United States   ' ' *   Effluent Guidelines Division   EPA 440/1-81/057-b
Environmental Protection     WH-552         January 1981
Agency          Washington, DC 20460        -^
Water and Waste Management
Development        Proposed
Document for
Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and
Standards for the

Coal Mining
Point Source Category

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              DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                  FOR PROPOSED

        EFFLUENT LIMTATIONS GUIDELINES

      NEW  SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS,

                      AND

             PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

                    FOR THE

                  COAL MINING

             POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
               Douglas  M.  Cos tie
                Administrator
                 Jeffrey D.  Denit
Acting Director,  Effluent Guidelines Division
               Dennis  C.  Ruddy
               Project Officer
                January 1981
         Effluent Guidelines Division
     Office of Water  and Waste Management
     U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
           Washington, D.C.   20460
        U.S. Environment-! Protection Agency.
        Region V, Library
        230 South Dearborn Street    _X
        Chicago, Illinois  60604

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\J,S- Environmental Protection Age

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                        TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section                                                      Page

I         SUMMARY	     1

          SUBCATEGORIZATION.	     1

          WATER SOURCES	     3

          POLLUTANT COVERAGE 	 .  	     3

               Toxic (Priority) Pollutants 	     3
               Conventional Pollutants 	     4
               Nonconventional Pollutants	     4

          TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 	     4

               Amendments to BPT	     4
               BAT	     6
               New Source Performance Standards.  ......     7

II        PROPOSED REGULATIONS 	     9

          AMENDMENTS TO BPT REQUIREMENTS	     9

          BCT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS 	    11

          BAT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS 	    11

          NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 	    11

          PRETREATMENT STANDARDS 	    11

          BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES	    16

III       INTRODUCTION	    17

          STATUTORY AUTHORITY	    17

          PRIOR EPA REGULATIONS	    20

          RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER REGULATIONS	    21

          OVERVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY	    21

          SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGY 	    22
                              iii

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)


Section                                                     Page

IV        INDUSTRY PROFILE 	     27

          INTRODUCTION	  .  .     27

          ORIGIN AND CHEMISTRY OF COAL	    27

               Origin	    29
               Chemistry	    28

          INDUSTRY WATER USE	    34

               Coal Mining	    34
               Coal Preparation	    36

          HISTORY	    39

               Surface Mining 	    39
               Underground Mining 	    43
               Transportation 	    44

          FUTURE	    64

               Production and Expansion	    64
               Exports/Imports	    67
               Utilization	    67
               Productivity and Prices	    67

          LOCATION AND PRODUCTION 	    55

               Anthracite	    55
               Bituminous, Subbituminous and Lignite. ...    64

          MINING METHODS	    70

               Surface Mining 	    70
               Underground Mining 	    81

          PREPARATION PLANTS AND ASSOCIATED AREAS 	    87

               Introduction 	    87
               Coal Preparation Processes 	    87
               Plant Statistics	    92
               Associated Areas 	    92
                               iv

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section                                                     Page
V         WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION AND INDUSTRY
          SUB CATEGORIZATION	    97

          INTRODUCTION 	    97

          SUB CATEGORIZATION	    97

               Revised BPT and BAT Subcategorization
               Scheme	    97

          SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PROGRAM	    98

               Data Base Developed During this Study ...    98
               Data Sources	    99

          WASTEWATER SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS 	   102

               Acid Mine Drainage	   105
               Alkaline Mine Drainage	   108
               Preparation Plants	   108
               Preparation Plant Associated Areas	   109
               Post Mining Discharges	   Ill

          SUPPORT FOR THE PROPOSED SUBCATEGORIZATION
          SCHEME	   112

               Surface and Underground Mines 	   113
               Preparation Plants and Preparation Plant
               Associated Areas	   113
               Pennsylvania Anthracite Mines 	   115
               Post Mining Discharges	   115
               Western Mines 	   116

VI        SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS	   173

          INTRODUCTION 	   173

          POLLUTANTS SELECTED FOR REGULATION IN THE COAL     174
          MINING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY 	

          POLLUTANTS EXCLUDED FROM REGULATION	   174

               Pollutants Not Detected in Treated
               Effluents	   174
               Laboratory Analysis and Field Sampling
               Contamination 	   174
                               v

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section                                                     Page

               Priority Organics Detected in Treated
               Effluents at One or Two Mines and Uniquely
               Related to Those Sources	   176
               Priority Organics Detected But Present in
               Amounts Too Small to be Effectively
               Reduced	   177
               Priority Metals Excluded from Regulation. .   177

VII       TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY	    239

          INTRODUCTION	    239

          APPROACH	    239

          ACID MINE DRAINAGE	    241

               Current Treatment Technology 	    241
               Candidate Treatment Technologies 	    251

          ALKALINE MINE DRAINAGE	    277

               Current Treatment Technology 	    277
               Candidate Treatment Technologies 	    281

          PREPARATION PLANTS	    281

               Current Treatment Technologies 	    281
               Candidate Treatment and Control
               Technologies - Existing Sources	    285
               Candidate Treatment Technologies - New
               Sources	    291

          PREPARATION PLANT ASSOCIATED AREAS	    291

               Current Treatment Technology 	    291
               Candidate Treatment Technologies 	    292

          POST MINING DISCHARGES	    292

               Reclamation Areas	    292
               Underground Mine Discharges	    293

          CATASTROPHIC PRECIPITATION EVENT EXEMPTION. .   .    293
                               vi

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Section                                                     Page

VIII      COST, ENERGY AND NON-WATER QUALITY ISSUES ...    297

          INTRODUCTION	    297

          MINE DRAINAGE	    299

               Existing Sources 	    299
               New Sources	    311

          PREPARATION PLANTS AND ASSOCIATED AREAS	   317

               Existing Sources	   317
               New Sources	-	   331

          TREATMENT COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH MINE CLOSURES. .   340

               General Assumptions Used	   340
               Reclamation Areas 	   340
               Assumptions	   340
               Operation and Maintenance Costs 	   341

          GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING CAPITAL COSTS
          FOR ALL SUBCATEGORIES	   347

               Building Costs	   347
               Piping	   347
               Electrical and Instrumentation	   347
               Power Supply for Mine Water Treatment . . .   347
               Land	   349
               Equipment	   349

          GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING ANNUAL COSTS
          FOR ALL SUBCATEGORIES	   353

               Amortization	   353
               Operation and Maintenance 	   353

          SLUDGE HANDLING AND ASSOCIATED COSTS 	   354

               Sludge Lagoons	   354
               Haulage of Dewatered Sludge 	   354
               Haulage of Undewatered Sludge 	   357

          REGIONAL SPECIFICITY FOR COSTS 	   357
                              vii

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)


Section                                                     Page

         , NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS	   361

               Air Pollution	   361
               Solid Waste Generation	   361
               Flocculant Addition and Granular Media
               Filtration	   361
               Total Recycle Option - Preparation Plants  .   362
               Settling - Reclamation Areas	   362

IX        AMENDMENTS TO BPT	   363

          WESTERN MINES	   363

          POST MINING DISCHARGES 	   363

               Reclamation Areas 	   363
               Underground Mine Discharges 	   364

          CATASTROPHIC PRECIPITATION EVENT EXEMPTION . .  .   364

X         BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
       ,  , ACHIEVABLE	   367

          BAT .OPTIONS CONSIDERED	   368

          BAT SELECTION AND DECISION CRITERIA	   370

          BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (WATER MANAGEMENT) .  .   372

               Underground Mines 	   372
               Surface Mining	   377

XI        BEST CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGY  .   387

XII       NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 	   391

          NSPS OPTIONS CONSIDERED	   391

          NSPS SELECTION AND DECISION CRITERIA	   392

XIII      PRETREATMENT STANDARDS 	   393

XIV       ACKNOWLEDGMENTS	   395
                               Vlll

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                  TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)


Section                                                     Page

XV        REFERENCES	403

XVI       GLOSSARY	417


SUPPLEMENT A

          APPENDIX A  COST ASSUMPTIONS AND BACKUP DATA. .  .  A-i

SUPPLEMENT B (3 Volumes)

          APPENDIX B  SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL DATA	B-i

SUPPLEMENT C

          APPENDIX C  SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PROTOCOL.  ...  C-i

          APPENDIX D  SAMPLE LETTERS,  MINE VISIT CHECK
                      LISTS, QUESTIONNAIRES 	  D-i

          APPENDIX E  PREPARATION PLANT QUESTIONNAIRE
                      PACKAGE	E-i

          APPENDIX F  DESCRIPTIONS AND SCHEMATICS OF
                      TREATMENT FACILITIES AND SAMPLING
                      POINTS	F-i

          APPENDIX G  COST VERIFICATION DATA	G-i


          Copies of the Supplements may be obtained from W. A.
Telliard, Effluent Guidelines Division (WH-552), Environmental
Protection Agency, 401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C., 20460,
or by calling (202) 426-2724.
                               ix

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                          LIST OF TABLES
Number

II-1      EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON BEST AVAILABLE
          TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE (BAT)	   12

11-2      NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS	   14

III-l     THE FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMEND-
          MENTS OF 1972	   18

IV-1      CLASSIFICATION OF COALS BY RANK	   29

IV-2      COAL MACERALS AND MACERAL GROUPS RECOGNIZED BY
          THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR COAL PETROGRAPHY.   30

IV-3      TRACE INORGANIC ELEMENTS IN COAL	   32

IV-4      MAJOR INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF COAL, ASH
          PORTION	   33

IV-5      WATER USE IN PREPARATION PLANTS BY LEVEL OF
          CLEANING AND TYPE OF COAL CLEANED	   38

IV-6      HISTORY OF U.S. ANTHRACITE PRODUCTION 	   41

IV-7      GROWTH OF THE BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL MINING
          INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES	   45

IV-8      ESTIMATED 1978 COAL PRODUCTION BY STATE  -
          BITUMINOUS AND LITNITE	   58

IV-9      BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL MINES, NUMBER AND
          PRODUCTION BY SIZE OF OUTPUT, 1975	   59

IV-10     THE 15 BIGGEST BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE MINES IN
          1978	   60

IV-11     TOP 15 COAL-PRODUCING GROUPS IN 1978	   61

IV-12     COAL RESERVES OF THE TOP 15 U.S. COMPANIES. ...   66

IV-13     DEMONSTRATED U.S. COAL RESERVES BY COAL REGION
          AND COAL RANK	   68

IV-14     BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE TONNAGE PROCESSED
          IN 1975	   94
                               XI

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Number
IV-15
V-l
V-2
V-3
V-4
V-5
V-6
V-7
V-8
V-9
V-10
V-ll
V-12
V-13
V-14

MECHANICAL CLEANING OF BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE
COAL IN 1975, BY TYPE OF EQUIPMENT 	
DATA SOURCES DEVELOPED DURING BAT REVIEW FOR
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION 	
DATA BASE SOURCES 	
TREATABILITY STUDIES CONDUCTED ON COAL MINE
DRAINAGE 	
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
RAW WASTEWATER- -ALL SUBCATEGORIES 	
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
RAW WASTEWATER- -SUB CATEGORY ACID DRAINAGE MINES.
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY RAW
WASTEWATER- -SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE DRAINAGE MINES.
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
RAW WASTEWATER- -SUBCATEGORY PREPARATION PLANTS .
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
RAW WASTEWATER- -SUBCATEGORY ASSOCIATED AREAS . .
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY RAW
WASTEWATER- -SUB CATEGORY AREAS UNDER RECLAMATION.
COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL POLLUTANTS IN ALKALINE
SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINES 	
COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL POLLUTANTS IN ACID
SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINES 	
COMPARISON OF MEDIAN TOXIC METAL CONCENTRATIONS
IN ACID AND ALKALINE SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND
MINES 	
PREPARATION PLANTS VERSUS ASSOCIATED AREAS
UNTREATED WATER 	
PREPARATION PLANT PROCESS EFFLUENT TOTAL VERSUS
DISSOLVED METALS 	
Page
95
123
124
125
126
132
138
144
150
156
158
159
160
161
162
           Xll

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                    LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Number
V-15      COMPARISON OF ANTHRACITE AND ACID RAW
          WASTEWATER	     163

V-16      EASTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--RAW WASTEWATER--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES--CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVEN-
          TIONAL POLLUTANTS	     164

V-17      EASTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--RAW WASTEWATER--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS 	     165

V-18      WESTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY—RAW WASTEWATER--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE   .
          DRAINAGE MINES--CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVEN-
          TIONAL POLLUTANTS	     166

V-19      WESTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--RAW WASTEWATER--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    167

V-20      EASTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--FINAL EFFLUENT--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES--CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVEN-
          TIONAL POLLUTANTS	     168

V-21      EASTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--FINAL EFFLUENT--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES—TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    169

V-22      WESTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--FINAL EFFLUENT--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES—CONVENTIONAL AND NONCONVEN-
          TIONAL POLLUTANTS	     170

V-23      WESTERN MINES--WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION
          SUMMARY--FINAL EFFLUENT--SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE
          DRAINAGE MINES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    171

V-24      COAL MINE DMR DATA--1979 AVERAGE TSS AND Fe
          VALUES:  ALKALINE EASTERN VS. ALKALINE WESTERN
          FACILITIES	    172
                              Xlll

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                    LIST OF TABLES  (Continued)


Number                                                      Page

VI-1      LIST OF 129 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS, CONVENTIONALS
          AND NON-CONVENTIONALS	    178

VI-2      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY FINAL
          EFFLUENT--ALL SUBCATEGORIES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS.  .    182

VI-3      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION, SUMMARY
          FINAL EFFLUENT SUBCATEGORY ACID DRAINAGE
          MINES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    188

VI-4      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
          FINAL EFFLUENT SUBCATEGORY ALKALINE DRAINAGE
          MINES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    194
      •
VI-5      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY FINAL
          EFFLUENT SUBCATEGORY PREPARATION PLANTS--TOXIC
          POLLUTANTS	    200

VI-6      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY FINAL
          EFFLUENT SUBCATEGORY ASSOCIATED AREAS--TOXIC
          POLLUTANTS	    206

VI-7      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY
          FINAL EFFLUENT SUBCATEGORY AREAS UNDER
          RECLAMATION--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    212

VI-8      COAL MINING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY ORGANIC
          PRIORITY POLLUTANTS DETERMINED TO BE EXCLUDED.  .    214

VI-9      PRIORITY ORGANICS NOT DETECTED IN TREATED
          EFFLUENTS OF SCREENING AND VERIFICATION SAMPLES.    221

VI-10     PRIORITY ORGANICS DETECTED BUT PRESENT DUE TO
          CONTAMINATION OF SOURCES OTHER THAN THOSE
          SAMPLES--SCREENING AND VERIFICATION SAMPLES.  .  .    224

VI-11     WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY CONTROLS--
          ALL SUBCATEGORIES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS	    225

V-12      WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION SUMMARY PLANT
          BLANKS--ALL SUBCATEGORIES--TOXIC POLLUTANTS.  .  .    231

V-13      TUBING^LEACHING ANALYSIS RESULTS 	    236
                               xiv

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                    LIST OF TABLES  (Continued)
Number
VI-14     COMPOUNDS DETECTED IN TREATED WATER AT ONE OR
          TWO MINES BUT ALWAYS BELOW 10 ug/1	   237

VI-15     PRIORITY ORGANICS DETECTED BUT PRESENT IN
          AMOUNTS TOO SMALL TO BE EFFECTIVELY REDUCED.  .  .   238

VII-1     TRACE ELEMENT REMOVAL BY LIME NEUTRALIZATION -
          CROWN MINE PILOT PLANT STUDY	   245

VII-2     ESTIMATED EFFLUENT CONTAMINANT LEVELS -
          ACTIVATED CARBON 	   254

VII-3     ION EXCHANGE EFFLUENT WATER QUALITY	   257

VII-4     EFFLUENT WATER QUALITY ACHIEVED BY REVERSE
          OSMOSIS	   261

VII-5     THEORETICAL SOLUBILITIES OF HYDROXIDES AND
          SULFIDES OF HEAVY METALS IN PURE WATER	   265

VII-6     SUMMARY OF SETTLING TESTS PERFORMED	   269

VII-7     SUMMARY OF TEST RESULTS FOR METALS REMOVAL BY
          BPT AND FLOCCULANT ADDITION	   270

VII-8     MEAN FINAL EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS FOR UNSPIKED
          AND SPIKED SAMPLES	   275

VII-9     SUMMARY OF FILTRATION TESTS PERFORMED	   278

VII-10    ANALYTICAL RESULTS FROM FILTRATION TREATABILITY
          STUDY	   279

VIII-1    CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS OF ALTERNATE TREAT-
          MENT TECHNOLOGIES NOT RECOMMENDED FOR BAT. . .  .   298

VIII-2    BREAKDOWN OF ANNUALIZED COST FOR LEVEL 2 TREAT-
          MENT SYSTEM	   308

VIII-3    COST OF OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
          SYSTEMS	   350

VIII-4    CAPITAL COSTS FOR DIESEL GENERATOR SETS	   351

VIII-5    COST MULTIPLIERS FOR COAL MINING REGIONS IN
          THE UNITED STATES	   360
                               xv

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                    LIST OF TABLES (Continued)


Number                                                      Page

VIII-7    ACCESS ROAD - CLASS II--COST - $/1.0 MILE. ...   353

VIH-8    ACCESS ROAD - CLASS I--COST - $/1.0 MILE  ....   353

X-l       EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON BEST AVAILABLE
          TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE	   371

XI-1      COAL MINING POINT SOURCE CATEGORY--COST PER
          POUND OF TSS REMOVED--BCT TEST	   389
                               xvi

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                         LIST OF FIGURES
Number

IV-1      SCATTER DIAGRAM OF COAL MINE PRODUCTION AND
          MINE DRAINAGE	    35

IV-2      FLOW DISTRIBUTION OF COAL MINES	'.  .  .    37

IV-3      U.S. CONSUMPTION OF COAL BY END-USE SECTOR  .  .  .    40

IV-4      HISTORY OF U.S. ANTHRACITE PRODUCTION	  .  .    42
                                                      r
IV-5      PRODUCTION:  SURFACE METHODS VERSUS UNDERGROUND
          METHODS	    48

IV-6      HISTORY OF BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL
          PRODUCTION	    49

IV-7      HISTORY OF COAL PRICES	    50

IV-8      HISTORY OF UNDERGROUND COAL MINED BY CONTINUOUS
          MINING MACHINES	    51

IV-9      HISTORY OF UNDERGROUND COAL - MECHANICALLY
          LOADED	    52

IV-10     HISTORY OF NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES	    53

1V-11     HISTORY OF PRODUCTIVITY RATES	    54

IV-12     U.S. COAL TRANSPORTATION BY METHOD OF MOVEMENT,
          1976 AND PROJECTED	    56

IV-13     GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF COAL MINES	    57

IV-14     LOCATION OF THE MAJOR ANTHRACITE COAL FIELDS  IN
          THE U.S. NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA	    62

IV-15     MAJOR BITUMINOUS, SUBBITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL
          DEPOSITS IN THE UNITED STATES	    65

IV-16     AREAS OF HIGH POTENTIAL FOR GASIFICATION
          DEVELOPMENT	    69

IV-17     CONTOUR MINING (STRIPPING)  	    72

IV-18     WEST VIRGINIA HOLLOW FILL	    73
                               xvii

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                   LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)


Number

IV-19     HAULBACK MINING	    75

IV-20     AREA MINING WITH DRAGLINES	    77

IV-21     AREA MINING WITH STRIPPING SHOVEL	    78

IV-22     AREA MINING (OPEN-PIT MINING) OF A THICK SEAM.  .    79

IV-23     AREA MINING (CROSS-RIDGE MOUNTAINTOP METHOD)  .  .    80

IV-24     UNDERGROUND MINING PRACTICES 	    82

IV-25     UNDERGROUND COAL MINING - ROOM AND PILLAR
          SYSTEM	    84

IV-26     LONGWALL MINING METHOD 	    86

IV-27     SHORTWALL MINING METHOD	    88

IV-28     SIMPLIFIED FLOW SCHEME - PHYSICAL COAL CLEANING
          PROCESS	    90

IV-29     TYPES OF COAL PREPARATION PLANTS IN THE UNITED
          STATES	    93

V-l       CONCENTRATIONS OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS AS A FUNCTION
          OF pH	   118

V-2       TYPICAL PREPARATION PLANT WATER CIRCUITS ....   119

V-3       COAL MINING REGIONS	   120

V-4       RELATION OF AREAS OF POSITIVE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
          TO THE 100th MERIDIAN	   121

V-5       OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES AT WESTERN
          ALKALINE MINES 	   122

VII-1     TYPICAL BPT TREATMENT CONFIGURATION FOR ACID
          MINE DRAINAGE	   242

VII-2     CIRCULAR CENTER FEED CLARIFIER WITH A SCRAPER
          SLUDGE REMOVAL SYSTEM	   247

VII-3     RECTANGULAR SEDIMENTATION CLARIFIER WITH CHAIN
          AND FLIGHT COLLECTOR 	   249
                               xviii

