EPA 440/l-76/060b
Group II ,
Development Document for Interim
Final Effluent Limitations^Guidelines
and Proposed New Source Performance
Standards for the
Gum and Wood
Chemicals Manufacturing
Point Source Category
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
APRIL 1976
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
INTERIM FINAL
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS, GUIDELINES
AND PROPOSED NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
for the
GUM AND WOOD CHEMICALS MANUFACTURING
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
Russell E. Train
Administrator
Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
Assistant Administrator
for Water and Hazardous Materials
Eckardt C. Beck
Deputy Assistant Administrator for
Water Planning and Standards
Ernst P. Hall, P.E.
Acting Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
Joseph S. Vitalis
Project Officer
and
George M. Jett
Assistant Project Officer
April 1976
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Environmental Protection Agency-
Region V9 Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 6060H
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JIGMCY
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ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of a study of the gum
and wood chemicals manufacturing point source category for
the purpose of developing effluent limitations and
guidelines for existing point sources and standards of
performance and pretreatment standards for new and existing
sources, to implement Sections 301 (b) , 301 (c) , 304 (b) ,
304 (c), 306 (b), 306 (c), 307 (b) and 307 (c) of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, as amended (33 U.S.C. 1251,
1311, 1314(b) and (c) , 1316(b) and 1317(b) and (c) , 86 Stat.
816 et. seq. P.L. 92-500) (the "Act").
The development of data and recommendations in this document
relates to the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point
source category, which is one of the eight industrial
segments of the miscellaneous chemicals manufacturing point
source category which was originally published in February,
1975. The gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point source
category is divided into six subcategories on the basis of
the characteristics of the manufacturing processes involved.
Separate effluent limitations were developed for each
subcategory on the basis of the level of raw waste load, raw
materials and the degree of treatment achievable.
Appropriate technology to achieve these limitations include
biological and physical/chemical treatment systems and
systems for reduction in pollutant loads. Various
combinations of in-plant and end-of-pipe technologies are
also considered.
Supporting data and rationale for development of the
proposed effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance are contained in this report.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 7
III Introduction 13
IV Industrial Categorization 25
V Waste Characterization 51
VI Selection of Pollutant Parameters 59
VII Control and Treatment Technologies 81
VIII Cost, Energy, and Nonwater Quality
Aspects 93
IX Best Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available (BPT) 115
X Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable (EAT) 121
XI New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) 125
XII Pretreatment Standards 127
XIII Performance Factors for Treatment Plant
Operations 131
XIV Acknowledgements 135
XV Bibliography 139
XVI Glossary 151
XVII Abbreviations and Symbols 183
v
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Title Page
III-1 Interrelationships of Present Gum
and Wood Chemicals Manufacturing 22
IV-a Charcoal Briquet Plants Map 28
IV-1 Char and Charcoal Briquet Manufacturing 35
IV-2 Gum Rosin and Turpentine Production 38
IV-3 Wood Rosin, Pine Oil, and Turpentine
Production via Solvent Extraction 40
IV-4 Crude Tall Oil Fractionation and
Refining 42
IV-5 Distillation and Refining of Essential
Oil 44
IV-6 Rosin Derivatives Manufacture 46
VII1-1 BPCTCA Cost Model for
Subcategories C and D 97
VIII-1A BPCTCA Cost Model,
Subcategories B, E and F 98
VIII-2 BATEA Cost Model for
Subcategories C and D 100
VIII-2A BATEA Cost Model,
Subcategories B, E and F 101
VII1-3 BADCT Cost Model 103
VII
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Title Page
1-1 Summary Table 3
II-1 BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 8
II-2 BATEA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 9
II-3 BADCT Effluent Limitations Guidelines 10
III-1 Production and Product Value 21
IV-1 Statistics by Geographical Areas 29
IV-2 Comparison of Raw Waste Loads by
Product Grouping 31
IV-3 Factors Considered for Basis of Gum
and Wood Chemicals Segment Sub-
categorization 33
V-1 BPCTCA Raw Waste Loads 52
V-2 Miscellaneous Raw waste Load Data 56
VI-1 List of Parameters Examined 61
VII-1 Treatment Technology Survey 83
VII-2 Treatment Plant Survey 84
VII-3 Historic Treatment Plant Performance 85
VII-4 Summary of COD Carbon Isotherm Data 89
VIII-1 BPCTCA Treatment System Design Summary 10U
VII1-2 BATEA End-of-Pipe Treatment System
Design Summary 106
VIII-3 Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs) Gum
Turpentine and Rosin - Subcategory B 107
VIII-4 Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
JLX
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BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs) Wood
Turpentine and Rosin - Sufccategory C 108
VIII-5 Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs) Tall
Oil Fractionation - Subcategory D 109
VIII-6 Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs)
Essential Oil - Sutcategory E 110
VIII-7 Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPCTCA,
BADCT and BATEA Effluent Limitations
(ENR 7180 - August, 1972 Costs) Rosin
Derivatives - Subcategory F 111
IX-1 BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 116
X-1 BATEA Effluent Limitations Guidelines 122
XI-1 New Source Performance Standards 126
XII-1 Pretreatment Unit Operations 128
XVIII Metric Table 185
x
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
General
The miscellaneous chemicals manufacturing point source
category encompasses eight industrial segments grouped
together for administrative purposes. This document
provides background information for the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category and represents
a revision of a portion of the initial contractor's draft
document issued in February, 1975.
In that document it was pointed out that the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category differs from
the other segments in raw materials, manufacturing
processes, and final products. Water usage and subsequent
wastewater discharges also vary considerably from category
to category. Consequently, for the purpose of the
development of the effluent limitations and corresponding
BPT (Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available), NSPS (Best Available Demonstrated Control
Technology) for new sources, and BAT (Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable) requirements, each
category is treated independently.
The gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point source
category is defined to include those commodities listed
under the Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC) 2861.
It should be emphasized that the proposed model technology
will be used only as a guideline. The cost models for BPT,
BAT, and NSPS were developed to facilitate the economic
analysis and should not be construed as the only technology
capable of meeting the effluent limitations, guidelines and
standards of performance presented in this development
document. There are many alternative systems which, taken
either singly or in combination, are capable of attaining
the effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance recommended. These alternative choices include:
1. Various types of end-of-pipe wastewater treatment.
2. Various in-plant modifications and installation of
at-source pollution control equipment.
3. Various combinations of end-of-pipe and in-plant
technologies.
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The intent of this document is to identify the technology
that can be used to meet the limitations. This information
also will allow the individual plant to make the choice of
what specific combination of pollution control measures is
best suited to its situation in complying with the effluent
limitations, guidelines and standards of performance
presented in this development document.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
According to the 1972 Census of Manufactures, there are 135
establishments in SIC 2861, twenty-three of which produced
about 86% of the value added dollars.
For the purpose of developing recommended effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards, the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point
source category have been sutcategorized as follows:
A. Char and charcoal briquet manufacture by carbon-
ization of hardwood and softwood scraps.
B. Gum rosin and turpentine manufacture by steam
distillation of crude gum (exudate) from living
longleaf pine and slash pine trees.
C. Wood rosin, turpentine, and pine oil manufacture by
solvent extraction and steam distillation of old
resinous wood stumps from cut over pine forests.
D. Tall oil rosin, pitch, and fatty acids manufacture
by fractionation of crude tall oil, a by-product of
the Kraft (sulfate) pulping process.
E. Essential oils manufacture by steam distillation of
scrap wood fines from select lumbering operations.
F. Rosin-based derivatives (specifically, rosin esters
and modified rosin esters) manufactured by the
cheirdcal reaction of gum, wood, or tall oil rosins.
The criteria used for establishing the above
subcategorization included the impact of the following
factors on the above groupings:
1. Production processes.
2. Product types and yields.
3. Raw material sources.
U. Wastewater quantities, characteristics,
control, and treatment.
The wastewater parameters of significance in gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category were found to
be BOD5, COD, TSS, TOC, oils and grease, and pH. Chlorides,
sulfates, total dissolved solids and zinc were considered
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and rejected as having a minor influence on effluent
discharges. In addition, for subcategory F phenol was found
to be a significant parameter.
Complete elimination of discharge of process wastewater
pollutants should be achievable for Subcategory A, char and
charcoal briquet manufacture. Individual effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
were recommended for Subcategories B through F for BODS, COD
and TSS for NSPS and BAT technology levels. The BPT
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
for subcategories B through F specify BOD5 and TSS
parameters. Other RWL parameters were considered during the
study, and specific products or pollutants which might be
inhibitory or incompatible with BPT treatment technology are
cited in Section VI.
It was concluded that the model BPT wastewater treatment
technology for this industrial segment should consist of a
biological treatment system. Typical exemplary processes
are activated sludge or aerated lagoons with clarification.
These systems may require pH control and equalization in
order to control variation in waste loads, and phosphorus
and nitrogen nutrient addition to ensure maintenance of an
activated sludge with desirable performance and handling
characteristics. These systems do not preclude the use of
equivalent physical/chemical systems such as activated
carbon in a suitable situation where the significant land
area that would otherwise be required (for activated sludge
or aerated lagoon) is not available. Additionally, in-plant
controls are recommended to control those pollutants which
may be inhibitory to the biological waste treatment system,
as well as segregation of non-contact cooling waters and
utility blowdowns.
End-of-process wastewater treatment technology for new
sources utilizing the Best Available Demonstrated Control
Technology (NSPS) is a biological treatment system with
suspended solids removal by means of dual-media filtration.
In addition, exemplary in-plant controls are also
recommended, particularly where biologically inhibitory
pollutants must be controlled. These are described in
section IX.
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) is
based upon the addition of filtration and activated carbon
to BPT treatment. This technology is based upon the need
for substantial reductions of dissolved organics which are
biorefractory as well as those which are biodegradable.
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Effluent limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards were derived on the basis of the maximum for any
one day and the maximum average of daily values for any
period of thirty consecutive days. No long-term data for
exemplary treatment were found in the gum and wood chemicals
manufacturing point source category during this study. The
variabilities factors used in deriving these time-based
effluent limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards were derived using long-term performance data from
the systems evaluated by EPA for petroleum refining
manufacturing since the two industries have many
similarities (e.g., continuous distillation operations of
organic compounds) and is judged to be reasonable transfer
of technology. Because of similarity of treatability,
treatment systems, processes and fit with the daily and
monthly data.
Table 1-1 summarizes the contaminants of interest, raw waste
loads, and recommended treatment technologies for BPT, BAT,
and NSPS for each subcategory of the gum and wood chemicals
manufacturing point source category.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
General
The recommendations for effluent limitations and guidelines
commensurate with the BPT, BAT and NSPS are given in this
text for the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point
source category. A discussion of in-plant and end-of-pipe
control technology required to achieve the recommended
effluent limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards are included.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Implicit in the recommended effluent limitations, guidelines
and new source performance standards for the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category is the
assumption based on observations of fourteen plants that
process wastes can be isolated from uncontaminated wastes
such as utility discharges and uncontaminated storm runoff.
Isolation of process wastewater is generally the first
recommended step in accomplishing the reductions necessary
to meet the proposed effluent limitations and guidelines.
Treatment of uncontaminated wastewaters together with
contaminated process wastewaters in a treatment facility is
not generally cost-effective and creates a great many
operational control problems.
Effluent limitations and guidelines commensurate with BPT
are presented for each subcategory of the gum and wood
chemicals segment in Table II-1. The effluent limitations
and guidelines were derived on the basis of the maximum
average of daily values for thirty consecutive days and the
maximum for any one day and have been developed on the basis
of the performance factors for treatment plant operation as
discussed in Section XIII of this development document.
Process wastewaters subject to these limitations do not
include non-contact sources such as boiler and cooling water
blowdown, sanitary, and other similar flows. BPT also
includes the maximum utilization of applicable in-plant
pollution abatement technology to minimize capital
expenditures for end-of-pipe wastewater treatment
facilities. Flow for BPT is identical with flow for BAT in
this document. End-of-pipe technology for BPT involves the
application of biological treatment, as typified by
activated sludge or aerated lagoons with clarification
system ponds.
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Effluent limitations guidelines to be attained by
application of the BAT are presented in Table II-2. End-of-
pipe treatment for BAT includes the addition of an activated
carbon system to the BPT treatment processes. Exemplary in-
plant controls are also applicable to this technology. It
is emphasized that the model treatment system does not
preclude the use of activated carbon within the plant for
recovery of products, by-products, and catalysts.
The Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology (NSPS)
for new sources includes the most exemplary process
controls, with biological waste treatment followed by
filtration for removal of suspended solids. Effluent
limitations and guidelines to be attained by the application
of BAT and NSPS for subcategories within the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category are presented
in Table II-3.
It is recommended that wastewater be treated on site. If
municipal treatment is advantageous over on-site treatment,
a pretreatment system must be designed to remove potentially
hazardous wastes. These wastes are identified in section VI
of this document.
Due to the unavailability of a long-term performance record
in this industry, it is recommended that the performance
factors be transferred from the petroleum refining point
source category based on the similarities of the categories
(continuous distillation operations in dedicated equipment
of basically hydrocarbon materials). When a more reliable
data base is developed in this industry and as mandated by
the "Act", these performance factors will be reevaluated.
11
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Authority
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
(the Act) made a number of fundamental changes in the
approach to achieving clean water. One of the most
significant changes was to shift from a reliance on effluent
limitations related to water quality to a direct control of
effluents through the establishment of technology-based
effluent limitations to form an additional basis, as a
minimum, for issuance of discharge permits.
The Act requires EPA to establish guidelines for technology-
based effluent limitations which must be achieved by point
sources of discharges into the navigable waters of the
United States. Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the
achievement by not later than July 1, 1977 of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the
BPT as defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section
304(b) of the Act. Section 301(b) also requires the
achievement by not later than July 1, 1983 of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the
BAT, resulting in progress toward the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, as determined
in accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator
pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act. Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new sources of federal
standards of performance providing for the control of the
discharge of pollutants, which reflects the greatest degree
of effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to
be achievable through the application of the NSPS processes,
operating methods, or other alternatives, including, where
practicable, a standard permitting no discharge of
pollutants.
Section 304(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to
publish regulations based on the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the BPT and
the best control measures and practices achievable,
including treatment techniques, process and procedure
innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives. The
regulations proposed herein set forth effluent limitations
and guidelines pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for gum
and wood chemicals manufacturing point source category.
13
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Section 304 (c) of the Act requires the Administrator to
issue information on the processes, procedures, or operating
methods which result in the elimination or reduction in the
discharge of pollutants to implement standards of
performance under Section 306 of the Act. Such information
is to include technical and other data, including costs, as
are available on alternative methods of elimination or
reduction of the discharge of pollutants.
Section 306 of the Act reguires the Administrator, within
one year after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306 (b) (1) (A) of the Act, to
propose regulations establishing federal standards of
performance for new sources within such categories. The
Administrator published in the Federal Register of January
16, 1973 (38 FR 1624) a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of the list constituted announcement of the
Administrator's intention of establishing, under Section
306, standards of performance applicable to new sources.
Furthermore, Section 307 (b) provides that:
1. The Administrator shall, from time to time, publish
proposed regulations establishing pretreatment
standards for introduction of pollutants into
treatment works (as defined in Section 212 of this
Act) which are publicly owned, for those pollutants
which are determined not to be susceptible to
treatment by such treatment works or which would
interfere with the operation of such treatment
works. Not later than ninety days after such
publication, and after opportunity for public hear-
ing, the Administrator shall promulgate such
pretreatment standards, Pretreatment standards
under this subsection shall specify a time for
compliance not to exceed three years from the date
of promulgation and shall be established to prevent.
the discharge of any pollutant through treatment
works (as defined in Section 212 of this Act) which
are publicly owned, which pollutant interferes
with, passes through, or otherwise is incompatible
with such works.
2. The Administrator shall, from time to time, as
control technology, processes, operating methods,
or other alternatives change, revise such
standards, following the procedure established by
this subsection for promulgation of such standards.
3. When proposing or promulgating any pretreatment
standard under this section, the Administrator
14
-------
shall designate the category or categories of
sources to which such standard shall apply.
U. Nothing in this subsection shall affect any
pretreatment reguirement established by any State
or local law not in conflict with any pretreatment
standard established under this subsection.
In order to insure that any source introducing pollutants
into a publicly owned treatment works, which would be a new
source subject to Section 306 if it were to discharge
pollutants, will not cause a violation of the effluent
limitations established for any such treatment works, the
Administrator is required to promulgate pretreatment
standards for the category of such sources simultaneously
with the promulgation of standards of performance under
Section 306 for the equivalent category of new sources.
Such pretreatment standards shall prevent the discharge into
such treatment works of any pollutant which may interfere
with, pass through, or otherwise be incompatible with such
works.
The Act defines a new source to mean any source the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of
proposed regulations prescribing a standard of performance.
Construction means any placement, assembly, or installation
of facilities or equipment (including contractual obliga-
tions to purchase such facilities or equipment) at the
premises where such equipment will be used, including
preparation work at such premises.
Methods Used for Development of the Effluent Limitations and
Standards for Performance
The effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance proposed in this document were developed in the
following manner. The miscellaneous chemicals manufacturing
point source category was first divided into industrial
categories, based on type of manufacturing and products
manufactured. Determination was then made as to whether
further subcategorization would aid in description of the
category. Such determinations were made on the basis of raw
materials required, products manufactured, processes
employed, and other factors.
The raw waste characteristics for each category and/or
subcategory were then identified. This included an analysis
of: 1) the source and volume of water used in the process
employed and the sources of wastes and wastewaters in the
plant; and 2) the constituents of all wastewaters
(including toxic constituents) which result in taste, odor.
15
-------
and color in water or aquatic organisms. The constituents
of wastewaters which should be subject to effluent
limitations, guidelines and standards of performance were
identified.
The full range of control and treatment technologies
existing within each category and/or subcategory was
identified. This included an identification of each dis-
tinct control and treatment technology, including both in-
plant and end- of-pipe technologies, which are existent or
capable of being designed for each subcategory. It also
included an identification of the effluent level resulting
from the application of each of the treatment and control
technologies, in terms of the amount of constituents and of
the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of
pollutants. The problems, limitations, and reliability of
each treatment and control technology and the required
implementation time were also identified. In addition, the
non-water quality environmental impacts (such as the effects
of the application of such technologies upon other pollution
problems, including air, solid waste, radiation, and noise)
were also identified. The energy requirements of each of
the control and treatment technologies were identified, as
well as the cost of the application of such technologies.
The information, as outlined above, was evaluated in order
to determine what levels of technology constituted the BPT,
BAT, and NSPS. In identifying such technologies, factors
considered included the total cost of application of
technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to
be achieved from such application, the age of equipment and
facilities involved, the process employed, the engineering
aspects of the application of various types of control
techniques, process changes, non-water quality environmental
impact (including energy requirements), and other factors.
During the initial phases of the study, an assessment was
made of the availability, adequacy, and usefulness of all
existing data sources. Data on the identity and performance
of wastewater treatment systems were known to be included
in:
1. NPDES permit applications.
2. Self-reporting discharge data from various states
and regions.
3. Surveys conducted by trade associations or by
agencies under research and development grants.
A preliminary analysis of these data indicated an obvious
need for additional information.
16
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Additional data in the following areas were required: 1)
process raw waste load (RWL) related to production; 2)
currently practiced or potential in-plant waste control
techniques; and 3) the identity and effectiveness of end-of-
pipe treatment systems. The best source of information was
the manufacturers themselves. Additional information was
obtained from direct interviews and sampling visits to
production facilities.
Collection of the data necessary for development of RWL and
effluent treatment capabilities within dependable confidence
limits required analysis of both production and treatment
operations. In a few cases, the plant visits were planned
so that the production operations of a single plant could be
studied in association with an end-of-pipe treatment system
which receives only the wastes from that production. The
RWL for this plant and associated treatment technology would
fall within a single subcategory. However, the wide variety
of products manufactured by most of the industrial plants
made this situation rare.
In the majority of cases, it was necessary to visit
facilities where the products manufactured fell into several
subcategories. The end-of-pipe treatment facilities
received combined wastewaters associated with several
subcategories (several products, processes, or even
unrelated manufacturing operations). It was necessary to
analyze separately the production (waste-generating)
facilities and the effluent (waste treatment) facilities.
This approach required establishment of a common basis, the
raw waste load (RWL), for common levels of treatment
technology for the products within a sutcategory and for the
translation of treatment technology between categories
and/or subcategories.
The selection of wastewater treatment plants was developed
from identifying information available in the NPDES permit
applications, state self-reporting discharge data, and
contacts within the manufacturing segment. Every effort was
made to choose facilities where meaningful information on
both treatment facilities and manufacturing processes could
be obtained.
Survey teams composed of project engineers and scientists
conducted the actual plant visits. Information on the
identity and performance of wastewater treatment systems was
obtained through:
1. Interviews with plant water pollution control
personnel or engineering personnel.
17
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2. Examination of treatment plant design and
historical operating data (flow rates and analyses
of influent and effluent).
3. Treatment plant influent and effluent sampling.
Information on process plant operations and the associated
RWL Was obtained through:
1. Interviews with plant operating personnel.
2. Examination of plant design and operating data
(design specification, flow sheets, day-to-day
material balances around individual process modules
or unit operations where possible) .
3. Individual process wastewater sampling and
analysis.
The data base obtained in this manner was then utilized by
the methodology previously described to develop recommended
effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance for the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing
point source category. All of the references utilized are
included in Section XV of this report. The data obtained
during the field data collection program are included in
Supplement B. Cost information is presented in Supplement
A. These documents are available for examination by
interested parties at the EPA Public Information Reference
Unit, Room 2922 (EPA Library), Waterside Mall, 401 M St.
S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460.
The following text describes the scope of the study,
technical approach to the development of effluent
limitations and guidelines, and the scope of coverage for
the data base.
Gum and wood Chemicals
Scope of the Study
The gum and wood chemicals segment was defined for the
purpose of this study to include those 47 commodities listed
under SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) 2861. It
should be noted, however, that the list contains some
anomalies with regard to manufacturing activities in the gum
and wood chemicals category, including the following:
1. The list contains some 20 natural tanning materials
and dye stuffs which are of minor importance in
U.S. manufacturing activities in terms of
production guantities or dollar value added by the
manufacture. The majority of these materials,
18
-------
particularly the extracts, are imported to the U.S.
for distribution, and therefore represent little or
no manufacturing activity,
2. Many of the products listed represent old
technology, particularly hardwood distillation.
The products associated with the recovery and
processing of pyroligneous acid have been displaced
from the market, and thus from manufacturing
activity, by cheaper synthetic substitute products.
Compounds which are contained in pyroligneous acid
include acetate of lime (natural), acetone
(natural), calcium acetate (product of hardwood
distillation) ethyl acetate (natural) , methyl
acetate (natural), and methyl alcohol (natural).
Also, the technology for manufacturing pit
charcoal, while still employed in some parts of the
world, is no longer employed in the United States.
3. Crude tall oil, except skimmings, is a product of
the Kraft (sulfate) wood fiber pulping process.
The manufacture of this material is an integral
part of the sulfate process and therefore the
associated wastewater production, if any, would be
intricately contained in Kraft manufacturing's raw
waste load (RWL). In actual practice, crude tall
oil is usually shipped to fractionation plants
which produce tall oil rosin, turpentine and pitch.
It is this fractionation step which is included in
this study.
4. Rosins, produced by the distillation of pine gum or
pine wood, have historically been used with varying
success as a principal ingredient of numerous
products, such as printing inks, linoleum,
varnishes, electrical insulation, foundry core
oils, leather, adhesives, masonry, and solder
fluxes. However, since 1949, gum rosin production
has decreased and wood rosin markets have been
limited by the competition of tall oil rosin. In
addition, most of the rosins sold today are either
thermally or chemically modified derivatives which
have improved applications both in older markets
and recently developed markets.
The product list under SIC 2861 was developed by the United
States Department of Commerce and is oriented toward the
collection of economic data related to gross production,
sales, and unit costs. The SIC list is not related to the
true nature of the manufacturing in terms of actual plant
operations, production, or considerations associated with
water pollution control. As such, the list does not provide
a definitive set of boundaries for study of the effluent
19
-------
limitations for the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing
point source category.
It should be noted that, even though this study did not
concern the management of forests, timber harvesting, or the
production of pulp via the Kraft pulping process, these
areas of endeavor are included to provide an understanding
of the interrelationships of activities within the
manufacturing segment as well as those which are essential
to the supply of the necessa'ry raw materials to the
manufacturers. During the course of the study, six major
production areas were identified for in-depth study:
1, Char and charcoal briquet manufacturing via
carbonization of hardwood and softwood scraps.
2. Gum rosin and turpentine manufacturing via steam
distillation of gum from longleaf and slash pine
trees.
3. Wood rosin, turpentine, and pine oil manufacture
via the solvent extraction and steam distillation
of resinous material from old wood stumps obtained
from cut over pine forests.
4. Tall oil rosins, fatty acids, and pitch production
via the fractionation of crude tall oil, a by-
product of the Kraft pulping process.
5. Essential oils production via steam distillation of
coniferous wood fines from select lumbering
operations.
6. Rosin derivatives manufacture via chemical or
thermal modifications of either tall oil, gum, or
wood rosins.
Scope of Coverage for Data Base
According to the 1972 Census of Manufacturers, there are 135
establishments engaged in the primary manufacturing
activities of SIC 2861 products and discharging
approximately 19 billion gallons of wastewater per year
according to the 1967 Census of Manufacturers, Water Use in
Manufacturing.
These establishments were responsible for total product
value shipments totaling $226 million, or 76 percent of the
total $296.3 million worth of gum and wood chemical
products. The remaining products are produced in facilities
primarily engaged in other manufacturing activities. Table
III-1 presents a breakdown of product value shipped by major
manufacturers as established by this study. It should be
noted that the reported value of the product shipped does
not necessarily represent a level of manufacturing activity.
20
-------
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For example, the $5.4 million value for natural tanning and
dyeing materials and chrome tanning mixtures is more
probably representative of a wholesaling operation rather
than actual manufacturing.
To help quantify the problem, only 14 of the 135
establishments primarily engaged in production of
commodities listed under SIC 2861 have applied for NPDES
discharge applications. Seven of those 14 facilities were
surveyed during the course of this study and three
additional facilities were requested to supply information
and data via the U.S. Mail. Another three of the fourteen
were charcoal plants that have no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants. A pilot study in the 14th plant is
available. This study was preformed by an independent
consultant, AWARE, Inc.
23
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SECTION IV
INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIZATION
The purpose of this study is the development of effluent
limitations and guidelines for the gum and wood chemicals
segment that will be commensurate with different levels of
in-plant waste reduction and end-of-pipe pollution control
technology. These effluent limitations and guidelines
specify the quantity of pollutants which are to be
discharged from a specific facility and are related to a
common yardstick for the manufacturing segment, the quantity
of produc ti on.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Discussion of the Rationale of Categorization
In developing effluent limitations, guidelines and standards
of performance for gum and wood chemicals manufacturing, it
was necessary to determine whether significant differences
existed within the segment which could be used as a basis
for subcategorization in order to define those areas of the
segment where separate effluent limitations, guidelines and
standards of performance should apply. A final
subcategorization was developed based on product
differences:
A. Char and charcoal briquets.
B. Gum rosin and gum turpentine.
C. Wood rosin, resin turpentine, and pine oil.
D. Tall oil rosin, pitch, and fatty acids.
E. Essential oils.
F. Rosin derivatives.
The following factors were considered in determining the
subcategorization that would be most meaningful for
developing effluent limitations, guidelines and standards of
performance:
Manufacturing Process
The process steps by which gum, wood, tall oil chemicals and
essential oils are produced are similar in that steam
distillation is employed for separating the major
constituents. wood chemical production processes are
somewhat different in that solvent extraction is employed.
