirable minerals from
industrial waste water streams.

Iron is chemically reactive and corrodes rapidly in the  presence
of  moist  air and at elevated temperatures.  In water and in the
presence of oxygen, the resulting products of iron corrosion  may
be  pollutants  in  water.   Natural  pollution  occurs  from the
leaching of soluble  iron  salts  from  soil  and  rocks  and  is
increased by industrial waste water from pickling baths and other
solutions containing iron salts.

Corrosion  products  of iron in water cause staining of porcelain
fixtures, and ferric iron combines with the tannin to  produce  a
dark  violet  color.   The  presence  of  excessive iron in water
discourages  cows  from  drinking   and,   thus,   reduces   milk
production.   High  concentrations  of ferric and ferrous ions in
water kill most fish introduced to  the  solution  within  a  few
hours.    The  killing  action  is  attributed to coatings of iron
hydroxide precipitates on the gills.  Iron oxidizing bacteria are
dependent on iron in  water  for  growth.   These  bacteria  form
slimes that can affect the esthetic values of bodies of water and
cause stoppage of flows in pipes.

Iron  is an essential nutrient and micronutrient for all forms of
growth.  Drinking water  standards  in  the  U.  S.  have  set  a
recommended  limit of 0.3 mg/1 of iron in domestic water supplies
based not on the  physiological  considerations,  but  rather  on
aesthetic and taste considerations of iron in water.

ZINC

Occurring  abundantly  in rocks and ores, zinc is readily refined
into a stable pure metal and is used extensively as a  metal,  an
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alloy,  and a plating material.  In addition, zinc salts are also
used in paint pigments, dyes, and insecticides.    Many  of  these
salts  (for  example,  zinc chloride and zinc sulfate)  are highly
soluble in water; hence, it is expected that zinc might occur  in
many industrial wastes.  On the other hand, some zinc salts (zinc
carbonate,  zinc oxide, zinc sulfide)  are insoluble in water and,
consequently, it is expected that some zinc will precipitate  and
be removed readily in many natural waters.

In  soft  water,  concentrations  of zinc ranging from 0.1 to 1.0
mg/1 have been reported to be lethal to fish.  Zinc is thought to
exert its toxic action by forming insoluble  compounds  with  the
mucous  that  covers the gills, by damage to the gill epithelium,
or possibly by acting as an internal poison.  The sensitivity  of
fish  to zinc varies with species, age, and condition, as well as
with the physical and  chemical  characteristics  of  the  water.
Some acclimatization to the presence of the zinc is possible.   It
has also been observed that the effects of zinc poisoning may not
become  apparent  immediately  so  that  fish  removed from zinc-
contaminated to zinc-free water may die as long as 48 hours after
the removal.  The presence of copper in water  may  increase  the
toxicity  of  zinc  to  aquatic  organisms, while the presence of
calcium or  hardness  may  decrease  the  relative  toxicity.    A
complex   relationship   exists   between   zinc  concentrations,
dissolved oxygen, pH,  temperature,  and  calcium  and  magnesium
concentrations.  Prediction of harmful effects has been less than
reliable   and  controlled  studies  have  not  been  extensively
documented.

Concentrations of zinc in excess of 5 mg/1 in public water supply
sources  cause  an  undesirable  taste  which  persists   through
conventional  treatment.   Zinc can have an adverse effect on man
and animals at high  concentrations.   Observed  values  for  the
distribution  of  zinc  in ocean waters varies widely.  The major
concern with zinc compounds in marine waters is not one of actute
lethal effects, but rather one of the long term sublethal effects
of the metallic compounds and complexes.  From the point of  view
of  accute lethal effects, invertebrate marine animals seem to be
the most sensitive organisms tested.   A  variety  of  freshwater
plants tested manifested harmful symptoms at concentrations of 10
mg/1.   Zinc  sulfate  has  also  been found to be lethal to many
plants and it could impair agricultural uses of the water.

SIGNIFICANCE AND RATIONALE FOR REJECTION OF POLLUTION PARAMETERS

A number of pollution  parameters  besides  those  selected  were
considered, but were rejected for one or several of the following
reasons:

 (1) insufficient data on facility effluents;
 (2) not usually present in quantities sufficient to  cause  water
    quality degradation;
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(3)  treatment does not "practicably" reduce the parameter; and
(U)  simultaneous reduction is  achieved  with  another  parameter
    which is limited.

TOXIC MATERIALS

Although  arsenic,  antimony,  barium,  boron, cadmium, chromium,
copper, cyanide ion, manganese, mercury, nickel, lead,  selenium,
and   tin   are  harmful  pollutants,  they  were  not  found  in
significant quantities.

TEMPERATURE

Excess thermal load, even in non-contact cooling water,  has  not
been  found  to  be  a significant problem in this segment of the
mineral mining and processing industry.

ASBESTOS

"Asbestos" is a generic  term  for  a  number  of  fire-resistant
hydrated silicates that, when crushed or processed, separate into
flexible  fibers made up of fibrils noted for their great tensile
strength.  Although there are many asbestos minerals,  only  five
are  of  commercial importance.  Chrysotile, a tubular serpertine
mineral, accounts for 95 percent of the world's production.   The
others,  all amphiboles, are amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite,
and tremolite.  The asbestos minerals differ  in  their  metallic
elemental  content,  range  of  fiber  diameters,  flexibility or
hardness,  tensile  strength,  surface  properties,   and   other
attributes  that  determine  their industrial uses and may affect
their respirability, deposition,  retention,  translocation,  and
biologic reactivity.  Serpentine asbestos is a magnesium silicate
the  fibers  of which are strong and flexible so that spinning is
possible with the longer  fibers.   Amphibole  asbestos  includes
various  silicates  of magnesium, iron, calcium, and sodium.  The
fibers are generally brittle and cannot  be  spun  but  are  more
resistant to chemicals and to heat than serpentine asbestos.

         Chrysoltile         3MgG«2SiOJ2»2H.2O

         Anthophyllite       (FeMg) *SiO.3»H2O

         Amosite             (ferroanthophyllite)

         Crocidolite         NaFe* (SiOj) 2«FeSiO.3«HjO

         Tremolite           Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH> 2

All  epidemiologic studies that appear to indicate differences in
pathogenicity among types of asbestos are flawed by their lack of
guantitative data on cumulative exposures,  fiber characteristics,
and the presence of cofactors.   The different  types,  therefore.
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cannot  be graded as to relative risk with respect to asbestosis.
Fiber size is critically important in determining  respirability,
deposition, retention, and clearance from the pulmonary tract and
is  probably  an  important determinant of the site and nature of
biologic action.  Little is  known  about  the  movement  of  the
fibers within the human body, including their potential for entry
through  the  gastrointestinal  tract.   There is evidence though
that bundles of fibrils may be broken down  within  the  body  to
individual  fibrils.  Effluent standards on asbestos in water are
not regulated at this time pending additional health effect data.

RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

Exposure to ionizing radiation at levels substantially above that
of general background levels can be harmful to living  organisms.
Such  exposure  may  cause adverse somatic effects such as cancer
and life shortening as well as genetic damage.  At  environmental
levels  that  may  result  from releases by industries processing
materials containing natural radionuclides, the existence of such
adverse effects has  not  been  verified.   Nevertheless,  it  is
generally  agreed  that  the  prudent  public health policy is to
assume  a  non-threshold  health  effect  response  to  radiation
exposure.   Furthermore,  a  linear  response  curve is generally
assumed which enables  the  statistical  estimate  of  risk  from
observed  values at higher exposures to radiation through to zero
exposure.

The half-life of the particular  radionuclides  released  to  the
environment  by an industry is extremely important in determining
the  significance  of  such  releases.   Once  released  to   the
biosphere,  radionuclides  with  long  half-lives can persist for
hundreds and thousands of years.  This fact  coupled  with  their
possible  buildup  in  the  environment can lead to their being a
source of potential population  exposure  for  many  hundreds  of
years.   Therefore,  in order to minimize the potential impact of
these radionuclides, they must be excluded from the biosphere  as
much as possible.

Facilities and animals that incorporate radioactivity through the
biological cycle can pose a health hazard to man through the food
chain.   Facilities  and  animals,  to  be of significance in the
cycling  of  radionuclides  in  the  aquatic   environment   must
assimilate  the  radionuclide,  retain  it,  be  eaten by another
organism, and be digestible.  However, even if an organism is not
eaten before  it  dies,  the  radionuclide  will  remain  in  the
biosphere continuing as a potential source of exposure.

Aguatic  life may assimilate radionuclides from materials present
in  the  water,  sediment,  and  biota.   Humans  can  assimilate
radioactivity  through  many  different pathways.  Among them are
drinking contaminated water, and eating fish and  shellfish  that
have  radionuclides  incorporated  in  them.  Where fish or other
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fresh  or  maring  products  that  may   accumulate   radioactive
materials  are  used as food by humans, the concentrations of the
radionuelides  in  the  water  must  be  restricted  to   provide
assurance that the total intake of radionuclides from all sources
will not exceed recommended levels.

RADIUM 226

Radium  226  is  a  member of the uranium decay series.  It has a
half-life  of  1620  .years.   This  radionuclidese  is  naturally
present  in  soils throughout the United States in concentrations
ranging from 0.15  to  2.8  picocuries  per  gram.   It  is  also
naturally present in ground waters and surface streams in varying
concentrations.  Radium 226 is present in minerals in the earth's
crust.   Generally,  minerals  contain  varying concentrations of
radium 226 and  its  decay  products  depending  upon  geological
methods  of  deposition  and leaching action over the years.  The
human body may incorporate radium  in  bone  tissue  in  lieu  of
calcium.   Some  facilities  and animals concentrate radium which
can significantly impact the food chain.

As a result of its long half-life, radium 226 which  was  present
in minerals extracted from the earth may persist in the biosphere
for  many  years  after introduction through effluents or wastes.
Therefore,   because   of    its    radiological    conseguences,
concentrations  of  this  radionuclide  need  to be restricted to
minimize potential exposure to humans.

Relatively low concentrations of  radioactivity  and  radium  226
were  found  in  the treated effluent for the phosphate industry.
Since the treatment is specific  for  suspended  solids  and  not
radium and since removal of TSS results in removal of the latter,
only TSS will be regulated.
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                           SECTION VII
                CONTROL ANE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Waste  water  pollutants from the mining of minerals for the con-
struction industry consist primarily of suspended solids.   These
are usually composed of chemically inert and very insoluble sand,
clay  or  rock particles.  Treatment technology is well developed
for removing such particles  from  waste  water  and  is  readily
applicable  whenever  space  requirements  or  economics  do  not
preclude utilization.

In a few instances dissolved substances such as fluorides, acids,
alkalies, and chemical additives from ore processing may also  be
involved.    Where   they   are   present,   dissolved   material
concentrations are usually low.   Treatment  technology  for  the
dissolved  solids is also well-known, but may often be limited by
the large volumes of waste water involved and the  cost  of  such
large scale operations.

The  control  and  treatment  of  the  pollutants  found  in this
industry are complicated by several factors:

(1) the large volumes of waste water involved  for  many  of  the
    processing operations,

(2) the variable waste water quantities and composition from  day
    to  day,  as  influenced  by  rainfall  and other surface and
    underground water contributions,

(3) differences in waste water compositions arising from  ore  or
    raw material variability,

(tt) geographical location:  e.g.,  waste  water  can  be  handled
    differently  in dry isolated locations than in industrialized
    wet climates.

Control practices  such  as  selection  of  raw  materials,  good
housekeeping,  minimizing  leaks  and spills, in-process changes,
and segregation  of  process  waste  water  streams  are  not  as
important  in  the minerals industry as they are in more process-
oriented manufacturing operations.  Raw materials  are  fixed  by
the composition of the ore available; good housekeeping and small
leaks and spills have little influence on the waste loads; and it
is  uncommon  that  any  noncontact cooling water, is involved in
minerals mining and processing.  There are  a  number  of  areas,
however, where control is very important.
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Separation and Control of Waste water

In  these  industries waste water may be separated into different
categories:

(1)  Mine dewatering.  For many mines this is the  only  effluent.
    Usually  it  is  low  in  suspended  solids,  but may contain
    dissolved minerals.

(2)  Process water.   This  is  water  involved  in  transporting,
    classifying,  washing, beneficiating, and separating ores and
    other mined materials.  This  water  usually  contains  heavy
    loads   of  suspended  solids  and  possibly  some  dissolved
    materials.

(3)  Rain water runoff.  Since  mineral  mining  operations  often
    involve large surface areas, the rain water that falls on the
    mine  and  process  facility  property  constitutes  a  ma-jor
    portion of the overall waste water load leaving the property.
    This water  entrains  minerals,  silt,  sand,  clay,  organic
    matter and other suspended solids.

The  relative  amounts  and compositions of the above waste water
streams differ from  one  mining  category  to  another  and  the
separation, control and treatment techniques differ for each.

Process  water  and  mine  dewatering  is normally controlled and
contained by pumping or gravity  flow  through  pipes,  channels,
ditches  and  ponds.   Rain  water  runoff, on the other hand, is
often  uncontrolled  and  may  contaminate   process   and   mine
dewatering  water or flow off the land independently as non-point
discharges.

Degradation of the mine water quality may be caused by  combining
the wastewater streams for treatment at one location.  A negative
effect  results  because  water with low pollutant loading (often
the mine water)  serves  to  dilute  water  of  higher  pollutant
loading.    This  often  results  in  decreased  water  treatment
efficiency  because  concentrated  waste  streams  can  often  be
treated  more  effectively  than  dilute waste streams.  The mine
water in these cases may be treated by relatively simple methods;
while the volume of waste water treated in the  process  facility
impoundment  system  will  be reduced, this water will be treated
with increased efficiency.

Surface runoff in the immediate area of beneficiation  facilities
presents  another  potential pollution problem.  Runoff from haul
roads, areas near conveyors, and ore storage piles is a potential
source of pollutant loading to nearby  surface  waters.   Several
current industry practices to control this pollution are:
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    (1)  Construction of ditches  surrounding  storage  areas  to
         divert  surface  runoff  and  collect  seepage that does
         occur.

    (2)  Establishment of a vegetative cover of grasses in  areas
         of  potential  sheet  wash  and erosion to stabilize the
         material, to control erosion and sedimentation,  and  to
         improve the aesthetic aspects of the area.

    (3)  Installation of hard surfaces  on  haul  roads,  beneath
         conveyors,  etc.,  with proper slopes to direct drainage
         to a  sump.   Collected  waters  may  be  pumped  to  an
         existing treatment facility for treatment.

Another   potential   problem  associated  with  construction  of
tailing-pond treatment systems is the use of existing valleys and
natural drainage areas for impoundment of mine water  or  process
waste   water.    The   capacity  of  these  impoundment  systems
freguently is not large enough to  prevent  high  discharge  flow
rates,  particularly  during  the  late  winter  and early spring
months.  The use of ditches, flumes, pipes,  trench  drains,  and
dikes  will  assist  in  preventing  runoff  caused  by snowmelt,
rainfall, or streams from  entering  impoundments.   Very  often,
this runoff flow is the only factor preventing attainment of zero
discharge.    Diversion   of   natural  runoff  from  impoundment
treatment  systems,  or  construction  of  these  facilities   in
locations  which  do not obstruct natural drainage, is therefore,
desirable.

Ditches may  be  constructed  upslope  from  the  impoundment  to
prevent  water from entering it.  These ditches also convey water
away and reduce the total volume of water which must be  treated.
This  may result in decreased treatment costs, which could offset
the costs of diversion.

MINING TECHNIQUES

Mining techniques can effectively reduce  amounts  of  pollutants
coming from a mine area by containment within the mine area or by
reducing  their formation.  These techniques can be combined with
careful  reclamation  planning  and  implementation  to   provide
maximum  at-source  pollution  control.   Several techniques have
been  implemented  to  reduce  environmental  degradation  during
strip-mining operations.  Utilization of the box-cut technique in
moderate- and shallow-slope contour mining has increased recently
because   more   stringent   environmental   controls  are  being
implemented.

A box cut is simply a contour strip  mine  in  which  a  low-wall
barrier  is maintained.  Spoil may be piled on the low wall side.
This technique significantly reduces the  amount  of  water  dis-
charged  from  a  pit  area,  since  that water is prevented from
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seeping -through spoil banks.  The problems of preventing  slides,
spoil  erosion,  and  resulting  stream  sedimentation  are still
present, however.

Block-cut mining was developed to facilitate regrading,  minimize
overburden  handling,  and contain spoil within mining areas,  in
block-cut mining, contour stripping is typically accomplished  by
throwing  spoil  from  the  bench  onto  downslope  areas.   This
downslope material can slump or rapidly erode and must  be  moved
upslope  to  the  mine site if contour regrading is desired.  The
land area affected  by  contour  strip  mining  is  substantially
larger  than  the  area  from which the ores are extracted.  When
using block-cut mining, only  material  from  the  first  cut  is
deposited  in adjacent low areas.  Remaining spoil is then placed
in mined portions of the bench.  Spoil handling is restricted  to
the  actual  pit  area  for  all  areas  but the first cut, which
significantly reduces the area disturbed.

Pollution-control technology in  underground  mining  is  largely
restricted  to  at-source  methods  of reducing water influx into
mine workings.  Infiltration from strata surrounding the workings
is the primary source of water, and this water  reacts  with  air
and   sulfide  minerals  within  the  mines  to  create  acid  pH
conditions and, thus, to increase  the  potential  for  solubili-
zation  of  metals.  Underground mines are, therefore, faced with
problems of water handling and mine-drainage treatment.  Open-pit
mines, on the other hand, receive both direct rainfall and runoff
contributions, as well  as  infiltrated  water  from  intercepted
strata.

Infiltration in underground mines generally results from rainfall
recharge  of  a  ground-water  reservoir.   Rock  fracture zones,
joints, and faults have a strong influence on  ground-water  flow^
patterns  since  they  can  collect  and  convey large volumes of
water.  These zones and faults can intersect any  portion  of  an
underground mine and permit easy access of ground water.  In some
mines, infiltration can result in huge volumes of water that must
be  handled  and  treated.   Pumping  can  be a major part of the
mining operation in terms of equipment and expense—particularly,
in mines which do not discharge by gravity.

Water-infiltration control techniques,  designed  to  reduce  the
amount of water entering the workings, are extremely important in
underground mines located in or adjacent to water-bearing strata.
These techniques are often employed in such mines to decrease the
volume  of  water  requiring  handling and treatment, to make the
mine workable,  and  to  control  energy  costs  associated  with
dewatering.  The techniques include pressure grouting of fissures
which  are  entry  points  for water into the mine.  New polymer-
based grouting materials have been developed which should improve
the effectiveness of such grouting procedures.  In severe  cases,
pilot  holes  can  be  drilled  ahead  of  actual mining areas to
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determine if excessive water is likely to be  encountered.   When
water  is encountered, a small pilot hole can be easily filled by
pressure grouting, and mining activity  may  be  directed  toward
non-water-contributing  areas  in the formation.  The feasibility
of such control is a function of the structure of the  ore  body,
the  type  of surrounding rock, and the characteristics of ground
water in the area.

Decreased water volume, however, does not necessarily  mean  that
waste water pollutant loading will also decrease.  In underground
mines  oxygen,  in  the  presence  of  humidity,  interacts  with
minerals  on  the  mine  walls  and  floor  to  permit  pollutant
formation  e.g., acid mine water, while water flowing through the
mine transports pollutants to the outside.  If the volume of this
water  is  decreased  but  the  volume  of   pollutants   remains
unchanged, the resultant smaller discharge will contain increased
pollutant  concentrations,  but  approximately the same pollutant
load.  Rapid pumpout of the mine can, however, reduce the contact
time and significantly reduce the formation of pollutants.

Reduction of mine discharge  volume  can  reduce  water  handling
costs.   In  cases  of  acid mine drainage, for example, the same
amounts of neutralizing agents will be required because pollutant
loads will remain unchanged.  The volume  of  mine  water  to  be
treated,  however,  will  be reduced significantly, together with
the size of the  necessary  treatment  and  settling  facilities.
This  cost  reduction,  along  with  cost  savings  which  can be
attributed to decreased pumping volumes   (hence,  smaller  pumps,
lower  energy  requirements,  and  smaller treatment facilities),
makes  use  of  water  infiltration-control   techniques   highly
desirable.

Water  entering underground mines may pass vertically through the
mine rocf from rock formations above.  These rock units may  have
well-developed  joint  systems  (fractures along which no movement
occurs), which tend to facilitate vertical flow.  Roof  collapses
can  also cause widespread fracturing in overlying rocks, as well
as joint separation far above the mine roof.  Opened  joints  may
channel  flow  from  overlying  aquifers  (water-bearing rocks), a
flooded mine above, or even from the surface.

Fracturing of overlying strata is reduced by employing any or all
of several methods:   (1)  Increasing pillar size;   (2)  Increasing
support  of the roof;  (3)  Limiting the number of mine entries and
reducing mine entry widths; (H) Backfilling of  the  mined  areas
with waste material.

Surface  mines are often responsible for collecting and conveying
large quantities of  surface  water  to  adjacent  or  underlying
underground mines.  Ungraded surface mines often collect water in
open  pits  when  no  surface discharge point is available.  That
water may subsequently enter  the  groundwater  system  and  then
                              233

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percolate  into  an  underground  mine.   The  influx of water to
underground mines from either active or abandoned  surface  mines
can  be  significantly  reduced through implementation of a well-
designed reclamation plan.

The  only   actual   underground   mining   technique   developed
specifically  for pollution control is preplanned flooding.  This
technique is primarily one of mine design, in  which  a  mine  is
planned  from  its  inception for post-operation flooding or zero
discharge.  In drift mines and shallow slope or shaft mines, this
is generally achieved by working the mine with  the  dip  of  the
rock  (inclination of the rock to the horizontal)  and pumping out
the water which collects  in  the  shafts.   Upon  completion  of
mining  activities,  the  mine  is  allowed  to  flood naturally,
eliminating the possibility  of  acid  formation  caused  by  the
contact between sulfide minerals and oxygen.  Discharges, if any,
from  a  flooded  mine  should  contain  a  much  lower pollutant
concentration.  A flooded mine may also be sealed.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL

The  treatment  technologies  available  for  removing  suspended
solids  from  minerals  mining  and  processing  waste  water are
numerous and varied, but a relatively  small  number  are  widely
used.  The following shows the approximate breakdown of usage for
the various techniques:

                             percent of treatment
                             facilities
removal technique            using technology

settling ponds  (unlined)          95-97
settling ponds  (lined)            <1
chemical flocculation             2-5
(usually with ponds)
thickeners and clarifiers         2-5
hydrocyclones                     <1
tube and lamella settlers         <1
screens                           <1
filters                           <1
centrifuges                       <1

SETTLING PONDS

As  shown  above, the predominant treatment technique for removal
of  suspended  solids  involves  one  or  more  settling   ponds.
Settling  ponds are versatile in that they perform several waste-
oriented functions including:
                               234

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 (1) Solids removal.  Solids settle to the bottom  and  the  clear
    water overflow is much reduced in suspended solids content.

 (2) Equa1i z a ti on  and  water   storage   capacity.    The   clear
    supernatant  water  layer  serves as a reservoir for reuse or
    for controlled discharge.

 (3) Solid waste storage*  The settled solids  are  provided  with
    long term storage.

This  versatility,  ease of construction and relatively low cost,
explains the wide application of settling ponds  as  compared  to
other  technologies.   The  performance  of  these  ponds depends
primarily  on  the  settling  characteristics  of  the  suspended
solids,  the  flow  rate  through  the  pond  and  the pond size.
Settling ponds can be used over a wide range of suspended  solids
levels.   often  a  series  of  ponds  is  used,  with  the first
collecting the heavy load of  easily  settled  material  and  the
following  ones  providing  final  polishing  to  reach a desired
suspended solids level.  As the ponds fill with solids  they  can
be  dredged to remove these solids or they may be left filled and
new ponds provided.  The choice often depends on whether land for
additional new ponds is available.  When suspended solids  levels
are  low  and ponds large, settled solids build up so slowly that
neither dredging nor pond abandonment is necessary, at least  not
for a period of many years.

Settling  ponds  used  in  the minerals industry range from small
pits, natural depressions and swamp areas to engineered  thousand
acre  structures  with  m-.ssive  retaining  dams  and  legislated
construction design.  The performance of  these  ponds  can  vary
from  excellent  to poor, depending on character of the suspended
particles, and pond size and configuration.

In general the current experience in this industry  segment  with
settling  ponds  shows reduction to 50 mg/1 or less, but for some
waste waters the discharge may still contain up  to  150 mg/1  of
TSS.   Performance  data  of  some  settling  ponds  found in the
dimension stone, crushed stone, construction sand and gravel, and
industrial sand subcategories is given in Table 12.  Eighteen  of
these  20 facility samples show greater than 95 percent reduction
of TSS by ponding.  There appear to be no correlations  within  a
sampled  subcategory  due  to  differences  in  quality of intake
water, mined product, or processing.   Laboratory  settling  data
collected  on samples of the process waste water pond from six of
the sand and gravel facilities contained in the above  data  show
that  under  controlled  conditions  they  can  be settled within
24 hours to a range of 20-450 mg/1 of suspended solids, and, with
the addition of commercial coagulant can be settled to a range of
10-60 mg/1 in the same time period.  These  laboratory  data  are
consistent with the pond performance measured above.
                              235

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Plant
             Table 12
    Settling Pond Performance
Stone, Sand and Gravel Operations

             TSS
            (mg/1)     Percent
 Influent  Effluent  Reduction
                       Treatment,
                       Chemical
Dimension Stone
3001          1,808
3003          3,406

3007          2,178
Crushed Stone
1001
1003
1004
1021
(2 ponds)
1039
1053
Construction
Sand and Gravel
           37
           34

           80
1391
 12,700
Industrial Sand
1019          2,014
1101          427
1102          2,160

D - Dredge
A - Main Plant
B - Auxiliary Plant
18
           56
           56
           66
          97.95
          99

          96.3
99.86
          97.22
          86.88
          96.94
             none
             FeCl_3, sodium
             bicarbonate
             none
1,054
7,68
5,710
7,206
772
10,013
21,760
8
8
12
28
3
14
56
99.24
99.92
99.79
99.61
99.61
99.86
99.74
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
1017 (D)
1044
1083 (A)
1083 (B)
1129
1247 (D)
5,712
5,114
20,660
8,863
4,660
93
51
154
47
32
44
29
99.12
96.99
99.77
99.64
99.06
68.82
floci
none
none
none
none
floe.
  agent
none
             none
             none
             flocculating
                                  236

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In  this  industry,  settling  is usually a prelude to recycle of
water for  washinq  purposes.   The  level  of  suspended  solids
commonly   viewed  as  acceptable  in  recycled  water  used  for
construction materials washing is  200 mg/1  and  higher.   Every
facility  in  the  above  sample  achieved this level with values
ranging from 3 to 151 mg/1.  Thus the TSS levels  obtained  after
settling   in   ponds  are  apparently  under  present  practices
adequate for recycling purposes for these subcategories.

Much of the poor performance  exhibited  by  the  settling  ponds
employed  by  the  minerals  industry  is  due  to   the  lack of
understating of settling techniques.  This is demonstrated by the
construction of ponds without  prior  determination  of  settling
rate and detention time.  In some cases series of ponds have been
claimed  to demonstrate a company's mindfullness of environmental
control when in fact  all  the  component  ponds  are  so  poorly
constructed   and  maintained  that  they  could  be  effectively
replaced by one pond with less surface area than the total of the
series.

The chief problems experienced by settling ponds are rapid  fill-
up,  insufficient  retention  time  and the closely related short
circuiting.  The first can be avoided by constructing a series of
ponds as mentioned above.  Frequent  dredging  of  the  first  if
needed  will  reduce the need to dredge the remaining ponds.  The
solution to the second involves additional pond volume or use  of
flocculants.   The  third  problem,  however,  is  almost  always
overlooked.  Short circuiting is simply the formation of currents
or water channels from pond influent to  effluent  whereby  whole
areas  of the pond are not utilized.  The principles of clarifier
construction apply here.  The object is to achieve a uniform plug
flow from pond influent to effluent.  This  can  be  achieved  by
proper   inlet-outlet  construction  that  forces  water  to   be
uniformly distributed at those points, such as by use of a  weir.
Frequent  dreding  or  insertion  of  baffles will  also minimize
channelling.  The EPA report "Waste Water  Treatment  Studies  in
Aggregate  and Concrete Production" in detail lists the procedure
one should follow in designing and building settling ponds.

FLOCCULATIO1S1

Flocculating  agents  increase   the   efficiency   of   settling
facilities.  They are of two general types:  ionic and polymeric.
The ionic types such as alum, ferrous sulfate and ferric chloride
function by neutralizing the repelling double layer ionic charges
around the suspended particles, thereby allowing the particles to
attract  each other and agglomerate.  Polymeric types function by
physically trapping the particles.

Flocculating agents are most commonly used after the larger, more
readily settled particles  (and loads)   have  been  removed  by  a
settling  pond,  hydrocyclone  or  other such scalping treatment.
                              237

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Agqlomeration, or flocculation, can then be  achieved  with  less
reagent   and  less  settling  load  on  the  polishing  pond  or
clarifier.

Flocculation agents can be  used  with  minor  modifications  and
additions  to  existing  treatment systems, but the costs for the
flocculating chemicals are often significant.   Ionic  types  are
used  in  10  to 100 mg/1 concentrations in the waste water while
the higher priced polymeric types  are  effective  in  the  2  to
20 mg/1  concentrations.   Flocculants  have been used by several
segments within the minerals industry  with  varying  degrees  of
success.

CLARIFIERS AND THICKENERS

An  alternative method of removing suspended solids is the use of
clarifiers  or  thickeners  which  are  essentially  tanks   with
internal  baffles,  compartments,  sweeps and other directing and
segregating mechanisms to  provide  efficient  concentration  and
removal  of suspended solids in one effluent stream and clarified
liguid in the other.

Clarifiers  differ  from  thickeners  primarily  in  their  basic
purpose.   Clarifiers are used with the main purpose of producing
a clear overflow with the solids content of the sludge  underflow
being  of  secondary  importance.  Thickeners, on the other hand,
have the basic purpose of producing a high solids underflow  with
the  character  of  the  clarified  overflow  being  of secondary
importance.  Thickeners are also usually smaller in size but more
massively constructed for a given throughput.

Clarifiers and thickeners have a number  of  distinct  advantages
over ponds.  Less land space is reguired, since these devices are
much  more efficient in settling capacity than ponds.  Influences
of rainfall are  much  less  than  for  ponds.   If  desired  the
clarifiers  and  thickeners  can  even  be  covered.   Since  the
external construction of clarifiers  and  thickeners  consist  of
concrete  or  steel  tanks,  ground seepage and rain water runoff
influences do not exist.

On the other hand, clarifiers and thickeners suffer some distinct
disadvantages as compared with ponds.  They have more  mechanical
parts  and  maintenance.  They have only limited storage capacity
for either clarified  water  or  settled  solids.   The  internal
sweeps  and  agitators  in thickeners and clarifiers reguire more
power and energy for operation than ponds.

Clarifiers and thickeners are usually used when  sufficient  land
for  ponds is not available or is very expensive.  They are found
in the phosphate and industrial sand subcategories.
                              238

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HYDROCYCLONES

While hydrocyclones are widely  used  in  the  separation,  clas-
sification   and   recovery   operations   involved  in  minerals
processing, they are  used  only  infrequently  for  waste  water
treatment.   Even  the  smallest diameter units available  (stream
velocity and centrifugal separation forces both increase  as  the
diameter  decreases)   are  ineffective when particle size is less
than 25-50 microns.  Larger particle sizes are relatively easy to
settle by means of small ponds, thickeners or clarifiers or other
gravity principle settling devices.  It is the smaller  suspended
particles  that  are the most difficult to remove and it is these
that can not be removed by hydrocyclones but may  be  handled  by
ponds  or  other  settling technology.  Also hydrocyclones are of
doubtful effectiveness  when  flocculating  agents  are  used  to
increase settling rates.

Hydrocyclones are used as scalping units to recover small sand or
other   mineral   particles   in  the  25  to  200 micron  range,
particularly if the recovered material can be  sold  as  product.
In this regard hydrocyclones may be considered as converting part
of  the  waste  load  to  useful product as well as providing the
first step of waste water treatment.  Where land availability  is
a  problem,  a  bank  of  hydrocyclones  may  serve in place of a
primary  settling  pond.   They  are  used   in   the   phosphate
subcategory  to  dewater sand tailings and in the sand and gravel
subcategory to recover sand fines normally wasted.

TUBE AND LAMELLA SETTLERS

Tube and lamella settlers require less land area than  clarifiers
and  thickeners.   These  compact  units,  which increase gravity
settling efficiency by means of closely packed inclined tubes and
plates, can be used for either scalping or waste water  polishing
operations depending on throughput and design.

CENTRIFUGES

Centrifuges   are  not  used  for  minerals  mining  waste  water
treatment.  Present industrial-type  centrifuges  are  relatively
expensive  and  not particularly suited for this purpose.  Future
use  of  centrifuges  will  depend  on  regulations,  land  space
availability  and  the  development of specialized units suitable
for minerals mining operations.

SCREENS

Screens  are  widely  used  in  minerals  mining  and  processing
operations  for  separations, classifications and beneficiations.
They are similar to hydrocyclones in that they are restricted  to
removing  the  larger  (<50-100 micron)   particle  size suspended
solids of the waste water, which can then often be sold as useful
                              239

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product.  Screens are not economically practical for removing the
smaller suspended particles.

FILTRATION

Filtration is accomplished by  passing  the  waste  water  stream
through solids-retaining screens, cloths, or particulates such as
sand,  gravel, coal or diatomaceous earth using gravity, pressure
or vacuum as the driving force.  Filtration is versatile in  that
it  can  be  used  to  remove  a wide range of suspended particle
sizes.  The large volumes of many waste water  streams  found  in
minerals  mining  operations  require large filters.  The cost of
these units and their relative complexity, compared  to  settling
ponds,  has  restricted  their  use  to  a  few industry segments
committed to complex waste water treatment.

DISSOLVED MATERIAL TREATMENTS

Unlike suspended solids which need to be  removed  from  minerals
mining  and  processing  waste  waters, dissolved materials are a
problem only in scattered instances  in  the  industries  covered
herein.   Treatments  for dissolved materials are based on either
modifying or  removing  the  undesired  materials.   Modification
techniques  include  chemical  treatments such as neutralization.
Acids and alkaline materials are examples of dissolved  materials
modified  in  this  way.   Most  removal  of  dissolved solids is
accomplished by chemical precipitation.  An example  of  this  is
given below, the removal of fluoride by liming:

    2F- + Ca(OH)2 ^ CaF2 + 2OH~

With  the exception of pH adjustment, chemical treatments are not
common in this industrial segment.

NEUTRALIZATION

Some of the waterborne wastes of this study, often including mine
drainage water, are either acidic or alkaline.   Before  disposal
to  surface  water  or other medium, excess acidity or alkalinity
needs to be controlled to the range of  pH  6  to  9.   The  most
common  method is to treat acidic streams with alkaline materials
such as limestone, lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide.  Alkaline
streams are   treated  with  acids  such  as  sulfuric.   Whenever
possible,  advantage is taken of the availability of acidic waste
streams  to   neutralize  basic  waste  streams  and  vice  versa.
Neutralization  often  produces  suspended  solids  which must be
removed prior to waste water disposal.
                              240

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pH CONTROL

The control of pH may be  equivalent  to  neutralization  if  the
control  point  is  at  or  close  to  pH 7.   Sometimes chemical
addition to waste streams is designed to maintain a pH  level  on
either  the  acidic  or  basic  side  for purposes of controlling
solubility.   An  example  of   pH   control   being   used   for
precipitating undesired pollutants are:

(1)   Fe+3 + 30H- ^ Fe(OH)_3

(2)  Mn+2 + 20H- £ Mn(OH)j2

(3)  Zn+2 + 20H- £ Zn(OH)2

(4)  Pb+2 + 2 (OH)- £ Pb(OH)j2

(5)  Cu+2 + 20H- # Cu(OH)^.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

The modification or  destruction  of  many  hazardous  wastes  is
accomplished   by  chemical  oxidation  or  reduction  reactions.
Hexavalent chromium is reduced to the  less  hazardous  trivalent
form with sulfur dioxide or bisulfites.  Sulfides, with large COD
values,   can  be  oxidized  with  air  to  relatively  innocuous
sulfates.  These examples  and  many  others  are  basic  to  the
modification  of  inorganic  chemical  wastes  to  make them less
troublesome.     In    general    waste    materials    requiring
oxidation-reduction  trea< ments  are  not  encountered  in  these
industries.

Pre ci pi ta ti on s

The reaction of two soluble chemicals  to  produce  insoluble  or
precipitated  products is the basis for removing many pollutants.
The  use  of  this  technique  varies  from  lime  treatments  to
precipitate  sulfates,  fluorides,  hydroxides  and carbonates to
sodium sulfide precipitations of copper,  lead  and  other  toxic
heavy   metals.    Precipitation   reactions   are   particularly
responsible for heavy suspended solids  loads.   These  suspended
solids  are removed by settling ponds/ clarifiers and thickeners,
filters,  and  centrifuges.   The  following  are   examples   of
precipitation reactions used for waste water treatment:
                              241

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(1)  S04 = + Ca(OH)_2 # CaSOj* + 2OH-

(2)  2F- + Ca(OH).2 * CaF2 + 20H~

(3)  Zn++ + NajCOJ # ZnC03 + 2Na+

                EXAMPLES OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT

The  following text discusses how these technologies are employed
by the subcategories covered in this document  and  the  effluent
quality.

                         DIMENSION STONE

The  single  important water effluent parameter for this industry
is suspended solids.  In dimension stone  processing  facilities,
water  is  only occassionally recycled.  The following summarizes
waste treatment practices.
Stone

Mica Schist
Slate
Dolomitic
 Limestone
Limestone
Granite
Marble
Facility

5600
3017
3018
3053
3039
3040
3007
3008
3009
3010
3001
3029
3038

3002
3003
3034
3051
3304
3305
3306
Waste Water Treatment

settling
100X recycle
none
settling
settling
settling
settling
settling, 100% recycle
settling
settling, 100% recycle
settling
settling
flocculants, settling,
10031 recycle
settling
settling
settling
none
settling
settling
settling, polymer, alum
At facility 3038 chemical  treatment,  solids  separation  via   a
raked  tank with filtration of  tank underflow, plus total  recycle
of tank overflow is  practiced.   This  is  necessary   since  the
facility  hydraulic  load  would  otherwise  overwhelm  the small
adjacent  river.  Furthermore,   the  facility  has  a  proprietary
process   for  separating   silicon  carbide  particles   from other
solids for evential reuse.  Since granite facilities are the  only
users of  silicon carbide,  non-granite processors could  not obtain
any cost  benefits  from this Sic recovery practice.
                               242

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Disposition of quarry and facility waste stone is more a function
of state requirements than of  any  other  factor.   Thus,  waste
stone and settling pond solids are conscientiously used to refill
and reclaim quarries where the state has strict reclamation laws.
Corporate  policy  regarding  disposition  of solid wastes is the
second most important factor, and type and yield of stone is  the
least  important  factor.   Thus,  where both state and corporate
policy are lenient, solid wastes are accumulated in  large  piles
near the quarry  (facilities 3017, 3053, and to some extent 3051).

In addition to refilling abandoned quarries, some facilities make
real  efforts  to  convert  waste  stone  to  usable rubble stone
(facilities 3034, 30UO), crushed stone  (facilities  3051,  3038,
3018), or rip rap (facilities 3051, 3039).  Successful efforts to
convert  low  grade stone to low priced products are seen only in
the marble, granite, and dolomitic limestone industries.

Pit pumpout does occur as a seasonal factor  at  some  locations,
but suspended solids have generally been found to be less than 25
mg/1.   The quality of mine water can be attributed more to stone
type than to any  other  factor.   For  example,  granite  quarry
pumpout  at  facility  3001  is 25 mg/1 TSS.  However, limestone,
marble, and dolomitic limestone quarry water  is  generally  very
clear and much lower in suspended solids.


Several analyses of treated effluents available are as follows:

Facility 3007           7.8 pH
                        7.1 mg/1 TSS (range 0-24.5)
Facility 3304           <10 JTU
Facility 3305           <100 mg/1 total solids
                        <5 mg/1 TSS
                        <1 BOD
Facility 3306           <1 JTU
Facility 3002           600 mg/1 TSS
Facility 3003           34 mg/1 TSS
Facility 3001           Water including runoff from 2
                          quarries
                        1 mg/1 TSS
                        4 mg/1 TSS
                        Finishing Facility-37 mg/1 TSS
Facility 5600           Quarry - 7 mg/1 TSS
Facility 3051           Quarry - 7 mg/1 TSS
                        Facility-1658 mg/1 TSS
                        Second Facility-4008 mg/1 TSS

                 CRUSHED STONE (WET PROCESSING)

In all of the facilities contacted, the effluent from the washing
operation  is  sent  through  a  settling  pond  system  prior to
discharge.   This  system  generally  consists  of  at  least  two
                              243

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settling  ponds in series designed to reduce the suspended solids
in the final discharge.  At facility 1439  the  suspended  solids
concentration  entering the first settling pond is 7000-8000 mg/1
which is reduced to a level of 15-20 mg/1 after  flowing  through
the  two  ponds.   Facility 3027 reports its settling pond system
reduces the total suspended solid level in the facility washwater
by 95 percent.

In some instances (facility 1222), flocculating agents are  added
to  the waste stream from the wash facility prior to entering the
first  settling  pond  to  expedite  the  settling  of  the  fine
particles.   Mechanical equipment may be used in conjunction with
a settling pond system in an  effort  to  reduce  the  amount  of
solids  entering  the  first  pond.   At facility 1040, the waste
water from the washing operation flows through a dewatering screw
which reportedly removes 50 percent of the solid  material  which
represents a salvageable product.  The waste water flows from the
screw into the first settling pond.