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                   LIST OF FIGURES  (Continued)


Number                                                      Page

VII-4     PERIPHERAL FEED CLARIFIER	   250

VII-5     ACTIVATED CARBON SYSTEM	   253

VII-6     CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF AN ION EXCHANGE SYSTEM.  .  .   255

VII-7     TRANSFER AGAINST OSMOTIC GRADIENT IN REVERSE
          OSMOSIS SYSTEM	    259

VII-8     SCHEMATIC OF REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEM  	    260

VII-9     CONFIGURATION OF ELECTRODIALYSIS CELLS	    263

VII-10    TYPICAL BPT TREATMENT CONFIGURATION FOR
          ALKALINE MINE DRAINAGE	    282

VII-11    TYPICAL BPT TREATMENT CONFIGURATION FOR
          PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER	    283

VII-12    WATER SOURCES AND LOSSES IN A PREPARATION PLANT
          WATER CIRCUIT	    286

VIII-1    SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 1 (BPT) FACILITIES  	    300

VIII-2    SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 2 SYSTEM TO TREAT ACID
          MINE DRAINAGE	    301

VIII-3    SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 3 MINE WATER TREATMENT
          SYSTEM	    302

VIII-4    SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 4 - FILTRATION OF LEVEL 1
          EFFLUENT ACID MINE WATER	    303

VIII-5    LEVEL 3 TREATMENT OF MINE DRAINAGE - CAPITAL
          COST VERSUS FLOWRATE	    305

VIII-6    LEVEL 4 TREATMENT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE BY
          FILTRATION CAPITAL COST VERSUS FLOWRATE ....    306

VIII-7    MINE WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM DESIGN FLOW VERSUS
          LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS	    307

VIII-8    WASTEWATER TREATMENT FLOCCULANT (POLYMER)
          ADDITION ANNUAL COST CURVES AND CAPITAL COST
          DATA	    309
                               xix

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                   LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Number
VIII-9
VIII-10
VIII-11
VIII-12
VIII-13
VIII-14
VIII-15
VIII-16
VIII-17
VIII-18
VIII-19
VIII-20
VIII-21
VIII-22

TREATMENT LEVEL 3 ANNUAL IZED COSTS AND ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS VERSUS MINE DRAINAGE FLOWRATES . .
LEVEL 4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT GRANULAR MEDIA
FILTRATION PROCESS ANNUAL COST CURVE 	
SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 3 NSPS FACILITIES 	
SCHEMATIC OF LEVEL 4 NSPS FACILITIES 	
WASTEWATER TREATMENT SEDIMENTATION POND
STORAGE VERSUS CAPITAL COST CURVE 	
LEVEL 1 MINE WASTEWATER TREATMENT pH ADJUSTMENT
CAPITAL COST CURVES 	
WASTEWATER TREATMENT SEDIMENTATION POND
ANNUAL COST CURVE 	
LEVEL 1 MINE WASTEWATER TREATMENT pH ADJUSTMENT
ANNUAL COST CURVES 	
WASTEWATER TREATMENT VACUUM FILTRATION SLUDGE
DEWATERING FACILITIES CAPITAL COST CURVE. . . .
EXISTING PREPARATION PLANT - SYSTEM 1 WATER
CIRCUITS - ZERO DISCHARGE 	
SYSTEM 2 - EXISTING PREPARATION PLANT
WATER CIRCUITS 	
SYSTEM 3 - EXISTING PREPARATION PLANT
WATER CIRCUITS 	
SYSTEM 4 - EXISTING PREPARATION PLANT - NO
RECYCLE 	
COAL MINE PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER
TREATMENT DRAINAGE DITCH FOR RUNOFF CONTROL
CAPITAL COST CURVE 	
Page
310
311
313
314
315
316
318
319
320
322
323
324
325
327
VIII-23   COAL MINE PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER
          TREATMENT DRAINAGE DITCH FOR RUNOFF CONTROL
          CAPITAL COST CURVE	
328
                               xx

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                   LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Number
Page
VIII-24   COAL MINE PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER
          TREATMENT RECYCLE/MAKE-UP WATER PUMPING
          FACILITIES VERSUS CAPITAL COST CURVE	    329

VIII-25   WASTEWATER TREATMENT EARTH DIKE/DRAINAGE DITCH
          FOR RUNOFF CONTROL ANNUAL COST CURVE	    323

VIII-26   WASTEWATER TREATMENT RECYCLE/MAKE-UP WATER
          PUMPING FACILITIES ANNUAL COST CURVE	    324

VIII-27   WASTEWATER TREATMENT SLUDGE DEWATERING
          FACILITIES ANNUAL COST CURVE	    325

VIII-28   WASTEWATER TREATMENT CLARIFIER AND PUMP STATION
          ANNUAL COST CURVE	    326

VIII-29   SYSTEM 1 - NEW SOURCE WATER CIRCUITS	    336

VIII-30   SYSTEM 2 - NEW SOURCE WATER CIRCUITS	    338

VIII-31   WASTEWATER TREATMENT CLARIFIER AND PUMPING
          FACILITIES CAPITAL COST CURVE 	    339

VIII-32   SEDIMENTATION POND OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
          ANNUAL COST CURVE FOR POST MINING DISCHARGES.  .    342

VIII-33   ANNUAL MAINTENANCE COST CURVE FOR EARTH
          DIKE/DRAINAGE DITCH RUNOFF CONTROL FOR
          POST MINING DISCHARGES	    343

VIII-34   POST MINING DISCHARGE LIME ADDITION ANNUAL
          COST CURVES FOR UNDERGROUND COAL MINE ACID
          WASTEWATER TREATMENT WITH SEDIMENTATION PONDS
          OR CLARIFIERS	   344

VIII-35   POST MINING DISCHARGE LIME FEED FACILITIES
          OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ANNUAL COST CURVES
          FOR UNDERGROUND COAL MINE ACID WASTEWATER TREAT-
          MENT WITH SEDIMENTATION PONDS OR CLARIFIERS.  .  .   345

VIII-36   POST MINING DISCHARGE AERATION OPERATION AND
          MAINTENANCE ANNUAL COST CURVE FOR UNDERGROUND
          COAL MINE ACID WASTEWATER TREATMENT WITH
          SEDIMENTATION PONDS OR CLARIFIERS 	    346
                               xxi

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                   LIST OF FIGURES  (Continued)
Number
VIII-37   AFTER MINE CLOSURE CLARIFIER MECHANISM AND
          SLUDGE PUMPING OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE
          ANNUAL COST CURVE FOR UNDERGROUND COAL MINE
          ACID WASTEWATER TREATMENT WITH CLARIFIERS.  ...    348

VIII-38   MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT SLUDGE LAGOON VERSUS
          DESIGN FLOW COST CURVES.	    355

VIII-39   MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT SLUDGE DEWATERING
          VERSUS DESIGN FLOW COST AND ENERGY CURVES.  ...    356

VIII-40   YEARLY COST OF ONE ROUND TRIP MILE OF SLUDGE
          HAULING VERSUS DESIGN FLOW MINE DRAINAGE
          TREATMENT	    358

VIII-41   SLUDGE LAGOON - AREA REQUIRED VERSUS DESIGN
          FLOW MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT ,	    359

X-l       MODIFIED BLOCK CUT	    379

X-2       CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HEAD-OF-HOLLOW FILL  .  .    380

X-3       SEDIMENT TRAPS	    384

XI-1      BCT COST CURVES	    388
                               xxii

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                            SECTION  I

                             SUMMARY

The primary purpose of this study was  to determine  the  presence
and concentrations of the 129 toxic  or  "priority" pollutants  in
the coal mining point source category  for  possible  regulation.
This development document presents the  technical data base  devel-
oped by EPA with regard to these pollutants  and their treatabil-
ity for regulation under the Clean Water Act.  The  concentrations
of conventional and nonconventional  pollutants were also  examined
for the establishment of effluent limitations guidelines  based  on
the application of the best conventional pollutant  control  tech-
nology (BCT) and the best available  technology economically
achievable (BAT), respectively.  Necessary modifications  to prior
regulations based on best practicable  control technology  cur-
rently available (BPT) were also identified.  Treatment technol-
ogies were also assessed for designation as  the best available
demonstrated technology upon which new  source performance stand-
ards (NSPS) are based.  This document outlines the  technology
options considered and the rationale for selecting  each technol-
ogy level.  These technology levels  are the  basis for the
proposed effluent limitations.

A second purpose of this study was to  assess the need for estab-
lishing effluent limitations to regulate discharges from  surface
and deep (underground) mines after cessation of active  mining.
The wastewaters from these facilities where  coal extraction has
ceased are referred to as "post-mining  discharges."

A third purpose was to assess the appropriateness of establishing
a separate subcategory for regulation of discharges from  coal
mines in the western United States.

A fourth purpose was to review and,  if  necessary, augment exist-
ing effluent limitations during rainfall and snowmelt conditions.
More specifically, this included an  analysis of candidate tech-
nologies and achievable pollutant removals to effectively control
discharges during what is presently  the catastrophic precipita-
tion event (CPE) exemption period.

SUBCATEGORIZATION

On 26 April 1977, the Agency promulgated BPT effluent limita-
tions for three subcategories in the coal  mining point  source
category.  These subcategories include  acid  drainage mines, alka-
line drainage mines, and preparation plants  and associated  areas.
On 12 January 1979, the Agency published new source performance
standards for these three subcategories.   Two additional  subcate-
gories (areas under reclamation and  western  mines)  were also
established at that time.

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After an extensive statistical and engineering  analysis  of cate-
gory profile factors, the existing BPT and NSPS  subcategorization
scheme was modified to include a number of revisions.

First, post mining discharges are proposed as a  subcategory for
regulation of effluents from surface and deep mines.   For  surface
mines, areas where coal extraction and recontouring  have been
completed and revegetation has been commenced will be  subject to
settleable solids and pH limitations.  For deep  mines,  any dis-
charge to surface waters after completion of active mining opera-
tions is subject to identical limitations as those in  effect
during active mining.  Discharges from underground mines where
coal removal has been completed present a continuing source of
wastewater pollution requiring control.  Under  the current pro-
posal, when the applicable reclamation bond has  been released
(signifying the successful institution of appropriate  sealing and
other mine closure practices), the operator no  longer  needs to
comply with EPA effluent limitations.

Second, the Agency has compiled and reviewed data from  a number
of programs investigating sedimentation pond performance during
various rainfall events.  Control of settleable  solids  and pH
during the catastrophic precipitation event exemption  period is
proposed.  These limitations will apply for increases  in over-
flows resulting from rainfall events (or snowmelts of  equivalent
volumes) less than or equal to the 10-year, 24-hour  storm.  If a
larger event occurs, operators will be required  to comply  with a
pH limitation.

Third, the Agency has concluded that discharges  from western
mines do not warrant separate subcategorization.

The BAT subcategorization will be identical to  the modified BPT
categorization, since no additional factors were identified that
substantially affect effluent characteristics.   New  source sub-
categorization is also identical to the modified BPT subcategori-
zation scheme with the exception of the preparation  plant  and
preparation plant associated area subcategory.   This is  subdi-
vided into the two component categories, based  upon  differing
treatabilities of wastewaters from the two areas.

The modified storm exemption will generally apply for  all  subcat-
egories.  However, no exemption will be available for  discharges
from underground workings at underground coal mines, or  new
source preparation plants.  Rainfall will not substantially
affect underground mine discharges, and storm relief is  not
necessary.  Also, zero discharge regulation is being proposed for
new source preparation plants, and thus no storm exemption is
being proposed for this new source subcategory.

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WATER SOURCES

The major sources of wastewater  in  the  coal mining  category
include precipitation, surface runoff,  ground water infiltration,
and effluents from coal preparation plants.  No  process  water  is
used in the mining phase, except for minor consumption in  dust
suppression, pump coolants, and  firefighting needs.  Therefore,
pollution abatement in this industry must be approached  differ-
ently, with reliance on operating and management  practices for
wastewater source control as well as end-of-pipe  treatment
technologies.

In the preparation phase, water  is used  to clean  the raw coal.
Water usage is typically 350 gallons per ton and  is laden  with
coal and refuse fines which must be removed prior to discharge or
reuse.

POLLUTANT COVERAGE

Toxic (Priority) Pollutants

Sampling and analysis for the 129 priority pollutants was  con-
ducted in this industry.  Sixty-seven of the 114  toxic organics
were not detected in treated mine wastewaters and 23 were
detected in the effluent of only one or  two mines and always
below 10 ug/1.  This level is considered to be the  effective
detectability limit for state-of-the-art analytical techniques.
Ten of the toxic organic pollutants that were detected above 10
ug/1 are believed to be present  due to  sampling,  preservation, or
analytical contamination.  The remaining 14 were  present in
amounts too small to be effectively reduced by additional  treat-
ment technology.  Thus, no regulations  are proposed for  the toxic
organic compounds.

Five of the thirteen priority metals (antimony, beryllium, cad-
mium, silver, and thallium) were found  in treated wastewaters  at
levels near or at their limits of detection by state-of-the-art
analytical techniques.  Therefore, no limitations are proposed
for these pollutants.  The remaining eight toxic  metal pollutants
(arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel,  selenium, and
zinc) were found at levels above their  detection  limits  but not
uniformly throughout the industry.  As  discussed  in Section VI,
these metals are already effectively controlled by  BPT technol-
ogy, i.e., by treatment measures already in place.

Cyanide was found only in isolated cases and always at levels
well below 10 ug/1.  This concentration  is well below treatabil-
ity levels for quantifiable reduction of cyanide, and thus no
limitation is proposed for this pollutant.

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Chrysotile asbestos is the form of asbestos the Agency  believes
is the most important type to consider for regulation.  This  form
was found in coal mining wastewaters at concentrations  considered
to be slightly above background levels, and thus no  limitation is
proposed.  The Agency is expanding the asbestos data base  and
refining the analytical protocol for asbestos analyses.  Further,
toxicological studies are being conducted to determine  the envi-
ronmental effects of other forms of asbestos.  Pending  results
from these programs, the Agency will assess the need for estab-
lishment of an effluent limitation for other asbestos forms.

Conventional Pollutants

The methodology for development of BCT effluent limitations was
published on 29 August 1979 (44 FR 50732).  The technologies  con-
sidered for conventional pollutant removal in this industry are
the same as those considered for toxic and nonconventional pol-
lutant removal.  Additionally, the Agency has determined that BAT
technology is equivalent to BPT technology in this industry.
Therefore, the BCT technology is also equivalent to  BPT, and  no
incremental cost are incurred for BCT, i.e. BPT technology
"passes," by definition, the BCT cost reasonableness test.  Thus,
the proposed BCT effluent limitations are identical  to  the BPT
effluent limitations for the conventional pollutants pertinent to
this industry (TSS and pH).

Nonconventional Pollutants

Iron and manganese are the only two nonconventional  pollutants
requiring control.  These are effectively reduced by application
of BPT.  Therefore, the Agency is proposing that the BAT and  NSPS
limitations for iron and manganese be equivalent to  the BPT
levels.

TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

Amendments to BPT

No effluent limitations guidelines previously promulgated  for the
three BPT subcategories will be modified under this  rulemaking
except as outlined below.

Post Mining Discharges

Surface Mines.  The Agency instituted a self-monitoring program
involving 12 mine companines (21 sites) to establish performance
data for sedimentation ponds receiving drainage primarily  from
areas under reclamation.  Results indicate that settleable solids
and pH are consistently reduced by properly designed, con-
structed, and maintained ponds or basins.  Thus, the Agency is

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proposing limitations for these parameters  for  this  subdivision.
These effluent standards will apply from the time any  acreage  is
first revegetated after active mining through release  of  the
applicable reclamation bond for that acreage.

Underground Mines.  Technology installed for treatment of raw
drainage during active mining is the basis  for  regulation of
underground mine drainage after active mining ceases.   For acid
underground mines, this will include neutralization  and settling;
settling alone is the appropriate technology for alkaline under-
ground mines.  Costs for operation of this  equipment will be
similar to annual costs during the active mine  life.

Catastrophic Precipitation Event Exemption

Two separate studies (one at 21 sites, the  other at  8  sites) have
been commissioned to evaluate the performance of properly
designed, constructed, and maintained sedimentation  ponds during
various rainfall events.  Settleable solids and pH best charac-
terize pond performance, and limitations are proposed  for these
parameters.  Compliance with the limitations will be required  for
any discharges due to precipitation except  those caused by a
10-year, 24-hour or greater storm.  For these events,  only a pH
limitation will apply.  These are proposed  modifications  to the
exemption published in 44 FR 76788 (28 December 1979).  The
additional costs incurred for this modification will be confined
to a minor amount of additional, inexpensive monitoring and some
potential supplemental lime addition requirements.   These are
judged to be relatively minor with no specific  cost  estimates
required.  No alternate limitations or exemptions are  provided
for discharges from the underground workings of underground
mines.

Western Mines

EPA evaluated wastewater characteristics and treatment technol-
ogies used by eastern and western mines to  determine if differ-
ences exist in pertinent effluent characteristics between eastern
and western mines.  EPA determined that, while  treatment  systems
at western mines discharge less frequently  than those  at  eastern
mines (due primarily to less precipitation  and  generally  larger
design volumes), effluent quality of western mine treatment
systems is virtually the same as that for eastern mines.   Thus,
the proposal of a separate "western mines"  subcategory is not
appropriate for BAT and NSPS regulations for the coal  mining
industry.  It should be noted, however, that at 40 CFR Part
122.62(L)(2) (45 FR 33450) and 40 CFR Part  123.7 (45 FR 33469),
existing NPDES permit limitations which are more stringent than
subsequently promulgated guidelines may be  retained  upon  reissu-
ance of the permit.  Moreover, regional permit  authorities have

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the freedom to impose more stringent requirements  in  light  of
site specific conditions (see 45 FR 33290, 19 May  1980).

BAT

Acid Drainage Mines

The Agency conducted sampling at 18 acid drainage  mine  sites  and
evaluated discharge monitoring reports  (DMRs) submitted under the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System  (NPDES) for 56
additional facilities in this subcategory.  Results indicate  that
treatment technology already installed, including  neutralization,
aeration, and settling, effects substantial reductions  of the key
pollutant parameters, including TSS, iron, manganese, and the
toxic metals.  Further, substantial reductions by  additional
treatment technologies, including flocculant addition and granu-
lar media filtration, were not achieved, according to treatabil-
ity studies conducted by the Agency on wastewaters from a number
of coal mines.  Therefore, the BAT effluent limitations are based
upon BPT technology and are identical to the BPT effluent
limitations.

Alkaline Drainage Mines

The Agency sampled effluents from 28 different facilities and
evaluated DMRs from an additional 32 coal mines  in this subcate-
gory.  These effluents contain very low concentrations  of toxic
and nonconventional pollutants after application of settling,
which is the treatment option upon which BPT limitations were
promulgated.  The Agency has thus concluded that BAT  limitations
will be equal to BPT effluent limitations.

Preparation Plants and Associated Areas

The Agency conducted a sampling program at 28 preparation plants
during the BAT review.  Further, an industry survey of  wastewater
treatment practices was instituted.  One hundred and  fifty-two
plants responded to this survey.  Discharge data were also  col-
lected from DMRs for an additional 12 sites.  Although  raw  waste-
water from this subcategory can contain very substantial amounts
of TSS and metal species, these are significantly  reduced by
BPT-level technology, i.e., settling technology, with neutraliza-
tion also necessary for acidic associated area drainage.  Treated
waters are often at least partially reused.   A  number  of end-of-
pipe treatment technologies and a zero discharge requirement  were
investigated for application in this subcategory.  Where prepara-
tion plant wastewater can be segregated from associated area
wastewater, zero discharge (or total recycle) of water  can  be
achieved.  Because it is currently common practice in the indus-
try to combine these wastewaters for treatment,  most  operators
would have to retrofit separate treatment systems  for the two

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wastewaters.  This involves substantial capital and annual  expen-
ditures.  In contrast, these retrofit costs are not incurred  for
new facilities.  Consequently, the Agency has proposed  a  zero
discharge requirement for new sources while not applying  such a
requirement for existing sources.  Discharges from existing
sources were then evaluated to determine the merits of  additional
treatment downstream of the existing BPT treatment system.  The
two technologies investigated were flocculant addition  and  gran-
ular media filtration.  Results  indicate that neither of  these
achieved significant pollutant reduction beyond BPT.  Therefore,
BAT limitations will be identical to BPT limitations for  this
subcategory.

NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

New source performance standards will be identical to BAT efflu-
ent limitations for all subcategories except for  the preparation
plant subcategory.  The proposed standard for preparation plants
is no discharge of wastewater pollutants.  This is the  best
available demonstrated technology, having been installed  in a
number of preparation plants in  regions of varying topography and
climate.  Associated area drainage will be neutralized  and
settled independently of the preparation plant water circuit, for
compliance with limitations equal to those established  for  BPT.