The production of charcoal and rosin-fcased derivatives is
different from the other processes because steam
25
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distillation is not employed. Charcoal is a carbonization
or destructive distillation product whereas rosin
derivatives are products of chemical reactions. Based on
these distinct differences, the manufacturing processes
employed for these products are a basis for
subcategorization.
Product
The major products presented above are significantly
different. The essential oils are chemically related to
turpentine. However, their product yield, based on raw
materials, is about one percent because there is no market
for the spent wood, while the total product yields for gum
and wood rosins approach 100 and 25 percent, respectively,
on a clean raw-materials basis. Thus, it would not appear
justifiable to group essential oils production with gum or
wood chemicals because of differences in product make-up
yield. Therefore, product type is a basis for
subcategorization.
Raw Materials
The basic raw materials for each
subcategories are as follows:
of the proposed product
Product
Char and
Charcoal Briquets
Gum Rosin and
Turpentine
Wood Rosin,
Turpentine, and
Pine Oil
Tall Oil Rosin,
Pitch, and Fatty
Acids
Essential Oils
Rosin Derivatives
Raw Material Source
Hardwood and softwood
scraps
Crude gum from the
sapwood of living trees
Wood stumps and other
resinous woods from cut
over forest
By-product crude tall oil
from the Kraft process
Scrap wood fines, twigs,
barks, or roots of select
woods or plants
Rosin products from gum,
wood, and tall oil chemicals
26
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Variation in raw materials can be expected within each
group. For example, seasonal changes bring about changes in
crude gum composition. Late in the growing season, crude
gum is termed scrape, which generally contains less
turpentine and more trash.
However, variations in quality can be expected in the raw
material stocks within any of the groups. Where variations
in raw materials reguire additional processing to achieve
product quality, it is probable that additional waste will
be generated. For purposes of this study these ancillary
refining processes can be classified into groups according
to the type of waste they generate (i.e., wet or dry).
Filtration and adsorption processes, which generate semi-
solid waste disposed of in landfills, are classified as dry
wastes. Acid treating and solvent extraction processes
generate a liquid waste and therefore are classified as wet
wastes. The solvent, however, is normally recovered for
reuse.
Dilute acid treatment (acidulation) is commonly employed to
remove odor and color bodies and can be expected to yield
higher raw waste loads per unit of production. The
prevalence of acidulation of raw materials, the quantity of
specific pollutants generated, and the impact of dry versus
wet refining methods on the final products and resulting
RWL's appears to be a function of product type. Based on
the above discussion, it is concluded that raw materials are
a basis for subcategorization.
Plant Size
Operations in gum and wood chemicals manufacturing range in
size from intermittent batch operations, which are operated
by a handful of personnel, to large complexes which employ
hundreds of personnel. Water use management techniques are
affected by economy of scale, as well as other factors, such
as geographical location. On the other hand, smaller
operations may have waste treatment and disposal options,
such as retention, land spreading, and trucking to landfill,
that are impractical for large-scale operations.
Plant size has not been observed to have an impact on the
quantity and characteristics of the wastewater, therefore,
plant size is not considered a basis for subcategorization.
Plant Age
Plant age is net considered as a basis for subcategorization
in itself because the manufacturers have continuously
27
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I I I
(0
28
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Table IV - -1
Statistics by Geographical Areas
Geographical Area
Northeast Region
Value added by Manufacturer
$fO>Percent
4.8
North Central Region 13.6
South Region 129.6
West Region 6.1
3.1
8.8
84.1
4.0
Establi shments
Number Percent
22
40
68
5
16.3
29.6
50.4
3.7
154.1
100.0
135
100.0
Source: 1972 Census of Manufacturing
29
4/30/76
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upgraded and modernized their operations as dictated by the
competitive market. Equipment is modernized as it becomes
necessary, so that the actual age of a production facility
could not be determined accurately. Furthermore, the actual
age of the equipment does not necessarily affect wastewater
generation. Operation and maintenance of the equipment are
more important factors.
Plant Location
According to the 1972 Census of Manufacturers, half of the
establishments in gum and wood chemicals production are
located in the southern states (see Table IV-1), and they
produced over 84 percent of the segment's output in terms of
dollar value added to the raw material. 9556 of today's gum
turpentine and rosin is produced in Georgia and Florida.
Plant location, and specifically local climate, has an
impact on the performance of certain end-of-pipe wastewater
treatment systems, e.g., aerated lagoons and activated
sludge, but because 8H% of the industries output is from the
same region and because treatment systems should be designed
for the climate in which it will be operated, plant location
is not a basis for subcategorization.
Air Pollutien Control Technology
Air pollution is not a major problem in any of the
manufacturing activities in the six product groupings.
Particulate emissions were observed to be a potential
problem in pneumatic conveyance systems. However, these
emissions can be controlled with more efficient dry cyclone
separators. This will not have any appreciable impact on
wastewater generation.
Two plants that manufactured rosin derivatives were visited
during the field survey. One of the plants vented the non-
condensables to the atmosphere, and no significant impact on
pollutant loading per unit of production was observed. The
total quantity of non-condensable organics vented was very
small.
A fugitive dust problem was observed at a char and charcoal
production unit. The existing control methods employed a
water spray, but quantities were not sufficient to cause a
surplus water problem. It is anticipated that the ultimate
solution of the fugitive dust problem would involve an
improved materials-handling system and the elimination of
dust-wetting techniques.
30
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Legend
Table IV -2
Comparison of Raw Waste Loads
By Product Grouping
Product ion
RWL Characteristics
Flow
BOD
COD
TSS
Oil
Char and
Charcoal
Gum Rosin and
Turpentine
Wood Ros i n,
Turpentine,
Pine Oil
Tall Oil
Fractionation
Products
Essential Oils
Rosin
Derivative
Zero
N/A
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXXX
XXX
N/A
XXX
XXXX
XXX
XXXX
XXX
N/A
XX
XX
X
N/A
XX
XX
XXX
X
XX
Flow * .£100 Gallons/1,000 Ibs. Product
** 100 to 1,000 Gallons/1,000 Ibs. Product
*** 1,000 Gallons/1,000 Ibs. Products
Other RWL's X £. 0. I lb./l,000 Ibs. Product
XX 0.1 to 1.0 Ib./l.OOO Ibs. Product
XXX 1.0 to 10.0 Ibs./I,000 Ibs. Product
XXXX >10.0 Ibs./I,000 Ibs. Product
31
4/30/76
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In conclusion, air pollution is controlled in the gum and
wood chemicals segment by dry mechanical devices and wet-
scrubbing units which do not significantly affect wastewater
loading or characteristics. Therefore, air pollution
control technology is not a basis for subcategorization.
Solid Waste Disposal
Significant quantities of solid residue are generated in the
manufacturing processes of charcoal, gum, wood, and
essential oil production. Spent wood fines are the major
fraction of the solids from wood rosin, turpentine,
essential oils, and pine oil production. In both cases
these wood fines are fed to boilers, where the residual BTU
value of the fines is used to generate steam. The solids
which are generated in the production of gum rosin and
turpentine include the trash contained in the crude gum
material plus filter aid material which may be employed in
the filtration of the melted crude gum. Filter aid
materials are also known to be used for the product refining
of oil of cedarwood. The use of filtration aids or
adsorbent materials, such as powdered activated carbon, for
refining final or intermediate products is common to all
product categories. Such solids are normally disposed of in
sanitary landfills.
The handling and final disposal of solid wastes which are
generated in the gum and wood chemicals segment has not been
observed to have an impact on the quantity or
characteristics of the wastewater. Therefore, solid waste
generation, handling, or disposal is not a basis for subcat-
egorization.
Wastewater Quantities.,. Characteristics, Control,
and Treatment
Table IV-2 shows the relative variation in the wastewater
quantities and pollutants per unit of production. In
reviewing the table, some similarities in the pertinent RWL
parameters are apparent; however, the variations are
significant enough to support the categorization.
The control and treatment of wastewaters for each of the
product categories is discussed in Section VII of this
document. Variations in the proposed treatment concepts,
though not totally dissimilar, will provide additional
justification for the proposed subcategorization.
Summary of Considerations
32
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Table IV -3
Factors Considered for Basis of Gum
and Wood Chemicals Segment
Subcategorization
Proposed Subcategorization
Wood Ros i n,
Gum Rosin, Pitch,
Char, and Rosin, Turpentine and Essen- Rosin,
Charcoal and and Fatty tial Deriva-
Factors Briquets Turpentine Pine Oil Acids Oi Is tives
Manufacturing
Process
Product
Raw Material
Plant Size
Plant Location
Air Po11u t i on Con t ro1
Technology
Solid Waste Disposal
Operations
Wastewater Quantities
Character!sties,
Control, and
Treatment
Legend
X denotes a contributing factor for categorization
- denotes factor was considered not pertinent for categorization
33 4/30/76
-------
For the purpose of establishing effluent limitations,
guidelines and standards, the gum and wood chemicals
manufacturing point source category should be subcategorized
by major product grouping. Table IV-3 provides a summary of
the factors considered for subcategorization. The factors
which were significant in developing the basis for
subcategorization include:
1. Production Processes.
2. Product Types and Yields.
3. Raw Material Sources.
4. Wastewater Quantities, Characteristics,
Control, and Treatment.
As Table IV-3 shows, the five other factors also examined
did not justify further subcategorization based on the
observations made throughout this study.
Description of Subcategories
Subcategory A - Char and Charcoal Briquets
Plants included under Subcategory A are those engaged in the
manufacture of char and charcoal briquets, as well as
pyroligneous acids and other by-products. Presently, no
pyroligneous acids are known to be manufactured in the
United States. Char and charcoal from hardwood and softwood
distillation are economically the most important products in
the gum and wood chemicals segment. Char and charcoal are
produced by the carbonization of wood, which is the thermal
decomposition cf raw wood. See Figure IV-a for plant
locations.
Subcateqory B - Gum Rosin and Turpentine
Plants included under Subcategory B are those engaged in the
manufacture of guir rosin and turpentine by the distillation
of crude gum. Gum rosin and turpentine products make up 2.3
percent of the total product value for the gum and wood
chemicals segment, according to the 1972 Census of
Manufacturers. High lafcor costs for gum collection and the
development of less costly substitute products have caused a
decline in the value of product shipments in this
Subcategory. The plants which were visited during this
study operated only on intermittent schedules.
Subcategory c: - Wood Rosin, Turpentine and Pine Oil
Plants included under Subcategory C are those engaged in
manufacturing wood rosin, turpentine and pine oil. These
34
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industries use solvent extraction and steam distillation as
their manufacturing processes, and their typical raw
materials are resinous wood stumps. These products account
for 19 percent of the total product value for the total
industry, according to the 1972 Census of Manufacturers.
The economic life of this subcategory is limited by a lack
of available raw materials near existing plants and the
development of economically competitive processes.
Subcategory D - Tall Oil Rosin, Fatty Acids
and Pitch
Plants included under Subcategory D are those which
manufacture tall oil rosin, fatty acids, and pitch by
fractionation of Kraft process crude tall oil. The growth
of tall oil refining has been unabated since the inception
of modern technology in 1949. Technology for the production
of high-purity tall oil rosin and fatty acids is fairly
recent. Modern fractionation techniques yield fatty acids
and rosins with very low cross-product contamination.
Subcategory E - Essential Oils
Plants included under Subcategory E are those manufacturing
essential oils, which consist of terpenes, hydrocarbons,
alchols, or ketones. Most essential oils are insoluble in
water and are volatile enough to be recovered by
distillation.
Subcategory j[ - Rosin Derivatives
Plants included under Sutcategory F are those which
manufacture the rosin derivatives: esters, adduct modified
esters, and alkyds. These are produced by chemical
reactions involving rosins, monohydric or polyhydric
alcohol, and chemical modifiers. Most of the rosins
produced in the United States are actually rosin derivatives
and modified derivative products. That is, the rosins are
modified to eliminate undesirable properties and to enhance
their application in many manufacturing processes.
Process Descriptions
The following pages in this section contain a profile of the
findings made during field surveys of the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category. The profiles
contain typical process flow schematic diagrams, grouped
according to the proposed subcategorization of the
manufacturers.
36
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Subcategory A - Char and Charcoal Briquets
Char or charcoal is produced by the carbonization of wood,
which is the thermal decomposition of the raw wood. The
product yield and purity are a function of the kiln
temperature. Above 270°C, exothermic reactions set in, and
the process can be self-sustaining with the rate of carbon-
ization normally controlled by limiting the air feed to the
kiln. Higher temperature reactions produce a higher carbon
content product but reduce the product yield. During the
decomposition of the wood, distillates are formed and leave
the kiln with the flue gases. The condensable distillates
are collectively referred to as pyroligneous acid, which
contains methanol, acetic acid, acetone, tars, oils, and
water. These materials have steadily declined in economic
importance because of cheaper methods of producing synthetic
substitutes; therefore, most plants have discontinued
recovery of the by-products from the pyroligneous acid.
Instead, the distillate and other flue gases are fed to an
afterburner for thermal destruction before the flue gases
are exhausted to the atmosphere. The condensable
distillates may also be recycled as fuel for the kiln or
recycled in the vapor phase as a fuel supply supplement.
The non-condensable gases contain CO2, CO, CH4, H2 and some
higher hydrocarbons. The composition of the gases depends
on the distillation temperature.
A typical flow diagram for char and charcoal briquets
manufacturing is illustrated in Figure IV-1. During this
study, no facilities which recovered distillation by-
products were known to exist in the United States. The kiln
depicted in Figure IV-1 is loaded with a payloader. After
the kiln is loaded, the wood is set afire and allowed to
burn under controlled conditions for approximately 72 hours.
The air for oxidation is then cut off and water injected in
the kiln for quenching. Approximately 18 hours is required
for the material to cool down; afterwards, it is removed by
a payloader. Pine wood char is sold at this point in the
process to fill specialized orders. Hardwood char is
ground, then blended with starch binder and water for feed
to the briqueting operation. The resulting briquets are
dried and packaged in bags for sale.
The off gases from the furnaces contain compounds such as
acetic acid, methanol, acetone, tars, and oils. These
materials are presently oxidized in the afterburners. The
natural gas fuel required for the afterburners is a
significant operating cost. An alternative emission control
is now under consideration, in which off gases from the
furnace would be scrubbed to remove the condensables from
37
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the flue gases. The resulting scrubber liquor would be sent
to a separator where the pyroligneous acid could be
recovered. The water and soluble compounds would be reused
in the scrubber system. The separated products can then be
recovered for sale or used as an auxiliary fuel.
Subcategory B - Gum Rosin and Turpentine
Figure IV-2 illustrates a process flow schematic for the
manufacture of gum rosin and turpentine. The crude gum raw
material is obtained by gum farmers who collect the gum from
scarified longleaf and slash pine trees. The plant receives
raw crude gum from the gum farmers in 435-lb barrel
shipments. These shipments contain some dirt, water,
leaves, bark, and other miscellaneous trash. Gum is emptied
into a vat by inverting the crude gum containers over a
high-pressure steam jet. The melter liquefies the crude gum
material, and recycled turpentine is added to reduce the
viscosity. This mixture is filtered through a pressure
filter and collected. The trash is periodically removed and
hauled to a landfill. The filtered gum is then washed with
water. Because iron and calcium causes gum rosin to
discolor at high temperature, a small amount of oxalic acid
may be added to the wash water to precipate the iron and
calcium as an insoluble oxalate. The wash water removes
soluble acids and oxalate precipitate, and is then
discharged for treatment. The prepared crude gum material
is then distilled to separate the turpentine.
Non-contact shell-and-tube steam heating and sparging steam
are used in the stills. Turpentine and water are distilled
overhead and condensed with shell-and-tube condensers. The
water is separated from the turpentine in the downstream
receivers as shown in Figure IV-2. The turpentine product
is dried with a sodium chloride salt dehydrator, and the gum
rosin is removed from the still after each batch
distillation in a fluid state and packaged.
Subcategory C - Wood Rosin, Turpentine, and Pine Qil
The raw material for this process is stumps obtained from
the cut over pine forests of the southern United States.
The stumps are uprooted by bulldozers and freighted to the
extraction plant on railroad flat cars.
Figure IV-3 is a flow schematic diagram of the solvent
extraction/ steam distillation plant which was surveyed.
The
are
pine stumps from 40- to 60-year-old longleaf pine trees
brought into the plant. The stumps are placed on a
39
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conveyor and are washed with 1,000 gpm of water at a
pressure of approximately 110 psi. The water and dirt flow
to a settling pond where the dirt settles out and the water
is recycled back to the washing operation. The accumulated
dirt is periodically removed to landfill. Wood hogs,
chippers and shredders mechanically reduced the wood stumps
in size in a sequence operation until they become chips
approximately 2" in length and 1/16" thick. These chips are
placed into intermediate storage. The wood chips are fed to
a battery of retort extractors. The extraction process is
accomplished in sequential steps as follows:
1. Water is removed from the chips by azeotropic
distillation with a water-immiscible solvent.
2. The resinous material is extracted from the wood
chips with a water-immiscible solvent.
3. Residual solvent is removed from the spent wood
chips by steaming.
After the final step, the spent wood chips are removed from
the retort and sent to the boilers as fuel. During steps 1
and 3, the steam solvent azeotrope from the retorts proceeds
to an entrainment separator. Any entrained wood fines
coming from the retorts are removed in the entrainment
separator and are used in the furnace as fuel. The vapors
from the entrainment separator are condensed and proceed to
one or more separators where the solvent-water mixture
separates. The solvent is recycled for use in the retorts.
The extract liquor leaving the retorts during step 2 is
placed into intermediate storage tanks prior to further
processing. The contents of these tanks are sent to a
distillation column to separate the solvent from the
products. The column is operated under vacuum conditions
maintained by a steam-jet ejector. The overhead from the
column is condensed and enters a separator where condensed
solvent is removed and recycled to the retorts. The vapor
phase from the separator, along with the steam from the
ejector, is condensed in a shell-and-tube exchanger and
enters a separator. Here the remaining solvent and the
condensed steam from the ejector are separated. The solvent
is sent to recycle and water to treatment.
The bottoms stream from the first distillation column enters
a second distillation column, also operated under vacuum, as
shown in Figure IV-3. Steam is introduced into the bottom
of the tower to strip off the volatile compounds. This
overhead stream enters a condenser and separator. A portion
of the condensed liquor phase is refluxed back to the
distillation column, while most of it is stored as crude
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terpene for further processing. The steam from the vacuum
ejector and the vapor phase from the separator are condensed
in a shell-and-tube exchanger and then sent to a separator.
The non-aqueous phase from the separator is stored as crude
terpene while the aqueous phase is removed as wastewater.
The bottom stream from this second distillation column is
the finished wood rosin product.
The crude terpene, which has been removed in the second
distillation column, is stored until a sufficient quantity
has been accumulated, then this material is processed in a
batch distillation column. The distillation column is
charged with the crude terpene material, the overhead vapors
are condensed in a shell-and-tube exchanger, and the
condensed material enters a separator. The turpentine and
pine oil products are removed from this separator while the
vapors and the steam from the steam ejector enter a second
shell-and-tube exchanger and proceed to a separator. The
non-aqueous phase from the separator is recycled to the
extract liquor storage while the aqueous phase is sent to
wastewater treatment. The bottom from this batch
distillation column is a residue containing high-boiling-
point materials, best described as pitch. This residue is
used for fuel.
Subcategory D - Tall Oil Rosin, Fatty Acids, and Pitch
Technology for the production of high-purity tall oil rosin
and fatty acids is relatively recent compared to the age of
the wood and gum rosin manufacture. The first commercial
fractionation process was completed in 1949 by Arizona
Chemical. The Arizona plant employed partial vacuum
distillation techniques used in the petroleum refining in-
dustry and adapted to protect the integrity of tall oil's
heat-sensitive constitutents.
Modern fractionation techniques yield fatty acids which
contain less than 2 percent rosin and rosins which contain
less than 3 percent fatty acids. Distillation techniques
employed prior to the current fractionation technology
employed steam distillation which produced rosin and fatty
acid products with relatively high cross-product
cont a mi na ti on .
The plant surveyed during this study employed modern frac-
tionation distillation techniques. A schematic process flow
diagram of this crude tall oil (CTO) fractionation process
is presented in Figure IV-4.
43
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The plant fractionates CTO to produce approximately 20
percent pitch, 49 percent fatty acids, and 31 percent rosin.
In addition, part of the plant's pitch and rosin production
is used captively for the production of paper sizes. No
wastewater discharges were observed coining from this unit
during the survey period.
The CTO is treated with dilute sulfuric acid to remove some
residual lignins plus mercaptans, disulfides, and color
materials. Acid wash water goes to the process sewer. The
CTO then proceeds to the fractionation process. In the
first fractionation column, the pitch is removed from the
bottoms and is either sold, saponified for production of
size, or burned in boilers to recover its fuel value. The
remaining fraction of the tall oil (rosin and fatty acid)
then proceeds to the pale plant, where the quality of the
raw material is improved through the removal of unwanted
materials such as color todies. The second column in Figure
IV-4 separates low-boiling point fatty acid material while
the third column completes the separation of fatty and rosin
acids.
Barometric contact condensers are employed to condense the
vacuum-jet steam. The recirculated barometric contact water
is cooled by a holding reservoir, while light-separable
organics are removed by means of an induced draft cooling
tower. This contact condenser water recirculation system
produces little, if any, discharge of wastewater, and
therefore is considered exemplary technology. Once-through
cooling water is used in non-contact column reflux and
product heat exchangers.
Subcategory E - Essential Oils
Figure IV-5 is a process flow schematic diagram for steam
distillation of cedarwood oil from scrap wood fines of red
cedar.
Raw dry dust from the planing mill and raw grain dust from
the sawmill are mixed to obtain the desired blend and then
fed pneumatically to mechanical cyclone separators which are
located on top of the retorts. At the time of our visit,
fugitive dust escaping from the cyclones was visible. For
purposes of establishing a proposed raw waste loading (RWL)
it is anticipated that these emissions could be controlled
by more efficient cyclone separators. After loading, the
extraction of oil of cedarwood is accomplished by injecting
steam directly into the retort as shown in Figure IV-5. The
steam diffuses through the cedarwood dust, extracting the
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oil of cedarwood, exits through the top of the retort, and
is condensed to an oil/water mixture.
Following the steam extraction, the spent sawdust is allowed
to cool for approximately two hours. The spent sawdust is
then conveyed to storage from where it is eventually fed as
fuel to the steam generators.
The primary product is a crude light oil which is separated
by two oil/water separators immediately downstream of the
condensers. The light oil is removed and mixed with clay.
The clay lightens the product by removing color bodies and
stabilizes the color of the product by inhibiting further
oxidation. The clay/oil slurry is filtered through plate
and frame pressure presses and the spent clay filter
material is hauled to landfill for final disposal. The
lightened oil product proceeds to bulk storage, blending,
and is finally drummed for shipment.
The water phase, which is separated in the stillwells,
contains a heavy red crude oil. This material is separated
from the water phase in three settling tanks in series. The
heavy red oil is periodically removed and drummed for sale
as a co-product, while the underflow, or remaining water
phase, is discharged as wastewater.
The cedarwood oil process has been described and the
operation is representative of this category for production
of other essential oil products.
Subcategory F - Rosin Derivatives
Most of the rosins produced in the United States are
actually rosin derivatives. Prior to the development of
rosin derivatives rosin was used in the production of
printing inks, linoleum, varnishes, electrical insulation,
foundry core oils, leather, matches, adhesives, masonry, and
solder fluxes. Rosins have some undesirable properties
which include a tendency to crystallize from the solvents
employed, oxidation of the unsaturated chemical bonds, and
reaction with heavy metal salts. Rosin derivative
manufacturing has modified the various rosins to eliminate
these undesirable properties and to enhance their
application in the foregoing areas of application and other
new areas.
During this study, two facilities which manufactured rosin
derivatives were surveyed. Plant No. 1 was producing wood
rosin ester and a phenolic modified tall oil ester during
the survey. Plant No. 2 produces tall oil and gum rosin
47
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based esters of maleic anhydride, fumaric acid, substituted
phenolic, and other modified rosin based esters, as well as
qlycerol phthalate alkyd. Historical data on the
manufacture were used, along with survey data, to determine
RWL's.
It should be noted that there are many rosin-derivative
manufacturing processes which were not included in the
study. Those processes which were not surveyed include:
isomerization, oxidation, hydrogenation, dehydrogenation,
polymerization, salt formation, and decarboxylation.
Figure IV-6 illustrates the process at Plant No. 2. The
processes at Plant No. 1 are similar, except that the vacuum
jet steam is exhausted to the atmosphere and the process
wastewater is discharged from the receiver without
separation.
Process operating conditions in the reaction kettle are
dependent on many variables, such as product specification
and raw materials. For example, at Plant No. 1 a simple
ester is produced from stump wood rosin (WW grade) and
U.S.P. glycerin. The esterification reaction takes place
under high-temperature vacuum conditions. During the
process, a steam sparge (lasting approximately 2-3 hours) is
used to remove excess water of esterification, which allows
completion of the reaction and removes fatty acid impurities
for compliance with product specifications. The condensable
impurities are condensed in a non-contact condenser on the
vacuum leg and stored in a receiver. Non-condensables
escape to the atmosphere through the reflux vent and steam
vacuum jets. Plant No. 1 also produces phenol and maleic
anhydride-modified tall oil rosin esters. The process
operation is very similar to simple rosin ester production
except that steam sparging is seldom if ever used, and other
polyhydric alcohols may be used in the product formulation.
Plant No. 2 produces rosin-based esters of maleic anhydride,
fumaric acid, substituted phenolic, and other modified
rosin-based esters, as well as a glycerol phthalate alkyd.
Kettle cook times and pressure conditions vary with type of
product. No contact sparge steam is used except for the
production of resins to be used in hot melt adhesives and
chewing gum products, in which case steam sparge is used at
the end of the cook to remove lights and odors. Unwanted
materials, such as fatty acids, water of esterification, and
sparge steam, are removed from the kettle by means of the
vacuum leg. Condensable materials are condensed in a non-
contact condenser and separated from the non-condensables in
the receiver. Separable materials, such as fatty acids and
48
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reaction and reflux oils, are separated from the process
wastewaters in the separator. Vacuum jet steam and most
non-condensable materials are removed in a scrubber which
uses a recirculated oil stream from the separator. The oils
are recovered for a secondary market.
49
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SECTION V
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
General
This section is intended to describe and identify the water
usage and wastewater flows in individual processes in the
gum and wood chemicals manufacturing segment. After
developing an understanding of the fundamental production
processes and their inter-relationships in each subcategory,
a determination was made of the best method of
characterizing each manufacturer's discharges which would
enhance the interpretation of the manufacturer's water
pollution profile. If unit raw waste loads could be
developed for each production process within a segment, then
the current effluent wastewater profile could be obtained by
simply adding the components, and future profiles by
projecting the types and sizes' of the manufacturing
operation.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
The process RWL data for the six subcategories in the gum
and wood chemicals manufacturing point source category are
presented individually in the following text. Subsequent
discussions in these section will relate these data to the
total data base for gum and wood chemicals, and compare
waste loadings and concentrations among subcategories.
Subcategory A - Char and Charcoal Briquets
There are no wastewater discharges from the process
operations in subcategory A. For the operation as it is
described in Section IV, Figure IV-1, it is anticipated that
stormwater runoff would carry suspended solids loadings.
However, much of the dust problem and suspended solids
loading in stormwater runoff could be controlled by
alternate materials handling systems. For example, buggies
could be used to transport the materials without the need
for rehandling and thereby eliminate excessive fines produc-
tion. Furthermore, it is anticipated that no wastewater
will be generated by the recovery of condensable by-products
in the proposed recovery operation. In fact, this recovery
(air pollution control) operation should be an additional
water consumer because of evaporative losses.
51
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Based on the above observation, it can be concluded that
charcoal production and hardwood distillation can be
operated with no discharge of process wastewater pollutants.