Facility  1039  has  an  even  more effective method for treating
waste water from the washing operation.  As with  facility  1040,
the  waste  water  flows  into a dewatering screw.  Just prior to
this step, however, facility 1039 injects  a  flocculating  agent
into the waste water which leads to a higher salvage rate.

Of  the  facilities contacted that wash crushed stone, 33 percent
do not  discharge  their  wash  water.   Many  of  the  remaining
facilities   recycle   a  portion  of  their  waste  water  after
treatment.  It should be noted that evaporation  and  percolation
have a tendency to reduce the flow rate of the final discharge in
many  instances.   The  main concern with the final effluent of a
wet crushed stone operation is the  level  of  suspended  solids.
This  may  vary  greatly  depending on the deposit, the degree of
crushing, and the treatment methods employed.

The waste water from the wet scrubber in facility 1217 is sent to
the first of two settling ponds in series.  After flowing through
both ponds, the water is recycled back to the  scrubber  with  no
discharge.   Effluent  data  from  some of the facilities that do
discharge wash water after treatment by settling ponds are:
facility effluent

1004     Flow - 8.7 x 10*
         I/day  (2.30 mgd)
         pH - 7.5
         Turbidity - 16 FTU

1053     Flow - 1.8 x 10»
         I/day  (0.48 mgd)
         pH - 8.4
         Turbidity - 18 FTU
source

treated discharge composed
of wash water (4%)  and
pit pumpout  (96%)
wash water after treatment
                              244

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1218     Flow - 6.2 x 10*         wash water after treat-
         1/day (1.64 mgd)         men-t then combined with
         TSS - 20 mq/1            pit pumpout

Of the facilities contacted the  following  are  achieving  total
recycle of process generated waste water:

    1002      1003      1039      1040      1062      1063
    1064      1065      1066      1067      1068      1070
    1071      1072      1079      1090      1161      1212
    1220      1223      1439      3027      5663

The  following  facilities  use  a  common pond for process waste
water and mine water.  These  facilities  recycle  much  of  this
combined pond water but discharge the remainder.

                        effluent
         facility       TSS mg/1

         1001           8
         1023           34
         1219           2
         1222
         1226
         1227
         1228
         5662           9
         5664           40, 42

Many treatment ponds experience ground seepage.  Facility 1974 is
an  example  of  a  facility  achieving  no  discharge because of
seepage.

Many of the operators in this sutcategory must periodically clean
their settling ponds of the fines which  have  settled  out  from
wash  water.  A clamshell bucket is often used to accomplish this
task.  The fines  recovered  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a
saleable  product  (facility  1215)  while in most instances these
fines are a waste material.  In this instance,  the  material  is
either stockpiled or used as landfill  (facilities 1053 and 1212).
The guantity of waste materials entering the pond varies for each
operator  and the processes involved.  Facility 1002 reports that
the washwater entering the settling ponds  contains  4-5  percent
waste  fines.  The frequency of pond cleaning depends not only on
the processes  involved  but  also  on  the  size  of  the  pond.
Facility  1217  must clean its settling ponds once per month, the
recovered material serving as landfill.  The  disposal  of  these
fines presents problems for many operators.
                              245

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                 CRUSHED STONE  (MINE DEWATERING)
Pit  pumpout  may either be discharged directly with no treatment
(facility 1039), discharged following treatment  (facilities  1020
and  5640),  or  discharged  with  the  treated effluent from the
washing operation (facility  1001).   In  the  latter  case,  the
guarry water may be combined with the untreated facility effluent
and  then  flow through a settling pond system prior to discharge
(facility  5662).   The  quarry  water  may  instead   join   the
semi-treated effluent as flow to the second of two settling ponds
(facility  1213).   There  are many variations to the handling of
pit pumpout.

Mine dewatering data from several facilities of this  subcategory
are:
         facility       TSS mg/1
         1001
         1003
         1004
         1020
         1021
         1022
         1023
         1039
         1040
         1214
         1215
         1219
         1224
         3319

         3320

         3321

         5660
         5661
         5663
         5664
3
7
12
(1)
1,
15
34
7
25
<1,
(1)
2
10-
1,
17,
5,
32,
1,
15,
14
0
1
42.
5r(2)l
1, 6, 1, 12, 2
2,3
42, (2) 28

30
1, 1, 1, 2, 4, 5, 5, 5, 9, 11, 15,
 21,  35, 38, 38, 55, 64
9, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 19, 27, 28,
 35,  65, 103, 128
2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 14,
 17,  20, 21, 22, 22, 26, 45, 51, 67
(1)  first pit
(2)  second pit
                   CRUSHED STONE  (FLOTATION)
At facility 1975, all waste water is combined and  fed to a  series
of  settling lagoons to remove suspended materials.  The water  is
then recycled back to other washing operations with the exception
of about 5 percent which is lost by percolation  and  evaporation
                               246

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from  the
water.
  ponds.   This loss is made up by the addition of fresh
At facility 3069 a considerable portion of  the  waste  water  is
also recycled.  The individual waste streams are sent to settling
tanks  for  removal  of  suspended  solids.  From these, about 70
percent of the process water and all of the  cooling  and  boiler
water  is  recycled.  The remainder is released to settling ponds
for further removal of suspended solids prior to discharge.

At facility 1021, lagooning is also used for removal of suspended
solids.  No recycle is practiced.

For facilities 3069 and 1021 the effluents are listed as   follows
along  with corresponding intake water compositions.  In the case
of facility 1021 the data presented are  analytical  measurements
made by the contractor.
TSS
(mg/1)
BOD
   (mg/1)

COD
   (mg/1)

sulfate
(mg/1)

turbi-
         intake
         water
         (3069)
1.0
1.0
3.5
10
          effluent
          (3069)

          10
             intake
             water  effluent
             (1021)  (1021)
<2.0
 13
 19
dity  (FTU)

chloride 3.8
(mg/1)
total
solids
(mg/1)
32
          4.1
128
               50   20
464
154
At  Facility  1044, only non-contact cooling water is discharged.
The pH of facility 1007 effluent ranges  from  6.0-8.0,  and  the
significant parameters are:
 Flow, 1/kkg of product  (gal/ton)      625
 TSS, mg/1                             55
 TSS, kg/kkg of product  (1 lb/1000 Ib) 0.034
                                    (150)
                              247

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                         SAND AND GRAVEL
The  predominant  method  of  treating  process waste water is to
remove sand fines and clay impurities  by  mechanical  dewatering
devices  and settling basins or ponds.  Removal of -200 mesh sand
and clay fines is much more difficult and requires settling times
that are usually not achievable with mechanical equipment.   Some
facilities use settling aids to hasten the settling process.  The
best  facilities  in  this  subcategory  are  able to recycle the
clarified  water  back  to  the  process.   Water  with  a  total
suspended  solids  content  less than 200 mg/1 is generally clean
enough to reuse in the process.   The  following  tabulates  data
from  facilities  which recirculate their process water resulting
in no discharge of process waste water:
         Input
^Facility TSS  (mg/1)
 1055
unknown
 1235
 1391
 1555
 3049
 5617


 5631



 5674
unknown



4,550




15,000



5,000




unknown


unknown



unknown
Treatment

spiral classi-
fiers, 4-hectares
(10-acre) settling
basin
Output
TSS fmq/1)

     25
mechanical thick-        54
eners, settling
ponds

mechanical thick-        32
eners, cyclones,
2-hectares (5-acre)
settling basin

cyclones, 14-hectares    35
(35-acre) settling
basin

cyclones, vacuum         30
disc filter, 2-hectares
(5-acre) settling pond
with polymer floe

dewatering screws,       unknown
settling ponds

dewatering screws,       unknown
10-hectares  (25-acre)
settling pond

dewatering screws,       unknown
0.8-hectare  (2-acre)
settling pond
                               248

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Facilities 1012  and  5666  are  hydraulic  dredging  facilities.
Slurry  from  these  facilities  is  sent  to a settling basin to
remove waste fines and clays.  The decant from the settling basin
is returned to the wet pit to maintain a constant water level for
the  dredge  resulting  in  no  discharge  of  process  water  to
navigable  waters.   Facilities 3339 and 3340 likewise achieve no
discharge.

Lack of land to a major extent will impact the degree to which  a
facility  is  able  to  treat  its  process  waste  water.   Many
operations are able to use worked-out sand  and  gravel  pits  as
settling  basins.   Some  have  available  land  for  impoundment
construction.   The  following   lists   the   suspended   solids
concentration  of  treated  waste water effluents from facilities
discharging:

Facility      Treatment           TSS, mg/1

1006          dewatering screw,        55
              settling ponds
1011          dewatering screw,        154
              settling pond
1056          settling ponds           25
1083          dewatering screw,        47
              settling ponds
1129          dewatering screw,        44
              settling ponds
5630          dewatering screw,        2, 3, 4
              settling ponds

Facility  1981,  using  heavy-media  separation,   recovers   the
magnetite  and/or  ferrosilicon  pulp, magnetically separates the
media from the tailings, and returns the media  to  the  process.
Separation tailings from the magnetic separator are discharged to
settling basins and mixed with process water.

Pit  pumpout and non-contact cooling water are usually discharged
without  treatment.   Facilities  1006  and  5630  discharge  pit
pumpout  water  through  the  same  settling  ponds  which handle
process water.   Facility  1044  discharges  non-contact  cooling
water  through  the same settling ponds used for treating process
water.  Dust suppression water is adsorbed  on  the  product  and
evaporated.

Half  the  facilities  visited  are presently recirculating their
process  water  resulting  in  no  discharge.   Those  facilities
recirculating all process generated waste water include:

    1007      1059      1206      1391      1235
    1013      1084      1207      1555      5617
    1014      1200      1208      1629      3341
    1048      1201      1230      3049
                              249

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    1055      1202      1233      5622
    1056      1203      1234      5631
    1057      1204      1236      5656
    1058      1205      1250      5674

The following facilities achieve no discharge to navigable
waters by perculation:

    1231      1232      5666      5681

The  following  facilities  previously mentioned as recycling all
process  generated  waste  waters .  declared   that   significant
perculation occurs in their ponds:

    1057      1058      1233      1234      5656

Facilities 1005, 1012, 5670 dredge closed ponds on their property
and  discharge  all  process  waste waters back to the pond being
dredged.  Only very large rainfalls would cause a discharge  from
these  ponds  to  navigable waters.  Facility 3342 discharges pit
water  (never exceeding 21 mg/1 TSS)  in order to maintain the pond
level.

The  rest  discharge  process  water.   Characteristics  of  some
discharges are:

                   Flow                TSS
              1/kkg of product    kg/kkg of product
Facility       (gal/tonl                (lb/1000 lb)

1006          2500 (600)               0.14
1044          1670 (400)               0.26
1056          1750 (420)               0.04
1083          1040 (250)               0.05
1129          1150 (275)               0.05
5630          1170 (290)               0.006

Solid  wastes  (fines and oversize) are disposed of in nearby pits
or worked-out areas or sold.  Clay fines which normally  are  not
removed  by  mechanical  equipment  settle  out and are routinely
cleaned out of the  settling  pond.   Facilities  1391  and  1629
remove  clay  fines from the primary settling pond, allow them to
drain to approximately 20 percent  moisture  content,  truck  the
wastes to a landfill site, and spread them out to enhance drying.

          SAND AND GRAVEL  (DREBGING-ON LAND PROCESSING)

At  dredge  1009,  there  is  no  treatment  of  the  sand slurry
discharged  to  the  river.   Removal  of  waste  fines  at  land
facilities   with   spiral   classifiers,   cyclones,  mechanical
thickeners, or rake  classifiers  and  settling  basins,  is  the
method  of  process  waste water treatment.  These are similar to
                              250

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methods used in the wet processing subcategory.  Facilities 1046,
1048, 1051 and 1052, by utilizing mechanical devices and settling
basins,  recirculate  all  process  water  thereby  achieving  no
discharge.   The  following  is  a list of treatment methods, raw
waste loads, and treated waste water suspended solids  for  these
operations:
         Paw Waste Load,
Facility TSS (mg/1)
Treated Recycle
     Water,
     TSS (mg/1)

     275
                             Treatment

1046          8,500          dewatering
                             screw, cyclone,
                             drag classi-
                             fier, settling
                             basin

1048          10,000         dewatering          50
                             screw,
                             cyclones,
                             settling basins

1051          9,000          dewatering          300
                             screw, drag
                             classifier,
                             settling basin

1052          7,500          dewatering          200
                             screw, drag
                             classifier,
                             settling basin
                             with flocculants

Availability of land for settling basins influences the method of
process water treatment.  Many operations use worked-out sand and
gravel  pits  as  settling  basins  (Facility  1048) or have land
available  for  impoundment.   Facility  1010  is  not  able   to
recirculate  under  current  conditions  due to lack of space for
settling  basins.   Land  availability  is  not  a   problem   at
facilities  1011  and  1009.   Sand fines (+200 mesh)  are removed
with mechanical devices and conveyed  to  disposal  areas.   Clay
fines and that portion of the silica fines smaller than 200 mesh,
which  settle  out  in a settling basin, are periodically dredged
and stockpiled.  Facility 1051 spends approximately  120  days  a
year  dredging  waste fines out the primary settling pond.  These
fines are hauled to a landfill area.  Non-contact  cooling  water
is  typically  discharged  into the same settling basins used for
treating process water.  Dust suppression water is adsorbed  onto
the  product  and  evaporates.  Effluent parameters at facilities
1010 and 1009 are:
                              251

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                   TSS            TSS, kq/kkq of product
Facility           mg/1                (lb/1000 Ib)

1010               16,000              22

1009               50                  0.10


                      INDUSTRIAL SAND (DRY)

Scrubber water at facility 1107 is treated  in  a  settling  pond
where  suspended  solids  are settled and the clarified decant is
returned to the scrubber, resulting in  no  discharge.   Facility
1108  discharges  wet  scrubber  water  without  any treatment at
166,000 I/day  (43,000 gpd) and  33,000  mg/1  TSS.   Solid  waste
(oversize and sand fines) at all of the facilities is landfilled.

                      INDUSTRIAL SAND (WET)

Under  normal conditions facilities 1019,  1989, and 3066 are able
to recirculate all process water by using clarifiers and pond the
sludge.  During periods of heavy rainfall, area runoff  into  the
containment  ponds  cause  a  temporary discharge.  Facility 1102
discharges process water, including  wet  scrubber  water,  after
treatment  in  settling ponds.  The treatment methods used by the
facilities are shown as follows:

Facility                     Treatment

1019                         thickener,  clarifier, settling
                             pond, recycle

1102                         cyclone, thickener and floccu-
                             lant, settling ponds

1989                         settling pond and recycle

3066                         settling pond and recycle

                  INDUSTRIAL SAND  (FLOTATION)

At the acid flotation facilities, facilities  1101,   1019,  1980,
and  1103, all process wash and flotation waste waters are fed to
settling lagoons in which muds and other suspended materials  are
settled out.  The water is then recycled to the process.


Facilities  1101  and  1980 are presently  producing products of  a
specific grade which allows them to  totally  recycle  all  their
process  water.   In  two  other  facilities, facilities  1019 and
1103, all facility waste waters leave the  operations  either  as
part   of  a  wet  sludge  which  is  land  disposed  or  through
                               252

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percolation from the settling ponds.  There is  no  point  source
discharge from any of the acid flotation operations.

At  the  alkaline  flotation  facility  5691,  the washwaters are
combined and fed to  a  series  of  settling  lagoons  to  remove
suspended materials and then partially recycled.  Alum is used as
a   flocculating   agent  to  assist  in  settling  of  suspended
materials, and the pH is adjusted prior to  either  recirculation
or discharge.

At facility 5980, the only facility found that uses HF flotation,
all  waste  waters  are combined and fed to a thickener to remove
suspended materials.  The overflow containing 93.2 percent of the
water is recycled to the process.  The underflow containing  less
than  7  percent  of  the  water  is fed to a settling lagoon for
removal of suspended solids prior to discharge.  The pH  is  also
adjusted  prior  tc discharge.  Fluoride ion concentration in the
settled effluent ranges from 1.5 to 5.0 mg/1.  The composition of
the intake and final effluent waters for the  alkaline  flotation
facility  5691,  and the HF flotation facility 5980 are presented
as follows.
Pollutants           Facility 5691       Facility 5980
(mq/1)             Intake    Effluent  Intake    Effluent

pH                 7.8       5.0       7.6       7.0-7.8
TDS                209       192       	       	
TSS                5         4         10        5,47
Sulfate            9         38        285       27-330
Oil and Grease     <1.0      <1.0      	       	
Iron               0.1       0.06      	       	
Nitrate            	       	       23        0-9
Chloride           	       	       62        57-76
Fluoride           	       	       0.8       1.8,6.6
Phenols            Not detectable

                             GYPSUM

Mine or quarry pumpout is generally discharged without treatment.
Most  facilities  discharge  non-contact  cooling  water  without
treatment.  Effluent data for some facilities discharging mine or
guarry water are given as follows:
                              253

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facility

1041
1042
1110
1112
1997
1999
flow, 10*
I/day (mgd)

4.4  (1.17)
6.4  (1.70)
.19  (0.05)
5.1  (1.35)
0.68  (0.18)
6.5  (1.71)
6
4
60
14
5
24
7.7
7.8
7.8
8.1
7.9
7.4
Non-contact, cooling water discharge from these facilities is
given below:
facility

1041
1042
1112
1997
1999
flowfl/kkg of
product (gal/ton)

none
246 (59)
none
250 (60)
4.5 (1)
not known

6
130
not known

7.9
5
Land plaster dust collected in cyclones is either recycled to the
process or hauled away and landfilled.
All  process  water  used  for heavy media separation at facility
1100 and the one  other  facility  in  this  subcategory  is  re-
circulated  through settling basins, an underground mine settling
sump, and returned to the separation
discharge  of  process  waste water.
HMS media (magnetite/ferrous silica)
in the separation process.
                        circuit,  resulting  in  no
                        In the recycle circuit, the
                       is reclaimed and  is  reused
Part  of  the  waste rock from the HMS is sold as road aggregate,
with the remainder being landfilled in old worked-out sections of
the guarry.  Waste fines at  facility  1100  settle  out  in  the
primary  settling  basin  and must be periodically dredged.  This
waste is hauled to the guarry and deposited.

                      BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE

No water is used in these operations hence there is no effluent.

                    OIL IMPREGNATED DIATOMITE

All scrubber water at facility 5510 is completely recycled; hence
there is no process waste water discharge.

                            GILSONITE

The compositions of the intake  water,  the  discharged  facility
process water and the mine pumpout water are listed below.  There
                              254

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is  a  considerable concentration of suspended solids in the mine
pumpout water.  These discharges are currently being  eliminated.
The  process  and  mine  pumpout  waters  currently discharged at
facility 5511 will soon be employed on site for other purposes.
                        Concentration (mq/1)
                   intake     effluent      mine pumpout
Suspended solids
BOD
PH
TDS
Turbidity
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chloride
Sulfate
33
35
7.7
401
17
43
8.2
2949
          <0.001
          0.15
          363

         ASBESTOS
3375
12
7.9 - 8
620
70 JTU
0.01
<0.01
0.004
8.8
195
Facility 3052 treats the quarry pumpout discharge  with  sulfuric
acid  (approximately 0.02 mg/1 of effluent) to lower the pH of the
highly  alkaline  ground  water that collects in the quarry.  The
following tabulates the analytical data for this discharge:
flow, I/day  (mgd)
TSS, mg/1
Fe, mg/1
PH
asbestos  (fibers/liter)
     545,000-3,270,000 (0.144-0.864)
          2.0
          0.15
          8.4-8.7
          1.0 - 1.8 x 10*
At all facilities, both at the  mine  and  facility  site,  there
exists  the  potential  of  rainwater  runoff  contamination from
asbestos waste tailings.  Facility 1061 has constructed diversion
ditches, berms, and check dams to divert  and  hold  area  runoff
from  the waste tailing pile.  Due to soil conditions, water that
collects in the check dams eventually percolates  into  the  soil
thereby resulting in no discharge to surface waters.

At  the  wet  processing  facility the process water discharge is
treated in settling/percolation ponds.  Suspended asbestos fibers
settle out in the primary settling pond prior  to  decanting  the
clarified  effluent  to  the secondary settling/percolation pond.
Facility 1060 does not discharge to surface waters.   Non-contact
cooling  water  is  not  treated prior to discharge.  Runoff from
asbestos tailings at the facility and the  quarry  is  controlled
with  diversion  ditches,  berms,  and  check dams.  All facility
drainage is diverted to the settling/percolation ponds.  Data  on
the waste stream to the percolation pond includes the following:
                              255

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                             Intake         Discharge to
                             Well Water     Percolation Pond

flow, 1/kkg feed (gal/ton)     unknown        856 (205)
total solids, mg/1           313            1,160
pH                           7.5            7.8
magnesium, mg/1              14             48
sodium, mg/1                 44             345
chloride, mg/1               19             104
nickel, mg/1                 0.02           0.1

Asbestos  fiber  tailings  are stockpiled near the facility where
the water is drained into the settling/percolation ponds.   After
some drying, the tailings are transported and landfilled near the
facility  in  dry arroyos or canyons. .-„ Check dams are constructed
at the lower end of these filled-in areas.

The primary settling pond must be periodically dredged to  remove
suspended  solids  (primarily asbestos fibers).  This is done with
a power shovel, and the wastes  are  piled  alongside  the  pond,
allowed to dry, and landfilled.

                          WOLLASTONITE

Non-contact  cooling  water  is discharged with no treatment to a
nearby river.  There is no process waste water.

                             PERLITE

There is no water used.

                             PUMICE

At all facilities except facility 1705, there is no  waste  water
to   be   treated.   At  facility 1705,  the  scrubber  water  is
discharged to a settling pond for removal of suspended  materials
prior   to   final   discharge.   Facility 1705  operates  on  an
intermittent basis,  and  no  information  is  available  on  the
composition  of  its discharge.  This facility produces less than
0.1 percent of U.S. pumice.

                           VERMICULITE

Both vermiculite operations have no discharge  of  waste  waters.
At facility 5506, the waste stream is pumped to a series of three
settling  ponds  in  which the solids are impounded, the water is
clarified using aluminum sulfate as a flocculant, and  the  clear
water is recycled to the process facility.  The only water escape
from  this  operation  is due to evaporation and seepage from the
pond into ground water.  The overburden  and  sidewall  waste  is
returned to the mine upon reclamation.
                              256

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At facility 5507, the waste streams are pumped to a tailings pond
for  settling  of solids from which the clear water underflows by
seepage to a reservoir for process water to the process facility.
Local lumbering operations are capable  of  drastically  altering
water  runoff  in  the watersheds around the mine.  This requires
by-pass streams around the ponding system.

                MICA AND SERICITE (WET GRINDING)

At facility 2055, the raw waste  stream  is  collected  in  surge
tanks  and  about 20 percent of the decanted water is recycled to
the process.  The remainder is pumped to a  nearby  facility  for
treatment.    The   treatment   consists   of   adding   polymer,
clarification and filtration.  The filter cake is stockpiled  and
the  filtrate  discharged.   At  facility  2059, the waste stream
flows to settling tanks.  The underflow from the - settling  tanks
is sent back to the process for mica recovery.  The overflow goes
into  a  0.8 hectare  (2  acre)  pond for settling. .The decanted
water from this pond is recycled to the process.  However, during
heavy rainfall, the settling pond overflows.

                    MICA  (WET BENEFICIATION)

In facilities 2050, 2051, 2053, and 2058 the wastes  are  treated
by  settling  in ponds, and the supernatant from the last pond is
recycled to the facility.  The sizes of the ponds  used  at  each
facility are given as follows.

Facility           hectares       acres

2050               7.3            18
2051               3.2            8
2053               0.8, 1.6, 2.8  2, 4, 7
2058               8.1            20

During  normal  operations  there is no discharge from ponds 2050
and 2051.  However, these ponds  discharge  during  exceptionally
heavy  rainfalls  (4"  rain/24  hours).   The  only  discharge at
facility 2058 is the drainage  from  the  sand  stockpiles  which
flows into a 0.4 hectare  (1-acre)  pond and discharges.

At facility 2054 waste water is treated in a 1.2 hectare  (3-acre)
pond.   This  facility
                                                plans to  convert
the  water  flow system of this operation to a closed circuit "no
discharge" process by the addition of thickening  and  filtration
equipment.

At  facilities  2052  and  2057  the  waste water is treated in a
series of ponds and the overflow from the last pond is treated by
lime for pH adjustment prior to  discharge.   Facility  2052  has
three  ponds  of  1.2,  1.6, and 3.6 hectares (3, 4, and 9 acres.
                              257

-------
respectively)  in size.  In addition to mica,  these two facilities
produce  clay  for  use  by  ceramic  industries.    According  to
responsible   company  officials,  these  two  facilities  cannot
operate on a total water recycle basis.  The  amine  reagent  used
in  flotation  circuits is detrimental to the clay products as it
affects  their  viscosity  and   plasticity.     The   significant
constituents  in  the  effluent  from  these  facilities are given
below:
facility
               2052
                                  2054
2057
                                  6-9
                                  400
                                   4.3
                                   6.5
pH before lime
 treatment              4.2
pH after lime treatment 6.5
TSS, mg/1               20
TSS, kg/kkg             1.5                 <1.3
settleable solids,
 ml/liter               <0.1      <0.1      <0.1

                          BARITE (WET)

The waste water streams are combined and sent to  settling  ponds
and the reclaimed water from the ponds is recycled to the washing
facilities.   At  facilities 2012 and 2046, the overflow from the
settling pond percolates through gravel piles amassed around  the
settling  pond,  and enters clarification ponds.  The supernatant
water from  the  clarification  pond  is  then  recycled  to  the
facilities for reuse.  Also, in these facilities (2012 and 2046),
there are several small ponds created around the main impoundment
area  to  catch  any  accidental  overflow from the clarification
ponds.  Besides  ponding,  facilities  2015  and  2016  also  use
coagulation  and flocculation to treat their process waste water.
A summary of the treatment systems for the barite  facilities  in
this subcategory follows:
Facility Discharge

2011

2012
               Source
2013
2015
2016
Intermittent*  Mill tailings,
               runoff
Intermittent*  Well water
from clear
water pond
None from      Mill tailings
tailings pond
None
Intermittent*
                        Mill tailings
                        Mill tailings,
                        runoff
Intermittent*  Mill tailings.
Treatment

Pond recycle,
18 ha  (45 ac)
Pond 8 ha
  (20 ac)

Pond, 36 ha
(90 ac)
Clarification
Pond, recycle
Pond, recycle
Pond, coagulation
Flocculation,
  recycle
Pond, coagulation
                              258

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2017     Intermittent*

2018     Intermittent*
2020     Intermittent*
         from clear
         water pond
         None from
         settling pond
20U6     Intermittent*
        ; from clear
         pond
         None from
         tailings pond
2112     None
      runoff

      Mill tailings,
      runoff
      Mill tailings,
      runoff

      Well water
      Mill tailings

      Well water


      Mill tailings

      Slime Pond
               Flocculat ion r
                 recycle
               Pond, recycle

               Pond, recycle
               Pond 2U ha
                 (60 ac)
               Pond, 2 ha
               (6 ac)
               Pond, 12 ha
                 (30 ac)
               clarification
               Pond, recycle

               Pond recycle
*Indicates overflow due to heavy rainfall.
In  normal circumstances, there is no effluent discharge from any
of these facilities.  During heavy rains  six  facilities   (2011,
2015,  2016,  2017,  2018  and  2020)  have  an overflow from the
impoundment area.  Facilities 2012 and 2046 have no overflow from
their tailings impoundment area.  However, during heavy rainfall,
they do have  overflow  from  clear  water  ponds.   Due  to  its
geographical  location,  facility 2013 has no pond overflow.  The
amounts of these intermittent discharges  are  not  known.   Data
concerning  tailings  pond  effluent  after  heavy  rainfall  was
obtained from one facility.  The significant constituents in this
effluent are reported as follows:
Facility
PH
TSS, mg/1
Total barium,
  mg/1
Iron, mg/1
Lead, mg/1
      2011
 Daily Avg. - Max.
 6.0
15

 0.1
 0.04
 0.03
-  8.0
  32

-  0.5
-  0.09
-  0.10
                       BARITE  (FLOTATION)
Wastewater is treated by clarification  and  either  recycled  or
discharged.   A  summary  of  the  treatment  systems is given as
follows:
                              259

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Facility Discharge
              Source
                   Treatment
2010      Intermittent
          Intermittent

2011      None

          None

2019      Intermittent
              Mill tailings
              Runoff, spills,
              washdown water
              Mill tailings

              Washdown water

              Mill tailings
                   Pond,  recycle
                   Pond

                   Pond,  evapora-
                   tion and seepage
                   Pond,  evapora-
                   tion and seepage
                   Pond
1 Indicates  overflow due to heavy  rainfall
2 Overflow by  facility to maintain pond level

Facility  2010  has two ponds with a total capacity of   16  hectares
 (40 acres)   to  handle  the  process   waste water.  The flotation
tailings  are pumped into one of the ponds and the clear water  is
pumped  to   the other pond.  The mill  tailings water  is in closed
circuit,  with  occasional overflow  from the tailings   pond.    This
overflow  depends  upon  the  amount of surface water runoff from
rainfall  and the amount  of  evaporation  from  this   pond.    The
overflow  varies  from  0 to 760 1/min (0 to 200 gpm).  At times,
there is  no  overflow from this pond for  a  year  or   more.    The
clear  water  pond  catches the surface runoff water,  spills from
the thickener, water from use of hoses, clear water used   in  the
laboratory,  etc.   This  pond has also an intermittent discharge
varying   from   0  to  380 1/min   (0-100 gpm).   The    significant
constituents in these effluent streams are as follows:
 Waste
 Material
Tailings Pond
Daily Average
Max.  Cone.
(mg/1)
Amount
kg/day   (Ib/day)
            Clear Water Pond
            Daily Average
            Max. Cone.
            (mg/1)	
 TSS
 IDS
 Ammonia
 Cadmium
 Chromium
 Iron, total
 Lead, total
 Manganese,
   total
 Nickel, total
 Zinc, total
3-5
800-1271
<0.1-0.1
0.004-0.008
0.200-0.400
0.030-0.060
0.020-0.080

0.002-0.008
0.030-0.070
0.005-0.010
1.8
467
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5

<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
(3.5)
(934)
(D

fi'j
(1)
(D

(1)
(1)
(1)
3-6
1000-1815
5-35

0.100-0.120
0.030-0.070
0.040-0.090

0.004-0.008
0.030-0.070
0.030-0.090
                                260

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At  facility  2014,  there  are  no  effluent discharges from the
property.  The mill tailings and the spent brine from  the  water
softening  system  are pumped into the tailings settling pond and
the washdown of the floors is pumped to a separate  pond.   These
ponds  eventually  dry by evaporation and seepage.  This facility
has no problem in terms of pond overflow due to its  geographical
location.

At  facility  2019, process waste water is collected into a large
pipe which crosses under  the  nearby  river  into  a  40 hectare
(100 acre) pond.  The pond water pH is maintained at about 7.2 by
application  of lime.  An overflow is necessary from this pond to
maintain a constant pond elevation.  The discharge from this pond
is intermittent.  Of the 4,731,000 I/day (1.25 mgd) input to  the
pond, there is an estimated 3,785,000 I/day (1.0 mgd) percolation
through the pond berm.  The pond berm is built primarily of river
bottom  sands.  On a regular discharge basis (9 hours a day and 4
1/2 days per week operation), the effluent  discharge  from  this
facility  would be 9*6,000 I/day (250,000 gal/day).  This pond is
seven  years  old  and   has   an   estimated   life   cycle   of
eighteen years.   When overflow to the river is desired, lime and
ferric chloride are used to decrease suspended  solids.   It  has
been reported that the average TSS concentration in this effluent
is 250 mg/1.

                    BAPITE  (MINE DEWATERING)

There  is one underground mine in this category at facility 2010.
The  other  mining  operations  are  in  dry  open   pits.    The
underground   mine   workings  intercept  numerous  ground  water
sources.  The water from this mine is  directed  through  ditches
and   culverts  to  sumps  in  the  mine.   The  sumps  serve  as
sedimentation vessels and suction  for  centrifugal  pumps  which
discharge this water to the upper level sump.  This mine water is
neutralized with lime (CaO) by a continuously monitored automated
system  for pH adjustment and sent to a pond for gravity settling
prior to discharge into a nearby creek.  The discharge from  this
mine is estimated to be 897,000 I/day  (237,000 gal/day).

The  raw  waste  from  the mine has a pH of about 3.0.  The pH is
raised to 6-9 by addition of lime and then pumped into a pond for
gravity settling.  There are currently two  ponds,  and  a  third
pond   is   under  construction  to  treat  the  mine  discharge.
Presently one of these ponds is in use and the other one is being
excavated and cleaned so that it will be ready for use  when  the
first pond is filled.

The  significant constituents in this effluent are reported to be
as follows:
                              261

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Parameter
           New
Facility   Pond
Data      Design
   Verification
     Sampling
PH
Acidity
Hardness
TDS
TSS
SO4
Fe, total
Fer dissolved
Al
Pb
Mn
Ni
Zn
23

2.6

0.6
0.06
1.3
0.05
0.01
25

0.5

0.1
0.1
0.5
0.05
0.1
2.6
ao«»
3920
4348
1167
1515
225
177
13.8
>0.2
156
1.52
2.1
The facility stated that the verification data reflect new   acid
seepage  from  adjoining  property.   The column "new pond design
"represents the company's design criteria for building the  third
pond.

                         FLUORSPAR (HMS)

At four facilities  (2004, 2005, 2006 and 2008) process water from
the  thickener  is  pumped to either a holding pond or reservoir,
and then back to the facility  on  a  total  recycle  basis.   At
facility  2009,  there  are four ponds to treat the HMS tailings.
Three of these ponds are always in use.  The idle pond is allowed
to dry and is then harvested for settled fluorspar fines.   There
is  no  discharge  from  this facility.  At facility 2007 the HMS
tailings enter a 1.8 hectare (U.5 acre) pond which has eight days
of  retention  capacity.   The  water  from  this  pond  is  then
discharged.   The  significant  constituents in the effluent from
facility 2007 is given as follows:
Waste Components

  Fluoride
  TSS
  Lead
  Zinc
  PH
               kg/kkg of product
                   (lb/1000 Ib)
3.0
10.0
0.015
0.09
7.8
   FLUORSPAR
,04
,13
,0002
.0012
                                 (FLOTATION)
                               262

-------
The waste water of the facilities in this subcategory is  treated
in  settling and clarification ponds.  At facility 2000, the mill
tailings are pumped into a 7 hectare (17 acre)  settling pond  for
gravity settling.  The overflow from the settling pond flows into
three   successive   clarification   ponds   of   2.8,  1.6,  and
2.U hectares (7, U, and 6 acres, respectively).  The effluent  of
the  third  clarification  pond  is  discharged.  Settling in the
third clarification pond is hindered by the presence of carp  and
shad  which  stir  up the sediments.  Experiments are in progress
using  a  flocculant  in  the  influent  line   of   the   second
clarification  pond  to  reduce the total suspended solids in the
effluent.  These clarification ponds are situated below the flood
stage level of the nearby river, and during  flood  seasons,  the
water  from  the  river  backs  into the ponds.  Some mixing does
occur but when flood waters recede, but it is claimed  that  most
of the sludge remains in the ponds.

At   facility 2001,  the  tailings  from  the  fluorspar  rougher
flotation cells, are pumped into a settling pond from  which  the
overflow  is  discharged.   Facility 2001  has  a  new  H hectare
(10 acre) clarification pond with  a  capacity  of  approximately
106 million  liters  (28 million gallons).  The effluent from the
first settling pond will be pumped to the new clarification pond.
A flocculant will be added to the influent of  the  new  pond  in
quantities  sufficient to settle the suspended solids to meet the
state specifications (TSS 15 mg/1).  A portion of the water  from
the   clarification   pond  (approximately  20 percent)   will  be
recycled to the  processing  facility  and  the  remainder  which
cannot te recycled will be discharged.

Total  recycle  operation  has  been attempted on an experimental
basis by one of these operations for a period  of  eight  months,
without  success.  The failure of this system has been attributed
to the complexity  of  chemical  buildups  due  to  the  numerous
reagents used in the various flotation circuits.

The  non-contact  cooling  water  and  the  boiler  blowdowns are
discharged at facility 2001  without  treatment.   Facility  2000
includes  these  wastes  in  the  process  waste  water treatment
system.  Facility 2003 mines an ore which is different  from  the
ores  processed  in  the  other  two  facilities.   This facility
produces only fluorspar.  The tailings from the mill  go  to  two
settling  ponds in series.  The overflow from the second settling
pond is sent to  the  heavy  media  facility,  and  there  is  no
discharge.  A new pond is being constructed at facility 2003.

Effluents  reported by facilities 2000 and 2001 for their current
operation and anticipated performance are:
                              263

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                        concentration (mg/1)
                   2000                2001
              Current    Antici-  Current    Antici-
              operation  pated    operation  pated
 PH

 TSS

 Fluoride
7.2

500

5.1
TSS

Fluoride
no change  8.2

30-60    1,800

5.1        9.8
no change

15-20

9.8
                   kg/kkg of product (lb/1000 Ib)
                        2000                2001
                   Current    Antici-  Current
                   operation  pated
                                    Antici-
                	operation  pated

     i».8      0.29-0.57  3U. H     0.29-0.38

     0.05     0.05       0.19     0.19
Additional sampling are by concentration  (mg/1)
    pH
    Alkalinity
    Hardness
    TSS
    TDS
    F
    Fe  (total)
    Cd
    cr
    Cu
    Pb
    Mn
    Zn
                   FLJUORSPAR  (MINE DEWATERING)
Presently at only three mines the effluent stream  is  discharged
with     any treatment  (2085, 2091 and 2092).  Only effluent  from
mine 2091  passes  through  a  very   small   pond,   0.1 hectare
 (1/4 acre),  prior  to  being  discharged into a creek.  Table  13
summarizes  the  effluent  quality  of  several  mine  dewatering
operations.  Hydrogen sulfide concentrations up to 0.37 mg/1  have
been detected in the effluent, of mine 2085.  It has been reported
that the H2S content in the effluent has been steadily decreasing
since an H2S pocket was encountered.

                      SALINES  (ERINE LAKES)
                               264

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           TABLE 13

FLUORSPAR MINE DEWATERING DATA
   2085
      settling






r\i
cr»
en





mg/1
PH
Alkalinity
Hardness
Cl
TSS
TDS
S04
F
Fe
Pb
Mn
Zn
2080
8.1



38
469
1.4

.03

0.7
2081




10
697
35
2.4
1.0
0.1
0.16
0.03
2082
7.1



8
400
1.4

.02

.08
2083
7.6
224
336
35
2-12
478
107
1.3
0.05
< 0.2
0.05
0.76
mine
7.6
276
1600
185
15
3417
480

0.66
< 0.2
0.05
< 0.01
pond
7.4
216
1600
162
29
1753
575
2.75
0.26
<0.2
0.62

2086

245


12

1.7
.05
.03

0.34
2088
7.7



20
1078
2.3

.03

0.54
2089
8.1
864
221
48
122-135
583
61
1.4
2.0
< 0.2
0.11
0.06
2090
7.7



4-69
536
56
2.3
0.05
< 0.2
0.01
0.5
2091
7.2



10

3.2
.05
0.9

0.2
mine
7.9
210
235
23
53
379
38

1.33
< 0.2
0.18
0.17
poi
8.0
197
222
17
20
364
32
1.6
0.50
< 0.2
0.18
0.08

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As the evaporation-crystallization process involves only recovery
of  salts  from  natural saline brines, with the addition of only
process water, the  only  wastes  are  depleted  brines  and  end
liquors which are returned to the salt body without treatment.

                              BORAX

Present treatment consists of percolation-proof evaporation ponds
with no discharge.

                             POTASH

All  waste  streams from the sylvinite facilities are disposed of
in evaporation ponds  with  no  discharge.   At  the  langbeinite
facilities 20-30 percent of the cooling water is evaporated.  All
the   process  waste  water  from  the  langbeinite  purification
facilities are fed to evaporation ponds with no  discharge.   All
known  deposits  of sylvinite and langbeinite ore in the U.S. are
located in arid regions.

                              TRONA

Process waste waters go to tailings separation  ponds  to  settle
out  the  rapidly  settling  suspended  materials and then to the
final disposal ponds which serve  as  evaporation  ponds.   Where
process  water  discharge  takes  place (at present only facility
5933), the overflow is from these latter  ponds.   Facility  5933
has  plans  to  eliminate  this  discharge.  The ground water and
runoff waters are also led to collection ponds where settling and
large amounts of evaporation take place.   The  excess  of  these
flows at the 5962 and 5976 facilities is discharged.

Evaporation  of  the  saline  waste  waters from these facilities
takes place principally in the  summer  months  since  the  ponds
freeze in the winter.  The net evaporation averaged over the year
apparently  requires  an  acre  of pond surface for each 2,000 to
4,000 gal/day  (equivalent to 19,000 to 37,000 I/day per  hectare)
based on present performance.

There  is  no  discharge  from facility 5999.  Facility 5976 only
mines ore and discharges only  mine  water.   The  facility  5962
discharge   is   only   ground  and  runoff  waters.   The  waste
constituents after treatment of the discharge at 5933 were at the
time of permit application:
                               266

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                   mg/1
                                  kg/day (Ib/dav)
total solids       9,000
dissolved solids   8,300
suspended solids     700
                                  860   (1,900)
                                  793   (1,750)
                                   67     (150)

                         SODIUM SULFATE
There are no discharges due to  total  evaporation  at  the  arid
locations involved.

                            ROCK SALT

Generally there is no treatment of the miscellaneous saline waste
water  associated  with  the  mining, crushing and sizing of rock
salt.  Some of the facilities have settling ponds.  Facility 4028
is unique in that the mine shaft passes through an  impure  brine
aquifer  and entraps hydrogen sulfide gas.  The seepage from this
brine stream around the shaft is contained by  entrapment  rings.
The solution is filtered, chemically treated and re-injected into
a well to the aquifer.