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                            SECTION  II

                       PROPOSED REGULATIONS
                 •

Three subcategories were established  as the basis  for  promulga-
tion of standards  (see 42 FR 21380,  26 April  1977) based  on  the
best practicable control technology  currently available.   At that
time, the Agency withheld promulgation of  standards  for certain
segments and other issues pending  further  data collection and
analysis.  The issues receiving further study include:  (1)  the
appropriateness of a western mines subcategory,  (2)  the appropri-
ateness of a post mining subcategory, (3)  the type of  storm
relief granted to operators.  The  proposed BAT and new source
limitations (42 FR 21380, 42 FR 46932, 44  FR  2586) were also
reviewed by the Agency as required by the  Clean  Water  Act of 1977
in keeping with the Act's emphasis on toxic pollutants.   The law
also required examination of the best conventional pollutant con-
trol technology (BCT) to treat conventional pollutants.   Finally,
the applicability of pretreatment  standards and  best management
practices was investigated.

AMENDMENTS TO BPT REQUIREMENTS

Catastrophic Precipitation Event Exemption

EPA has instituted two sampling and  analysis  programs  to  charac-
terize sedimentation pond performance parameters during various
rainfall events.  Results substantiate that settleable solids and
pH, the two key parameters, can be effectively controlled during
rainfall events (or snowmelt of equivalent volume) less than the
10-year, 24-hour design storm, as  follows:

                                        Effluent Limitations*
                                             Average  of  daily
                                             values for  30
   Effluent                  Maximum  for     consecutive days
Characteristic               any one  day     shall not exceed

Settleable Solids             0.5 ml/1             	

pH                         within the range        	
                              6.0 to  9.0
                             at all times

*The limitations in this table apply  to overflows caused by
 precipitation or equivalent snowmelt volumes  less than  the
 10-year, 24-hour event, except where noted.

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Further, an operator will have to provide pH control  for  all
storms, regardless of their size.  Settleable solids  were
selected for regulation because pond performance during precipi-
tation or increased flows due to snowmelt is rnudh more consistent
with regard to this parameter than for total suspended solids
effluent levels.  The alternate limits apply for facilities
designed, constructed, operated, and maintained to  contain a
10-year, 24-hour storm event.  Otherwise, no relief from  other
effluent limitations will be granted.  The operator shall have
the burden of demonstrating to the appropriate authority  that the
prerequisites for the alternate limitations have been met.  The
exemption published 28 December 1979 (44 FR 76788) would  be
modified accordingly by this proposal.

Post Mining Discharges

Underground Mines

EPA, in evaluating the length of time that effluent limitations
should remain in effect, determined that for underground  mines
the effluent limitations will remain in effect until  the
applicable performance bond has been released.  This  will ensure
that pollution abatement will continue until effective sealing
and reclamation practices have been instituted.

Surface Mines

The Agency has established limits on settleable solids and pH for
reclamation areas as follows:

                                   Effluent Limitations
                                             Average  of  daily
                                             values for  30
   Effluent                  Maximum for     consecutive days
Characteristic               any one day     shall not exceed

Settleable Solids             0.5 ml/1              	

pH                         within the range         	
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times

These limitations would apply to areas where regrading has  been
completed and revegetation commenced, and will  extend through the
release of the applicable reclamation bond.
                                10

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BCT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

As discussed in Section I,  the  BCT  limitations  proposed by the
Agency will be identical  to  the BPT limitations for  conventional
pollutants.

BAT EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

Four subcategories were established for  promulgation of effluent
limitations based on the  best available  technology economically
achievable  (BAT):  (1) preparation  plants  and associated areas;
(2) acid mine drainage; (3)  alkaline mine  drainage;  and (4)  post
mining discharges.  The proposed limitations  for acid mine drain-
age, post mining discharges  at  underground mines, and coal prep-
aration plants and associated areas are  based on neutralization
and settling (if applicable  in  the  case  of preparation plants);
those for alkaline drainage  mines and  reclamation areas are based
on settling.  For the coal mining industry, the BAT  and BPT tech-
nologies are identical, so  that the effluent  limitations will be
the same.  The limitations guidelines  appear  in Table II-l.   The
modified BPT conditions will also apply  for BAT, including the
alternate limitations for rainfall.

As in the BPT promulgation,  a variance will be  permitted on a
case-by-case basis to allow  effluent pH  to slightly  exceed 9.0 to
achieve the manganese limitation for those subcategories subject
to manganese limitations.

NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

The proposed new source performance standards (NSPS)  for the coal
mining industry require achievement of pollutant levels based on
the same technology proposed for BAT for each subcategory except
preparation plants.  In this case,  a complete water  recycle sys-
tem fulfills the requirement for no discharge of wastewater
pollutants, a demonstrated technology  for  these facilities.
Limitations are summarized  in Table II-2.

PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

Pretreatment standards are not  propose''  for the coal  mining
industry because there are no known e.  -»ting situations in which
such standards would be applicable.  No  indirect dischargers are
known to exist in this category, nor are any anticipated.
                               11

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                            Table II-l

           EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON BEST AVAILABLE
             TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE  (BAT)
Subcategory and
   Effluent
Characteristics

Preparation Plants and
Associated Areas:
     Fe (total)
     Mn* (total)
     TSS
     pH (units)
Acid Mine Drainage:
     Fe (total)
     Mn (total)
     TSS
     pH (units)
Alkaline Mine Drainage:
     Fe (total)
     TSS
     pH (units)
Post Mining Discharges:
     Effluent Limitations  (mg/1)
                  Average  of daily
                  values for 30
  Maximum for     consecutive days
  any one day     shall not exceed
      7.0
      4.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
      7.0
      4.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
      7.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
Reclamation Areas  (Surface)
     Settleable Solids           0.5 ml/1
     pH  (units)            within  the  range
                              6.0  to 9.0
                              at  all times
 3.5
 2.0
35
 3.5
 2.0
35
 3.5
35
                               12

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                      Table II-l  (Continued)

           EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON BEST AVAILABLE
             TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE  (BAT)


                                Effluent Limitations  (mg/1)
                                             Average  of  daily
Subcategory and                              values  for  30
   Effluent                  Maximum for     consecutive days
Characteristics              any  one day     shall not exceed

Underground Mines
     Fe (total)                   7.0                 3.5
     Mn* (total)                  4.0                 2.0
     TSS                        70                 35
     pH (units)            within the range          	
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times
*If raw wastewater is acidic prior to any treatment.
                               13

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                            Table II-2

                 NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                                Effluent Limitations  (mg/1)
                                             Average  of daily
Subcategory and                              values for 30
   Effluent                  Maximum for     consecutive days
Characteristics              any one day     shall not  exceed

Preparation Plants:
     Fe (total)
     Mn (total)                 NO DISCHARGE OF WASTEWATER
     TSS                               POLLUTANTS
     pH (units)


Associated Areas:
     Fe (total)                  7.0                3.5
     Mn (total)                  4.0                2.0
     TSS                        70                 35
     pH (units)            within the range
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times

Acid Mine Drainage:
     Fe (total)                  7.0                3.5
     Mn (total)                  4.0                2.0
     TSS                        70                 35
     pH (units)            within the range         	
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times

Alkaline Mine Drainage:
     Fe (total)                  7.0                3.5
     TSS                        70                 35
     pH (units)            within the range         	
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times

Post Mining Discharges:
Reclamation Areas (Surface)
     Settleable Solids           0.5 ml/1           	
     pH (units)            within the range         	
                              6.0 to 9.0
                             at all times
                               14

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                      Table II-2  (Continued)

                 NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE  STANDARDS
                                Effluent Limitations  (mg/1)
                                             Average  of  daily
Subcategory and                              values for  30
   Effluent                  Maximum  for     consecutive days
Characteristics              any one  day     shall not exceed

Underground Mines
     Fe (total)                  7.0                3.5
     Mn* (total)                 4.0                2.0
     TSS                        75                 35
     pH (units)            within the range
                              6.0 to  9.0
                             at all times
*If raw wastewater is acidic prior to any treatment
                               15

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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMP)

For both surface mining and the surface effects of underground
mining, the Department of Interior's Office of Surface Mining
(OSM) under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act has
broad authority to promulgate specific regulations governing
water management associated with mining and reclamation  opera-
tions (44 FR 15143-15178).  The resulting standards effectively
establish a BMP program.  Therefore, it is not EPA's  intention to
propose BMPs for coal mining under the authority established in
the Clean Water Act.  Rather, the proposed effluent limitations
and OSM's standards will provide a coherent and complementary
framework for regulation of this industry.  If, in the future, it
becomes apparent that BMP's under the Clean Water Act are neces-
sary to supplement OSM's program, EPA will propose them  as
appropriate.
                               16

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                             SECTION  III

                            INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this document  is  to provide  support  for  the  amend-
ment of BPT regulations, the  proposal  and promulgation  of efflu-
ent limitations guidelines  for BAT and BCT,  the  establishment  of
NSPS, identification of pretreatment standards for  existing
sources (PSES), and identification of  pretreatment  standards  for
new sources (PSNS) under Sections 301, 304,  306,  307, and 501  of
the Clean Water Act.

STATUTORY AUTHORITY

The regulations described in  this document  are proposed under  the
authority of Sections 301,  304,  306, 307, and 501 of  the Clean
Water Act (the Federal Water  Pollution Control Act  Amendments  of
1972, 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq., as amended by  the  Clean Water Act
of 1977, Public Law 95-217  (the  "Act")).  These  regulations are
also proposed in response to  the Settlement  Agreement in Natural
Resources Defense Council,  Inc.. v. Train,  8 ERG  2120 (D.D.C.
1976), modified 9 March 1979, 12 ERG 1833,  1841.

The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments  of 1972  estab-
lished a comprehensive program to "restore  and maintain the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of  the Nation's
waters" [Section 101(a)].   By 1  July 1977,  existing point source
industrial dischargers were required to achieve  "effluent limita-
tions requiring the application  of the best  practicable control
technology currently available"  (BPT)  [Section 301(b)(1)(A)].
Further, by 1 July 1983, these dischargers  were  required to
achieve "effluent limitations requiring the  application of  the
best available technology economically achievable (BAT)  which
will result in reasonable further progress  toward the national
goal of eliminating the discharge of all pollutants"  [Section
301(b)(2)(A)].  New industrial direct  dischargers were  required
to comply with Section 306 new source  performance standards
(NSPS), based on best available  demonstrated technology (BADT),
and new and existing dischargers to publicly owned  treatment
works (POTWs) were subject  to pretreatment  standards under
Sections 307(b) and (c) of  the Act.  While  the requirements for
direct dischargers were to be incorporated  into National
Pollution Discharge Elimination  System (NPDES) permits  issued
under Section 402 of the Act, pretreatment  standards were made
enforceable directly against  dischargers to  POTWs (indirect dis-
chargers).  Table III-l summarizes these levels of  technologies,
sources affected, and deadlines  for promulgation  and  compliance.

Although Section 402(a)(l) of the 1972 Act  authorized the setting
of requirements for direct dischargers on a  case-by-case basis,
Congress intended that, for the  most part,  control  requirements
                               17

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would be based on regulations promulgated by the Administrator  of
EPA.  Section 304(b) of the Act required the Administrator  to
promulgate regulations providing guidelines for effluent  limita-
tions setting forth the degree of effluent reduction attainable
through the application of BPT and BAT.  Moreover, Sections
304(c) and 306 of the Act required promulgation of regulations
for NSPS, and Sections 304(f), 307(b), and 307(c) required
promulgation of regulations for pretreatment standards.   In  addi-
tion to these regulations for designated industry categories,
Section 307(a) of the Act required the Administrator to promul-
gate effluent standards applicable to all dischargers of  toxic
pollutants.  Finally, Section 501(a) of the Act authorized  the
Administrator to prescribe any additional regulations "neces-
sary to carry out his functions" under the Act.

Under the deadlines contained in Table III-l, EPA (the Agency)
was required to promulgate many of these standards by mid-year  in
1973.  The Agency was unable to meet this requirement, and,  as  a
result, several environmental groups filed suit against EPA in
1974.   EPA agreed to promulgate the remaining regulations  and
guidelines according to a court ordered schedule.  See NRDC  v.
Train, ERG 1033 (520 Fed. 692, B.C. Cir. 1975).

In 1976, EPA was again sued because many of the regulations
required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments  of
1972 had not been promulgated.  In settlement of this lawsuit,
EPA and the plaintiffs executed a "Settlement Agreement"  which
was approved by the Court.  This Agreement required EPA to
develop a program and adhere to a schedule for promulgating  for
21 major industries BAT effluent limitations guidelines,  pre-
treatment standards, and new source performance standards for 65
"priority" pollutants and classes of pollutants.  See Natural
Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Train, 8 ERG 2120 (D.D.C.
1976), modified 9 March 1979.

On 27 December 1977, the President signed into law the Clean
Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217).  Although this law makes several
important changes in the federal water pollution control  program,
its most significant feature is its incorporation into the Act  of
several of the basic elements of the Settlement Agreement program
for toxic pollution control.  Sections 301(b)(2)(A) and
301(b)(2)(C) of the Act now require the achievement by 1  July
1984 of effluent limitations requiring application of BAT for
toxic pollutants, including the 65 toxic pollutants and classes
of pollutants which Congress declared toxic under Section 307(a)
of the Act.  Likewise, EPA's programs for new source performance
standards and pretreatment standards are now aimed principally  at
toxic pollutant controls.  Moreover, to strengthen the toxics
control program, Congress added Section 304(e) to the Act,
authorizing the Administrator to prescribe "best management
practices" (BMPs) to prevent the release of toxic and hazardous
                               19

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pollutants from plant site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge or
waste disposal, and drainage from raw material storage associated
with, or ancillary to, the manufacturing or treatment process.

In keeping with its emphasis on toxic pollutants, the Clean Water
Act of 1977 also revised the control program for non-toxic pollu-
tants.  Instead of BAT for "conventional" pollutants identified
under Section 304(a)(4) (including biochemical oxygen demand,
suspended solids, fecal coliform, pH, and oil and grease), the
new Section 301(b)(2)(e) requires achievement by 1 July 1984, of
"effluent limitations requiring the application of the best con-
ventional pollutant control technology" (BCT).  The factors con-
sidered in assessing BCT for an industry include the costs of
attaining a reduction in effluents and the effluent reduction
benefits derived compared to the costs and effluent reduction
benefits from the discharge of publicly owned treatment works
[Section 304(b)(4)(B)].  For non-toxic, nonconventional pollu-
tants, Sections 301(b)(2)(A) and (b)(2)(F) require achievement of
BAT effluent limitations within three years after their estab-
lishment or 1 July 1984, whichever is later, but not later than
1 July 1987.

PRIOR EPA REGULATIONS

On 17 October 1975, EPA proposed regulations adding Part 434 to
Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (40 FR 48830).  These
regulations, with subsequent amendments, established effluent
limitations guidelines based on the use of the best practicable
control technology currently available (BPT) for existing  sources
in the coal mining point source category.  These were followed,
on 26 April 1977, by final BPT effluent limitations guidelines
for this category (42 FR 21380).

On 19 September 1977, the Agency published proposed new source
performance standards  (NSPS) within this industrial category
based on application of the best available demonstrated control
technology (42 FR 46932).  On 12 January 1979, EPA promulgated
final NSPS for this industry (44 FR 2586).

Both the BPT and NSPS regulations contained an exemption  from
otherwise applicable requirements during and after catastrophic
precipitation events.  These storm exemptions were re-examined,
subjected to further public comment, and ultimately revised  on  28
December 1979  (44 FR 76788).

Moreover, the NSPS regulations contained a definition of  "new
source coal mine" which was challenged by petitioners in
Pennsylvania Citizens Coalition et al. v. EPA.  14 ERG  1545  (3rd
Cir. 1980).  In response to the Court's decision in that  case,
the Agency amended its definition of a "new source coal mine" on
27 June 1980 (45  FR 43413).
                                20

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RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER REGULATIONS

The coal mining industry has been  subject  to  a variety  of  federal
and state regulations during its history.  The Surface  Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977  (SMCRA-P.L. 95-87,  30  U.S.C.
1251-1279) established statutory authority for regulatory  devel-
opment with an Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation, and
Enforcement (OSM) within the Department of the Interior (DOI).
For both surface mining and the surface effects of underground
mining, OSM has promulgated specific regulations governing water
management associated with mining  and reclamation operations  (44
FR 15143).  A number of these standards have  been recently
remanded as a result of litigation;  OSM is now in the process of
a new rulemaking.  EPA and OSM are developing a memorandum of
understanding (MOU) to consolidate the permit process (44  FR
55322) and integrate the NPDES system with OSM's permit system
for Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operations (SCMROs).
This should minimize duplication between agencies with  similar
goals.  EPA and OSM will continue  to work  closely in establishing
a comprehensive, efficient program for regulation of surface coal
mining operations.

OVERVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY

The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)  Categories reviewed
and discussed in this document include the following:

     1.  SIC 1111 Anthracite Mining,

     2.  SIC 1112 Anthracite Mining  Services,

     3.  SIC 1211 Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining, and

     4.  SIC 1213 Bituminous Coal and Lignite Mining Services.

The coal mining industry extracts and processes coal, a black,
primarily organic substance formed from compressed layers  of
decaying organic matter millions of years  ago.  Depending  upon
the fixed carbon content, the volatile matter fraction,  and the
heating value, coals are classified by ranks  generally  as  lig-
nite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite.  The primary end
uses of the material are for combustion in steam boilers or met-
allurgical coke ovens with a large potential  market for coal
conversion facilities in the synthetic fuels  industry.   The
industry can be broadly classified into extraction (mining) and
processing (preparation).  The industry currently operates in 26
states; mines are located in Appalachia, the  Midwest, the  Great
Plains, and the Mountain and Pacific regions.  In 1978,  6,075
coal mining operations were active;  5,976  of  these mines are
located in the eastern part of the country, as opposed  to  99 in
                               21

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the western United States.  The western mines are characteris-
tically newer and much larger than most eastern mines.   In  addi-
tion, there are currently about 650 coal preparation plants  in
the country.  Through the year 1987, 404 new mines are projected;
243 will be located in the eastern U.S. and 161 will be  located
in the western U.S (1).

Total coal production in the U.S. in 1979 was 770,000,000 short
tons (2).  Because of the many political, environmental, and
economic factors that impact the U.S. energy supply picture,
projections for increases in domestic coal production are widely
variable.  Most estimates target production in 1985 at around one
billion short tons per year.  By 1990, this projected tonnage
will increase to approximately 1.2 billion short tons per year
(3, 4).

From the 1920's until 1978, underground mining has gradually
declined from accounting for almost 100 percent of all coal  pro-
duction to 36 percent; conversely, surface mining has increased,
bypassing underground mining in terms of total production of coal
in the early 1970's.  In 1978 surface mining accounted for  63
percent of all coal produced in the U.S.  This rapid growth  of
surface mining was made possible by improved machinery and  mining
methods, the general geology of the coal fields, and the rapid
expansion of the western surface mined coal fields.

The 6,075 mines in the U.S. are controlled by approximately  3,800
companies (1).  The majority of these mines are small operations,
with individual production less than 100,000 short tons  per  year.
These small operations accounted for over 89 percent of  the
active mines in 1975; however, they accounted for less than  20
percent of coal production.  In recent years, the trend  has  been
toward larger mines and consolidation of mining companies (5) .

SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGY

Analysis of the sources, levels, and applicable treatment proces-
ses for toxic, non-conventional, and conventional pollutants in
coal mining wastewaters forms the basis for this study.  To
establish effluent limitations guidelines, a data collection
program was initiated in 1976 to profile the coal mining indus-
try.  This data collection program will augment the data base
previously developed for BPT requirements.  The first step  in the
BAT review involved characterization of toxic compounds  in  coal
mine wastewaters in accordance with the Settlement Agreement exe-
cuted by NRDC and EPA in June of 1976.  No general survey ques-
tionnaire under authority of Section 308 of the Clean Water  Act
was attempted at the outset of this study because over 6,000
mines are in active operation today.  Therefore, representative
mines to characterize the entire industry were selected  for
                                22

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sampling.  The sampling program was  initiated  in  two  phases--
screening sampling and verification  sampling.   The  screening
program established the general characteristics of  mine  and
preparation plant drainage.

After the screening sampling effort  was well underway, verifica-
tion sampling was initiated.  This program  entailed more exten-
sive composite sampling with special regard for those priority
pollutants identified from the screen  sampling  program.   Levels
of detected pollutants were quantified.  The effluent character-
istics were used to evaluate and, if necessary, modify the BPT
subcategorization scheme.  In addition, pollutants  to be regu-
lated for BAT and NSPS were identified.

The results of the screening and verification  program were exa-
mined to determine pollution control needs.  Several  candidate
treatment technologies were then identified to  control pollutant
discharges.  The techniques identified for  removal  of organics
include neutralization, aeration, ozonation, carbon adsorption,
and sand filtration.  A pilot treatment unit was  assembled at  the
EPA Crown Mine Drainage Control site to test the  above technol-
ogies on coal mine drainage.  The primary focus of  this  treata-
bility study was to quantify the removals of organic  pollutants
by the various control technologies.