Subcategory B - Gum Rosin and Turpentine
In the manufacturing processes for gum rosin and turpentine
as they are depicted in Figure IV-2, there are three
possible sources of process wastewaters: crude gum wash
wastewater, still condensate and dehydration brine. Plant
No. 55 recycled the still condensate back into the process
to wash the crude gum stock. Despite the recycled
wastewater stream, plant No. 55's RWL's were much higher
than plant No. 52's RWL's, as the following tabulation
shows:
Plant No. 55
Historical Data
Survey Data
Weighted Average
Plant No. 52
Subcategory II
Average
Flow
(1/kkg)
648
742
653
402
528
BODS
kg/kkq
8.11
4.39
7.88
0.99
4.44
COD TOC
kq/kkg kg/kkg
15.47
8.29
15.0
1.79
8.40
3.06
0.33
The historical RWL data reported for Plant No. 55
represented the average of 31 pieces of data while the
survey RWL data were developed from 2 composite samples.
The weighted average RWL reported for Plant No. 55 was
developed using the size of the respective data bases as the
weighting factor.
The disparity of the RWL's was discussed with personnel from
both plants. These discussions uncovered several small
differences in operation between the two plants:
1. Plant No. 52 uses much less wash water than Plant
No. 55 (106 L/kkg vs. 695 L/kkg).
2. Plant No. 52 treats the crude gum with oxalic acid
in the melter vat and probably removes much of the
insoluble oxalate salt in the filtration process as
a solid waste.
3. Plant No. 55 uses greater quantities of oxalic
acid. However, because small quantities are
53
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involved and because oxalic acid is a highly
oxidized compound, it is estimated that items 2 and
3 would account for less than 0.2 Ibs BOD/1,000 Ibs
product.
It is obvious from the above that a substantial portion of
the raw waste load and flow observed in this subcategory can
be prevented by careful in-process control of the washing
cycle. Proper control in this step will aid greatly in
attaining the limitations imposed by regulation of this
subcategory.
Subcategory C - Wood Rosin, Turpentine, and Pine Oil
The manufacturing processes for wood rosin, turpentine, and
pine oil illustrated in Figure IV-3 produce no wastewater
discharge from stump washing. The water used is totally
recycled after solids settle out. The solids are
periodically removed to landfill. The process wastewater
includes stripping, vacuum jet steam condensates, and unit
washdown wastewaters. The pertinent RWL's were observed to
be:
Flow BODS COD TOC
(L/kkg) kg/kkg kg/kkg kg/kkg
9,470 6.49 12.6 4.14
These data were obtained at plant 54 and represent survey
data.
Subcategory D - Tall Oil Rosin, Pitch, and Fatty Acids
Figure IV-4, which depicts the fractionation and refining of
crude tall oil, indicates that the sources of process
wastewater include the acid treatment and overflow, if any,
from the recirculated evaporative cooling system.
Additional process loads are contributed by process
washdowns and guality control laboratory wastes. The
plant's control of contact cooling water by means of the
recirculated evaporative cooling system is considered
exemplary for crude tall oil processing manufacture.
Discussions with plant operating personnel revealed that
separable organics which float to the top of the
recirculation system1s reservoir are recovered and recycled
through the process and that a net water makeup is usually
required to maintain a certain level in the reservoir. No
overflow from the reservoir was observed during the survey
and it is assumed that this is a normal operating condition.
Sources of normal makeup to the reservoir would be vacuum-
54
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jet steam, stripping steam condensates, and rainfall on the
pond.
During the survey substantial contamination of the once-
through, non-contact condenser cooling water was observed.
Based on in-plant sampling performed during the survey, it
was determined that part of the contamination was due to
leaks in the shell-and-tube condensers on the fractionation
columns, and the remainder of the concentration was due to
an accidental leak or cross-connection between the
barometric contact condenser and the non-contact cooling
systems. In addition, numerous sources of other non-contact
cooling water and steam condensate were observed to be
discharging to a combined sewer system.
To determine the RWL for the CTO refining and fractionation
units, the plant's total wastewater was measured and sampled
for a continuous 24-hour period. Concurrent grab composite
samples were taken in-plant to determine the accidental
contamination of once-through cooling water by faulty
equipment, and this loading was subtracted from the plant's
total effluent load. The flow RWL was computed to be 19,400
L/kkg. However, based on our understanding of the process,
discussions with manufacturing representatives, and the fact
that large amounts of water were used at the plant, but
unaccounted for, it was estimated that approximately 25
percent of the 19,400 L/kkg flow RWL represented con-
taminated wastewater. Its source, as discussed previously,
was the acid-treating unit, process washdowns, and
discharges from the quality control laboratory. The
remaining portion of the flow RWL was classified as non-
contact waters and therefore not included. The previous
segregation of non-contact waters did not affect the BOD,
COD, or TOC RWL data but merely affected the RWL
concentration.
Based on the above discussion, the pertinent RWL's for
Subcategory D are:
Flow BODS COD TOC
fL/kkg) kg/kkg kg/kkg kg/kkg
4,860 3.11 7.08 1.58
Subcategory E - Essential Oils
The steam used for each batch extraction of oil of cedarwood
yields a contaminated condensate. This represents the only
process wastewater discharge from essential oils
manufacture, and its RWL's are:
55
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Table V -2
Miscellaneous Raw Waste Load Data
RWL
Flow
L/kkg
TSS
mg/L
kg/kkg
TDS
mg/L
kg/kkg
Oil
mg/L
kg/kkg
Acidity
mg/L
kg/kkg
Alkalinity
mg/L
kg/kkg
TKN-N
mg/L
kg/kkg
NH3-N
mg/L
kg/kkg
N03-N
mg/L
kg/kkg
T-P
mg/L
kg/kkg
Color Units
mg/L
kg/kkg
SO^
mg/L
kg/kkg
Phenol
mg/L
kg/kkg
Ca
mg/L
kg/kkg
Mg
mg/L
kg/kkg
Cn
mg/L
kg/kkg
Zn
mg/L
kg/kkg
Cl
mg/L
kg/kkg
Subeategory B -
Gum Rosin and
Turpentine
528
265
0.140
3,640
1.92
441
0.233
2,610
1.38
22.7
0.012
9.5
0.005
Interference
2.3
0.0012
210
--
254
0.134
0.68
0.00036
o! 030
o!ooi6
0.03
15.9
0.0082
189
0.10
Subcategory C -
Wood Rosin,
Turpentine and
Pine Oil
9,470
31
0.29
702
6.65
50
0.4?
11
0.10
192
1.82
4.2
0.04
0.11
0.001
0.4
0.0036
93
150
1.42
0.21
0.002
132
1.25
14.8
0.14
0.25
0.0024
18.0
0.17
Subcategory 0 -
Tall Oil Rosin,
Pitch and
Fatty Acids
4,860
Negative1
Negative1
654
3.18
325
1.58
82.
0.40
300
1.46
Negative1
3.23
0.0157
Negative1
40
132
0.64
20.5
0.10
3.29
0.016
Negative1
2.1
0.01
Subcategory E -
Essential
Oils
62,100
6
0.37
55
3.41
0.5
0.03
593
36.8
8.4
0.52
.16
0.01
0.23
0.014
0.01
0.0006
1.0
0.06
0.31
0.019
0.5
0.03
0.10
0.006
--
--
--
2.2
0.14
Subcategory F -
Rosin
Derivatives
309
52
0.016
7480
2.31
356
0.11
841
0.26
12.9
0.004
19.4
0.006
0.06
0.00002
0.7
0.00021
--
"~
12.9
0.004
61.5
0.019
42.1
0.0130
9.06
0.0028
6.8
0.0021
17.8
0.055
Background TSS contributions exceeded the net increase across the process, resulting in a negative TSS - RWL.
56
V30/76
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Flow BOD COD TOG
(L/kkg) kq/kkq kq/kkq kq/kkq
62,100 70.8 86.9 24.8
Subcategory _F - Rosin Derivatives
Process wastewaters from the manufacture of rosin
derivatives, by the process shown in Figure IV-6, include:
water of reaction; sparge steam, if used; and vacuum jet
steam. Non-contact cooling water is used in the kettle
overhead condensers, and periodically on the kettle coils.
The once-through cooling water was segregated from process
wastewaters at both plants. Sample analyses confirm no
pollutant pickup in the non-contact cooling water streams.
Subcategory F RWL1s are presented below:
Flow BODS COD TOC
(L/kkq) (kq/kkq) (kq/kkq) (kq/kkq)
Plant No. 57 395 4.11 7.33 3.10
Plant No. 55
Historical Data 214 4.59 9.64
Survey Data 273 5.26 11.00 3.90
Weighted Average 222 4.68 9.83
Subcategory F Av. 309 4.40 8.58
The historical RWL data reported for plant No. 55
represented the average of 18 pieces of data, while the
survey RWL data were developed from 3 composite samples.
The weighted average RWL reported for plant No. 55 was
developed using the size of the respective data bases as the
weighting factor.
General Waste Characteristics
v
Table V-2 lists the BPT raw waste load values assigned to
each subcategory. These values include the following
parameters:
1. Contact process wastewater flow (liters/kkg of
product)
2. BOD raw waste load (kg BOD/kkg of product)
3. COD raw waste load (kg COD/kkg of product)
4. TOC raw waste load (kg TOC/kkg of product)
57
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Raw waste load data for all parameters analyzed in the field
survey (except BODS, COD and TOG) are presented in Table V-
3.
For purposes of comparison, concentrations have been
calculated for the BODS parameter by dividing the BODS
loading by the corresponding contact process wastewater
flow. Examination of these data indicates a variability in
flows, loadings, and resulting concentrations.
It should be noted that the BODS concentrations shown are
based on wastewaters coming directly from the process and do
not necessarily represent the waste concentrations which a
treatment plant would receive. If the plant manufactured a
single product which generated concentrated wastes, these
might be diluted with contaminated cooling water and steam
condensate or other non-contact waters prior to biological
treatment. In a multi-product plant, the concentrated
wastewater might be diluted with less concentrated wastes
from other processes.
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
General
From review of NPDES permit applications for direct
discharge of wastewaters from various industries grouped
under gum and wood chemicals and examination of related
published data, twelve parameters (listed in Table VI-1)
were selected and examined for all industrial wastewaters
during the field data collection program. All field
sampling data are summarized in Supplement B. Supplement B
includes laboratory analytical results, data from plants
visited, RWL calculations, historical data, analysis of
historical data, computer print-outs (showing flows,
production, and pollutants, performance data on treatment
technologies and effluent limitations calculations).
Supplement A has design calculations, capital cost
calculations, and annual cost calculations. Supplements A
and B are available at the EPA Public Information Reference
Unit, Room 2922 (EPA Library), Waterside Mall, 401 M Street,
S.W., Washington, D.C., 20160.
The degree of impact on the overall environment has been
used as a basis for dividing the pollutants into groups as
follows:
Pollutants of significance.
Rationale for selection of pollutant parameters.
Pollutants of specific significance.
The rationale and justification for pollutant categorization
within the foregoing groupings, as discussed herein, will
indicate the basis for selection of the parameters upon
which the actual effluent limitations guidelines were
postulated for each industrial category. In addition,
particular parameters have been discussed in terms of their
validity as measures of environmental impact and as sources
of analytical insight.
Pollutants observed from the field data that were present in
sufficient concentrations so as to interfere with, be
incompatible with, or pass with inadequate treatment through
publicly owned treatment works are discussed in Section XII
of this document.
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Pollutants of Significance
Parameters of pollution significance for the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category are BODS, COD,
TOC, and TSS.
BOD5, COD, and TOC have been selected as pollutants of
significance because they are the primary measurements of
organic pollution. In the survey of the industrial
categories, almost all of the effluent data collected from
wastewater treatment facilities were based upon BOD5,
because almost all the treatment facilities were biological
processes. If other processes (such as evaporation,
incineration, or activated carbon) are utilized, either COD
or TOC may be a more appropriate measure of pollution. In
either case the COD parameter is highly reliable and rapidly
measured.
Because historical data is not available for TOC,
limitations will only be set for BOD5, COD and TSS.
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Table VI-1
List of Parameters Examined
Acidity and Alkalinity-pH
Oil and Grease
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Total Organic Carbon
Total Suspended Solids
Phenols
Phosphorus
Zinc
Dissolved Solids
Nitrogen Compounds
Sulfates
Temperature
61
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RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
I. Pollutant. Proper-ties
Acidity and Alkalinity - pH
Although not a specific pollutant, pH is related to the
acidity or alkalinity of a waste water stream. It is not a
linear or direct measure of either, however, it may properly
be used as a surrogate to control both excess acidity and
excess alkalinity in water. The term pH is used to describe
the hydrogen ion - hydroxyl ion balance in water.
Technically, pH is the hydrogen ion concentration or
activity present in a given solution. pH numbers are the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. A pH
of 7 generally indicates neutrality or a balance between
free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions. Solutions with a pH
above 7 indicate that the solution is alkaline, while a pH
below 7 indicates that the solution is acid.
Knowledge of the pH of water or waste water is useful in
determining necessary measures for corrosion control,
pollution control, and disinfection. Waters with a pH below
6.0 are corrosive to water works structures, distribution
lines, and household plumbing fixtures and such corrosion
can add constituents to drinking water such as iron,
copper, zinc, cadmium, and lead. Low pH waters not only
tend to dissolve metals from structures and fixtures but
also tend to redissolve or leach metals from sludges and
bottom sediments. The hydrogen ion concentration can affect
the "taste" of the water and at a low pH, water tastes
"sour".
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress
conditions or kill aquatic life outright. Even moderate
changes from "acceptable" criteria limits of pH are
deleterious to some species. The relative toxicity* to
aquatic life of many materials is increased by changes in
the water pH. For example, metalocyanide complexes can
increase a thousand-fold in toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH
units. Similarly, the toxicity of ammonia is a function of
pH. The bactericidal effect of chlorine in most cases is
less as the pH increases, and it is economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
*The term toxic or toxicity is used herein in the normal
scientific sense of the word and not as a specialized
term referring to section 307 (a) of the Act.
62
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Acidity is defined as the quantitative ability of a water to
neutralize hydroxyl ions. It is usually expressed as the
calcium carbonate equivalent of the hydroxyl ions
neutralized. Acidity should not be confused with pH value.
Acidity is the quantity of hydrogen ions which may be
released to react with or neutralize hydroxyl ions while pH
is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in a solution at the
instant the pH measurement is made. A property of many
chemicals, called buffering, may hold hydrogen ions in a
solution from being in the free state and being measured as
pH. The bond of most buffers is rather weak and hydrogen
ions tend to be released from the buffer as needed to
maintain a fixed pH value.
Highly acid waters are corrosive to metals, concrete and
living organisms, exhibiting the pollutional characteristics
outlined above for low pH waters. Depending on buffering
capacity, water may have a higher total acidity at pH values
of 6.0 than other waters with a pH value of 4.0.
Alkalinity: Alkalinity is defined as the ability of a water
to neutralize hydrogen ions. It is usually expressed as the
calcium carbonate equivalent of the hydrogen ions
neutralized.
Alkalinity is commonly caused by the presence of carbonates,
bicarbonates, hydroxides and to a lesser extent by borates,
silicates, phophates and organic substances. Because of the
nature of the chemicals causing alkalinity, and the
buffering capacity of carbon dioxide in water, very high pH
values are seldom found in natural waters.
Excess alkalinity as exhibited in a high pH value may make
water corrosive to certain metals, detrimental to most
natural organic materials and toxic to living organisms.
Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH. The lacrimal fluid
of the human eye has a pH of approximately 7.0 and a
deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm may result in eye
irritation for the swimmer. Appreciable irritation will
cause severe pain.
Oil and Grease
Because of widespread use, oil and grease occur often in
waste water streams. These oily wastes may be classified as
follows:
1. Light Hydrocarbons - These include light fuels such
as gasoline, kerosene, and jet fuel, and
63
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miscellaneous solvents used for industrial
processing, degreasing, or cleaning purposes. The
presence of these light hydrocarbons may make the
removal of other heavier oily wastes more
difficult.
2. Heavy Hydrocarbons, Fuels, and Tars - These include
the crude oils, diesel oils, #6 fuel oil, residual
oils, slop oils, and in some cases, asphalt and
road tar.
3. Lubricants and Cutting Fluids - These generally
fall into two classes: non-emulsifiable oils such
as lubricating oils and greases and emulsifiable
oils such as water soluble oils, rolling oils,
cutting oils, and drawing compounds. Emulsifiable
oils may contain fat soap or various other
additives.
4. Vegetable and Animal Fats and Oils - These
originate primarily from processing of foods and
natural products.
These compounds can settle or float and may exist as
solids or liquids depending upon factors such as method
of use, production process, and temperature of waste
water.
Oils and grease even in small quantities cause troublesome
taste and odor problems. Scum lines from these agents are
produced on water treatment basin walls and other
containers. Fish and water fowl are adversely affected by
oils in their habitat. Oil emulsions may adhere to the
gills of fish causing suffocation, and the flesh of fish is
tainted when microorganisms that were exposed to waste oil
are eaten. Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments of
water can serve to inhibit normal benthic growth. Oil and
grease exhibit an oxygen demand.
Levels of oil and grease which are toxic to aquatic
organisms vary greatly, depending on the type and the
species susceptibility. However, it has been reported that
crude oil in concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/1 is extremely
toxic to fresh-water fish. It has been recommended that
public water supply sources be essentially free from oil and
grease.
Oil and grease in quantities of 100 1/sq km (10 gallons/sq
mile) show up as a sheen on the surface of a body of water.
The presence of oil slicks prevent the full aesthetic
64
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enjoyment of water. The presence of oil in water can also
increase the toxicity of other substances being discharged
into the receiving bodies of water. Municipalities
frequently limit the quantity of oil and grease that can be
discharged to their waste water treatment systems by
industry.
Oxygen Demand (BOD, COD, TOG and DO)
Organic and some inorganic compounds can cause an oxygen
demand to be exerted in a receiving body of water.
Indigenous microorganisms utilize the organic wastes as an
energy source and oxidize the organic matter. In doing so
their natural respiratory activity will utilize the
dissolved oxygen.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) in water is a quality that, in
appropriate concentrations, is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain species reproduction,
vigor, and the development of populations. Organisms
undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations that make them
less competitive and less able to sustain their species
within the aquatic environment. For example, reduced DO
concentrations have been shown to interfere with fish
population through delayed hatching of eggs, reduced size
and vigor of embryos, production of deformities in young,
interference with food digestion, acceleration of blood
clotting, decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced
food utilization efficiency, growth rate, and maximum
sustained swimming speed. Other organisms are likewise
affected adversely during conditions of decreased DO. Since
all aerobic aquatic organisms need a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total depletion of dissolved
oxygen due to a high oxygen demand can kill all the
inhabitants of the affected aquatic area.
It has been shown that fish may, under some natural
conditions, become acclimatized to low oxygen
concentrations. Within certain limits, fish can adjust
their rate of respiration to compensate for changes in the
concentration of dissolved oxygen. It is generally agreed,
moreover, that those species which are sluggish in movement
(e.g.,carp, pike, eel) can withstand lower oxygen
concentrations than fish which are more lively in habit
(such as trout or salmon).
The lethal affect of low concentrations of dissolved oxygen
in water appears to be increased by the presence of toxic
substances, such as ammonia, cyanides, zinc, lead, copper,
or cresols. With so many factors influencing the effect of
65
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oxygen deficiency, it is difficult to estimate the minimum
safe concentrations at which fish will be unharmed under
natural conditions. Many investigations seem to indicate
that a DO level of 5.0 mg/1 is desirable for a good aquatic
environment and higher DO levels are required for selected
types of aquatic environments.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the quantity of oxygen
required for the biological and chemical oxidation of
waterborn substances under ambient or test conditions.
Materials which may contribute to the BOD include:
carbonaceous organic materials usable as a food source by
aerobic organisms; oxidizable nitrogen derived from
nitrites, ammonia and organic nitrogen compounds which serve
as food for specific bacteria; and certain chemically
oxidizable materials such as ferrous iron, sulfides,
sulfite, etc. which will react with dissolved oxygen or are
metabolized by bacteria. In most industrial and municipal
waste waters, the BOD derives principally from organic
materials and from ammonia (which is itself derived from
animal or vegetable matter).
The BOD of a waste exerts an adverse effect upon the
dissolved oxygen resources of a body of water by reducing
the oxygen available to fish, plant life, and other aquatic
species. Conditions can be reached where all of the
dissolved oxygen in the water is utilized resulting in
anaerobic conditions and the production of undesirable gases
such as hydrogen sulfide and methane. The reduction of
dissolved oxygen can be detrimental to fish populations,
fish growth rate, and organisms used as fish food. A total
lack of oxygen due to the exertion of an excessive BOD can
result in the death of all aerobic aquatic inhabitants in
the affected area.
Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of decomposing
organic matter and associated increased bacterial
concentrations that degrade its quality and potential uses.
A by-product of high BOD concentrations can be increased
algal concentrations and blooms which result from
decomposition of the organic matter and which form the basis
of algal populations.
The BOD5_ (5-day BOD) test is used widely to estimate the
pollutional strength of domestic and industrial wastes in
terms of the oxygen that they will require if discharged
into receiving streams. The test is an important one in
water pollution control activities. It is used for
pollution control regulatory activities, to evaluate the
design and efficiencies of waste water treatment works, and
66
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to indicate the state of purification or pollution of
receiving bodies of water.
Complete biochemical oxidation of a given waste may require
a period of incubation too long for practical analytical
test purposes. For this reason, the 5-day period has been
accepted as standard, and the test results have been
designated as BODJ5. Specific chemical test methods are not
readily available for measuring the quantity of many
degradable substances and their reaction products. Reliance
in such cases is placed on the collective parameter, BODj>,
which measures the weight of dissolved oxygen utilized by
microorganisms as they oxidize or transform the gross
mixture of chemical compounds in the waste water. The
biochemical reactions involved in the oxidation of carbon
compounds are related to the period of incubation. The
five-day BOD normally measures only 60 to 80% of the
carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand of the sample, and
for many purposes this is a reasonable parameter.
Additionally, it can be used to estimate the gross quantity
of oxidizable organic matter.
The BOD5 test is essentially a bioassay procedure which
provides an estimate of the oxygen consumed by
microorganisms utilizing the degradable matter present in a
waste under conditions that are representative of those that
are likely to occur in nature. Standard conditions of time,
temperature, suggested microbial seed, and dilution water
for the wastes have been defined and are incorporated in the
standard analytical procedure. Through the use of this
procedure, the oxygen demand of diverse wastes can be
compared and evaluated for pollution potential and to some
extent for treatability by biological treatment processes.
Because the BOD test is a bioassay procedure, it is
important that the environmental conditions of the test be
suitable for the microorganisms to function in an
uninhibited manner at all times. This means that toxic
substances must be absent and that the necessary nutrients,
such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and trace elements, must be
present.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a purely chemical oxidation
test devised as an alternate method of estimating the total
oxygen demand of a waste water. Since the method relies on
the oxidation-reduction system of chemical analyses rather
than on biological factors, it is more precise, accurate,
and rapid.than the BOD test. The COD test is widely used to
estimate the total oxygen demand (ultimate rather than 5-day
BOD) to oxidize the compounds in a waste water. It is based
67
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on the fact that organic compounds, with a few exceptions,
can be oxidized by strong chemical oxidizing agents under
acid conditions with the assistance of certain inorganic
catalysts.
The COD test measures the oxygen demand of compounds that
are biologically degradable and of many that are not.
Pollutants which are measured by the BOD5 test will be
meausred by the COD test. In addition, pollutants which are
more resistant to biological oxidation will also be measured
as COD. COD is a more inclusive measure of oxygen demand
than is BOD5 and will result in higher oxygen demand values
than will the BOD_5 test.
The compounds which are more resistant to biological
oxidation are becoming of greater and greater concern not
only because of their slow but continuing oxygen demand on
the resources of the receiving water, but also because of
their potential health effects on aquatic life and humans.
Many of these compounds result from industrial discharges
and some have been found to have carcinogenic, mutagenic and
similar adverse effects, either singly or in combination.
Concern about these compounds has increased as a result of
demonstrations that their long life in receiving waters
the result of a slow biochemical oxidation rate - allows
them to contaminate downstream water intakes. The commonly
used systems of water purification are not effective in
removing these types of materials and disinfection such as
chlorination may convert them into even more hazardous
materials.
Thus the COD test measures organic matter which exerts an
oxygen demand and which may affect the health of the people.
It is a useful analytical tool for pollution control
activities. It provides a more rapid measurement of the
oxygen demand and an estimate of organic compounds which are
not measured in the BOB5 test.
Total organic carbon (TQC) is measured by the catalytic
conversion of organic carbon in a waste water to carbon
dioxide. Most organic chemicals have been found to be
measured quantitatively by the equipment now in use. The
time of analyses is short, from 5 to 10 minutes, permitting
a rapid and accurate estimate of the organic carbon content
of the waste waters to be made by relatively unskilled
personnel.
A TOC value does not indicate the rate at which the carbon
compounds are oxidized in the natural environment. The TOC
test will measure compounds that are readily biodegradable
68
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and measured by the BOD5 test as well as those that are not.
TOC analyses will include those biologically resistant
organic compounds that are of concern in the environment.
BOD and COD methods of analyses are based on oxygen
utilization of the waste water. The TOC analyses estimates
the total carbon content of a waste water. There is as yet
no fundamental correlation of TOC to either BOD or COD.
However, where organic laden waste waters are fairly
uniform, there will be a fairly constant correlation among
TOC, BOD and COD. Once such a correlation is established,
TOC can be used as an inexpensive test for routine process
monitoring.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic
materials. The inorganic compounds include sand, silt, and
clay. The organic fraction includes such materials as
grease, oil, tar, and animal and vegetable waste products.
These solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are
often a mixture of both organic and inorganic solids.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake. These solids discharged
with man's wastes may be inert, slowly biodegradable
materials, or rapidly decomposable substances. While in
suspension, they increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants.
Suspended solids in water interfere with many industrial
processes, cause foaming in boilers and incrustations on
equipment exposed to such water, especially as the
temperature rises. They are undesirable in process water
used in the manufacture of steel, in the textile industry,
in laundries, in dyeing, and in cooling systems.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When
they settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often damaging to the life in water. Solids,
when transformed to sludge deposits, may do a variety of
damaging things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed
and thereby destroying the living spaces for those benthic
organisms that would otherwise occupy the habitat. When of
an organic nature, solids use a portion or all of the
dissolved oxygen available in the area. Organic materials
also serve as a food source for sludgeworms and associated
organisms.
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Disregarding any toxic effect attributable to substances
leached out by water, suspended solids may kill fish and
shellfish by causing abrasive injuries and by clogging the
gills and respiratory passages of various aguatic fauna.
Indirectly, suspended solids are inimical to aguatic life
because they screen out light, and they promote and maintain
the development of noxious conditions through oxygen
depletion. This results in the killing of fish and fish
food organisms. Suspended solids also reduce the
recreational value of the water.
Turbidity: Turbidity of water is related to the amount of
suspended and colloidal matter contained in the water. It
affects the clearness and penetration of light. The degree
of turbidity is only an expression of one effect of
suspended solids upon the character of the water. Turbidity
can reduce the effectiveness of chlorination and can result
in difficulties in meeting BOD and suspended solids
limitations. Turbidity is an indirect measure of suspended
solids.
Phenols
Phenols, defined as hydroxy derivatives of benzene and its
condensed nuclei, may occur in domestic and industrial waste
water and in drinking water supplies. Chlorination of such
waters can produce odoriferous and objectionable tasting
chlorophenols which may include o-chlorophenol, p-
chlorophenol, and 2, 4-dichlorophenol.
Although described in the technical literature simply as
phenols, the phenol waste category can include a wide range
of similar chemical compounds. In terms of pollution
control, reported concentrations of phenols are the result
of a standard methodology which measures a general group of
similar compounds rather than being based upon specific
identification of the single compound, phenol
(hydroxybenzene).