The  effluents  from  these facilities consist primarily of waste
water  from  the  dust  collectors,  miscellaneous  washdown   of
operating  areas,  and mine seepage.  The compositions of some of
the facility effluents expressed in mg/1 are as follows:
Facility

4013     4,(

4026

4027       !

4033

4034 (001)  306,000


    (002b)   522,000     138,000
Volume
I/day gal/day
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
1,080,000
40,000
132,000
20,200
81,000
TDS
mg/1
4,660
30,900
—
30,200
53,000 -
112,000
TSS pH
mq/1 	
trace*
72 7.5
150 6.5
trace**
470 - 8.5-9.0
319,000 -  1,870
323,000    4,750
                                                      7.6
*   due to dilution
**  runoff only, remainder of waste re-injected to well.

The suspended solids content in the process water discharges from
facilities 4013, 4026,  and  4027  range  up  to  0.02 kg/kkg  of
product.   At least one of these facilities discharges an average
of as little as 0.002 kg/kkg of product.
                              267

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                            PHOSPHATE

Some facilities use well water for pump seal  water  (>2000  gpm)
claiming  that  this  is necessary in order to protect the seals.
Others, facility U015 for example, use recycled slime pond  water
with  no problems.  Some facilities also claim that well water is
necessary for air scrubbers on dryers in order to prevent  nozzle
plugging  and utilize the cooler temperature of the well water to
increase scrubber efficiency.  Other facilities also recycle this
with no apparent difficulty.  Facility U018 recycles  this  water
through a small pond that treats no other wastes.

The  treatment  of  the process waste streams consists of gravity
settling through an extensive use of ponds.  The slimes which are
common to all phosphate  ore  beneficiation  processes,  although
differing  in  characteristics,  are the major waste problem with
respect to disposition.  The slimes at 3-5 percent solids  either
flow  by  gravity  via open ditch with necessary lift stations or
are pumped directly to the settling ponds.  The pond overflow  is
one  of  the primary sources of the recycle process water.  Those
facilities that include  flotation  discharge  sand  tailings  at
20-30 percent  solids  to  a  mined  out  area.   Settling occurs
rapidly with a part or all of the water returned to  recycle  and
the  solids  used  in land reclamation.  The pond sizes are guite
large, 160 hectares  (400 acres) being typical.  A  single process
facility will have several such ponds created from  mined  areas.
Because  the  slimes  have  such a great water content, they will
occupy more space than the ore.  Hence dams need to be  built  in
order  to  obtain  more  volume.   Because of past slime pond dam
breaks, the construction of these dams is rigorously overseen  in
the  state of Florida.  The treatment of the mine pit seepage and
dust scrubber slurries are handled similarly to the  other  waste
streams.  Facility U003 discharqes some of the mine pumpou-t.

Effluents  are intermittently or continuously discharged from one
or more settling areas by all of  the  beneficiation  facilities.
Volumes of effluents are related to:  (1) % recycle;  (2) frequency
of rainfall;  (3) surface runoff; and,  (H) available settling pond
acreage.   The  pH  of  the effluents from these facilities range
from 6.2 to 9.1 with over 70 percent of the  averages  between  7
and 8.

Sufficient  data  was  available  from  the Florida phosphate and
processing facilities to use statistical methods.   For  a  given
plant  normal and logarithmic normal distributions were tested on
the individual daily values for TSS and the monthly averages  for
TSS.   It  was  found  that  a three parameter logarithmic normal
distribution best fit the data.  Figure 57 plots log  TSS   (mg/1)
versus  probability  for  one facility.  At higher values of Tau,
the TSS values fit a straight line determined by a least  squares
program very well.
                              268

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                                      FIGURE   57

                          Normal Distribution of Log TSS
                       for a Phosphate  Slime Pond Discharge
2%
                                      PERCFNTA'CC
                                    40   !)0   CO
                                      269

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The  following  data  summarize  the  results  of the statistical
analyses:
                   PHOSPHATE EFFLUENT QUALITY
                            TSS, mg/1
         Lonq
         Term
         Average
4002
4004A(1)
4004A(2)
40048(1)
4004B(2)
4004B(3)
400 5A
4005B(1)
4005B(2)
4005C(1)
4005C(2)
4005C(3)
4015(1)
4015(2)
4015(3)
4016
4018
4019A
4019B
4019C
4020A
4020B
9.2
9.7
11.3
13.5
3.5
2.5
18.1
18.7
16.0
13.2
15.0
28.2
15.8
46.5
14.9
7.4
158
7.0
5.6
6.3
2.8
5.5
Monthly 99
Percentile
                    38.6
                    17. 4

                    70.3
                     7.3
                     8.1
                    35.5
                    28.7
                    25.7
                    29.4
                    20.7
                   190.8

                    17,5
                   798
                    17.3
                    24.5
                    36.2
                     6.8
                     7.0
Observed
Maximum
Monthly
Average
26
14
-
53
6
5
29
25
22
23
-
-
18
109
-
13
453
13
18
17
5
6
Daily 99
Percen-
tile

220
50.7
47.3
68.5
16. 1
8.5
59.8
56.4
38
44.6
75.9
116.1
39
303
24.0
20.2
1334
43.1
33.3
54.0
21.1
12.3
Observed
Daily
Maximum
                                     64
                                     50
                                     30
                                    103
                                     12
                                     10
                                     75
                                     67
                                     35
                                     47
                                     55
                                    105
                                     36
                                    181
                                     20
                                     17
                                   1072
                                     41

                                     43
                                     14
                                     12
Some caution must be exercised  when  reviewing  the  data.   For
instance  some of the data noted are weekly composites and it can
be expected that the daily variability will be  somewhat  higher.
Some  of  the analyses, on the other hand, were performed on less
than 12 data points.  This was the case for some monthly data.

In other cases poor sampling  techniques  were  employed  by  the
facilities,  and  some data were not analyzed because of facility
admissions of improper sampling.  In other cases high TSS  values
resulted  from  erosion  of  the earthen discharge ditches or the
inclusion of untreated facility and road surface runoff.
                              270

-------
In addition to TSS, the slimes from  beneficiation  and  facility
effluents  contain  radium  226  resulting  from  the presence of
uranium in the ores.  Typical radium 226 concentrations in slimes
and effluents are presented in the following table:

              Radium 226 Concentrations (pCi/liter)
         Slime Discharge
Facility dissolved  undis-   g/liter
                              Effluent Discharge
                             discharge  dissolved  undis-
                    solved
                             point
solved
1*005
U015

4016
4017
0.82
4.8

2.0
0.60

10.2



1074

97.6
37.7
*82
0.48


*86
14.8

3.2
3.85

A-4*
K-4*
K-8*

002*
003*
001*
001

0.66
0.52
0.68

0.02
0.34
2.2
0.24

0.26
0.28
0.28

0.56
1.1
0.74
0.74
*4 hour composite sample
The concentration of total radium  226
related to the concentration of TSS.
                               appears  to  be  directly
The  treatment  of  the  process  waste  stream  for  the Western
operations  consists  typically  of  flocculation   and   gravity
settling  with some facilities having a thickening stage prior to
ponding.  The slimes consist primarily of fine clays  and  sands.
At  facility  4022,  the flotation tailings (primarily sands) are
combined with the slimes  with  treatment  common  to  the  other
operations.   The waste slurries vary in percent solids from 5 to
15.  Generally a flocculating agent is added before pumping to  a
thickener  or directly to a settling pond where the solids settle
out rapidly.

Of the six facilities surveyed, only facility 4022 currently  has
a  discharge.   Some  part  of  the overflow and seepage from the
settling  pond  flows  into  a  small   retention   basin   which
occasionally  discharges.   This  facility  received  a discharge
permit stipulating no discharge  and  intends  to  have  complete
recycle and/or impoundment of process water.

                   SULFUR (FRASCH - ANHYDRITE)

There   are   no   process  waste  waters  emanating  from  these
facilities.  The only waste from these facilities is sludge which
originates from the water purification operation, and it is  sent
to  a  thickener where as much water as possible is reclaimed for
                              271

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recycling back to the system.   At  facility  20 2C  approximately
90 percent  of the thickener sludge is used as an additive to the
mud that is injected into the ore body in order  to  improve  the
thermal  and  hydrologic  efficiency  of the mine.  The remaining
10 percent is pumped into a settling pond  for  evaporation.   At
facility  2095,  the  entire thickener sludge is used as drilling
mud.

                   SULFUR (FRASCH - SALT DOME)

The major waste from the sulfur mines is the bleedwater from  the
formation.   Due to the nature of the mining operation, it is not
possible to significantly reduce the quantity of  the  bleedwater
produced.   Large  aeration  ponds  are considered to be the best
technology available for treating the water from the bleed wells.
However, due to the scarcity of land space for ponds near some of
these mines, each facility  uses  a  unique  treating  system  to
reduce the hydrogen sulfide and suspended solid concentrations in
the bleedwater effluent streams.

There  are  four  waste  streams  at  facility 2021.  Outfalls #1
(power facility effluent), #2  (sludge  from  the  domestic  water
treating   facility),   and   #5    (water   from  sealing  wells,
miscellaneous sanitary waste and drips and drains)  are  disposed
of in a seawater bay leading into the Gulf without any treatment.
Outfall  #3   (bleedwater)   is first flashed into a large open top
tank which causes reduction in hydrogen  sulfide  concentrations.
After  a short residence in the tank, this effluent is mixed with
seawater to effect further oxidation of the hydrogen sulfides  to
sulfates  and  to  dilute it before discharge.  A flash stripping
and oxidation system  was  chosen  for  this  facility  primarily
because  of  a new procedure of up-flank bleeding which precluded
the continued use of the existing treatment reservoir.

The location of mine 2022, some 9.6 to 11.2 km   (6  to  7  miles)
offshore  in  the  Gulf, does not lend itself to the conventional
aeration reservoir.  Mechanical aeration systems  are  considered
undesirable  by  this  company  due  to  the  large quantities of
gaseous hydrogen sulfide that would be released to the atmosphere
and come  in  contact  with  personnel  on  the  platform.   Some
quantities  of  dissolved  hydrogen  sulfide are swept out of the
solution through gaseous evolution of carbon dioxide and  methane
present  in  the  formation  water.   Additionally,  oxidation of
sulfides occurs through the reaction with the dissolved oxygen in
the seawater by using a diffuser system.  The  results  of  water
sampling,  since the mine began operations, have shown an absence
of sulfides within 150  m   (500  ft)  of  the  discharge  points.
Because conventional treatment systems  (ponds) cannot be used and
because relocation is impossible, situations such as this will be
regulated in a separate subcategory.
                               272

-------
Presently* there is only one major waste stream at facility 2023.
However,  there  are  6 other discharge points from this facility
primarily for rainwater runoffs.  This  mine  has  three  pumping
stations  in  the  field  for  rain water runoffs which are newly
designated discharge points.  In addition, there are 3  discharge
points  installed  to  cover  rainwater runoffs and the drips and
drains from the levee system around  the  power  facility.   This
levee  system  has  been built to improve the housekeeping in the
power facility area.  The bleedwater from the mine is aerated  in
one  of  three small reservoirs, located in the field area, prior
to pumping  to  the  main  treatment  reservoir  which  is  about
10 hectares  (25 acres)   in  size.   Here the water is sprayed to
reduce hydrogen sulfide concentrations.  It is then impounded for
3-4 days where further aeration occurs.   Finally,  it  is  mixed
with  pumped-in  seawater  at  a ratio of 20 to 1 in a 1830 meter
(6000-foot), man-made canal to oxidize any remaining sulfides  to
sulfates  prior  to  discharge.   Power  facility wastes are also
piped into the canal  where  temperatures  are  eguilibrated  and
solids  are  settled.   Oxidation is effecting sulfide removal in
this ditch rather than just dilution as evidenced by the avearage
reduction of sulfide from 107 mg/1 to less than 0.1  mg/1  before
and  after  mixing  with the seawater.  A spray system was chosen
for aeration in this facility due to the lack  of  suitable  land
space for the construction of a large conventional reservoir.

Four discharge streams emanate from facility 2024.  Discharges f1
and  #3,  the  power  facility  discharges  and mining water from
sealing wells,  respectively,  discharge  into  a  river  without
treatment.   Discharge  t2,  the  bleedwater,  flows  by  gravity
through a ditch into  a   >b hectare   (125 acre)   reservoir  where
oxidation  of  hydrogen  sulfide  is  accomplished.  The effluent
residence time in this reservoir is about  15  to  18 days.   The
treated  bleedwater  flows  into  a  swift flowing tributary of a
river just before it enters tidal waters.  All  sewage  effluents
entering  into  discharge #4, which is primarily rain runoff, are
treated through a septic tank system prior to discharge.

At mine 2025 the bleedwater flows to a small settling basin  from
where  it  is  routed  through a mixing zone.  Sulfurous acid and
deposition inhibitor are added to the bleedwater in  this  mixing
zone  and  then  the  waste  water is routed to packed towers for
hydrogen sulfide removal.  In the packed towers,  the  bleedwater
flows  counter  current  to  cooled boiler flue gas.  The treated
bleedwater is next aerated and sent  to  a  10 hectare  (25 acre)
settling  basin.   The  overflow  from  the  settling basin flows
through two 10-12 hectare (25 to  30 acre)  clarification  ponds,
prior to discharge into the tidal section of a river through a 35
km  (22  mile)  long disposal canal.  The effluents from the water
softening and treating operations are discharged into an  earthen
pond  to settle the solids and the sludge.  The supernatant water
from this pond is discharged into a river.  The solids are  mixed
with  some  clay  and  used as substitute drilling mud.  Rainfall
                              273

-------
runoffs, boiler blowdown  and  other  facility  area  wastes  are
discharged without treatment.  The sanitary waste is treated in a
septic tank system and then discharged into oxidation ponds.  The
overflows from these ponds are discharged into a river.

In  mine  2026,  the  bleedwater  is treated in a series of three
ponds for settling and oxidation.  Pond #1 is  about  1U hectares
(35 acres)  and ponds f2 and #3 are about 52 hectares  (130 acres)
each on size.  The overflow from pond #1 flows through  a  3.2 km
(2 mile) ditch into pond #2.  The overflow from the third pond is
discharged  into  a  river.  Part of the rainfall runoff, a small
part of the, boiler blowdown  (the continuous blowdown is  returned
to  the  mine water system), zeolite softener regeneration water,
pump gland water, and washwater  are  sent  into  a  nearby  lake
without  treatment.   The blowdown from the hot process softening
system and clarifier system  is  discharged  to  pits  where  the
excess  supernatant  is  discharged  with  the remaining rainfall
runoffs into the creek.  The settled solids are used as  drilling
mud.  The sanitary waste of this mine is treated in a septic tank
system and reused in the mine water system.

At  mine  2027  the bleedwater treatment process used consists of
contacting the waste water from  the  bleedwells  with  sulfurous
acid with provisions for adequate mixing followed with sufficient
retention  time.   Sulfurous  acid is made both by burning liquid
sulfur or from hydrogen sulfide originating from the  bleedwater.
In  this  process,  the  soluble  sulfides  in the bleedwater are
converted to elemental sulfur and oxidized sulfur products  in  a
series  of reaction vessels.  The excess acid is next neutralized
with lime and the insoluble sulfur is removed  by  sedimentation.
The  effluent  thus  treated passes through five basins in series
having a total retention capacity of about one day.  The overflow
from the last basin is discharged into a salt water  canal  which
flows  into  the tidal section of a river.  The waste stream from
the water clarification operation is discharged into  an  earthen
pond  to settle the solids and the sludge.  The supernatant water
from this pond is mixed with  boiler  blowdown  waste  and  other
waste  streams  prior  to  discharge  into  the salt water canal.
Rainfall runoffs are sent into the canal without  any  treatment.
The  sanitary  waste  of  this  mine  is treated in a  septic tank
system and then discharged into a disposal field.

In mine 2028, the water from the  bleedwells  is  sent  into  two
separate  tanks  from  where it flows through 2tt km  (15 miles) of
underground piping into a ditch about 5 km  (3 miles)   in  length.
From  there  it  flows  into  a  325 hectare  (800 acres) pond for
oxidation and settling.   Treated  effluent  from  this  pond  is
discharged   60 days  per  year into a ditch.  This is because the
canal water, while subject to  tidal  influence,  is   selectively
used  for  irrigation  supply  water.   The waste stream from the
water clarifier and zeolite  softening  operation  is  discharged
into  an  earthen  pond to settle the solids and the sludge.  The
                               274

-------
supernatant water from this pond  is  intermittently  pumped  out
into  a  creek.   The solids are mixed with some clay and used as
drilling mud.  Boiler blowdown water, facility  area  wastes  and
rainfall  runoffs  are  sent  into  a nearby creek.  The sanitary
waste of this mine is treated in a septic tank  system  and  then
discharged in a disposal field.

The  rainfall runoffs, boiler blowdowns, waste resulting from the
water softening and treating operations, facility area wastes are
sent into receiving waterways without any treatment.   Therefore,
the  composition  of  these streams are as given in the raw waste
load section.   Table  14  compares  the  discharges  from  these
facilities.  Alternate forms of sulfur treatment are discussed in
the following paragraphs.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

The  modification  or  destruction  of  many  hazardous wastes is
accomplished  by  chemical  oxidation  or  reduction   reactions.
Hexavalent  chromium  is  reduced to the less hazardous trivalent
form with sulfur dioxide or bisulfites.  Sulfides can be oxidized
with  air  to  relatively  innocuous  sulfates.   The   oxidation
reactions  for  a  number  of  sulfur  compounds pertinent to the
sulfur industry are discussed below.

Inorganic Sulfur Compounds

Inorganic sulfur compounds range from the very  harmful  hydrogen
sulfide  to the relatively innocuous sulfate salts such as sodium
sulfate.   Intermediate  oxidation  products  include   sulfides,
thiosulfates,  hydrosulfites,  and sulfites.  Oxidation of sulfur
compounds is accomplished with air, hydrogen peroxide,  chlorine,
amoung others.

(1) Sulfides

Sulfides  are  readily  oxidizable  with  air   to   thiosulfate.
Thiosulfates are less harmful than sulfides (of the order of 1000
to 1) .

    2HS- + 20.2 ? S20J # + H20

    The reaction goes to 90-95 percent completion.

(2) Thiosulfates

Thiosulfates are difficult to  oxidize  further  with  air  (21).
They  can  be oxidized to sulfates with powerful oxidizing agents
such as  chlorine  or  peroxides.    However,  the  Frasch  sulfur
industry  has  experienced  oxidation  of  sulfides  with  air to
elemental sulfur and oxidation of thiosulfides to sulfates.
                              275

-------
                                                          TABLE  14
                                                     SULFUR  FACILITIES
                                               COMPARISON OF DISCHARGES
ro
Plant
Age
Location
Total Discharge, 106
      I/day      3
Tctci Discharge 10
      Vkkg
Bleeawater discharge,
  106    I/day
Bleedwafer discharge,
  TO3    1/kkg

Pollutants (in total
  discharge)
 TSS, mg/i
 TSS, kg/kkg
 Suifide, mg/ 1
 Suifide, kg/kkg
              TSS (seawater contribution
               omitted)  kg/kkg          4.8
2021
14
La*
74
180
4.6
11.2
57
10.3
16
2.9
2023
41
La*
428
260
27
16.4
33
8.6
0.4
0.1
2024
21
La
19
6.9
19
6.9
95
0.7
51
0.4
2025
45
Tx
38
12.1
38
12.1
30
0.4
nil
nil
2026
26
Tx
17
20
17
20
20
0.4
nil
nil
2027
22
Tx
23
20.5
23
20.5
5
0.1
nil
nil
2028
17
Tx
11.5
21.5
11.5
21.5
40
0.9
nil
nil
2029
28
Tx
8.7
11.8
8.7
11.8
50
0.6
not de-
tected
2097
6
Tx
11.5
22.1
11.5
22.1
30
0.7
2
0.04
                                 0.3
0.7
0.4
0.4    0.1
0.9    0.6
0.7
              * Bayou

-------
(3)  Hydrosulfites

Hydrosulfit.es can also be oxidized by such oxidizing  agents  and
perhaps with catalyzed air oxidation.

    Sulfites

Sulfites  are  readily  oxidized  with  air  to  sulfates  at   a
90-99 percent  completion level.  Chlorine and peroxides are also
effective.

Salt dome sulfur producers have large quantities of bleedwater to
treat and dispose of.  This presents  two  problems:  removal  of
sulfides  and  disposal  of  the remaining brine.  Since there is
currently no practical or economical means of removing  the  salt
from the brine, it must be disposed of either in brackish or salt
water,   or   impounded   and  discharged  intermittently  during
specified times.

Removal of sulfides prior to discharge of the  brine  is  also  a
major  treatment  problem.   There  are  two  types of bleedwater
treatment facilities  found  in  this  industry  for  removal  of
sulfides.  Examples of each are given in Figure 58.          ^

In  treatment  type  1  the  bleedwater  is air lifted to a small
settling basin and then sent to a  mixing  zone  where  sulfurous
acid  and deposition inhibitor are added.  The bleedwater is then
sent to packed towers for removal of hydrogen  sulfide.   In  the
packed  towers  the  bleedwater  flows  countercurrent  to cooled
boiler flue gas.  The treated bleedwater is then aerated and sent
to  a  series  of  settling  and  clarification  ponds  prior  to
discharge.   This  method is effective for removal of sulfides in
the bleedwater.

In treatment type 2 the bleedwater is mixed with  sulfurous  acid
which  is  generated  by  burning  liquid sulfur or from hydrogen
sulfide originating from the bleedwater.   In  this  process  the
soluble  sulfides  in  the  bleedwater are converted to elemental
sulfur and oxidized sulfur  products  in  a  series  of  reaction
vessels.   Excess  acid  is  then  neutralized  with  lime.   The
insoluble sulfur is removed by  sedimentation,  and  the  treated
effluent  is  then sent to a series of basins prior to discharge.
This method is very effective for removal of sulfides.

                   SULFUR (FRASCH - OFFSHORE)

At  the  one  off-shore  salt  dome  sulfur  facility   currently
operating, the bleedwater is discharged without treatment through
a  diffuser  system.  The treatment technologies used by on-shore
salt dome facilities, ponding and bleedwater treatment facilities
are not considered feasible here due to non-availability of  land
and space restrictions on a platform.
                              277

-------
                             FIGURE 58
SUUFUROUS
ACID
OPPOSITION
IKHI9ITOR
AIR LIFTED ^ SETTLING 1 T
BLEEOWATER " BASIN nxf* PIPE

RAW WATER 	 »•
BCiLER
FLUE 	 *»
GAS

FLUE GAS FLUE CAS
TO STACK TO STACK
1 t
PACKED PACKED
TC.YE33 Tokens
l Ik

ECONOMIZER
i
TO PROCESS
FOR >'",£ \VATER

	 ., AERAT09S '. 	 » SETTLING
» AERATORS — *• BA3iMS
WASTE WATER
DISCHARGE



                         BLEEDWXTER TREATING PLANT
                                    TYPE I
                                              WATER
LIQUID
SULFUR


BURNERS
BLEECWATER-t»
                          BLEEDWATER TREATING  PLANT
                                     TYPE 2
                                   278

-------
                            PIGMENTS

In the wet processing of iron oxide pigments, water overflow from
the  rake  thickener drains to a large settling pond.  It is then
recycled to the process with no further treatment.   At  facility
3022  the  waste  water is discharged to a 41 hectare (100 acres)
settling pond which is also  used  for  effluent  from  a  barite
operation.    The   discharge  from  the  large  pond  is  mainly
attributable to the barite operations.

                             LITHIUM

The  treatment  of  the  process   waste   stream   consists   of
flocculation  and  gravity  settling.   The  slimes and flotation
tailings are primarily alkali aluminum silicates and  quartz.   A
flocculating  agent is added and the slurry is pumped to settling
ponds, and the major part of the  overflow  is  returned  to  the
facility   for   re-use.    The   mine   water  which  is  pumped
intermittently is both discharged and  recycled  to  the  process
water  circuit.   An  additional  waste stream which is unique to
facility 4009 arises from the scrubbing circuit of  the  low-iron
process  which  removes  certain  impurities  from  the spodumene
concentrate product.  This stream is  currently  being  impounded
for future treatment prior to being discharged.

For  facility  4009  the  point  of  measurement of the discharge
encompasses significant flow from two streams which pass  through
the property and serve as an intake water source to the facility.
The  significant  dilution by stream water makes it impossible to
assess the effluent  quality  directly.   Effluent  data  are  as
follows:

                        Facility 4001       Facility 4009
                        Mine      Mill      Mine      Mill

Flow I/day                                  0.57      7.9

mgd                                         0.15      2.088

pH                                6.1-7.9             7.0-7.5

TSS, mg/1               14        41        256       336
                                                      667
                                                      10 13 14
                                                      14 15 18
                                                      25

Facility  4001  is currently constructing an impoundment and will
recycle all process waste water.  Facility  4009  is  essentially
achieving no discharge.  Discharge does occur as seepage from the
tailings  dam and as overflow from the tailings pond during heavy
rainfall.
                              279

-------
The mine water at mine 4001 was observed by the  project  officer
to be very muddy, possibly requiring use of flocculants.

                            BENTONITE
There   is  no  discharge  of  any  waste  water  from  bentonite
operations.   The  solid  overburden  removed  to   uncover   the
bentonite deposit is returned to mined-out pits for land disposal
and  eventual  land  reclamation.  Dust collected from processing
operations is either returned to storage bins as product or it is
land-dumped.  Mine dewatering was not found.

                            FIRE CLAY

There is no discharge of process waste waters.  Mine  pumpout  is
discharged  either  after  settling  or  with  no treatment.  The
effluent quality of mine pumpout at a few mines are as follows:
Mine
3083
3084
3087


3300
3301
3302
3303
3307
33C8
3309
3310
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
Treatment
Pond
Lime & Pond
lime, combined
with other
waste streams
None
None
None
None
None
Pond
Pond
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
PH
7.25
6.5
4.0


6.0-6.9
6.9
8.3
7.0
9.2
5.0
4.2
3.0
—
--
--
—
—
--
2.6-3.0
TSS
mg/1
3
26.4,62
45


4
2
30
1
5
16

16
30
10
45
27,144
37
15
253-392
Total
Fe
mg/1










20
80

—
--
--
—
—
—
530- 1
ATTAPULGITE
                              280

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Bearing cooling water at facility  3060  is  discharged  with  no
treatment  while  water  used  in  pugging  and  kiln  cooling is
evaporated in the process.  Dusts and fines  are  generated  from
drying  and screening operations at facility 3060.  This slurried
waste is sent to worked-out pits which serve as  settling  ponds.
In  the  last  year  the ponds have been enlarged and modified to
allow for complete recycle of this waste water.  The  ponds  have
not  yet  totally  filled however, and the company anticipates no
problems.  There is no discharge at this time of  process  water.
At  facility 3058 waste is generated from screening operations as
fines which  until  presently  were  slurried  and  pumped  to  a
settling  pond.   With  the  installation  of  new reconstituting
equipment these fines are recycled and there is no  discharge  of
process  water.   The  settling  pond,  however, is maintained in
event  of  breakdown  or  the  excessive  generation  of   fines.
Facility  3088  also  has  installed  recycle  ponds recently and
anticipates no trouble.  Facility 3089 uses a  dry  micro-pulsair
system for air pollution control, therefore there is no discharge
of process water.  According to the company they are within state
air pollution requirements.

Mine  pumpout  at  facilities 3060 and 3058 is discharged without
treatment.  Facility 3089 uses two settling ponds  in  series  to
treat  mine  pumpout,  however  they  do not attempt to treat wet
weather mine pumpout.  Data of  the  mine  dewatering  discharges
follow.

Mine          _pj        TSS. mq/1

3058          6.8       17
3060          7.5       19

                         MONTMORILLONITE
Facilities  3059  and 3073 recycle essentially 100 percent of the
scrubber  water,  while  facility  3072   recycles   only   about
70 percent.   Scrubber water must be kept neutral because sulfate
values in the clay become concentrated, making the  water  acidic
and   corrosive.    Facilities  3059  and  3073  use  ammonia  to
neutralize recycle  scrubber  water,  forming  ammonium  sulfate.
Facility  3072 uses lime (Ca(OH)J2), which precipitates as calcium
sulfate in the settling  pond.   To  keep  the  scrubber  recycle
system  working,  some  water  containing  a  build-up of calcium
sulfate is discharged to a nearby creek.  However, facility  3072
intends  to recycle all scrubber water by mid-1975.  Mine pumpout
can present a greater problem for montmorillonite producers  than
for  attapulgite producers, due to the very slow settling rate of
some of the suspended clay.  Accumulated rain and ground water is
pumped to abandoned pits for settling to the extent possible  and
is  then  discharged.   At facility 3073 the pit water is used as
makeup for the scrubber water.
                              281

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Data on mine dewatering follows.

Mine          pH        TSS,mg/1

3059          4.5-5.5   200-400
3323          3.8-4.4   2    U.33 6.3  6.3
                        6.7  8    8    9    9.5
                        10.3  12.33 16 18
                        24   33   42   52
                        258
3324          6-9       25.7 26   30   37
                        53   137  436

3325          7-8       0.67 1.67  2   3
                        4.33 5.5   8   11
                        12   18   21.3 60

The high value of 258 mg/1 TSS at mine 3323 occurred during a 6.6
cm  (2.6 in) rainfall.  However, the mine was not being dewatered.

In June 1975, the representatives of  a  flocculant  manufacturer
conducted  a . study of the mine dewatering quality at plant 3059.
By use of a flocculant, TSS was reduced from 285 to 15  mg/1  and
turbidity  from  580  to  11  JTU.  The flocculant manufacturer's
representatives were confident that a  full  scale  system  would
also  produce  significant  reduction of TSS.  Flocculation tests
were  also   conducted   at   mine   3324.    With   a   cationic
polyelectrolyte 50 mg/1 TSS was achieved.  With supplemental alum
10 mg/1 TSS was achieved.

                          KAOLIN  (DRY)

The  solid waste generated is land-disposed on-site.  There is no
process effluent discharged.

                          KAOLIN  (WET)

The facilities treat the process waste water ponds with  lime  to
adjust  pH  and  remove  excess zinc which is used as a bleaching
agent.  This treatment effects a 99.8X  removal  of  zinc,  99.9%
removal of suspended solids, and 80% removal of dissolved solids.
These  facilities  are considering the use of sodium hydrosulfite
as bleach to eliminate the zinc  waste.   Facilities  with  large
ponds  and  a high freeboard have the capability of discontinuing
discharge  for  one  or  more  days  to  allow   unusually   high
turbidities to decrease before resuming a discharge.

Solid  wastes  generated  in kaolin mining and wet processing are
land-disposed with overburden being returned to  mined-out  pits,
and dust, fines, and other solids to settling ponds.
                              282

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Waste  waters  are  in  all  cases sent to ponds where the solids
settle out and the water is discharged after lime  treatment.   A
statistical   analysis  was  performed  on  five  Georgia  kaolin
treatment systems.  Based on a 99 percent confidence level of the
best fitting distribution  (normal  and  logarithmic  normal)   the
following turbidities were achieved.

Facility                     Turbidity,  JTU  or   NTU
              long term           daily          monthly
               average            maximum        average
                                                 maximum

3024          26.4                48.2           <43
3025          24.5                83             62.5
3314          58.2                202
3315(1)       32.9                140            113.7
3315(2)       32.7                76.7

Long  term  TSS  data  was  not  available.  What TSS values were
available were correlated with the corresponding turbidity values
as follows:

                                  TSS, mg/1
Facility                50 JTU (NTU)         100 JTU (NTU)

3024                         45                  90
3025                         35                  70
3315                         50                 100

Two interesting items were noted in additional data collected  at
the  request  of EFA at facility 3315.  Approximately one-half of
the total suspended solids were of a volatile  nature  confirming
the   company's   concern   that   aquatic  growth  in  part  was
contributing to the suspended solids.  This  is  expected,  since
organic  reagents are used in kaclin processing and the treatment
ponds are situated in swampy areas having an abundance  of  plant
growth.   The  second  point  is  that only about one-half of the
turbidity was removed after waste water samples were filtered  in
the  determination  of  TSS.   This indicated that the kaolin and
possibly the volatile solids are sub-micron in size and  are  not
necessarily measured by TSS alone.

                    KAOLIN  (MINE DEWATEPING)

Open  pit  mining of kaolin does not utilize any water.  However,
when rainwater and ground water accumulate in the pits it must be
pumped out and discharged.  Usually this  pumpout  is  discharged
without  treatment,  but,  in at least one case, pH adjustment is
necessary prior to discharge.
                              283

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The following mine drainage concentrations were measured.

    Mine           TSS, mg/1           JTU

    3074              10
    3080              10
    3081              10
    3311              22
    3312             7.4
    3313              41
    3316            95.2*              44.6*
    3317                                232*
    3318                               79.5*

*daily maximum achieved in 99 percent of samples

Mine 3316, 3317 and 3318 blunge the ore at the mine site and  add
a  dispersant  such  as  sodium tripolyphosphate to the slurry to
facilitate pumping the ore to the  process  plant.   It  is  this
dispersant that causes the relatively high values.

                            BALL CLAY

Mine  pumpout  is  discharged  either after settling in a pond or
sump or without any treatment.  Data are as follows:

Mine          TSSj mg/1

3326          0    23143
3327          48
3328          0    312
3329          0
3330          53
3331          15   200
5684          146

The extreme variability of the effluent guality  is  due  to  the
presence  of  colloidal clays, as observed by the project officer
after a substantial rainfall.

Scrubber water at these facilities is sent to settling ponds.  La
addition, facilities 5684 and 5689 treat the scrubber water  with
a  flocculating agent which improves settling of suspended solids
in the pond.  Facility  5689  has  three  ponds  of  a  total  of
1.0 hectare  (2.5 acres) area.
                              284

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The  amounts of process wastes discharged by these facilities are
calculated to be:
facility

5684

5685
   discharge,
1/kkg of product
   (gal/ton)

   88 (21)

   1,080 (260)
TSS. kq/kkq
of product
(lb/1000 Ib)

0.0001

0.43
5689
   834 (1,030)
0.17
  TSS
  mcr/1
  400
 2970
   82
 1016
 1054

10046
   49
  107
    4
TDS
mg/1

240

1047
 236
 511
 433
3216
 153
 164
 273
There are two  significant  types  of  operations  in  ball  clay
manufacture  insofar as water use is concerned:  those having wet
scrubbers, which have a waste water discharge, and those  without
wet  scrubbers,  which  have  no process waste water.  There is a
discrepancy in discharge flow rates since not all the  production
lines  in  each  facility have wet scrubbers.  Baghouses are also
employed by this industry.

                      FELDSPAR  (FLOTATION)

Treatment at three facilities   (3054,  3065,  3068)  consists  of
pumping combined facility effluents into clarifiers, with polymer
added to aid in flocculation.  Both polymer and lime are added at
one  facility  (3065).  At the other two facilities,  (3026, 3067)
there are two settling ponds in series, with one facility  adding
alum (3026).

Measurements  by  EPA's  contractor  on  the  performance  of the
treatment system at facility 3026, consisting  of  two  ponds  in
series  and  alum  treatment,  showed the following reductions in
concentration  (mg/1):
waste water into system
discharge from system
                    TSS

                    3,790
                    21
           Fluoride

                14
                1.3
                              285

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The  process  water  effluents  after  treatment  at  these
facilities have the following quality characteristics:
                                               five
facility

3026
3054
3065
3067
3068
6.5-6.8
6.8
10.8*
7.5-8.0
7-8
TSS
mq/1

21
45
349
35
40-150
                              Fluoride
                              mq/1
Facility  3065 adds lime to the treatment, which accounts for the
higher than average pH.

The  average  amounts  of  the  suspended  solids  and   fluoride
pollutants  present  in  these  waste effluent streams calculated
from the above values are given in the following  table  together
with the relative effluent flows.
facility
3026
3054
3065
3067
3068
ore processed basis
flow.     TSS.
1/kkg     kg/kkg
(gal/tonl  (lb/1000 Ifci
14,600
(3,500)

12r500
(3,000)

11,000
(2,640)

6,500
(1,560)

18,600
(4,460)
0.31
0.56
1.1
0.23
0.7-2.8
fluoride,
kg/kkg
(lb/1000 Ibi

0.12
0. 18
0.25
0.22
0.6
The higher than average suspended solids content of the effluents
from 3065 and 3068 is caused by a froth carrying mica through the
thickerners  to  the  discharges.   Facility  3026  uses  alum to
coagulate suspended  solids,  which  may  be  the  cause  of  the
reduction  in  fluoride.   Alum has been found in municipal water
treatment studies to reduce  fluoride  by  binding  it  into  the
sediment.   The  effectiveness of the treatment at 3026 to reduce
suspended solids is comparable to that  at  facilities  3054  and
3067.
                              286

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The  treatment at facility 3054 results in little or no reduction
of fluoride, but good reduction  of  suspended  solids.   Nothing
known about this treatment system would lead to an expectation of
fluoride reduction.

The   treatment  at  facility  3067  apparently  accomplishes  no
reduction of fluoride, but  its  suspended  solids  discharge  is
significantly   lower   than   average   in   both   amount   and
concentration.

Solid wastes are transported back  to  the  mines  as  reclaiming
fill,  although  these wastes are sometimes allowed to accumulate
at the facility for long periods before removal.

                    FELDSPAR (NON-FLOTATION)

Waste water is spilled  on  the  ground  (Facility  3032)   or  is
evaporated  during  crushing  and  milling  operations  (Facility
3064).  There is no waste water  treatment  at  either  facility,
since there is no discharge.

                             KYANITE

Process  water used in the several beneficiation steps is sent to
settling ponds from which clear water is recycled to the process.
There is total recycle of the process water with no loss  through
pond seepage.

There  is  normally  no  discharge of process water from facility
3015.  The only time pond overflow  has  occurred  was  after  an
unusually  heavy  rainfall.   Facility  3028  has occasional pond
overflow, usually occurring in October and November.

The solid waste generated in kyanite processing is  land-disposed
after removal from the settling ponds.  An analysis of pond water
at  facility 3015 showed low values for BOD5 (2 mg/1)  and oil and
grease (4 mg/1).  Total suspended solids were 11 mg/1  and  total
metals 3.9 mg/1, with iron being the principal metal.

                            MAGNESITE

The  waste  stream at the one magnesite facility is the underflow
of the tailings thickener  which  contains  large  quantities  of
solid  wastes.   Make-up water is added to transport these wastes
to the tailings pond.  The estimated area  of  this  pond  is  15
hectares  (37  acres).  The estimated evaporation at this area is
21 cm/yr (51 in/yr) and the  annual  rainfall  is  2.4  cm/yr  (6
in/yr).   The waste water is lost about 40 percent by evaporation
and about 60 percent by percolation.  No discharge from the  mill
is  visible  in  any  of  the small washes in the vicinity of the
tailings pond, and also, no green vegetative patches,  that  would
indicate  the  presence  of  near surface run-offs, were visible.
                              287

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The tailings pond is located at the upper end of an alluvial fan.
This material is both coarse and angular and has a  rapid  perco-
lation rate.  This could account for the lack of run-off.

                      SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

There  is no waste water treatment necessary for shale and common
clay mining and processing since there is no process water  used.
When  there  is rainfall or ground water accumulation, this water
is generally pumped out  and  discharged  to  abandoned  pits  or
streams.

                             APLITE

Facility  3020  discharges  effluent  arising  from  wet scrubber
operations to a creek after allowing settling of suspended solids
in a series of ponds.  Aplite clays represent a settling  problem
in  that  a  portion of the clays settles out rapidly but another
portion stays in suspension for a long time,  imparting  a  milky
appearance  to  the effluent.  The occasional mine pumpout due to
rainfall is discharged without treatment.

Facility 3016 recycles water  from  the  settling  ponds  to  the
process  with  only  infrequent  discharge to a nearby river when
pond  levels  become  excessive  (every  2  to  3 years).    This
discharge is state regulated only on suspended solids at 619 mg/1
average,  and  1000 mg/1  for  any one day.  Actual settling pond
water analyses have not been made.  When this occurs, the pond is
treated with  alum  to  lower  suspended  solids  levels  in  the
discharge.   Likewise, when suspended solids levels are  excessive
for recycle purposes, the pond is also treated with alum.

The solid wastes generated in these processes are  land-disposed,
either  in  ponds  or as land-fill, with iron bearing sands being
sold as beach sand.

                          TALC MINERALS
                  (LOG WASHING AND WET SCREENING)

The waste streams emanating from the washing operations  are  sent
to  settling  ponds.   The  ponds  are  dried  by evaporation and
seepage.  In facility  2035,  when  the  ponds  are   filled  with
solids,   they  are  harvested  for  reprocessing  into  saleable
products.  There is no discharge from these properties.

                     TALC  (MINE DEWATERING)

Underground  mine  workings  intercept  numerous   ground   water
sources.   The  water  from  each  underground  mine  is directed
through ditches and culverts to sumps at each  mine   level.   The
sumps  serve  as  sedimentation  basins and seals for centrifugal
pumps which discharge this water to upper level sumps or to  the
                               288

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surface.  In some mines, a small portion of the pump discharge is
diverted  for  use  as  drill wash water and pump seal water; the
remainder  is  discharged  into  a   receiving   waterway.    The
disposition  and  quantities  of  mine  discharges  are  given as
follows:
                   TSS
         7.5-8.3   4, 9
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2012
2043
7.8
8.1
7.0-7.8
7.2-8.5
8.7
7.8
3
4
1, 3
15
28
9
7.6
I/day
(gal/day)

545,000
(144,000)

878,000
(232,00(5)

1,920,000
(507,000)

1,900,000
(507,000)

1,100,000
(300,000)

49,200
(13,000)

496,000
(131,000)

76,000
(20,000)
                                   Disposition

                                   Pumped to a
                                   swamp

                                   Pumped to a
                                   swamp

                                   Pumped to a
                                   swamp

                                   Open ditch
Settling basin
than to a brook

Settling basin
then to a brook

Settling basin
then to a brook

Settling basin
then to a river
                    TALC (FLOTATION AND HMS)

At facility 2031, the mill tailings are pumped into  one  of  the
three available settling ponds.  The overflow from these settling
ponds  enters by gravity into a common clarification pond.  There
is a discharge from this clarification pond.  The tailings remain
in the settling ponds and are dried by  natural  evaporation  and
seepage.