A number of environmental control processes that  reduce  toxic  and
other metallic pollutants in mine drainage  were also  evaluated.
A treatability study was performed by  EPA's Office  of Research
and Development for metals removal achieved by  lime neutraliza-
tion, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis (6).  Additionally, the
Agency commissioned three treatability studies  in 1979-80 to
quantify removals of priority metals from acid  mine drainage by
the use of flocculant addition and granular media filtration.

Another important facet of this study  is the development of costs
associated with purchase, installation, and operation of treat-
ment equipment.  Cost curves were developed from  model plants.
These costs were verified by site visits to 17  facilities.  At
the facilities, site-specific cost data were collected.   Actual
costs were compared to model plant costs.

Additional data were collected to gain a more  accurate profile of
coal preparation plants, particularly  in reference  to water man-
agement practices and total recycle  systems.   To  implement this
effort, EPA, with the cooperation of the National Coal Associa-
tion (NCA), disseminated a questionnaire to NCA member companies.
Information gathered from the 152 respondents  indicates  that
approximately 34 percent of the U.S. preparation  plants  are
currently operating a total recycle  system with diversion of
storm water.  Additionally, a classification scheme for  different
size plants with varying requirements  for achievement of zero
                               23

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discharge was developed for costing purposes.  Costs  for retro-
fitting the industry for total water recycle were developed.

Report Organization

The Industry Profile, Section IV, includes background information
on the history and geology of coal, production and other impor-
tant statistics, mining techniques, and water use and management
within the coal industry.  This characterization of the industry
will provide a foundation for analysis of water use and waste-
water generation and treatment.

Section V, Wastewater Characterization and Industry Subcategori-
zation, summarizes data collected on the levels of pollutants
from a two phase sampling program.  Twenty-three mines and  facil-
ities were visited during the screening phase; four sites from
screening were revisited and five additional sites were sampled
during the verification phase.  This screening and verification
program was conducted primarily to identify and quantify levels
of toxic pollutants in coal mine wastewaters.  The section  also
includes effluent data from 17 mines visited in the final segment
of the BAT review, and EPA Regional data.

In Section VI, Selection of Pollutant Parameters, all 129 prior-
ity pollutants as well as the currently regulated parameters--
TSS, pH, iron, and manganese--are discussed in light  of their
source, level, and treatability.

After selection of the pollutants to be regulated, a  candidate
list of treatment technologies to reduce or eliminate these para-
meters was prepared.  The achievable effluent pollutant reduc-
tions are quantified, using results from previous and current EPA
treatability studies as well as pilot studies conducted by  other
governmental agencies and industry.  These control options  and a
review of water management practices are presented in Section
VII, Treatment and Control Technology.

The processes that are technically suitable are then  further
analyzed according to their cost effectiveness, energy require-
ments, and secondary pollution potential.  These factors are
presented in Section VIII, Cost, Energy, and Non-Water Quality
Issues.  Cost information contained in this report was obtained
from industry during plant visits, engineering firms, equipment
suppliers, and from the literature.  The information  obtained was
used to develop capital and operating costs for each  treatment
and control method.  Where data were lacking, costs were devel-
oped from knowledge of equipment required, processes  employed,
and construction and maintenance requirements.  An economic
analysis to determine the impact on the industry of installing
the technically feasible treatment option(s) was conducted  using
                               24

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the costs developed herein.  This assessment  is reported
separately by EPA.

Section IX details the amendments made to the BPT regulation.
Proposed BAT options are presented in Section X.  All data
obtained were evaluated to determine what levels of  treatment
constituted reasonable alternatives for consideration as  the
"best available technology economically achievable"  (BAT).
Several factors were considered in identifying technologies.
These included the age of equipment and facilities involved, the
process employed, engineering aspects of the  application  of
various types of control techniques or process changes, the cost
of achieving effluent reduction, non-water quality environmental
impacts, and energy requirements.  Efforts were also made to
determine the feasibility of transfer of technology  from  subcate-
gory to subcategory, other categories, and other industries where
similar effluent problems might occur.  Consideration of  the
technologies was not limited to those presently employed  in the
industry, but included those processes in pilot plant or  labora-
tory research stages.  This section includes a discussion of the
best management practices (BMP) program.

Section XI examines the applicability of the best conventional
pollutant control technology (BCT) for the coal mining  industry.

New source performance standards (NSPS), which are discussed in
Section XII, are selected based on the best available demon-
strated technology (BADT).  The best demonstrated process
changes, in-plant controls, and end-of-pipe treatment technol-
ogies which reduce pollution to a minimum are considered.

Section XIII summarizes the rationale for not proposing pretreat-
ment regulations for this industry.
                                25

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                            SECTION  IV

                         INDUSTRY  PROFILE

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this section is to  profile  the U.S.  coal  mining
industry and its water usage according  to  a number  of  descriptive
parameters.  The origin and chemistry of coal are described  prior
to a discussion of water use within  the mining  and  preparation
segments of the industry.  The history, future,  and location and
production aspects of coal mining  are then presented.  The
section concludes with a discussion  of  industry processes and
methods.

ORIGIN AND CHEMISTRY OF COAL

Origin

Coal had its origin in the accumulation and physical and chemical
alteration of vegetation.  More precisely, conditions  necessary
for the accumulation of peat and subsequent formation  of coal are
as follows:

     1.  Swamp or marsh environment  and climate favorable to
plant growth.

     2.  Some subsidence of the area during accumulation of
vegetal debris, or compaction of deposited plant material, per-
mitting further accumulation.

     3.  Sufficiently wet conditions to permit  exclusion of  air
from much of the vegetal material  before it decays,  and  suf-
ficiently rapid accumulation to thwart bacterial action, even
within the swamp water.  The acidity of this water  normally  pre-
vents bacterial action at a few inches or  a few feet below the
water level in the swamp.

     4.  Proximity to the sea or a sinking area so  that  vegetal
material can be buried by sediments  when the sea level rises or
the land subsides.

     5.  Site of accumulation such that removal  by  erosion does
not subsequently occur.

As peat accumulated, the weight of the top layers of peat com-
pacted the lower layers, primarily by squeezing out large amounts
of water.  Various chemical effects  and bacterial action on  the
vegetal debris also togk place in  the swamp environment.  Burial
by sediments, physical-chemical effects associated  with  the
changed environment, and loss of water  and volatile materials
                               27

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resulted in formation of lignite, the earliest  stage  in  the
formation of coal.

With increasingly deeper burial, pressure continues to compress
the lignite, and the increase in heat associated with the
increasing depth of burial will further devolatize the coal-
forming materials.  The rank (Table IV-1) of  the coal became
progressively higher, rising from lignite through subbituminous,
bituminous, semianthracite, and anthracite  to meta-anthracite.
Estimates indicate that about three to seven  feet of  reasonably
compacted plant material is required to form  one foot of bitumi-
nous coal (1).

Chemistry

The chemical constituents in coal determine its characteristics.
These characteristics depend on:

     1. The type of vegetation from which the coal was originally
formed;

     2. The pressure to which the decaying vegetation was
subjected;

     3. The foreign matter, whether wind or waterborne,  that  was
deposited on the decaying vegetation while  it was being  converted
into coal, or the foreign matter that infiltrated while  in  solu-
tion after the coal was formed; and

     4. The heat to which the decaying vegetation was subjected.

The environmental conditions under which the  coal was formed  are
the primary determinants of the coal's chemical and physical
properties.  For instance, coals in the Illinois seams were
inundated by marine water soon after formation, imparting a high
concentration of sulfur.  Low-sulfur coals  are  often  found  in
areas where fresh water conditions prevailed.

As codified by the International Committee  for  Coal Petrography,
the ultimate microscopic constituents of coal are a series  of
macerals, which are characterized by their  appearance, chemical
composition, and optical properties, and which  can, in most
cases, be traced to specific components of  the  plant  debris  from
which the coal formed.  Macerals are further  grouped  by  appear-
ance into three major maceral groups.  Coal macerals  and maceral
groups recognized by the International Committee for  Coal
Petrography are presented in Table IV-2.

Coal, in general, has a lamellated (thin-layered) structure
comprised of both organic and mineral matter.   Inherent  minerals
(minerals confined within the coal structure) are primarily iron,
                                28

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phosphorous, sulfur, calcium, potassium,  and  magnesium;  these
comprise less than two percent  (by weight)  of the  coal  (3).   A
great many trace elements are also found  in coal;  these  are  shown
in Table IV-3.  Though coal is  primarily  organic,  specific
information regarding organic constituents  is not  readily
available, excepting ultimate analyses.

Extraneous coal mineral matter  (ash)  is matter that was  deposited
simultaneously with the peat, or  through  cracks following peat
consolidation.  Ash content generally ranges  from  3 to 20 percent
(by weight) and averages 10 percent.  Major constituents are
shown in Table IV-4.  The chemical composition of  coal ash varies
greatly.  It is a mixture of silica  (Si02)  and alumina
(Alo03), which comes from sand, clay, slate and shale; iron
oxide (Fe903), from pyrite and  marcasite; magnesia (MgO) and
lime (CaO), from gypsum and limestone; the  alkalies,  sodium  oxide
and potassium oxide (Na£0 and K£0); phosphorus pentoxide
(^2^5)> plus trace amounts of antimony, arsenic, barium,
beryllium, boron, cadmium, cobalt, copper,  germanium, gold,  lead,
manganese, mercury, platinum, scandium, selenium,  silver,  tin,
titanium, uranium, vanadium, yttrium, and zinc.

Inorganic sulfur, usually in the  form of  pyrite, is the  con-
stituent in coal that often results in the  formation  of  acid
waters.  Such effluents develop where the inorganic (pyritic)
sulfur  in exposed coal is oxidized by air to  SO? and  a variety
of iron sulfates.  These constituents then  partially  combine with
the hydrogen in water to produce  sulfuric acid (H2S04),  which
leaches additional metals.  It  is  important to note that organ-
ically bound sulfur, generally  believed to  be in complex combina-
tion with the organic constituents of coal, does not  participate
in these oxidation processes, and  that coals  containing  little
pyrite  consequently pose no environmental hazards  from acid  mine
waters or runoffs even if their total sulfur  contents are
substantial.

Sulfur  infiltrated coal in a number of ways.   Sulfur  was usually
present in the swamp, and some  of  it  was  taken up  by  the plants.
Under certain conditions, sulfur  in the peat  swamp was converted
to the mineral pyrite.  Sulfur  also appears to have been intro-
duced into the coal seam after  the peat had been converted to
coal.  This is evident by the appearance  of pyrite coatings  on
vertical fracture surfaces in the  seam.   Much of the  pyrite  pres-
ent occurs as very small crystalline  grains intimately mixed with
the organic constituents of coal.  The origin of sulfur  in large
concretions, nodules, lenses and bands, and filling in porous
layers of coal, is only partially understood,  but  the relation-
ship between the high-sulfur content  of coals and  the sediments
immediately overlying the coals that  were clearly  deposited  in a
marine environment strongly suggests  that seawater was the source
of much of the sulfur found in  coal.
                               31

-------
                           Table IV-3

               TRACE INORGANIC ELEMENTS IN COAL
                     Trace Inorganic Elements
                   (about 0.17» or less, on ash)


Beryllium                     Chromium              Lanthanum
Fluorine                      Cobalt                Uranium
Arsenic                       Nickel                Lithium
Selenium                      Copper                Scandium
Cadmium                       Z inc                  Manganes e
Mercury                       Gallium               Strontium
Lead                          Germanium             Zirconium
Boron                         Tin                   Barium
Vanadium                      Yttrium               Ytterbium
                                                    Bismuth
Source:  (2)
                                32

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INDUSTRY WATER USE

Coal Mining

Water usage in the coal mining industry is different  than  in
other major industries for a number of reasons.  First, water  is
a hindrance to operation of strip and underground mining machin-
ery.  Second, water is used in the mining of coal primarily for
dust suppression (i.e., haulroads, continuous miners, conveyor
belts, coal stockpiles in some cases, etc.) and equipment  cool-
ing.  Third, coal mines often occupy hundreds of acres  of  land
subject to a high amount of precipitation.  Therefore,  pollution
abatement must be approached differently, with reliance on oper-
ating and management practices for source control as  well  as
end-of-pipe treatment technologies.

Water is also used to a very limited extent for irrigation of
reclaimed lands.  In some areas with extremely low precipitation,
irrigation research is being conducted on an experimental  basis
by the U.S. Forest Service, using the sprinkler and drip methods.
It appears doubtful, however, that irrigation on an extensive
scale, and as a viable reclamation measure, is going  to be prac-
ticable (4).  Water entering mine areas because of precipitation,
ground water infiltration, and surface runoff is a hindrance;
removal of water from the active mining area is required at most
mines to ensure the continuity, efficiency, and safety  of  the
mining operation.  Water infiltration is generally less severe in
the semiarid west, unless the mine is located within  a  major
aquifer.

In this study, all flow data available on mine drainage were
assembled to determine whether or not flow of wastewater could be
correlated with production.  These data came from three sources:
the BPT development document; a survey by Bituminous  Coal
Research, Inc.; and the screening phase of the BAT study.  The
data show that water volume (or flow) encountered during the coal
mining operation cannot be related to coal production (see Figure
IV-1), nor can it be expressed in the classic waste management
terms of volume per weight of product.  There are a number of
variables that preclude such a relationship, including  climatol-
ogy, location of aquifers, amount of disturbed acreage, charac-
teristics of'individual watersheds, and rate of coal  extraction.

Flows from acid and alkaline mines, and surface and underground
mines, were examined for significant statistical differences.
The data indicate no statistical difference in the amount  of
water pumped by various mines based on the factors listed  above.
Therefore, all mines were classed together and plotted  against
production to identify any correlation (see Figure IV-1).  A
regression analysis performed on  this data shows no correlation.
                                34

-------
lo.ooo.ooo i   i _. |.m...4.__| \ n . i    f.i []  4.
    1,000,000
     100,000
      10,000
       1000
        100
           10
                            •*•  •  •  % • •
                                •       •
                           . ••
II  -\ - \r I  I I   I  A. I It   \
                                                         i   TT
                                                \
                                                         I _ I  M
                   100
           1,000  »**   10,000
                 HO FLOW
             PSODDCTION (cons p«r day)
100,000     1,000,000
                              Figure IV-1
               SCATTER DIAGRAM OF COAL MINE PRODUCTION
                            AND MINE DRAINAGE
Source:  (5)
                                     35

-------
The correlation coefficient  (r^) for 140 coal mines  is  0.18
with a slope for the least square line of 0.04.

A distribution curve for the volume of water pumped  by  bituminous
and lignite mines is presented  in Figure IV-2.  Eighty  percent  of
the flow volumes fall between 7,000 gallons per day  (GPD)  and 4.5
million gallons per day.  The median flow (50 percent)  is  250,000
GPD.  The mean flow, 995,000 GPD, is at the 75th percentile.

Coal Preparation

Water use in coal preparation differs from that in coal mining.
Here, water is intentionally introduced into the coal preparation
process.  Unit operations such  as wet screening, tables, jigs,
cyclones, gravity separation, heavy media separation, and  froth
flotation require water.  Water is also used for dust control,
for equipment cooling, and as a medium to transport  coal between
unit operations.

The coal industry has witnessed a gradual decline in the use  of
dry methods of coal preparation in favor of wet techniques (6) .
Present cleaning technologies were introduced with the  adoption
of mechanized mining, which does not differentiate between coal
and impurities, and results in  an increase of fines  in  run-of-
mine coal.  The need to wet clean coal has been further stimu-
lated by more explicit quality  specifications by utility
customers and other consumers of coal.  As the need  for wet
cleaning of coal increased, water use in preparation plants also
increased (6).

A major portion of the water used in coal preparation is recir-
culated because of economic considerations; that is, the need to
obtain suitable feed water and  the need to comply with  state  and
federal requirements for effluent discharges (6).  However, there
usually are emergency spillways which allow discharges  during
rainstorms or equipment breakdowns, etc.  Many preparation plants
are designed to operate on a closed water system as  a matter  of
economics and to help meet water quality requirements.  However,
a need sometimes arises for a blowdown or purge in a total recy-
cle system to reduce dissolved  solids.  Water usages from  new
preparation plant designs are presented in Table IV-5 and  are
compared with water usages from preparation plants (ranging from
3 to 41 years in age) .visited in this study.  In new closed-
circuit plant designs (indicated by *), the data indicate  that
the amount of water used in the beneficiation process increases
with the level of cleaning, or  the amount of fine coal  cleaning.
However, the data do not establish any relationship  between
amount of coal cleaned and volume of water discharged,  nor does
it establish any industry-wide  relationship between  amount of
water used and level of cleaning for older plants.
                                36

-------
3
H
H
1
I
5
1
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100
90
80
70
60
30
40
20
10

; /

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x
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1
100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10
                              FLOW (GPD)
                          Figure IV-2
                 FLOW DISTRIBUTION OF COAL MINES
Source:  (5)
                               37

-------
                           Table IV-5

       WATER USE IN PREPARATION PLANTS BY LEVEL OF CLEANING
                     AND TYPE OF COAL CLEANED
Level of
Cleaning
 Plant

Bechtel*
 NC-10
 NC-22

Bechtel*
 NC-20

Bechtel*
 NC-3
 NC-14
 NC-16
 NC-11
 NC-15
 NC-18
Amount of Water
  Circulated
per ton of Coal
Cleaned, gal/ton

       112
     1 ,190
       360

       327
     1 ,800

       500
       483
     3,050
       480
     2,000
       850
       480
Type of Coal Cleaned

Low Sulfur Eastern
High Sulfur Eastern
High Sulfur Eastern

Low Sulfur Western
Medium Sulfur Eastern

High Sulfur Eastern
Low Sulfur Western
High Sulfur Eastern
Low Sulfur Eastern
Low Sulfur Eastern
Low Sulfur Eastern
Medium Sulfur Eastern
* New closed-circuit design

Source:  (7)
                                 38

-------
HISTORY

Coal was first commercially mined in America  in 1750,  from  the
James River coal field near Richmond, Virginia.  However, coal
was not widely utilized until well into the 19th century because
abundant forests supplied nearly all of the needed  fuel.  Total
anthracite and bituminous coal consumption was only 98,000  metric
tons (108,000 short tons) in 1800.  Thereafter, consumption
gradually increased until it superseded wood  for the  first  time
in 1840, after which coal mining became increasingly  more
important due to the development of railroads, steel  mills,  and
other large consumers of fuel.  After the Civil War,  industrial
development grew very rapidly, causing coal consumption to  reach
181 million metric tons (200 million short tons) annually by 1900
and 454 million metric tons (500 million short tons)  by 1910.
Bituminous and lignite production temporarily peaked  at 572
million metric tons (630 million short tons)  in 1947,  falling off
to 356 million metric tons (392 million short tons) in 1954,  and
finally surpassing the 1947 high when 588 million metric tons
(648 million short tons) were produced in 1975.  In 1979, a new
record for coal production was achieved by 770,000,000 short
tons.  Figure IV-3 shows U.S. consumption of  coal by  end-use
sector.

In the early 1800"s, anthracite production was greater and  more
important than bituminous coal, but, by 1870, anthracite and
bituminous production were equal, and by 1901, bituminous produc-
tion was four times greater.  Total anthracite production con-
tinued to increase, however, until it peaked  at 90.3  million
metric tons (99.6 million short tons) annually during  the World
War I period (1917).  Thereafter, its steady  decline  has lowered
its production to 4.6 million metric tons (5.0 million short
tons) for 1978.  Anthracite's early popularity can  be attributed
to its high quality, use by the railroads, and proximity to major
population centers where its clean-burning characteristics  made
it a favorite for space heating.  The steady  decline  of the use
of anthracite was caused by the high production of  more conve-
nient and cheaper natural gas, oil, and bituminous  stoker coal.
Table IV-6 and Figure IV-4 portray the history of anthracite coal
production in the United States.

Surface Mining

Coal was first extracted by surface methods; however,  the devel-
opment of surface mining techniques was insignificant  until
around 1910 when steam-powered shovels were developed.  Ini-
tially, truck-mounted shovels were used, but  they only had  a
swing of 180°.  Later, a wood frame, 360° shovel was  built,  and
from then on the development of surface mining was  rapid.   By the
1930's, rail-mounted shovels were being replaced by those mounted
on crawler tracks (i.e., dozer-type tracks), while  steam power
                               39

-------
  MILLION TONS
  1200 r
  1000
   800
   600
   400
  200
                                                               1144million ton*.
     -19
       65%
       16%. . I
                                                    77%
              ELECTRIC UTILITIES
 I i  i i  i I  t i  i i  I i  i i  i I  i i  i i
                                                                       80%
                                                                79%
       1947  1950
19S6
1960
1965
1970
                              1975 77   1980
                                     1985
                                                                       1990
                                Figure  IV-3
             U.S.  CONSUMPTION OF COAL BY  END-USE SECTOR
Note:   Percentage figures represent percent  shares  of total
        consumption.
Source:   (8)
                                      40

-------
                           Table IV-6


              HISTORY OF U.S. ANTHRACITE PRODUCTION

                                        Production
               Year                     (kkg - 1p6)1

               1890                        42.156

               1900                        52.043

               1910                        76.644

               1920                        81.282

               1930                        62.945

               1940                        46.706

               1950                        39.986

               1960                        17.071

               1970                         8.826

               1975                         5.628

               1976                         5.650

               1977                         4.591

               1978                         4.569
(1)  Multiply by 1.1023 to obtain short (English)  tons.