Phenols are used in some cutting oils and in the molding of
plastics. Cutting fluids can contain phenolic compounds
since these materials are normal constituents of hydrocarbon
mixtures. In addition, phenolic compounds are added to oils
as preservatives or for odor control. They also are found
in the waste waters from the petroleum industry and from
certain products of the organic chemical industry.
Phenolic compounds may adversely affect fish in two ways:
first, by a direct toxic action, and second, by imparting a
70
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taste to the fish flesh. The toxicity of phenol towards
fish increases as the dissolved oxygen level is diminished,
as the temperature is raised, and as the hardness is
lessened. Phenol appears to act as a nerve poison causing
too much blood to get to the gills and to the heart cavity
and is reported to have a toxic threshold of 0.1 to .15
mg/1.
Mixed phenolic substances appear to be especially
troublesome in imparting taste to fish flesh. Chlorophenol
produces a bad taste in fish far below lethal or toxic
doses. Threshold concentrations for taste or odor in
chlorinated water supplies have been reported as low as
0.00001-0.001 mg/1. Phenols in concentrations of only one
part per billion have been known to affect water supplies.
The ingestion of concentrated solutions of phenol by humans
results in severe pain, renal irritation, shock, and
possibly death. A total dose of 1.5 grams may be fatal.
Phenols can be metabolized and oxidized in waste treatment
facilities containing organisms acclimated to the phenol
concentration in the wastes.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus occurs in natural waters and in waste waters in
the form of various types of phosphate. These forms are
commonly classified into orthophosphates, condensed
phosphates (pyro-, meta-, and polyphosphorus), and
organically bound phosphates. These may occur in the
soluble form, in particles of detritus or in the bodies of
aquatic organisms.
The various forms of phosphates find their way into waste
waters from a variety of industrial, residential, and
commercial sources. Small amounts of certain condensed
phosphates are added to some water supplies in the course of
potable water treatment. Large quantities of the same
compounds may be added when the water is used for laundering
or other cleaning since these materials are major
constituents of many commercial cleaning preparations.
Phosphate coating of metals is another major source of
phosphates in certain industrial effluents.
The increasing problem of the growth of algae in streams and
lakes appears to be associated with the increasing presence
of certain dissolved nutrients, chief among which is
phosphorus. Phosphorus is an element which is essential to
the growth of organisms and it can often be the nutrient
that limits the aquatic growth that a body of water can
71
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support. In instances where phosphorous is a growth
limiting nutrient, the discharge of sewage, agricultural
drainage or certain industrial wastes to a receiving water
may stimulate the growth, in nuisance quantities, of
photosynthetic aquatic microorganisms and macroorganisms.
The increase in organic matter production by algae and
plants in a lake undergoing eutrophication has ramifications
throughout the aquatic ecosystem. Greater demand is placed
on the dissolved oxygen in the water as the organic matter
decomposes at the termination of the life cycles. Because
of this process, the deeper waters of the lake may become
entirely depleted of oxygen, thereby, destroying fish
habitats and leading to the elimination of desirable
species. The settling of particulate matter from the
productive upper layers changes the character of the bottom
mud, also leading to the replacement of certain species by
less desirable organisms. Of great importance is the fact
that nutrients inadvertently introduced to a lake are, for
the most part, trapped there and recycled in accelerated
biological processes. Consequently, the damage done to a
lake in a relatively short time requires a many fold in-
crease in time for recovery of the lake.
When a plant population is stimulated in production and
attains a nuisance status, a large number of associated
liabilities are immediately apparent. Dense populations of
pond weeds make swimming dangerous. Boating and water
skiing and sometimes fishing may be eliminated because of
the mass of vegetation that serves as a physical impediment
to such activities. Plant populations have been associated
with stunted fish populations and with poor fishing. Plant
nuisances emit vile stenches, impart tastes and odors to
water supplies, reduce the efficiency of industrial and
municipal water treatment, impair aesthetic beauty, reduce
or restrict resort trade, lower waterfront property values,
cause skin rashes to man during water contact, and serve as
a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury.
Colloidal elemental phosphorus will poison marine fish
(causing skin tissue breakdown ' and discoloration). Also,
phosphorus is capable of being concentrated and will
accumulate in organs and soft tissues. Experiments have
shown that marine fish will concentrate phosphorus from
water containing as little as 1 ug/1.
72
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Zinc (Zn)
Occurring abundantly in rocks and ores, zinc is readily
refined into a stable pure metal and is used extensively as
a metal, an alloy, and a plating material. In addition,
zinc salts are also used in paint pigments, dyes, and
insecticides. Many of these salts (for example, zinc
chloride and zinc sulfate) are highly soluble in water;
hence, it is expected that zinc might occur in many
industrial wastes. On the other hand, some zinc salts (zinc
carbonate, zinc oxide, zinc sulfide) are insoluble in water
and, consequently, it is expected that some zinc will
precipitate and be removed readily in many natural waters.
In soft water, concentrations of zinc ranging from 0.1 to
1.0 mg/1 have been reported to be lethal to fish. Zinc is
thought to exert its toxic action by forming insoluble
compounds with the mucous that covers the gills, by damage
to the gill epithelium, or possibly by acting as an internal
poison. The sensitivity of fish to zinc varies with
species, age, and condition, as well as with the physical
and chemical characteristics of the water. Some
acclimatization to the presence of the zinc is possible. It
has also been observed that the effects of zinc poisoning
may not become apparent immediately so that fish removed
from zinc-contaminated to zinc-free water may die as long as
48 hours after the removal. The presence of copper in water
may increase the toxicity of zinc to aquatic organisms,
while the presence of calcium or hardness may decrease the
relative toxicity.
A complex relationship exists between zinc concentrations,
dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and calcium and magnesium
concentrations. Prediction of harmful effects has been less
than reliable and controlled studies have not been
extensively documented.
Concentrations of zinc in excess of 5 mg/1 in public water
supply sources cause an undesirable taste which persists
through conventional treatment. Zinc can have an adverse
effect on man and animals at high concentrations.
Observed values for the distribution of zinc in ocean waters
varies widely. The major concern with zinc compounds in
marine waters is not one of actute lethal effects, but
rather one of the long term sublethal effects of the
metallic compounds and complexes. From the point of view of
accute lethal effects, invertebrate marine animals seem to
be the most sensitive organisms tested.
73
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A variety of freshwater plants tested manifested harmful
symptoms at concentrations of 10 mg/1. Zinc sulfate has
also been found to be lethal to many plants and it could
impair agricultural uses of the water.
Dissolved Solids
In natural waters, the dissolved solids are mainly
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and, to a
lesser extent, nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
potassium, with traces of iron, manganese and other
substances.
Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use water supplies containing 2,000 to 4,000 mg/1 of
dissolved salts, when no better water is available. Such
waters are not palatable, may not quench thirst, and may
have a laxative action on new users. Waters containing more
than 4,000 mg/1 of total salts are generally considered
unfit for human use, although in hot climates such higher
salt concentrations can be tolerated. Waters containing
5,000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and act as a
bladder and intestinal irritant. It is generally agreed
that the salt concentration of good, palatable water should
not exceed 500 mg/1.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1, depending on
species and prior acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to
living in more saline waters, and a few species of fresh-
water forms have been found in natural waters with a salt
concentration of 15,000 to 20,000 mg/1. Fish can slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of low salinity cannot survive sudden exposure to high
salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of oil-
well brines. Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life, primarily because of the antagonistic effect of
hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations
higher than 500 mg/1 have decreasing utility as irrigation
water. At 5,000 mg/1, water has little or no value for
irrigation.
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and can cause interference with cleanliness, color,
or taste of many finished products. High concentrations of
dissolved solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.
74
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Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current. This property is related to
the total concentration of ionized substances in water and
to the water temperature. This property is frequently used
as a substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved
solids concentration.
Nitrogen Compounds
Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)
are two parameters which have received a substantial amount
of interest in the last decade. TKN is the sum of the NH3-N
and organic nitrogen present in the sample. Both NIO and
TKN are expressed in terms of equivalent nitrogen values in
mg/1 to facilitate mathematical manipulations of the values.
Organic nitrogen may be converted in the environment to
ammonia by saprophytic bacteria under either aerobic or
anaerobic conditions. The ammonia nitrogen then becomes the
nitrogen and energy source for autotrophic organisms
(nitrifiers). The oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and then
to nitrate has a stoichiometric oxygen requirement of
approximately 4.6 times the concentration of NH3-N. The
nitrification reaction is much slower than the carbonaceous
reactions, and, therefore, the dissolved oxygen utilization
is observed over a much longer period.
Ammonia is a common product of the decomposition of organic
matter. Dead and decaying animals and plants along with
human and animal body wastes account for much of the ammonia
entering the aquatic ecosystem. Ammonia exists in its non-
ionized form only at higher pH levels and is the most toxic
in this state. The lower the pH, the more ionized ammonia
is formed and its toxicity decreases. Ammonia, in the
presence of dissolved oxygen, is converted to nitrate (NOJ3)
by nitrifying bacteria. Nitrite (NO2), which is an
intermediate product between ammonia and nitrate, sometimes
occurs in quantity when depressed oxygen conditions permit.
Ammonia can exist in several other chemical combinations,
including ammonium chloride and other salts.
Infant methemoglobinemia, a disease characterized by
specific blood changes and cyanosis, may be caused by high
nitrate concentrations in the water used for preparing
feeding formulae. While it is still impossible to state
precise concentration limits, it has teen widely recommended
that water containing more than 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen
(NO3-N) should not be used for infants.
75
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Nitrates are also harmful in fermentation processes and can
cause disagreeable tastes in beer. In most natural water
the pH range is such that ammonium ions (NH4+) predominate.
In streams polluted with sewage, up to one-half of the
nitrogen in the sewage may be in the form of free ammonia,
and sewage may carry up to 35 mg/1 of total nitrogen. It
has been shown that at a level of 1.0 mg/1 non-ionized
ammonia, the ability of hemoglobin to combine with oxygen is
impaired and may cause fish to suffocate. Evidence
indicates that ammonia exerts a considerable toxic effect on
all aguatic life within a range of less than 1.0 to 25 mg/1,
depending on the pH and dissolved oxygen level present.
Ammonia can add to the problem of eutrophication by
supplying nitrogen through its breakdown products. Some
lakes in warmer climates, and others that are aging quickly,
are sometimes limited by the nitrogen available. Any
increase will speed up the plant growth and decay process.
Sulfates
Sulfates occur naturally in waters, particulary in the
western Unites States, as a result of leachings from gypsum
and other common materials. They also occur as the final
oxidized state of sulfides, sulfites and thiosulfates.
Sulfates may also be present as the oxidized state of
organic matter in the sulfur cycle, but they in turn, may
serve as sources of energy for sulfate splitting bacteria.
Sulfates may also be discharged in numerous industrial
wastes, such as those from tanneries, sulfate-pulp mills,
textile mills, and other plants that use sulfates or
sulfuric acid.
In moderate concentrations, sulfates are not harmful and it
has been reported that concentrations up to 1000 mg/1 are
harmless. Irrigation concentrations less than 336 mg/1 are
considered to be good to excellent.
Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important and influential
water quality characteristics. Temperature determines what
species may be present; it activates the hatching of young,
regulates their activity, and stimulates or suppresses their
growth and development; it attracts, and may kill when the
water becomes too hot or becomes chilled too suddenly.
Colder water generally suppresses development. Warmer water
generally accelerates activity and may be a primary cause of
76
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aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are
suitable.
Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment. It governs physiological functions
in organisms and, acting directly or indirectly in
combination with ether water quality constituents, affects
aquatic life with each change. These effects include
chemical reaction rates, enzymatic functions, molecular
movements, and molecular exchanges between membranes within
and between the physiological systems and the organs of an
animal.
Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased. The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances, and the decay rate increases as the temperature
of the water increases, reaching a maximum at about 30°C
(86°F). The temperature of stream water, even during
summer, is below the optimum for pollution-associated
bacteria. Increasing the water temperature increases the
bacterial multiplication rate when the environment is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.
Reproduction cycles may be changed significantly by
increased temperature because this function takes place
under restricted temperature ranges.
Spawning may not occur at all when temperatures are too
high. Thus, a fish population may exist in a heated area
only by continued immigration. Disregarding the decreased
reproductive potential, water temperatures need not reach
lethal levels to decimate a species. Temperatures that
favor competitors, predators, parasites, and disease can
destroy a species at levels far below those that are lethal.
Fish food organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F. Predominant algal species change;
primary production is decreased; and bottom-associated
organisms may be depleted or altered drastically in numbers
and distribution. increased water temperature may cause
aquatic plant nuisances when othey environmental factors are
favorable.
Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher
water temperatures. Domestic sewage, refinery wastes, oils,
tars, insecticides, detergents, and fertilizers deplete
oxygen in water more rapidly at higher temperatures, and the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.
77
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When water temperatures increase, the predominant algal
species may change from diatoms, to green algae, then, at
high temperatures, to blue-green algae because of species
temperature preferentials. Blue-green algae can cause
serious odor problems. The number and distribution of
benthic organisms decreases as water temperature increases
above 90°F, which is close to the tolerance limit for the
water's population. This could seriously affect certain
fish that depend on benthic organisms as a food source.
The cost of fish mortalities resulting from their returning
to cooler water after being attracted to heated waters in
winter may be considerable.
Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation of sludge gas, multiplication of saprophytic
bacteria and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic
wastes), and the consumption of oxygen by putrefactive
processes, thus affecting the aesthetic value of a water
course.
In general, marine water temperatures do not change as
rapidly or range as widely as those of fresh waters. Marine
and estuarine fishes, therefore, are less tolerant of
temperature variation. Although this limited tolerance is
greater in estuarine than in open water marine species,
temperature changes are more important to those fishes in
estuaries and bays than to those in open marine areas,
because of the nursery and replenishment functions of the
estuary that can be adversely affected by extreme
temperature changes.
Pollutants of Specific Significance
Review of RWL data indicates that the pollutants of special
significance to gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point
source category are: oil, phenol, total dissolved solids,
and zinc. Tables V-2 and V-3 contain RWL data for five of
the six subcategories (excluding the char and charcoal
briquet subcategory, which involves no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants).
Oil
Oil RWL data for the following subcategories reflect
relatively high concentrations. The following RWL data are
summarized:
78
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Oil
Subcategory Product RWL Concentration
mq/1
B Gum Turpentine and Rosin 441
D Tall Oil, Pitch, and Fatty
Acids 325
F Rosin Derivatives 356
The oil RWL consists mainly of oil of vegetable origin and
not petroleum-based free oil. Oils of vegetable origin of
significant concentrations have been reported as not being
inhibitory to biological treatment.
Phenol
The following are phenol RWL's which are found to be of
significance in this segment:
Phenol
Subcategory Product RWL Concentration
mg/1
D Tall Oil, Pitch,
and Fatty Acids 20.5
F Rosin Derivatives 61.5
Equalization of the wastewater before biological treatment
will minimize slug loads and the consequent inhibition of
the biological population. Acclimation with time should
also reduce the impact of the phenol concentrations in the
RWL.
Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved solids in gum and wood chemicals wastewaters vary
dramatically from one category tc another. The following is
a summary of TDS, SO4, and Cl data:
Subcategory. Product RWL Concentration
TDS SOU Cl
mq/1 mq/1 mq/1
B Gum Turpentine & Rosin 3,640 254 189
F Rosin Derivatives 7,480 12.9 178
79
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Metals
Metals such as zinc were found in the wastewaters from
Subcategories B and F. The following zinc RWL data are
summarized from Table VI-1.
Subcategory Product Zinc RWL Concentration
mg/1
B Gum Turpentine and Rosin 15.5
F Rosin Derivatives 6.80
The zinc in Subcategory F is attributed to catalyst losses,
but no such zinc catalyst is used in Subcategory B.
Consequently, it would appear that the presence of the zinc
in Subcategory B indicates a cross-contamination between the
gum turpentine and rosin derivative production areas within
one of the plants surveyed.
80
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SECTION VII
CONTEOL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Gen eral
The entire spectrum of wastewater control and treatment
technology is at the disposal of the gum and wood chemicals
segment. The selection of technology options depends on the
economics of that technology and the magnitude of the final
effluent concentration. Control and treatment technology
may be divided into two major groupings: in-plant pollution
abatement and end-of-pipe treatment.
After discussing the available performance data for each of
the subcategories covered under gum and wood chemicals,
conclusions will be made relative to the reduction of
various pollutants commensurate with the following distinct
technology levels:
I. Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available (BPT)
II. Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable (BAT)
III. Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology
(NSPS)
To assess the economic impact of these proposed effluent
limitations and guidelines on each of the industries, model
treatment systems have been proposed which are considered
capable of attaining the recommended RWL reduction. It
should be noted and understood that the particular systems
were chosen for use in the economic analysis and are not the
only systems capable of attaining the specified pollutant
reductions.
There are many possible combinations of in-plant and end-of-
pipe systems capable of attaining the effluent limitations,
guidelines and standards of performance suggested in this
report. For economic practicalities, and because of its
general applicability to all sufacategories, one treatment
model for the gum and wood chemicals segment is shown in
this text for each effluent level.
This study suggests that each individual plant make the
final decision about what specific combination of pollution
control measures is best suited to its situation in
81
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complying with the effluent limitations, guidelines and
standards presented in this report.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
In-piant Pollution Abatement
A significant amount of pollution abatement can be
accomplished by consistent adherence to good housekeeping
practices. The gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point
source category is characterized by relatively sophisticated
process eguipment which has been developed to maximize
product yield. The fact that a number of the plants
discharge to municipal treatment facilities has no doubt
also influenced both water usage and pollutant levels.
Water management and plant age are the two major factors to
be considered when discussing in-plant pollution abatement.
Generally, the manufacturers practice good water management.
However, instances of poor water management were observed,
with resulting high wastewater flows. Age of equipment
primarily has an impact on the cost-effectiveness of
modifying process equipment to minimize pollution or to
segregate storm and process wastewaters.
Since it is not possible, at the present time, to quantify
the effects of water management and equipment age, in
specific terms, these factors should be handled on a case by
case basis. This is particularly feasible in light of the
fact that less than five percent of the plants in the gum
and wood chemicals segment discharge to surface waters.
Some in-plant techniques that should be utilized to reduce
the raw waste flow internally are:
1. Segregate discharge lines to reduce the quantity of
wastewater to be treated. This includes separate
drainage systems for process water, sanitary wastewater,
non-contact water, and storm water. Replace old piping
and pumping systems with new ones.
2. Instead of simply filling and draining vessels and
lines, use a small controlled rinsing with subsequent
recycling of the rinse into the process. As pointed out
earlier in this document, careful control of washing
operations substantially reduces the RWL.
3. Where controlled rinsing of tanks is not practical,
manual squeegeeing of clingage before rinsing can be
practiced.
82
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Table VI I -1
Treatment Technology Survey
Type of Treatment or Disposal Facility
Physical/Chemical - Aerated Lagoon -
Oxidation Pond
Oil/Water Separation - Trickling
Filter - Oxidation Pond1
Lime Treatment (Odor Control) -
Evaporation Pond
To Municipal Treatment Plant -
No Pretreatment
To Municipal Treatment Plant -
Pretreatment includes equalization,
neutralization, and filtration
Wastewaters Drummed and Sent to
Industrial Landfill
No discharge of process wastewater pollutants
TOTAL
Plant No. of Plants
Code No. Observed
59
52
58
55
57
51
Trickling Filter was not operational during the field survey, nor
was performance data available for the historic period reported in
Table VIIB-3.
83 4/30/76
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4. Pipelines and pumping systems, where the rinse cannot be
reworked or recycled, may be blown out with an air or
inert gas to purge clingage in the final rinse.
5. Recirculate and reuse cleaning water and rinse water by
treating the water to remove solids. Implement recovery
systems for -by-products from the process stream. Good
recovery practices depend on segregated collection
systems, proper plant piping systems, good
housekeeping, and employee awareness.
End-of-Pipe Treatment
During the study, seven plants in the gum and wood chemicals
segment were visited and sampled and a summary of the
treatment technology observed is presented in Table VII-1.
Six other plants were surveyed via telephone and/or letters,
three of which were charcoal briquet plants that had
achieved no discharge. Plants 59 and 54 provide their own
wastewater treatment facilities, while Plants 58 and 55
discharge to municipal treatment plants after pretreatment.
A final plant had an EPA grant ongoing to study the effect
of carbon sorpticn treatment to naval stores aqueous waste.
Although in a draft state, this report is utilized to define
the BAT and NSPS treatment models. The report documents the
results of 3 years of research and development activities of
a manufacturer in this category in conjunction with the EPA
on advance waste treatment of wastewaters generated in this
manufacturing activity.
Biological Treatment
During the plant survey program, 24-hour composite samples
were obtained to verify historical performance data which
were made available by the plants. The results of the plant
survey data are presented in Table VII-2. Plant No. 59 had
experienced a shutdown before the plant visit resulting in
the measurement of abnormally high organic removals. Since
the initial survey was completed plant 54 has put into
operaton a biological treatment system that removes 95% BOD5_
from the raw waste streams.
The historical wastewater treatment plant performance data
obtained from Plants No. 59, 56 and 54 are presented in
Table VII-3. The amount of data used in the performance
evaluation is indicated in the Data Base column of Table
VII-3. Influent pollutant concentrations were not recorded
for Plant No. 59; therefore, it was not possible to quantify
its removal efficiency. The historical data reported for
Plant No. 54 was the design basis proposed in a consulting
86
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engineer* s report which was developed from bench scale
biological treatability studies. Plant 56 is an example of
an operational treatment system that is achieving 93% BOD
and 84% COD removal today.
Table VII-3 also contains design criteria proposed for two
plants producing tall oil by-products, which were summarized
from two other individual consulting engineers' reports.
The design criteria in these reports were also developed
from bench scale biological treatability studies simulating
aerated lagoon technology. Pilot plants A and B were not
visited during the field survey program; however, the
information is pertinent and was therefore included in this
plant evaluation phase. These data represent the levels of
pollution abatement that are obtainable from the gum and
wood chemicals manufacturing point source category.
The relative biodegradability of the wastewaters from Plants
No, 54, A and B were compared using a mathematical
formulation for BODji removal rate and loading ratios. 1 The
results of the comparison indicated that these three
wastewaters had relatively similar BOD5 removal rates and
therefore could be equitable compared in an evaluation of
exemplary treatment plants.
Based on the previous analysis and the performance data in
Table VII-3, it was concluded that Plants 54, 56 A and B are
exemplary in this segment and that the following average
reductions can be achieved by exemplary treatment plants:
COD removal
BOD5 removal
Effluent TSS
73 percent
90 percent
50 mg/1
1 Process Design Manual for Upgrading Existing Wastewater
Treatment Plants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
October 1974, pp. 5-22.
Biological Treatment Plant Effluent Filtration
Filtration of biological treatment plant effluent is one
method of providing supplemental removal of solids and
organic material. In addition, the use of polishing ponds
after biological treatment is a common method in the in-
dustrial wastewater treatment field for reducing effluent
pollutants.
87
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BODJ3 is reduced by filtration mostly by removing suspended
solids. Therefore, the percentage reduction of BOD5_ will be
significantly affected by the suspended solids level in the
treated effluent to be filtered.
The following analysis was developed to equitably quantify
the expected BODji reduction attributable to biological
treatment plant effluent filtration:
Plant No. 54 Calculated
Bilogical Treatment Filtration Effluent
Pollutant Effluent Design Data From Plant No. 54
(mg/1)
Total BODS 187 172
Soluble BODS 162 162
Suspended BODS 25 10
TSS 50 20
The data for previous biological treatment effluent are
taken from Table VII-3 and the consulting engineer's report
referred to therein. The calculated effluent concentrations
were determined by calculations based on 60 percent removal
of the TSS and the corresponding suspended BOD component,
resulting in an overall BODS reduction of 8 percent. This
60 percent removal factor is based on the contractor's
experience in filtration of industrial wastewaters at
typical effluent TSS levels under discussion and similar
studies completed in the petroleum refining and grain
milling point source categories.
A corresponding analysis was performed using COD data and
the results are shown below:
Calculated
Plant No. 54 Filtration Effluent
Pollutant(mg/l Survey Data From Plant No. 54
Total COD 590 510
Soluble COD 457 457
Suspended COD 133 53
Soluble COD data were not available to correspond to the
BOD5 values used in the previous analysis; therefore, survey
data from Table VII-2 were used. An overall COD reduction
of 13 percent or better are obtainable with the use of
effluent filtration based on the contractor's experience and
similar treatment models developed for the grain milling and
88
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petroleum refining point source categories. Dual-media
filtration can effectively reduce the suspended solids up to
80 percent of the influent concentration. Based on these
studies but because of transfer of technology, a more
conservative design basis of 50 percent should be chosen as
the achievable concentration for NSPS suspended solids
limitations.
In summary, it is expected that the application of effluent
filtration to biological treatment would result in the
following average reductions:
COD removal - 13 percent
BODS removal - 8 percent
Effluent TSS -25 mg/1
Carbon Adsorption
During the plant survey program, a sample of treatment plant
effluent from Plant No. 54 was evaluated by determination of
the carbon sorption isotherm. The results of the isotherm
are presented in Table VII-4. The maximum soluble COD
removal was 99 percent, which corresponds to an exhaustion
rate of 0.59 pounds COD/ pound carbon. During the naval
stores wastewater treatment purification and reuse by
activated carbon treatment study, overall reductions
obtained were:
Parameter % Removal
COD 95.5
TOC 96.9
BOD5. 95.4
S3 96.3
Oil and Grease 99.6
These values compare quite well with the carbon sorption
isotherm results at the other plant site.
BPT Treatment Systems
Biological treatment plant data was reviewed so that it
would be possible to quantify BPT reduction factors. These
factors, applied to standard raw waste load figures for each
subcategory, make it possible to generate recommended
effluent limitations and guidelines. The previous
discussions of biological treatment indicate that the
following pollutant reduction factors are consistent with
BPT treatment technology:
90
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Reduction Factors
Applied to Average BPT
Parameter RWL
BOD5> 90 percent
COD 73 percent
TSS 50 mg/1
^Controlling Parameter.
The BPT effluent discharge recommendations will be made for
BOD5, COD and TSS. The major source of TSS in biological
treatment plant effluents is biological solids generated in
the treatment plant. A properly operated activated sludge
treatment system followed by good clarification can achieve
a limit of less than 20 mg/1 but due to the limited data
base, the average value demonstrated to be achievable by the
exemplary plants, 50 mg/1, will form the basis of the
recommendation for TSS.
NSPS Treatment Systems
Based on the previous discussion of biological treatment
plant effluent filtration, the following equitable waste
reduction factors commensurate with NSPS treatment
technology have been developed:
Reduction Factors
Applied to BPT
Parameter Effluent Limitations
BCD1 8 percent
COD 13 percent
TSS 25 mg/1
Controlling Parameter.
BAT Treatment Systems
The quantity and quality of the data available for
establishing BAT reduction factors for the gum and wood
chemicals manufacturing point source category is sparse.
Data recently available from a draft of an EPA funded
demonstration grant by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory described above, has shown that carbon adsorption
pretreated by an equalization basis, flotation to remove oil
and grease and pH adjustment is able to remove significant
amounts of pollutants before entering the receiving waters.
Based on this study and carbon sorption isotherm test, BAT
technology has been developed.
91
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Reduction Factors
Applied to BPT
Parameter Effluent Limitation
BOD 70 percent
COD 70 percent
TSS 10 mg/1
To assess the economic impact of the proposed effluent
standards, a model biological treatment system was
developed. The end-of-pipe treatment model was designed
based on raw waste load (RWL) data for the gum and wood
chemicals category. The primary design parameter in BPT,
NSPS and BAT treatment models is BODJ5 removal.