At  facility  2032,  the  mill tailings are pumped uphill through
3000 feet of pipe to a pond 34,000,000 liters (9,000,000 gal)  in
capacity  for  gravity  settling.  The overflow from this pond is
treated in a series  of  four  settling  lagoons.   Approximately
40 percent  of  the last lagoon overflow is sent back to the mill
and the remainder is discharged to a brook near the property.

Iri facility 2033 the filtrate with a pH of 3.5-4.0, the flotation
tailings with a pH of 10-10.5 and the primary thickener  overflow
are  combined,  and the resulting stream, having a pH of 4.5-5.5,
                              289

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is sent to a small  sump  in  the  facility  for  treating.   The
effluent pH is adjusted by lime addition to a 6.5-7.5 level prior
to  discharge  into  the  settling  pond.   The  lime is added by
metered pumping and the pH is controlled manually.  The  effluent
from  the  treating  sump  is  routed  to one end of a "U" shaped
r>rim?.TT' «*«>»-tling pc^2 and is discharged! i. *ro a secondary or back-
up pond.  The total active pond area  is  about  0.8  hectare  (2
acres).   The  clarification  pond  occupies  about  0.3  hectare
(0.75 acre).  The back-up pond (clarification pond) discharges to
an open ditch running  into  a  nearby  creek.   The  non-contact
cooling  water  in facilities 2031 and 2033 is discharged without
treatment.  Facility 2044 uses a 1.6 hectare  (4 acres)   settling
pond  to  treat  the  waste water; the overflow from this pond is
discharged,  it has been estimated that the present settling pond
will be filled within two years'  time.  This company has leased a
new piece of property for the creation of a future pond.

As all process water at facility 2031 is impounded  and  lost  by
evaporation,  there  is  no  process  water  effluent out of this
property.   Facility  2035  a  washing  facility  also   has   no
discharge.

At  facilities 2032, 2033, and 2044, the effluent consists of the
overflow  from  their  clarification  or  settling  ponds.    The
significant  constituents  in these streams are reported to be as
follows:

Waste Material
Facility Number      	2032	2033	2014
PH
TSS, mg/1
7.2-8.5
<20(26)*
5.6
80 (8)*
7.0
100
*Contractor verification

The average amounts of TSS discharged  in  these  effluents  were
calculated from the above data to be:

    facility	kg/kkg	(lb/1000 lb>
                   product

    2032           <0.34
    2033            0.29
    204U            0.50

                             GARNET

Facility  3037  recycles  untreated  pit  water used in screening
operations, and sends water from jigging operations to a settling
pond before discharge.  Waste water from flotation  underflow  at
facility  3071  is first treated with caustic to stabilize the pH
which was acidified from flotation reagents.  Then the  underflow
                              290

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is  sent  to  a  series of tailings ponds.  The solids settle out
into the ponds and the final effluent is discharged.  Water  from
the  dewatering  screen  is recycled to the heavy media facility.
Effluent arising from flotation underflow  at  facility  3071  is
discharged-   ^he  pH  is  maintained at 7.  The suspended solids
content averaged 25 mg/1.

                            DIATOMITE

All  waste  water   generated   in   diatomite   preparation   at
facility 5500 is evaporated.  There is no process water, cooling,
or  mine  pumpout discharge.  Facilities 5504 and 5505 send waste
water to settling ponds with water being recycled to the  process
at facility 5505 and evaporated and percolated to ground water at
facility  5504.   But  in  late 1974 a pump is being installed to
enable facility 5504 to decant and recycle  the  water  from  the
pond  to  the  process.   Thus, all of these diatomite operations
have no discharge of any waste water.

The oversize fraction and dust fines waste is land-dumped on-site
at facility 5500.  The solids content of this'land-disposed waste
is silica  (diatomite) in the amount of about 300,000  mg/1.   The
waste  slurries  from  facilities  5504  and  5505  consisting of
scrubber  fines  and  dust  are  land-disposed  with  the  solids
settling  into  ponds.   The  solids content of these slurries is
24,000 mg/1 for facility 5505 and 146,000 mg/1 for facility 5504.

                            GRAPHITE

The waste streams associated with  the  operation  are  flotation
tailings  and  seepage  water.   The  tailings  slurry  at  about
20 percent solids and at a near neutral pH (adjustment  made  for
optimum  flotation)  is discharged to a partially lined 8 hectare
(20 acre) settling pond.   The  solids  settle  rapidly  and  the
overflow  is  discharged.   The  seepage  water from the tailings
pond, mine and extraneous surface waters  are  collected  through
the  use of an extensive network of ditches, dams and sumps.  The
collected waste waters are pumped to a treatment  facility  where
lime  is  added  to  neutralize the acidity and precipitate iron.
The neutralized water is pumped to the tailings  pond  where  the
iron  floe  is deposited.  The acid condition of the pond seepage
results from the extended contact  of  water  with  the  tailings
which dissolve some part of the contained iron pyrites.

It  is  discharged  into  a  stream that flows into the lake that
serves as the intake water source for the facility.  The effluent
composition falls within the  limits  established  by  the  Texas
State Water Quality Board for the following parameters: flow; pH;
total  suspended solids; volatile solids; BOD; COD; manganese and
iron.  Facility measurements compared to  the  state  limitations
are:
                              291

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              facility
              average
              mq/1
Flow I/day
  (gal/day)

total solids   750
TSS

Volatile
  Solids

Mn

Total Fe

BOD

COD

PH
  10
 0.1

 0.1

   9

  20

7.3-8.5
24 hr.
maximum
mq/1

1,160,000
(300,000)

  1600

    20
    10

   0.5

     2

    15

    20

   6.8
State Standards
     monthly
     average
      mq/1

     1,820,000
     (480,000)

       1380

         10
        0.2



          1

         10

         15

        7.5
This  facility has no problem meeting this requirement because of
a unique situation where the large volume  of  tailings  entering
the  pond  assists the settling of suspended solids from the acid
mine drainage treatment more than that normally expected  from  a
well designed pond.

                              JADE

Waste  waters generated from the wire saw, sanding, and polishing
operations are sent to settling tanks where the  tailings  settle
out,  and  the  water  is  discharged  onto  the  lawn  where  it
evaporates and/or seeps into the ground.   Solid  wastes  in  the
form  of  tailings which collect in settling tanks are eventually
land-disposed as fill.

                           NOVACULITE

Water from the scrubber is sent to  a  settling  tank  and  clear
water  is  recycled to the scrubber,  cooling water is discharged
onto the lawn with no treatment.
PRETREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

Most  minerals  operations  have  waste  water  containing   only
suspended  solids.   Suspended  solids  is a compatible pollution
parameter for publicly-owned treatment works.  However,  most  of
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these  mining  and  processing operations are located in isolated
regions and have no access to  these  treatment  facilities.   No
instances  of  discharge  to  publicly-owned treatment facilities
were found in the industry.   In  the  relatively  few  instances
where  dissolved  materials  are  a  problem, pH control and some
reduction of hazardous constituents such  as  fluoride  would  be
required.   Lime  treatment  is  usually sufficient to accomplish
this.  Sulfides would require air  oxidation  or  other  chemical
treatment,

NON-WATER   QUALITY   ENVIRONMENTAL   ASPECTS,  INCLUDING  ENERGY
    REQUIREMENTS

The effects of these treatment and control  technologies  on  air
pollution,  noise  pollution, and radiation are usually small and
not of any significance.  Some impact on air quality occurs  with
sulfide  wastes  generated  in  sulfur  production.  However, the
isolated  locations  of  sulfur  facilities  and   selection   of
treatment  is usually sufficient to eliminate any problem.  There
is  also  radiation  from  phosphate  ores   and   wastes.    The
concentration  of radionuclides is low in materials involved with
phosphate mining  and  beneficiating  operations.   "Nevertheless,
significant   quantities   of  radionuclides  may  be  stored  or
redistributed, because of the large volumes  of  slimes  tailings
and other solid wastes.

Large  amounts  of  solid  waste  in  the form of both solids and
sludges are formed as a result of suspended solids  removal  from
waste  waters  as  well as chemical treatments for neutralization
and precipitation.  Easy-to-handle,  relatively  dry  solids  are
usually  left  in  settling ponds or dredged out periodically and
dumped onto  the  land.   Since  mineral  mining  properties  are
usually  large,  space  for such dumping is often available.  For
those waste materials considered to be non-hazardous  where  land
disposal  is the choice for disposal, practices similar to proper
sanitary landfill technology may be followed.  The principles set
forth in the EPA's Land Disposal of Solid Wastes Guidelines  (CFR
Title  40,  Chapter  1;  Part  241)  may  be used as guidance for
acceptable land disposal technigues.

For those waste materials considered to  be  hazardous,  disposal
will  require  special precautions.  In order to ensure long-term
protection  of  public  health  and  the   environment,   special
preparation  and  pretreatment may be required prior to disposal.
If land disposal is to be practiced, these sites must  not  allow
movement  of pollutants such as fluoride and radium-226 to either
ground or surface water.  Sites  should  be  selected  that  have
natural   soil   and   geological   conditions  to  prevent  such
contamination or, if such conditions  do  not  exist,  artificial
means  (e.g.,  liners)   must  be  provided  to  ensure  long-term
protection of the environment from  hazardous  materials.   Where
appropriate,  the  location of solid hazardous materials disposal
                              293

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sites should be permanently recorded in the appropriate office of
the legal jurisdiction in which the site is located.   In summary,
the solid wastes and sludges from  the  mineral  mining  industry
waste  water  treatments are very large in quantity.   Since these
industries  generally  have  sufficient  space  and  earth-moving
capabilities,  they  manage  it with greater ease than most other
industries.

For the best practicable control technology  currently  available
the  added  annual  energy  requirements  are estimated to be 555
million kw-hours.  Much  of  this  added  energy  requirement  is
attributed to wet processing of crushed stone, phosphate rock and
sulfur (on-shore salt dome).
                              29U

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                           SECTION  VIII
       COST,  ENERGY,  WASTE  REDUCTION  BENEFITS AND  NON-WATER
           ASPECTS  OF TREATMENT  AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
 Cost   information contained  in  this  report was assembled  directly
 from  industry,  from waste  treatment  and  disposal   contractors,
 engineering   firms,   equipment  suppliers, government  sources,  and
 published literature.   Whenever possible, costs   are   taken  from
 actual   installations,    engineering    estimates for projected
 facilities as supplied by  contributing companies, or   from waste
 treatment and disposal contractors quoted prices. In the absence
 of such  information, cost  estimates  have been  developed insofar
 as possible  from  facility-supplied   costs  for similar waste
 treatments and disposal for  other facilities  or  industries.

 Capital   investment  estimates   for  this study have been  based on
 10 percent cost of capital,  representing a composite   number   for
 interest  paid  or  return  on   investment  required.   All  cost
 estimates are based on August  1972 prices and when necessary  have
 been  adjusted  to  this basis   using   the  chemical   engineering
 facility cost index.

 The  useful   service  life  of   treatment  and disposal equipment
 varies depending on the nature  of  the equipment   and   process
 involved, its usage pattern, maintenance care and numerous other
 factors.   Individual companies  may apply service lives based  on
 their actual  experience  for   internal amortization.   Internal
 Revenue  Service provides guidelines  for tax   purposes which   are
 intended to  approximate average experience.   Based on discussions
 with   industry  and  condensed   IRS  guideline   information,   the
 following useful service life values have been used:

 (1) General  process equipment     10 years
 (2) Ponds, lined and unlined     20 years
 (3) Trucks,  bulldozers,  loaders
    and  other such materials
    handling and transporting
    equipment.                     5 years

 The economic  value  of treatment   and disposal equipment   and
)facilities  decreases  over  its service life.   At the end of  the
 useful life,  it is usually assumed that the salvage   or   recovery
 value   becomes   zero;    For    IRS  tax  purposes   or   internal
 depreciation provisions, straight line,  or accelerated write-off
 schedules may  be  used.    Straight  line  depreciation  was  used
 solely in this report.
                               295

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Capital  costs  are  defined  as  all   front-end   out-of-pocket
expenditures  for providing treatment/disposal facilities.  These
costs include costs for research  and  development  necessary  to
establish  the  process,  land  costs when applicable, equipment,
construction and installation, buildings, services,  engineering,
special  start-up costs and contractor profits and contingencies.
Most if not all of the capital costs are accrued during the  year
or  two  prior to actual use of the facility.  This present worth
sum can be converted to equivalent uniform  annual  disbursements
by utilizing the Capital Recovery Factor Method:

    Uniform Annual Disbursement =P i (1+i)nth power
                                   (1+i)nth power - 1

    Where P = present value (capital expenditure), i =
         interest rate, %/100, n = useful life in years

The capital recovery factor equation above may be
rewritten as:

    Uniform Annual Disbursement = P(CR - i% - n)

    Where (CR - i% - n) is the Capital Recovery Factor for
    i% interest taken over "n" years useful life.

Land-destined  solid  wastes  require  removal of land from other
economic use.  The amount of land so tied up will depend  on  the
treatment/disposal  method  employed  and  the  amount  of wastes
involved.  Although land  is  non-depreciable  according  to  IRS
regulations,  there are numerous instances where the market value
of the land  for  land-destined  wastes  has  been  significantly
reduced  permanently,  or  actually becomes unsuitable for future
use due to the nature of the stored waste.  The general  criteria
applied to costing land are as follows:

(1) If land requirements for on-site treatment/disposal  are  not
    significant, no cost allowance is applied.
(2) Where on-site  land  requirements  are  significant  and  the
    storage  or  disposal  of wastes does not affect the ultimate
    market  value  of  the  land,  cost  estimates  include  only
    interest on invested money.
(3) For significant on-site land requirements where the  ultimate
    market  value  and/or  availability  of  the  land  has  been
    seriously  reduced,  cost  estimates  include  both   capital
    depreciation and interest on invested money.
(4) Off-site treatment/disposal land requirements and  costs  are
    not  considered  directly.  It is assumed that land costs are
    included in the overall  contractor's  fees  along  with  its
    other expenses and profit.
                              296

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(5)  In view of the extreme variability of land costs, adjustments
    have  been  made  for  individual  industry  situations.   In
    general,   isolated,   plentiful  land  has  been  costed  at
    $2,i»70/hectare ($1,000/acre) .

Annual  costs  of  operating  the  treatment/disposal  facilities
include   labor,   supervision,  materials,  maintenance,  taxes,
insurance and power and energy.  Operating  costs  combined  with
annualized  capital costs equal the total costs for treatment and
disposal.  No interest cost was included for operating   (working)
capital.   Since working capital might be assumed to be one sixth
to one third of annual operating costs (excluding  depreciation),
about  1-2 percent  of  total  operating costs might be involved.
This is  considered  to  be  well  within  the  accuracy  of  the
estimates.

All  facility  costs  are estimated for representative facilities
rather than for any actual facility.   Representative  facilities
are  defined  to have a size and age agreed upon by a substantial
fraction of the manufacturers in the  subcategory  producing  the
given  mineral,  or,  in  the  absence  of  such a consensus, the
arithmetic average of production size and age for all facilities.
Location is selected to represent  the  industry  as  closely  as
possibly.   For  instance,  if all facilities are in northeastern
U.S., typical location is noted  as  "northeastern  states".   If
locations  are widely scattered around the U.S., typical location
would be not specified geographically.  It should be  noted  that
the  unit  costs  to treat and dispose of hazardous wastes at any
given facility may be  considerably  higher  or  lower  than  the
representative facility because of individual circumstances.

Costs are developed for various types and levels of technology:

Minimum   (or  basic  level^.   That  level of technology which is
egualled or exceeded by most or all of the  involved  facilities.
Usually money for this treatment level has already been spent  (in
the case of capital investment) or is being spent (in the case of
operating and overall costs) .

B,C,D,E	Levels - Successively greater degrees of treatment with
respect   to   critical   pollutant   parameters.   Two  or  more
alternative treatments are developed when applicable.

Rationale for Pollutant Considerations

(1)  All  non-contact  cooling  water  is  not   included   unless
    otherwise specified.
(2)  Water treatment, cooling tower and boiler blowdown discharges
    are not included unless otherwise specified.
(3)  The specific removal of dissolved solids is not included.
(U)  Mine dewatering treatments and costs are generally considered
    separately from process  water  treatment  and  costs.   Mine
                              297

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    dewaterinq costs are estimated for all mineral categories for
    which such costs are a significant factor.
(5)  All solid waste disposal costs are included as  part  of  the
    cost development.

The effects of age, location, and size on costs for treatment and
control  have  been  considered  and  are  detailed in subsequent
sections for each specific subcategory.
                              298

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          INDIVIDUAL MINERAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT AND
                         DISPOSAL COSTS

                         DIMENSION STONE

Of the sixteen facilities inspected, thirteen use settling  ponds
for  removal  of  suspended  solids  from waste water, two had no
treatment and the other facility  uses  a  raked  settling  tank.
Approximately  one-third  of  these facilities have total recycle
after settling.  Pond settling and recycle  costs  are  given  in
Table 15.  Since pond cost is the major investment involved, cost
for   settling  without  recycling  is  similar.   There  was  no
discernible  correlation  between  facility  age  and   treatment
technology  or  costs.   Facility  sizes  ranged  from  2,720  to
64,100 kkg/yr  (3,000 to 70,650 tons/yr).  Since pond  costs  vary
significantly  with  size  in  the  less  than one acre category,
capital costs may be estimated to be directly proportional to the
0.8 exponential of size and directly proportional  for  operating
expenses.   Waste  water  treatment  cost details for the typical
facility values at Level C are shown below.   Level B  costs  are
similar except for recycle eguipment.

Production:        18,000 kkg/yr (20,000 tons/yr)
                   8 hr/day; 250 days/yr

Water Use and Waste Characteristics:

              4,170 1/kkg (1,000 gal/ton)  of product
              2% of product in effluent stream
              5,000 mg/1  ?SS in raw effluent
              360 kkg/yr  (400 tons/yr) waste, dry basis
              280 cu. m.  (10,000 cu. ft.)  wet sludge per year
              1,300 kg solids per cu. m. sludge  (80 Ib/cu. ft.)

Treatment:    Recycle of wash water after passing through
              a one acre settling pond

Cost Rational:
         Pond cost                $10,000/acre
         Total pipe cost          $1/inch diam/linear ft.
         Total pump cost          $100/HP
         Power costs              $0.02/kwh
         Maintenance              5% of capital
         Taxes and insurance      2% of capital
         Capital recovery factor  0.1627
                              299

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                                  TABLE 15
                       DNENSIQN STONE TROTENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
187000
PLANT  AGE 50    YEARS
                                        KKG
PER YEAR  OF  Product
            PLANT  LOCATION   "ear population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of product )

Suspended Solids
• .




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
20





LEVEL
A
(MIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
20





B
10,000
1,600
900
200
2,800
0.16
0.8





C
13,600
2,200
950
400
3,550
0.20
0





D
•











E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
    A — direct discharge
     B — settling, discharge
    C — settling plus recycle
                                All costs are cumulative.
                                  300

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                          CRUSHED STONE
                           DRY PROCESS

An estimated seventy percent of the crushed granite and limestone
facilities use no process water.

                           WET PROCESS

A  typical  wet  crushed  stone  operation  is assumed to produce
180,000 kkg/yr (200,000 tons/yr), half of which  is  washed,  and
half   is  dry  processed.   The  assumed  wash  water  usage  is
1,COO 1/kkg (2UO gal/ton), and the assumed waste content is 6% of
the raw material.  The cost data are presented in Table 16.

Levels B and C involve simple settling,  discharge,  or  recycle.
The  waste  water  is passed through a one acre settling pond and
discharged or recycled back to the facility.  The pond is dredged
periodically and the sludge is deposited on site.

Level D involves settling  with  flocculants  and  recycle.   The
waste water is treated with a flocculant and passed through a one
acre  settling  pond.  The effluent is then recycled.  It is rare
that a flocculant would be needed to produce an effluent  quality
acceptable for recycle in a crushed stone operation.

Level B

    Pond Cost                     $10,000
    Pumps and piping                4,500
    Power                           1,000
    Pond cleaning                   6,000
    Taxes and insurance               UOO

Level C

    Total pond cost               $10,000
    Total pump and piping cost      9,000
    Annual capital recovery         3,100
    Power                           2,000
    Pond cleaning                   6,000
    Taxes and insurance               100

Level D

    Additional capital flocculant equipment $ 3,500
    Additional annual capital                   600
    Annual chemical cost                      1,000
                              301

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                                   TABLE 16
                  CRUSHED STONE (WET PROCESS) TRE/TOIT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE   180,000
PLANT  AGE  40   YEARS
                                          KKG
                      PER YEAR  OF  Crushed Stone
PLANT LOCATION  rural location near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of product )

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
60



.

LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0
60





B
14,500
2,400
6,400
'1 ,000
9,800
0.054
0.2





C
19,000
3,100
6,400
2,000
11,500
0.064
0





D
22,500
3,700
7,400
2,000
13,100
0.073
0





E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
    A — direct discharge
    B — settling pond,  discharge
    C — settling pond,  recycle
    D — flocculant, settling pond, recycle
                     All costs are cumulative.
                                  302

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Granite  fines settle somewhat slower than limestone fines.  As a
result, recirculation  granite  ponds  generally  run  about  50%
larger  than  those  of limestone for the same capacity facility.
The amount of waste in the effluent is largely dependent  on  the
type  of  product.   Six  percent  waste  solids was chosen as an
average value.  The range of wastes is 2 to 12 percent.  The cost
to treat per ton of  product  is  approximately  proportional  to
percent  waste.   The  amount  of  stone washed in any given year
varies with the demand for a washed product.  The  capital  costs
for  treatment  are more readily absorbed when a large portion of
the stone is washed.  Capital costs are estimated to be  directly
proportional  to the 0.9 power of size and operating expenses are
proportional to size.

There  are  an  estimated  1600  facilities  in   this   category
producting  an  estimated  140  million kkg (150 million tons) of
washed stone along with 140 million kkg (150 million tons) of dry
processed  stone  annually.   An  estimated  500  of  these  1600
facilities are presently on complete recycle.   The remaining 1100
facilities  produce  approximately 91 million kkg/yr (100 million
tons/yr) of stone, 50% of which  is  washed.   The  average  cost
increase per ton for the wet process crushed stone industry would
be  $0.048/kkg  ($0.044/ton)   to convert to recycle.  The capital
expenditure for the same is estimated to be $10,000,000.

                        FLOTATION PPOCESS

There are an estimated eight facilities in this subcategory, with
a combined estimated annual production of  450,000  kkg   (500,000
tons).   The  process  is identical to that of wet crushed stone,
except for an additional flotation step, using an  additional  5%
of  process  water.   The  wash  water  can be recycled as in wet
processing, but the flotation water cannot be  directly  recycled
due  to  the  complex chemical processes involved.  The two waste
streams can be combined; however, and be recycled in the  washing
process.   The  flotation process would require fresh input.  The
treatment used is settling ponds and recycle.   Assuming a 5% loss
(equivalent to  the  input  from  flotation)  from  the  combined
effects  of  percolation  and  evaporation,  discharge  would  be
eliminated under normal conditions.  It is estimated that two  of
the  eight facilities in this sufccategory are presently recycling
their wast^e water.  The remaining six could achieve recycle  with
total capital cost of $200,000.
                              303

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                  CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL
                           DRY PROCESS

A   typical   dry  process  sand  and  gravel  facility  produces
450,000 kkg/yr (500,000 tons/yr) of construction sand and gravel.
There is no process water use, no non-contact cooling  water  and
usually  no  pit  pumpout.   Since there is no water use or waste
water generated,  treatment  is  not  required.   Pit  pumpout  is
required  at  some  facilities  during  periods of high rainfall.
Some facilities also have a non-contact cooling water  discharge.
The  pit  pumpout  in some of these cases is settled in a sump or
pond.  Age, location, and production have no consistent effect on
waste waters from facilities in this subcategory, or on costs  to
treat  them.   There  are  an  estimated  750  facilities in this
subcategory  representing  a  production  of   129   x 106 kkg/yr
(143 x 1C6 tons/yr) .

                           WET PROCESS

The  average production rate of facilities in this subcategory is
130,000  kkg/yr   (143,000 tons/yr).   Median  facility  size   is
approximately ^27,000 kkg/yr  (250,000 tons/yr).  This is selected
as  representative  for  facility  size.  The assumptions used in
costing are that: 10 percent of raw  material  is  in  the  waste
stream  (68,000 mg/1),  11,400 1/min   (3,000 gal/min) is used for
washing, and all particles  down  to  200  mesh   (74 micron)  are
recovered  for sale by screw classifier cyclones, etc.  The costs
are listed in Table  17.

Level B: 5.6 acre settling pond and discharge of effluent.

    Pond cost           $28,000
    Pump cost             2,000
    Pipe cost             3,000
    Annual power            300
    Taxes and insurance     800
    Maintenance             800
Level C:  5.6 acre settling pond followed  by  recycle  of  waste
water.
    Total pond cost           $28,000
    Total pump cost             3,000
    Total pipe cost             6,000
    Power                         600
    Taxes and insurance         1,000
    Maintenance                 1,000
                               304

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                                         TABL£17
                     CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (WET  PROCESS)
                                     TREATMT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE    227,000
PUNT  AGE   5   YEARS
            KKG
PER YEAR OF   product
PLANT  LOCATION near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE $
COSTS:
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKO product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ biro of product )
-"*
Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
TOO





LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
C
0
TOO





B
33,000
5,400
1,600
300
7,300
0.03
0.4





C
37,000
6,000
2,000
600
8,600
0.04
0





D
40,000
5,200
21,000
600
26,800
0.12
0





E
50,000
8,100
29,200
400
37,700
0.17
0





F
180,000
29,200
41,400
600
71,200
0.31
0


•


G
21,600
2,600
28,100
400
31,100
0.14
0





LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
                           All costs are  cumulative,
   A — direct dischorge
   B — settling, dischorge
   C — settling, recycle
   D — two silt removal ponds, settling pond, recycle
    E — flocculont, mechanical thickener and recycle. Transportation of sludge to disposal basin.
    F ~ flocculant, inclined plate settlers, and recycle effluent. Transport sludge to disposal basin.
    G— flocculant, settling basin, recycle
                                       305

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Level D: Two silt removal ponds of O.OU ha (0.1  acre)   each  are
used  alternately  prior  to the main settling pond of 5.6 acres.
The life of the main pond is greatly increased  as  most  of  the
solids  are  removed  in  the  primary  ponds.  One small pond is
dredged while the other is in use.  The sludge  is  deposited  on
site.

    Total pond cost          $30,000
    Annual pond cost           3,600
    Total pump and piping     10,000
    Annual pump and piping     1,600
    Annual dredging and
      sludge disposal         20,000
    Power                        600
    Taxes and insurance        1,000

Level   E:    A   mechanical  thickener  is  used  along  with  a
flocculating  agent  to  produce  an  effluent  of  250 mg/1  for
recycle.   The underflow sludge is transported to a 1 acre sludge
disposal basin at a cost of $1.1/kkg ($l/ton)

    Total thickener cost          $ 18,500
    Sludge disposal basin cost      20,000
    Polymer feed system cost         1,600
    Pump and piping                  9,700
    Annual sludge transportation    25,000
    Annual chemical cost             2,200
    Annual power                       400
    Maintenance                      1,000
    Taxes and insurance              1,000

Level _F:  Inclined plate settlers are used to produce an effluent
of 250 mg/1 which is recycled back to the process.   A  coagulant
is  added  prior  to the settlers to increase settling rate.  The
underflow sludge is transported to a •* acre settling basin  at  a
cost of one dollar per ton of solids.  It should be noted that no
case  of  an  inclined plate settler successfully treating a sand
and gravel waste was found.  The advantage of this system is  the
small area required.

    Inclined plate settler cost        $150,000
    Pumping and piping                   10,000
    Sludge disposal basin                20,000
    Sludge transportation                25,000
    Chemical                              2,000
    Maintenance                           7,200
    Taxes and insurance                   7,200
    Power                                   600
                              306

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Level G: Flocculant added,  1 acre  settling  pond  is  used  for
treatment,  and  effluent is recycled to the process.  The sludge
is  dredged  and  deposited  on  site  at  a  cost  of  $0.55/kkg
($0.50/ton).

    Total pond cost               $ 10,000
    Polymer mixing unit              1,600
    Pump and piping                 10,000
    Chemical cost                    2,200
    Dredging                        25,000
    Power                              400
    Taxes and insurance                900

The  production  rate  in  this subcategory varies from 10,900 to
1,800,00 kkg/yr  (12,000 to 2,000,000 tons/yr).  The waste  volume
and  water  flow  vary  proportionately  with  production.   As a
result, the necessary settling area varies  proportionately  with
production.     The   necessary   pond   capacity   also   varies
proportionately  with  sludge  volume,   and   thus   production.
Pumping,  piping  and  power  costs  may also be considered to be
roughly proportional to water flow, and  production.   Thus,  the
capital  costs  for  Levels  B,  C,  D, and G are estimated to be
directly proportional to the 0.9 power of size.  Operating  costs
not related to capital are approximately directly proportional to
size.  Levels E and F use eguipment for clarification rather than
ponds.   Capital costs for them should be directly proportional to
the  power  of  0.7  to  size.   Operating  costs  not  based  on
capitalization are approximately directly proportional to size.

A facility having a waste content other than ten  percent  should
reguire  a  proportionately  different water usage.  The settling
area  required  to   obtain   recyclable   effluent   should   be
proportional  to  waste  content.   Dredging and pumping are also
proportional to waste content.  Thus the treatment cost  per  ton
of   product  should  vary  roughly  proportionately  with  waste
content.  Waste content can vary from less than 5% to 30%.

A canyon  or  hillside  can  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  pond
building.   Also,  a wet land can increase the cost of building a
pond.

A suspended solids average particle size  greater  than  the  one
shown would mean a proportionately smaller settling area would be
need  to  produce  recyclable  effluent.  A smaller particle size
could be countered with the use of a flocculant, if necessary.

An increase in settling  rate  would  require  a  proportionately
smaller  settling  area.   A settling rate increase due to the use
of coagulant of 100 times was assumed, based on laboratory  tests
and industry supplied information.
                              307

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There  are  an  estimated  4,250 facilities in the wet processing
subcategory, producing 519 million kkg/yr (573 million  tons/yr).
Of these, an estimated 50% (2,125 facilities)  are presently recy-
cling  their  effluent.  Another estimated 25% (1,063 facilities)
have no discharge under  normal  conditions  due  to  evaporation
and/or   percolation   in  settling  ponds.   The  remaining  25%
(1,063 facilities) presently have a discharge.  It  is  estimated
that  90%  of  the facilities having a discharge  (956 facilities)
presently have a ponding system.  These latter  facilities  could
in  most  cases  convert  their  ponds  to  a  recycle  system by
installing pumps and pipe, with  the  use  in  some  cases  of  a
coagulant.

Thus  the  facilities in this sutcategory without present ponding
systems are estimated to be 2.5% (107 facilities).  Almost all of
these facilities could install treatment  options  C,  D,  or  G,
which  are  the  least  expensive.   Options E or F would only be
reguired in an urban environment where sufficient  settling  area
is not available on site.

The  956  facilities  with  settling  pond  discharges produce an
estimated  152  million  kkg/yr    (168 million   tons/yr).    The
installation  of  a pump and piping system, and the addition of a
flocculant would result  in  a  total  annual  cost  per  ton  of
$0.02/kkg  ($0.018/ton), or the total capital expenditure reguired
represents about 7.4 million dollars.

The  107  facilities  which  are  presently  discharging  without
treatment produce an  estimated  16  million  kkg/yr   (18 million
tons/yr).   The  facilities  not  having  any ponds could achieve
recycle for a capital cost of 1.7 million dollars.  It is assumed
that  these  facilities  may  achieve  recycle  for  an   average
annualized  cost  of  $0.11/kkg  ($0.10/ton).  It should be noted
that a small fraction of these  107 facilities have  no  land  for
settling  ponds,  and  that no  sand and gravel facility utilizing
options E or F  (no ponds) to achieve recycle was found.


The entire subcategory of wet processed  sand  and  gravel  could
eliminate  discharge  of  process  effluent  for  a total capital
expense  of  about  10 million  dollars.   The  average  cost  of
production would rise $0.019/kkg ($0.017/ton).

                 RIVEP DREDGING, ON-LAND PROCESS

A  production  of   360,000 kkg/yr  (400,000 tons/yr) was assumed.
The same treatment options apply  as  in  wet  process  facility.
Costs  of  waste  water treatment for the typical facility can be
derived  from  these  presented  in  Table  17  by  applying  the
appropriate  size factors.  Factors affect treatment and costs in
the same manner as described for wet processing.
                               308

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There are an estimated fifty river dredging operations  with  on-
land processing, producing 13,300,000 kkg/yr (16,700,000 tons/yr)
of sand and gravel.  An estimated 50% of the facilities producing
50%  of  the  volume have no point source discharge at this time.
It is estimated that  twenty-two  of  the  remaining  twenty-five
facilities  have  settling  ponds  at  the present time.  Recycle
should be  achievable  with  the  aid  of  a  flocculant  for  an
increased  production  cost of $0.02/kkg ($0.018/ton).  The total
capital cost for the subcategory is estimated to  be  $1,500,000.
The  average  increase  in  production  costs would be $0.011/kkg
($0.01/ton).
                              309

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                         INDUSTRIAL SAND
                         DRY PROCESSING

Approximately 10 percent of the industrial sand  operations  fall
into  this  subcategory.  The only water involved comes from dust
collectors used by some facilities.   Of  the  five  dry  process
facilities  surveyed,  two  have  such  scrubbers  -  one without
treatment and the other with pond settling and complete  recycle.
Treatment is by addition of 5 mg/1 flocculating agent and recycle
through a one acre settling pond.

Assumptions:

    167,000 I/day (44,000 GPD) scrubber water
    5 days/week; 8 hours/day
    flocculant cost - $1/lb
    piping cost - $1/inch diam/linear foot
    pump cost - $1/HP/yr
    power cost - $.02/kwh
    pond cost - $10,000/acre
    TSS in raw waste - 30,000 mg/1
    pond cleaning - $0.5/ton of sludge

Capital Costs:

    pond                $10,000
    piping and pump       3,000
    polymer mixing unit   1,500
    total capital        14,500
    annual capital
      recovery            2,360

Operating Costs:

    pond cleaning            $  700
    power                       150
    chemical                     50
    maintenance                 725
    taxes and insurance         290
    total annual operating    1,700

    total annual recycle
      costs                   $4,000

                           WET PROCESS

The wet process uses washing and screening operations are similar
to  those  for  construction  sand  and gravel.  Treatment of the
waste water is also the same.  By use of  ponds,  thickeners  and
clarifiers,  three out of the four wet process facilities studied
                              310

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have no discharge of  process  water.   Table 18  summarizes  the
costs for two treatment technologies.

Level_A: 39 acre settling pond, discharge effluent

         pond cost                $60,000
         pump cost                  3,000
         piping cost                6,000

Level B
    Capital Costs

         settling pond area            39 acres
         pond cost                     $60,000
         pump costs                      6,000
         piping costs                   13,500
    total capital                      $79,500

    Annual Investment Costs

         pond costs  (20 yr life 3 10JK interest) = $7000
         pump costs  (5 yr life a 10ft interest) =   1500
         piping costs (10 yr life 9105S interest) = 2200
         total                                   $10,700

    Operating Costs

         maintenance costs 3 2% of capital   =   $1600
         power cost 9 $.02 per kwh           =    2000
         taxes and insurance cb 2% of
         capital                              =   1600
         total                                   $5200

Leyel^C
    Capital Costs

         settling pond area       -    39 acres
         pond costs               -    $60,000
         polymer feed system      -      5,000
         thickener                -     60,000
         pump costs               -     15,000
         piping costs             -     15,000
    total                             $155,000

    total annual capital costs (10 years 3 10%) = $25,200
                              311

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                                   TABLJE18
                  INDUSTRIAL SAND  (WET PROCESS) TREATOT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE    180,000
PLANT  AGE  10  YEARS
            KKG
PER YEAR OF   product
PLANT  LOCATION  near population center

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS' $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
/
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ WCT of product )

Suspended Solids
f




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
35





LEVEL.
A
(MIN)
69,000
8,000
2,800
1,000
11,800
0.07
0.7





B
79,500
10,700
3,200
2,000
15,900
0.09
0





C
155,000
25,200
21,900
2,000
49,100
0.26
0





D












E












LEV/EL  DESCRIPTION:
                     All costs  are  cumulative.
    A — settle,discharge
    B  — settle,  recycle
    C  — mechanical thickener with coagulant, overflow is recycled to process.  Underflow
        is passed through a settling basin.  Effluent from the settling basin is also recycled
        to process.
                                     312

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    Operating Costs

         chemicals                $11,000
         maintenance a 5%
           of capital               7,800
         power                      2,000
         taxes and insurance
           9 2% of capital          3,100
    total                         $23,900


The  facilities  surveyed for this sufccategory have ages from one
to 20 years.  There is no discernable  correlation  of  treatment
costs with facility age.  Production capacities range from 54,000
to   900,000 kkg/yr  (60,000  to  1,000,000 tons/yr).   Treatment
technology Levels ft and B,  involving  pond  costs,  should  show
slight  unit cost variation (0.9 power).  Level C technology with
a mechanical thickener as well as a  pond  are  estimated  to  be
directly  proportional  to  the  0.7 exponent of size.  Operating
costs other than taxes, insurance and  annualized  capital  costs
are estimated to be directly proportional to size.

                   ACID AND ALKALINE FLOTATION

There  are  three  types of flotation processes used for removing
impurities from industrial sands:

(1) Acid flotation to effect removal of iron oxide  and  ilmenite
    impurities,

(2) Alkaline flotation to remove aluminate bearing materials, and

(3) Hydrofluoric acid flotation for removal of feldspar.

These three flotation processes have  been  subdivided  into  two
subcategories;     (1) acid    and    alkaline    flotation    and
(2) hydrofluoric acid flotation.  Sufccategory  (1) is discussed in
this subsection and subcategory  (2)  in the following subsection.

Four  surveyed  acid  flotation  facilities  have   no   effluent
discharge.   One  alkaline  flotation facility has effluent waste
water similar in composition to the intake stream.  Recycle costs
for acid and alkaline flotation waste water are  given  in  Table
19.

Cost Basis For Table 19:

(1) production - 180,000 kkg/yr  (200,000 tons/yr)
(2) the process waste water is treated with  lime,  pumped  to  a
    holding  pond  and  recirculated  back  to the facility.  The
    holding pond is one-half acre and is cleaned once  every  ten
    years.
                              313

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                                  TABLE 19
                   INDUSTRIAL SAND (ACID AND ALKALINE PROCESS)
                                TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE     180,000
PLANT  AGE   30 YEARS
                                        KKG
                      PER YEAR.OF   product
PLANT  LOCATION  southeastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kk§ of product )

Suspended Solids •
•




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
100





LEVEL
A
(MIN)
115,000
1 8,700
19,000
1,000
38,700
0.22
0.4





B
135,000
22,000
21,200
2,000
45,200
0.25
0





C
-











D
•











E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
    A — neutralize, settle, discharge
    B — neutralize, settle, recycle
                   All costs  are cumulative,
                                   314

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    Capital Costs

         lime storage and feed system       -    $75,000
         reaction tank                      -     U0,000
         pumps and piping                   -     20^000
         Total                                 $ 135,000

    annualized capital cost (10 yr life a 10%)   $22,000

    Operating Costs

         chemical costs                -    $11,000
         maintenance a 5% of capital   -      7,300
         power                         -      2,000
         taxes and insurance a 2%
           of capital                  -      2,900
         total                              $23,200

Surveyed facilities in this subcategory ranged in age from one to
60 years.  There was no discernable correlation between treatment
costs and facility age.

Facilities   in   this   subcategory   range  between  19,000  to
1,360,000 kkg/yr (54,000 to  1,500,000 tons/yr).   Costs/acre  of
small  ponds  change significantly with size.  Also, the chemical
treatment  facilities  costs  are  estimated   to   be   directly
proportional  to  the 0.6 power of size.  Taken together, capital
costs are estimated  to  be  directly  proportional  to  the  0,7
exponent  of  size.  Operating costs, except for taxes, insurance
and other capital related factors may be expected to be  directly
proportional to size.

                          HF FLOTATION

Unlike  the  acid  and  alkaline  flotation processes where total
recycle is either presently utilized or believed to be  feasible,
waste  water  from  the  HF  flotation process is of guestionable
quality for total recycle.  Estimated costs for  partial  recycle
are given in Table 20.  Only one such facility is known.

Cost Basis For Tatle 20:

(1) production:  180,000 kkg/yr (200,000 tons/yr)
(2) all  waste  waters are fed to a thickener to remove suspended
materials.  The overflow containing 90 percent of  the  water  is
recycled  to the process, the underflow is fed to a settling pond
for removal of solid wastes and pH adjustment prior to discharge.
                              315

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                                    TABLE 20
                 INDUSTRIAL SAND OF FLOTATION) TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE     180,000
PLANT  AGE  -  YEARS
            KKG
PLANT LOCATION
PER YEAR .OF  product
                       •
   California

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ YYQ product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkS of product )

Suspended Solids
Fluoride




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
135
0.45




LEVEL
A
(MIN)
120,000
19,500
21,400
2,000
42,900
0.23
0.044
0.005



•
B
200,000
32,500
21,400
2,000
55,900
0.31
0
0




C
-

* *









D
•











E












 LEVEL DESCRIPTION: .
     A — 90% of wastewater removed in thickener and recycled to process.  Underflow from
         thickener fed to settling pond for removal of tailings and pH adjustment prior to
         discharge.
     B — segregate HF waste water, pond and evaporate; recycle other water after ponding.
All costs are cumulative.
                                    316

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Capital Costs

pond - 1/2 acre x 10 ft depth 3 $20,000/acre =   $ 10,000
lime storage and feed system                 =     30,000
thickener                                    =     60,000
pump costs                                   =      5,000
piping costs                                 =     15,000
total                                            $120,000

annualized investment costs (10 yr life a 10% interest)

     $120,000 x .1629  =  $19,500
    Operating Costs

maintenance 9 5% of capital
chemicals, lime 9 $20/ton
power 3 $.0 2/kwh
taxes and insurance a 2%
  of capital
    total
                                   $6,000
                                   11,000
                                    2,000

                                    2,400
                                  $23,400
                          317

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                             GYPSUM

Gypsum is mined at sixty-five sites in  the  United  States.    An
estimated  57  of  these facilities use no contact water in their
process.  Two known facilities use  heavy  media  separation  and
washing  to  beneficiate the crude gypsum ore,  which results in a
process effluent.