Sources:   Years 1890-1976:  (9)

                1977-1978:  (10)
                                41

-------
   100


    90



    80



    70



^  60
 •*
 •t»
 M  50
 §  40
    30
    20
    10
1890   1900
                   1910
1920
1930
  1940

TEAR
1950
1960
1970
1980
                              Figure  IV-4
              HISTORY OF U.S.  ANTHRACITE  PRODUCTION
Source:   (11)
                                    42

-------
was being replaced by electric.  During this  same period,  track
haulage of coal with small side-dump cars were replaced by
trucks.

These developments helped spur a steady increase in  surface  mine
production for almost every year since 1920.  In 1978, surface
mine production comprised 63 percent of total U.S. production.
This rapid growth was also made possible by constantly improving
machinery and mining methods and by the general geology of the
coal fields.  Contour strip mining was first  applied  in the
Appalachian fields where a combination of surface topography and
coal beds frequently presented sizable areas  along the outcrop
(where the coal seam contacts the surface) with low  overburden
(dirt and rock material covering the coal) depth.  In Ohio,  the
Midwest, North Dakota, and the Rocky Mountain states, large  coal
mining areas exist in gently rolling or nearly flat  terrain;
therefore, area strip mining methods are preferred to contour
stripping.  This condition helped promote high output mines  which
utilize even larger and more efficient draglines, shovels, end
loaders, truck drills, and other auxiliary equipment.  One of the
most recent developments has been the use of  wheeled  front-end
loaders for loading both coal and overburden.  Hydraulic  shovels
are also being utilized more frequently.  Bucket-wheel excavators
are in use where conditions permit.  Wheeled  tractor  scrapers are
finding more and more acceptance for overburden removal.   Numer-
ous other new surface mining techniques and equipment are  being
studied; for example, continuous excavating machines  that  can
increase overburden removal rates.

Underground Mining

Coal was initially mined by hand using a pick and bar, then  shov-
eled into baskets or wheelbarrows.  This progressed  into  cars
drawn over wood planks, cars drawn over iron  straps,  and  eventu-
ally cars drawn over rails by dogs or horses.  Black  powder  was
introduced to blast down the coal while undercutting, side-
cutting, and drilling were still done by hand.  Other develop-
ments during the 18th and 19th centuries which aided  mining
included:  invention of the steam engine in 1775 to  pump  water
out of the mine, making it possible for mines to go  deeper;
development of the first steam locomotive in  1814, leading to
surface rail transportation of coal; and development  of the  first
electric locomotive in 1883, leading to underground  rail  trans-
portation of coal.  Earliest full mechanization began in  the
1920's when loading machines were successfully utilized in a
number of mines.  Rubber-tired shuttle cars were introduced  in
the 1930's, leading to rapid conversion of track-mounted  loaders
and cutters to off-track types.  After World War II,  tungsten
carbide bits were introduced, thereby greatly improving the  per-
formance of cutting machines; continuous mining machines  started
making inroads in 1948; and roof bolting (installation of long


                                43

-------
bolts to stabilize the mine roof) became feasible, a  significant
development that resulted in higher productivity and  increased
safety.

Although longwall mining has been used extensively in Europe
since the early 1900's, this technique became increasingly  impor-
tant in the United States only after the development  of hydrau-
lic, self-propelled roof jacks.

The growth and history of certain facets of the U.S. bituminous
coal mining industry can be seen in Table IV-7 and Figures  IV-5
through IV-11.

Transportation

Transportation costs are often a significant part of  the overall
cost of mining coal, especially if long distances are involved.
For example, the rail cost of shipping coal from Gillette,
Wyoming to Houston, Texas, a distance of 1,700 miles, is $15.60
per short ton, whereas the f.o.b. mine value is only  $6.50  per
short ton.  This totals $22.10 per short ton delivered  (12).

Locks and dams were built on a number of rivers beginning about
1845, leading to a considerable increase in the development of
river transportation.

Trucking of coal has become more important over the last 30 years
if relatively short distances are involved, even though the cost
per ton-mile is generally higher than for other means of ship-
ment.  It is practical where railroad facilities do not exist or
where rail cannot be economically justified.  High-tonnage  con-
veyor systems are also used to move coal from mine to plant in
certain situations.

Railroads have remained competitive by changing to unit-train
shipments of coal.  The unit train system moves approximately
9,000 metric tons (10,000 short tons) of coal directly  from mine
to customer and features high loading and unloading rates.

The effort to ship coal more economically from mine to  power-
plant resulted in the successful operation of the first coal
pipeline for over six years (after which, in this case, rail
transportation became more economical due to unit-train ship-
ment) , moving 1.13 million metric tons (1.25 million  short  tons)
of Ohio coal annually over a distance of 100 miles.   A  more
recently constructed coal slurry pipeline is operating  in Arizona
and is designed to transport 5.0 million metric tons  (5.5 million
short tons) annually from mine to a powerplant over a distance  of
273 miles.
                               44

-------
        Table IV-7 (Part 1 of 3)

  GROWTH OF THE BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE
COAL MINING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES

                  Total Production
Year
1800
1900
1910
1920
1925
1930
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1983
1985
1990
(kkg * 106)
0.1
181.4
453.6
515.9
471.8
424.1
337.8
418.0
524.0
468.4
421.5
376.9
464.6
484.3
501.3
494.6
508.5
547.0
500.9
540.1
536.1
547.4
588.3
615.7
627.2
593.1
770.0*
804,7
905.0
1,088.65
                  45

-------
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                                                           46

-------
                     Table IV-7 (Part 3 of 3)

            GROWTH OF THE BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL

              MINING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES


Footnotes:

(1)  Multiply by 1.1023 to obtain short (English) tons ± 106.

(2)  Multiply by 0.9072 to obtain $/short ton.

(3)  Multiply by 0.9072 to obtain short tons/man-day.

(4)  Mined by longwall machines; 1967, 0.9%; 1968, 1.3%; 1969,
     1.8%; 1970, 2.1%; 1971, 2.4%; 1972, 2.6%; 1978, 5% (90
     longwalls).

(5)  NCA estimates that the national goal of 1.1 billion metric
     tons (1.2 billion short tons) annual coal production by 1985
     will not be achieved until 1990.

*    Estimated

Note:  1 kkg - 1,000 kilograms » 1 metric ton

Sources:  Years 1800, 1900, 1910:   (1)

          Years 1920 - 1978:       (13)

          Years 1979, 1983, 1990:   (14), (estimated by NCA)

          Year 1985:               U.S. Bureau of Mines
                               47

-------
          1920
                                                        980
                          Figure IV- 5

              PRODUCTION:  SURFACE METHODS  VERSUS
                      UNDERGROUND METHODS

Source:  1979 Keystone Coal Industry Data
                              48

-------
    5
    5
       700
       600
       500
       400
       300
       200
       LOO
    X
          1920
                 1930

                Total
                Underground
                Surface
1940
        1950
                 1960
                         1970
                                   1980
                             Figure IV-6

                HISTORY  OF BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE
                           COAL PRODUCTION
Source:   1979  Keystone  Coal Industry Data
                                  49

-------
       30





       23 U





       26 U





       24





       22
    «  20
    ad
       13





       16










       12





       10





        3





        6
          1920
                 1930
1940
                                 1950
                                 Tear
                                          1960
                                                  1970
                                  1980
                             Figure  IV-7


                      HISTORY OF COAL PRICES

                            (f.o.b.  Mines)




Source:   1979  Keystone  Coal Industry Data
                                 50

-------
EU

a
a
a
z
      100




       90




       80





       70





       60





       50
    Id

    O.
   40




   30





   20





   10
         1920
                1930
                        1940
                            1950



                          YEAR
                                         1960
                                                 1970
                                                          1980
                            Figure IV-8


              HISTORY OF UNDERGROUND COAL  MINED BY

                    CONTINUOUS MINING MACHINES
Source:   1979 Keystone Coal  Industry Data
                                 51

-------
       100




       90


     s


     5 80
     a.
     a


     i
     BU
     a
     5
     o
     OB
     a
     a.
70
       60
       50
       40
30
       20
        10
          1920
         1930
1940
  1950



TEAR
                                         1960
1970
1980
                             Figure IV-9


         HISTORY OF UNDERGROUND COAL - MECHANICALLY LOADED
Source:   1979 Keystone Coal Industry Data
                                  52

-------
    300,000
    100,000
          1920     1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
                             Figure IV-10
                 HISTORY OF NUMBER OF  EMPLOYEES
Source:   1979 Keystone Coal Industry Data
                                  53

-------
  19

  18

  17

  16

  15

  14



I 12
4

~ 10
£
>  9

I  8

1  7

   6

   5

   4

   3

   2

   1

   0
         1920
                                  I
           1930
1940
 1950


Year
                                         1960
                                                 1970
                                                     1980
                             Figure IV-11
                   HISTORY OF PRODUCTIVITY RATES
Source:   1979 Keystone Coal Industry Data
                                  54

-------
The development of very high-voltage electrical transmission
lines has provided another option for moving large quantities  of
energy to consumer areas from mine-based generating  stations.

Figure IV-12 illustrates U.S. coal transportation by method of
movement, 1976 and projected.

LOCATION AND PRODUCTION

The coal industry currently operates in 26 states; mines are
located in Appalachia, the Midwest, and Mountain and Pacific
regions.  The geographical distribution of coal mines by state
and type of mining is illustrated in Figure IV-13.   Table IV-8
lists the 1978 annual coal production for all states.  The seven
leading coal-producing states in 1978 were, in order of output,
Kentucky, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Wyoming, Illinois, Ohio,
and Virginia".  Production in these states accounted  for 73
percent of the total 1978 U.S. output.  Mines east of the
Mississippi River accounted for 74 percent or 436 million metric
tons of 1978 production, whereas mines west of the Mississippi
River accounted for 26 percent or 157 million metric tons of 1978
production.

There were 6,075 active bituminous and lignite mines in the
industry in 1978 controlled by approximately 3,800 companies
(13).  The majority of these mines are small operations, with
individual production less than 90,700 metric tons (100,000 short
tons) per year as shown in Table IV-9.  These small  operations
accounted for over 80 percent of the active mines in 1975.  How-
ever, they accounted for less than 20 percent of the bituminous
and lignite coal production.  In recent years, the trend has been
toward larger mines and consolidation of mining companies.  Table
IV-10 gives 1978 annual production figures for the 15 biggest
U.S. bituminous and lignite mines.  Table IV-11 shows annual
production of the 15 U.S. coal-producing companies having the
highest output in 1978.

Anthracite

Figure IV-14 illustrates the location of the major anthracite
coal fields, which are located in northeastern Pennsylvania, the
only state where anthracite is currently mined.

In 1917, anthracite reached its peak production of approximately
90.3 million metric tons (99.6 million short tons).  As the
availability of cheaper, more convenient fuels increased, the
demand for anthracite decreased to where production  currently
(1978) totals 4.6 million metric tons (5.0 million short tons).
The recent exclusion of steam electric utility powerplants burn-
ing anthracite from the S02 New Source Performance Standards
                               55

-------
          780
         431.11
              RAIL
                                                      1985 PROJECTIONS  BY

                                                   |     | NATIONAL ENERGY PLAN

                                                         BUREAU OF MINES


                                                         EDISON ELECTRIC INSTITUTE



                                                      1976 ACTUAL
 MOTOR    USED AT MINE MOUTH
VEHICLE    GENERATING PLANTS
BARGE
OTHER'
            * Coal Slurry Pipeline or Used at Mine
                                  Figure  IV-12

             U.S.  COAL TRANSPORTATION BY METHOD OF MOVEMENT,
                              1976 AND PROJECTED
                                 (million tons)
Source:    (15)
                                        56

-------
Sequential Listing Indicates:

    Total Number of Mines
    Total Number of Underground Mines
    Total Number of Surface Mines  (Includes Strip, Auger and Strip - Auger Mines)
                              Figure  IV-13

               GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF  COAL MINES
 Source:   (19)
                                     57

-------
                               Table  IV-8

              ESTIMATED 1978 COAL  PRODUCTION BY STATE
                        BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE
Rank
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11 .
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21 .
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

(D
(2)
State
Kentucky
West Virginia
Pennsylvania
Wyoming
Illinois
Ohio
Virginia
Montana
Indiana
Alabama
Texas
North Dakota
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Tennessee
Utah
Missouri
Oklahoma
Washington
Maryland
Kansas
Alaska
Iowa
Arkansas
Georgia
Total
Multiply by 1 .023 to
Includes 259,000 kkg
Total
(kkg * 10^)1
129.002
74.389
69.4S82
44.452
44.421
37.921
32.477
23.678
20.865
16.783
15.966
12.469
12.107
11 .793
10.614
10.342
9.253
5.141
4.536
4.173
2.363
1 .275
0.635
0.472
0.463
0.159
592.207
obtain short (English)
refuse.
Surface Methods
(kkg + 106)1
73.482
16.329
38.79S2
43.998
21 .484
26.463
9.525
23.678
20.369
11 .884
15.966
12.469
7.834
11 .060
10.614
5.656
0.000
5.141
4.536
4.173
2.166
1.275
0.635
0.236
0.450
0.159
368.377
tons -r 1 0^ .

Underground Methods
(kkg * 10&)1
55.520
58.060
30.663
0.454
22.937
11 .458
22.952
0.000
0.496
4.899
0.000
0.000
4.273
0.733
0.000
4.686
9.253
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.197
0.000
0.000
0.236
0.013
0.000
226.830


Source:  Based on preliminary estimates by State Mining  Departments, Energy Information
        Administration and Keystone.
                                     58

-------
                            Table IV-9

          BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL MINES, NUMBER AND
                PRODUCTION BY SIZE OF OUTPUT, 1975
       Mine Size
(i.e., Annual Production                         Production
	in Short Tons)        Number of Mines  (Short Tons 4 1C)6)

500,000 tons or more               284               359.3

200,000 to 499,999 tons            327               101.6

100,000 to 199,999 tons            463                64.2

 50,000 to  99,999 tons            800                56.0

 10,000 to  49,999 tons          2,417                58.6

  9,999 tons or less             1 ,877                 8.7

         TOTAL                   6,168               648.4


Source:  (19)
                               59

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                            Table IV-11


               TOP 15 COAL-PRODUCING GROUPS IN  1978


                                             Production
Group or Company                            (kkg  T 10^)1

Peabody Group                                   47.589

Consolidation Group                             37.939

AMAX Group                                      27.023

Island Creek Group                              12.328

Arch Mineral                                    11 .717

NERCO Group (C)                                 10.355

Pittston Group                                  9.939

Western Energy (C)                              9.594

U.S. Steel (C)                                  9.416

Peter Kiewit Group                              9.293

Bethlehem Mines (C)                             8.575

American Electric Power (C)                     8.427

Pittsburg & Midway                              7.131

Old Ben                                         7.023

North American Group                        	6 .900

Total                                         223.249


(1)  Multiply by 1.1023 to obtain short  (English) tons  •

(C)  Captive Mine (for explanation, see  table IV-13).

Source:  (13).
                               61

-------
            Pennsylvania
                                          _New_Yqrk_ _
                                          Pennsylvania
                                           Swsqy«honna
-42*
               Anthracite coal fields      /
                                  i
                                 I
                                       76*
                                                  Milts
                                               0  4 8  12 16
                                Figure IV-14
      LOCATION OF THE  MAJOR ANTHRACITE  COAL  FIELDS  IN THE U.S.
                         NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA
Source:   (11)
                                      62

-------
requiring scrubbing may help to make anthracite  a more  competi-
tive fuel source in the future.

Anthracite is mined by several methods,  including strip  mining;
underground mining; culm bank and  silt pile removal  (i.e.,
reworking the waste product from coal preparation plants);  and
dredging.  About 59 percent of the anthracite  produced  in  1978
originated from strip mines, 29 percent  from the reworking  of
refuse piles and culm banks, and about 12 percent from  under-
ground mines.  The amount of anthracite  produced from dredging
was unknown in 1978, although it is estimated  at less than  one
percent.

According to the Pennsylvania DER, there were  approximately 280
anthracite mining operations in 1978, including  113  stripping
operations, 104 deep mines, and 63 culm  bank operations.  These
operations employed 2,297 personnel*.  Available data indicate
that 41 operators and 127 mines accounted for  approximately 89
percent of the 1978 anthracite production (10).

The major consumer of Pennsylvania anthracite  continues  to  be the
residential and commercial space heating sector, which  accounted
for 34 percent of total consumption in 1975.   The second largest
consumer of Pennsylvania anthracite is the steam electric power
generating industry which, in 1975, accounted  for 24 percent of
consumption.  The third largest is the iron and  steel industry,
which consumes Pennsylvania anthracite primarily for coke-making,
accounting for 20 percent of 1975  total  consumption  (16).

Pennsylvania anthracite is also used for electric power  genera-
tion and space heating on United States' military bases  in
Europe.  In 1973, a total of 631,000 metric tons (696,000  short
tons) of anthracite was exported to military bases.

The remainder of Pennsylvania's anthracite is  used for  a number
of other applications, including manufacture of  soda ash, the
carbon industry, coal electrodes,  water  filtration,  bakery  fuel,
cement and lime manufacture, and at the  mine itself  to  generate
heat and power (16).

Anthracite's advantages in the coal market include its  low  sulfur
content (about 0.6 percent sulfur), high Btu content (approxi-
mately 13,500 Btu's per pound), and proximity  to the industrial-
ized Northeast.  Its disadvantages include complex geologic
conditions resulting in high mining costs and  widespread deple-
tion of easily accessible and mineable coal veins.   For  further
details on anthracite mining in the United States, refer to
reference (11).
 Another 1,175 personnel are employed at breakers and washeries
(i.e., essentially coal preparation).

                               63

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Bituminous, Subbituminous, and Lignite

Bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite deposits comprise over 99
percent of the nation's total coal reserves, as estimated by the
U.S. Geological Survey (17).  Deposits are widespread, occurring
in several major coal-producing regions across the United States.
Figure IV-15 illustrates the location of major bituminous, subbi-
tuminous, and lignite deposits in the United States.  Bituminous
coal has been a major source of energy in the United States since
the early 1800's.  Coal production has increased steadily in
recent years because of continued improvement in strip mining
machinery and in response to increased demands by the electric
utility industry.  Estimated 1979 production is 671 million
metric tons.  Surface production has increased significantly
since the early 1960's, accounting for about 63 percent or 373
million metric tons of the total 1978 production of 593 million
metric tons, whereas underground production has remained rela-
tively stable for the last 15 years, totaling 220 million metric
tons in 1978, (see Figure IV-5).  The number of production work-
ers mining bituminous coal and lignite has increased steadily
from a 1969 level of 124,000 to a 1978 level of 221,000 (see
Figure IV-10).  Only 75,000 personnel were employed at surface
mines in 1978, even though surface operations accounted for 63
percent of 1978 total production.  By comparison, 146,000 person-
nel were employed at underground operations that produced only 37
percent of 1978 total production.  The more labor-intensive
underground operations (but lower total production) can be
explained by the lower productivity rates when compared to
surface mines; i.e., 7.48 metric tons per man-day (8.25 short
tons per man-day) for underground mines versus 12.94 metric tons
per man-day (14.26 short tons per man-day) for surface mines.

FUTURE

Production and Expansion

A goal of 1.1 billion metric tons (1.2 billion short tons) of
coal production has been set for 1985 by the Carter
Administration (14). However, the National Coal Association  (NCA)
estimates that this goal will not be achieved until 1990.  U.S.
recoverable coal reserves by both surface and underground methods
currently total 191 billion metric tons (210 billion short tons)
of bituminous, subbituminous and lignite coal  (14).  Table IV-12
lists the 15 American companies that control the most coal
reserves.

NCA's latest five-year forecast predicts domestic coal production
will "most  likely" be 805 million metric tons  (887 million short
tons) in 1983.  Most of the increase in production will come  from
new, high-production western surface mines or expansions of
existing western surface mines.  NCA forecasts that 1983 coal
                                64

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output west of the Mississippi River will  increase  to  277  million
metric tons (305 million short tons), an increase of 42  percent
over the 1979 level.  Coal production east of  the Mississippi
River, however, will rise only 11 percent  to 528 million metric
tons (582 million short tons) (14).  Wyoming may soon  become the
nation's top coal-producing state, due to  the  expansion  plans  for
the Powder River Basin area in Campbell County.  Table IV-13
shows demonstrated U.S. coal reserves by region and coal rank.

Exports/Imports

According to NCA estimates, exports of coal will rise  by only
nine percent in 1983 over 1979 levels, whereas imports of  coal
and coke are expected to increase 91 percent by 1983.  Exports
are not expected to increase significantly, mainly  because U.S.
coal is slowly losing its ability to compete in world  markets due
to higher extraction and transportation costs  (14).  However,
according to DOE projections, bituminous coal  exports  will
increase over 21 percent by 1983 and over  37 percent by  1990,  to
81 million tons (8).  The principal receiving  nations  are  Canada
and Japan.