The use of a biological treatment model is done to facili-
tate the economic analysis and is not to be inferred as the
only technology capable of meeting the effluent limitations,
guidelines and standards of performance presented in this
report.
92
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SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NONWATER QUALITY ASPECTS
General
Quantitative cost information for the suggested end-of-pipe
treatment models is presented in the following discussion
for the purpose of assessing the economic impact of the
proposed effluent limitations and guidelines. An economic
analysis of treatment cost impact will be available in a
separate document.
In order to evaluate the economic impact of treatment on a
uniform basis, end-of-pipe treatment models which will
provide the desired level of treatment were proposed for
each industrial subcategory. In-plant control measures have
not been evaluated because the cost, energy, and nonwater
quality aspects of in-plant controls are intimately related
to the specific processes for which they are developed.
Although there are general cost and energy requirements for
equipment items, these correlations are usually expressed in
terms of specific design parameters related to the
production rate and other specific considerations at a
particular production site.
In the manufacture of a single product there is a wide
variety of process plant sizes and unit operations. Many
detailed designs might be required to develop a meaningful
understanding of the economic impact of process
modifications. Such a development is really not necessary,
however, because the end-of-pipe models are capable of
attaining the recommended effluent limitations at the RWL1s
found to exist within the subcategories. A series of
designs for end-of-pipe treatment models has been provided.
These can be related directly to the range of influent
hydraulic and organic loadings. The costs associated with
these systems can be divided by the production rate for any
given subcategory to show the economic impact of the system
in terms of dollars per pound of product. The combination
of in-plant controls and end-of-pipe treatment used to
attain the effluent limiations guidelines presented in this
document should be a decision made by the individual plant
based upon economic considerations specific to that site.
The major nonwater quality consideration associated with in-
plant control measures is the means of ultimate disposal of
wastes. As the quantity of the process RWL is reduced,
alternative disposal techniques such as incineration.
93
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pyrolysis, evaporation, ocean discharge, and deep-well
injection become more feasible. Recent regulations tend to
limit the use of ocean discharge and deep-well injection
because of the potential long-term detrimental effects
associated with these disposal procedures. Incineration and
evaporation are viable alternatives for concentrated waste
streams. Considerations involving air pollution and
auxiliary fuel reguirements, depending on the heating value
of the waste, must be evaluated individually for each
situation.
Other nonwater quality aspects such as noise levels will not
be perceptibly affected by the proposed wastewater treatment
systems. Most chemical plants generate fairly high noise
levels. Equipment associated with in-plant and end-of-pipe
control systems would not add significantly to these noise
levels.
Extensive annual and capital cost estimates have been
prepared for the end-of-pipe treatment models for each
subcategory to help evaluate the economic impact of the
proposed effluent limitations and guidelines. The capital
costs were generated on a unit process basis (e.g.,
equalization, neutralization, etc.) and are reported in the
form of cost curves in Supplement A for all the proposed
treatment systems. The following percentage figures were
added on to the total unit process costs to develop the
total capital cost requirements:
Percent of Unit Process
Item Capital Cost
Electrical 14
Piping 20
Instrumentation 8
Site Work 6
Engineering Design and Construction
Surveillance Fees 15
Construction Contingency 15
Land costs were computed independently and added directly to
the total capital costs.
Annual costs were computed using the following cost basis:
Item Cost Allocation
Capital Recovery
plus Return 10 yrs at 10 percent
94
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Operations and
Maintenance
Energy and Power
Includes labor and supervision,
chemicals, sludge hauling and dis-
posal, insurance and taxes (computed
at 2 percent of the capital cost),
and maintenance (computed at 4 per-
cent of the capital cost).
Based on $0.02/kw hr for electrical
power and 170/gal for grade 11
furnace oil.
The 10-year period used for capital recovery is acceptable
under current Internal Revenue Service regulations
pertaining to industrial pollution control equipment.
The following is a gualitative as well as a quantitative
discussion of the possible effects that variations in
treatment technology or design criteria could have on the
total capital costs and annual costs.
Technology or Design Criteria
1. Use aerated lagoons and
sludge de-watering lagoons
in place of the proposed
treatment system.
2. Use earthen basins with
a plastic liner in place
of reinforced concrete con-
struction, and floating
aerators with permanent-
access walkways.
3. Place all treatment tankage
above grade to minimize
excavation, especially if
a pumping station is re-
quired in any case. Use
all-steel tankage to
minimize capital cost.
4. Minimize flows and maximize
concentrations through ex-
tensive in-plant recovery and
water conservation, so that
other treatment technologies,
e.g., incineration, may be
Capital
Cost Differential
The cost reduction
could be 20 to 40 per-
cent of the proposed
figures.
Cost reduction could
be 20 to 30 percent
of the total cost.
Cost savings would
depend on the in-
dividual situation.
Cost differential would
depend on a number of
items, e.g., age of
plant, accessibility
to process piping,
local air pollution
95
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economically competitive. standards, etc.
All cost data were computed in terms of August 1972 dollars,
which corresponds to an Engineering News Records (ENR) index
value of 1980.
This section provides guantitative cost information relative
to assessment of the economic impact of the proposed
effluent limitations and guidelines on the gum and wood
chemicals segment of the miscellaneous chemicals point
source category.
In order to evaluate the economic impact on a uniform
treatment basis, end-of-pipe treatment models were proposed
which will provide the desired level of treatment:
End-of-Pipe
Technology Level Treatment Model
BPT Activated Sludge.
NSPS Activated Sludge and Filtration.
BAT Activated Sludge, Filtration,
and Carbon Adsorption.
The combination of in-plant controls and end-of-pipe
treatment used to attain the effluent limitations and
guidelines is left up to the individual manufacturer to
choose on the basis of cost-effectiveness.
BPT Cost Model
To evaluate the economic effects of BPT effluent limitations
and guidelines it was necessary to formulate a BPT treatment
cost model, which is based on an activated sludge system.
The proposed model for subcategories C and D is shown in
Figure VIII-1 and for subcategories B, E and F is shown in
Figure VIII-1A. A summary of the general design basis used
to size the unit processes is presented in Table VIII-1.
The following is a brief discussion of the treatment
technology available and the rationale for selection of the
unit processes to be included in the BPT waste treatment
model.
As shown in Figure VIII-1 for sufccategories C and D, for
critical unit operations, two units are proposed in the
model. This is to ensure operating flexibility and
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reliability. Total wastewater flows are characteristically
low, generally less than 200,000 gpd. The parallel-train
design is not normally used for treatment plants in the very
low flow range because of economic considerations. For
subcategories B, E and Fr which have low flow, provision is
made for single treatment units with adequate holding
capacity. However, standby items should be provided for key
process functions.
The topography of a particular plant site will dictate
whether pumping is required. Equalization facilities are
provided to minimize short interval (hourly) fluctuations in
the organic loading to the treatment plant to absorb loads
from reactor cleanouts, accidental spills, and other heavy
loads, and to minimize the usage of neutralization
chemicals. Equalization will provide for continuous (seven
days per week) operation of the wastewater treatment
facilities even though the manufacturing facilities operate
only five days a week.
Since many wastewater streams are of low pH, neutralization
may be necessary. Alkaline neutralization is provided in
the form of hydrated lime storage and feed facilities for
subcategories C and D and in the form of caustic soda feed
for subcategories B, E and F. Since some of the
subcategories have high oil RWL concentrations, dissolved
air flotation was recommended for subcategories C and D.
An activated sludge process was selected for the biological
treatment portion of the system. However, many of the gum
and wood chemical plants are located in the southeastern
United States, where aerated lagoons could provide a viable
treatment alternative. However, to make the subsequent cost
estimates more broadly applicable, activated sludge was
selected.
The sludge handling scheme proposed in Figures VIII-1 and
VIII-1A were developed to handle anticipated small
quantities of sludge. The aerobic digester will provide a
nonputrescible sludge which can be thickened and stored
before being trucked for either land spreading or to a
regional treatment facility for dewatering.
BAT Cost Model
For the purpose of the economic evaluation of BAT it was
necessary to formulate BAT waste treatment models, which are
presented in Figures VIII-2 and VIII-2A. The model for
subcategories C and D includes dual-media filtration
followed by carbon adsorption of the BPT biological treat-
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ment plant effluent. The BAT model for the subcategories B,
E and F consist of BPT treatment with addition of dual-media
filtration and addition of powdered carbon to the aeration
basin. A summary of the general design tasis used to size
the unit processes is presented in Table VIII-2.
Dual-media filtration was selected for the BAT treatment
model to reduce suspended solids in the biological effluent
and to protect the carbon columns. The pulsed bed upflow
carbon system was selected for subcategories C and D to
minimize capital investment for a system with a relatively
high carbon exhaustion rate compared to the carbon column
inventory.
The BAT waste treatment model in Figures VIII-2 and VIII-2A
show the exhausted carbon being hauled to a sanitary
landfill. This is because the amount of carbon exhausted
per day is generally less than 500 pounds/day, which is
considered below the break-even point for on-site carbon re-
generation. Regeneration by the carbon supplier on a fee
basis will reduce this cost and the costs presented are
therefore quite conservative.
NSPS Cost Model
The evaluation of the economic effects of the NSPS effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
necessitated the formulation of a treatment model using a
dual-media filtration treatment system. A summary of the
general design basis and proposed model is presented in the
previous discussion on BAT treatment systems.
Cost
Capital and annual cost estimates were prepared for these
end-of-pipe treatment models for five of the six
subcategories. Subcategory A has a no discharge of process
wastewater pollutants limitation and therefore end-of-pipe
treatment was not applicable. The prepared cost estimates
are presented in Tables VIII-3 through VIII-7. The detailed
cost breakdown by unit processes are included in the
supporting cost document (Supplement A).
The costs presented in these tables are incremental costs
for achieving each technology level. For example, in Table
VIII-4, the total capital cost for biological treatment to
attain BPT effluent limitations and guidelines is shown to
be $1,390,000 for a plant producing 114,000 Ibs/day of wood
turpentine and rosin. The BPT effluent limitations in Table
VIII-4 were determined using the reduction factors presented
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Table VI I I -1
BPCTCA Treatment System Design Summary
Subcategory Treatment System Hydraulic Loading
(Capacities covered, in gpd)
B 3,020
C 130,000
D 133,000,
E 7,960
F 2,330
Pump Stat ion
Pumping Station is provided for subcategories C and D only. Capacity to
handle 200 percent of the average daily flow. Stand-by capability included,
with minimum pump motor of 1/4 hp.
Equalizat ion
One day detention time is provided for subcategories B,C and F. Two days
are provided for subcategory E. Three days are provided for subcategory D.
The basins are not provided with mixers to prevent oil and grease emulsi-
fication. For subcategories B,E, and F baffles and manually oil skimming
are provided.
Neutralization
The two-stage neutralization basin for subcategory D is sized on the basis
of a minimum detention time of 30 minutes. The lime-handling facilities
are sized to provide 1,000 Ibs of hydrated lime per MGD of wastewater for
pH adjustment as needed in subcategory D. For subcategories B,E, and F,
caustic soda addition from a carboy directly into the pipe line from
the Equalization Basin is provided. Subcategory C requires no adjustment.
Bag storage is provided for all plants. Lime/caustic addition is controlled
by pH probes. In case of subcategory D, the lime slurry is added to the
neutralization basin from a lime slurry recircu1ation loop. The lime-
handling facilities are enclosed in a building.
Ai r Flotation
The air flotation units recommended for subcategories C and D are designed
for oil and grease removal. They are sized on a rise rate of 1.5 gpm/ft^
including recycle of 75 percent with a minimum 40 minute detention time.
Air is provided for the units at a rate of 1.5 scf per 100 gallon recycle
at 50 psig.
Equalized flow is 5,680 gpd.
104 4/30/76
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Table VIII -1
(continued)
Nutrient Addition
Facilities are provided for the addition of phosphoric
acid and aqua ammonia for subcategories C and D and
additional phosphate for subcategories B, E and F to the
biological system in order to maintain the ratio of BOD:N:P
at 100:5:1.
Aeration Basin
Platform-mounted mechanical aerators are provided in the
aeration basin. In addition, walkways are provided to all
aerators for access and maintenance. The following data were
used in sizing the aerators:
Energy oxygen
Endogenous oxygen
Field Oxygen Transfer
0.8 Ib 02/lb BOD removal
6 Ib 02/hr 1,000 Ib MLVSS
2.0 Ib 02/hp-hr
Oxygen is monitored in the basins using D.O probes. All
aeration basins are sized using kinetics developed from
treatability data for plants 2, A, B (see Table VII-3).
Secondary Clarifiers
All secondary clarifiers are rectangular units with a
length-to width ratio of 4 to 1. The overflow rate varies
between 40 and 400 gpd/sq. ft. depending on plant size.
Sludge recycle pumps are sized to deliver 100 percent of
the average flow.
Aerobic Digester
The aerobic digester is sized on the basis of a hydraulic
detention time of 20 days. The sizing of the aerator-mixers
is based on 165 hp per million gallons of digester volume.
Sludge Holding Tank - Thickener
A sludge-holding tank is provided for all plants, with
sufficient capacity to hold 7 days flow from the aerobic
digester. Facilities are included for discharge to tank
trucks for hauling and disposal.
105
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Table VI I I -2
BATEA End-of-Pipe Treatment System Design Summary
Subcateqory Treatment System Hydraulic Loading
(capacities covered, in gpd)
B 3,020
C 130,000
D 133,000
E 7,960'
F 2,330
Dual Media Filtration
The filters are sized on the basis of an average hydraulic loading of
2 gpm/sq. ft. Backwash facilities are sized to provide rates up to 20 gpm/
sq. ft. and for a total backwash cycle of up to 20 minutes in duration.
The filter media are 2k" of coal (1mm effective size) and 12" of sand
(0.4-0.5 mm effective size).
Subcateqories C and D
Granular Carbon Columns
The carbon columns are sized on a hydraulic loading of k gpm/sq. ft. and a
column detention time of 40 minutes. A backwash rate of 20 gpm/sq. ft. was
assumed for kQ percent bed expansion at 70°F.
Backwash Holding Tank
Tankage is provided to hold the backwash water and decant it back to the
treatment plant over a 24-hour period. This will eliminate hydraulic
surging to the treatment units.
Vjrgin/Exhausted Carbon Storage
Tankage is provided to handle the virgin and exhausted carbon. A carbon
exhaustion capacity of 0.6 Ibs. COD/lb. carbon was used for design. The
quantities of carbon exhausted based on the previous exhaustion capacity
are not sufficiently large enough to warrant the investment in a re-
generation furnace. For this reason the exhausted carbon is disposed of
in a sanitary landfill as indicated in Figure VIIB-2.
Subcateqories B.E. and F
Powdered Carbon
Powdered carbon addition directly into the aeration basin is provided for
the subcategories B,E, and F. One day capacity hopper for powdered carbon,
helix volumetric feeder, and vortex eductor are provided.
A building to house carbon feed facilities and to store powdered carbon
bags is provided. The carbon will be recycled and wasted along with the
biological sludge.
Equalized flow is 5,680 gpd.
106 4/30/76
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Wastewater Treatment Costs
BPCTCA, BADCT and BATEA Effluent L
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Tall Oil Fractionat ion - Subcate
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in Section VII. The incremental capital costs for achieving
the recommended NSPS effluent limitation is shown in Table
VIII-4 to be $135,000. This cost would be in addition to
the capital investment made to achieve the BPT effluent
limitations and guidelines. In contrast, the incremental
cost for achieving the BAT COD effluent limitation would be
$403,000.
A discussion of the possible effects that variations in
treatment technology or design criteria could have on
capital and annual costs is presented in the General
section.
Energy
The size ranges of the BPT and BAT treatment models preclude
the application of some high-energy-using unit processes
such as sludge incineration and carbon regeneration.
Therefore, the overall impact on energy consumption for
model waste treatment systems should be minimal; estimated
6.8 and 7.4% energy consumed by gum and wood chemical plants
54 and 59, respectively. Tables VIII-3 through VIII-7
present the cost for energy and power, for each treatment
model for BPT, BAT, and NSPS. The details for energy and
power reguirements are included in the supporting cost
appendix document (Supplement A). Telephone discussions
with managers for plants No. 54 and 59 indicate that the
power to operate wastewater treatment facilities for these
plants is in the range of 7.9 to 10 percent of the total
power reguired for the manufacturing operations.
Liquid waste incineration is a viatle alternative for
concentrated waste streams. The heating value of the
particular waste dictates the auxiliary fuel reguirement and
thus these energy considerations must te evaluated on an
individual basis.
Non-water Quality Aspects
The major non-water quality aspects of the proposed effluent
limitations, guidelines and new source performance standards
are ultimate sludge disposal and noise and air pollution.
The BPT treatment model process
the digested biological sludge.
this disposal method will not
nuisance conditions. However,
diversity of opinion over the
crop toxicity and in the food
nitrate contamination of the
includes land spreading of
If practiced correctly,
create health hazards or
there is a widespread
effects of heavy metals on
chain, and the possible
ground water. Carefully
112
-------
controlled sludge application should minimize these problems
as well as the potential zinc problem. The following are
summaries of the biological sludge and exhausted carbon
residue from the proposed BPT and BAT treatment facilities:
Subcategory
B
C
D
E
F
Biological
Sludge Quantity
(gallons/day)*
430
1,910
1,820
140
760
Carbon
Residue
Combined
Sludge
(cu yd/year) z (gals/day)
249
28
1190
318
1,780
1Based on a 2 percent solids concentration.
2Dry weight basis.
Noise levels will not be appreciably affected with the
implementation of the proposed treatment models. Air
pollution should only be a consideration if liquid
incineration were selected as the waste disposal
alternative.
113
-------
SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE (BPT)
General
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by all plants
by 1 July, 1977 through the application of the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) are
based upon an average of the best performance achievements
of existing exemplary plants. BPT effluent limitations and
guidelines are based on level of technology of the exemplary
treatment plants observed during the gum and wood chemicals
field survey and reported pilot plant studies.
The development of the BPT has been based on both in-plant
and end-of-pipe technology for each industrial subcategory.
The effluent limitations and guidelines commensurate with
the BPT have been established for each industrial
subcategory on the basis of information in Sections III
through VIII of this report, and are presented in the
following sections. It has been shown that these
limitations can be attained through the application of BPT
pollution control technology. The approach taken in the gum
and wood chemicals segment is described in the following
section.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Strategy for Development of BPT Effluent Limitations
Guidelines
The effluent limitations and guidelines for BPT were
developed by steps, starting from the process raw waste
loads (RWL) .
As previously discussed in Section IV, Subcategory A
(production of char and charcoal briguets via carbonization
of hardwood and softwood) is a net water consumer and
discharges no process wastewaters. Raw materials and
intermediate char and charcoal briquets are handled in a dry
form. The char is brittle and disintegrates with handling,
thus generating excessive fines and creating fugitive dust
problems in the production area. This problem can be
mitigated by utilizing buggies for material transport. Any
materials outside of the production specification range can
be reworked or disposed of in dry form. Therefore, no
115
-------
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ul CO
O C
116
-------
discharge of process wastewater pollutants is consistent
with BPT for this subcategory.
For the other five subcategories, the process RWL is a
production-based ratio relating specific pollutants to
production quantities. During the field sampling program,
process RWL's were developed for the five subcategories by
sampling contact process wastewaters wherever possible.
Where it was not feasible to sample a segregated, process
wastewater stream (e.g., Subcategory D), the total process
discharge was sampled but the RWL flow was determined by
subtracting the uncontaminated cooling water and steam
condensate contribution from the total process discharge.
There were also instances where the data obtained for RWL
flow was not considered representative of the process. For
example, in Subcategory F, Plant No. 57 has the operating
practice of venting an aqueous waste stream to the
atmosphere in a vapor phase. It was determined that normal
manufacturing practice is to condense such steam vapor;
therefore, this stream was included in the RWL flow for that
plant, since the stream contacted small quantities of
entrained material and non-condensible hydrocarbons.
Single RWL values were established in each category for all
pertinent pollutants; historic data on raw waste loads was
only available at Plant No. 55, Subcategory B, and Plant No.
55, Subcategory F. All other data was derived from the
field sampling survey conducted by the contractor. These
data are indicative of the variations in raw waste load
which may exist for a single process at a particular plant
or between different manufacturers operating the same
process. For example, this variation in RWL's was observed
between Plants No. 55 and No. 52 in Sufccateqory B and is
discussed in Section V.
The single set of values assigned to each process was
designed as the RWL which can be obtained through the
application of in-plant pollution control practices which
are commensurate with BPT. Briefly, the process
modifications considered consistent with BPT include the
following:
1. The recycle of still condensate for raw material
wash water as illustrated in Plant No. 55,
Subcategory B.
2. The on-site treatment and recycle of raw material
wash water as demonstrated in Subcategory c.
117
-------
3. The direct recycle of immiscible solvents as an
absorbent of non-condensible hydrocarbons as
demonstrated in Plant No. 55, Subcategory F.
4. The recycle of water used in barometric condensers
as demonstrated in Subcategory D.
End-of-pipe treatment technologies commensurate with BPT are
based on the utilization of biological treatment, including
activated sludge or aerated lagoons with clarification of
the lagoon effluent. These end-of-pipe systems may include
additional treatment operations such as equalization,
neutralization, dissolved air flotation for subcategories C
and D for the separation of insoluble hydrocarbons, or
nutrient addition.
Although biological systems are considered to be generally
applicable to the waste generated by this segment, it should
be noted that only two such systems were observed during the
study. The performance data for these two systems are
presented in Table VII-2. The effluent from Plant No. 59,
while producing a high-guality effluent, was considered
atypical because the plant was operating at low levels of
production for approximately two weeks prior to the plant
survey. Plant 56 employed dissolved air flotation followed
by an aerated lagoon. This plant obtained 93% and 84% BOD5_
and COD reduction respectively.
The design criteria for the proposed biological treatment
models were developed from bench scale biological
treatability studies on wastewaters from a wood naval stores
production operation and two tall oil by-product production
facilities, as discussed in Section VIIB of this document.
It should be noted that metal catalyst may in some cases be
used in the production of rosin-based derivatives, and that
the process wastewaters may contain sufficient levels of
metal to be toxic or inhibitory to a biological system.
However, if specific manufacturing processes employing such
catalysts discharges wastewaters combined with wastewaters
from processes not employing metal catalysts, the resulting
toxicity of the total wastewater may be reduced to non-
inhibitory levels for biological treatment. If this is not
the case, BPT does not preclude the use of in-process
pretreatment prior to discharge to biological facilities, or
physical/chemical processes to remove the toxic metals from
the process wastewaters.
Effluent Reduction Obtainable Through Application of BPT
Based on the information contained in Sections IV and VII of
this document, a determination has been made of the degree
118
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of effluent reduction obtainable via BPT, which is presented
in Table IX-1. Although the effluent limitations and
guidelines for BPT may be obtained by whatever combination
of in-plant and end-of-pipe means is best suited to the
individual manufacturer, the numerical values for the
effluent limitations and guidelines were calculated through
application of waste reduction factors based on the use of
end-of-pipe biological treatment systems. The waste
reduction factors used for calculating the BPT effluent
limitations and guidelines for BOD are:
BOD5 - 90 percent
These factors are based on the performance of biological
treatment systems described in Section VII - Control and
Treatment Technologies.
It is noted that BOD5 is listed as a control parameter in
this recommendation for limitations. The data used to
evaluate the operation of the exemplary system cited as a
basis for these recommendations is based in large measure on
the reductions of COD obtained by use of the model
technology. Since COD may be used by operators to control
treatment plants it is suggested that 13% be listed as the
long term reduction efficiency based on demonstrated
treatment systems.
119
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SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
General
The effluent limitations and guidelines to be achieved by
all plants by July 1, 1983 through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) are
based upon the very best control and treatment technology
employed by the existing exemplary plants in each industrial
subcategory. In those industrial subcategories where this
level of control and treatment technology was found
inadequate for the purpose of defining BAT, control and
treatment technologies transferable from other industries or
technology demonstrated in pilot plant studies were
employed.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Treatment commensurate with BAT requires the application of
activated carbon adsorption and filtration to the biological
treatment system described for BPT, or the use of second-
stage biological treatment in series with the BPT. The
specific choice of waste treatment systems should depend on
the specific process, or group of processes, in operation at
any given facility.
The performance of these systems has been discussed in
Section VIII - Control and Treatment Technologies.
Incremental waste reduction associated with these
technologies for BOD5 and COD parameters are:
COD - 70 percent reduction (BAT effluent is 30
percent of achievable demonstrated performance
treatment systems)
BOD5 - 70 percent reduction (BAT effluent is 30
percent of a BPT effluent)
Effluent limitations and guidelines for BAT were calculated
by applying the above reduction factors to average effluent
for BPT shown in Table IX-1 for subcategories B through F.
BAT effluent limitations and guidelines for subcategory A
are no discharge of process wastewater pollutants.
The effluent limitations and guidelines for BAT are
presented in Table X-1. Again, it must be understood that
the BODS and COD values as presented are average daily
121
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
General
The term "new source" is defined in the "Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972" to mean "any
source, the construction of which is commenced after the
publication of proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance". Technology applicable to new sources shall
be the Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology
(NSPS), defined by a determination of what higher levels of
pollution control can be attained through the use of
improved production process and/or wastewater treatment
techniques. Thus, in addition to considering the best in-
plant and end-of-pipe control technology, new source
performance standards (NSPS) are to be based upon an
analysis of how the level of effluent may be reduced by
changing the production process itself.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology (NSPS) is
based upon the utilization of both in-plant controls and
end-of-pipe process treatment technologies, which include
biological treatment as proposed for BPT and removal of
additional total suspended solids via effluent filtration.
The reduction in BODS and COD parameters via the filtration
of BPT effluent is as follows:
BOD5 - 8 percent reduction of BPT effluent
COD - 13 percent reduction of BPT effluent
The suspended solids limitation should be 25 mg/1, which
will be applied to the effluent from the entire treatment
facility.
NSPS effluent limitations and guidelines for subcategory A
are no discharge of process wastewater pollutants.
Table XI-1 indicates NSPS effluent limitations and
guidelines for the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing
point source category for Subcategories B through F. As
with BPT and BAT, the values shown for the average NSPS ef-
fluent should not be directly applied until they are
adjusted, as presented in Table XI-1, for variation in
treatment plant performance as provided in Section XIII,
Performance Factors in Treatment Plant Operations.
125
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126
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SECTION XII
PRETREATMENT STANDARDS
General
Pollutants from specific processes within the gum and wood
chemical manufacturing point source category may interfere
with, pass through, or otherwise be incompatible with
publicly owned treatment works (municipal system). The
following sections examine the general wastewater
characteristics and the pretreatment unit operations which
may be applicable to the gum and wood chemicals
manufacturing point source category.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
A review of the wastewater characteristics reveals that the
process wastewaters contain high concentrations of soluble
oxygen-demanding materials, and are generally acidic and
deficient in the nutrients phosphorous and nitrogen.
Significant concentrations of zinc were noted during the
survey in Subcategories B and F. The zinc metal in
Subcategory F was attributed to losses of process catalyst.
Contamination of gum distillation wastewaters with process
wastewaters from Subcategory F process is the suspected
source of zinc in Subcategory B wastewaters.
Oil and grease (from vegetable sources) was found in
wastewaters from Subcategories B, D and F. These oils are
not hazardous and generally considered more biodegradable
than oils from petroleum sources. However, separable oils
should be removed from the process wastewaters by pre-
treatment prior to discharge to public sewers in order to
minimize fouling problems in the sewer. This pretreatment
would be of a type to prevent excessive oil and grease
discharges to POTW's. A simple weir skimmer should suffice
and essentially no cost is involved since existing
collection systems can be fitted with skimmer weirs and the
oil removed periodically. Proper operation and employee
instruction should prevent any significant problems.
The scope of this study did not allow for a specific
toxicity evaluation of individual product wastewaters.