                           DRY PROCESS

There is no contact process water in this  category,  thus  there
are no waste water treatment costs.

                          WET SCRUBBERS

Since  the  contractor's  study,  no  plant  in  this subcategory
discharges process waste water.

                     HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION

Both facilities  presently  recycle  process  waste  water  after
settling  pond  treatment.  In one of the facilities an abandoned
mine is utilized as the settling pond.   Capital  investment  for
the  system is estimated to be $15,000.  Annual operating cost is
estimated to be $10,000.   Total  annualized  recycle  costs  are
estimated  to  be  $12,500.   This  results  in a recycle cost of
$0.05/kkg of gypsum produced ($0.0457ton).

                          MINE DRAINAGE

In all of the subcategories some facilities find it necessary  to
pump  out  their  guarries  because  of rainwater collection.  No
facility is presently treating its mine pumpout water other  than
what  clarification  occurs  in a sump, and the average effluents
are all below 25 mg/1.  Insofar as it is known there is  no  cost
to treat the pit pumpout.
                              318

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                       ASPHALTIC MINERALS

Of  the asphaltic minerals, bituminous limestone, oil-impregnated
diatomite and gilsonite, only gilsonite operations currently have
any discharge to surface  water.   For  gilsonite,  present  mine
water  drainage  treatment consists of pond settling of suspended
solids  prior  to  discharge.   Process   water   is   discharged
untreated.    Costs   for  present  treatment  are  an  estimated
$0.08/kkg  of  gilsonite  produced  ($0.07/ton).   Completion  of
treatment  facilities currently under construction will result in
no discharge of waste water  from  the  property  at  a  cost  of
$1. 10/kkg ($1/ton) of gilsonite produced.  The cost estimates are
given  in  Table  21.   The only gilsonite facility is located in
Utah.  All costs are specific for this facility.

    Level A
         Capital Costs

         pond cost, S/hectare ($/acre): 24,700  (10,000)
         settling pond area, hectares (acres):  0.8  (2)
         pump, piping, ditching:  $5,000

         Operating andMaintenance Costs

         taken as 2% of capital costs

    Level B
         Capital Costs

         pond costs - same as Level A
         sand filters -                $150,000
         pumps and piping -              40,000
         electrical and
           instrumentation               25,000
         roads, fences, landscaping -    15,000

         Operating and Maintenance Costs

         labor - 1/2 man a $10,000/yr       $ 5,000
         maintenance labor and materials
           9 H% of investment                10,000
         power 3 $.01/kw-hr                     500
         taxes and insurance
           3 2% of investment                 5,000
                              319

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                                    TABL£21
                            GILSONITE TREATOT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE    45,450
PLANT  AGE  50   YEARS
            KKG
PLANT LOCATION
PER YEAR OF  Gilsonite

  Utah

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'.. '$
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
AN,', 'UAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Gilsonite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
Mine Pumpout:
Suspended Solids,mg/liter
BOD, mg/liter
Process Wafer:
Suspended Solids, mg/Iitei
BOD, mg/liter
RA\V
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
25,000
2,940
500
200
3,640
0.08

3,375
12

17
43
B
250,000
29,400
20,000
500
49,900
1.10

0
0

0
0
c
-











D












E








•



        DESCRIPTION:
  A — pond settling of suspended solids in mine pumpout; no treatment of process water
      (present minimum).
  B — combining of mine pumpour and process water followed by pond settling, filtration
      and partial recycle.  Discharge from recycle to be used. for on-property irrigation.
                                      320

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                    ASBESTOS AND WOLLASTONITE

Asbestos is mined and processed at five locations  in  the  U.S.,
two  in  California,  and  one each in Vermont, Arizona and North
Carolina.  One facility in California uses wet  processing  while
the  remaining  four facilities use a dry process.  There is also
one wollastonite dry facility which has no  process  water.   The
wet  process  facility  discharges  twenty percent of the process
water      155,200 I/day       (41,000 gal/day)       to       two
percolation/evaporation  ponds.   The  ponds  total less than one
half  acre  in  size.   The  total  capital  investment  for  the
percolation  ponds  was estimated to be $2,000.  Annual operating
and maintenance is estimated to be $1,000.  The total  annualized
cost  is  estimated  to be $1,325 for the percolation/evaporation
ponds.  One pond serves as an overflow for the other,  therefore,
surface  water  discharge  almost  never  occurs.   The ponds are
dredged once annually.

Sixty-eight percent of the water in the wet process  facility  is
recycled via a three acre settling pond.  A natural depression is
utilized  for the pond, and dredging has not been necessary.  The
water recirculated amounts  to  529,900 I/day  (140,000 gal/day).
Annualized  cost  for the recirculation system is estimated to be
$2,500.  The remaining twelve percent of  the  process  water  is
retained  in  the  product  and tailings.  Total annualized water
treatment costs for wet processing of asbestos are  estimated  to
be  $3,825,  which  results  in  a  cost of $0.09/kkg of asbestos
produced ($0.08/ton).

All five operations Accumulate waste asbestos  tailings  at  both
facility  and  the  mining  site.   These tailings are subject to
rainwater runoff.  At two sites dams have been built  to  collect
rainwater  and  create  evaporation/percolation ponds.  The total
capital  investment  at  each  site  is  estimated  to  be  $500,
Operating  and maintenance costs for these dams are considered to
be negligible.  Natural canyons were utilized in  both  cases  to
create  the  ponds.   One  facility  because  of  its  geological
location  must  discharge  water  collected  in  its  mine.   The
alkaline grcundwater in the area requires the water to be treated
by  addition  of  0.02 mg/1  sulfuric acid before discharge.  The
pumping costs for this operation are considered to be part of the
production process.  The chemical costs are  less  than  $100/yr.
The estimated capital cost for total impoundment of mine water to
eliminate the discharge is $15,000.
                              321

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                 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS

                             PERLITE

All  U.S.  perlite  facilities  are  in southwestern U.S. and the
processes are all dry.  Since there is no water used, there is no
waste  water  generated,  or  water   treatment   required.    One
investigated mine does dewater the quarry when water accumulates,
but  this  water is evaporated on land at estimated cost of $0.01
to $0.05/kkg (or ton)  of perlite produced.

                             PUMICE

At most facilities, there are no waterborne wastes as no water is
employed.  At one facility there is scrubber water  from  a  dust
control  installation.   The scrubber water is sent to a settling
pond prior to discharge.  Because of the relatively small  amount
of  water  involved and the large production volume of pumice per
day, treatment costs for this one facility are roughly  estimated
as  less  than  $0.05/kkg  (or  ton)  of  pumice produced at that
facility.

                           VERMICULITE

Two facilities represent almost all of the total U.S. production.
Both of  these  facilities  currently  achieve  no  discharge  of
pollutants ty means of recycle, pond evaporation and percolation.
Detailed costs for a typical facility are given in Table 22.  The
ages  of  the  two  facilities are  18 and UO years.  Age is not a
cost variance factor.  One facility is located in Montana and the
other  in  South  Carolina.   In    spite   of   their   different
geographical  location,  both are able to achieve no discharge of
pollutants by the same general means and  at  roughly  equivalent
costs.   Facility  sizes  range  from  109,000  to 209,000 kkg/yr
 (120,000 to 230,000 tons/yr).  Since  pond  costs  per  acre  are
virtually  constant  in  the  size  range  involved,  waste water
treatment  costs  may  be  considered  directly  proportional  to
facility  size  and  therefore invariant on a cost/ton of product
basis.  Capital and operating  costs  were  taken  from  industry
reported values.  The basis of these values is shown as follows:
Assumptions:

    Production:
    Process Water Use:
    Treatment:

    Capital Cost:
    Operating Costs:
    Annual Capital
      Recovery:
157,000 kkg/yr (175,000 tons/yr)
8,350 1/kkg (2,000 gal/ton)
settling ponds and recycle of
  process water
$325,000
$ 45,000/yr

$ 52,900
                               322

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                                  TABLE 22
                         VERMICULITt TREATrBTT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
160,000
KKG
PER YEAR  OF   product
PLANT AGE  30  YEARS
             PLANT  LOCATION    Montana or South Carolina

INVESTED CAPITAL CQSTS:. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 8. M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POV/ER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
9
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ vvi» of product )
"
Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
1,600





LEVEL
A
(WIN)
325,000
52,900
40,000
5,000
97,900
0.62
0





B





•






C
•











D
.











E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:,
  A — recycle, evaporation and percolation.
                                All costs are cumulative.
                                 323

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                              MICA

There  are seven significant wet mica beneficiation facilities in
the U.S., seven dry grinding facilities  processing  beneficiated
mica,  and three wet grinding facilities.  There are also several
western U.S. operations using dry surface mining.  They have some
mine water drainage.  Treatment for this mine water is  estimated
as  $0. 19/kkg  ($0.2/ton) (based on a 1/2 acre pond 3> $10,000/acre
and operating costs of $750/yr).

                    WET BENEFICIATION PLANTS

Eastern U.S. beneficiation  facilities  start  with  matrices  of
approximately  10 percent  mica  and  90 percent  clay, sand, and
feldspar  combinations.   Much  of  the  non-mica   material   is
converted  to  saleable  products,  but  there  is  still a heavy
portion which must be stockpiled or collected  in  pond  bottoms.
The  variable  nature  of  the  ore,  or matrix, leads to several
significant treatment/cost considerations.  Treatment  costs  and
effluent  quality  differ  from facility to facility.  Additional
saleable products reduce the cost impact of the overall treatment
systems developed.  Solids  disposal  costs  are  often  a  major
portion of the overall treatment costs, particularly if they have
to be hauled off the property.

All  of  these factors can change the overall treatment costs per
unit of product of Table 23 by at least a factor of two in either
direction.  The known ages for four of the seven facilities range
from 18 to 37 years.  There  is  no  significant  treatment  cost
variance  due  to  this  range.   The  sizes range from 13,600 to
34,500 kkg/yr  (1,500 to 3,800 tons/yr).  The unit costs given are
meant to be  representative  over  this  size  range  on  a  unit
production basis.

Treatment Level A  -  Pond  settling  of  process wastes  (minimum
treatment)

(1) Production rate - 16,400 kkg/yr (18,000 ton/yr)

(2) Solid wastes ponded - 34,200 kkg/yr  (38,000 ton/yr)

(3) Solid waste stockpiled - 45,000 kkg/yr  (50,000 ton/yr)

(4) Pond size - 4 hectares  (10 acres)

(5) Effluent quality
     (a)  suspended solids - 20-50 mg/1
     (b)  pH - 6-9

(6) Waste water effluent - 5.7 x 10* I/day  (1.5 mgd)
                              324

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                                    TABLE  23
                              MICA TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE     16,360
PLANT  AGE   27  YEARS
            KKG
PLANT  LOCATION
PER  YEAR.OF     Mica
  South eastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS ft
y
COST/ KKG Mica

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of Mica )


Suspended Solids
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

2,100
—



LEVEL
A
(WIN)
150,000
17,600
50,000
2,000
69,600
4.3

2.5-6
6-9



B
275,000
32,300
64,500
3,000
99,800
6.1

1.2-2.5
6-9



C
300,000
35,200
68,000
5,000
108,200
6.6

0
-



D
245,000
39,900
74,400
5,000
119,300
7.3

1.2-2.5
6-9



E
245,000
39,900
74,400
5,000
119,300
7.3

0
-



LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
                                                  All costs  are cumulative
  A — minimum level ponding
  B  — extended ponding and chemical treatment
  C  — closed cycle pond system (no discharge)
  D — mechanical thickener and filter
  E  — closed cycle thickener and filter-system (no discharge)
                                   325

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    Capital Costs

         Ponds                              =    $100,000
         Pumps and piping                   =      35,000
         Miscellaneous constructions        =      15,000
         Total                              =    $150,000

         Assume 20 yr life and 10% interest
           capital recovery factor  =  .1171

         Annual investment costs    =  $17,610/yr

    Operating Costs

         Solid wastes handling a $0.30/ton  =    $15,000
         Pond cleaning 3 $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance                        =     10,000
         Power                              =      2,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance 3 2% of
           capital                          =      3,000
         Total                                   $52,000

Treatment Level B - Pond settling of process wastes and
chemical treatment

The basis is the same as for Level A, except

         (1)  Pond size - 8 hectares (20 acres)
         (2)  Chemical treatments - lime, acid and
              flocculating agents used as needed
         (3)  Effluent quality
              (a)  suspended solids - 10-20 mg/1
              (b)  pH - 6-9

    Capital Costs

         Ponds                              =    $200,000
         Pumps and piping                   =      50,000
         Miscellaneous construction         =      25,000
         Total                                   $275,000

         Annual investment costs  =  $32,285/yr
                              326

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    Operating Costs

         Solid wastes handling a $0.30/ton  =    $15,000
         Fond cleaning 3 $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance                        =     15,000
         Chemicals                          =      5,000
         Power                              =      3,000
         Labor (tnisc)                       -      5,000
         Taxes and insurance 8 2%
           of capital                       =      5,, 500
         Total                                   $67,500

Treatment Level C - Total recycle of process water using
pond system

Basis:   Same as Level B except no discharge

    Capital Costs

         Ponds                              =    $200,000
         Pumps and piping                   =      75,000
         Miscellaneous construction         =      25,00.0
         Total                                   $300,000

         Annual investment costs  -  $35,220

    Operating Costs

         Solids wastes handling d> $0.30/ton =    $15,000
         Fond cleaning 8 $0.50/ton          =     19,000
         Maintenance                        *     20,000
         Chemicals                          =      5,000
         Power                              =      5,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance 9 2% of
           capital                          *      6,000
         Total                                   $73,000

Treatment Level D - Thickener plus filter  removal  of  suspended
solids.   Generally  pond  systems  are  the preferred system for
removing suspended solids from waste water.  In  some  instances,
however,  when  the  land for ponds is not available or there are
other reasons for compactness, mechanical thickeners, clarifiers,
and filters are used.  The basis is the  same  as  for  Level  B,
except no pond is reguired.

    Capital Costs

         Thickener - 15 meter (50 ft.)  diameter  =    $150,000
         Filter system installed                 =      35,000
         Pumps, tanks, piping, collection        =      50,000
         Conveyor                                =       5,000
                              327

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         Building                                =       5,000
         Total                                        $245,000

         At 10 yr life and 109S interest rate
         Capital recovery factor  =  .1627
         Annual investment costs  =    $39,862

    Operating Costs

         Solids wastes handling 8 $0.30/ton =    $26,400
         Maintenance                        =     20,000
         Chemicals                          =     20,000
         Power                              =      5,000
         Labor                              =      3,000
         Taxes and insurance a 2%
           of capital                       =      5,000
         Total                                   $79,400

Treatment Level E  -  Thickener  and  filter removal of suspended
solids and recycle to eliminate discharge.  The basis is the same
as for Level D, complete recycle of treated wastes.

    Capital Costs

         The same as for Level D - pumping and piping to  surface
         water  discharge  taken  to  be  the same as for recycle
         piping and pumping.

    Operating Costs

         The same as for Level D
         Total annual costs  =  $119,300

                       DRY GRINDING PLANTS

There are no discharges from this subcategory.

                       WET GRINDING PLANTS

Of the three facilities involved, one sends its small  amount  of
waste  water  to nearby waste treatment facilities of much larger
volume, the second has no waterborne waste due to the  nature  of
its  process  and  the  third  uses  a  settling  pond  to remove
suspended solids prior to water recycle.  Total costs  for  waste
water  treatment  from  this  third  operation  are  estimated as
$2.60/kkg of wet ground mica  produced  ($2.30/ton).   A  capital
investment of $65,000 is reguired.
                              328

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                             BARITE

Of  the  -twenty-seven known significant U.S. facilities producing
barite ore or ground barite, nine  facilities  use  dry  grinding
operations,  fourteen  use  log  washing  and  jigging methods to
prepare the ore  for  grinding,  and  four  use  froth  flotation
techniques.

DRY GRINDING OPERATION

There  is  no  water  used  in dry grinding facilities, therefore
there are no treatment costs.

WASHING OPERATIONS

The ratio of barite product  to  wastes  vary  greatly  with  ore
quality,  but in all cases there is a large amount of solid waste
for disposal.  Only about 3 to 7 percent by weight of the ore  is
product.   The  remainder  consists of rock and gravel, which are
separated and  recovered  at  the  facility,  and  mud  and  clay
tailings,  which are sent as slurry to large settling and storage
ponds.

In Missouri, where most of the washing  operations  are  located,
tailings  ponds are commonly constructed by damming deep valleys.
It is customary in log washing operations to  build  the  initial
pond  by  conventional  earthmoving  methods  before the facility
opens so that process water can be recycled.  Afterwards the rock
and gravel gangue are used by the facility to build up the dam on
dikes to increase the pond capacity.  This procedure  provides  a
use for the gangue and also provides for storage of more clay and
mud  tailings.   The  clay  and mud are used to seal the rock and
gravel additions.  All facilities totally recycle  process  water
except   during  periods  of  heavy  rainfall  when  intermittent
discharges occur.  A washing facility located in Nevada also uses
tailings ponds with total recycle of waste water and no discharge
at any time.  The dry climate and the scarcity of water  are  the
factors  determining  the  feasibility  of  such  operation.   In
Table 24 are estimated costs for treatment.

Operations in dry climates  (e.g. Nevada)   would  be  expected  to
have  treatment  costs  similar  to Level A, even at no discharge
level.  All facilities are currently  at  Level  A  or  C.   Some
facilities  use  Level  B treatment partially.  The necessity and
extent of such treatment depends on quality  of  water  presently
discharged.   Level  C  is not achievable in unfavorable terrain.
With favorable local terrain zero discharge of process  water  is
achievable.   Known ages range from less than 1 to 19 years.  Age
was not found to be a significant factor in cost variance.   Both
geographical  location  and local terrain are significant factors
in treatment costs.   Western  operations  in  dry  climates  can
achieve  no  discharge at all times at a cost significantly below
                              329

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                                     TABLE 24
                        BARI7E (WET PROCESS) TREATMT COSTS
PLANT SIZE    I8'OQQ

PLANT AGE   n   YEARS
           KKG
                       PER  YEAR -OF
PLANT LOCATION    Missouri or Nevada

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS; $
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AMD ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENEHGY AND POY/ER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Borite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(mg/ liter)
Suspended solids
fron
Leod
pH


RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
180,000
21,150
10,000
10,000
41,150
2.26
(5-327*
0.04-8.4*
X 03 -2.0*
6-9*


B
260,000
30,500
16,400
10,000
56,900
3.13
25*
1.0*
0.1*
6-9*


C
265,000
31,100
13,600
11,000
55,700
3.06
0
0
0
_.


D












E












 LFVEL DESCRIPTION'     *on>Y discharged during peri pa's of heavy rainfall

 A.  Complete recycle except in times of heavy rainfall
B . A plus treatment of all discharged water with lime and floccubnts
C.  Complete recycle - no discharge at al! times (ability to achieve this level
    depends on local terrain - not all plants are capable of attaining zero discharge)
 All costs are cumulative.
                                      330

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eastern  operations.   Costs  vary   significantly   with   local
watersheds,  elevations, and availability of suitable terrain for
pond construction.  Nine  facilities  in  this  subcategory  have
production rates ranging from 11,000 to 182,000 kkg/yr  (12,100 to
200,000 tons/yr).   The  representative facility is 18,000 kkg/yr
(20,000 tons/yr).  Eight of the nine facilities  have  less  than
30,000 kkg/yr  production   (33,000 tons/yr).   The  single  large
facility in this subcategory that was investigated is the western
facility for which costs have  been  discussed  earlier  in  this
section.  For the eight eastern facilities, the capital costs are
estimated  to  be directly proportional to the 0.9 exponential of
size over this range/ and  directly  proportional  for  operating
costs other than taxes, insurance and capital recovery.
Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre)
(a) tailings ponds:
(b) clarification ponds:
12,350
7,400
(5,000)
(3,000)
Pond areas, hectares  (acres)
(a) tailings ponds:          8.1
(b) clarification ponds:     8.1

Pumps and pipes:   $50,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Power unit cost:
Pond maintenance:
Pump and piping maintenance:
Taxes and insurance:
Plocculants:
Lime:

FLOTATION OPERATIONS
     (20)
     (20)
     $100/HP-yr
     2% of pond investment
     6X of non-pond investment
     2% of total investment
     $2.20/kg ($1.00/lb)
     $22/kkg ($20/ton)
Flotation  is  used  on  either  fceneficiated  low  grade  ore or
high-grade ore which is relatively  free  of  sands,  clays,  and
rocks.   Therefore,  they produce significantly less solid wastes
(tailings) than washing operations, and  consequently  less  cost
for waste treatment.

Wastewater  treatment is similar to that previously described for
washing  operations:   pond  settling  and  storage  of  tailings
followed  by  recycle.   Of  the three facilities investigated in
this category two are in the east  and  one  in  the  west.   The
western   facility   achieves   no  discharge;  the  two  eastern
facilities do not.
                              331

-------
Costs for the barite flotation process are  given  in  Table  25.
Level  A  is currently achieved in the Nevada facility.  Levels B
and C represent technology used ty  present  eastern  operations.
Level  D is for projected no discharge at eastern operations.  At
eastern operations ability and  costs  to  achieve  no  discharge
depend  on  local  terrain.   costs developed are for cases where
favorable terrain makes achievement of no discharge possible.

Ages for the three facilities ranged from 10  to  58 years.   Age
was  not  found  to  be a significant cost variance factor.  Both
geographical location and  local  terrain  are  significant  cost
variance  factors.   western  operations  are  able to achieve no
discharge  at  treatment  costs  below  those  for   intermittent
discharge  from  eastern  facilities.   No known eastern facility
currently achieves no discharge.  The flotation facilities  range
from  33,600  to  91,000 kkg/yr (37,000 to 100,000 tons/yr).  The
representative  facility   is   70,000 kkg/yr   (77,000 tons/yr).
Treatment  costs  are  essentially  proportional  to size in this
range.

Capi tal Costs

Tailings pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):    7,400    (3,000)
Pond area, hectares (acres) :                  20     (50)
Pumps and piping:                       $50,000
Chemical treatment facilities:          $50,000

Operating and Maintenance costs

Pond maintenance:            2% of pond investment
Taxes and insurance:         2% of total investment
Power - $100/HP-yr
Treatment Chemicals
    Lime:     $22/kkg  ($20/ton)
    Flocculating agent:      $2.20/kg  ($1/lb)

MINE DRAINAGE

The mining of barite is  a  dry  operation  and  the  only  water
normally  involved  is  from  pit or mine drainage resulting from
rainfall and/or ground seepage.   Most  mines  do  not  have  any
discharge.    Rainwater  in  open  pits  is  usually  allowed  to
evaporate.  One known mine,  however,  has  over  1.9 x  106 I/day
 (0.5 mgd)  of  acidic  ground seepage and rainwater runoff.  Lime
neutralization and pond settling of suspended solids of this mine
drainage costs an approximate   $2  per  kkg  of  barite  produced
 ($1.8/ton).   Most  of  this  cost  is  for lime and flocculating
agents.
                               332

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                                       TABLE 25
                     BARITE (FLOTATION PROCESS) TREATOT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
70,000
PLANT  AGE  33   YEARS
                                            KKG
PER YEAR  OF    Bar5te
              PLANT  LOCATiON  Missouri, Nevada, Georgia

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING Ah'D MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 £'; M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND PO\VER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKn Barite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(mg/liter)
Suspended Solids
phi




Rft.W
WASTE
LOAD
:50,000
-

	

LEVEL
A
(WIN)
150,000
17,600
6,000
10,000
33,600
0.49
0
-




(mm)
200,000
23,480
7,000
15,000
45,480
0.67
3-250
6-9




C
250,000
31,600
12,000
15,000
58,600
0.86
25
6-9




D
310,000
36,400
11,400
15,000
62,800
0.92
0
-




E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
7T. ~PoncF sefrling oi solids plus recycle of wafer to process; no discharge (western operation)
B.  Pond settling of solids plus recycle of water to process; intermittent discharge; no chemical
    treatment for discharged water
C.  B plus chemical treatment with lime and/or flocculating agent to adjust pH end reduce
   suspended solids
D. B plus additional pond capacity for total impoundment (requires favorable local terrain)

                                      333

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                            FLUOFSPAR

Beneficiation of mined fluorspar ore  is  accomplished  by  heavy
media  separations  and/or  flotation operations.  Although these
technologies are used separately  in  some  instances,  generally
beneficiation facilities employ both techniques.

HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATIONS

The  primary  purpose of heavy media separations is to provide an
upgraded and preconcentrated feed for flotation facilities.  Five
of the six heavy media operations have no waste water  discharge.
The  sixth  facility  uses a pond to remove suspended solids then
discharges to surface  water.   Wastewater  treatment  costs  are
given  in  Table  26.   Level  A  technology  is  achieved by all
facilities.  Level B is currently achieved by 5 of the 6.

Ages for this subcategory range from 1 to 30 years.  Age was  not
found  to  be  a significant factor in cost variance.  Facilities
are located in the Illinois-Kentucky area and  southwestern  U.S.
There are facilities with no process effluents in both locations.
Location  is  not  a  significant  factor  in cost variance.  The
facilities having heavy media  facilities  range  from  5,900  to
81,800 kkg/yr    (6,500   to   90,000 tons/yr)   production.   The
representative facility is 40,000 kkg/yr  (45,000 tons/yr).  Since
thickeners are the major capital investment,  capital  costs  are
estimated  to  be directly proportional to the 0.7 exponential of
size.  Operating costs other than taxes,  insurance  and  capital
recovery are estimated to be directly proportional to size.

Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre):    7,400      (3,000)
Pond size, hectares  (acres):                    4     (10)
Pumps and piping costs:                     $20,000
Thickeners:                                 $50,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Pond maintenance:      ' 2% of pond investment
Pumps and piping maintenance:     6% of investment
Pond cleaning:     15,000 ton/yr 3) $.35/ton
Power:   $100/HP-yr

FLOTATION SEPARATIONS

Wastewater from flotation processes are more difficult and costly
to  treat  and dispose of than those from heavy media separation.
The bulk of the solid wastes from the ore are discharged from the
flotation process.  Flotation chemicals probably  interfere  with
settling  of  suspended  solids  and fluoride contents are higher
than in the heavy media process.
                              334

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                                     TABLE 26
                      FUJORSPAR (HMS PROCESS) TREATMENT COSTS
 PLANT SIZE
                40,000
KKG
PER  YEAR/OF   fluorspar
 PLANT AGE  8   YEARS      PLANT LOCATION   M?dwest

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 & M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ K^G fluorspar

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of fluorspar )

Suspended solids
Dissolved Fluoride
Lead
Zinc
pH

RAW
WASTE
LOAD
340
0.04
«
-
-

LEVEL
A
(MIN)
50,000
5,850
7,050
2,500
15,400
0.38
0.13
0.04
0.0002
0.0012
6-9

B
70,000
8,200
8,250
5,000
21,450
0.52
0
0
0
0
0

c












D












E
X











 LEVEL DE

A. Spiral classifier followed by small pond with discharge
B. Thickener plus total recycle
 All costs are  cumulative.
                                   335

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Cost estimates for waste water treatment  from  a  representative
flotation  facility are given in Table 27.  Level A is typical of
Kentucky-Illinois area waste water treatment.  Level B represents
costs for planned future treatment for these operations. Level  C
represents treatment technology used for municipal water, but not
currently used for any fluorspar waste water.

In the fluorspar flotation category facility ages range from 1 to
35 years.   Age  has not been found to be a significant factor in
cost variance of treatment options.  Both  geographical  location
and  local  terrain  are  significant cost variance factors.  Dry
climate western operations can  achieve  no  discharge  at  lower
costs than midwestern operations can meet normal suspended solids
levels  in their discharges.  Facility sizes range from 13,600 to
63,600 kkg/yr (15,000  to  70,000 tons/yr).   The  representative
facility  size  is  40,000 kkg/yr   (45,000 tons/yr).  The capital
costs are estimated  to  be  directly  proportional  to  the  0.9
exponential of size over this range and directly proportional for
operating   costs   other  than  taxes,  insurance,  and  capital
recovery.


Capital costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):     12,350  (5,000)
Pond size, hectares  (acres): 10  (25)

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Labor:        $5.00/hr
Power:        $100/HP-yr
Taxes and insurance:    2% of investment
Flocculating chemicals: $2.20/kg  ($1/lb)
Lime:                   $22/kkg  ($20/ton)
Alum:                   $55/kkg  ($50/ton)

FLUORSPAR DRYING AND PELLETIZING PLANTS

There are three significant  fluorspar drying facilities.  Two  of
these  facilities  are  dry  operations.   The  third  has  a wet
scrubber but treats the effluent as part of HF production wastes.
Pelletizing facilities are also  dry operations.

MINE DRAINAGE

Fluorspar mines often have significant  drainage.   Normally  the
fluoride  content is  3 mg/1  or less and suspended  solids are low.
Even when higher concentrations  of suspended solids are  present,
settling  in  ponds   is  reported  to be rapid,  cost for removing
these solids are estimated to be $0.01 to $0.05 per kkg or ton of
fluorspar produced.
                               336

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                                    TABLE 27
                   FLUORSPAR (FLOTATION PROCESS)  TREATOJT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE    40,000
KKG
PER  YEAR OF    fluorspar
PLANT  AGE   l5   YEARS      PLANT  LOCATION    Midwest

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
t
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: - $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ Yy of Producl-

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ KKG of Product )

Suspended solids
Dissolved fluoride




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
2,000
0.05-0.2




LEVEL'
A
(MIN)
130,000
15,300
24,600
8,000
47,900
1.20
5-35
0,05-0.2




B
135,000
21 ,700
53,700
10,000
85,400
2.14
0.3-0.6
0.05-0.2




C
185,000
21 ,700
69,700
10,000
101 ,400
2.54
0.2-0,4
0.05-0.1


•

D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION
A - pond settling and discharge
B - A plus treatment with flocculants
C - A plus alum treatment
        All costs are cumulative.
                                 337

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                    SALINES FROM ERINE LAKES

The extraction of several mineral products from  lake  brines  is
carried  out  at  two  major  U.S.  locations:  Searles  Lake  in
California and the Great  Salt  Lake  in  Nevada.   Also  lithium
carbonate  is  extracted at Silver Peak, Nevada.  The only wastes
are depleted brines which are  returned  to  the  brine  sources.
There is no discharge of waste water and no treatment costs.

                             BORATES

The  entire U.S. production of borax is carried out in the desert
areas of California by two processes:  the mining and  extraction
of borax ore and the trona process.  The latter is covered in the
section  on  salines  from lake brines.  The trona process has no
waste water treatment  or  treatment  costs  since  all  residual
brines  are  returned  to  the source.  The mining and extraction
process accounts for about three-fourths of  the  estimated  U.S.
production  of  borax.  All waste water is evaporated in ponds at
this facility.  There is no discharge to  surface  water.   Costs
for  the  ponding  treatment  and disposal are given in Table 28.
Since there is  only  one  facility,  minimum  treatment  and  no
discharge treatment costs are identical.


Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):    20,000  (8,000)
Pond area, hectares  (acres): 100  (250)          •
Pumps and piping:  $500,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Pond maintenance:  255 of pond investment
Pump and piping maintenance: 6% of pump and piping investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr
Taxes and insurance:    2% of total investment
                               338

-------
                                   TABLE 28
                             BORAHS TREATOTT COSTS
PLANT SIZE     1/000,000
KKG
PER YEAR/OF  Borates
PLANT AGE I7   YEARS     PLANT LOCATION

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERAflNG AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Borates

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ ^0 of Borates )
"
Solid wastes (insol.)
Soluble wastes




RAY/
WASTE
LOAD
800
2.5




LEVEL
A
(M1N)
>,500,000
293,500
120,000
30,000
443,500
0.44
0
0




B












C












D












E












LEVEL D£SCff/PT/O.v;
A - evaporation of all wastewator in ponds.
       All costs are cumulative.
                                  339

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                             POTASH

Potash  is produced in four different locations by four different
processes, all of which are in dry climate areas of  the  western
U.S.   Two processes, involving lake brines, have no waste water.
All residual brines are returned  to  the  lake.   There  are  no
treatment  costs.   The  third process (Carlsbad Operations), dry
mining followed by wet processing to separate potash from  sodium
chloride   and  other  wastes,  utilizes  evaporation  ponds  for
attaining no discharge or waste water.  Treatment costs are given
in Table 29.   The  fourth  process  (Moab  Operations)   involves
solution  mining  followed by wet separations.  This process also
has no discharge of waste water.  Treatment costs  are  given  in
Table 30.

Age is not a cost variance factor.  All facilities are located in
dry   western   geographical   locations.    Location  is  not  a
significant factor on costs.  Known  facility  sizes  range  from
450,000   to  665,000 kkg/yr  (500,000  to  730,000 tons/yr)   for
Carlsbad Operations.  There is only  one  facility  in  the  Moab
Operations  category.   There  is  no  significant  cost variance
factor  with  size  for   the   Moab   or   Carlsbad   Operations
subcategories.

Cost Basis for Table 29

Capital Costs

Pond cost, {/hectare ($/acre):    2,470  (1,000)
Evaporation pond area, hectares  (acres) :    121  (300)
Pumps and piping:  $100,000

Operating and Maintenance Costg

Maintenance, taxes and insurance:  H% of investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr

Cost Basis for Table 30

Capital Costs

Dam for canyon:    $100,000
Pumps and piping:  $250,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Labor:   $10,000
Maintenance:  Q% of investment
Taxes and insurance:    2% of investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr
                              340

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                                   TABLE 29
                   POTASH (CARLSBAD OPERATIONS) TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
PLANT AGE
                 500,000
                            KKG
30
     YEARS
PLANT  LOCATION
                     PER YEAR
                     New Mexico
                                                       Potash

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS;' $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 £>, M {EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG P°tash

WASTE LCAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kke of Potash )

Sodium chloride
Clays
Magnesium sulfate
Potassium sulfate
Potassium chloride*

RAW
WASTE
LOAD
0-3750
15-235
0-640
0-440
0-318

LEVEL
A
(MIN)
400,000
47,000

8,000
71,000
0.14
0
0
0
0
0

B












C












D












E












LEVEL DCSCftJPT/0/y:
A - Evaporation ponds
                                    *cisDr7ne
                                    All costs  are cumulative.
                                341

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                                   TABLE 30
                     POTASH (MOAB OPERATIONS) TREATOT COSTS
PLANT SiZE  20°'°00
                      KKG
PLANT AGE
            10
YEARS
PLANT  LOCATION
PER YEAR OF  Potash

Utah

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND f/AINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 8, M "(EXCLUDING
POV/ER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
$
COST/ KKG potash

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(Kg/ vu-. of potash) )

Sodium chloride
•




RAW
WASTE
LOAD
640





LEVEL'
A
(MIN)
350,000
56,950
45,000
5,000
106,950
0.53
0





B












C












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
A - Holding pond plus on-land evaporation
                               All costs  are cumulative.
                                 342

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                              TRONA

All  U.S.  mining of trona ore is in the vicinity of Green River,
Wyoming.  There are four mining facilities, three of  which  also
process  ore  to  pure  sodium  carbonate  (soda ash).   The fourth
facility has only mining operations  at  this  time.   Wastewater
from  these  operations come from mine drainage, ground water and
process water.

PROCESS WATER

Of the three processing facilities,  two  have  no  discharge  of
process  water  and  one  does.   Plans are under way at this one
facility to eliminate process water  discharge.   Table 31  gives
cost  estimates  for  both  treatment levels for the hypothetical
representative facility.

The ages of the three  processing  facilities  range  from  6  to
27 years.   Age  was not found to be a significant factor in cost
variance.  All facilities are located in sparsely populated areas
close to Green River, Wyoming.  Geographical location  is  not  a
significant cost variance factor.  Local terrain variations are a
factor.  Some desired or existing pond locations give seepage and
percolation  problems;  others  do  not.   The  costs  to control
seepage or percolation in an  area  with  unfavorable  underlying
strata  can  be  considerably more than the original installation
cost of a pond in an area with no seepage  problems.   The  costs
are  valid  for locations with minor pond seepage problems, which
at present is the typical case.  For locations with  bad  seepage
problems,  the  costs  of an interceptor trench to an impermeable
strata plus back-pumping should be added.  Based on 1973 soda ash
production  figures,  the   three   processing   facilities   are
approximately  of  the  same  size.   All of these facilities are
substantially increasing their output  over  a  period  of  time.
Size  is not a significant factor in cost variance from facility-
to-facility.


Capital Costs

Pond cost, S/hectare  ($/acre):    7,400  (3,000)
Pond area, hectares  (acres)
    Level A:  162 (400)
    Level B:  271 (670)
Pumps and piping
    Level A:  $300,000
    Level B:  $400,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Pond maintenance:  2% of pond investment
Pump and piping maintenance: 6% of pond investment
                              3U3

-------
                                     TABLE 31
                               TRDNA TREATMT COSTS
PLANT SIZE   1,000,000
PLANT  AGE   15  YEARS
                                        KKG
                           PLANT LOCATION
PER  YEAR -OF  Soda Ash

Wyoming	

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG soda ash

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(Kg/ kke of soda ash }


Suspended Solids
Dissolved Solids



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

5
35



LEVEL
A
(MIN)
1,500,000
176,100
102,000
80,000
358,100
0.36

0.005
0.06



B
2,400,000
282,100
1 60,000
100,000
542,000
0.54

0
0



C












D












E












                                                  All costs  are cumulative.
A
B
       Evaporation ponds with small discharge
       Evaporation ponds with no discharge
                                  344

-------
Taxes and insurance:  H% of total investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr

MINE DRAINAGE

All of the four mines have some drainage.  The average flow mines
is 0.64 x 10* I/day (0.17 mgd).  This is approximately 10 percent
of average process water and is estimated on this basis  to  cost
$0.01  to  $0.05 per  kkg or ton of soda ash produced for ponding
and  evaporative  treatment.   One  facility  currently  has   an
unusually  high  mine pumpout volume, 1.8 x 10* I/day (0.43 mgd).
The  costs   to   contain   and   evaporate   this   amount   are
proportionately higher.

GROUND WATER AND RUNOFF WATER

Ground  water  and  runoff water are also led to collection ponds
where settling and substantial evaporation take  place.    On  the
basis  of  known  information  no meaningful cost estimate can be
made, since the amounts are extremely variable and, nevertheless,
small compared to the process water volume.
                              345

-------
                         SODIUM SULFATE

Sodium  sulfate  is  produced  from  natural  sources  in   three
different geographical areas by three different processes:

(1)  Recovery from the Great Salt Lake;
(2)  Recovery from Searles Lake brines;
(3)  Recovery from west Texas brines.

Processes (1)  and (2) have no waste water treatment or  treatment
costs.   All  residual brines are returned to the lakes.  Process
(3)  has  waste  water  which  is  percolated  and  evaporated  in
existing mud flat lakes.  There is no treatment.  The waste water
flows  to  the  mud lake by gravity.  Costs are almost negligible
(estimated as $0.01 to $0.05 per kkg or  ton  of  sodium  sulfate
produced) .
                              346

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                            ROCK SALT

This  study  covers those facilities primarily engaged in mining,
crushing and screening rock salt.  Some of these facilities  also
have  evaporation  operations  with a common effluent.  The waste
water from mining, crushing  and  screening  operations  consists
primarily  of a solution of varying sodium chloride content which
comes from one or more of the following sources:

(1)  wet dust collection in the screening and sizing step;
(2)  washdown of miscellaneous spills in the  operating  area  and
    dissolving of the non-saleable fines;
(3)  seepage from mine shafts.
    runoff from salt piles
Wastewater  volumes  are  usually   fairly   small,   less   than
500,000 I/day (130,000 gal/day), and are handled in various ways,
including  well  injection  and surface disposal.  Well injection
costs for minewater drainage are estimated to be in the range  of
$0.01  to  $0.05 per  kkg or short ton of salt produced.  Surface
disposal is costed in Table 32.  Most often there is no treatment
of the miscellaneous saline  waste  water  associated  with  this
subcategory.   Some  facilities  use  settling  ponds  to  remove
suspended solids prior to discharge.  In the event that  land  is
not  available  for  ponds,  costs for alternate technology using
clarifiers instead of ponds are given in Level C.  Age, location,
and size are not significant factors in cost variance.

Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre) :    49,000 (20,000)
Pond size, hectares (acres): 0.2 (0.5)
Pumps and piping cost:  $5,000
Clarifier:    $35,000

Operating and Maintenance

Pond maintenance:  2% of pond investment
Pump and piping maintenance: 10% of pump and piping
  investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr
Taxes and insurance:    2% of total investment.