Utilization

A very large percentage of new coal production will be utilized
for steam electric generation.  According  to one estimate  (see
Figure IV-3) coal use by market sector in  1985 will amount to 79
percent for electric utilities, 11 percent for general industry
and retail, and 10 percent for coke plants.

As additional emphasis is placed on synthetic  fuels, coal  gasifi-
cation and coal liquefaction technology will become increasingly
more important.  Figure IV-16 portrays areas of high potential
for gasification development.

Productivity and Prices

Figure IV-11 shows the history of productivity for bituminous,
subbituminous, and lignite mines.  Within  the  last decade,  pro-
ductivity has gradually declined.  For example, Figure IV-11
shows that in 1969, overall productivity reached a high  of 18.05
metric tons per man-day (19.90 short tons per man-day),  but by
1978 productivity had fallen off to 12.94 metric tons  per  man-day
(14.26 short tons per man-day),  a decline of 28 percent.   Produc-
tivity for surface mines is significantly higher than  for  under-
ground mines; e.g., 22.68 metric tons per man-day (25.00 short
tons per man-day) versus 7.48 metric tons per man-day  (8.25 short
tons per man-day).

Table IV-7 and Figure IV-7 show the history of average f.o.b.
coal prices in the United States.  This price has been steadily
                                67

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                           Figure IV-16

       AREAS OF HIGH POTENTIAL FOR GASIFICATION DEVELOPMENT
Reprinted, with permission, from "Coal in America," by Richard A.
Schmidt.  Copyright 1979, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Source:  U-S. Bureau of Mines
                               69

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increasing since 1965.  In 1965, the average  f.o.b. mine  price
was $4.89 per metric ton, whereas in 1978 it  had reached  $24.69
per metric ton, a 500 percent increase  in 13  years.  Part of this
increase is due to the equivalent energy cost of imported oil as
is indicated by the large jump in the 1974 average  coal price
versus 1973 (e.g., $17.36 per ton versus $9.28 per  ton, an
increase of 87 percent), which occurred primarily as a result of
the oil embargo and the large increase  in the cost  of OPEC crude.

MINING METHODS

Surface Mining

Surface mining is employed where the coal is  close  enough to the
surface to enable the overburden (the soil and rock above the
coal) to be removed economically and later replaced or regraded.
Types of equipment used to remove overburden  at U.S. mines
include draglines; bucket wheel excavators; old generation
stripping shovels; cable shovels and trucks;  hydraulic shovels
and trucks; front-end loaders and trucks; scraper-dozer units;
and dozers assisting either front-end loaders, hydraulic  shovels,
or cable shovels.

There are two general types of surface  mines--contour mines and
area mines.

Contour Mining

Contour mining prevails in mountainous  and hilly terrain  such as
Appalachia.  For instance, if a coal seam is  visualized as lying
level at an elevation of 1,000 feet above sea level, and  the land
surface elevation varies from 600 to 1,400 feet above sea level,
a contour stripping situation exists.   Mining commences where the
coal and surface elevations are the same, commonly  called the
cropline, and proceeds around the side  of the hill  on the crop-
line elevation.

The earth overlying the coal (overburden) may be removed  by
shovel, dragline, scraper, or bulldozer, depending  on the depth
and type of overburden encountered.  The overburden is removed
and the coal is loaded into trucks and  removed from the pit. A
second cut or pit can then be excavated by placing  the overburden
from it back into the first cut or pit.

Succeeding cuts, if any, would follow in the  same  sequence, with
the amount of overburden increasing on  each succeeding cut until
the economic limit of the operation, or the maximum depth limit
of the overburden machine (i.e., dragline or  stripping shovel),
is reached.
                                70

-------
In the preceding description,  only  a  single-level  seam operation
has been considered.  There are many  situations where  several
seams of coal may exist and they may  pitch  at  various  angless
from the horizontal, as is fairly common  in West Virginia  and
Pennsylvania.  Although the mining  of multiple or  pitching seams
is more complicated, the principle  of contour  stripping remains
the same—finding where the surface and coal elevations are the
same and following this contour until the economic  limit is
reached.  Several types of contour  mining practices  exist.  The
primary distinction in most of these  procedures is  the method of
spoil disposal.

Spoil Deposited Over Side of Hill.  This  practice  has  been
virtually eliminated by the Federal Surface Mining  Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), which prohibits the placing  of
materials on the downslope in  steep mining  situations  (i.e.,
Appalachian area, on slopes 20° or  greater).   In past  practices,
this was the easiest way to get rid of overburden  from the first
cut in a hillside, by casting  it over the side onto  the down-
slope.  Overburden from the second  cut was  then placed into the
mined-out first cut and so on  until the economic limit of  the
operation was reached.  The highwall  left at the end of mining
often remained essentially unreclaimed, except the  coal seam  was
generally covered up; methods  sometimes varied according to state
law.  SMCRA requires that highwalls be reclaimed,  thereby
eliminating this past practice.  Also, the  practice  of spoiling
on the downslope has been replaced  by techniques whereby spoil
from the first cut or pit(s) is placed in hollow fills,  or is
stockpiled, hauled, conveyed,  or pushed into a mined-out pit  (or
any combination of these techniques).  Because of  the  signifi-
cantly increased costs of producing coal  by contour  mining
(partially as a result of eliminating past  practices), many such
operations have been eliminated or  replaced by mountain-top or
finger-ridge mining techniques.  Figure IV-17  illustrates  the
contour mining method when spoil is deposited  over  the side of
the hill.

Spoil Deposited in Hollow Fills.  This method  employs  placement
of spoil from initial cuts into approved  hollow fills.  Hollow
fill design criteria varies from state to state.   Figure IV-18
portrays a West Virginia hollow fill.

Haulback Mining.  Truck haulback has  become a  successful tech-
nique for surface mining coal  throughout  the Appalachian regions.
The haulback method, as the name implies, involves haulage of
spoil laterally back along the bench,  where it is  placed on the
pit floor.  However, spoil from initial pits is either stockpiled
or placed in hollow fills.  This method offers many  advantages
environmentally and helps coal operators  to comply with two
significant provisions of SMCRA:  (1)  the requirement  that
                               71

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                       >
                                                >1
                           Figure IV-17
                    CONTOUR MINING (STRIPPING)
               (Spoil Deposited Over Side of Hill)
Reprinted, with permission, from "Coal in America," by Richard A.
Schmidt.  Copyright 1979, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Source:  U.S. Bureau of Mines.
                               72

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surface-mined land be returned to the approximate  original  con-
tour, and (2) the requirement that no spoil be pushed  over  the
mining bench onto the slopes below.

There are some reclamation advantages as well.  Haulback  permits
the surface-mined area to be back-filled and seeded on a  contin-
uous cycle, sharing the same production schedule as the coal  or
stripping functions.  This permits revegetating the slopes  while
the soil is still pliable and auxiliary equipment  is still
around.  Furthermore, the haulback method also cuts down  by
approximately two-thirds the amount of disturbed lands at any
given time.  However, the logistics of timing the  blasting,
stripping, mining, and hauling sequences in the truck  haulback
method can become complicated.  This mining technique  is  now
widely used in eastern Kentucky, southern West Virginia,  and
northern Tennessee.  Figure IV-19 illustrates the  haulback  mining
technique.

Auger Mining.  When the economic limit is reached  in normal
surface mining operations, the coal seam remains exposed  at the
bottom of the final highwall.  This coal can be partially recov-
ered by one of three methods:  conventional underground mining,
punch mining (a series of entries into a seam by a continuous
miner), or auger mining (spiral boring for additional  recovery of
a coal seam exposed in a highwall).

Auger mining is usually applied to contour operations  but can
also be utilized in area type mining.  Some mines, especially in
Kentucky, use the auger method only.  The coal seams are  augered
from specially prepared narrow benches, some only  about 20  feet
wide, and from a low highwall that is scarcely more than  the
thickness of the coal seam.

Records show that coal recovery by augering is quite low, usually
less than 35 percent, and penetration generally is only about 150
feet.  Unless properly planned, such mining can shut off  large
blocks of future deep coal by making the reserve very  expensive
to reach.

Low as the coal recovery is from auger mining, there are  condi-
tions where it is warranted as it is low-cost production  and
frequently makes it possible to mine coal reserves that are thin,
dirty, isolated, and not economically recoverable  by any  other
means.  Auger mining accounts for about 2.5 percent of total  U.S.
coal production.
                                74

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                                                            \
(Single-seam haulback operation in Appalachia involves three
 integrated phases of overburden removal,  coal loading,  and
 reclamation.)
                           Figure IV-19

                         HAULBACK MINING
 Reprinted, with permission, from "Coal Age Operating Handbook of
 Coal  Surface Mining and Reclamation," Volume 2.  Copyright 1978,
 McGraw-Hill, Inc.
                                75

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Area Mining

Strip Mining.  In some regions of the United States,  especially
in the West and Midwest, many of the economically significant
coal seams lie in a relatively level plane beneath a  flat  to
gently rolling surface terrain.  Consequently, the depth of the
coal below the surface will remain fairly constant over extensive
areas.   This type of deposit can ordinarily be developed  by
conventional dragline or shovel methods using "area type"  surface
mining; that is, excavation of a sequence of parallel pits which
may extend several thousand feet in length.  Mining by the
conventional "area" method normally begins at the cropline where
the overburden is shallow.  Spoil from the initial cut (box cut)
is placed on virgin ground.  The overburden from each succeeding
pit is then spoiled into the previous pit where the coal has been
removed.  Reclamation operations follow closely behind the
advancing mining front.  The final highwall and entire mine area
is reclaimed back to approximate original contour.

In addition to draglines or conventional shovels, stripping can
also be performed by bucket-wheel excavators, shovels and  trucks,
endloaders and trucks, or scrapers.  The trucks and scrapers haul
overburden around the end of the pit, depositing it in the mined-
out strip-cuts or other spoil storage sites.  Figure  IV-20 illus-
trates area mining with draglines.  Figure IV-21 illustrates area
mining with a stripping shovel.

Open-Pit Mining.  Some western area type mines utilizing shovels
and trucks,endloaders and trucks, or scrapers develop open-pit
mine configurations whereby overburden and coal are removed in
blocks rather than strip-cuts.  Overburden from initial pits is
normally placed off the area to be mined, often in depression
areas, sometimes on previously mined areas, then overburden  from
succeeding pits is placed back into pits where the coal has been
removed.  Figure IV-22 portrays open-pit mining of a  thick seam.

Other New Surface Mining Methods

Mountaintop Mining.  In recent years, several mining  techniques
have been developed which minimize the adverse effects of  mining
on steep slopes.  Because of new strip mine laws and  reclamation
requirements, these techniques have often replaced or eliminated
the practice of contour mining.  The new methods include moun-
taintop (or hilltop) mining and finger-ridge mining.  Figure
IV-23 depicts the cross-ridge concept of mountaintop  mining.

The mountaintop mining method involves removal of the entire
hilltop or mountaintop above a coal seam or multiple  coal  seams.
Most of the overburden is usually placed in hollow  fills,  while
some overburden is retained for final reclamation of  the
                                76

-------
                                 UFc OF MINE HAUL ROAO
                            Figure IV-20

                    AREA MINING WITH DRAGLINES


Reprinted, with permission,  from "Coal  Age Operating Handbook of
Coal Surface Mining and  Reclamation," Volume 2.   Copyright 1978,
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
                                77

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                  Area-mining method with stripping shovel


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                  AREA MINING WITH STRIPPING SHOVEL
  Reprinted, with permission,  from "Coal  Age  Operating Handbook of
  Coal Surface Mining and Reclamation," Volume  2.   Copyright  1978,
  McGraw-Hill,  Inc.
                                 78

-------
                      Thick-seam open-pit mining
  /
                            Figure IV-22

          AREA MINING  (OPEN-PIT MINING) OF A THICK SEAM
Reprinted, with permission,  from "Coal Age Magazine," February,
1980, Volume 85 - Number  2.   McGraw-Hill, Inc.
                                79

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                        A cross-ridge concept
                          Final grade of mountamtoo
                            Figure  IV- 23

                            AREA MINING
                  (CROSS-RIDGE MOUNTAINTOP METHOD)


Reprinted, with permission, from "Coal Age Operating Handbook of
Coal Surface  Mining and Reclamation,"  Volume 2.  Copyright 1978,
McGraw-Hill,  Inc.
                                 80

-------
"tabletop" landscape left upon termination  of mining.   A new
mountaintop technique, called cross-ridge mining, mines across
the ridges between the coal outcrops  and places  more  spoil  on top
of the mined out area.  This technique reduces the  required
volume of hollow fill areas.

Finger-Ridge Mining.  Finger-ridge  removal  methods  can  also
utilize cross-ridge mining techniques.  Finger-ridge  mining is
similar to mountaintop mining; however, instead  of  removing the
entire mountain or hill above the coal seam(s),  only  the ridges
or incremental parts of the mountain  above  the coal seam(s) are
removed.  This allows operators  to  take advantage of  lower  strip-
ping ratios in ridge areas.  The final highwall, which  often
represents economic cutoff, occurs  where the strip  ratio becomes
too high as mining progresses into  the mountain.  The block of
coal that remains could be mined later if economic  conditions
become favorable or new techniques  are developed.

Underground Mining

Underground methods are employed where the  coal  is  too  deep to  be
surface mined economically or environmental restrictions preclude
surface mining.  Basically, there are three types of  underground
mines according to the manner in which the  opening  from the sur-
face to the coal seam is made.   These include drift mines,  slope
mines, and shaft mines (see Figure  IV-24).  In a drift  mine,  the
opening into the coal is horizontal or made directly  into the
seam at a point where it outcrops on  the surface.   A  slope  mine
uses an inclined opening to reach the coal.  A slope  entry  is
usually employed where the coal  seam  is at  an intermediate  depth
(there is no visible outcrop), or where the coal outcrop condi-
tion is unsatisfactory or unsafe for  drift  entry.   Shaft mines
are usually developed when the coal seam lies deep  underground.

Conventional

This method extracts the coal in a  sequence of operations,  with
special equipment to execute each step.  First,  the coal is cut
by a cutting machine and then drilled, loaded with  explosives,
and blasted.  The broken coal is gathered by a loading  machine
and transported to a shuttle car (or  in some cases, the coal is
both gathered and transported by specially  designed equipment),
which dumps the coal onto a conveyor  belt or a mine car loadout
station.  A machine follows closely behind  the operating face
installing roof bolts, or other  roof  support items  such as
timbers or steel crossbars are installed.   This  type  of mining
system is gradually being phased out  in U.S. mines  and  is being
replaced by continuous mining machines.  Figure  IV-25 illustrates
room and pillar mining by conventional methods.
                               81

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                            DRIFT MINE
                  •SURFACE
                                            PREPARATION
                                               PLANT
                           SLOPE  MINE
                                           PREPARATION
                                              PLANT
                             -SUQPE CONVEYOR
                                  BELT
             '--COAl.  SEAM	   ?



                          Figure IV-24

                   UNDERGROUND MINING PRACTICES

Reprinted from  "Elements  of Practical Coal Mining,"  by Samuel M.
Cassidy, editor,  1973,  by permission of the Society  of Mining
Engineers of AIME.
                               82

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                             SHAFT MINE
           PREPARATION
             PLANT
HEAOFRAME
                                               SURFACE
                       SKIP—*
                COAL SEAM-
                                 R DUMP
                           IP-
        STORAGE  BIN
                    Figure  IV-24  (Continued)

                  UNDERGROUND MINING PRACTICES

Reprinted from "Elements of Practical Coal Mining," by Samuel M.
Cassidy, editor, 1973, by permission of the Society of Mining
Engineers of AIME.
                               83

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                           Figure IV-25

         UNDERGROUND COAL MINING - ROOM-AND-PILLAR SYSTEM
                      (Conventional Method)
Reprinted, with permission, from "Coal in America," by Richard A.
Schmidt.  Copyright 1979, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Source:  U.S. Bureau of Mines
                               84

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Continuous

This method utilizes a single machine called a "continuous miner"
which breaks the coal mechanically, then loads and transports it
to a shuttle car.  The shuttle car transports the coal to a con-
veyor belt for passage out of the mine.  A roof bolting machine
is usually scheduled to follow closely behind the operating face.
Recently, development towards continuous haulage has been empha-
sized whereby the conveyor belt system connects directly to the
continuous miner; also, mounting roof bolting equipment on con-
tinuous miners has been explored.  These developments are likely
to further improve productivity and safety.

Both the conventional and continuous mining methods use the room
and pillar technique to extract the coal.  Main tunnels, or head-
ings, are first driven from the point of entry into the coal
seam.  From these main headings, secondary headings are driven
perpendicularly.  Blocks of coal are then extracted in a system-
atic pattern along both sides of the headings, and pillars of
intact coal are left between the mined-out rooms to support the
mine roof and prevent surface subsidence above the workings.
Once a given area or entire mine property has been developed,
retreat mining is often practiced in which additional coal is
mined from the pillars, thereby increasing overall coal recovery.
Room and pillar mining normally achieves extraction of 40 to 60
percent of the coal seam.

Longwal1

Longwall mining is relatively new to the mining industry.  This
system mines large blocks of coal, outlined during the mine
development phase, which are completely extracted in a single,
continuous operation.  Longwall mining machines utilize coal
cutters that move across a section of the face and the cut coal
falls onto a continuously moving face conveyor.  Hydraulic roof
supports are advanced with each pass of the cutter, permitting
controlled roof collapse as mining progresses.  Longwall mining,
once properly implemented, is usually highly productive and
allows increased recovery of the coal since it is unnecessary to
leave pillars of coal for roof support as in other mining
methods.  One quarter of western deep mines currently use long-
walls.  Longwall mining techniques are illustrated in Figure
IV-26.

Shortwall

This new mining method, introduced from Australian mines, repre-
sents a combination of the continuous mining and longwall sys-
tems.  Either continuous mining equipment or conventional equip-
ment is used to develop the field.  A continuous miner, in con-
junction with the longwall-type roof supports, is then used to
                                85

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  UNDERGROUND MINING PLAN FOR LONGWALL DEVELOPMENT MINERS
                    -LEGENO-
                I  MASONRY STOPPING
                — CANVAS STOPPING
                •"• RETURN REGULATOR
                «f INTAKE REGULATOR
                x OVERCAST
                « UNOEHCAST
                • SUPPLY POINT
                * BELT TRANSFiH POINT
               — DIRECTION OF AIR F1.0W
     PLAN  OF THE LONGWALL FACE THAT  IS  SHOWN  ABOVE
                           Figure  IV-26
                      LONGWALL MINING METHOD

Reprinted from "Elements of Practical Coal Mining," by  Samuel M.
Cassidy,  editor,  1973,  by permission of the  Society of  Mining
Engineers of AIME.
                                 86

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extract  the remaining  coal  pillars.   The individual pillars or
blocks of coal are  somewhat smaller  than those  in longwall
operations.  Transportation of the  coal  may be  by shuttle cars or
by newly developed  portable,  flexible belt  conveyors that follow
the continuous miner in  and out (i.e., continuous haulage).  As
in longwall mining, shortwall  mining also offers  improved coal
recovery.  Shortwall mining techniques are  illustrated in Figure
IV-27.

PREPARATION PLANTS  AND ASSOCIATED AREAS

Introduction

Coal preparation is the  process of upgrading raw  coal by physi-
cal means.  In general,  preparation  techniques  improve the heat-
ing value and physical characteristics of the coal by removing
impurities such as  pyrite and  ash material  (e.g., shales, clays,
shaley coals, etc.).   By removing potential pollutants such as
sulfur-bearing minerals  prior  to combustions, coal cleaning can
be an important control  strategy for complying  with air quality
standards.

The physical upgrading of metallurgical  coal has  long been a
necessity because the  steel industry has had the  toughest quality
requirements of all major coal-consuming industries.  On the
other hand, utility (steam)  coal has been subjected to less
extensive preparation.   Although utility coal is  required to be
relatively uniform  in  size,  the economic benefits accrued from
deep cleaning in the past has  not been sufficient to justify the
additional preparation costs.   However,  with the  establishment of
new sulfur dioxide  emission standards for power generating
plants, there is a growing  demand for more  complete cleaning of
utility coal.  Electric  utility companies can meet these stand-
ards by installing  scrubbers or other technologies that reduce
the sulfur content  of  stack gases, or by burning  cleaner, lower
sulfur coal.

Coal Preparation Processes

The physical coal cleaning  processes  used today are oriented
toward product standardization  and reduction of ash, with
increasing- attention being  placed on sulfur reduction.   In a
modern coal-cleaning plant,  the  coal  is  typically subjected to
size reduction and screening, gravity separation  of coal  from its
impurities, and dewatering  and  drying.