However, the completeness of the RWL analytical data did
provide a wastewater profile which could be used to evaluate
possible biological inhibition. Such evaluations must bring
into account the dilution effect of domestic wastewaters
when considering concentrations of possible inhibiting
127
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materials. Domestic wastewaters should also provide
sufficient nitrogen and phosphorus to improve the
treatability characteristics of the process wastes. Because
this manufacturer's wastewaters contain high levels of
soluble oxygen demand in relatively small discharge flows,
it will be necessary that the sewage treatment facility have
sufficient oxygen transfer and solids handling and disposal
capacity to adequately treat wastewaters. If such capacity
cannot be made available at the public system, biological
pretreatment facilities must be provided by manufacturers to
reduce the oxygen demand content of the process wastewaters
to acceptable levels before discharge to the public sewers.
In all cases, the manufacturers should provide sufficient
equalization and neutralization of wastewaters to prevent
discharge loadings which could cause adverse impact on the
performance of the municipal system. Table XII-1 shows
possible unit operations which may be required for
pretreatment of gum and wood chemicals wastewaters.
129
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SECTION XIII
PERFORMANCE FACTORS FOR TREATMENT
PLANT OPERATIONS
General
In the past, effluent requirements have been issued by
regulatory agencies without stated concern for uniform
expression. Some agencies have issued regulations without
definition of time interval or without stipulation of the
type of the sample (grab or composite). This has caused
difficulties in determining whether a particular plant was
in violation. To overcome that situation, daily historical
data were reviewed, when available, from several biological
treatment plants.
Items such as spills, startup, shutdown, climatic
conditions, storm runoff, flow variation and treatment plant
inhibition may affect the operation of treatment plant
performances.
Some factors that bring about variations in treatment plant
performance can be minimized through proper dosing and
operation. Some of the controllable causes of variability
and techniques that can be used to minimize their effect are
explained below.
Spills of certain materials in the plant can cause a heavy
loading on the treatment system for a short period of time.
A spill may not only cause higher effluent levels as it goes
through the system, but may inhibit a biological treatment
system and therefore have longer term effects. Equalization
helps to lessen the effects of spills. However, long term
reliable control can only be attained by an aggressive spill
prevention and maintenance program including training of
operating personnel. Industrial associations such as the
Manufacturing Chemists Association (MCA) have developed
guidelines for prevention, control and reporting of spills.
These note how to assess the potential of spill occurrence
and how to prevent spills. Each industrial organic chemical
plant should be aware of the MCA report and institute a
program of spill prevention using the principles described
in the report. If every plant were to use such guidelines
as part of plant waste management control programs, its raw
waste load and effluent variations would be decreased.
131
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Startup and shutdown periods should be reduced to a minimum
and their effect dampened through the use of equalization
facilities and by proper scheduling of manufacturing cycles.
The design and choice of type of a treatment system should
be based on the climate at the plant location so that this
effect can be minimized. Where there are severe seasonal
climatic conditions, the treatment system should be designed
and sufficient operational flexibility should be available
so that the system can function effectively.
Chemicals likely to inhibit the treatment processes should
be identified and prudent measures taken to see that they do
not enter the wastewater in concentrations that may result
in treatment process inhibitions. Such measures include the
diking of a chemical use area to contain spills and
contaminated wash water, using dry instead of wet clean-up
of equipment, and changing to non-inhibiting chemicals.
The impact of process upsets and raw waste variations can be
reduced by properly sized equalization units. Equalization
is a retention of the wastes in a suitably designed and
operated holding system to average out the influent before
allowing it to enter the treatment system.
Storm water holding or diversion facilities should be
designed on the basis of rainfall history and area being
drained. The collected storm runoff can be drawn off at a
constant rate to the treatment system. The volume of this
contaminated storm runoff should be minimized through
segregation and the prevention of contamination. Storm
runoff from outside the plant area, as well as
uncontaminated runoff, should be diverted around the plant
or contaminated area.
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Biological Wastewater Treatment
Only two wastewater treatment plants which employ biological
treatment were surveyed during the gum and wood chemicals
study. Neither of these plants had sufficient historic data
to perform a statistical analysis to determine performance
factors for treatment plant operation.
Petroleum refining manufacturing systems closely resemble
the gum and wood chemicals manufacturing plants in that both
employ continuous or batch continuous distillation
operations in dedicated equipment on hydrocarbon based
materials. Organic load variability on end-of-pipe
132
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treatment facilities for these two segments are, therefore
anticipated to be closely related.
The performance factors for petroleum refining point source
category have been published by EPA1 as follows:
Performance Factor Performance Factor
Level of Effluent for Maximum Monthly for Maximum Daily
Treatment Parameter Effluent Value Effluent Value
BPT BOD5 1.7 3.2
COD 1.6 3.1
TSS * 2.9
BAT BOD.5 1.7 2.1
COD 1.6 2.0
TSS * 2.0
NSPS BODJ5 1.7 2.1
COD 1.6 2.0
TSS --* 2.0
* Based on short term actual performance of exemplary
systems in gum and wood chemicals.
The proper performance factors were applied to long-term
average daily BPT effluent limitations in order to generate
effluent limitations and guidelines based on the maximum
average of daily values for thirty consecutive days and the
maximum for any one day as presented in Sections II, IX, X,
and XI of this document.
The applicability of this established treatment plant
performance variability data for petroleum refining to the
gum and wood chemicals manufacturing point source category
will be further substantiated as additional plant
performance data become available.
Activated Carbon Wastewater Treatment
During the survey of the gum and wood chemicals
manufacturing point source category, no plant employed
activated carbon after biological treatment. Consequently,
no long-term performance data were available for this
process. As a result, the performance factors developed for
BAT and NSPS for petroleum refining were applied to BAT and
NSPS effluent limitations and guidelines. The effluent
limitations and guidelines based on maximum average of daily
values for thirty consecutive days and maximum for any one
day in Tables X-1 and XI-1 were similarly calculated from
133
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SECTION XIV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared by the Environmental Protection
Agency on the basis of a comprehensive study of this
manufacturing segment performed by Roy F. Weston, Inc.,
under contract No. 68-01-2932. The original study was
conducted and prepared for the Environmental Protection
Agency under the direction of Project Director James H.
Dougherty, P.E., and Technical Project Manager Jitendra R.
Ghia, P.E. The following individual members of the staff of
Roy F. Weston, Inc.r made significant contributions to the
overall effort:
C. Mangan P.J. Marks
J. McGovern K. K. Wahl
T.E. Taylor W. D. Sitman
K.M. Peil
The original RFW study and this EPA revision were conducted
under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Joseph S. Vitalis,
Project Officer, assisted by Mr. George Jett, Assistant
Project Officer.
Overall guidance and excellent assistance was provided the
Project Officer by his associates in the Effluent Guidelines
Division, particularly Messrs. Allen Cywin, Director, Ernst
P. Hall, Deputy Director, Walter J. Hunt, Branch Chief, and
Dr. W. Lamar Miller. Special acknowledgement is also made
of others in the Effluent Guidelines Division: Messrs. John
Nardella, Martin Halper, David Becker, Bruno Maier and Dr.
Chester Rhines for their helpful suggestions and timely
comments. EGDB project personnel also wishes to acknowledge
the assistance of the personnel at the Environmental
Protection Agency's regional centers, who helped identify
those plants achieving effective waste treatment, and whose
efforts provided much of the research necessary for the
treatment technology review. A special thanks is extended
to Dr. Raymond Loehr for his assistance and guidance
throughout the project.
Appreciation is extended to Mr. James Rodgers of the EPA
Office of General Counsel for his invaluable input.
In addition Effluent Guidelines Development Branch would
like to extend its gratitude to the following individuals
for the significant input into the development of this
document while serving as members of the EPA working
135
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group/steerinq committee which provided detailed review,
advice, and assistance:
W. Hunt, Chairman, Effluent Guidelines Division
L. Miller, Effluent Guidelines Division
J. Vitalis, Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
G. Jett, Asst. Project officer. Effluent Guidelines Div.
J. Ciancia, NERC, Edison, N.J.
H. Skovrenek, NERC, Edison, N.J.
M. Strier, Office of Enforcement
D. Davis, Office of Planning and Evaluation
P. Desrosiers, office of Research and Development
R. Swank, SERL, Athens, Georgia
E. Krabbe, Region II
L. Reading, Region VII
E. Struzeski, NEIC, Denver, Colorado
EGDB would also like to acknowledge the Pulp Chemicals
Association for providing valuable information on tall oil
manufacture, and the personnel of selected plants of the gum
and wood chemicals manufacturing point source category for
their help in the collection of data relating to process RWL
and treatment plant performance. Acknowledgment is also
extended to the Charcoal Briquet Institute who supplied
valuable information for that segment of the study.
The cooperation of the individual gum and wood chemicals
companies who offered their facilties for survey and
contributed pertinent data is gratefully appreciated.
Alphabetically, the companies were:
1. Charlite-Briquets
2. Crosby Chemicals
3. George C. Brcwne & company
H. K.S. Varne & Company
5. Reichhold Chemical Corporation
6. Tenneco Chemical Company
7. Union Camp Corporation
Manufacturing representatives playing significant parts in
the success of this study were:
R.C. Crosby (2) W.O. Rails, Jr. (7)
I. Foster (1) S. Senzeneau (6)
B.C. Kendall (3) K.S. Varn, Sr. (4)
J.P. Krumbein (5)
Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to Ms. Kay
Starr and Ms. Nancy Zrubek for invaluable support in
coordinating the preparation and reproduction of this
136
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report, to Mr. Eric Yunker, Ms. Alice Thompson, Ms.
Ernestine Christian, Ms. Laura Cammarota and Ms. Carol Swann
of the Effluent Guidelines Division secretarial staff for
their efforts in the typing of drafts, necessary revision,
and final preparation of the revised Effluent Guidelines
Division development document.
137
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SECTION XV
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gum and wood Chemicals
1. Biological and Chemical Treatability Studies of an
Emulsified Chemical Wastewater for Tenneco
Chemicals, Inc., Newport Division, Oakdale,
Louisiana; Associated Water and Air Resources
Engineers, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee, October
1971.
2. Biological Treatability of the Effluent from an
Existing Physical-Chemical Treatment System for an
Emulsified Chemical wastewater for Reichhold
Chemicals, Inc, Pensacola, Florida (Oakdale,
Louisiana plant); Associated Water and Air
Resources Engineers, Inc., Nashville, Tennesee,
June 1974.
3. Biological T r e a ta b ili t y of Wastewater from the
Production of Naval Stores for Reichhold Chemicals,
Inc., Pensacola, Florida (Telogia, Florida);
Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc.,
Nashville, Tennessee, June 1974.
4. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd Edition,
Kirk-Othmer, Interscience Publishers Division, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., Vol. 4, 1965.
5. Gardner, Frank H., Jr. and A.R. Williamson; Naval
Stores Wastewater Purification and Reuse by
Activated Carbon Treatment, Draft report; Grant No.
S-80 1431, for EPA, Herbert Skovronek, Industrial
Environment Research Laboratory, Edison, New Jersey
08817, October 1975.
6. Kent, J.A., ed. Riegel's Handbood of Industrial
Chemistry, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York, 1962.
7. Publicity Committee (Zachary, I.G., et al.) "Tall
Oil and its Uses," Tall Oil Products Division, Pulp
Chemicals Association, F.W. Dodge Company, New
York, 1965.
139
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8. Revised Treatment Design for a Tall Oil Waste for
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc., Newport Division, Bay
Minette, Alabama; Associated Water and Air
Resources Engineers, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee,
June 1973.
9. Shreve, R.N., Chemical Process Industries, Third
Edition McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967.
10. Supplement A j& B - Detailed Record of Data Base for
"Development Document for Interim Final Effluent
Limitations, Guidelines and Standards of
Performance for the Gum and Wood Chemicals
Manufacturing Point Source Category", U.S. EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460, April 1976.
11. Treatment and Disposal of complex Industrial Wastes
by C. Schimmel and D. Griffin, a draft report for
Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
20460, June 1975.
12. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures,
1972; Industry Series 1; Industrial Organic
Chemicals, MC72(2) - 28F; U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 1974.
13. U.S. Bureau of Census, Census of Manufactures,
12-6-Zi Water Use in Manufacturing, MC67(1) - 7; U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1971.
14. U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Miscellaneous Chemicals Industry, Prepared by Roy
F. Weston, Inc. for Effluent Guidelines Division,
Washington, D.C. 20460; February 1975.
15. "Development Document for Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for
Petroleum Refining Point Source Category, Issued
April, 1974, EPA - 440174-014-A, EPA, Washington,
D.C. 20460.
References
GR-1 AICHE Environmental Division; "Industrial Process
Design for Pollution Control," Volume 4; October,
1971.
140
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GR-2 Allen, E.E.; "How to Combat Control Valve Noise,"
Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 71, No. 8;
August, 1975; pp. 43-55.
GR-3 American Public Health Association; Standard
Methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water,
13th Edition; APHA, Washington, D.C. 20036; 1971.
GR-4 Barnard, J.L.; "Treatment Cost Relationships for
Industrial Waste Treatment," Ph.D. Dissertation,
Vanderbilt University; 1971.
GR-5 Bennett, H., editor; Concise Chemical and Technical
Dictionary; F.A.I.C. Chemical Publishing Company,
Inc., New York, New York; 1962.
GR-6 Blecker, H.G., and Cadman, T.W.; Capital and
Operating Costs of Pollution Control Equipment
Modules, Volume I. - User Guide; EPA-R5-73-023a; EPA
Office of Research and Development, Washington,
D.C. 20460; July 1973.
GR-7 Blecker, H.G. , and Nichols, T.M.; Capital and
Operating Costs of Pollution Control Equipment
Modules, Volume II - Data Manual; EPA-R5-73-023b;
EPA Office of Research and Development, Washington,
D.C. 20460; July, 1973.
GR-8 Bruce, R.D., and Werchan, R.E.; "Noise Control in
the Petroleum and Chemical Industries," Chemical
Engineering Progress, Vol. 71, No. 8; August, 1975;
pp. 56-59.
GR-9 Chaffin, C.M.; "Wastewater Stabilization Ponds at
Texas Eastman Company."
GR-10 Chemical Coagulation/Mixed Media Filtration of
Aerated Lagoon Effluent, EPA-660/2-75-025;
Environmental Protection Technology Series,
National Environmental Research Center, Office Of
Research and Development, U.S. EPA, Corvallis,
Oregon 97330.
GR-11 Chemical Engineering, August 6, 1973; "Pollution
Control at the Source."
GR-12 Chemical Engineering, 68 (2), 1961; "Activated-
Sludge Process Solvents Waste Problem."
141
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GR-13 Chemical Week, May 9, 1973; "Making Hard-to-treat
Chemical wastes Evaporate."
GR-14 Cheremisinoff, P.N., and Feller, S.M.; "Wastewater
Solids Separation," Pollution Engineering.
GR-15 Control of Hazardous Material Spills, Proceedings
of the 1972 National Conference on Control of
Hazardous Material Spills, Sponsored by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency at the University
of Texas, March 1972.
GR-16 Cook, C.; "Variability in BOD Concentration from
Biological Treatment Plants," EPA internal
memorandum; March, 1974.
GR-17 Davis, K.E., and Funk, R.J.; "Deep Well Disposal of
Industrial Waste," Industrial Waste; January-
February, 1975.
GR-18 Dean, J.A., editor; Lange* s Handbook of Chemistry,
11th Edition; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
New York; 1973.
GR-19 Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; Water Quality Engineering
for Practicing Engineers; Barnes and Noble, Inc.,
New York, New York; 1970.
GR-20 Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; "Development of Operator
Training Materials," Environmental Science Services
Corp., Stamford, Conn.; August, 1968.
GR-21 Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No.
10, October, 1971; "Currents-Technology."
GR-22 Fassell, W.M.; Sludge Disposal at a Profit?, a
report presented at the National Conference on
Municipal Sludge Management, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania; June, 1974.
GR-23 Guidelines for Chemical Plants in the Prevention
Control and Reporting of Spills; Manufacturing
Chemists Association, Inc., Washington, D.C. 1972.
GR-24 Hauser, E.A., Colloidal Phenomena, 1st Edition,
McGraw-Hill Eook Company, New York, New York; 1939.
GR-25 Iowa State University Department of Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Research Institute,
"Estimating Staff and Cost Factors for Small
142
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Wastewater Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," Parts
I and II; EPA Grant No. 5P2-WP-195-0452; June,
1973.
GR-26 Iowa State University Department of Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Besearch Institute,
"Staffing Guidelines for Conventional Wastewater
Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," EPA Grant No.
5P2-WP-195-0452; June, 1973.
GR-27 Judd, S.H.; "Noise Abatement in Existing
Refineries," Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol.
71, No. 8; August, 1975; pp. 31-42.
GR-28 Kent, J.A., editor; Reigel's Industrial Chemistry,
7th Edition; Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York; 1974.
GR-29 Kirk-Othmer; Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,
2nd Edition; Interscience Publishers Division, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
GR-30 Kozlorowski, B., and Kucharski, J.; Industrial
Waste Disposal; Pergamon Press, New York; 1972.
GR-31 Lindner, G. and K. Nyberg; Environmental
Engineering, A Chemical Engineering Discipline; D.
Reidel Publishing Company, Boston, Massachusetts
02116, 1973.
GR-32 Liptak, B.G., editor; Environmental Engineers*
Handbook, Volume I, Water Pollution; Chilton Book
Company, Radnor, Pa.; 1974.
GR-33 Marshall, G.R. and E.J. Middlebrook; Intermittent
Sand Filtration to Upgrade Existing Wastewater
Treatment Facilities, PR JEW 115-2; Utah Water
Research Laboratory, College of Engineering, Utah
State University, Logan, Utah 84322; February,
1974.
GR-34 Martin, J.D., Dutcher, V.D., Frieze, T.R., Tapp,
M., and Bavis, E.M.; "Waste Stabilization
Experiences at Union Carbide, Seadrift, Texas
Plant."
GR-35 McDermott, G.N.; Industrial Spill Control and
Pollution Incident Prevention, J. Water Pollution
Control Federation, 43 (8) 1629 (1971).
143
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GR-36 Minear, R.A., and Patterson, J.W.; Wastewater
Treatment Technology, 2nd Edition; State of
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality;
January, 1973.
GR-37 National Environmental Research Center; "Evaluation
of Hazardous Waste Emplacement in Mined Openings;"
NERC Contract No. 68-03-0470; September, 1974.
GR-38 Nemerow, N.L.; Liquid Waste of Industry - Theories,
Practices and Treatment; Addision-Wesley Pulbishing
Company, Reading, Massachusetts; 1971.
GR-39 Novak, S.M.; "Biological Waste Stabilization Ponds
at Exxon Company, U.S.A. Baytown Refinery and Exxon
Chemical Company, U.S.A. Chemical Plant (Divisions
of Exxon Corporation) Baytown, Texas."
GR-40 Oswald, W.J., and Ramani, R.; "The Fate of Algae in
Receiving Waters," a paper submitted to the
Conference on Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment
Alternative, University of Texas, Austin; July,
1975.
GR-41 Otakie, G.F.; A Guide to the Selection of Cost-
effective Wastewater Treatment Systems; EPA-430/9-
75-002, Technical Report, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Program Operations, Washington, D.C. 20460.
GR-42 Parker, C.L.; Estimating the Cost of Wastewater
Treatment Ponds; Pollution Engineering, November,
1975.
GR-43 Parker, W.P.; Wastewater Systems Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1975.
GR-44 Parker, D.S.; "Performance of Alternative Algae
Removal Systems," a report submitted to the
Conference on Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment
Alternative, University of Texas, Austin; July,
1975.
GR-45 Perry, J.H., et, al.; Chemical Engineers* Handbook,
5th Edition; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
New York; 1973.
GR-46 Public Law 92-500, 92nd Congress, S.2770; October
18, 1972.
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GR-47 Quirk, T.P.; "Application of computerized Analysis
to Comparative Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum
Filtration and Centrifugation," Proc., 23rd
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University;
1968; pp. 69-709.
GR-48 Riley, B.T., Jr.; The Relationship Between
Temperature and the Design and Operation of
Biological Waste Treatment Plants, submitted to the
Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA; April, 1975.
GR-49 Rose, A., and Rose, E.; The Condensed Chemical
Dictionary, 6th Edition; Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, New York; 1961.
GR-50 Rudolfs, W.; Industrial Wastes, Their Disposal and
Treatment; Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
York; 1953.
GR-51 Sax, N.I.; Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Material, 4th Edition; Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York; 1975.
GR-52 Seabrook, B.L.; Cost of Wastewater Treatment by
Land Application; EPA-430/9-75-003, Technical
Report; U.S. EPA, Office of Water Program
Operations, Washington, D.C. 20460.
GR-53 Shreve, R.N.; Chemical Process Industries, Third
Edition; McGraw-Hill, New York; 1967.
GR-54 Spill Prevention Technigues for Hazardous Polluting
Substances, OHM 7102001; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460; February
1971.
GR-55 Stecher, P.G., editor; The Merck Index, An
Encyclopedia of Chemicals and Drugs, 8th Edition;
Merck and Company, Inc., Rahway, New Jersey; 1968.
GR-56 Stevens, J.I., "The Roles of Spillage, Leakage and
Venting in Industrial Pollution Control", Presented
at Second Annual Environmental Engineering and
Science Conference, University of Louisville, April
1972.
GR-57 Supplement A j> JB - Detailed Record of Data Base for
"Draft Development Document for Interim Final
Effluent Limitations, Guidelines and Standards of
Performance for the Miscellaneous Chemicals
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Manufacturing Point Source Category", U.S. EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460, February 1975.
GR-58 Swanson, C.L.; "Unit Process Operating and
Maintenance Costs for Conventional Waste Treatment
Plants;" FWQA, Cincinnati, Ohio; June, 1968.
GR-59 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare;
"Interaction of Heavy Metals and Biological Sewage
Treatment Processes," Envir onmental Health Series;
HEW Office of Water Supply and Pollution Control,
Washington, D.C.; May, 1965.
GR-60 U.S. Department of the Interior; "Cost of Clean
Water," Industrial Waste Profile No. 3; Dept. of
Int. GWQA, Washington, D.C.; November, 1967.
GR-61 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Upgrading
Existing Waste Water Treatment Plants, U.S. EPA
Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
October, 1974.
GR-62 U.S. EPA; Monitoring Industrial Waste Water, U.S.
EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460; August, 1973.
GR-63 U.S. EPA; Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water
and Wastes, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
625/6-74-003; Washington, D.C. 20460; 1974.
GR-64 U.S. EPA; Handbook for Analytical Quality Control
in Water and Waste Water Laboratories^ U.S. EPA
Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
June, 1972.
GR-65 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Phosphorus
Removal, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; October, 1971.
GR-66 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Suspended
Solids Removal, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
625/1-75-003a, Washington, D.C. 20460; January,
1975.
GR-67 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sulfide Control
in Sanitary Sewerage Systems, U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; October,
1974.
146
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GR-68 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Carbon
Adsorption, U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, B.C. 20460; October, 1973.
GR-69 U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sludge
Treatment and Disposal, U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA 625/1-74-006, Washington, D.C.
20460; October, 1974.
GR-70 U.S. EPA; Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
Standards of Performance, Metal Finishing Industry,
Draft Development Document; EPA 440/1-75/040 and
EPA 440/1-75/040a; EPA Office of Air and Water
Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington,
D.C. 20460; April, 1975.
GR-71 U.S. EPA; Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Organic Chemicals Industry; EPA 440/1-74/009a;
EPA Office of Air and water Programs, Effluent
Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C. 20460;
April, 1974.
GR-72 U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
Steam Supply and NQncontact Cooling Water
Industries; EPA Office of Air and Water Programs,
Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C.
20460; October, 1974.
GR-73 U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
- Organic Chemicals industry. Phase II Prepared by
Roy F. Weston, Inc. under EPA Contract No. 68-01-
1509; EPA Office of Air and Water Programs,
Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington, D.C.
20460; February, 1974.
GR-74 U.S. EPA; Evaluation of Land Application Systems,
Technical Bulletin; EPA 430/9-75-001; EPA,
Washington, E.G. 20460; March, 1975.
GR-75 U.S. EPA; "Projects in the Industrial Pollution
Control Division," Environmental Protection
Technology Series; EPA 600/2-75-001; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; December, 1974.
GR-76 U.S. EPA; Wastewater Sampling Methodologies and
glow Measurement Technigues; EPA 907/9-74-005; EPA
147
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Surveillance and Analysis, Region VII, Technical
Support Branch; June, 1974.
GR-77 U.S. EPA; A Primer on Waste Water Treatment; EPA
Water Quality Office; 1971.
GR-78 U.S. EPA; Compilation of Municipal and Industrial
Injection Wells in the United States; EPA 520/9-74-
020; Vol. I and II; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460;
1974.
GR-79 U.S. EPA; "Upgrading Lagoons," U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; August,
1973.
GR-80 U.S. EPA; "Nitrification and Denitrification
Facilities," U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; August,
1973.
GR-81 U.S. EPA; "Physical-Chemical Nitrogen Removal,"
U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460; July, 1974.
GR-82 U.S. EPA; "Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment
Plant Design," U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; August, 1973.
GR-83 U.S. EPA; "Oxygen Activated Sludge Wastewater
Treatment Systems, Design Criteria and Operating
Experience," U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, B.C. 20460; August, 1973.
GR-84 U.S. EPA; Wastewater Filtration Design
Considerations; U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; July, 1974.
GR-85 U.S. EPA; "Flow Equalization," U.S. EPA Technology
Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460; May, 1974.
GR-86 U.S. EPA; "Procedural Manual for Evaluating the
Performance of Wastewater Treatment Plants," U.S.
EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
20460.
GR-87 U.S. EPA; Supplement to Development Document for
Effluent Limitations, Guidelines and New Source
Performance Standards for the Corn Milling
Subcategory, Grain Processing, EPA, Office of Air
and Water Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division,
Washington, D.C. 20460, August 1975.
148
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GR-88 U.S. EPA; Pretreatment of Pollutants Introduced
Into Publicly Owned Treatment Works; EPA Office of
Water Program Operations, Washington, D.C. 20460;
October, 1973.
GR-89 U.S. Government Printing Office; Standard
Industrial Classification Manual; Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20492; 1972.
GR-90 U.S. EPA; Tertiary Treatment of Combined Domestic
and Industrial Wastes, EPA-R2-73-236, EPA,
Washington, D.C. 20460; May, 1973.
GR-91 Wang, Lawrence K.; Environmental Engineering
Glossary (Draft) Calspan Corporation, Environmental
Systems Division, Buffalo, New York 14221, 1974.
GR-92 Water Quality Criteria 1972, EPA-R-73-033, National
Academy of Sciences and National Academy of
Engineering; U.S. Government Printing Office, No.
5501-00520, March, 1973.
GR-93 Weast, R.r editor; CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 54th Edition; CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio
44128; 1973-1974.
GR-94 Weber, C.I., editor; Biological Field and
Laboratory Methods for Measuring the Quality of
Surface Waters and Effluents," Environmental
Monitoring Series; EPA 670/4-73-001; EPA,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268; July, 1973.
GR-95 APHA, ASCE, AWWA, and WPCF, Glossary of Water and
Wastewater Control Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, New York, 1969.
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SECTION XVI
GLOSSARY
Gum and wood Chemicals
Carbonization. A process whereby a carbon residue is
produced via the destructive distillation of wood.
Destructive Distillation. Decomposition of wood (or a
hydrocarbon) by heat in a closed container and the
collection of the volatile substances produced.
Essential Oils. Oils composed mainly of terpene
hydrocarbons (turpentine), which are obtained by steam
distillation of wood chips, bark, or leaves of select trees.
Ester Gum. A resin made from rosin or rosin acids and a
polyhydric alcohol, such as glycerin or pentaerythritol.
Exudate. Exuded matter.
Exude. To ooze or trickle forth through pores or gushes, as
sweat or gum, etc.