For alternative D, an actively used storage silo of 100,000
tons capacity is assumed.
                              347

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                                      TABLE 32
                              ROCK SALT TREATIW COSTS
PLANT SIZE
1,000,000
PLANT  AGE   30  YEARS
KKG
PER  YEAR --OF   salt
             PLANT  LOCATION   Eastern United States



INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POV.'F.R AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND PO\VER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG sa|f

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ vkp of salt )


Suspended solids
Dissolved solids



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

0-0.9




LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0

0-0.9




B
15,000
1,760
700
500
2,960
<0.01

0.009




C
50,000
8,150
3,000
3,000
13,150
0.01

0.009




D
523,000
85,300
23,000
2,000
110,300
11


0



E






••





LEVEL  D:;SCR/PTJO;V:
                                  All costs are cumulative.
   A — No wastewater treatment
   B — Pond settling of suspended solids followed by discharge
   C — Clarifier removal of suspended solids followed by discharge
    D- Salt  storage  pile  structures
                                  348

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                         PHOSPHATE ROCK

Phosphate ore is mined in four different regions of the U.S.:

    Florida:            78% of production
    North Carolina:     5% of production
    Tennesse:           5% of production
    Western States:     12% of production

For purposes of costs the above production may be separated  into
two groups:  eastern operations and western operations.

                       EASTERN OPERATIONS

The  beneficiation  of  phosphate  ore  involves large volumes of
waste water.  In addition, there are large  quantities  of  solid
wastes.  Baw wastes, sand, and small particle sized slimes in the
process  raw  wastes  exceed  the  guantity of phosphate product.
Essentially two waste water streams come from the  process:  sand
tailings  stream  and  a slimes stream.  The sand tailings settle
rapidly for use in land reclamation.  The water from this  stream
can  then  be recycled.  Slimes, on the other hand, settle fairly
rapidly but only compact to 10-20 percent solids.  This mud  ties
up  massive  volumes  of water in large retention ponds.  Most of
the process waste water treatment costs are also tied up  in  the
construction  of  massive dams and dikes around these ponds.  All
mine and beneficiating facilities practice complex water  control
and  reuse.   The  extent  of  control  and reuse depends on many
factors, including:

(1) topography
(2) mine-beneficiating facility waste pond layouts
(3) age of facilities
(H) fresh water availability
(5) regulations
(6) level of technology employed
(7) cost.

Most water discharges are  intermittent;  heavy  during  the  wet
season  (3-6 months/yr), slight or non-existent during dry seasons
(6-9 months/yr).   Water  discharged during the wet season due to
insufficient storage  capacity  could  be  used  during  the  dry
season, if enough empty pond space is available.

Since  water control fundamentally involves storage and transport
(pumping) operations, by construction of additional storage  pond
and  piping  and  pumping facilities almost any degree of process
waste water control may be achieved up to  and  including  closed
cycle.  No discharge of process water involves two premises:

(1) Only process water is contained.  Mine drainage  is  isolated
    and  used as feed water or treated  (if needed) and discharged
                              349

-------
    separately.  Rainwater runoff is also treated separately,  if
    needed.

(2)  Evaporation-rainfall imbalances are more than counterbalanced
    by water losses in slime ponds.  Slime ponds are  essentially
    water  accumulation ponds where water is removed from recycle
    by holdup in the slimes.

All costs are for treatment  and  storage  of  suspended  solids.
There  is  no  treatment  applied  specifically  for fluorides or
phosphates although existing treatment will result in a degree of
removal of these pollutants.   Table 33  gives  costs  for  three
levels  of  treatment  technology.   All  facilities  use Level A
technology, and most use  some  degree  of  Level  B  technology.
Level  C technology is currently not used.  All discharged wastes
are expressed in concentrations, since the volume of waste  water
discharges  from  the  facilities  vary  widely depending on age,
terrain,  local  rainfall,  and  water  control  practice.   Most
facilities  currently  achieve less than 30 mg/1 suspended solids
as a monthly average at Level A.  Those  that  do  not  would  be
expected  to have the additional expenditures of Level B to reach
30 mg/1 suspended solids.

Facilities representing the eastern  phosphate  rock  subcategory
range  in  age  from  3  to  37 years.   Age  was not found to be
significant factor in cost variance.  Operations are  located  in
Florida,  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.   Pond construction is
different in Tennessee, which is hilly, than in flat  areas  such
as  Florida  and North Carolina.  Flat area facilities have diked
ponds while  in  Tennessee  facilities  use  dammed  valleys.   A
comparison  indicates  that  construction costs are approximately
the same for both areas and location is not a significant  factor
in  cost  variance.  The facilities in the eastern grouping range
in   size   from   46,300   to   4,090,000 kkg/yr   (51,000    to
4,500,000 tons/yr).      The     representative    facility    is
2,000,000 kkg/yr   (2,200,000 tons/yr).    Capital   costs    are
estimated to be directly proportional to the 0.9 exponent of size
and  directly  proportional for operating costs other than taxes,
insurance and capital recovery.


Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):    17,300  (7,000)
Pond area, hectares  (acres):      400  (1,000)
Pumps and piping:       $1,000,000
                              350

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                                      TABLE 33
                      PHOSPHATE ROCK (EASTERN) TREATOJT COSTS


PLANT SIZE     2,000,000	   KKG         PER YEAR-OF  product
PLANT AGE   15  YEARS      PLANT  LOCATION  Florida-North Carolina-Tennessee

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ product

W\STE LOAD PARAMETERS
(mg/liter)

Suspended Solids
Dissolved Fluoride
Phosphorus (total)


RAY/
\VASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
8,000,000
804,000
360,000
240,000
1,404,000
0.70

3-560
2*
4*


B
8,650,000
910,000
389,000
300,000
1,599,000
0.80

<30
2*
4*


C
1 2,000,000
1,560,000
429,000
335,000
2,324,000
1.16

0
0
0


D












E







.




/ R/H n,^r:r?/PT/.O.V * Estimated average values.
   A — Pond treatment of slimes and sand tailings
   B — A plus improved process water segreation
  C — Pond treatment plus impoundment of all process water
 All costs are cumulative.
                                 351

-------
Operating and Maintenance Costs

Labor and maintenance:  2.516 of total investment
Taxes and insurance:    2% of total investment
Power:   $100/HR-yr

                       WESTERN OPERATIONS

Because of the favorable  rainfall-evaporation  balance  existing
for  western  phosphate  mines  and  processing  facilities,  all
facilities are either at the no discharge level or can be brought
to this level.  Of six operating areas, five have  no  discharge.
Table 3H  gives  cost  of  waste  water  treatment technology for
western operations.

The six western operations range in age from 6 to 27 years.   Age
was  not  found  to  be  a significant cost variance factor.  Ail
facilities in this sufccategory are located in Idaho, Wyoming  and
Utah.   Location  is  not  a  significant  cost  variance factor.
Facilities in this subcategory range  in  size  from  296,000  to
909,000 kkg/yr      (326,000     to    1,000.000 tons/yr).     The
representative  facility  is  500,000 kkg/yr    (550,000 tons/yr).
Over  this  range  of sizes, capital costs can be estimated to be
directly proportional  to  the  exponent  of  0.9  to  size,  and
operating  costs other than capital recovery, taxes and insurance
are approximately directly proportional to size.


Capital Costs

Pond costs, $/hectare ($/acre):   1,900  (2,000)
Pond size , hectares  (acres):     100  (250)
Thickener:    $200,000
Pumps and piping:  $150,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Labor and maintenance:  2.5% of investment
Power:                  $100/HP-yr
Taxes and insurance:    2% of investment

                          MINE DRAINAGE

The high water table plus the heavy seasonal rainfall in most  of
the  eastern  mining  areas  usually  causes  the  mining pits to
collect water.  Whenever feasible,  mine  drainage  is  used  for
slurrying  phosphate  matrix  to the beneficiation process.  When
this is not possible, drainage can be pumped into other mined out
pits.   Mine  drainage  involves  primarily   on-property   water
control.   Any  that  is  may  be expected to be treated as waste
water.   Treatment  costs  are  roughly  estimated  at  $0.01  to
$0.05 per kkg or ton of product.
                               352

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                                       TABLED

                      PHOSPHATE ROCK (WESTERN)  TREATFBfT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
500,000
PLANT  AGE  10   YEARS
                                          KKG
PER  YEAR "OF  product
             PLANT  LOCATION  Idaho-Utah

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M ( EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS
9
COST/ ££Q product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkS of product }


,._ Suspended solids _ ..
Fluoride (as ion)
Phosphorus (total)


RAW
WASTE
LOAD

1700
-
-


LEVEL
A
(MIN)
850,000
93,500
38,500
50,000
182,000
0.36

<0.05
< 0.001
< 0.001


B
1,250,000
140,500
56,500
75,000
272,000
0.54

0
0
0


C












D












E







.




LEVEL
  A — Thickener plus evaporation ponds; discharge of residual to surface water
   B — • Level A plus additional evaporation ponds to give no discharge.
All costs are cumulative.
                                '  353

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                     SULFUR (FRASCH PROCESS)

There are two sutcategories of sulfur mining:

(1) anhydrite deposit mining;
(2) on-shore salt dome mining;

ANHYDRITE DEPOSIT MINING

The following is a comparison  of  waste  water  from  mining  of
sulfur  from  anhydrite deposits to that from mining of salt dome
deposits:

(1) The porous structure of anhydrite deposits  absorbs  more  of
    the injected water and reduces the amount of bleedwater.

(2) Since the  anhydrite  deposits  are  not  filled  with  salt,
    bleedwater  is lower in dissolved solids than the average for
    salt  dome  bleedwater.    Anhydrite   mines   recycle   this
    bleedwater to the formation.

(3) The location of anhydrite mines is in western Texas where the
    dry climate makes it possible to evaporate waste water.  Salt
    dome mines are in Louisiana and east Texas  which  have  more
    rainfall.

Treatment and cost options are developed in Table 35 for complete
recycle  of  anhydrite  deposit  mining  bleedwater.   Since both
anhydrite deposit mines are now  accomplishing  this  level,  the
costs also represent minimum level treatment technology.  Most of
the  costs  are  for  water  treatment chemicals for the recycled
bleedwater.

The  anhydrite  deposit  mining  subcategory  consists   of   two
facilities,  5 and 7 years of age.  Age is not a significant cost
variance factor.  Both facilities are located in  western  Texas.
Location  is  therefore  not  a significant cost variance factor.
Based on water treatment costs supplied by both facilities,  size
in existing facilities is not a significant cost variance factor.


Capital Costs

Water treatment installations:         $300,000
Thickeners and evaporation ponds:      $100,000
Pumps and piping:                      $150,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Bleedwater volume, I/day  (mgd):   18.9 x 106  (5.0)
Bleedwater treatment, $/1,000 liters  (gallons):  $0.09  ($0.35)
The energy and power costs were supplied by facility 2020
                               354

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                                     TABLE 35

                         SULFUR  (ANHYDRITE) TREATTBH COSTS
PLANT SIZE     1,000,000
PLANT AGE  6   YEARS
                                        KKG
PLANT  LOCATION
PER  YEAR OF  sulfur


  Western Texas

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS; $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL. COSTS $
COST/ KKG sulfur

V/ASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of sulfur )

Water softener sludge
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids



RAW
WASTE
LOAD
12.5
-
2ino-
43.?



LEVEL
A
(WIN)
550,000
90,000
705,000
30,000
825,000
0.83

0
0



B












C












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:

  A — Recycle of all bleedwater, use of on-site evaporative disposal of water

  .,,  softener sludges.
 All costs are  cumulative.
                                  355

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ON-SHORE SALT DCME MINING

There  are  nine facilities in the U.S. producing sulfur from on-
shore salt dome operations.  The wide variability  of  bleedwater
quantity  per  ton of sulfur produced has been taken into account
by expressing all pollutants in  terms  of  concentration  rather
than  weight  units.  Cost analyses for on-shore salt dome sulfur
facilities are given in Table 36.  Several  companies  are  using
(or  have  used)  Level A technology, at least one uses Level B as
part of their treatment, one uses Level C, five use Level D,  one
uses  Level  E,  one  Level  F and no one currently uses Level G.
Level G is included to show the costs for complete  oxidation  of
all sulfides, in the bleedwater to sulfates.

The  on-shore  salt  dome sulfur mining subcategory consists of 9
facilities ranging in age from 6  to  45 years.   Age  is  not  a
significant  cost variance factor.  All facilities are located in
eastern  Texas  and  Louisiana.   Geographical  location   is   a
significant cost variance factor only in that lengthy ditches (up
to  37 km  or 22 miles) often had to be dug to get the bleedwater
discharge to suitable surface water.   All  facilities  now  have
such  outlets.   New facilities in this subcategory would have to
make such provisions, guite likely at major  expense.   The  nine
facilities   in   this   subcategory   range   from   150,000  to
1,270,000 kkg/yr     (165,000    to    1,400,000 tons/yr).     The
representative facility is 500,000 kkg/yr (550,000 tons/yr).  The
capital  costs  over this size range are estimated to be directly
proportional to the 0.8 exponential of size for process equipment
treatment facilities such as Levels C and F, 0.9 exponential  for
mixed  facilities  such  as  Level E and directly proportional to
size for Level D pond  treatment.   Operating  costs  other  than
taxes,  insurance  and  capital  recovery  are  estimated  to  be
directly proportional to size.

The  costs  are  assumed  to  be  directly  proportional  to  the
bleedwater volume per unit of production.  Exclusive of sea water
dilution,  the  range  of  relative  bleedwater volumes found was
6,900 to 22,100 1/kkg  (1,700 to 5,300 gal/ton).

Capital costs for Levels C through F  were  taken  from  industry
supplied  values  and  adjusted  for  size.   Level G is based on
500 mg/1 of sulfides in 18.9 x 10* I/day  (5 mgd  of  bleedwater).
Operating and maintenance costs for Levels C through F were taken
from  industry  supplied  values.  The chlorine costs for Level G
are $110/kkg  ($100/ton).

OFF-SHORE SALT DCME MINING

There is only  one  operational  off-shore  salt  dome  facility.
Bleedwater is directly discharged without treatment into the Gulf
of  Mexico.   Dissolved  methane  gas  occurring naturally in the
bleedwater provides initial turbulent mixing  of  bleedwater  and
                              356

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                                            TABLE 36
                        SULFUR (ON-SHORE SALT  DOME)  TREA7MT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
500,000
PLANT  AGE  26   YEARS
                                        KKG
PER YEAR -OF  sulfur
             PLANT LOCATION Louisiona-East Texas
„
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS:
. . . _ _ S
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: . $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POV/ER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POY.'ER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG sulfur

V.'ASTE LOAD PARAMETERS

Sulfide, ma/lifer


Suspended solids, mg/litcr

RA',7
Y.'ASTE
LOAD

600-
IOC.CL

<50

LEVEL . ^
A
(MINI)
50,000
5,870
2,500
1,000
9,370
0.02

500


<50

B
50,000
5,870
5,000
20,000
30,870
0.06

200-400


<50

C
1,540,000
250,000
145,000
10,000
405,500
0.81

<1


<50

D
3,200,000
375,700
1 02,000
10,000
488,400
0.98

< 1


<50

E F
1 ,500,000 3,000,000
176,000 • 488,000
300,000
100,000
570,000
1.15
' •
<1


<50

415,000
25,000
928,000
1.86
•
<1


30

G
20,000
3,200
3,400,000
1,000
3,404,000
6.80
i
j
0


<50

LEVEL .Ei'
  A — Flashing of hydrogen sulfide from bleedwater
  B — Spray aeration
  C — Flue gas skipping reaction plus ponding
  D — Large oxidation and settling ponds
  E — Acrolion in small ponds followed by mixing of partially treated bteedwator with
       10-20 times its volume* of oxygen-containing water
  F — Cnomicol treatment \vilh sulfuious acid
  G— Chemical treatment with chlorine
                                         357

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sea  water.   Dissolved  oxygen  in the sea water reacts with the
sulfides present.  Current practice and two additional  treatment
technologies  and  their  estimated  costs are given in Table 37.
Level A represents present technology; Level B is piping  of  all
bleedwater  to shore (10 miles away) followed by on-shore ponding
treatment; Level C is off-shore chemical  treatment  of  sulfides
with  chlorine.   Level  B is predicated on right-of-way and land
availability, which has yet to be established, for  pipeline  and
pond  construction.  Level C technology is not currently utilized
in any existing sulfur production facility.
Capital Costs

Pumps and piping:
Land cost, $/hectare ($/acre):
Land area, hectares  (acres):
Pond cost, $/hectare, ($/acre):
Dilution pumping station:
New off-shore platforms:
Pumps and piping:
Chemical treatment facilities:
Construction overhead:

Operating and Maintenance Costs
  $10,200,000
  12,300 (50,000)
   40        (100)
   6,200 (2,500)
  $520,000
$4,200,000
$2,200,000
  $200,000
  20% of direct costs
Labor and maintenance:            Q% of investment
Power:                            $100/HP-hr
Chlorine, dollars/kkg  (dollars/ton):   110  (100)
Taxes and insurance:    2% of investment costs
                               358

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                                        TABU 37
                      SULFUR (OFF-SHORE SALT DOME) TREATMT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE
1,000,000
PLANT  AGE   14  YEARS
KKG
             PLANT LOCATION
 PER  YEAR -OF  sulfur
Off-Shore Louisiana

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 & W (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG sulfur

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ tto ^f sulfur )


Suspended Solids
Su! fides



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

0.3
5.5



LEVEL
A
(M!N)
0
0
0
0
0
0

0.3
5.5



B
13/50,000
2,237,000
1,385,000
200,000
3,822,000
3.82

0.2
0.03



C
7,920,000
1,288/500
6,21 2,000
100,000
7,600,600
7.60

0.2
0.03



D












E












LEVEL . P
   A — Use of oxygen in seawater to oxidize sulfides
   B — All bleea'wafer pumped to shore followed by on-shore ponding and mixing
       with ambient water to oxidize sulfides
   C — Off-shore chemical  oxidation of sulfides with chlorine
  All costs  are cumulative.
                                   359

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             MINEPAL PIGMENTS (IRON OXIDE PIGMENTS)

One of two processes are used depending on the source and  purity
of the ore.  For relatively pure ores, processing consists simply
of crushing and grinding followed by air classification.  This is
a  dry  process  which  uses no water and has no treatment costs.
Alternatively, for less pure ores, a  washing  step  designed  to
remove  sand  and  gravel,  followed  by dewatering and drying is
used.  This process has waste water  treatment  costs.   Table 38
gives  cost  estimates  for  waste  water  treatment for this wet
process.

The one facility found using  the  wet  process  has  an  age  of
50 years.   Age  is  not  believed to be a significant factor for
cost variance.  Location was not found to be a significant factor
for cost variance.  Only one facility was  found  using  the  wet
process.   Size  is  not  believed to be a significant factor for
cost variance.
Capital Costs

Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre) :    24,700 (10,000)
Settling pond area, hectares (acres):       0.40 (1)
Pumps and piping:                           $5,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Maintenance:  14% of investment
Power:   $100/HP-yr
Taxes and insurance:    2% of investment
                               360

-------
                          MINERAL
        TABLE 38
             TREATMT COSTS
PLANT SIZE  '  3,000
PLANT AGE  50  YEARS
           KKG
PLANT  LOCATION
                      PER YEAR.OF  product
                                                      Eastern United States

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS; $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 G M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG product

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(|;g/ kkS of product }

Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
—





LEVEL
A
(WIN)
15,000
1,750
900
500
3,250
1.08
2.3





B
20,000
2,530
1,200
1,000
4,550
1.52
0





C












D












E


-









LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
 A — Pond settling and discharge
 B — Pond settling and total recycle
                   All costs are  cumulative.
                                    361

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                        LITHIUM MINERALS

There are only two facilities mining and processing spodumene ore
in the U.S.  At both facilities  the  process  water  recycle  is
90 percent  or  greater.   The  remainder  is  discharged.  Large
volumes of solid wastes  are  inherent  to  the  process.    These
wastes  are  stored  and/or  disposed  of by a combination of the
following means:

(1)  Landfill or land storage of solids;
(2)  Storage of settled solids in ponds;
(3)  Processing and recovery as salable by-products; and
(4)  A small portion is discharged to surface water  as  suspended
    or dissolved materials.

The  two  facilities  differ  as  to  the above options employed.
Processing and recovery or by-prcducts also introduces new wastes
into the waste water that are not present otherwise.   Therefore,
the  treatment  technologies  and  costs  developed  in  Table 39
represent  the  best  estimate  of  composite  values  for   both
facilities.   Level  A represents present performance and Level B
future  performance.   Level  B  is  based  mainly  on  projected
installations   for   which  the  two  facilities  have  supplied
technology and cost information.  Age  was  not  found  to  be  a
significant factor in cost variance.  Both facilities are located
in North Carolina.

Capital Costs

Pond costs, $/hectare  {$/acre) : v  7,i»00  (3,000)
Pond area, hectares  (acres):      50  (125)
Pumps and piping:       $100,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs

Pond maintenance:       2% of invested pond capital
Non-pond maintenance:   6% of invested non-pond capital
Labor cost:             $10,000/man-yr
Power:                  $100/HP-yr
Chemical:               $lOO,000/yr

MINE DRAINAGE

Mine  drainage  is  less than 10 percent of the total waste water
volume and is now partially treated with the process waste water.
Approximate estimates for treating any  necessary  residual  mine
drainage water are $0.01 to 0.05/kkg of product produced.
                              362

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                                  TABLE 39
                      LITHIUM MINERALS TREATO1T
PLANT  AGE   15  YEARS
PLANT LOCATION
North Carolina

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG _££0.cjjntrgte 	
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
spodumene
(fcQ/ Vke of ^concentrate
Suspended Solids





RAW
WASTE
LOAD
100-
620





LEVEL
A
(MiN)
475,000
77,300
133,000
10,000
220,300
4.90
0.9





B
725,000
128,000
212,000
15,000
340,000
7.56
0.9





C












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
  A — Ponding of wasiewafer to remove suspended solids plus     recycle of
       process wasrewater
  B — Level A plus segregation and treatment of additional wastewater streams plus
       recycle of all         process wastewater
 All  costs are cumulative.
                                    363

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                            BENTONITE

There  is  no  waste  water  from  the  processing  of bentonite.
Therefore, there is no treatment cost involved.

                            FIRE CLAY

The only waste water from mining and processing of fire  clay  is
mine  water  discharge.   Treatment  costs for settling suspended
solids in mine water are estimated at $0.01-0.05/kkg of  produced
fire  clay for non-acid mine drainage.  Since there is no process
water discharge in the production of  fire  clay,  there  are  no
costs for process waste water treatment.

                         FULLER'S EARTH

Fuller's  earth  was divided into two subcategories - attapulgite
and  montmorillonite.   Suspended  solids  in  attapulgite   mine
drainage  and  process water generally settle rapidly.  Suspended
solids in montmorillonite mine drainage  and  process  water  are
more  difficult to settle.  Estimates of treatment costs for mine
water,  including  use   of   flocculating   agents   to   settle
montmorillonite   wastes,   range  from  $0.17  to  $0.28/kkg  of
montmorillonite produced, see Table 42.  Process and air scrubber
waste water treatment costs are summarized in Tables 40 and 41.

In the montmorillonite subcategory, there  are  three  facilities
ranging  in  age  from  3  to 18 years.  Age is not a significant
factor in cost variance.  There are four facilities  representing
the  attapulgite  subcategory ranging in age from 20 to 90 years.
Age is not a significant factor in cost variance.

The facilities in  the  montmorillonite  subcategory  range  from
13,600    to    207,000 kg/yr    (15,000-228,000   ton/yr).    The
representative facility is 182,000 kkg/yr  (200,000 ton/yr).   The
attapulgite  facilities  range from 21,800 kkg/yr  (24,000 ton/yr)
and 227,000 kkg/yr  (250,000 ton/yr).  The representative facility
is 200,000 kkg/yr  (220,000 ton/yr).  In both these  subcategories
the  capital  costs  are estimated to be directly proportional to
the  0.9  exponential  of  size  and  directly  proportional  for
operating costs other than tcixes, insurance and capital recovery.

Cost Basis for Table 40

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre): 24,700  (10,000)
    Mine pumpout settling pond area, hectares  (acres) :0.1  (0.25)
    Process Settling pond area, hectares  (acres):2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Energy unit cost: $0.0l/kwh
                               364

-------
                                 TABLED
                        ATTAPULGITt TREAT1OT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
200,000
PLANT  AGE  60  YEARS
KKG   PER YEAR  OF Attapulgite
             PLANT  LOCATION
       Georgia-North Florida Region

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS; $
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
kg/ kkg

TSS
PH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(MIN)
71 ,000
8,400
37,400
200
46,000
0.21

0.01-0.02
6-9



B
77,000
9,300
39,800
200
49,300
0.22

0.01
6-9



C
95,000
11,100
39,100
300
50,500
0.23

0
_



D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
  A — pond settling
   B — A plus flocculating agents
  C —• B plus recycle to process
                                All costs are cumulative.
                                   365

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                                 TABLE 41
                      IWITORILLONITC TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
182,000
KKG
PLANT AGE  10  YEARS
             PLANT  LOCATION
          PER  YEAR OF  Montmorlllonite

           Georgia	  	  _

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 S M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Mp^pmoft\\etnitt
WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/kkg of monttnQrillJr

TSS
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD
ite)






LEVEL
A
(WIN)
60 , 000
7,000
30,900
200
38,100
0.21
-
0.3
6-9



B
65,000
7,900
32,900
200
41 ,000
0.22
*
0.05
6-9



C
80,000
9,400
32,300
300
43,000
0.24

0
-



D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
   A — pond settling of scrubber water
   B — A plus flocculating agents
   C — B plus recycle to process
                                All costs are cumulative.
                                 366

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                                 TABLED
                 fOTDRILLJONITE MINE WATER TFOTENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
182,000
PLANT  AGE   70  YEARS
                                         KKR
             PLANT LOCATION
 PER  YEAR  OF Montmorillonfte

Georgia 	^^
-
INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 8 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Montmorillonite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS

TSS, mg/liJ-er




RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(WIN)
0
0
0
0
0
0

20u—
5,000




B
60,000
15,800
12,300
3,000
32,300
0.17

zuu-
2,000




C
62,000
16,300
32,300
3,000
51,800
0.28

<50




D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
   A — no treafmenf
   B ~ pond setHing
   C ~ B plus flocculaUng agents
                               All costs are cumulative.
                                 367

-------
    Labor rate assumed: $10,000/yr

Cost Basis for Table 41

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare  (S/acre):2U,700  (10,000)
    Mine pumpout settling pond hectares  (acres):0.1  (0.25)
    Process settling pond area, hectares  (acres):2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Treatment chemicals
         Flocculating agent: $1.50/kg  ($0.70/lb)
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Labor rate assumed: $10,000/yr
                               368

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                             KAOLIN

Kaolin mining and processing operations differ widely as to their
waste water effluents.  All treatments involve settling ponds for
their basic technology.  Dry mines need no treatment or treatment
expenditures.  Wet mines (from rain water and ground seepage)  use
settling  ponds to reduce suspended solids.  These settling ponds
are small and cost an estimated $0.01-$0.06/kkg of clay product.

Processing facilities may be either wet or dry.   Dry  facilities
have  no treatment or treatment costs.  Wet processing facilities
have process waste water from two primary sources: scrubber water
from air pollution facilities, and process water that may contain
zinc compounds from a product bleaching operation.  Scrubber  and
process  water  need to be treated to reduce suspended solids and
zinc compounds,  costs for reduction are summarized in  Table  13
for wet process kaolin.

The  kaolin  wet  process  subcategory consists of two facilities
having ages of 29 and 37 years.   Age  is  not  a  cost  variance
factor.   The  wet  process kaolin operations are only located in
Georgia, hence not  a  variance.   The  two  wet  process  kaolin
facilities   are   300,000   and   600,000 kkg/yr   (330,000  and
650,000 ton/yr)   size.    The   representative    facility    is
450,000 kkg/yr  (500,000 ton/yr).   Capital  costs over this size
range are estimated  to  be  directly  proportional  to  the  0.9
exponential  of  size,  and  operating  costs  other  than taxes,
insurance, and capital recovery  are  estimated  to  be  directly
proportional to size.


Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre) : 12,350 (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres):20 (50)
    Pumps and pipes: $25,000
    Chemical metering equipment: $10,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Pond dredging: $20,000/yr
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime: S22/kkg ($20/ton)
         Flocculating agent: $2.2/kg ($1/lb)
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Maintenance: $10,000-11,000/yr
                              369

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                                   TABLE 45
                      WET PROCESS KftOLIN TREATMT COSTS
PLANT SIZE    450,000
PLANT  AGE   30  YEARS
            KKG
PER YEAR OF  Kaolin
PLANT  LOCATION    Georgia-South r.
                                                                      ma

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POV/ER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG of Kaolin

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
mg/1

TS5
Dissolved zinc
pH


RAW
WASTE
LOAD

1000C
100



LEVEL
A
(MIN)
447,000
49,200
85,000
5,000
139,200
0.31

50
0.25
6-9


B
463,000
51,800
112,000
5,000
168,800
0.38

25
0.25
6-9


C
487,000
55,600
90,000
5,000
152,200
0.34

0
0
—


D












E












 LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
                     All costs are  cumulative.
       A — pond settling with lime treatment
       B — A plus flocculating agents
       C — pond settling and recycle to process (This should be satisfactory for cases where
           only cooling water and scrubber water are present.  Process water will build up
           dissolved solids, requiring a purge.)
                                   370

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                            BAIL CLAY

Those ball clay producers without wet air scrubbers do not have a
discharge,  and  no costs are presented.  The costs for producers
using wet scrubbers are presented in Table  44.   From  the  data
presented in Section VII and from the observations of the project
officer,  the  use  of  flocculants for the mine dewatering waste
water may be necessary.  These costs are also presented in  Table
44.

The ball clay subcategory has a range of facility ages from 15 to
56 years.   A.ge  has not been found to be a significant factor on
costs.    Bali   clay   operations    are    located    in    the
Kentucky-Tennessee  rural  areas  and  hence  location  is  not a
significant cost variance factor.  The ball clay facilities range
from 3,000 to  113,000 kkg/yr  (3,300  to  125,000 ton/yr) .   The
representative   facility   is   68,000 kkg/yr   (75,000 ton/yr).
Capital cost and operating cost variance factors for size are the
same as for wet process kaolin.


Capital Costs  Land  cost,  $/hectare  ($/acre) :  12,350   (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres) : 20 (50)
    Pumps and pipes: $25,000
    Chemical metering equipment:  $10,000

Operating   and   Maintenance  Costs  Pond  dredging:  $20,000/yr
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime:  $22/kkg   ($20/ton)   Flocculating  agent:  $2.2/kg
    Maintenance: $10,000-1 1rOOO/yr
                              371

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                                  TABLED
                           BALL CLAY TRETOff COSTS
PLANT  SIZE
75,000
KKG
PER  YEAR OF Ball Clay
PLANT  AGE   30  YEARS
             PLANT  LOCATION    Kentucky-Tennessee Region

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AMD POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ k kg of Ball Clay

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/kkji of ball clay )


TS-S
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD






LEVEL
A
(WIN)
89,000
9,800
14,000
800
24,600
0.33

0.4-2.0
6-9



B
92,000
10,300
19,000
800
30,100
0.40

0.2
6-9



C
97,000
11,100
15,000
1,100
27,200
0.36

0
-



D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
                                                  All costs  are cumulative.
       A — pond settling
       B — A plus flocculaHng agent
       C — closed cycle operation (satisfactory only for scrubbers and cooling water)
                                      372

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                            FELDSPAR

Feldspar may be produced as the sole product, as the main product
with  by-product  sand  and mica, or as a co-product of processes
for producing mica.   Co-product  production  processes  will  be
discussed  under  mica.   Dry  processes  (in western U.S.)  where
feldspar is the sole product have no effluent and no waste  water
treatment costs.  Therefore, the only sufccategory involving major
treatment and cost is wet beneficiation of feldspar ore.

After initial scalpings with screens, hydrocyclones or other such
devices  to remove the large particle sizes, the smaller particle
sizes  are  removed  by  (1) settling  ponds  or    (2) mechanical
thickeners,  clarifiers  and  filters.  Often the method selected
depends on the amount and type of land  available  for  treatment
facilities.   Where  sufficient  flat land is available ponds are
usually  preferred.   Unfortunately,  most  of  the  industry  is
located   in  hill  country  and  flat  land  is  not  available.
Therefore, thickeners and filters  are  often  used.   The  waste
water  pollutants  are  suspended solids and fluorides.  There is
also a solid waste disposal problem for ore  components  such  as
mud,  clays  and  some  types  of  sand, some of which have to be
landfilled.  Fluoride pollutants come from the hydrofluoric  acid
flotation reagent.

Treatment  and  cost  options  are developed in Table 45 for both
suspended solids and fluoride reductions.  Successive  treatments
for reducing suspended solids and fluorides are shown.

The  reduction  of fluoride ion level to less than  10 mg/1 can be
accomplished  through  segregation  and  separate  treatment   of
fluoride-containing streams.  This approach is already planned by
at  least  one  producer.  A modest reduction of fluoride of less
than 50 percent is presently achieved at only one  facility  with
alum  treatment  that  has  been  installed  for  the  purpose of
flocculating suspended solids.

The feldspar wet process subcategory  consists  of  6  facilities
ranging in age from 3 to 26 years.  Age is not a significant cost
variance factor because of similar raw waste loads.  The feldspar
wet   processing  operations  are  located  in  southeastern  and
northeastern states in rural areas.   Other  than  hilly  terrain
which has been accounted for, location has not been found to be a
significant  cost  variance  factor.  The feldspar wet processing
operations  range  in  size   from   45,700   to    154,000 kkg/yr
(50,400-170,000 ton/yr).     The   representative   facility   is
90,900 kkg/yr (100,000 ton/yr).  The range of capital  costs  for
treatment  is  $36,800  to  $250,000,  and  the  range  of annual
operating costs  is  $18,400  to  $165,000  as  reported  by  the
feldspar wet process producers.
                              373

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                                   TABLE'S
                     WET PROCESS FELDSPAR TREATCNT COSTS
PLANT  SIZE     90,900
PLANT  AGE  10   YEARS
             KKG
PLANT LOCATION
PER YEAR OF  Feldspar

Eastern U. S.	

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS! $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 6 M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Feldspar

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg of ore )


Suspended Solids
Fluoride
pH


RAW
WASTE
LOAD

2|%
0.22-
n.9
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Cost  is  estimated  for capital directly proportional to the 0.9
power of size for treatments based on ponds and the  0.7th  power
for  treatments  based on thickeners.  Operating costs other than
taxest insurance and capital recovery are approximately  directly
proportional to size.


Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre): 30,600 (12,500)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres): 0.1-0.8  (1-2)
    Thickeners, filters, clarifiers: 0-$50,000
    Solids handling eguipment: $40,000-50,000
    Chemical metering equipment: 0-$50,OOQ

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Other solid waste disposal costs: 0-$0.5/ton
    Treatment chemicals: $10,000-25,000/yr
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Monitoring: 0-$15,000/yr
                              375

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                             KYANITE

Kyanite  is  produced  at  three  locations.   Two  of  the three
facilities have complete recycle of process water using  settling
ponds.  A summary of treatment technology costs is given in Table
46.  Approximately two-thirds of the cost comes from solid wastes
removal  from  the settling pond and land disposal.  Depending on
solid waste load, costs could vary from approximately  $1  to  $4
per kkg of product.

The  three facilities of this sufccategory range in age between 10
and 30 years.  There is no significant  treatment  cost  variance
due  to  this  range.   These  facilities are in two southeastern
states in rural locations; location is  not  a  significant  cost
variance  factor.   The  sizes range from 16,000 to 45,000 kkg/yr
(18,000 to 50,000 ton/yr).  The  costs  given  are  meant  to  be
representative  over  this size range on a unit production basis,
that isr costs are approximately directly proportional to size.

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):  12,300  (5,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares (acres):10 (25)
    Pipes: $28,000
    Pumps: $4,400

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Pond dredging and solids waste hauling: $82,500/yr
    Pond: $1«,600/yr
    Pipes: $3,300/yr
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Pumps: $1,200/yr
    Labor: $3,000/yr
    Maintenance: $16,900/yr
                              376

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                                 TABU 16
                                  TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
45,000
PLANT  AGE   15   YEARS
KKG
PER  YEAR OF Kyanite
             PLANT  LOCATION   South eastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS: $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: §
ANNUAL 0 a M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ KKG Of Kyanite

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
(kg/ kkg
Tailings
TSS-
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD
5500





LEVEL
A
(M1N)
80,000
9,700
75,000
1,000
85,700
1.90

3
6-9



B
157,400
19,100
108,100
1,400
128,600
2.83

0
-



C
-











D












E












LEVEL  DESCRIPTION:
     A — pond settling
     B — A plus recycle
                                    All costs are cumulative.
     Note:  Most of the above cost at A level (65-70%) is the cost of removal and disposal
           of solids from ponds,

                                  377

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                            MAGNESITE

There is only one known U.S. facility that produces magnesia from
naturally occurring magnesite ore.  This facility is located in a
dry western climate and has no  discharge  to  surface  water  by
virtue  of  a  combination evaporation-pereolation pond.  Capital
costs for this treatment are $300,000 with  operation/maintenance
costs  of  $15,000/yr  plus  annual  capital  investment costs of
$35,220.

                      SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

No water is used in either the mining or processing of shale  and
common clay.  The only water involved is occasional mine drainage
from rain or ground water.  In most cases runoff does not pick up
significant  suspended  solids.  Any needed treatment costs would
be expected to fall in the range  of  $0.01  to  $0.05/kkg  shale
produced.

Shale and common clay facilities range from 8 to 80 years in age.
This  is not a significant variance factor for the costs to treat
mine water since the eqiupment  is  similar.   Facilities  having
significant  mine  water  are located through the eastern half of
the U.S.  The volume of mine water is the only  significant  cost
factor  influenced  ty  location.   Facilities  range from 700 to
250,000 kkg/yr (770 to  270,000 ton/yr).   Size  is  not  a  cost
variance   factor,   since  the  mine  pumpout  is  unrelated  to
production rate.

                             APLITE

Aplite is produced at two facilities in the  U.S.   One  facility
with a dry process uses wet scrubbers.  The waste water is ponded
to  remove  suspended  solids  and  then discharged.  Waste water
treatment costs were calculated to  be  $O.U8/kkg  product.   The
second  processing facility uses a wet classification process and
a significantly higher water usage per ton of  product  than  the
first  facility.   Except  for  a  pond  pumpout every one to two
years, this facility is on complete recycle.  The total treatment
costs per kkg of product is $0.78.  The estimated costs to  bring
the "dry process" facility to a condition of total recycle of its
scrubber water are:

    capital: $9,000
    annual capital recovery:$1,470
    annual operating and maintenance, excluding power and energy:
         $630
    annual power and energy: $1,300
    total annual cost:$3,400
                              378

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Aplite  is  produced  by two facilities which are 17 and U1 years
old.  Age has not been found to be a  significant  cost  variance
factor.   Both  aplite  facilities  are  located in Virginia and,
therefore, location is not a significant  cost  variance  factor.
The    facilities    are    54,400 kkg/yr   (60,000 ton/yr)   and
136,000 kkg/yr (150,000 ton/yr).  The costs per  unit  production
are applicable for only the facilities specified.

Capital Costs
    Pond cost, $/hectare ($/acre):  12,300-24,500
          (5,000-10,000)
    Settling pond area, hectares  (acres): 5.5-32 (14-80)
    Recycle equipment: $9,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Treatment chemical costs: $3,500/yr
    Energy unit cost: $0.01/kwh
    Recycle 0 & M cost: $1,900/yr
    Maintenance:$4,500-16,500/yr
                              379

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                       TALC MINERALS GROUP

Suspended  solids  are  the major pollutant involved in the waste
water from this category.  In some wet processing  operations  pH
control  through  addition  of  acid  and  alkalies is practiced.
Neutralization of the final waste water may be  needed  to  bring
the  pH  into the 6-9 range.  Mines and processing facilities may
be either wet or dry.  Dry operations have no treatment costs.

Mine Water

Pain water and ground water seepage often make  it  necessary  to
pumpout  mine water.  The only treatment normally needed for this
water is settling ponds for suspended solids.  Ponds are  usually
small,  one  acre  or  less.  Costs for this treatment are in the
range of $0.01 to $1.38/kkg  talc  produced.   The  large  figure
represents   extremely   small  mines  that  would  be  mined  in
conjunction with other larger mines by a company.

Wet processes are conducted in both the eastern and western  U.S.
Waste  water  from  Eastern  wet  processes  comes  from  process
operations and/or scrubber water.  The usual method  of  treating
the effluent is to adjust pH by the addition of lime, followed by
pond  settling.   Treatment options, costs and resultant effluent
quality are summarized in Table  47.   Facilities  not  requiring
lime  treatment would have somewhat lower costs than those given.
Wet process facilities in the Western U.S. are mostly located  in
arid  regions  and  can achieve no discharge through evaporation.
Costs for these evaporation pond systems were estimated to be the
same cost as Level B.  The required evaporation pond size in this
case  is  similar  to  that  needed  for   good   settling   pond
performance.

Facilities in the talc minerals group range from 2 to 70 years of
age.    However,   the   heavy  media  separation  and  flotation
subcategory consists of only three facilities of 10 to  30  years
of  age.   This  is  not  a  significant  treatment cost variance
factor.  The heavy media  separation  and  flotation  subcategory
facilities  are  located in rural areas of the eastern U.S.  This
location spread is a minor cost variance factor.   Talc  minerals
facilities range in size from 12,000 to 300,000 kkg/yr (13,000 to
330,000 ton/yr).    The  heavy  media  separation  and  flotation
subcategory  facilities  range  from  12,000  to   236,000 kkg/yr
 (13,000  to  260,000 ton/yr).   The  representative facility size
selected is 45,000 kkg/yr  (50,000 ton/yr).  Over  this  range  of
sizes, capital costs can be estimated to be directly proportional
to  the  exponent  of 0.8 to size, and operating costs other than
capital  recovery,  taxes   and   insurance   are   approximately
proportional to size.

Capital Costs
    Land cost, $/hectare  ($/acre):  24,500  (10,000)
                              380

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                                 TABLE 47
                  WET PR3CESS TALC MINERALS TREATMENT COSTS
PLANT SIZE
45,000
                                        KKG
PER  YEAR  OF tafc minerals
PLANT  AGE   25  YEARS
             PLANT  LOCATION  Eastern U.S.