The commercial practice  of  coal  cleaning is primarily based on
separation of the impurities due to  differences in the  specific
gravity of coal constituents (i.e.,  gravity separation  proces-
ses) ,  and on the differences in  surface  properties of the coal
and its mineral matter (i.e.,  froth  flotation).
                                87

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ftCTUAN AIM
                                                                   1NT&KC AM
                              Figure IV-27

                         SHORTWALL MINING METHOD
     (An experimental plan for shortwall mining in eastern Kentucky)

     Reprinted from "Elements of Practical Coal Mining,"  by  Samuel M.
     Cassidy, editor, 1973, by permission of the Society  of  Mining
     Engineers.of AIME.

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Although it is not possible  to describe  a  universal  coal  prepara-
tion process, certain processing methods common  to most prepara-
tion operations can be identified.   Figure IV-28 illustrates  a
coal-cleaning facility that  uses common  process  methods,  without
detailing specific unit operations.

Initial Coal Preparation

Prior to the actual cleaning process, run-of-mine coal must
undergo initial preparation.  This involves preliminary crushing
of the coal to remove large  rock fractions and to liberate
entrained impurities such as clay, rock, and other inorganic
materials, including pyrite.  The  first  crushing step  is  followed
by a screening operation and secondary crushing.  A  second
screening step produces two  product  streams from this  process
area:  one containing a fine fraction (usually less  than  6.5  mm)
and the other containing coarse particles  (normally  76.0  x 6.5
mm).  These two coal streams are then routed to  their  respective
process areas where the actual cleaning  operation takes place
(7).

Fine Coal Processing

Fine coal processing can involve either  wet or dry cleaning
methods.  In plants utilizing a dry  coal cleaning process, fine
coal from the initial preparation  step flows to  a feed hopper and
then to an air cleaning operation.   This cleaning operation can
employ one of several devices which  rely on an upward  current of
air traveling through a fluidized  bed of crushed coal.
Separation is effected by particle size  and density.   Product
streams from a dry cleaning  process  are  sent directly  to  the
final coal preparation step, while reject  streams are  usually
processed further in wet cleaning  operations (21).

In'operations utilizing wet  methods  to effect  fine coal cleaning,
the process feed stream containing less  than 6.5 mm  coal  is slur-
ried with water as it enters the fine coal processing  area of the
plant.  This slurry is then  subjected to a desliming operation
which removes a suspension containing approximately  50 percent of
minus 200 mesh material.  The cutoff size  for  this separation is
usually in the range of 28 to 48 mesh.   This desliming operation
is necessary because the presence  of slimes adversely  affects the
capacity and efficiency of fine cleaning units (21).

Subsequent to desliming, the oversize coal fraction  (greater  than
28 mesh) is pumped to the fine coal  cleaning process.  Here,  fine
coal particles undergo gravity separation  in one of  several wet
cleaning devices.  This removes a  percentage of  ash  and pyritic
sulfur to produce a clean coal product.  The product stream from
                               89

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this operation is fed to the drying area of the plant; refuse
material is further processed in the water treatment  section.

The slimes removed from the fine coal stream are  fed  to a  froth
flotation process.  Other material, such as reject  from dry
cleaning operations, may also be treated in the flotation  pro-
cess.  This process consists of "rougher" and "cleaner" sections
which are comprised of cells of flotation machines.   Upon  enter-
ing the flotation process area, the slime suspension  is treated
with a frothing agent.  This agent selectively floats coal par-
ticles in the flotation machines while allowing pyrite and ash
impurities to settle.  Processing slime in the "rougher" cells
produces a reject stream and a low-grade product.   The low-grade
product is further processed in the "cleaner" cells to produce a
clean coal product.  This final float product is  then sent to the
dewatering area for further handling, while reject  material  from
both rougher and cleaner sections is processed in the water
treatment and recovery area.

Coarse Coal Processing

Feed to the coarse coal processing area of the plant  consists of
oversize material (76 x 6.5 mm particles) from the  initial prep-
aration area.  This feed stream is slurried with  water prior to
cleaning, since coarse coal cleaning operations employ wet pro-
cessing equipment to remove impurities from the coal.  The coarse
coal slurry is fed to one of the many types of process equipment
currently employed in coarse coal cleaning.  Here,  impurities are
separated from the coal due to differences in product and  reject
density.  It is common practice to remove a middling  fraction
from the separation operation and process it further  by means of
recycle or by feed to another cleaning process.   These cleaning
operations result in removal of two streams from  the  coarse  coal
processing area:  a product and a reject stream.  Subsequent to
the coarse cleaning operation, the product stream is  pumped  to
the dewatering and drying area of the plant, while  the reject
stream is processed in the water treatment recovery area.

Water Management/Refuse Disposal

Dewatering and drying equipment handle the product  flows from
both the fine and coarse coal preparation areas.  Typically,
cleaning plants employ mechanical dewatering operations to
separate coal slurries into a low-moisture solid  and  clarified
supernatant.  The solid coal sludge produced in the dewatering
step can be mechanically or thermally dried to further reduce the
moisture.  The supernatant from the dewatering process is
returned to the plant water circulation system.
                                91

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The water treatment and recovery section of a cleaning  plant  pro-
cesses refuse slurries containing both coarse material  and  reject
slimes.  Here, the refuse slurry is dewatered, typically  in
thickeners and settling ponds.  The supernatant  from  this oper-
ation is returned for reuse in the plant, while  the refuse  can be
buried and revegetated to prevent burning, or piled prior to
reclamation.

The coal product from the dewatering and drying  area  of the plant
often undergoes additional processing.  This may involve  crushing
and screening operations to separate the product into various
product sizes.  The cleaned and sized product is then conveyed to
storage silos or bins prior to shipping.

Plant Statistics

There was a total of 458 preparation plants processing  anthra-
cite, bituminous, and lignite coal in the United States in  1975
(20).  (Current estimates (1979) indicate there  are now approxi-
mately 670 preparation plants.)  Based on 1976 data,  95 percent
of the plants employed wet processing methods (see Figure IV-29).
Only 21 plants used dry methods.  Two-thirds of  the wet process-
ing plants utilized heavy media separation, froth flotation,  or
both.

Table IV-14 shows bituminous and lignite tonnage processed  in
1975 by type of cleaning method.  Two hundred and forty-two
million metric tons (267 million short tons) (41 percent) of  1975
production received mechanical cleaning using wet processing
methods, whereas 288 million metric tons (317 million short tons)
(49 percent) were subjected to crushing and/or screening  only and
58 million metric tons (64 million short tons) (10 percent)
received no processing prior to consumption.

Table IV-15 breaks down mechanical cleaning of bituminous and
lignite coal by type of equipment.

Associated Areas

Associated areas include coal slurry ponds, refuse piles, raw and
clean coal stockpiles, applicable haulroads or access roads,  and
disturbed areas from preparation plant facilities; that is, areas
associated with the preparation of and waste generated  by a
refined coal product.

Mainly refuse piles and coal stockpiles, plus other associated
areas, can be prone to generation of acid waters, especially  if
high pyritic coals are involved.  Proper management and treatment
techniques are required to be used to minimize water  pollution
from these areas.
                               92

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              PREPARATION PLANTS IN U.S
              458
       WET PROCESS
           437
              DRY PROCESS
                  21
  FROTH FLOTATION AND
 DENSE MEDIA SEPARATION
           292
WASHING
 ONLY
  145
                        Figure IV-29

           TYPES OF COAL PREPARATION PLANTS IN THE
                        UNITED STATES
Source:   (20)
                              93

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                           Table IV-14

      BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE TONNAGE PROCESSED  IN  1975


    Type of
Cleaning Method          kkg -r 1 Q_6  Short Tons  * 10^ Percent

Mechanical processing       242          267              41

Crushed or screened         288          317              49

No processing                58           64              10

  Total 1975 production     588          648             100
Source (19)
                               94

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                           Table IV-15



        MECHANICAL CLEANING OF BITUMINOUS AND LIGNITE COAL



                  IN 1975,  BY TYPE OF EQUIPMENT
Type of
Equipment
Washing Only Processes
Jigs
Concentrating Tables
Classifiers
Launderers
Subtotal
Dense Media
Processes
Magnetite
Sand
Calcium Chloride
Subtotal
Flotation
Total Wet Methods
Pneumatic Methods
kkg ^ 106
113.0
26.0
5.6
2.4
147.0

65.7
12.2
0.9
78.8
10.4
236.2
6.1
Short Tons * 1 06
124.3
28.7
6.2
2.7
161 .9
*

72.4
13.5
1 .0
86.9
11 .5
260.3
6.7
Percen
46.6
10.7
2.3
1 .0
60.6

27.1
5.1
0.4
32.6
4.3
36.9
2.5
     Grand Total           242.3           267.0           100.0
Source (19)
                               95

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                             SECTION V

    WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION AND INDUSTRY  SUBCATEGORIZATION

INTRODUCTION

The development of effluent  limitations  guidelines  is  based upon
the determination of the effluent  characteristics of the  indus-
trial category and the  identification  of suitable treatment tech-
nologies for reduction  of pollutants within the category.   All
industrial categories have inherent processing, site,  or  raw
material differences which influence their effluent characteris-
tics and methods of wastewater treatment.  The purpose of this
section is to recognize any  of these major inherent differences
that exist within the category, and more importantly,  to  deter-
mine their impact on treatability  and  effluent characteristics.
The subcategorization scheme developed from this evaluation pro-
vides the basis for the selection  of treatment technologies and
the determination of effluent standards.

SUBCATEGORIZATION

The development of the  BAT subcategorization  scheme includes an
examination of many factors  which  might  affect effluent quality
and treatability.  The  factors examined  include mine type (sur-
face or underground), coal type (anthracite,  bituminous,  lig-
nite), size, location,  and effluent source (preparation plant,
active mine, or reclamation  area).  These factors were previously
examined during the development of BPT effluent limitations, and
a BPT subcategorization scheme was established.  That  subcate-
gorization has been reexamined in  light  of additional  data
collected during the BAT program.  Statistical and engineering
analyses of these data  indicate that several  modifications are
appropriate.

Revised BPT and BAT Subcategorization  Scheme

The following categorization provides  the basis for the remainder
of this study:

     1.  Preparation Plants  and Associated Areas
     2.  Acid Mine Drainage
     3.  Alkaline Mine Drainage
     4.  Post Mining Discharges
         a.  Reclamation areas and
         b.  Underground mine dicharges.

A review of the subcategorization  scheme  for  new sources  was also
performed.   As a result of treatment system design considerations
and the cost of implementation (both of  which are discussed more
fully at the end of this section), a separate subcategory for
                               97

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preparation plant associated areas was established  for  new
sources.  Thus, the following subcategorization is  proposed  for
new sources:

     1.  Preparation Plants
     2.  Preparation Plant Associated Areas
     3.  Acid Mine Drainage
     4.  Alkaline Mine Drainage
     5.  Post Mining Discharges
         a.  Reclamation Areas
         b.  Underground Mine Discharges

The rationale for the modified BPT, BAT, and NSPS subcategoriza-
tions appear at the end of this section.

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PROGRAM

To support the proposed regulations, data characterizing waste-
waters generated during the extraction and preparation  of  coal
were obtained and evaluated.  The initial data collection  effort
was instituted during 1974 and 1975 for the development of BPT
effluent limitations required to be established under the  Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972.  These data included  results
from a sampling and analysis program and assimilation of a large
amount of historical data supplied by the industry, the U.S.
Bureau of Mines and other sources.  This information characte-
rized wastewaters from coal mining operations according to a
number of key control parameters--acidity, alkalinity,  total
suspended solids, pH, iron, and others.  However, little informa-
tion on other pollutants such as toxic metals and organics were
available from industry or government sources.  To  establish the
levels of these pollutants, a second sampling and analysis
program was instituted to specifically address these toxic com-
pounds, including the 65 pollutants and pollutant classes  for
which regulation was mandated by the Clean Water Act Amendments
of 1977.  These pollutants are listed on Table VI-1.*   This
sampling effort also served to extend the coal wastewater  data
base of conventional and nonconventional pollutants.

Data Base Developed During This Study

The Agency instituted a screening sampling program  and  a verifi-
cation sampling program directed primarily at determining  levels
of the toxic pollutants in raw and BPT-treated effluents in  the
coal mining industry.  Additional analytical data were  obtained
during engineering site visits to seventeen mine sites.  Two EPA
regional offices supplied supporting data from facilities  within
their geographical areas.  Data generated from a self-monitoring
*Tables and figures appear at the end of the section.
                               98

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program for areas under reclamation  are  also  part  of the data
base.  Finally, data from a preparation  plant  industry  question-
naire and NPDES Discharge Monitoring Reports  from  four  EPA
regions have been compiled for addition  to  the  active data base.
These data sources are presented, by proposed  subcategory, in
Table V-l and discussed in more detail below.   Table V-2
summarizes statistics for the data base  upon  which coal industry
wastewaters are characterized.

A number of treatability studies were also  conducted to evaluate
the capacity of candidate technologies to  treat coal mine drain-
age.  These studies are summarized in Table V-3.   Results from
the treatability studies are discussed in  detail in Section VII,
Treatment and Control Technologies.

Data Sources

Screening and Verification Sampling

The screening and verification sampling  program began in 1977.
Several criteria were considered in  the  selection  of sampling
sites.  It was determined that facilities  to  be sampled should:

     1.  Be representative of the industry  to  account for all
major factors (i.e., location, topography,  seam characteristics,
etc.) which could influence effluent quality  and treatability;
and

     2.  Include treatment processes considered exemplary within
the industry to establish a baseline for best  available tech-
nologies .

Applying these criteria, a candidate list  of  sites was  prepared
and submitted to the Water Quality Committee  of the National Coal
Association for comment.  A final list of  sites to be visited for
the screening phase was then compiled.   The mine companies were
contacted and sampling arrangements  made.   Screening sampling
visits were conducted during 1977 to sites  within  the various
subcategories as listed in Table V-l.  All  sampling and analysis
during this phase were done according to EPA  sampling protocols
(8)

After review of screen sampling analytical  results, several, addi-
tional sites were selected for verification sampling.   Three coal
mines and preparation plants were revisited to  verify data col-
lected during screening.  Three additional  bituminous and lignite
mines, as well as four anthracite facilities, were also sampled
to enhance the representativeness of the data base.   Sampling and
analytical protocols for this phase  were all  in accordance with
EPA procedures (8).  More detail on  these protocols can be found
in Appendix C.
                               99

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Engineering Site Visits

The engineering site visits were carried out primarily  to  collect
cost data for verifying and supplementing costs previously devel-
oped for the coal mining industry.  Fourteen separate mines,  some
with an associated preparation plant, were contacted and visited
in the fall of 1979.  A sample data checklist used on the  visits
may be found in Appendix D.  Grab samples of raw and treated
effluents were collected and shipped for analysis of "classical"
parameters (TSS, Fe, Mn, pH, turbidity, alkalinity/acidity,
settleable solids, and total dissolved solids) and the  thirteen
toxic metals.  The analytical protocol used was established by
EPA.  The metals were analyzed by inductively-coupled argon-
plasma emission spectrometry and atomic adsorption (9).

EPA Regional Support Studies

EPA Region 8 (Denver, Colorado) instituted a sampling effort  to
assess the water treatment configurations and effluent  qualities
characteristic of the western coal producing region.  Several
mines were visited during  the spring of 1979; however,  due to an
unusually mild winter and  an abnormally dry spring,  only  two of
those contacted were found to have a discharge that could  be
sampled.  Grab samples were collected and analyzed for  the
currently regulated parameters, priority metals, and a  number of
nonconventional pollutants.  EPA Region 4 (Atlanta, Georgia)
conducted a similar effort at one mine in its region.   These  data
were forwarded to the Effluent Guidelines Division and  incorpo-
rated into the data base.  This information was used to  further
characterize mine drainage and wastewater treatability,
particularly for priority  metals removal.

Preparation Plant Industry Survey

This study was conducted with the cooperation of the National
Coal Association (NCA) to  assess water usage and treatment in
coal preparation plants.   NCA producer companies were mailed  a
questionnaire requesting the following information:  facility
profile, water balance around the preparation facility, makeup
water sources, discharge points and quantities, water treatment
practices employed, water  management procedures and acreage of
preparation plant associated areas, and effluent quality data.  A
sample questionnaire is in Appendix D.  Fifty-nine companies
representing 152 plants (approximately 50 percent of the NCA pro-
ducer company prepartion plants) responded  to the survey,  repre-
senting roughly 30 percent of all the plants in the industry.
This information was incorporated into the  computer data base
developed in support of the overall program, and may be found in
Appendix E.  The uses of the industry responses include the
following:
                               100

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     1.  Determination of the number of plants  operating  a total
recycle system;

     2.  Determination of requirements for modifying  current
treatment configurations to a total recycle  system; and

     3.  Determination of the runoff treatment  strategy  for areas
ancillary to the preparation plant.

Questionnaire results are discussed in Section  VII, Treatment  and
Control Technology.

Self-Monitoring Survey

A survey conducted under authority of Section 308  of  the  Clean
Water Act is currently underway at 12 mine companies, with a
total of 21 sedimentation ponds.  The purpose of this  study is to
supplement the data base upon which effluent standards will be
based for runoff primarily from mining areas upon  which  revegeta-
tion has commenced.  This survey contains effluent  quality data
during base flow conditions, and during and  after  rainfall
events.  Samples are taken of the influent and  effluent  to the
pond.  One sample per week is collected to establish  base flow
conditions, with additional samples taken during any  significant
rainfall event and the day after the rainfall event.  The results
of these sample analyses, coupled with design specifications  sub-
mitted by the participating companies for each  pond,  permit
identification of the treatment effectiveness of these ponds
during dry weather and storm conditions, as  well as concentra-
tions of pollutants which characterize runoff from mine  reclama-
tion areas.  The parameters analyzed include total  suspended
solids, settleable solids, total iron, dissolved iron, and pH.
Certain samples were also analyzed for the priority metals.

Site Specific Reclamation Area Study

A second major sampling program to characterize runoff  from
reclamation areas and storm provisions has been commissioned by
EPA and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and  Enforcement
in the Department of the Interior.  Approximately  thirty-nine
mine sites have been chosen from major coal-producing regions  of
the country for a survey of reclamation and  sediment  control
techniques to establish the relationship of  those  techniques  to
effluent water quality.  Detailed, daily information  on  the
physical and chemical quality, flow, and sediment  load of drain-
age from eight sites will also be collected  during  the study.
Where possible, an hourly record will be taken  during precipita-
tion events to document drainage quality and sediment pond
efficiency during runoff periods at these eight sites.   This
study is expected to be completed in mid-1981.
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Preparation Plant Sampling Program

This sampling and analysis effort was  instituted  to  characterize
preparation plant effluents and to compare wastewater  generated
within total recycle systems with wastewater  discharged  from
partial recycle and once-through systems.  Grab samples  were
collected at three preparation plants  and associated areas  and
analyzed according to Agency protocol  (8).  Cost  and wastewater
engineering data were collected simultaneously to augment  present
data and to permit an evaluation of the  feasibility  of no  dis-
charge of pollutants from preparation  plant water circuits.

Regional Discharge Monitoring Reports  (DMR) Filed Under  the  NPDES
Program

A program has been initiated to collect  DMRs  from EPA  regional
offices located in the major coal producing areas in the United
States.  These data identify the levels  of variation in  flow and
pollutant characteristics associated with mine drainage.  Of
particular interest is the daily maximum value of each regulated
pollutant (TSS, Fe, Mn, and pH) during the 30-day monitoring
period.  Eighty-eight sets of data were  obtained  from  EPA  Regions
3, 4, 5, and 8.

WASTEWATER SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Water enters surface or deep mines by  groundwater infiltration,
precipitation, and surface runoff.  Surface runoff can become
contaminated with suspended solids from  sediment. If  pyritic
material is exposed on the mine bottom,  highwall,  or spoil  piles,
oxidation and acid formation can occur and leach  toxic metals.
Groundwater entering a surface or deep mine is also  subject  to
acid formation.

The wastewater situation at coal mines is notably different  from
that found in most other industries.   No process  water is  used in
coal extraction, except for minor use  in dust suppression,  equip-
ment cooling, and firefighting needs.  Water  is an operational
hindrance to a coal mine, and requires careful management  to
minimize water entering the active mining area.   Water can cause
occupational health hazards, such as spoil bank or highwall
instability or an electrical short circuit in the case of  opera-
tions using electric trunk lines to power mining  equipment.

As indicated in the industry profile section, the quantities of
water generated at a mine site do not  correlate with the coal
production rate.  This again differs from most other industries,
where flow, and thus pollutant loadings, can  be linked with the
rate of production.
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A final major difference with water  management  in  the  coal indus-
try is the possibility of continuing  discharges  of polluted
wastewater after the  facility has  ceased  production, especially
from underground operations.  Control practices, which are
discussed in Section VII, can be  implemented  to  minimize or treat
these discharges during and after  the active  mining phase.

This subsection will  summarize raw wastewater data first for all
subcategories and then for each individual  proposed subcategory.
The data sources in the summary tables  include  the following:

     1.  Screening sampling data,
     2.  Verification sampling data,
     3.  Self-monitoring survey data,
     4.  EPA regional data,
     5.  Engineering  site visits,  and
     6.  Preparation  plant site visits.

A number of explanatory points should be  made to correctly inter-
pret the tables presented in this  section and the  next section.
First, all concentrations are presented in  micrograms  per liter,
listed as UG/L on the tables.