Fines. crushed solids sufficiently fine to pass through a
screen, etc.
Gum. The crystallized pine oleoresin or "scrape" collected
from scarified "faces" of trees being worked for turpentine,
exudates from living long leaf and slash pine trees.
Hardwood _(gr Deciduous woods)« Trees that lose their leaves
annually. Morphologically and chemically distinct from the
conifers and commonly referred to as hardwoods, despite the
fact that certain species such as basswood and poplar have
woods that are relatively soft. Fibers are substantially
shorter that those of coniferous wood. Normally, deciduous
woods are not a source of turpentine.
Kraft (or Sulfate) Process. The digestion of wood chips
with a solution of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfide, and
sodium carbonate to product paper pulp. This process
delignifies the wood chip and allows separation of the
cellulose fibers from a caustic solution of lignin
degradation products (sugars, hemicellulose, resin, and
fatty acids) and unsaponifiables.
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Naval Store s. Chemically reactive oils, resins, tars, and
pitches derived from the oleoresin contained in, exuded by,
or extracted from trees chiefly of the pine species (Genus
Pinus), or from the wood of such trees.
Non-conden sibles. Vapors or gases that remain in the
gaseous state at the temperature and pressure specified.
These normally would be considered the final vented gases
under operating conditions.
Oleoresin. Pine gum, the non-aqueous secretion of rosin
acids dissolved in a terpene hydrocarbon oil which is
produced or exuded from the intercellular resin ducts of a
living tree or accumulated, together with oxidation
products, in the dead wood of weathered limbs and stumps.
Pine Tar Oil. The oil obtained by condensing the vapors
from the retorts in which resinous pine wood is
destructively distilled (carbonized).
Pitch. A dark viscous substance obtained as residue in the
distillation of the volatile oils from retort pine oil or
crude tall oil.
Pitch, Brewer's. A term used to designate a type of pitch
made by blending certain oils, waxes, or other ingredients
with rosin for the coating of beer barrels.
Pvroligeneous Acid. A product of the destructive
distillation of hardwoods composed primarily of acetic acid,
crude methanol, acetone, tars and oils, and water.
Resin. A large class of synthetic products that have
properties similar to natural resin, or rosin, but are
chemically different.
Retort. A vessel in which substances are distilled or
decomposed by heat.
Rosin. A specific kind of natural resin obtained as a
nitreous water-insoluble material from pine oleoresin by
removal of the volatile oils, or from tall oil by the
removal of the fatty acid components thereof. It consists
primarily of tricyclic monocarboxylic acids having the
general empirical formula C20 H30 O2, with small quantities
of compounds saponifiable with boiling alcoholic potassium
or sodium hydroxide, and some unsaponifiable. The three
general classifications of kinds of rosin in commerce are:
gum rosin, obtained from the oleoresin collected from living
trees; wood rosin, from the oleoresin contained in dead
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wood, such as stumps and knots; and tall oil rosin, from
tall oil.
Rosin Modified. Rosin that has been treated with heat or
catalysts, or both; with or without added chemical
substances, so as to cause substantial change in the
structure of the rosin acids, as isomerization,
hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, or polymerization; without
substantial effect on the carboxyl group.
Saponification. The reaction in which caustic combines with
fat or oil to produce soap.
Seal Leg. The line through which an underflow liguid flows,
constructed to maintain a liquid trap that will not empty
upon nominal pressure changes in the vessel.
Separator. The vessel connected to the vent-relief to
separate wood fines carried over in the vent-relief gases,
and which permits the steam and turpentine vapors (including
non-condensables) to proceed in vapor form to the condenser.
Sparge. To heat a liquid by means of live steam entering
through a perforated or nozzled pipe.
Tall Oil. A generic name for a number of products obtained
from the manufacture of wood pulp by the alkali (sulfate)
process, more popularly known as the Kraft process. To
provide some distinction between the various products,
designations are often applied in accordance with the
process or composition, some of which are crude tall oil,
acid-refined tall oil, distilled tall oil, tall oil fatty
acids, and tall oil rosin.
Tall QilT Crude. A dark brown mixture of fatty acids,
rosin, and neutral materials liberated by the acidification
of soap skimmings. The fatty acids are a mixture of oleic
acid and linoleic acid with lesser amounts of saturated and
other unsaturated fatty acids. The rosin is composed of
resin acids similar to those found in gum and wood rosin.
The neutral materials are composed mostly of polycyclic
hydrocarbons, sterols, and other high-molecular-weight
alcohols.
Terpenes. The major chemical components of turpentine. A
class of unsaturated organic compounds having the empirical
formula C10 H16, occurring in most essential oils and
oleoresinous plants. Structurally, the important terpenes
and their derivatives are classified as monocyclic
(dipentene), bicyclic (pinene), and acyclic (myrcene).
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Turpentine. A light-colored, volatile essential oil from
resinuous exudates or resinous wood associated with living
or dead coniferous kinds of turpentine as follows: (1) gum
turpentine, obtained by distilling the gum collected from
living pine trees; (2) steam-distilled wood turpentine, from
the oleoresin within the wood of pine stumps or cuttings,
either by direct steaming of mechanically disintegrated wood
or after solvent extraction of the oleoresin from the wood;
(3) sulfate wood turpentine, recovered during the conversion
of wood pulp by the Kraft (sulfate) process. (Sulfate wood
turpentine is somewhat similar to gum turpentine in
composition); and (U) destructively distilled wood
turpentine, obtained by fractionation of certain oils
recovered from the destructive distillation of pine wood.
General Definitions
Abatement. The measures taken to reduce or eliminate
pollution.
Absorption. A process in which one material (the absorbent)
takes up and retains another (the absorbate) with the
formation of a homogeneous mixture having the attributes of
a solution. Chemical reaction may accompany or follow
absorption.
Acclimation. The ability of an organism to adapt to changes
in its immediate environment.
Acid. A substance which dissolves in water with the
formation of hydrogen ions.
Acid Solution. A solution with a pH of less than 7.00 in
which the activity of the hydrogen ion is greater than the
activity of the hydroxyl ion.
Acidity. The capacity of a wastewater for neutralizing a
base. It is normally associated with the presence of carbon
dioxide, mineral and organic acids and salts of strong acids
or weak bases. It is reported as equivalent of CaC03_
because many times it is not known just what acids are
present.
Acidulate. To make somewhat acidic.
Act* The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972, Public Law 92-500.
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Activated Carbon. Carbon which is treated by high-
temperature heating with steam or carbon dioxide producing
an internal porous particle structure.
Activated Sludge Process. A process which removes the
organic matter from sewage by saturating it with air and
biologically active sludge. The recycle "activated"
microoganisms are able to remove both the soluble and
colloidal organic material from the wastewater.
Adsorption. An advanced method of treating wastes in which
a material removes organic matter not necessarily responsive
to clarification or biological treatment by adherence on the
surface of solid bodies.
Adsorption Isotherm. A plot used in evaluating the
effectiveness of activated carbon treatment by showing the
amount of impurity adsorbed versus the amount remaining.
They are determined at a constant temperature by varying the
amount of carbon used or the concentration of the impurity
in contact with the carbon.
Advance Waste Treatment. Any treatment method or process
employed following biological treatment to increase the
removal of pollution load, to remove substances that may be
deleterious to receiving waters or the environment or to
produce a high-guality effluent suitable for reuse in any
specific manner or for discharge under critical conditions.
The term tertiary treatment is commonly used to denote
advanced waste treatment methods.
Aeration. (1) The bringing about of intimate contact
between air and a liquid by one of the following methods:
spraying the liguid in the air, bubbling air through the
liquid, or agitation of the liquid to promote surface
absorption of air. (2) The process or state of being
supplied or impregnated with air; in waste treatment, a
process in which liguid from the primary clarifier is mixed
with compressed air and with biologically active sludge.
Aeration Period. (1) The theoretical time, usually
expressed in hours, that the mixed liquor is subjected to
aeration in an aeration tank undergoing activated-sludge
treatment. It is equal to the volume of the tank divided by
the volumetric rate of flow of wastes and return sludge,
(2) The theoretical time that liquids are subjected to
aeration.
Aeration Tank. A vessel for injecting air into the water.
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Aerobic. Ability to live, grow, or take place only where
free oxygen is present.
Aerobic Biological Oxidation. Any waste treatment or
process utilizing aerobic organisms, in the presence of air
or oxygen, as agents for reducing the pollution load or
oxygen demand of organic substances in waste.
Aerobic Digestion. A process in which microorganisms obtain
energy by endogenous or auto-oxidation of their cellular
protoplasm. The biologically degradable constituents of
cellular material are slowly oxidized to carbon dioxide,
water and ammonia, with the ammonia being further converted
into nitrates during the process.
Algae. One-celled or many-celled plants which grow in
sunlit waters and which are capable of photosynthesis. They
are a food for fish and small aquatic animals and, like all
plants, put oxygen in the water.
Algae Bloom. Large masses of microscopic and macroscopic
plant life, such as green algae, occuring in bodies of
wat er.
Algicide. Chemical agent used to destroy or control algae.
Alkali. A water-soluble metallic hydroxide that ionizes
strongly.
Alkalinity. The presence of salts of alkali metals. The
hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, sodium
and magnesium are common impurities that cause alkalinity.
A quantitative measure of the capacity of liquids or
suspensions to neutralize strong acids or to resist the
establishment of acidic conditions. Alkalinity results from
the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates, hydroxides,
alkaline salts and occasionally borates and is usually
expressed in terms of the amount of calcium carbonate that
would have an equivalent capacity to neutralize strong
acids.
Alum. A hydrated aluminum sulfate or potassium aluminum
sulfate or ammonium aluminum sulfate which is used as a
settling agent. A coagulant.
Ammonia Nitrogen. A gas released by the microbiological
decay of plant and animal proteins. When ammonia nitrogen
is found in waters, it is indicative of incomplete
treatment.
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Ammonia Stripping, A modification of the aeration process
for removing gases in water. Ammonium ions in wastewater
exist in equilibrium with ammonia and hydrogen ions. As pH
increases, the equilibrium shifts to the right, and above pH
9 ammonia may be liberated as a gas by agitating the
wastewater in the presence of air. This is usually done in
a packed tower with an air blower.
Ammonification. The process in which ammonium is liberated
from organic compounds by microoganisms.
Anaerobic. Ability to live, grow, or take place where there
is no air or free oxygen present.
Anaerobic Biological Treatment. Any treatment method or
process utilizing anaerobic or facultative organisms, in the
absence of air, for the purpose of reducing the organic
matter in wastes or organic solids settled out from wastes.
Anaerobic Digestion. Biodegradable materials in primary and
excess activated sludge are stabilized by being oxidized to
carbon dioxide, methane and other inert products. The
primary digester serves mainly to reduce VSS, while the
secondary digester is mainly for solids-liquid separation,
sludge thickening and storage.
Anion, Ion with a negative charge.
Antagonistic Effects. The simultaneous action of separate
agents mutually opposing each other.
Aqueous solution. One containing water or watery in nature.
Aguifer. A geologic formation or stratum that contains
water and transmits it from one point to another in
quantities sufficient to permit economic development
(capable of yielding an appreciable supply of water).
Aqueous Solution. One containing water or watery in nature.
Arithmetic Mean. The arithmetic mean of a number of items
is obtained by adding all the items together and dividing
the total by the number of items. It is frequently called
the average. It is greatly affected by extreme values.
Azeotrope. A liquid mixture that is characterized by a
constant minimum or maximum boiling point which is lower or
higher than that of any of the components and that distills
without change in composition.
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Backwashing. The process of cleaning a rapid sand or
mechanical filter by reversing the flow of water.
Bacteria. Unicellular, plant-like microorganisms, lacking
chlorophyll. Any water supply contaminated by sewage is
certain to contain a bacterial group called "coliform11.
Bateria, Coliform Group. A group of bacteria, predominantly
inhabitants of the intestine of man but also found on
vegetation, including all aerobic and facultative anaerobic
gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacilli that ferment lactose
with gas formation. This group includes five tribes of
which the very great majority are Eschericheae. The
Eschericheae tribe comprises three genera and ten species,
of which Escherichia Coli and Aerobacter Aerogenes are
dominant. The Escherichia Coli are normal inhabitants of
the intestine of man and all vertbrates whereas Aerobacter
Aerogenes normally are found on grain and plants, and only
to a varying degree in the intestine of man and animals.
Formerly referred to as B. Coli, B. Coli group, and Coli-
Aerogenes Group.
Bacterial Growth. All bacteria reguire food for their
continued life and growth and all are affected by the
conditions of their environment. Like human beings, they
consume food, they respire, they need moisture, they reguire
heat, and they give off waste products. Their food
requirements are very definite and have been, in general,
already outlined. Without an adequate food supply of the
type the specific organism requires, bacteria will not grow
and multiply at their maximum rate and they will therefore,
not perform their full and complete functions.
(BADCT) NSPS Effluent Limitations. Limitations for new
sources which are based on the application of the Best
Available Demonstrated Control Technology. See NSPS.
Base. A substance that in aqueous solution turns red litmus
blue, furnishes hydroxyl ions and reacts with an acid to
form a salt and water only.
Batch Process. A process which has an intermittent flow of
raw materials into the process and a resultant intermittent
flow of product from the process.
BAT(BATEA) Effluent Limitations. Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable. These limitations must
be achieved by July 1, 1983.
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Benthic. Attached to the bottom of a body of water.
Benthos. Organisms (fauna and flora) that live on the
bottoms of bodies of water.
Bioassay. An assessment which is made by using living
organisms as the sensors.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). A measure of the oxygen
required to oxidize the organic material in a sample of
wastewater by natural biological process under standard
conditions. This test is presently universally accepted as
the yardstick of pollution and is utilized as a means to
determine the degree of treatment in a waste treatment
process. Usually given in mg/1 (or ppm units), meaning
milligrams of oxygen required per liter of wastewater, it
can also be expressed in pounds of total oxygen required per
wastewater or sludge batch. The standard BOD is five days
at 20 degrees C.
Biota. The flora and fauna (plant and animal life) of a
stream or other water body.
Biological Treatment System. A system that uses
microorganisms to remove organic pollutant material from a
wastewater.
Blowdown. Water intentionally discharged from a cooling or
heating system to maintain the dissolved solids
concentration of the circulating water below a specific
critical level. The removal of a portion of any process
flow to maintain the constituents of the flow within desired
levels. Process may be intermittent or continuous. 2) The
water discharged from a boiler or cooling tower to dispose
of accumulated salts.
BOD5. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of
oxygen required by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable
organic matter under aerobic conditions. The BOD test has
been developed on the basis of a 5-day incubation period
(i, e. BOD5) .
Boiler Slowdown. Wastewater resulting from purging of solid
and waste materials from the boiler system. A solids build
up in concentration as a result of water evaporation (steam
generation) in the boiler.
BPT(BPCTCA) Effluent Limitations. Limitations for point
sources, other than publicly owned treatment works, which
are based on the application of the Best Practicable Control
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Technology Currently Available. These limitations must be
achieved by July 1, 1977.
Break Point. The point at which impurities first appear in
the effluent of an adsorption filter bed (e.g., granular
carbon) .
Break Point chlorination. The addition of sufficient
chlorine to destroy or oxidize all substances that creates a
chlorine demand with an excess amount remaining in the free
residual state.
Brine. Water saturated with a salt.
Buffer. A solution containing either a weak acid and its
salt or a weak base and its salt which thereby resists
changes in acidity or basicity, resists changes in pH.
Carbohydrat e. A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
usually having hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two
to one.
Carbonaceous. Containing or composed of carbon.
Catalyst. A substance which changes the rate of a chemical
reaction but undergoes no permanent chemical change itself.
Cation. The ion in an electrolyte which carries the
positive charge and which migrates toward the cathode under
the influence of a potential difference.
Caustic Soda. In its hydrated form it is called sodium
hydroxide. Soda ash is sodium carbonate.
Cellulose. The fibrous constituent of trees which is the
principal raw material of paper and paperboard. Commonly
thought of as a fibrous material of vegetable origin.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). A measure of oxygen-consuming
capacity of organic and inorganic matter present in water or
wastewater. It is expressed as the amount of oxygen
consumed from a chemical oxidant in a specific test. It
does not differentiate between stable and unstable organic
matter and thus does not correlate with biochemical oxygen
demand.
Chemical Synthesis. The processes of chemically combining
two or more constituent substances into a single substance.
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Chlorinatjon. The application of chlorine to water, sewage
or industrial wastes, generally for the purpose of
disinfection but frequently for accomplishing other
biological or chemical results.
Clarification. Process of removing turbidity and suspended
solids by settling. Chemicals can be added to improve and
speed up the settling process through coagulation.
Clarifier. A basin or tank in which a portion of the
material suspended in a wastewater is settled.
Clays. Aluminum silicates less than 0.002mm (2.0 um) in
size. Therefore, most clay types can go into colloidal
suspension.
Coagulation. The clumping together of solids to make them
settle out of the sewage faster. Coagulation of solids is
brought about with the use of certain chemicals, such as
lime, alum or polyelectrolytes.
Coagulation and Flocculation. Processes which follow
sequentially.
Coagulation Chemicals. Hydrolyzable divalent and trivalent
metallic ions of aluminum, magnesium, and iron salts. They
include alum (aluminum sulfate), quicklime (calcium oxide),
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), sulfuric acid, anhydrous
ferric chloride. Lime and acid affect only the solution pH
which in turn causes coagulant precipitation, such as that
of magnesium.
Coliform. Those bacteria which are most abundant in sewage
and in streams containing feces and other bodily waste
discharges. See bacteria, coliform group,
Coliform Organisms. A group of bacteria recognized as
indicators of fecal pollution.
Colloid. A finely divided dispersion of one material (0.01-
10 micron-sized particles), called the "dispersed phase"
(solid), in another material, called the "dispersion medium"
(liquid) .
Color Bodies. Those complex molecules which impart color to
a solution.
Color Units. A solution with the color of unity contains a
mg/1 of metallic platinum (added as potassium
chloroplatinate to distilled water). Color units are
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defined against a platinum-cobalt standard and are based, as
are all the other water quality criteria, upon those
analytical methods described in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 12 ed., Amer. Public
Health Assoc., N.Y., 1967.
Combined Sewer. One which carries both sewage and storm
water run-off.
Composite Sample. A combination of individual samples of
wastes taken at selected intervals, generally hourly for 24
hours, to minimize the effect of the variations in
individual samples. Individual samples making up the
composite may be of equal volume or be roughly apportioned
to the volume of flow of liquid at the time of sampling.
Composting. The biochemical stabilization of solid wastes
into a humus-like substance by producing and controlling an
optimum environment for the process.
Concentration. The total mass of the suspended or dissolved
particles contained in a unit volume at a given temperature
and pressure.
Conductivity. A reliable measurement of electrolyte
concentration in a water sample. The conductivity
measurement can be related to the concentration of dissolved
solids and is almost directly proportional to the ionic
concentration of the total electrolytes.
Contact Stabilization. Aerobic digestion.
Contact Process Wastewaters. These are process-generated
wastewaters which have come in direct or indirect contact
with the reactants used in the process. These include such
streams as contact cooling water, filtrates, centrates, wash
waters, etc.
Continuous Process. A process which has a constant flow of
raw materials into the process and resultant constant flow
of product from the process.
Contract Disposal. Disposal of waste products through an
outside party for a fee.
Crustaceae. These are small animals ranging in size from
0.2 to 0.3 millimeters long which move very rapidly through
the water in search of food. They have recognizable head
and posterior sections. They form a principal source of
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food for small fish and are found largely in relatively
fresh natural water.
Crystallization. The formation of solid particles within a
homogeneous phase. Formation of crystals separates a solute
from a solution and generally leaves impurities behind in
the mother liquid.
Curie. 3.7 x 10*0 disintegrations per second within a given
quantity of material.
Cyanide. Total cyanide as determined by the test procedure
specified in 40 CFR Part 136 (Federal Register, Vol. 38, no.
199, October 16, 1973).
Cyclone. A conical shaped vessel for separating either
entrained solids or liquid materials from the carrying air
or vapor. The vessel has a tangential entry nozzle at or
near the largest diameter, with an overhead exit for air or
vapor and a lower exit for the more dense materials.
Cyanide A. Cyanides amendable to chlorination as described
in "1972 Annual Book of ASTM Standards" 1972: Standard D
2036-72, Method B, p. 553.
Degreasing. The process of removing greases and oils from
sewage, waste and sludge.
Demineralization. The total removal of all ions.
Denitrification. Bacterial mediated reduction of nitrate to
nitrite. Other bacteria may act on the nitrite reducing it
to ammonia and finally N2 gas. This reduction of nitrate
occurs under anaerobic conditions. The nitrate replaces
oxygen as an electron acceptor during the metabolism of
carbon compounds under anaerobic conditions. A biological
process in which gaseous nitrogen is produced from nitrite
and nitrate. The heterotrophic microoganisms which
participate in this process include pseudomonades,
achromobacters and bacilli.
Derivative. A substance extracted from another body or
substance.
Desorption. The opposite of adsorption. A phenomenon where
an adsorbed molecule leaves the surface of the adsorbent.
Diluent. A diluting agent.
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Disinfection. The process of killing the larger portion
(but not necessarily all) of the harmful and objectionable
microorganisms in or on a medium.
Dissolved Air Flotation. The term "flotation" indicates
something floated on or at the surface of a liquid.
Dissolved air flotation thickening is a process that adds
energy in the form of air bubbles, which become attached to
suspended sludge particles, increasing the buoyancy of the
particles and producing more positive flotation.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO). The oxygen dissolved in sewage,
water or other liquids, usually expressed either in
milligrams per liter or percent of saturation. It is the
test used in BOD determination.
Distillation. The separation, by vaporization, of a liquid
mixture of miscible and volatile substance into individual
components, or, in some cases, into a group of components.
The process of raising the temperature of a liquid to the
boiling point and condensing the resultant vapor to liquid
form by cooling. It is used to remove substances from a
liquid or to obtain a pure liquid from one which contains
impurities or which is a mixture of several liquids having
different boiling temperatures. Used in the treatment of
fermentation products, yeast, etc., and other wastes to
remove recoverable products.
DO Units. The units of measurement used are milligrams per
liter (mg/1) and parts per million (ppm), where mg/1 is
defined as the actual weight of oxygen per liter of water
and ppm is defined as the parts actual weight of oxygen
dissolved in a million parts weight of water, i.e., a pound
of oxygen in a million pounds of water is 1 ppm. For
practical purposes in pollution control work, these two are
used interchangeably; the density of water is so close to 1
g/cm3 that the error is negligible. Similarly, the changes
in volume of oxygen with changes in temperature are
insignificant. This, however, is not true if sensors are
calibrated in percent saturation rather than in mg/1 or ppm.
In that case, both temperature and barometric pressure must
be taken into consideration.
Drift. Entrained water carried from a cooling device by the
exhaust air.
Dual Media. A deep-bed filtration system utilizing two
separate and discrete layers of dissimilar media (e.g. ,
anthracite and sand) placed one on top of the other to
perform the filtration function.
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Ecology* The science of the interrelations between living
organisms and their environment.
Effluent. A liquid which leaves a unit operation or
process. Sewage, water or other liquids, partially or
completely treated or in their natural states, flowing out
of a reservoir basin, treatment plant or any other unit
operation. An influent is the incoming stream.
Elution. (1) The process of washing out, or removinq with
the use of a solvent. (2) In an ion exchange process it is
defined as the stripping of adsorbed ions from an ion
exchange resin by passing throuqh the resin solutions
containing other ions in relatively high concentrations.
Elutriation. A process of sludge conditioning whereby the
sludge is washed, either with fresh water or plant effluent,
to reduce the sludqe alkalinity and fine particles, thus
decreasing the amount of required coagulant in further
treatment steps, or in sludge dewatering.
Emulsion. Emulsion is a suspension of fine droplets of one
liquid in another.
Entrainment Separator. A device to remove liquid and/or
solids from a gas stream. Energy source is usually derived
from pressure drop to create centrifugal force.
Environment. The sum of all external influences and
conditions affecting the life and the development of an
organism.
Equalization Basin. A holding basin in which variations in
flow and composition of a liquid are averaged, such basins
are used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume and
composition to a treatment unit.
Esterification. This generally involves the combination of
an alcohol and an organic acid to produce an ester and water
The reaction is carried out in the liquid phase, with
aqueous sulfuric acid as the catalyst. The use of sulfuric
acid has in the past caused this type of reaction to be
called suIfation.
Eutrophication. The process in which the life-sustaining
quality of a body of water is lost or diminished (e.g.,
aging or filling in of lakes). A eutrophic condition is one
in which the water is rich in nutrients but has a seasonal
oxygen deficiency.
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Evapotranspiration. The loss of water from the soil both by
evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing
thereon.
Facultative. Having the power to live under different
conditons (either with or without oxygen).
Facultative lagoon. A combination of the aerobic and
anaerobic lagoons. It is divided by loading and thermal
stratifications into an aerobic surface and an anaerobic
bottom, therefore the principles of both the aerobic and
anaerobic processes apply.
Fatty Acids. An organic acid obtained by the hydrolysis
(saponification) of natural fats and oils, e.g., stearic and
palmitic acids. These acids are monobasic and may or may
not contain some double bonds. They usually contain sixteen
or more carbon atoms.
Fauna. The animal life adapted for living in a specified
environment.
Fermentation. Oxidative decomposition of complex substances
through the action of enzymes or ferments produced by
microorganisms.
Filter, Trickling. A filter consisting of an artificial bed
of coarse material, such as broken stone, clinkers, slate,
slats or brush, over which sewage is distributed and applied
in drops, films for spray, from troughs, drippers, moving
distributors or fixed nozzles. The sewage trickles through
to the underdrains and has the opportunity to form zoogleal
slimes which clarify and oxidize the sewage.
Filter, Vacuum. A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum
mounted on a horizontal axis and covered with a filter
cloth. The filter revolves with a partial submergence in
the liguid, and a vacuum is maintained under the cloth for
the larger part of each revolution to extract moisture. The
cake is scraped off continuously.
Filtrate. The liquid fraction that is separated from the
solids fraction of a slurry through filtration.
Filtration, Biological. The process of passing a liquid
through a biological filter containing media on the surfaces
of which zoogleal films develop that absorb and adsorb fine
suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids and that release
various biochemical end products.
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Plocculants. Those water-soluble organic polyelect.rolyt.es
that are used alone or in conjunction with inorganic
coagulants such as lime, alum or ferric chloride or
coagulant aids to agglomerate solids suspended in aqueous
systems or both. The large dense floes resulting from this
process permit more rapid and more efficient solids-liquid
separations.
Flocculation. The formation of floes. The process step
following the coagulation-precipitation reactions which
consists of bringing together the colloidal particles. It
is the agglomeration by organic polyelectroytes of the
small, slowly settling floes formed during coagulation into
large floes which settle rapidly.
Flora. The plant life characteristic of a region.
Flotation, A method of raising suspended matter to the
surface of the liquid in a tank as scum-by aeration, vacuum,
evolution of gas, chemicals, electrolysis, heat or bacterial
decomposition and the subsequent removal of the scum by
skimming.
Fractionation (or Fractional Distillation). The separation
of constituents, or group of constituents, of a liquid
mixture of miscible and volatile substances by vaporization
and recondensing at specific boiling point ranges.
Fungus. A vegetable cellular organism that subsists on
organic material, such as bacteria.
Gland. A device utilizing a soft wear-resistant material
used to minimize leakage between a rotating shaft and the
stationary portion of a vessel such as a pump.
Gland Water. Water used to lubricate a gland. Sometimes
called "packing water."
Grab Sample. (1) Instantaneous sampling. (2) A sample
taken at a random place in space and time.
Grease. In sewage, grease includes fats, waxes, free fatty
acids, calcium and magnesium soaps, mineral oils and other
nonfatty materials. The type of solvent to be used for its
extraction should be stated.