INVESTED CAPITAL COSTS'. $
TOTAL
ANNUAL CAPITAL RECOVERY
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
COSTS: $
ANNUAL 0 Q M (EXCLUDING
POWER AND ENERGY)
ANNUAL ENERGY AND POWER
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS $
COST/ kkg of products

WASTE LOAD PARAMETERS
{kg/ kk§ of products )


TSS
pH



RAW
WASTE
LOAD

800 to
1800




LEVEL
A
(WIN)
100,000
11,700
27,000
2,000
40,700
0.89

0.3-1.3
6-9



B
150,000
17,600
34,000
3,000
54,600
1.09

0.3
6-9



C












D












E












LEVEL DESCRIPTION:
     A — lime treatment and pond settling
     B — A plus additional pond settling
                                      All costs  are cumulative.
                                   381

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    Mine pumpout, settling pond area, hectares  (acres):
         up to 0«t»  (up to 1)
    Process settling pond area, hectares  (acres) : 2  (5)
    Pumps and pipes: $15,000
    Chemical treatment equipment: $35,000

Operating and Maintenance Costs
    Treatment chemicals
         Lime: $22/kkg ($20/ton)
    Energy cost: $1,000-2,000/yr
    Maintenance: $5,000/yr
    Labor: $3,000-10,000/yr
                               382

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                             GARNET

There  are  three  garnet producers in the U.S., two in Idaho and
one in New York State.  Two basic types of processing  are  used:
(1) wet  washing  and classifying of the ore, and (2) heavy media
and froth flotation.  Washing  and  classifying  facilities  have
already  incurred  estimated waste water treatment costs of $0.16
per kkg of garnet produced.  Heavy media  and  flotation  process
waste  water  treatment  estimated  costs  already  incurred  are
significantly higher, $5 to $10/kkg of product.

The quantity and quality of discharge at the Idaho facilities are
not  known  by  the  manufacturer.   Sampling  was  precluded  by
seasonal  halting  of  operations.  The hydraulic load per ton of
product at the Idaho operations is believed to be higher than  at
the  New  York operation studied.  The costs to reduce the amount
of suspended solids in these discharges to that of the  New  York
operation are estimated to be:

    capital: $100,000
    annual operating costs: $30,000

There  are  three  garnet  producers  ranging  in  age from 40 to
50 years.  Age has not  been  found  to  be  a  significant  cost
variance  factor.   Two  of  the  garnet producers are located in
Idaho and one in New York State.  The  regional  deposits  differ
widely  making  different  ore  processes necessary.  Due to this
difference in processes, there is no representative  facility  in
this  subcategory.   Treatment  costs  must  be  calculated on an
individual basis.   The  garnet  producers  range  in  size  from
5,100 kkg/yr   to   an   estimated   86,200 kkg/yr   (5,600-95,000
tons/yr).  The differences in size are so great that there is  no
representative facility for this sufccategory.  Due to process and
size  differences,  treatment  costs  must  be  calculated  on an
individual basis.
                              383

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                             TRIPOLI

There are several tripoli producers in the  United  States.   The
production  is  dry  both  at  the facilities and the mines.  One
small facility has installed a wet scrubber.  There is  only  one
facility  in  this  subcategory that has any process waste water.
This is only from a special process producing 10 percent of  that
facility's  production.   Therefore,  there are no cost variances
due to age, location or size.

                            DIATOMITE

Diatomite is mined and processed in the western U.S.  Both mining
and processing are practically dry operations.  Evaporation ponds
are  used  for  waste  disposal  in  all  cases.   The   selected
technology of partial recycle and chemical treatment is practiced
at the tetter facilities.  All facilities are currently employing
settling and neutralization.

                            GRAPHITE

There  is  only  one  producer  of natural graphite in the United
States.  For this mine and processing  facility,  mine  drainage,
settling pond seepage and process water are treated for suspended
solids,  iron  removal  and  pH  level.   The  pH  level and iron
precipitation are controlled by lime addition.  The  precipitated
iron  and other suspended solids are removed in the settling pond
and the treated waste water discharged.  Present treatment  costs
are approximately $20-25/kkg graphite produced.

                              JADE

The  jade  industry  is very small and involves very little waste
water.  One facility that represents 55 percent of the total U.S.
production has only 190 I/day  (50 gpd) of waste water.  Suspended
solids are settled in a small tank followed by  watering  of  the
company lawn.  Treatment costs are considered negligible.

                           NOVACULITE

There  is  only  one  novaculite  producer  in the United States.
Processing is a dry operation resulting in no discharge.  A  dust
scrubber  is  utilized  and  the  water is recycled after passing
through a  settling  tank.   Both  present  treatment  costs  and
proposed recycle costs are negligible.
                              384

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                           SECTION IX
            EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
                       APPLICATION OF THE
               BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                       CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
The  effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977,
are based on the degree of effluent reduction attainable  through
the  application  of  the  best  practicable  control  technology
currently  available.   For  the  mining  of  minerals  for   the
construction  industry, this level of technology was based on the
average of the test existing performance by facilities of various
sizes,  ages,  and  processes  within  each  of  the   industry's
subcategories.   Best  practicable  control  technology currently
available  emphasizes  treatment  facilities  at  the  end  of  a
manufacturing  process,  but also includes the control technology
within the process itself when it  is  considered  to  be  normal
practice  within  an  industry.   Examples  of  waste  management
techniques which were considered  normal  practice  within  these
industries are:

(a) select manufacturing process controls;
(b) recycle and alternative uses of water; and
(c) recovery and/or reuse of some waste water constituents.

Consideration was also given to:

(a) the total cost of application of technology  in  relation  to
    the  effluent  reduction  benefits  to  be achieved from such
    application;
(b) the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
(c) the process employed;
(d) the engineering aspects of the application of  various  types
    of control techniques;
(e) process changes; and
(f) non-water  quality  environmental  impact  (including  energy
    requirements).

Process  generated  waste  water is defined as any water which in
the mineral processing operations such as crushing,  washing  and
beneficiation,  comes  into direct contact with any raw material,
intermediate product, by-product or product used in or  resulting
from  the  process.   Storage  pile and plant area runoff are not
process generated waste water and are considered separately.  All
process generated waste water effluents are  limited  to  the  pH
range of 6.0 to 9.0 unless otherwise specified.
                              385

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Where sufficient data was available a statistical analysis of the
data was performed to determine a monthly and a daily maximum.  A
detailed  analysis  of  the daily TSS maximum and the monthly TSS
maximum at a 99 percent level of confidence for  phosphate  slime
ponds  and kaolin ponds indicates that a TSS ratio of the maximum
monthly average to the long term average of 2.0 is representative
of settling pond treatment systems and of the  daily  maximum  to
the long term average of 4.0.  It is judged that these ratios are
also  valid for the other parameters controlled in this category.
This is an adequate ratio since the treatment systems for  F,  Zn
and  Fe  for instance have controllable variables, such as pH and
amount of lime addition.  This is in contrast to a pond  treating
only  TSS  which  has few if any operator controllable variables.
This approach  was  not  used  for  most  subcategories  of  mine
dewatering.    Instead  the  data  within  each  subcategory  was
individually assessed.

Non-contact cooling water  is  only  occasionally  used  in  this
industry.   No  adverse  environmental  impact has been found for
such  discharges.    Therefore,   no   effluent   limitation   of
non-contact cooling water is recommended until general guidelines
are  issued  covering this.  In the interim water guality imposed
limitations can meet with any existing problems.

A mine is an area of land, surface or underground, actively  used
for  or  resulting  from the extraction of a mineral from natural
depostis.  Mine drainage is any water drained, pumped or siphoned
from a mine.  Mine dewatering waste water is that portion of mine
drainage that is pumped, drained or otherwise removed through the
direct action of the mine  operator  in  order  that  the  mining
operation may continue.  Pit pumpage of ground water, seepage and
precipitation or surface runoff entering the active mine workings
is  an  example  of  mine  dewatering.  The pH of mine dewatering
discharges are limited to between 6.6 to 9.0.  This pH  range  is
not   meant  to  suspercede  state  water  quality  criteria  for
receiving waters naturally have a pH outside of the  6.0  to  9.0
range.  Discharges of non-process water such as mine water with a
pH  less than 6.0 may be discharged at a lower pH only if this pH
is within the EPA approved state water quality  criteria  for  pH
for the receiving stream.  This situation can arise in swamps.

Untreated  overflow may be discharged from process waste water or
mine  dewatering   impoundments   without   limitation   if   the
impoundments  are designed, constructed and operated to treat all
process generated waste water or mine drainage and surface runoff
into  the  impoundments  resulting  from  a   10-year   24   hour
precipitation  event   (as  established  by  the National Climatic
Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  for  the
locality  in  which  such  impoundments are located) to the limit
specified as representing the best practicable control technology
currently  available.   To  preclude  unfavorable  water  balance
conditions  resulting from precipitation and runoff in connection
                              386

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with  tailing  impoundments,   diversion   ditching   should   be
constructed  to  prevent natural drainage or runoff from mingling
with process waste water or mine dewatering waste water,

             WASTE WATER GUIDELINES AND LIMITATIONS

                         DIMENSION STONE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.   This  is
alternative  C,  ponding  and recycle of process water.  At least
four facilities  (3008, 3010, 3017,  3018)  representing  all  the
major  types  of  stone presently achieve no discharge of process
generated waste water.

Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at any  time.   This
quality  of  water  is  currently  attained  by  dimension  stone
quarries as indicated by the data in Section  VII.   Furthermore,
this quality of water is attained by crushed stone quarries which
although nearly identical to dimension stone quarries are dirtier
because  of  constant truck haulage.  In any case where the water
would exceed the limit, pit pumpout could be  temporarily  ceased
until  the water clears.  Alternately flocculatants could be used
on  an  intermittent  basis  or  a   settling   pond   could   be
inexpensively built.  Poor quarry practice such as allowing muddy
surface  drainage  to  enter  the  quarry or frequent movement of
equipment through flooded areas are the only expected  causes  of
the limit being exceeded.

                       CRUSHED STONE (DRY)

Best  practicable  control  technology  currently available is no
discharge of process generated generated waste  water  pollutants
because no process water is used.

                       CRUSHED STONE (WET)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.

This  technology  represents  alternatives C and, if necessary D.
To implement this technology at facilities not already using  the
recommended  control techniques would require the installation of
pumps and associated recycle equipment and possible expansion  of
treatment  pond  facilities.   Approximately  one  third  of  the
facilities studied presently use the recommended technology.

                CRUSHED STONE (FLOTATION PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.   Facility
1975  is  currently  meeting  this requirement.  Facility 3069 is
                              387

-------
recycling about 70 percent of the process water  to  the  washing
mills.  At facilities not totally recycling, flotation cell water
can  be  recycled as wash water.  Excess flotation cell water can
be used as cooling water make-up and for  dust  control  purposes
which can consume large quantities of water.

                 CRUSHED STONE  (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine  dewatering  shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at any time.  This
quality of water is currently  attained  by  most  crushed  stone
quarries as indicated by the data in Section VII.  In cases where
this  limitation is exceeded, the causes can be attributed to the
following.  The settling area is often a small  mined  depression
on  the  quarry  floor referred to as a sump.  It is almost never
designed to efficiently remove suspended solids, and  this  could
be  too  small for sufficient settling time.  Most often the pump
inlet is not placed in this sump to allow  for  maximum  settling
time.    These   deficiencies  are  usually  compensated  by  the
excellent purity of the ground water and the inert nature of  the
hard  rock  versus  clay  material.   Intrusion  of muddy surface
drainage into  the  quarry  and  constant  equipment  traffic  in
flooded  areas  are  poor  practices that will overload the sump.
However, temporary halting pit pumpout  to  allow  the  water  to
clear,   use   of   flocculants  on  an  intermittent  basis,  or
construction of an inexpensive settling pond will also cure muddy
quarry water problems.

               CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL  (DRY)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process water is used.

               CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL  (WET)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of process generated waste water pollutants.  This can
be economically achieved by use of alternatives C, D or  G  which
involve  the  ponding  and/or recycle of all process waste water.
More  than  half  the  subcategory  is  presently  achieving   no
discharge.

This  subcategory  includes  the dredging of non-navigable waters
that are closed  (wet pits),  that  is  ponds  entirely  owned  or
leased  from  the  pond  owner.  These frequently are flooded dry
pits.   Process  water  should  fce  recycled   to   these   pits.
Overflow  from these wet pits caused by rainfall and ground water
infiltration is classified as mine dewatering.  Runoff from areas
outside the mine and plant should be excluded from the pit.

                  CONSTURCTION  SANE AND GRAVEL
                         (MINE DEWATERING)
                               388

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Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at any time.  Except
for emergency pumpinq after flooding, mine dewatering is  unusual
in this sufccateqory.  Pits experiencing ground water flooding are
usually  allowed  to fill and the deposit is dredged.  This is in
contrast tc stone quarries where dreding is not possible for hard
rock.  In cases where it might be practiced, a  sump  arrangement
like  that for stone quaries would not be satisfactory and a well
designed settling pond would be necessary.  This is because  sand
deposits  frequently contain clay.  If good mining techniques are
practiced a relatively constant raw waste load should result  and
pond  upsets  should  not  occur.   The  limitation  if  not then
attained can be met by use of flocculants.   This  technology  is
being successfully practiced in many subcategories including sand
and gravel process water, crushed stone and clays.  In some cases
mine  water  is  treated  in the process waste water pond system.
This practice is allowed if the process  facility  uses  recycled
water.

  CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL (DREDGING WITH LAND PROCESSING)

This  subcategory  covers dredging in navigable waters.  The best
practicable  control  technology  currently   available   is   no
discharge  of  process  generated waste water pollutants from the
land based operations where the process  water  intake  does  not
originate  from  the  dredge pump.  This limit can be achieved by
ponding and/or recycle of all  non-dredge  pumped  process  waste
water.   More  than half this sufccategory has achieved this level
of technology for on-land treatment.  No limits are proposed  for
dredge  pumpage  water  pending  further  investigation  of  this
subcategory.  Discharges from dredges are covered  under  section
404 of the Act, "Permits for Dredged or Fill Material."

                  INDUSTRIAL SAND (DRY PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the recycle of air pollution control scrubber
water after flocculation and settling.  There is no water used in
the processing of this mineral.  This technology is  employed  by
at least one facility (1107) in this subcategory.

                  INDUSTRIAL SAND (WET PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology  (alternative B or C) involves  settling  of  suspended
solids by means of mechanical equipment and/or ponds and complete
recycle  of  process  water.   Three (1019, 1989 and 3066)  of the
four  facilities  surveyed  presently  utilize  the   recommended
technologies.
                              389

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       INDUSTRIAL SAND (ACID AND ALKALI FLOTATION PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology (alternative B)  involves  the  settling  of  suspended
solids  in ponds using flocculants where necessary, adjustment of
pH where necessary and/or recycle of process water.  Four  (1101,
1103, 1019 and 1980)  of the five facilities studied are currently
meeting   the   recommended   limitation   by   utilizing   these
technologies.

             INDUSTRIAL SAND (HF FLOTATION PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                  Effluent Limitation
                                  kg/kkg
Effluent                          (Ib/lOOO Ib)  of product
Characteristic          Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                 0.023               O.OU6
    fluoride            0.003               0.006

The above limitations were based on the  average  performance  of
the  only  facility   (5980)  in  this subcategory.  A maximum 914
1/kkg discharge flow was used as reported by the company.  A  TSS
of  25  mg/1 and F of 3.5 mg/1 were used for the monthly average.
This technology (alternative A) involves thickening,  ponding  to
settle  suspended  solids,  pH  adjustment and partial recycle of
process water.

                INDUSTRIAL SAND (MINE DEWATERING)

Industrial sand mining is essentially identical to that for  sand
and  gravel.    Hence  the same limitation is required:  TSS shall
not exceed 30 mg/1 at any time.

                          GYPSUM  (DRY)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process water is used.  The one facility using a wet air scrubber
currently recycles this water.

                 GYPSUM  (HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the recovery of the heavy media, settling  of
suspended  solids,  and  total  recycle  of  process water.  This
technology is used at both facilities in this subcategory.
                              390

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                    GYPSUM (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine debatering shall not exceed 30 mq/1 TSS at  any  time.   The
data  in  Section  VII  shows  that  most  mines can achieve this
limitation.  Little or no treatment is practiced.  Gypsum  mining
is very similar to crushed stone mining.

            ASPHALTIC MINERALS (BITUMINOUS LIMESTONE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of process generated waste water pollutants because no
process waste water is used.

         ASPHALTIC MINERALS  (OIL IMPREGNATED DIATOMITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of  process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   The
technology  involves  the recycle of scrubber water.  There is no
water used in the processing of this material.  The one  facility
in   this  subcategory  (5510)   presently  uses  the  recommended
technology.

                 ASPHALTIC MINERALS (GILSONITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology (alternative B) involves ponding, settling and partial
recycle  of  water.   There  is  only one facility  (5511) in this
subcategory and it presently uses the recommended technologies.

                     ASBESTOS  (DRY PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
water is used in the process.

                         ASBESTOS (WET)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.  The
technology involves the total impoundment of  all  process  waste
waters.   The techniques described are currently used by the only
facility (1060)  in this subcategory.

                   ASBESTOS  (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at any  time.   Only
one  facility  is known to be dewatering at the present time, and
the data in  Section  VII  indicates  that  it  can  achieve  the
limitation.   No  problem  is  anticipated  if  other cases arise
because of the hard rock nature of the deposit.
                              391

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                          WOLLASTCNITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process  water is used.  Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1
TSS at any time.  There is no known mine dewatering, but  because
of  the  hard  rock  nature  of  the  deposit, there should be no
problem of achieving the limitation.

            LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (PERLITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process  water is used.  Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1
TSS at any time.  Mine dewatering was not encountered, but it  is
not  expected  to present a problem since colloidal clays are not
present.

             LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS (PUMICE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process  water is used.  Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1
TSS at any time.  Mine dewatering was not encountered, but it  is
not  expected  to present a problem since colloidal clays are not
present.

          LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE MINERALS  (VERMICULITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology    (alternative  A)  involves  the  ponding  to  settle
suspended solids, clarification with flocculants if  needed,  and
recycle  of water to process.  The two major facilities producing
vermiculite   (5506  and  5507)  presently  use  the   recommended
technologies.   Mine  dewatering  shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at
any time.  Mine dewatering was not encountered,  but  it  is  not
expected  to  present  a  problem  since  colloidal clays are not
present.

                 MICA AND SERICITE  (DRY PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process water is used.

                   MICA  (WET GRINDING PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the settling of suspended solids and  recycle
of  clarified  water.   One  of  the  three  facilities  in  this
                               392

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subcategory  (2059)  utilizes   the   recommended   technologies.
Another (2055)  recycles part of the process waste water.

       MICA (WET EENEFICIATION PROCESS, EITHER NON-CLAY OR
                GENERAL PURPOSE CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the settling of suspended solids in ponds and
recycle of process water (alternative C or E).  Four of the  five
facilities  in  this  subcategory  (2050, 2051, 2053 and 2058) are
presently using the recommended technologies.  The  fifth  (2054)
was  in the process of converting to total recycle at the time of
the study.

 MICA  (WET EENEFICIATION PROCESS, CERAMIC GRADE CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                  Effluent Limitation
                        kg/kkg of product  (lb/1000 Ib)
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

TSS                               1.5                 3.0

The best available technology economically achievable is also  no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants.  The above
limitations  are based on the performance of two facilities  (2052
and 2057).  The technology  (alternative B or D) involves settling
of suspended solids in ponds and lime treatment for pH adjustment
prior to discharge.

               MICA AND SERECITE (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at  any  time.   One
facility  dewaters  the mine into the process waste water pond in
which  flocculant  is  added.   This  water  is  planned  to   be
completely  recycled  back  to  the  plant   (2054).   Other  mine
dewatering is not known.  In the event of mine  dewatering,  this
water can be treated with flocculants on an intermittent basis to
the above limitation.

               BARITE  (DRY  PRODUCTION SUECATEGORY

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of process generated waste water pollutants because no
process water is used.
                              393

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       BARITE  (WET-LOG WASHING AND JIGGING AND FLOTATION)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants.   There  is  no
discharge   of  process  waste  water  pollutants  during  normal
operating conditions.  This technology (alternative B for washing
and C for flotation) involves the containment  of  process  waste
water, settling of suspended solids, and recycle of process water
during  normal  operating conditions.  Where there is a discharge
during periods of heavy rainfall, settling of suspended solids by
ponding,  flocculation,  coagulation  or  other  methods  may  be
necessary.  Tailings pond storm overflow shall not exceed 30 mg/1
TSS.   Four  facilities  in  these  sufccategories in the same net
precipitation geographical location are currently achieving  this
limitation.

                    BARITE (MINE DEWATERING)
Non  acidic  mine  dewatering  shall not exceed 35 mg/1 TSS.  The
following limits apply to acid mine dewatering:

                                  Effluent Limitation
                                         mq/1
Effluent Characteristic       Monthly Average    Daily Maximum

  TSS                              35                 70
  Total Fe                          3.5                7.0

Mine dewatering is rarely practiced in barite mining.  Where  the
mine  water  is  non-acidic  the  limitation  can  be  met by the
intermittenent use of flocculants.  There is one underground mine
experiencing acid mine drainage.

                         FLUORSPAR  (HMS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology   (alternative  B)   involves the impoundment of process
water and total recycle.  Five of the six facilities  (2004, 2005,
2006,  2008  and  2009)  studied  are  presently  utilizing   the
recommended technologies (alternative B) .

                      FLUOPSPAB  (FLOTATION)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                             Effluent Limitation
                        kg/kkg of product  (lbs/1000 Ib)
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                 0.6                 1.2
    dissolved fluoride  0.2                 O.t
                              39*

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The above limitations are based on the anticipated performance of
treatment  systems  currently  being  installed at two facilities
(facilities 2000 and 2001).   They  represent  concentrations  of
approximately 50 mg/1 for TSS and 20 mg/1 for F.  This technology
(alternative  B)  involves the ponding in series and flocculation
to reduce suspended solids and fluoride prior to  discharge.   An
alternative technology is ponding and evaporation where possible.
To  implement this technology at facilities not already using the
recommended control techniques would require the installation  of
ponds   in   series  and  flocculant  addition  facilities.   Two
facilities are presently installing the recommended technologies.

               FLUORSPAR  (DRYING AND PELLETIZING)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated  waste  water  pollutants  because
there is no process water.

                         MINE DEWATERING

Mine  dewatering shall meet 30 mg/1 TSS as a daily maximum.  This
level is achieved by most mines  as  indicated  by  the  data  in
Section VII.  Settling ponds will be required by those operations
that do not meet the limitations.

             SALINES FROM BRINE LAKES (SEARLES LAKE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
net   discharge   of   process  waste  water  pollutants.   These
operations return the dep .eted brines and  liquor  to  the  brine
source with no additional pollutants.  The two facilities in this
production   subcategory  are  presently  using  the  recommended
control technologies.

           SALINES FROM BRINE LAKES  (GREAT SALT LAKE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
net discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants.    The  only
operation meets this requirement by the return of depleted brines
and liquor to the lakes with no additional pollutants.

             SALINES FROM BRINE LAKES (SILVER PEAK)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
net  discharge  of process waste water pollutants.  This involves
the return of depleted brines and liquor  to  the  brine  source.
The  only  facility  in  this production subcategory is presently
using  the  recommended  control  technology,  and  there  is  no
discharge to navigable waters.
                              395

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                              BORAX

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  waste  water pollutants.   This technology
(alternative A)  involves the use of lined evaporation ponds.  The
only facility in this subcategory presently uses  the  recommended
technology.

                             POTASH

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  waste  water pollutants.   This technology
(alternative A)  involves the use of evaporation ponds to  contain
process  water.   All facilities in this subcategory are presently
using the recommended technology.

                              TRONA

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process waste water and mine dewatering  pollutants.
This  technology   (alternative  E) involves the total impoundment
and evaporation of all process waste water and mine  water.   All
facilities  either  plan  to  or currently use this technology to
dispose of waste water.

                   SODIUM SULFATE  (BBINE WELL)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process waste  water  pollutants.    This  technology
involves  the  total  impoundment  and evaporation of all process
waste water.  The two  facilities  representing  this  production
subcategory   are   presently   using   the  recommended  control
technologies.

                            ROCK SALT

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                             Effluent Limitation
                             kg/kkg of product
                                   (lb/1000 Ib)
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                 0.02                0.04

The above limitations are  based  on  the  performance  currently
achieved  by  at  least  three  facilities.   Mine  dewatering is
included in the above limitations.  This technology   (alternative
B or C) is the control of casual water with good water management
practices   and  settling  where  required.   To  implement  this
technology  at  facilities  not  already  using  the  recommended
control   technigues   would   reguire  better  water  management
                              396

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practices and the installation of  adequate  settling  facilities
where required.

                         PHOSPHATE ROCK

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                        Effluent Limitation
Effluent           Monthly Average     Daily Maximum
Characteristic

    TSS                  30 mg/1              60 mg/1

These limits apply to the quantity of water used in the flotation
circuits  which  cannot  be  economically  recycled,  mine water,
rainfall and runoff.  These latter two water sources  necessitate
using  a  concentration  rather than a mass unit because they are
production independent.  These limitations represent  alternative
B.

There shall be no discharge of process generated waste water from
floor  washdowns,  slurry transport water, equipment washing, ore
desliming water, pump  seal  water,  and  air  emission  scrubber
water.  This can fce achieved by total recycle.  However, since it
could  be  physically  and  economically  prohibitive to separate
these waters from flotation  cell  water  and  mine  water,  this
condition  can  be  met  by  using recycled water and using fresh
water only as necessary to maintain a water balance.

The above limitations were based on the performance  achieved  at
most  of  existing  slime  ponds  as  shown  in  Section  VII.  A
statistical analysis was performed by fitting a  three  parameter
log  normal distribution to the data.  Once the optimum value for
Tau  was  found,  the  distribution  was  then  extrapolated   to
determine  the  level  of  treatment  presently  achievable  at a
confidence level of 99 percent for the daily and average  monthly
values  of  TSS.   It  was  judged  that the average of all these
values could not  be  used  since  the  factors  controlling  the
variability of effluent quality for the slime pond are beyond the
practical  control  of  the  facility  operator.   These  factors
include wind, temperature, and aquatic growth and activity.  This
last point is demonstrated by the fact  that  volatile  suspended
solids  comprised the majority of the TSS of the final effluents.
The limitations reflect the degree  of  treatment  achievable  by
properly  constructed  and  maintained  slime ponds.  Some of the
facilities not achieving the limits had insufficient data  to  be
reliable  (less  than  12 data points).  The two worst discharges
were observed by  the  project  officer  to  suffer  considerable
erosion  of  the earthen discharge ditch walls at points prior to
the sample points.  Other problems noted were incorrect  sampling
locations  and  procedures.   At  one  facility  the sample point
included all untreated facility runoff in addition  to  the  pond
                              397

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discharge.   At  another  the  sampler  consistently  stirred  up
sediment in the pipe bottom, and consequently the reported levels
of TSS were incorrectly high.  With proper operation all  process
ponds  can  achieve  the  standards 100 percent of the time.

If unpredictable pond or process upsets do occur, the present use
of decant towers by the industry allows the facility operator  to
cease the discharge for a sufficient length of time in order that
the  suspended  solids  settle  and  be  in  compliance  with the
discharge limitations.

Fluoride and phosphorus will not be regulated for  the  following
reasons.   First  the  existing treatments are operated to remove
only suspended solids.  The  levels  of  fluoride  appear  to  be
related  in part to the well water used in the flotation process.
In addition the present fluoride concentrations are far below the
practicable level of teatment used by related industries.   It  is
expected  that  a significant portion of the phosphorus is in the
form of a suspended solid and that removal  of  TSS  will  effect
removal of phosphorus.

Although  observed  concentrations of radium 226 in effluents are
generally below  3  pCi/1,  the  potential  exists  for  effluent
concentrations  of  this  radionuclide to substantially increase.
These increases are brought about primarily by  higher  suspended
solid  levels than allowed in the effluent or the introduction of
acid to slime or effluents.   All  facilities  sampled  currently
meet  this  radium 226 level.  Therefore, this parameter will not
be regulated at this time.

Most of the Florida, North Carolina and Tennessee  facilities  on
which  the  gui "elines  were  based  are  presently achieving the
recommended limitations using these  technologies.   All  Western
operations do or will shortly recycle all such waters.

               SULFUR  (FRASCH PROCESS, ANHYDRITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of process waste water pollutants.   Mine dewatering is
included in the above limitations.  This technology involves  the
chemical treatment and recycle of process water.   Both facilities
in this subcategory are using these technologies.

          SULFUP (FRASCH PROCESS, SALT DOME OPERATIONS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                             Effluent Limitation
Effluent                      	mg/1
Characteristic          Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                      50                  100
    sulfide                   1                    2
                              398

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The  above  limitations  are  based  on  the  current performance
 (alternative  C,  C,  E  or  F)  of  the  9  facilities  in  this
subcategory.   The  quantity of water used in this subcategory is
independent of the  quantity  of  product.   Therefore,  effluent
limitations based on quantity of pollutant per unit of production
are  not practical.  Mine dewatering (bleed water) is included in
the above limitations.

For facilities located in marshes that have insufficient land  to
build  large  enough oxidation ponds to achieve the above numbers
the following limits apply.

                                  Effluent Limitation
                                         mq/1.

Effluent                         Monthly           Daily
Charac teristjc                   Average           Maximum

  TSS                              50               100
Sulfide                             5                10

This technology involves oxidation of sulfides  and  the  use  of
ponds  to reduce suspended solids.  If oxidation ditches are used
by adding water to utilize its dissolved oxygen content, the  TSS
limits  are  to  be  applied  on  a  net  basis.  Six of the nine
facilities are  presently  using  the  recommended  technologies.
Well  seal  water  is  not  regulated  at  this time.  It will be
required by the best available technology economically achievable
to be incorporated into the bleed water treatment system.

    SULFUR  (FRASCH PROCESS - OFF-SHORE SALT DOME OPERATIONS)

No limits on off-shore  operations  are  proposed  at  this  time
pending  further investigation.  Off-shore operations are defined
as those open water operations  sufficiently  distant  from  land
that  the  well bleed water wastes cannot be pumped ashore due to
economic infeasiblity for aeration pond treatment,

                 MINERAL PIGMENTS (IRON OXIDES)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  involves  the  ponding  and  recycle of process waste
water.   This  technology  (alternative  B)  is  presently  being
demonstrated by at least one major processor using process water.
This facility (3022) uses a large pond common to the treatment of
waste water from another larger production volume product and the
discharge  from  the  pond  is  attributable to the larger volume
product.  Two of the three  facilities  studied  use  no  process
water.   This  technology  involves  the  ponding  and recycle of
process water when used.  Mine dewatering should  not  exceed  30
mq/1 TSS based on the data from other subcategories.
                              399

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                  LITHIUM MINEBALS (SPODUMENE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge   of   process   generated   waste   water   pollutants
(alternative A).   There are  only  two  spodumene  facilities  in
operation.   Facility  U009  currently operates on total recycle.
There is some dam seepage and  heavy  storm  overflow.   Facility
4001 is constructing an impoundment to achieve total recycle.

Tailings  dam  seepage and tailings pond storm overflow shall not
exceed 50 mg/1 TSS.  This is to  be  measured  at  the  point  of
discharge.   The  process  waste  water  limitations apply to the
recovery of other minerals in the spodumene ore.

Mine dewatering shall not exceed 35 mg/1 TSS at  any  time.   The
mine  water  at  the  two mines appears to contain colloidal clay
which will require periodic use  of  flocculants.   Treatment  to
this  level  is  successfully demonstrated by other subcategories
including coal and fuller* s earth.
                            BENTONITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants, because no
process water is used.  Mine dewatering shall not exceed 35  mg/1
TSS  at  any  time.   No mine dewatering was found in this study.
Where mine dewatering does occur the use  of  settling  ponds  or
careful  pumping  of mine water to avoid turbulence is necessary.
As noted in Section III  the  difference  between  bentonite  and
fullers'   eartv  is  more  of  commercial  use  than  geological
significance.  Thus the technologies used for fullers* earth  are
also applicable.  The use of flocculants on an intermittent basis
will be necessary if colloidal clays are present.

                            FIRE CLAY

The  best  practicable control technology  currently available is
no discharge of process generated waste water pollutants since no
process water is used.  Mine  dewatering  for  non-acidic  waters
shall  not  exceed  35  mg/1 TSS at any time.  The data indicates
that many mines can meet  the  limitation  without  treatment  or
additional  treatment.   In  those  cases where the limitation is
exceeded the use of flocculants on an intermittent basis will  be
necessary.  This technology has been successfully demonstrated in
many  other  subcategories  including  fullers' earth.  Acid mine
drainage must meet the following limitations:

    Effluent Characteristic
                             Monthly Average  Daily Maximum

    TSS, mgl                      35             70
                              UOO

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    Total Fe, mg/1                3.5            7.0

These limitations reflect the technology  employed  by  the  coal
category.   The  limitations are directly applicable because fire
clay is frequently associated with coal.

                  FULLER'S EARTH (ATTAPULGITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
condition  is  currently met by four facilities (3058, 3060, 3C88
and 3089).  This technology (alternative C) involves the  use  of
dry  air  pollution control equipment and reuse of waste fines or
recycle of fines slurry and scrubber water after settling and  pH
adjustment.   Mine  dewatering  shall  not  exceed 35 mg/1 at any
time.  The data  in  Section  VII  indicates  that  this  can  be
achieved by current practice.

                FULLER'S EARTH (MONTMORILLONITE)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.  Two
facilities studied  (3059-3073)  presently  use  the  recommended
technology.   Mine dewatering shall not exceed 35 mg/1 TSS at any
time.  The data in Section  VII  indicates  that  montmorillonite
mines  will  have  to  occassionally use flocculation to meet the
limitation   (alternative  C).     Mine   3059   has   successfully
demonstrated  flocculation  and removal of TSS to very low levels
for one of the highest concentrations of TSS in mine  water  that
was   allowed  extensive  time  to  settle.   Successful  use  of
flocculants at coal and other clay mines further demonstrate  the
technical feasibility.

                     KAOLIN (DFY PROCESSING)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process generated waste water pollutants.  This is
feasible since no process waste water is used.

                     KAOLIN (WET PROCESSING)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                 Effluent Limitation
Effluent Characteristic    Monthly Average  Daily Maximum

  TSS, mg/1                    <*5               90
  Turbidity, JTU or FTU        50               100
  Zinc, mg/1                  0.25              0.50

The above limitations were based on a statistical analysis of the
performance attainable by the two facilities  (3021 and 3025).  In
                              401

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addition other Georgia kaolin producers have claimed  that  these
limits  are  achievable.  The technology involved (alternative B)
is pH adjustment and flocculation.   Some  facilities  flocculate
first at a low pH and then pH adjust.  Zinc precipitation by lime
addition is necessary where zinc compounds are used to bleach the
kaolin.

                    KAOLIN (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine dewatering from mines not pumping the ore as a slurry to the
processing  facility  shall  not  exceed 35 mg/1 TSS at any time.
The data in Section VII indicates that this  is  currently  being
achieved.

The  following limits apply to mine dewatering from mines pumping
the ore as a slurry to the processing facility.

                                 Effluent Limitation
Effluent Characteristic    Monthly Average  Daily Maximum

  TSS, mg/1                    45               90
  Turbidity, JTU or FTU        50               100

The use of clay dispersants in the slurry necessitates the use of
flocculants and clarification  in  larger  ponds  than  would  be
needed if the ore were transported by dry means.

                   BALL CLAY (WET PROCESSING)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology  (alternative C) involves the use of dry bag collection
techniques for dust control or, where wet scrubbers are employed,
the use of settling ponds to reduce suspended solids and recycle.

                   BAIL CLAY (DPY PROCESSING)

Where ball clay is processed without the use of wet scrubbers for
air emissions control there is no need to discharge process waste
water since it is either  evaporated  or  goes  to  the  product.
Hence,   the   best   practicable  control  technology  currently
available is  no  discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water
pollutants.

                   BALL CLAY (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine  dewatering  shall  not exceed  35 mg/1 TSS at any time.  The
data is Section  VII  indicates  that  the  intermittent  use  of
flocculants  will  be necessary to achieve the limitations.  This
technology is practiced in other subcategories.

                      FELDSPAR  (FLOTATION)
                              402

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The best practicable control technology currently available is;

                         Effluent Limitation
                         kq/kkq  (lb/1000 Ib) of ore processed
Effluent Characteristic  Monthly Average   Daily Maximum
TSS
Fluoride
0.60
0.175
1.2
0.35
The above limitations were based on the performance  achieved  by
three  exemplary facilities for TSS (3026, 305U and 3067) and one
of these three  (3026) for fluoride  reduction.   This  technology
(alternative C) involves the recycle of part of the process waste
water  for washing purposes, then neutralization and settling the
remaining  waste  water  to  reduce  the  suspended  solids.   In
addition,  fluoride  reduction  can  be  accomplished by chemical
treatment of  waste  water  from  the  flotation  circuit  and/or
partial  recycle  of  the  fluoride  containing  portion  of  the
flotation circuit.  A concentration of UO mg/1 F can be  achieved
for  this  waste  stream.  This waste stream can then be combined
with the remaining 75 percent of the non-HF contaminated water.

                    FELDSPAR (NON-FLOTATION)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  is the natural evaporation of dust control water used
in the process.  This is the only water used in the process.

                   FELDSPAR (MINE DEWATERING)

Mine dewatering shall  not  exceed  30  mg/1  TSS  at  any  time.
Feldspar mining is a hard rock operation and the suspended solids
appear  to  settle rapidly as for crushed stone operations.  Mine
runoff rather than dewatering  is  the  normal  method  of  water
escape.

                             KYANITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the recycle of process  water  from  settling
ponds.   Facility  3015  is  currently  achieving the limitation.
Facility 3028 operates  on  total  recycle.    However,  excessive
runoff  results in periodic discharges.  This can be rectified by
exclusion of excess runoff from the  process  waste  water  pond.
Mine  dewatering  shall not exceed 35 mg/1 TSS at any time.  Mine
dewatering was not practiced at the mines inspected.
                              403

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                            MAGNESITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  involves  either  impoundment  or  recycle of process
waste water.  There is one facility in the U.S. and this facility
currently uses the recommended technology.

                      SHALE AND COMMON CLAY

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants,  since  no
water  is  used.   Mine  dewatering shall meet 35 mg/1 TSS at all
times.   This  technology  involves  settling  or  the   use   of
flocculants on an intermittent basis.

                             APLITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the ponding of process waste water to  settle
solids  and  recycle  of  water.   This  technology  is currently
employed at facility 3016.  Mine dewatering shall not  exceed  35
mg/1  TSS  at any time.  Mine dewatering was not practiced at the
mines inspected.

    TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE (DRY PROCESS)

The. best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process generated waste water pollutants because  no
process water is used.

  TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE (WASHING PROCESS)

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the total impoundment or recycle  of  process
waste water.  All facilities in this subcategory currently employ
the recommended control technology.

     TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE AND PYROPHYLLITE  (HEAVY MEDIA
                         AND FLOTATION)

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                                  Effluent Limitation
                             kg/Kkg  (lb/1000 Ib)  of product
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                            0.5                 1.0
                              404

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The above  limitations were based on the performance achievable  by
three   facilities   (2032,  2033  and   20M4) and a  fourth  facility
 (2031)  achieving no  discharge  of  process  waste water.   This
technolocry   (alternative   A)  involves  pH  adjustment  of  the
flotation  tailings,  gravity  settling  and  clarification.   All
facilities   in   this   subcategory   are  presently  using  the
recommended technologies.

   TALC, STEATITE, SOAPSTONE, FYROPHYYLLITE  (MINE  DEWATERING)

Mine dewatering shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at  any  time.   The
above   limitations  are  based  on the data from 8 mines  given  in
Section VII.

                             GARNET
The best practicable control technology currently available is:


Effluent Characteristic
     Effluent Limitation
Monthly Average     Daily Maximum
    TSS, mg/1
     30
60
This technology involves  pH  adjustment,  where  necessary,  and
settling  of suspended solids.  The two facilities accounting for
over 80 percent of the U.S.  production are presently  using  the
recommended technologies.

                             TRIPOLI

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   No
process waste water is used in the dry processes.  One  operation
uses  a  small guantity of water for dust collection.  This water
is treated with a flocculant and settled.  This water  should  be
of  suitable quality to recycle.  Alternately dry dust collection
technigues can be employed.

Mine dewatering shall  not  exceed  30  mg/1  TSS  at  any  time.
Tripoli  mine dewatering was not found in this study.  Tripoli is
not associated with colloidal clays; hence the limitations should
be able to be achieved by settling.

                            DIATOMITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  involves  the use of evaporation ponds and/or recycle
of process water.  Three facilities (550U, 5505 and 5500)  of this
subcategory representing approximately half the  U.S.  production
utilize this recommended technology.
                              U05

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Mine  dewatering  shall not exceed 30 mg/1 TSS at any time.  Mine
dewatering was  not  found  in  this  study.   Diatomite  is  not
associated  with colloidal clays; hence the limitations should be
able to be achieved by settling.

                            GRAPHITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is:

                             Effluent Limitation
Effluent Characteristic      Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

TSS, mg/1                            10                  20
Total Iron, mg/1                     1                   2

The above average  limitations  were  based  on  the  performance
achievable  by  the  single  facility  in this subcategory.  Both
process  waste  water   and   mine   dewatering   are   included.
Concentration  was  used  because  of  the  variable flow of mine
water.  This technology involves neutralization of mine water and
pond settling of both mine and process waste water.

                              JADE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  involves  the  settling  and evaporation of the small
volume  (less than 100 gallons per day) of waste water.  The  only
major  U.S.  jade  production  facility  presently  employs these
techniques.  The mine is only infrequently operated, in fact only
a few days in the last three years.  Mine  pumpout  is  therefore
not regulated.

                           NOVACULITE

The best practicable control technology currently available is no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water pollutants.  This
technology involves the total recycle of process scrubber  water.
There  is  only  one  facility in the U.S.  It is presently using
this technology.  Mine dewatering is not practiced.
                              406

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                            SECTION X
            EFFLUENT SEDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
                APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
               TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by  July  1,   1983
are  based on the degree of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the  best  available  technology  economically
achievable.   For  the  mining  of  minerals for the construction
industry, this level of technology was based  on  the  very   best
control  and  treatment  technology  employed by a specific point
source within each of the industry's subcategories, or  where  it
is  readily  transferable  from  one industry process to  another.
The  following  factors  were   taken   into   consideration   in
determining    the   best   available   technology   economically
achievable:

(1) the age of the equipment and facilities involved;
(2) the process employed;
(3) the engineering aspects of the application of  various  types
    of control techniques;
(U) process changes;
(5) the cost of achieving the effluent reduction  resulting   from
    application of BATEA; and
(6) non-water  quality  environmental  impact  (including  energy
    requirements).

In   contrast   to  the  best  practicable  technology  currently
available, the best available technology economically  achievable
assesses  the availability in all cases of in-process controls as
well as control or additional treatment  techniques  employed  at
the  end  of  a  production  process.  In-process control options
available which were considered in establishing these control and
treatment technologies include the following:

(1) alternative water uses
(2) water conservation
(3) waste stream segregation
(1) water reuse
(5) cascading water uses
(6) by-product recovery
(7) reuse of waste water constituents
(8) waste treatment
(9) good housekeeping
(10) preventive maintenance
(11) quality control (raw material, product, effluent)
(12) monitoring and alarm systems.
                              407

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Those facility processes and control technologies  which  at  the
pilot facility, semi-works, or other level have demonstrated both
technological  performances  and  economic  viability  at a level
sufficient to reasonably justify  investing  in  such  facilities
were  also  considered in assessing the best available technology
economically   achievable.     Although   economic   factors   are
considered  in  this  development,  the  costs  for this level of
control are intended to be for the top of  the  line  of  current
technology   subject  to  limitations  imposed  by  economic  and
engineering   feasibility.     However,   this   technology    may
necessitate some industrially sponsored development work prior to
its application.

The  reguirements for mine dewatering waste water are the same as
for the best practicable control technology currently  available.
The  pH  limitation for all process generated and mine dewatering
waste waters is to be between 6.0 and 9.0.

Untreated overflow may be discharged from process waste water  or
mine   dewatering   impoundments   without   limitation   if  the
impoundments are designed,  constructed and operated to treat  all
process generated waste water or mine drainage and surface runoff
into   the   impoundments   resulting  from  a  10-year  24  hour
precipitation event  (as  established  by  the  National  Climatic
Center,  National  Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for the
locality  in  which  such  impoundments  are  located)   to   the
limitation   specified   as   representing   the  best  available
technology  economically  achievable.   To  preclude  unfavorable
water  balance conditions resulting from precipitation and runoff
in  connection  with  tailing  impoundments,  diversion  ditching
should  be constructed to prevent natural drainage or runoff from
mingling with process waste water or mine dewatering waste water.

The following industry subcategories were reguired to achieve  no
discharge   of   process  generated  waste  water  pollutants  to
navigable waters based on the best practicable control technology
currently available:

    dimension stone
    crushed stone  (dry)
    crushed stone  (wet)
    crushed stone  (flotation)
    construction sand and gravel  (dry)
    construction sand and gravel  (wet)
    construction sand and gravel  (dredging with land
         processing)
    industrial  sand  (dry)
    industrial  sand  (wet)
    industrial  sand  (acid and alkaline flotation)
    gypsum
    bituminous  limestone
    oil impregnated  diatomite
                               U08

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    gilsonite
    asbestos
    wollastonite
    perlite
    pumice
    vermiculite
    mica and sericite (dry)
    mica (wet, grinding)
    mica (wet beneficiation, either no clay or
      general purpose clay by-product)
    barite  (dry)
    fluorspar  (HMS)
    borax
    potash
    trona
    sodium sulfate
    sulfur  (anhydrite)
    mineral pigments
    bentonite
    fire clay
    fuller's earth  (montmorillonite and attapulgite)
    kaolin  (general purpose grade)
    ball clay
    feldspar  (non-flotation)
    kyanite
    magnesite
    shale and common clay
    aplite
    talc group  (dry process)
    talc group  (washing process)
    tripoli
    diatomite
    jade
    novaculite

The same  limitations  are  recommended  as  the  best  available
technology economically achievable.

                 INDUSTRIAL SAND  (HF FLOTATION)

The  best  available  technology  economically  achievable  is no
discharge of process  generated  waste  water  pollutants.   This
technology  (alternative B) involves thickening, ponding to settle
suspended  solids,  pH  adjustment  and  total recycle of process
water  after  segregation  and  total  impoundment  of  the   HF-
containing segment of the process waste stream.  This facility is
located  in  an arid region and should be able to totally impound
the HF-containing portion of its waste  stream  and  recycle  the
remainder.
                              U09

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         MICA (WET BENEFICIATICN PROCESS, CERAMIC GRADE
                        CLAY BY-PRODUCT)

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

         BARITE-WET (LOG WASHING, JIGGING AND FLOTATION)

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

                      FLUORSPAR (FLOTATION)

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

                    SALINES FROM BRINE LAKES

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

                            ROCK SALT

The best available technology economically achievable is:

                             Effluent Limitation
                             kg/kkg of product
                              (lbs/1000 Ib)
Effluent Characteristic Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

    TSS                      0.002               O.OOU
(Process and Mine Water)
Salt storage
Pile Runoff                  No discharge

The  above  limitations  are based on the performance of at least
one facility.  This technology involves the use of drum  filters,
clarifiers  or  settling  ponds to reduce suspended solids.  Salt
storage pile contaminated runoff can be  eliminated  by  building
storage silos and cones or by covering less freguently used piles
with plastic or other fabric.

                         PHOSPHATE ROCK

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

          SULFUR  (FRASCH PROCESS, SALT DOME OPERATIONS)

The best available technology economically achievable is:
                              U10

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Effluent
Characteristic

    TSS
    sulfide
                  Effluent Limitation
                       mg/1
             Monthly Average     Daily Maximum
                  30
                   1
        60
         2
The  above
of the  9
subcategory
Therefore,
per  unit
bleed water
the  above
settling to
sulfides.
utilize its
applied on
 limitations are based on the current performance of 5
facilities.   The  quantity  of  water  used  in  this
   is   independent   of   the  quantity  of  product.
effluent limitations based on  quantity  of  pollutant
of production are not practical.  Mine dewatering both
 and seal water for this sufccategory  is  included  in
 limitations.   The  practiced  technology is improved
 reduce suspended solids  and  aeration  to  eliminate
 If  oxidation  ditches  are  used  by adding water to
 dissolved oxygen content, the TSS limits  are  to  be
a net basis.
    SULFUR  (FRASCH PROCESS - OFF SHORE SALT DOME OPERATIONS)

No   limitations  are  proposed  at  this  time  pending  further
investigation.

                  LITHIUM MINERALS  (SPODUMENE)

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

                     KAOLIN  (WET PROCESSING)

The best available technology  economically  achievable  is   the
same   as  the  best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available.

                      FELDSPAR (FLOTATION)

The best available technology economically achievable is:

                        Effluent Limitation
Effluent
Characteristic
  TSS
  Fluoride
             kg/kkg (1b/1000 Ib)  ore processed
        Monthly Average     Daily Maximum
          0.6
          0.13
1.2
0.26
The above limitation for fluoride is based on an  improvement  in
exemplary  facility  performance  by  lime  treatment  to  reduce
fluorides to 30 mg/1 in  the  HF  contaminated  segregated  waste
water.   The  limitation on suspended solids for best practicable
control  technology  currently  available  is  deemed   also   to
                              411

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represent  the best available technology economically achievable.
This technology (alternative C) involves the recycle of  part  of
the  process  waste water for washing purposes, neutralization to
pH 9 with lime to reduce soluble fluoride and settling to  remove
suspended  solids.  The selected technology of partial recycle is
currently practiced at  two  facilities.   Three  facilities  are
currently using lime treatment to adjust pH and can readily adopt
this  technology  to reduce soluble fluoride.  All facilities are
using settling eguipment or ponds.

         TALC MINERALS GROUP (HEAVY MEDIA AND FLOTATION)

The best available technology economically achievable is:

                        Effluent Limitation
Effluent                kg/kkg  (lb/1000 Ib) of product
Characteristic     Monthly Average     Daily Maximum

  TSS                0.3                 0.6

The above limitations were based on performance of  one  facility
(2032)  plus one facility achieving no discharge of process water
(2031).  The best available  technology  economically  achievable
for  the  processing  of  talc  minerals by the ore mining, heavy
media  and/or  flotation  process  is  the  same  as   the   best
practicable   control   technology   currently   available   plus
additional settling or in one case, conversion from wet scrubbing
to a dry collection method to control air pollution.  Two of  the
four  facilities in this subcategory are presently achieving this
level of  effluent  reduction  using  the  recommended  treatment
technologies.

                             GARNET

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

                            GRAPHITE

The best available technology economically achievable is the same
as the best practicable control technology currently available.

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                           SECTION XI
                NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                   AND PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
This  level  of technology is to te achieved by new sources.   The
term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source,   the
construction  of  which  is  commenced  after  the publication of
proposed regulations prescribing a standard of performance."  This
technology is evaluated by adding to the consideration underlying
the identification of the best available technology  economically
achievable,  a  determination  of what higher levels of pollution
control are available through  the  use  of  improved  production
processes  and/or  treatment  techniques.   Thus,  in addition to
considering  the  best  in-facility  and  end-of-process  control
technology,  new  source  performance  standards consider how the
level of effluent may  be  reduced  by  changing  the  production
process  itself.   Alternative  processes,  operating  methods of
other alternatives were considered.  However, the end  result  of
the  analysis  identifies effluent standards which reflect levels
of control achievable through  the  use  of  improved  production
processes    (as   well   as   control  technology),  rather  than
prescribing a particular type of process or technology which must
be employed.

The  following  factors  were  analyzed  in  assessing  the  best
demonstrated  control  technology  currently  available  for  new
sources:

a)  the type of process employed and process changes;
b)  operating methods;
c)  batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d)  use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;
e)  use of dry rather than wet processes  (including  substitution
    of recoverable solvents from water); and
f)  recovery of pollutants as by-products.

In addition  to  the  effluent  limitations  covering  discharges
directly   into  waterways,  the  constituents  of  the  effluent
discharge from a facility within the  industrial  category  which
would  interfere with, pass through, or otherwise be incompatible
with a well designed and operated publicly owned activated sludge
or  trickling  filter  waste  water   treatment   facility   were
identified.  A determination was made of whether the introduction
of   such  pollutants  into  the  treatment  facility  should  be
completely prohibited.

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Untreated overflow may be discharged from process waste water  or
mine   dewatering   impoundments   without   limitation   if  the
impoundments are designed, constructed and operated to treat  all
process generated waste water or mine drainage and surface runoff
into   the   impoundments   resulting  from  a  10-year  24  hour
precipitation event (as  established  by  the  National  Climatic
Center,  National  Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for the
locality  in  which  such  impoundments  are  located)   to   the
limitation  specified as the new source performance standard.  To
preclude unfavorable  water  balance  conditions  resulting  from
precipitation and runoff in connection with tailing impoundments,
diversion  ditching  should  be  constructed  to  prevent natural
drainage or runoff from mingling with process waste water or mine
dewatering waste water.

The mine dewatering limitations are the  same  as  for  the  best
practicable  control  technology  currently  available.   The  pH
limitation for all process generated and  mine  dewatering  waste
waters is to be between 6.0 and 9.0.

The  following industry subcategories were required to achieve no
discharge  of  process  generated  waste  water   pollutants   to
navigable waters based on the best practicable control technology
currently available:

    dimension stone
    crushed stone  (dry)
    crushed stone  (wet)
    crushed stone  (flotation)
    construction sand and gravel  (dry)
    construction sand and gravel  (wet)
    construction sand and gravel  (land processing)
    industrial sand (dry)
    industrial sand (wet)
    industrial sand (acid and alkaline flotation)
    gypsum
    bituminous limestone
    oil impregnated diatomite
    gilsonite
    asbestos
    wollastonite
    perlite
    pumice
    vermiculite
    mica and sericite  (dry)
    mica  (wet, grinding)
    mica  (wet beneficiation, either no clay or
      general purpose clay by-product)
    barite  (dry)
    fluorspar  (HMS)
    borax
    potash

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    trona
    sodium sulfate
    sulfur (anhydrite)
    mineral pigments
    bentonite
    fire clay
    fuller's earth  (montmorillonite and attapulgite)
    kaolin (dry process)
    ball clay
    feldspar (non-flotation)
    kyanite
    maqnesite
    shale and common clay
    aplite
    talc group  (dry process)
    talc group  (washing process)
    tripoli
    dia tomi te
    •jade
    novaculite

The   same   limitations  guidelines  including  those  for  mine
dewatering  are  recommended  as  the  new   source   performance
standards.

The following sutcategory was reguired to achieve no discharge of
process  generated  waste  water  pollutants  to navigable waters
based on best available technology economically achievable:

    industrial sand (HF flotation process)

The  same  limitations  are  recommended  as   the   new   source
performance standards.

                MICA  (WET BENEFICIATION. CERAMIC
                     GRADE CLAY EY-PRODUCT)

The   same   as   the   best  available  technology  economically
achievable.

                   BARITE (WET AND FLOTATION)

The same as the best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available.

                    SALINES FRCM EPINE LAKES

The  same  as  the  best practicable control technology currently
available.
                              415

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                      FLUORSPAR (FLOTATION)

The  same  as  the   best   available   technology   economically
achievable.

                         PHOSPHATE POCK

The   same   as   the   best  available  technology  economically
achievable.

                            ROCK SALT

The  same  as  the   best   available   technology   economically
achievable.

                SULFUR (FRASCH PROCESS SALT DOME)

The   same   as   the   best  available  technology  economically
achievable.

     SULFUR  (FRASCH PROCESS-OFF SHORE SALT DOME OPERATIONS)

No  limitations  are  proposed  at  this  time  pending  furether
investigation.

                        LITHIUM MINERALS

The  same  as  the  best practicable control technology currently
available.
                      KAOLIN  (WET PROCESS)

The same as the best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available.

                      FELDSPAR  (FLOTATION)

The   same   as   the   best  available  technology  economically
achievable.

          TALC GROUP  (HEAVY MEDIA AND FLOATION PROCESS)

The same as the best available  technology economically achievable

                              GARNET

The same as the best  practicable  control  technology  currently
available.
                               416

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                            GRAPHITE

The  same  as  the  best practicable control technology currently
available.

PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

Recommended pretreatment  guidelines  for  discharge  of  process
waste  water  into public treatment works conform in general with
EPA Pretreatment Standards for Municipal Sewer Works as published
in the July 19, 1973 Federal Register and "Title 40 -  Protection
of  the Environment, Chapter 1 - Environmental Protection Agency,
Subchapter  D  -  Water  Programs  -  Part  128  -   Pretreatment
Standards"   a   subsequent   EPA   publication.   The  following
definitions conform to these publications:

The term "compatible pollutant" means biochemical oxygen  demand,
suspended solids, pH and fecal coliform bacteria, plus additional
pollutants  identified in the NPDES permit, if the publicly-owned
treatment works was designed to treat such  pollutants,  and,  in
fact,  does  remove such pollutants to a substantial degree.  The
term "incompatible pollutant" means any pollutant which is not  a
compatible  pollutant  as  defined  above.   A major contributing
industry is an industrial user of the  publicly  owned  treatment
works that: has a flow of 50,000 gallons or more per average work
day;  has a flow greater than five percent of the flow carried by
the municipal system receiving the waste; has  in  its  waste,  a
toxic  pollutant  in toxic amounts as defined in standards issued
under Section 307 (a) of the  Act;  or  is  found  by  the  permit
issuance  authority,  in connection with the issuance of an NPDES
permit to the publicly owned treatment works receiving the waste,
to have significant impact, either singly or in combination  with
other  contributing  industries,  on that treatment works or upon
the guality of effluent from that treatment works.

No waste introduced into a publicly owned treatment  works  shall
interfere  with  the  operation  or  performance  of  the  works.
Specifically, the following wastes shall not be  introduced  into
the publicly owned treatment works:

a.  Wastes which  create  a  fire  or  explosion  hazard  in  the
    publicly owned treatment works;

b.  Wastes  which  will  cause  corrosive  structural  damage  to
    treatment  works,  but in no case wastes with a pH lower than
    5.0, unless  the  works  are  designed  to  accommodate  such
    wastes;

c.  Solid  or  viscous  wastes  in  amounts  which  would   cause
    obstruction to the flow in sewers, or other interference with
    the  proper  operation of the publicly owned treatment works,
    and
                              417

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d.  Wastes at a flow rate and/or pollutant discharge  rate  which
    is excessive over relatively short time periods so that there
    is a treatment process upset and subsequent loss of treatment
    efficiency.

The  following  are recommended for Pretreatment Guidelines for a
major contributing industry:

a.  No pretreatment required for removal of compatible pollutants
       biochemical  oxygen  demand,  suspended   solids    (unless
    hazardous), pH, and fecal coliform bacteria;

b.  Pollutants such as  chemical  oxygen  demand,  total  organic
    carton,  phosphorus  and  phosphorus  compounds, nitrogen and
    nitrogen compounds, and fats, oils, and greases, need not  be
    removed  provided  the  publicly  owned  treatment  works was
    designed to treat  such  pollutants  and  will  accept  them.
    Otherwise  levels  should  be at the best practicable control
    technology currently available recommendations  for  existing
    sources  and  the  new  source  performance standards for new
    sources;

c.  Limitation on dissolved solids is not recommended  except  in
    cases of water quality violations.

d.  Incompatible   pollutants   shall   meet   the    limitations
    representing   the   best   practicable   control  technology
    currently available for existing sources and the  new  source
    performance standards for new sources.
                               418

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                           SECTION XII


                        AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS
The  preparation  of  this  report  was  accomplished through the
efforts of the staff of General  Technologies  Division,  versar.
Inc.,  Springfield,  Virginia, under the overall direction of Dr.
Robert G. Shaver, Vice  President.   Mr.  Robert C.  Smith,  Jr.,
Chief  Engineer,  Project Office, directed the day-to-day work on
the program.

Mr. Michael W. Kosakowski was the EPA Project Officer.  Mr, Allen
Cywin,  Director,  Effluent  Guidelines  Division,  Mr.  Ernst P.
Hall,  Jr., Assistant Director, Effluent Guidelines Division, and
Mr.  Harold B.  Coughlin,  Branch  Chief,   Effluent   Guidelines
Division,  offered  many  helpful suggestions during the program.
Mr. Ralph Lorenzetti assisted in many facility inspections.

Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to Linda Rose  and
Darlene  Miller  of the word processing/editorial assistant staff
of the Effluent Guidelines Division and the secretarial staff  of
the  General  Technologies  Division  of  Versar, Inc., for their
efforts in the typing of drafts, necessary revisions,  and  final
effluent guidelines document.

Appreciation  is extended to the following trade associations and
state  and  federal  agencies  for  assistance  and   cooperation
rendered to us in this program:

    American Mining Congress
    Asbestos Information Association, Washington, D.c.
    Barre Granite Association
    Brick Institute of America
    Building Stone Institute
    Fertilizer Institute
    Florida Limerock Institute, Inc.
    Florida Phosphate Council
    Georgia Association of Mineral Processing Industries
    Gypsum Association
    Indiana Limestone Institute
    Louisiana Fish and Wildlife Commission
    Louisiana Water Pollution Control Board
    Marble Institute of America
    National Clay Pipe Institute
    National Crushed Stone Association
    National Industrial Sand Association
    National Limestone Institute
    National Sand and Gravel Association
    New York state Department of Environmental Conservation
                              419

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    North Carolina Minerals Association
    North Carolina Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone Association
    Portland Cement Association
    Refractories Institute
    Salt Institute
    State of Indiana Geological Survey
    Texas Water Quality Board
    U.S. Bureau of Mines
    U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lacrosse, Wisconsin
    Vermont Department of Water Resources

Appreciation  is  also  extended  to  the many mineral mining and
producing  companies  who  qave  us  invaluable  assistance   and
cooperation in this program.

Also,  our  appreciation  is  extended  to the individuals of the
staff of General Technologies Division of Versar, Inc., for their
assistance during this program.  Specifically, our thanks to:

    Dr. R. L. Durfee, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. D. H. Sargent, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Abrams, Chief Engineer
    Mr. L. C. McCandless, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Dr. L. C. Parker, Senior Chemical Engineer
    Mr. E. F. Rissman, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. J. C. Walker, Chemical Engineer
    Mrs. G. Contos, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. W. Slimak, Environmental Scientist
    Dr. I. Frankel, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. M. DeFries, Chemical Engineer
    Ms. C. V. Fong, Chemist
    Mrs. D. K. Guinan, Chemist
    Mr. J. G. Casana, Environmental Engineer
    Mr. R. C. Green, Environmental Scientist
    Mr. R. S. Wetzel, Environmental Engineer
    Ms. M.A. Connole, Biological Scientist
    Ms. M. Smith, Analytical Chemist
    Mr. M. C. Calhoun, Field Engineer
    Mr. D. McNeese, Field Engineer
    Mr. E. Hoban, Field Engineer
    Mr. P. Nowacek, Field Engineer
    Mr. B. Ryan, Field Engineer
    Mr. R. Freed, Field Engineer
    Mr. N. O. Johnson, Consultant
    Mr. F. Shay, Consultant
    Dr. L. W. Ross, Chemical Engineer
    Mr. J. Boyer, Chemical Engineer
                              420

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                          SECTION XIII
                           REFERENCES
1.  Agnello, L., "Kaolin", Industrial and  Engineering  Chemistry,
    Vol. 52, No. 5, May 1960, pp. 370-376.

2.  "American Ceramic Society Bulletin," Vol. 53, No. 1,  January
    1974, Columbus, Ohio.

3.  Arndt, P.H., "The Shell Dredging Industry of the  Gulf  Coast
    Region," U.S. Department of the Interior, 1971.

4.  Bates, R.L., Geology of the  Industrial  Rocks  a,n_d  Minerals,
    Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1969.

5.  Beeghly,  J.H.,  "Water  Quality  and  the  Sand  and  Gravel
    Industry,"   37th   Annual   Meeting  Ohio  Sand  and  Gravel
    Association, 1971.

6.  Black  and  Veatch,  Consulting  Engineers,  "Process  Design
    Manual  for  Phosphorus  Removal," U.S. EPA Program 17010 GNP
    Contract 14-12-936, October, 1971.

7.  Boruff, C.S., "Removal of Fluorides  from  Drinking  Waters,"
    Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 26, No. 1, January
    1934, pp. 69-71.

8.  Brooks, R.G., "Dewatering of Solids," 57th Annual  Convention
    National crushed Stone Association, 1974.

9.  Brown, W.E., U.S. Patent 2,761,835, September 1956.

10.  Brown, W.E., and  Gracobine,  C.R.,  U.S.  Patent  2,761,841,
    September 1956.

11.  "Census of Minerals Industries," 1972, Bureau of the  Census,
    U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Government Printing Office,
    Washington, D.C. MIC72(P)-14A-1 through MIC72(P)-14E-4.

12.  "Commodity Data Summaries, 1974, Appendix  I  to  Mining  and
    Minerals  Policy,"  Bureau  of  Mines, U.S. Department of the
    Interior, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

13.  Davison, E.K., "Present Status  of  Water  Pollution  Control
    Laws  and  Regulations," 57th Annual Convention National Sand
    and Gravel Association, 1973.
                              421

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14.  Day,  R.W.,  "The  Hydrocyclone  in  Process  and   Pollution
    Control,"  Chemical  Engineering  Progress,   Vol.  69, No. 9,
    1973, pp. 67-72.

15.  "Dictionary of Mining,  Mineral, and Related  Terms," Bureau of
    Mines, U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,   U.S.  Government
    Printing Office,  Washington, D.C., 1968.

16.  "Engineering and  Mining Journal," McGraw-Hill, October 1974.

17.  Groom, F., "Vacuum Filtration - An Alternative to the Use  of
    Large Settling Ponds in Sand and Gravel Production," National
    Sand and Gravel Association Circular No.  117.

18.  Haden, W., Jr. and Schwint, I., "Attapulgite, Its  Properties
    and   Applications,"  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,
    Vol. 59, No. 9, September 1967, pp. 57-69.

19.  Huffstuter, K.K.  and Slack, A.V.,  Phosphoric  Acid,  Vol. 1,
    Part 2, Marcel Dekker,  Inc., N.Y., 1968.

20.  "Indiana Limestone Handbook," Indiana Limestone Institute  of
    America, Inc., January 1973, Bedford, Indiana.

21.  Krenkel, P.A., "Principles of Sedimentation   and  Coagulation
    As  Applied  to  the Clarification of Sand and Gravel Process
    Water,"  National  Sand  and  Gravel   Association   Circular
    No. 118.

22.  Levine,    S.,    "Liguid/Solids    Separation    Via     Wet
    Classification,"  Rock Products, September 1972, pp. 84-95.

23.  Little, A.D., "Economic Impact Analysis  of   New  Source  Air
    Quality  Standards  on the Crushed Stone Industry," EPA Draft
    Report,  1974.

24.  Llewellyn, C.M.,  "The Use of Flocculants in  the  James  River
    Estuary," Lone Star Industries.

25.  Llewellyn,  C.M.,  "Maintenance  of  Closed    Circuit   Water
    Systems,"   National   Crushed   Stone  Association  Meeting,
    Charlotte, N.C.,  1973.

26.  Locke,  S.R.,  Ozal,  M.A.,  Gray,  J.,  Jackson,  R.E.   and
    Preis, A.,   "Study   to  Determine  the  Feasibility  of  an
    Experiment  to  Transfer  Technology  to  the  Crushed  Stone
    Industry,"  Martin  Marietta Laboratories, NSF Contract C826,
    1974.

27.  Maier, F.J., "Defluoridation of  Municipal  Water  Supplies,"
    Journal AWWA, August 1953, pp. 879-888.
                              422

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28. May, E.B., "Environmental Effects of  Hydraulic  Dredging  in
    Estuaries,"  Alabama  Marine  Resources Bulletin No. 9, April
    1973, pp.  1-85.

29. McNeal, W., and  Nielsen,  G.,  "International  Directory  of
    Mining and Mineral Processing Operations," J2/MJ, McGraw-Hill,
    1973-1974.

30. "Minerals Yearbook, Metals,  Minerals,  and  Fuels,  Vol. 1,"
    U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior, U.S. Government Printing
    Office, Washington, D.C., 1971, 1972.

31. "Mining Engineering, Publication of  the  Society  of  Mining
    Engineers  of  AIME, Annual Review for 1973," Vol. 25, No. 1,
    January 1973; Vol. 26, No. 3,  March  1974  through  Vol. 26,
    No. 8, August 1971.

32. "Modern  Mineral  Processing  Flowsheets,"  Denver  Equipment
    Company, 2nd Ed., Denver, Colorado.

33. Monroe, R.G., "Wastewater Treatment Studies in Aggregate  and
    Concrete  Production,"  EPA  Technology Series EPA-R2-73-003,
    1973.

34. Newport, B.D. and Moyer, J.E.,  "State-of-the-Art:  Sand  and
    Gravel  Industry,"  EPA  Technology  Series EPA-660/2-74-066,
    1974.

35. Oleszkiewicz, J.A. and Krenkel, P.A., "Effects  of  Sand  and
    Gravel  Dredging  in  the  Ohio River," Vanderbilt University
    Technical Report No. 29, 1972.

36. Patton, T.C., "Silica,  Microcrystalline,"  Pigment  Handbook
    Vol. J, J. Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1973, pp. 157-159.

37. Popper, H., Modern Engineering Cost Technigues,  McGraw-Hill,
    New York,  1970.

38. "Phosphorus Derived Chemicals," U.S. EPA, EPA-440/1-74-006-a,
    Washington, D.C., January, 1974.

39. Price, W.L., "Dravo Dredge No. 16," National Sand and  Gravel
    Association Circular No. 82, 1960.

40. "Product Directory of the Refractories Industry in the U.S.,"
    The Refractories Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1972.

41. "Radiochemical  Pollution  from  Phosphate  Rock  Mining  and
    Milling,"  National Field Investigations Center, Denver, EPA,
    Denver, Colorado, December, 1973.
                              423

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42.  Resource Consultants,  Inc., Engineering  Report,  "Wastewater
    Treatment for Dixie Sand and Gravel Co.," Chattanooga, Tenn.,
    1972.

43.  Robertson,  J.L.,  "Washer/Classifier  System   Solves   Clay
    Problem  at  Sand  and Gravel Facility," Rock Products, March
    1973, pp. 50-53.

44.  Slabaugh, W.H. and Culbertsen, J.L., J. Phys. Chem.,55,  744,
    1951.

45.  Smith,  C.A.,  "Pollution   Control   Through   Waste   Fines
    Recovery,"  National  Sand  and  Gravel  Association Circular
    No. 110.

46.  State Directories of the Mineral Mining Industry from  36  of
    50 States.

47.  Trauffer, W.E., "New Vermont Talc Facility  Makes  High-Grade
    Flotation  Product for Special Uses," Pit and Quarry,December
    1964, pp. 72-74,  101.

48.  Walker,  S.,  "Production  of  Sand  and  Gravel,"  J.  Amer.
    Concrete Inst.. Vol. 26, No. 2, 1954, pp. 165-178.

49.  "Water Quality Criteria 1972," National Academy  of  Sciences
    and  National  Academy  of  Engineering for the Environmental
    Protection Agency, Washington,  D.C.   1972   (U.S.  Government
    Printing Office, Stock No.  5501-00520).

50.  Williams, F.J., Nezmayko, M. and Weintsitt,  D.J.,  J.  Phys.
    Chem., 57, 8, 1953.
                               424

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                           SECTION XIV
                            GLOSSARY
Aquifer - an underground stratum that yields water.

Baghouse  -  chamber  in  which  exit  gases are filtered through
    membranes (bags) which arrest solids.

Bench - a ledge, which in open pit mines  and  quarries  forms  a
    single  level  of  operation  above  which  mineral  or waste
    materials are excavated from a contiguous bank or bench face.

Berm - a horizontal shelf built for the purpose of  strengthening
    and increasing the stability of a slope or to catch or arrest
    slope  slough  material;  berm is sometimes used as a synonym
    for bench.

Blunge - to mix thoroughly.

Cell, cleaner -  secondary  cells  for  the  retreatment  of  the
    concentrate from primary cells.

Cell,  rougher  - flotation cells in which the bulk of the gangue
    is removed from the ore.

Clarifier - a centrifuge, settling  tank,   or  other  device  for
    separating suspended solid matter from a liquid.

Classifier,  air  - an appliance for approximately sizing crushed
    minerals or ores employing currents of air.

Classifier, rake - a mechanical classifier  utilizing  reciprocal
    rakes  on  an  inclined  plane  to  separate coarse from fine
    material contained in a water pulp.

Classifier, spiral - a classifier for separating fine-size solids
    from  coarser  solids  in  a  wet  pulp  consisting   of   an
    interrupted-flight  screw  conveyor, operating in an inclined
    trough.

Collector - a heteropolar compound  chosen  for  its  ability  to
    adsorb   selectively   in  froth  flotation  and  render  the
    adsorbing surface relatively hydrophobic.
                              425

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Conditioner - an apparatus in which the surfaces of  the  mineral
    species  present  in  a  pulp  are  treated  with appropriate
    chemicals to influence their reaction during aeration.

Crusher, cone - a machine for reducing the size of  materials  by
    means  of  a  truncated  cone  revolving on its vertical axis
    within an outer chamber, the anular space between  the  outer
    chamber and cone being tapered.

Crusher,  gyratory  -  a primary crusher consisting of a vertical
    spindle, the foot of which is mounted in an eccentric bearing
    within a conical shell.  The top carries a  conical  crushing
    head revolving eccentrically in a conical maw.

Crusher,  jaw  - a primary crusher designed to reduce the size of
    materials by impact or crushing between a fixed plate and  an
    oscillating  plate or between two oscillating plates, forming
    a tapered jaw.

Crusher, roll - a reduction crusher consisting of a  heavy  frame
    on  which two rolls are mounted; the rolls are driven so that
    they rotate toward one another.  Fock is fed  in  from  above
    and  nipped between the moving rolls, crushed, and discharged
    below.

Depressant - a chemical which causes substances to sink through a
    froth, in froth flotation.

Dispersant - a substance  (as a polyphosphate) for  promoting  the
    formation  and stabilization of a dispersion of one substance
    in another.

Dragline -  a  type  of  excavating  equipment  which  employs  a
    rope-hung bucket to dig up and collect the material.

Dredge,  bucket - a two-pontooned dredge from which are suspended
    buckets which excavate material at the bottom of the pond and
    deposit it in concentrating devices on the dredge decks.

Dredge, suction - a centrifugal pump mounted on a barge.

Drill, churn - a drilling rig utilizing a blunt-edged chisel  bit
    suspended  from  a  cable  for putting down vertical holes in
    exploration and guarry blasting.

Drill, diamond - a drilling  machine  with  a  rotating,  hollow,
    diamond-studded  bit  that  cuts  a circular channel around a
    core which when recovered provides a columnar sample  of  the
    rock penetrated.
                              U26

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Drill,  rotary  -  various  types of drill machines that rotate a
    rigid, tubular string of rods to which is attached a bit  for
    cutting rock tc produce boreholes.

Dryer,  flash  -  an appliance in which the moist material is fed
    into a column  of  upward-flowing  hot  gases  with  moisture
    removal being virtually instantaneous.

Dryer,  fluidized  bed  - a cool dryer which depends on a mass of
    particles being fluidized by passing  a  stream  of  hot  air
    through  it.   As  a  result  of  the  fluidization,  intense
    turbulence is created in the mass resulting in a rapid drying
    action.

Dryer, rotary - a dryer in the shape of an inclined rotating tube
    used to dry loose material as it rolls through.

Electrostatic separator - a vessel  fitted  with  positively  and
    negatively  charged  conductors used for extracting dust from
    flue gas or for separating mineral dust from gangues.

Filter, vacuum - a filter in which the air beneath the  filtering
    material is exhausted to hasten the process.

Flocculant  -  an  agent  that  induces  or promotes gathering of
    suspended particles into aggregations.

Flotation - the method of mineral separation  in  which  a  froth
    created  in water by a variety of reagents floats some finely
    crushed minerals, wh( reas other minerals sink.

Frother - substances  used  in  flotation  to  make  air  bubbles
    sufficiently   permanent,  principally  by  reducing  surface
    tension.

Grizzly - a device for the coarse screening or scalping  of  bulk
    materials.

HMS - Heavy Media Separation

Hydraulic  Mining  -  mining  by  washing sand and dirt away with
    water which leaves the desired mineral.

Hydrocyclone - a cyclone separator in which a spray of  water  is
    used.

Hydroclassifier - a machine which uses an upward current of water
    to remove fine particles from coarser material.
                              427

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Humphrey   spiral   -   a  concentrating  device  which  exploits
    differential densities of mixed sands  by  a  combination  of
    sluicing  and  centrifugal  action.   The ore pulp gravitates
    down through a stationary  spiral  trough  with  five  turns.
    Heavy  particles  stay  on  the  inside and the lightest ones
    climb to the outside.

Jigging - process used to separate coarse materials in the ore by
    means of differences in specific gravity in a water medium.

JTU - Jackson Turbidity Unit

Jumbo - a drill carriage on which several drills are mounted.

Kiln, rotary - a kiln in the form of  a  long  cylinder,  usually
    inclined,  and  slowly  rotated  about  its axis; the kiln is
    fired by a burner set axially at its lower end.

Kiln, tunnel - a long tunnel-shaped furnace through which ware is
    generally moved on cars, passing progressively through  zones
    in which the temperature is maintained for preheating, firing
    and cooling.

Launder  -  a  chute or trough for conveying powdered ore, or for
    carrying water to or from the crushing apparatus.

Log washer - a slightly slanting trough in which revolves a thick
    shaft or log, earring blades obliquely set to the axis.   Ore
    is  fed  in at the lower end, water at the upper.  The blades
    slowly convey the lumps of ore upward  against  the  current,
    while  any  adhering  clay  is  gradually  disintegrated  and
    floated out the lower end.

Magnetic separator - a device used to separate magnetic from less
    magnetic or nonmagnetic materials.

mgd - million gallons per day

Mill, ball - a rotating horizontal cylinder in which non-metallic
    materials are ground using various types  of  grinding  media
    such as guartz pebbles, porcelain balls, etc.

Mill,  buhr  -  a  stone disk mill, with an upper horizontal disk
    rotating above a fixed lower one.

Mill, chaser - a cylindrical steel tank lined with wooden rollers
    revolving 15-30 times a minute.

Mill, hammer - an impact mill consisting of a rotor, fitted  with
    movable hammers, that is revolved rapidly in a vertical plane
    within a closely fitting steel casing.
                              428

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Mill,  pebble  -  horizontally  mounted cylindrical mill, charged
    with flints or selected lumps of ore or rock.

Mill, rod - a mill for fine grinding, somewhat similar to a  ball
    mill,  but  employing  long  steel  rods  instead of balls to
    effect the grinding.

Mill, roller - a  fine  grinding  mill  having  vertical  rollers
    running in a circular enclosure with a stone or iron base.

Neutralization  -  making neutral or inert, as by the addition of
    an alkali or an acid solution.

Outcrop - the part of  a  rock  formation  that  appears  at  the
    surface  of  the  ground  or deposits that are so near to the
    surface as to be found easily by digging.

Overburden  -   material   of   any   nature,   consolidated   or
    unconsolidated,  that overlies a deposit of useful materials,
    ores, etc.

Permeability - capacity for transmitting a fluid.

Raise - an inclined opening driven upward from a level to connect
    with the level above or to explore the ground for  a  limited
    distance above one level.

Reserve  -  known  ore  bodies  that may be worked at some future
    time.

Ripper - a tractor accessory used to loosen compacted  soils  and
    soft rocks for scraper loading.

Room  and Pillar - a system of mining in which the distinguishing
    feature is the winning of 50 percent or more of  the  ore  in
    the  first  working.   The ore is mined in rooms separated by
    narrow ribs  (pillars); the ore  in  the  pillars  is  won  by
    subsequent  working  in which the roof is caved in successive
    blocks.

Scraper - a tractor-driven surface vehicle the bottom of which is
    fitted with a cutting blade which  when  lowered  is  dragged
    through the soil.

Scrubber,  dust  - special apparatus used to remove dust from air
    by washing.

Scrubber, ore - device in which coarse and sticky ore  is  washed
    free of adherent material, or mildly disintegrated.
                              429

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Shuttle-car  -  a  vehicle  which  transports  raw materials from
    loading machines in trackless areas of a  mine  to  the  main
    transportation system.

SIC - Standard Industrial Classification (code).

Sink-float - processes that separate particles of different sizes
    or composition on the basis cf specific gravity.

Skip  - a guided steel hoppit used in vertical or inclined shafts
    for hoisting mineral.

Slimes - extremely fine particles derived  from  ore,  associated
    rock, clay or altered rock.

Sluice  -  to cause water to flow at high velocities for wastage,
    for purposes of excavation, ejecting debris,  etc.

Slurry - pulp not thick enough to consolidate  as  a  sludge,  but
    sufficiently dewatered to flow viscously.

Stacker - a conveyor adapted to piling or stacking bulk materials
    or objects.

Stope  -  an  excavation  from  which ore has been excavated in a
    series of steps.

Stripping ratio - the ratio of the amount of spoil that  must  be
    removed to the amount of ore or mineral material.

Sump  -  any excavation in a mine for the collection of water for
    pumping.

Table, air - a vibrating, porous  table  using  air  currents  to
    effect gravity concentration of sands.

Table,  wet  -  a  concentration  process whereby a separation of
    minerals is effected by flowing a pulp across a riffled plane
    surface inclined slightly from the horizontal, differentially
    shaken in the direction of the long axis and washed  with  an
    even  flow  of  water  at  right  angles  to the direction of
    motion.

TDS - total dissolved solids.

Thickener - an apparatus for reducing the proportion of water  in
    a pulp.

TSS - total suspended solids.
                              430

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Waste    - the barren rock in a mine  or  the  part  of  the  ore
    deposit  that  is too low in grade to be of economic value at
    the time.

Weir - an obstruction placed across a stream for the  purpose  of
    channeling  the  water  through  a notch or an opening in the
    weir itself.

Wire saw - a saw consisting of one- and three-strand wire cables,
    running over pulleys as a belt.  When fed by a slurry of sand
    and water and held against rock by tension, it cuts a  narrow
    channel by abrasion.
                              431

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                                                              TABLE
CO
ro
                      Multiply (English Units)


                        ENGLISH UNIT    ABBREVIATION
   METRIC UNITS




 CONVERSION TABLE


      by                 To obtain (Metric units)


CONVERSION     ABBREVIATION    METRIC UNIT
acre
acre - feet
British Thermal Unit
British Thermal Unit/
pound
cubic feet/minute
cubic feet/second
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
degree Fahrenheit
feet
gallon
gallon/minute
horsepower
inches
Inches of mercury
pounds
million gallons/day
mile
pound/square inch
(gauge)
square feet
square inches
tons (short)
yard
oc
ac ft
BTU

BTU/lb
cfm
cfs
cu ft
cu ft
cu in
F°
ft
gal
gpm
hp
in
in Hg
Ib
mgd
mi

ps'g
sq ft
sq in
t
y
0.405
1233.5
0.252

0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609

(0.06805 psig +1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
ha
cu m
kg cat

kg cal/kg
cu m/roin
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
oc
m
1
I/sec
lew
cm
atm
kg
cu m/doy
km

atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories

kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/ minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowotrs
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubfc meters/day
kilometer

atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
                      'Actual conversion, not o multiplier

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