Grit Chamber. A small detention chamber or an enlargement
of a sewer designed to reduce the velocity of flow of the
liquid and permit the separation of mineral from organic
solids by differential sedimentation.
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Groundwater. The body of water that is retained in the
saturated zone which tends to move by hydraulic gradient to
lower levels.
Hardness. A measure of the capacity of water for
precipitating soap. It is reported as the hardness that
would be produced if a certain amount of CaCO3 were
dissolved in water. More than one ion contributes to water
hardness. The "Glossary of Water and Wastewater Control
Engineering" defines hardness as: A characteristic of water,
imparted by salts of calcium, magnesium, and ion, such as
bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates,
that causes curdling of soap, deposition of scale in
boilers, damage in some industrial processes, and sometimes
objectionable taste. Calcium and magnesium are the most
significant constituents.
Heavy Metals. A general name given for the ions of metallic
elements, such as copper, zinc, iron, chromium, and
aluminum. They are normally removed from a wastewater by
the formation of an insoluble precipitate (usually a
metallic hydroxide).
Hydrocarbon. A compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen.
Hydrolysis. A chemical reaction in which water reacts with
another substance to form one or more new substances.
Incineration. The combustion (by burning) of matter (e.g.,
wastewater sludge).
Influent. Any sewage, water or other liquid, either raw or
partly treated, flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment
plant, or any part thereof. The influent is the stream
entering a unit operation; the effluent is the stream
leaving it.
In-Piant Measures. Technology applied within the
manufacturing process to reduce or eliminate pollutants in
the raw waste water. Sometimes called "internal measures"
or "internal controls".
Ipn. An atom or group of atoms possessing an electrical
charge.
Ion Exchange. A reversible interchange of ions between a
liquid and a solid involving no radical change in the
structure of the solid. The solid can be a natural zeolite
or a synthetic resin, also called polyelectrolyte. Cation
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exchange resins exchange their hydrogen ions for metal
cations in the liquid. Anion exchange resins exchange their
hydroxyl ions for anions such as nitrates in the liquid.
When the ion-retaining capacity of the resin is exhausted,
it must be regenerated. Cation resins are regenerated with
acids and anion resins with bases.
Lacrimal. Tear forming fluid.
Lagoons. An oxidation pond that received sewage which is
not settled or biologically treated.
LC 50. A lethal concentration for 50% of test animals.
Numerically the same as TLm. A statistical estimate of the
toxicant, such as pesticide concentration, in water
necessary to kill 50% of the test organisms within a
specified time under standardized conditions (usually 24,48
or 96 hr) .
Leach. To dissolve out by the action of a percolating
liquid, such as water, seeping through a sanitary landfill.
Lime. Limestone is an accumulation of organic remains
consisting mostly of calcium carbonate. When burned, it
yields lime which is a solid. The hydrated form of a
chemical lime is calcium hydroxide.
Liquid-liquid-extraction. The process by which the
constituents of a solution are separated by causing their
unequal distribution between two insoluble liquids.
Maximum Day Limitation. The effluent limitation value equal
to the maximum for one day and is the value to be published
by the EPA in the Federal Register.
Maximum Thirty Day Limitation. The effluent limitation
value for which the average of daily values for thirty
consecutive days shall not exceed and is the value to be
published by the EPA in the Federal Register.
Mean. The arithmetic average of the individual sample
values.
Median. In a statistical array, the value having as many
cases larger in value as cases smaller in value.
Median Lethal Dose (LC50). The dose lethal to 50 percent of
a group of test organisms for a specified period. The dose
material may be ingested or injected.
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Median Tolerance Limit (TLm)« In toxicological studies, the
concentration of pollutants at which 50 percent of the test
animals can survive for a specified period of exposure.
Microbial. Of or pertaining to a pathogenic bacterium.
Molecular Weight. The relative weight of a molecule
compared to the weight of an atom of carbon taken as exactly
12.00; the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a
molecule.
Mollusk (mollusca). A large animal group including those
forms popularly called shellfish (but not including
crustaceans). All have a soft unsegmented body protected in
most instances by a calcareous shell. Examples are snails,
mussels, clams, and oysters.
Mycelium. The mass of filaments which constitutes the
vegetative body of fungi.
Navigable Waters. Includes all navigable waters of the
United States; tributaries of navigable waters; interstate
waters; intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are
utilized by interstate travellers for recreational or other
purposes; intrastate lakes, rivers and streams from which
fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce;
and intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are utilized
for industrial purposes by industries in interstate
commerce.
N eutr aliz at ion. The restoration of the hydrogen or
hydroxyl ion balance in a solution so that the ionic
concentration of each are equal. Conventionally, the
notation "pH" (puissance d'hydrogen) is used to describe the
hydrogen ion concentration or activity present in a given
solution. For dilute solutions of strong acids, i.e., acids
which are considered to be completely dissociate (ionized in
solution), activity eguals concentration.
New Source. Any facility from which there is or may be a
discharge of pollutants, the construction of which is
commenced after the publication of proposed regulations
prescribing a standard of performance under section 306 of
the Act.
Nitrate. Salt of nitric acid, e.g., sodium nitrate, NaNO.3.
Nitrate Nitrogen. The final decomposition product of the
organic nitrogen compounds. Determination of this parameter
indicates the degree of waste treatment.
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Nitrification. Bacterial mediated oxidation of ammonia to
nitrite. Nitrite can be further oxidized to nitrate. These
reactions are brought about by only a few specialized
bacterial species. Nitrosomonias sp. and Nitrococcus sp.
oxidize ammonia to nitrite which is oxidized to nitrate by
Nitrobacter sp.
Nitrifiers. Bacteria which causes the oxidation of ammonia
to nitrites and nitrates.
Nitrite Nitrogen. An intermediate stage in the decompo-
sition of organic nitrogen to the nitrate form. Tests for
nitrite nitrogen can determine whether the applied treatment1
is sufficient.
Nitrobacteria. Those bacteria (an autotrophic genus) that
oxidize nitrite nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen.
Nitrogen Cycle. Organic nitrogen in waste is oxidized by
bacteria into ammonia. If oxygen is present, ammonia is
bacterially oxidized first into nitrite and then into
nitrate. If oxygen is not present, nitrite and nitrate are
bacterially reduced to nitrogen gas. The second step is
called "denitrification."
Nit roge n F i x a ti on. Biological nitrogen fixation is carried
on by a selected group of bacteria which take up atmospheric
nitrogen and convert it to amine groups or for amino acid
synthesis.
Nitrospmonas, Bacteria which oxidize ammonia nitrogen into
nitrite nitrogen; an aerobic autotrophic life form.
N on - con ta c t Cooling Water. Water used for cooling that does
not come into direct contact with any raw material,
intermediate product, waste product or finished product.
Non-contact Process Wastewaters. Wastewaters generated by a
manufacturing process which have not come in direct contact
with the reactants used in the process. These include such
streams as non-contact cooling water, cooling tower
blowdown, boiler blowdcwn, etc.
Nonputrescible. Incapable of organic decomposition or
decay.
Normal Solution. A solution that contains 1 gm molecular
weight of the dissolved substance divided by the hydrogen
eguivalent of the substance (that is, one gram equivalent)
per liter of solution. Thus, a one normal solution of
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sulfuric acid (H2SOU, mol. wt. 98) contains (98/2) 49gms of
H2SOJ* per liter.
NPDES. National Pollution Discharge Elimination System. A
federal program requiring manufacturers to obtain permits to
discharge plant effluents to the nation's water courses.
NSPS. New Source Performance Standards. See BADCT.
Nutrient. Any substance assimilated by an organism which
promotes growth and replacement of cellular constituents.
Operations and Maintenance. Costs required to operate and
maintain pollution abatement equipment including labor,
material, insurance, taxes, solid waste disposal, etc.
Organic Loading, in the activated sludge process, the food
to micoorganisms (F/M) ratio defined as the amount of
biodegradable material available to a given amount of
microorganisms per unit of time.
Oxidation. A process in which an atom or group of atoms
loses electrons; the combination of a substance with oxygen,
accompanied with the release of energy. The oxidized atom
usually becomes a positive ion while the oxidizing agent
becomes a negative ion in (chlorination for example).
Oxidation Pond. A man-made lake or body of water in which
wastes are consumed by bacteria. It receives an influent
which has gone through primary treatment while a lagoon
receives raw untreated sewage.
Oxidation Reduction (OR). A class of chemical reactions in
which one of the reacting species gives up electrons
(oxidation) while another species in the reaction accepts
electrons (reduction). At one time, the term oxidation was
restricted to reactions involving hydrogen. Current
chemical technology has broadened the scope of these terms
to include all reactions where electrons are given up and
taken on by reacting species; in fact, the donating and
accepting of electrons must take place simultaneously.
Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP). A measurement that
indicates the activity ratio of the oxidizing and reducing
species present.
Oxygen, Available. The quantity of atmospheric oxygen
dissolved in the water of a stream; the quantity of
dissolved oxygen available for the oxidation of organic
matter in sewage.
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Oxygen, Dissolved. The oxygen (usually designated as DO)
dissolved in sewage, water or another liquid and usually
expressed in parts per million or percent of saturation.
Ozonation. A water or wastewater treatment process
involving the use of ozone as an oxidation agent.
Ozone. That molecular oxygen with three atoms of oxygen
forming each molecule. The third atom of oxygen in each
molecule of ozone is loosely bound and easily released.
Ozone is used sometimes for the disinfection of water but
more frequently for the oxidation of taste-producing
substances, such as phenol, in water and for the
neutralization of odors in gases or air.
Parts Per Million (ppm). Parts by weight in sewage
analysis; ppm by weight is equal to milligrams per liter
divided by the specific gravity. It should be noted that in
water analysis ppm is always understood to imply a
weight/weight ratio, even though in practice a volume may be
measured instead of a weight.
Pathogenic. Disease producing.
Payloader. A large piece of heavy equipment used for
transporting large volumes at a time.
Percolation. The movement of water beneath the ground
surface both vertically and horizontally, but above the
groundwater table.
Permeability. The ability of a substance (soil) to allow
appreciable movement of water through it when saturated and
actuated by a hydrostatic pressure.
pH. The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration or activity in a solution. The number 7
indicates neutrality, numbers less than 7 indicate
increasing acidity, and numbers greater than 7 indicate
increasing alkalinity.
Phenol. Class of cyclic organic derivatives with the basic
chemical formula C6H5OH.
Phosphate. Phosphate ions exist as an ester or salt of
phosphoric acid, such as calcium phosphate rock. In
municipal wastewater, it is most frequently present as
orthophosphate.
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Phosphorus Precipitation. The addition of the multivalent
metallic ions of calcium, iron and aluminum to wastewater to
form insoluble precipitates with phosphorus.
Photosynthesis. The mechanism by which chlorophyll-bearing
plant utilize light energy to produce carbohydrate and
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water (the reverse of
respiration).
Physical/Chemical Treatment System. A system that utilizes
physical (i.e., sedimentation, filtration, centrifugation,
activated carbon, reverse osmosis, etc.) and/or chemical
means (i.e., coagulation, oxidation, precipitation, etc.) to
treat wastewaters.
Phytoplankton. (1) Collective term for the plants and
plantlike organisms present in plankton; contrasts with
zooplankton.
Plankton.. Collective term for the passively flating or
drifting flora and fauna of a body of water; consists
largely of microscopic organisms.
Point Source. Any discernible, confined and discrete
conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch,
channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,
rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or
vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or
may be discharged.
Pollutional Load. A measure of the strength of a wastewater
in terms of its solids or oxygen-demanding characteristics
or other objectionable physical and chemical characteristics
or both or in terms of harm done to receiving waters. The
pollutional load imposed on sewage treatment works is
expressed as eguivalent population.
Polyelectrolytes. Synthetic chemicals (polymers) used to
speed up the removal of solids from sewage. These chemicals
cause solids to coagulate or clump together more rapidly
than do chemicals such as alum or lime. They can be anionic
(-charge) , nonionic (+ and -charge) or cationic (+charge
the most popular) . They are linear or branched organic
polymers. They have high molecular weights and are water-
soluble. Compounds similar to the polyelectrolyte
flocculants include surface~active agents and ion exchange
resins. The former are low molecular weight, water soluble
compounds used to disperse solids in aqueous systems. The
latter are high molecular weight, water-insoluble compounds
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used to selectively replace certain ions already present in
water with more desirable or less noxious ions.
Population Equivalent (PE). An expression of the relative
strength of a waste (usually industrial) in terms of its
equivalent in domestic waste, expressed as the population
that would produce the equivalent domestic waste. A
population equivalent of 160 million persons means the
pollutional effect equivalent to raw sewage from 160 million
persons; 0.17 pounds BOD (the oxygen demand of untreated
wastes from one person) = 1 PE.
Potable Water. Drinking water sufficiently pure for human
use.
Potash. Potassium compounds used in agriculture and other
manufacturing segments. Potassium carbonate can be obtained
from wood ashes. The mineral potash is usually a muriate.
Caustic potash is its hydrated form.
Preaeration . A preparatory treatment of sewage consisting
of aeration to remove gases and add oxygen or to promote the
flotation of grease and aid coagulation.
Precipitation. The phenomenon which occurs when a substance
held in solution passes out of that solution into solid
form. The adjustment of pH can reduce solubility and cause
precipitation. Alum and lime are frequently used chemicals
in such operations as water softening or alkalinity
reduction.
Pretreatment. Any wastewater treatment process used to
partially reduce the pollution load before the wastewater is
introduced into a main sewer system or delivered to a
treatment plant for substantial reduction of the pollution
load.
Primary Clarifier. The settling tank into which the
wastewater (sewage) first enters and from which the solids
are removed as raw sludge.
Primary Sludge. Sludge from primary clarifiers.
Primary Treatment. The removal of material that floats or
will settle in sewage by using screens to catch the floating
objects and tanks for the heavy matter to settle in. The
first major treatment and sometimes the only treatment in a
waste-treatment works, usually sedimentation and/or
flocculation and digestion. The removal of a moderate
percentage of suspended matter but little or no colloidal or
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dissolved matter. May effect the removal of 30 to 35
percent or more BOD.
Process Wastewater. Any water which, during manufacturing
or processing, comes into direct contact with or results
from the production or use of any raw material, intermediate
product, finished product, by-product, or waste product.
Process Water. Any water (solid, liquid or vapor) which,
during the manufacturing process, comes into direct contact
with any raw material, intermediate product, by-product,
waste product, or finished product.
Putrefaction. Biological decomposition of organic matter
accompanied by the production of foul-smelling products
associated with anaerobic conditions.
Pyrolysis. The high temperature decomposition of complex
molecules that occurs in the presence of an inert atmosphere
(no oxygen present to support combustion).
Quench. A liquid used for cooling purposes.
Quiesance. Quiet, still, inactive.
Raw waste Load (RWL). The quantity (kg) of pollutant being
discharged in a plant1s wastewater. measured in terms of
some common denominator (i.e., kkg of production or m2 of
floor area).
Receiving Waters. Rivers, lakes, oceans or other courses
that receive treated or untreated wastewaters.
Recirculation. The refiltration of either all or a portion
of the effluent in a high-rate trickling filter for the
purpose of maintaining a uniform high rate through the
filter. (2) The return of effluent to the incoming flow.
Reduction. A process in which an atom (or group of atoms)
gain electrons. Such a process always requires the input of
energy.
Refractory Organics. Organic materials that are only
partially degraded or entirely nonbiodegradable in
biological waste treatment processes. Refractory organics
include detergents, pesticides, color- and odor-causing
agents, tannins, lignins, ethers, olefins, alcohols, amines,
aldehydes, ketones, etc.
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Residual Chlorine. The amount of chlorine left in the
treated water that is available to oxidize contaminants if
they enter the stream. It is usually in the form of
hypochlorous acid of hypochlorite ion or of one of the
chloramines. Hypochlorite concentration alone is called
"free chlorine residual" while together with the chloramine
concentration their sum is called "combined chlorine
residual."
Respiration. Biological oxidation within a life form; the
most likely energy source for animals (the reverse of
photosynthesis) .
Retention Time. Volume of the vessel divided by the flow
rate through the vessel.
Retort. A vessel, commonly a glass bulb with a long neck
bent downward, used for distilling or decomposing substances
fcy heat.
Salt. A compound made up of the positive ion of a base and
the negative ion of an acid.
Sanitary Landfill. A sanitary landfill is a land disposal
site employing an engineered method of disposing of solid
wastes on land in a manner that minimizes environmental
hazards by spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes to the smallest practical volume, and
applying cover material at the end of each operating day.
There are two basic sanitary landfill methods; trench fill
and area or ramp fill. The method chosen is dependent on
many factors such as drainage and type of soil at the
proposed landfill site.
Sanitary Sewers. In a separate system, pipes in a city that
carry only domestic wastewater. The storm water runoff is
handled by a separate system of pipes.
Screening. The removal of relatively coarse, floating and
suspended solids by straining through racks or screens.
Secondary Treatment. The second step in most waste
treatment systems in which bacteria consume the organic part
of the wastes. This is accomplished by bringing the sewage
and bacteria together either in trickling filters or in the
activated sludge process.
Sedimentation, Final. The settling of partly settled,
flocculated or oxidized sewage in a final tank. (The term
settling is preferred).
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Sedimentation, Plain. The sedimentation of suspended matter
in a liquid unaided by chemicals or other special means and
without any provision for the decomposition of the deposited
solids in contact with the sewage. (The term plain settling
is preferred) .
Seed, To introduce microorganisms into a culture medium.
Settleable Solids. Suspended solids which will settle out
of a liquid waste in a given period of time.
Settling Velocity. The terminal rate of fall of a particle
through a fluid as induced by gravity or other external
forces.
Sewage, Raw. Untreated sewage.
Sewage, Storm. The liquid flowing in sewers during or
following a period of heavy rainfall and resulting
therefrom.
Sewerage. A comprehensive term which includes facilities
for collecting, pumping, treating, and disposing of sewage;
the sewerage system and the sewage treatment works.
Silt. Particles with a size distribution of 0.05mm-0.002mm
(2.0mm). Silt is high in quartz and feldspar.
Skimming. Removing floating solids (scum).
Sludge, Activated. Sludge floe produced in raw or settled
sewage by the growth of zoogleal tacteria and other
organisms in the presence of dissolved oxygen and
accumulated in sufficient concentration by returning the
floe previously formed.
Sludge, Age. The ratio of the weight of volatile solids in
the digester to the weight of volatile solids added per day.
There is a maximum sludge age beyond which no significant
reduction in the concentration of volatile solids will
occur.
Sludge, Digested. Sludge digested under anaerobic
conditions until the volatile content has been reduced,
usually by approximately 50 percent or more.
Solution. A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
of dissimilar molecular structure. In a solution, there is
a dissolving medium-solvent and a dissolved substance-
solute.
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Solvent.. A liquid which reacts with a material, bringing it
into soluti on.
solvent Extraction. A mixture of two components is treated
by a solvent that preferentially dissolves one or more of
the components in the mixture. The solvent in the extract
leaving the extractor is usually recovered and reused.
Sparger. An air diffuser designed to give large bubbles,
used singly or in combination with mechanical aeration
devices.
Sparging. Heating a liquid by means of live steam entering
through a perforated or nozzled pipe (used, for example, to
coagulate blood solids in meat processing).
Standard Deviation. The square root of the variance which
describes the variability within the sampling data on the
basis of the deviation of individual sample values from the
mean.
Standard Raw Waste jLoad fSRWL). The raw waste load which
characterizes a specific subcategory. This is generally
computed by averaging the plant raw waste loads within a
subcategory.
Steam Distillation. Fractionation in which steam introduced
as one of the vapors or in which steam is injected to
provide the heat of the system.
Sterilization. The complete destuction of all living
organisms in or on a medium; heat to 121°C at 5 psig for 15
minutes.
Stillwell. A pipe, chamber, or compartment with
comparatively small inlet or inlets communicating with a
main body of water. Its purpose is to dampen waves or
surges while permitting the water level within the well to
rise and fall with the major fluctuations of the main body
of water. it is used with water-measuring devices to
improve accuracy of measurement.
Stoichiometric. Characterized by being a proportion of
substances exactly right for a specific chemical reaction
with no excess of any reactant or product.
Stripper. A device in which relatively volatile components
are removed from a mixture by distillation or by passage of
steam through the mixture.
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Substrate. (1) Reactant portion of any biochemical
reaction, material transformed into a product. (2) Any
substance used as a nutrient by a microorganism. (3) The
liquor in which activated sludge or other material is kept
in suspension.
Sulfate. The final decomposition product of organic sulfur
compounds.
Supernatant. Floating above or on the surface.
Surge tank. A tank for absorbing and dampening the wavelike
motion of a volume of liquid; an in-plant storage tank that
acts as a flow buffer between process tanks.
Suspended Solids. The wastes that will not sink or settle
in sewage. The quantity of material deposited on a filter
when a liquid is drawn through a Gooch crucible.
Synergistjc. An effect which is more than the sum of the
individual contributors.
Synergistic Effect. The simultaneous action of separate
agents which, together, have greater total effect than the
sum of their individual effects.
Tertiary Treatment. A process to remove practically all
solids and organic matter from wastewater. Granular
activated carbon filtration is a tertiary treatment process.
Phosphate removal by chemical coagulation is also regarded
as a step in tertiary treatment.
Thermal Oxidation. The wet combustion of organic materials
through the application of heat in the presence of oxygen.
TKN (Total Kieldahi Nitrogen). Includes ammonia and organic
nitrogen but does not include nitrite and nitrate nitrogen.
The sum of free nitrogen and organic nitrogen in a sample.
TLm. The concentration that kills 50% of the test organisms
within a specified time span, usually in 96 hours or less.
Most of the available toxicity data are reported as the
median tolerance limit (TLm). This system of reporting has
been misapplied by some who have erroneously inferred that a
TLm value is a safe value, whereas it is merely the level at
which half of the test organisms are killed. In many cases,
the differences are great between TLm concentrations and
concentrations that are low enough to permit reproduction
and growth. LC50 has the same numerical value as TLm.
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Total Organic Carbon (TOG). A measure of the amount of
carbon in a sample originating from organic matter only.
The test is run by burning the sample and measuring the
carbon dioxide produced.
Total Solids. The total amount of solids in a wastewater
both in solution and suspension.
Total Volatile Solids JTVSJ_. The quantity of residue lost
after the ignition of total solids.
Transport Water. Water used to carry insoluble solids.
Trickling Filter. A bed of rocks or stones. The sewage is
trickled over the bed so that bacteria can break down the
organic wastes. The bacteria collect on the stones through
repeated use of the filter.
Turbidity. A measure of the amount of solids in suspension.
The units of measurement are parts per million (ppm) of
suspended solids or Jackson Candle Units. The Jackson
Candle Unit (JCU) is defined as the turbidity resulting from
1 ppm of fuller's earth (and inert mineral) suspended in
water. The relationship between ppm and JCU depends on
particle size, color, index of refraction; the correlation
between the two is generally not possible. Turbidity
instruments utilize a light beam projected into the sample
fluid to effect a measurement. The light beam is scattered
by solids in suspension, and the degree of light attenuation
or the amount of scattered light can be related to
turbidity. The light scattered is called the Tyndall effect
and the scattered light the Tyndall light. An expression of
the optical property of a sample which causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight
lines through the sample.
Viruses. (1) An obligate intracellular parasitic
microorganism smaller than bacteria. Most can pass through
filters that retain bacteria. (2) The smallest (10-300 urn
in diameter) form capable of producing infection and
diseases in man or other large species. Occurring in a
variety of shapes, viruses consist of a nucleic acid core
surrounded by an outer shell (capsid) which consists of
numerous protein subunits (capsomeres). Some of the larger
viruses contain additional chemical substances. The true
viruses are insensitive to antibiotics. They multiply only
in living cells where they are assembled as complex
macromolecules utilizing the cells' biochemical systems.
They do not multiply by division as do intracellular
bacteria.
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Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) . The quantity of suspended
solids lost after the ignition of total suspended solids.
Waste Treatment Plant. A series of tanks, screens, filters,
pumps and other equipment by which pollutants are removed
from water.
Water Quality Criteria. Those specific values of water
quality associated with an identified beneficial use of the
water under consideration.
Weir. A flow measuring device consisting of a barrier
across an open channel, causing the liquid to flow over its
crest. The height of the liquid above the crest varies with
the volume of liquid flow.
Wet Air Pollution Control. The technique of air pollution
abatement utilizing water as an absorptive media.
Wet Oxidation. The direct oxidation of organic matter in
wastewater liquids in the presence of air under heat and
pressure; generally applied to organic matter oxidation in
sludge.
Zeolite. Various natural or synthesized silicates used in
water softening and as absorbents.
Zooplankton. (1) The animal portion of the plankton. (2)
Collective term for the nonphotosynthetic organisms present
in plankton; contrasts with phytoplankton.
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SECTION XVII
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A.C. activated carbon
ac.ft. acre foot
Ag. Silver
atm atmosphere
ave average
bbl barrel
BOD5 biochemical oxygen demand, five day
Btu British thermal unit
C centigrade degrees
C.A. carbon adsorption
cal. calorie
cc cubic centimeter
cfm cubic foot per minute
cfs cubic foot per second
Cl. chloride
cm centimeter
CN cyanide
COD chemical oxygen demand
cone. concentration
cu cubic
db decibels
deg degree
DO dissolved oxygen
E. Coli Escherichia ccliform bacteria
Eq. equation
F Fahrenheit degrees
Fig. figure
F/M BOD5 (Wastewater flow) / MLSS (contractor volume)
fpm foot per minute
fps foot per second
ft foot
g gram
gal gallon
gpd gallon per day
gpm gallon per minute
Hg Mercury
hp horsepower
hp-hr horsepower-hour
hr hour
in inch
kg kilogram
kw kilowatt
kwhr kilowatthour
L(l) liter
L/kkg liters per 1000 kilograms
Ib pound
183
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m meter
M thousand
MM million
me milliequivalent
mg milligram
mgd million gallons daily
min minute
ml milliliter
MLSS mixed*? liquor suspended solids
MSVSS mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids
mm millimeter
mole gram-molecular weight
mph mile per hour
MPN most probable number
mu millimicron
NOJ nitrate
NH3.-N ammonium nitrogen
0.2 oxygen
PO*£ phosphate
p. page
pH potential hydrogen or hydrogen-ion index (negative
logrithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration)
pp. pages
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
psf pound per sguare foot
psi pound per square inch
R.O. reverse osmosis
rpm revolution per minute
RWL raw waste load
sec second
Sec. Section
S.I.C. Standard Industrial Classification
SOx sulfates
sq square
sq. ft. square foot
SS suspended solids
STP standard temperature and pressure
SRWL standard raw waste load
TDS total dissolved solids
TKN total kjeldahl nitrogen
TLm median tolerance limit
TOC total organic carbon
TOD total oxygen demand
TSS total suspended solids
u micron
ug microgram
vol volume
wt weight
yd yard
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TABLE XVIII
METRIC TABLE
CONVERSION TABLE
JLTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
ere ac
ere-feet ac ft
ritish Thermal
Unit BTU
ritish Thermal
Unit/Pound BTU/lb
ubic feet/minute cfm
ubic feet/second cfs
:ubic feet cu ft
:ubic feet cu ft
:ubic inches cu in
legree Fahrenheit °F
"eet ft
gallon gal
;allon/minute gpm
lorsepower hp
.nches in
.nches of mercury in Hg
)ounds Ib
lillion gallons/day mgd
lile mi
)ound/square
inch (gauge) psig
iquare feet sq ft
square inches sq in
;on (short) ton
yd
by
CONVERSION
0.405
1233.5
0.252
TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
ha
cu m
kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)* atm
0.0929 sq m
6.452 sq cm
0.907 kkg
0.9144 m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram-calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric ton (1000 kilograms)
meter
*Actual conversion, not a multiplier
185
4/30/76
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Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 6060U
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