Second, the tables represent an effort  to illustrate the quantity
and distribution of the data.  Thus,  the  total  number  of samples
analyzed for each pollutant parameter is  listed  in the first
numerical^ column.  The second column  presents the  total number of
times the pollutant was detected during analysis.   Because the
Agency considers 10 ug/1 as a realistic lower limit for detection
of organic compounds  (5 ug/1 for pesticides),. the  third column
depicts the total number of samples  where a detected value of
greater than 10 ug/1 was found.  These  are  termed  "quantifiable
levels."  The final six columns are  an  attempt  to  illustrate the
data distribution of only the detected values.   The statistics
listed include the minimum, the 10 percent  value (i.e., 90 per-
cent of the detected values are above this  concentration), the
median of detected values, the mean  of  detected  values, the 90
percent value (90 percent of the detected values are below this
value), and the maximum reported concentration.  Nearly all the
organic priority pollutants and a  number  of the  toxic  metal pol-
lutants are most frequently found  as  "not detected," i.e., below
the detection limit.  To record these values  on  the final  five
columns would render  these columns essentially   meaningless. For
instance, cyanide was detected in  only  three  samples out of 50
for raw wastewater (see Table V-4).   If the not  detected values
were recorded in the  final five columns,  the  minimum,  the 10 per-
cent value, the median, and the 90 percent  value would all be
listed as not detected.  This may  be appropriate for some  types
of evaluation, but, for the purpose  of  developing  treatment tech-
nologies and supporting a subcategorization scheme, illustrating
the data distribution for detected values is  more  informative.
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Third, in situations where fewer than 10 detected values  occur,
no meaningful number could be selected to represent  the 10  per-
cent and 90 percent values.  This is denoted by an asterisk.
Dots in the minimum, mean, median, and maximum columns indicate
no values were detected for that parameter.

Fourth, concentrations were sometimes reported by the analytical
laboratory as "detected less than X" where X equals  some  detec-
tion limit.  This apparently contradictory information can  be
explained by evaluating common laboratory procedures.  The
analytical machines used for these samples frequently have  a
significant degree of background noise, often due to 60 Hz  elec-
trical frequencies and internal electrical phenomena which  on  the
readout can partially or totally mask the signature  of a  com-
pound.  This level of noise is one factor which is accounted  for
in the determination of the detection limit.  In most laboratory
analyses, the signatures of the desired compounds that are
partially masked can be identified by a skilled lab  technician.
The concentration is thus reported as being detected, but at  less
than the detection limit.  For computational purposes, a  method
for quantifying these detected values is needed.  Thus, in  the
accompanying tables, for values reported as "detected less  than
X," where X equals some detection limit, the value was calculated
and recorded on the table as 1/2 of X when X was less than  4 ug/1
and as the square root of X when X was greater than  4 ug/1.

Fifth, some values were too large to put in a column in decimal
notation; these are recorded in exponential notation with an  "E"
prior to an integer number of zeros.  For example, on the sixth
page of Table V-4 for the total suspended solids mean value,  a
level of 1016E4 is recorded.  This should be interpreted  as 1,016
x 103 or as 1,016,000 ug/1.

Sixth, to accurately analyze the data, factors which could  bias
the data should be minimized or eliminated.  Two particular
instances should be noted.  First, each piece of data is  coded
according to a number of identifying parameters, one of which is
its sample type (e.g., raw wasteload, partially treated stream,
final discharge).  To include multiple analyses of the same raw
effluent source would be redundant and introduce bias.    Thus,
for four facilities (00013, 00014, 00009, 00010), multiple  raw
effluent points were averaged for each facility to yield  one  raw
effluent data point per facility.  A second similar  situation
occurred when multiple samples were taken of the same sample
point over a period of days.  For instance, three days of verifi-
cation sampling of the same point were averaged to yield  one  dis-
tinct data point before statistical calculations were performed.
This also avoids unnecessary bias.
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Finally, three pairs of priority organic  compounds  cannot  be
distinguished using GC/MS equipment.  They  are  anthracene/
phenanthrene, benzo(a)anthracene/chrysene,  and  benzo(3,4)
fluoranthene/benzo(k)fluoranthene  (abbreviated  on the  table as
benzo(3,4/k)fluoranthene).  The dual  compounds  are  reported prior
to the priority metals data as one concentration value for each
pair.

The data for raw wastewater from coal mines  for all proposed  sub-
categories are summarized in Table V-4.   This table permits an
overview of  the characterization of mine  drainage.   The following
subsections present sources and data  on raw effluent for each
proposed subcategory.

Acid Mine Drainage

Formation of Acid Mine Drainage

Iron sulfide, or pyrite,  is a common  substance  formed  from min-
eral sulfur.  It is this  sulfur-containing  compound that is a
precursor to acid mine drainage.   As  water  drains across or per-
colates through pyritic material,  in  the  presence of oxygen,  the
formation of acid drainage occurs  in  two  steps  (11, 12).  The
products of  the first step are ferrous iron and sulfuric acid as
shown in equation 1.

     2FeS2 + 702 + 2 H20  = 2FeS04  + 2H2S04      (1)

The ferrous  iron (Fe+2) then undergoes oxidation to the ferric
state (Fe+3) as shown in  equation  2.

     4FeS04 + 2H2S04 + 02 - 2Fe2(804)3 +  2H2° (2>

The reaction may proceed  to form ferric hydroxide or basic ferric
sulfate as shown in equations 3 and 4 respectively.

     Fe2(S04)3 + 6H20 = 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2S04   (3)

     Fe2(S04)3 + 2H20 = 2Fe(OH(S04))  + H2S04 (4)

The ferric iron can also  directly  oxidize pyrite to produce more
ferrous iron and sulfuric acid as  shown in  equation 5.

     FeS2 +  14Fe+3 + 8H20=15Fe+2 + 2S04'2 + 16H+(5)

Thus, the oxidation of one mole of iron pyrite  yields  two  moles
of sulfuric  acid.  As the pH of the pyritic systems decreases
below five,  certain acidophilic, chemoautotrophic bacteria become
active.  These bacteria,  Thiobacillus ferroxidans,  Ferrobacillus
ferroxidans, Metallogenium^and similar species are active at pH
2.0 to 4.5 and use C02 as their carbon source (19).  These
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bacteria are responsible for the oxidation of  ferrous  iron to the
ferric state, the rate limiting step in the oxidation  of  pyrite.
Their presence is generally an indication of rapid  pyrite oxida-
tion and is accompanied by waters low in pH and high in iron,
manganese, and total dissolved solids.

The acid formed from these reactions is an effective extraction
agent, causing trace elements to be leached and dissolved into
solution.  The solubilities of these substances, mostly heavy
metals, are very sensitive to changes in pH.   This  is  illustrated
in Figure V-l.  The data on this figure are derived from  an
experimental study of acid mine drainage (7).

Acid drainage can be readily formed by rainfall upon either a
coal storage or a refuse pile.  These wastewaters can  be  high in
certain metals concentration, especially after a substantial
rainfall event (13).  Also, acid waters can be formed  in  under-
ground mines and aquifers if sufficient air is present to permit
oxidation of pyritic materials in either the coal seam or adja-
cent strata.  The leaching process is promoted by a long  contact
time for water and the sulfur-containing material.

Characteristics of Acid Mine Drainage

The principal pollutants in surface water from mines exhibiting
acid mine drainage include suspended and dissolved  solids,  pH,
and certain metal species.  Causes for the formation of low pH
and high metals concentrations have just been  discussed.   In
general, the problem of acid mine drainage is  confined to western
Maryland, northern West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio,  western
Kentucky, and along the Illinois - Indiana border.   Acid  drainage
is not serious in the West because the coals and overburden con-
tain little pyrite and because the amount of infiltration into
spoils is low due to low rainfall (14, 15).

Suspended solids result from erosion of scarified areas,  where
vegetation has been removed.  The level of sediment concentration
in runoff is a function of the following:

     1.  Slope of the area
     2.  Residual vegetation
     3.  Soil type
     4.  Surface texture
     5.  Drainage area
     6.  Precipitation intensity and duration
     7.  Existing soil moisture
     8.  Particle or aggregate size.

The number and interaction of these variables  render wide varia-
tions in raw wastewater from day to day in any one  mine,  and from
mine to mine in a given region.
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Dissolved solids can result  from  infiltration  of  precipitation
that leaches through spoil and coal piles.  Acid  leaching  of soil
and coal, and ion exchange reactions of runoff and  soil  also
cause the formation of this  pollutant.  Calcium,  magnesium,  and
sodium are the principal dissolved materials, in surface  runoff.

The factors affecting the quantity of wastewater  generated by a
surface mine include:

     1.  Frequency, intensity, and duration of precipitation and
snowmelt events

     2.  The number, porosity and water content of  any aquifers
above or including the coal  seam  that are mined through  or
breached

     3.  Drainage area

     4.  Soil porosity

     5.  Pump capacity and rate

     6.  Evaporation rate

     7.  Watershed slope and flow length.

Groundwater is the primary source of drainage  from  underground
mining sites.  Underground operations in or below aquifers can
cause localized decline of the water table, changes in flow
direction and possible changes in flow rate  (15).   Lowering  of
water levels may cause wells or springs in the vicinity  to dry
up.  Fracturing as a result  of subsidence may  similarly  alter
groundwater flow.  In addition, the presence of subsidence frac-
tures and depressions at the surface may increase groundwater
recharge in the vicinity of  the mine (16).

Underground mining may also  cause degradation  of  groundwater
quality.  Flow of groundwater through a mine with acid forming
potential may result in leaching  of soluble materials including
trace metals and other ions  that will cause an increase  in dis-
solved solids content and may contaminate groundwater supplies.

During the screening phase,  facilities 00005,  00012, 00017,
00018, and 00021 through 00024 were sampled.   For facility 00012,
drainage from inactive mine  areas was the source  of acid drain-
age.  Verification sampling was conducted at mines  00198,  00021,
00023, 00188 through 00190,  and 00197.  Descriptions of  the  above
facilities and treatment process schematics, including sampling
points, can be found in Appendix F.  Engineering  site visits were
conducted at mines 00035, 00038, and 00195.  Data for toxic
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pollutants, and conventional and nonconventional pollutants  in
untreated acid mine drainage appear in Table V-5.  As  can be  seen
from the table, organics concentrations are very low  from these
mining operations.  In contrast, conventional and  toxic metals
concentrations are often quite substantial.  All raw  data are
contained in Appendix B.

Alkaline Mine Drainage

The discussion on sediment concentrations and wastewater quan-
tity in the acid mine drainage subsection is also  applicable  to
alkaline mine drainage and will not be repeated here.

Facilities 00001, 00002, 00003, 00004, 00006, 00007,  00011,
00013, 00014, 00015, 00016, 00019, 00020, and 00025 were sampled
during the screening phase.  During verification sampling, mines
00011, 00018, and 00025 were revisited and mines 00009 and 00010
were sampled for the first time.  Mine 00018 is also  listed under
acid mines during the screening phase because it possesses both
acid raw effluents and alkaline raw effluents.  These  samples
were appropriately divided and recorded on the proper  table.
Descriptions of the above facilities and treatment schematics,
including sampling points, can be found in Appendix F.

Mines 00009, 00032, 00033, 00034, 00036, 00037, 00103, 00107,
00193, 00194, and 00196 were sampled during the engineering  site
visits.  EPA Region 8 sampled mines 00029 and 00030.   EPA Region
4 sampled facility 00031.  Data for toxic pollutants  and conven-
tional and nonconventional pollutants from all these  sources  are
summarized in Table V-6.  As shown on the table, organics concen-
trations and metals concentrations are both very low.  Further,
conventional pollutants with the exception of TSS  are  very low.
The raw data are contained in Appendix B.

Preparation Plants

Wastewater is generated  in a coal preparation plant  from the  coal
cleaning process.  Flow rates vary widely depending upon certain
factors such as the degree of cleaning, the equipment  or proces-
ses used, and the characteristics of the run-of-mine  coal.   Each
of these factors was discussed in detail in Section IV.

Physical coal cleaning removes impurities from coal via a mechan-
ical separation process.  In most cleaning operations, this  sep-
aration of impurities is based on a specific gravity  difference
between less dense coal and heavier contaminants such as sulfur,
ash, and rock.  Sulfur occurs in a coal seam in three forms:   as
pyrites, in organic compounds, and as sulfate.  In coal, the  sul-
fur contribution from sulfate is almost always negligible.   The
total sulfur content may vary from less than one percent to  over
eight percent, with most coals in the two to five  percent  range.
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The total sulfur content distribution between  the  organic and
pyritic forms ranges from 5 to 60 percent  and  40 to  95  percent,
respectively.  Organic  sulfur in coal is chemically  bound and
requires a chemical extraction process  for removal;  physical  coal
cleaning is restricted  to removal of ash,  refuse,  and  the pyritic
sulfur (FeS2) from coal.

In the physical cleaning processes, water  is most  often used  to
assist in the removal of unwanted components.   The water consump-
tion and usage in a preparation plant was  discussed  in  the previ-
ous section.  Effluents are most often  laden with  suspended coal
and refuse fines.  This slurry is generally dewatered by mechani-
cal or thermal drying equipment internal to the preparation
plant, with the water recycled and the  partially dewatered,
solids-laden slurry discharged to a dewatering and slurry treat-
ment system.  Clarified water from this section can  often be
recycled to the preparation plant to reduce makeup water needs as
well as lessen the quantity of final discharge to  a  receiving
stream.

Facilities 00003 through 00005, 00007,  00008,  00011  through
00014, 00017, 00019 through 00022, 00024,  and  00025  were sampled
during the screening phase of sampling.  During verification,
preparation plants 00011, 00021 and 00025  were revisited and
sampled and facilities  00018 and 00023  were sampled  for the first
time.  Engineering site visits were conducted  at preparation
plants 00032 through 00035.  Analytical results for  each of these
facilities are summarized on Table V-7, with the raw data in
Appendix B.  The flow charts and a description for each facility
may be found in Appendix F.  The high metals concentrations are
the result of coal and  refuse fines found  in a preparation pro-
cess slurry effluent.   The suspended solids levels in  some of
these slurries can be quite high if no  fines recovery  or removal
is practiced.

Preparation Plant Associated Areas

The principal source of drainage in preparation plant  associated
areas is precipitation-induced runoff.  Three  areas  generating
drainage can be delineated:

     1.  Coal storage piles
     2.  Refuse piles
     3.  Other disturbed areas.

Coal Storage Piles

The quantity and quality of wastewater  generated by  drainage
through a coal storage  pile are highly  variable, depending upon
rainfall conditions, pile configuration, and coal  quality and
size.  The phenomena responsible for the formation of  acid mine
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drainage in the active mining area can  also  operate  within the
coal storage pile.  The outer layer of  a coal pile  (to  a  depth of
approximately one foot) is subject to slacking.   Slacking refers
to rapid changes in moisture content brought about by alternating
sun and rain.  This often opens up fresh surfaces and accelerates
oxidation.  Although organic leaching rates  are very low,  speci-
fic inorganic coal components, such as  calcium, magnesium,  and
toxic metals may be contained in the wastewater.  Erosion of
waste coal fragments can result in high suspended solids  levels
(18).

Pollutants can be leached into any water contacting  the coal
storage pile.  The composition of pile  drainage is  influenced by
the residence time of the water within  the pile.  Precipitation
will wash this leachate from the pile,  so that contaminant con-
centrations will decrease with increasing water flow rate,  until
the time that this flushing is complete.

Refuse Piles

Mining, crushing, and washing processes concentrate  the coal
impurities in the refuse.  Extraneous metals and  other  minerals
are separated from the coal and may appear in refuse pile runoff.
As most coal-cleaning methods employ gravity separation,  dense
materials such as clays, shales, and pyrite  will  be  removed as
refuse (12).  These will contribute to  suspended  solids levels in
the wastewater, while oxidation of the  pyrite will produce acid
drainage.  Organic sulfur and fine pyrite cannot  easily be
extracted from coal (11), so that these forms do  not contribute
as significantly to sulfate formation.  The  relative acidity and
pollutants levels of refuse pile drainage are dependent upon the
following:

     1.  Mineral characteristics of the coal and  surrounding
strata

     2.  Extent of refuse compaction

     3.  Configuration of the refuse pile

     4.  Of soil cover

     5.  Climatology

     6.  Surface water control practices

Other Disturbed Areas

Other disturbed areas ancillary to the  preparation  plant  are
analogous to those associated with mines, e.g., adjacent  haul
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roads.  As is the case  for mines,  suspended  solids  is  the
pollutant of concern in runoff.

Screening samples were  collected from associated  areas  at  facili-
ties 00016, 00017, 00018, and 00024.  Facility 00018 was resam-
pled during the verification phase.  Preparation  plant  associated
areas at facilities 00034, 00038,  and 00036  were  sampled during
the engineering site visits.  Descriptions of treatment proces-
ses, including sampling points, can be  found in Appendix F.   A
summary of the organic, metal and  classical  pollutants  found
during the screening and verification sampling programs appears
in Table V-8.

Post Mining Discharges

Reclamation Areas

Reclamation areas are tracts of surface  acreage which  have been
recontoured and seeded  to establish ground cover  after  mining has
ceased.  Regrading has  already been completed by  removal of  the
spoil peaks and reestablishment of natural drainageways.
Replanting of indigenous grasses,  legumes, and other annual  or
perrenial flora occurs  as soon as  possible to stabilize the
regraded area.  Runoff  from this area directly following active
mining can exhibit substantial suspended  solids loadings until
vegetation is well established.

Data from a self-monitoring survey initiated by the Agency are
presented in Table V-9.  These data are  from facilities 00015,
00033, 00037, 00085, 00101, and 00181 through 00187.  Also
included in Table V-9 are data from facility 00033  sampled during
the engineering site visits.  As shown on the table, suspended
solids loadings are substantial.   This  is particularly  true  for
rainfall conditions.

Undergound Mines

Discharges from underground mines  will continue after  the  tempo-
rary or permanent cessation of mining until  appropriate mine
closure procedures are  implemented.  This is because the princi-
pal source of water is  from aquifers that were intercepted during
mine development.  These waste-bearing strata will  continue  to
drain water into the mine during and after the production  of
coal.  A study was conducted to characterize these  discharges
from active and abandoned anthracite underground  mines  (20).   The
results of the study indicate that these discharges will be  simi-
lar to the wastewaters  encountered during active  mining.   For
instance, an active discharge and  an adjacent abandoned discharge
from one mining operation exhibited similar  characteristics.   The
reader is referenced to the active mine drainage  tables (Tables
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V-5 and V-6) for more detailed characterization of post mining
discharges from underground mines.

SUPPORT FOR THE PROPOSED SUBCATEGORIZATION SCHEME

In light of the data characterizing raw wastewater, this  subsec-
tion will discuss the evolution of the final BPT, BAT, and NSPS
subcategorization schemes already presented at the beginning  of
this section.  Preliminary analysis of the results of the BAT
screening and verification program (conducted from 1977 to 1979)
suggested a number of changes to the BPT categorization.  Some of
these changes were retained, while others were eliminated based
on additional data.

First, surface and underground mines were categorized separately
for both acid and alkaline mines.  In addition to differences in
raw wastewater characteristics, this separation resulted  from
differences in the type of treatment technology that would be
applied at surface and deep mines.  For instance, mobile  or  skid
mounted treatment processes are more feasible at surface  mines
where current treatment facilities (i.e., sedimentation ponds and
possibly neutralization equipment) frequently require relocation.
At underground facilities, permanent treatment facilities can
usually be installed for the life of the mine.

Second, separate subcategories for preparation plants and prepa-
ration plant associated areas were established because of the
different types of wastewaters discharged by the two areas.

Third, post mining discharges were established as a subcategory
to provide regulatory coverage for both surface reclamation  areas
and underground mine discharges.

Fourth, Pennsylvania anthracite mines were identified as  a candi-
date subcategory based on potential differences in toxic  pollu-
tant discharges by different ranks of coal.

Fifth, western mines were separately categorized because  of  the
potential effects of different climatology and coal seams on mine
discharges.

These modifications resulted in the following preliminary
subcategorization scheme:

     1.  Acid drainage surface mines
     2.  Acid drainage underground mines
     3.  Alkaline drainage  surface mines
     4.  Alkaline drainage underground mines
     5.  Preparation plants
     6.  Preparation plant  associated areas
     7.  Post mining discharges
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     8.  Pennsylvania  anthracite
     9.  Western mines

These subcategories were reviewed by  consideration  of (1)  the
engineering principles  involved, and  (2)  the  data  collected from
BAT sampling programs  conducted after  the screening and
verification effort.   The  following discussion  presents the
results of this review  for each subcategory.

Surface and Underground Mines

Two factors were utilized  to establish the  surface/underground
distinction:   (1) differences  in raw  wastewater characteristics
and (2) differences in  the mobility of applicable  treatment
options.  Both of these are rendered  academic,  however, because
of the reduction achieved by application  of existing (BPT)  tech-
nology.  When  the untreated discharges from deep and surface are
subjected to BPT treatment, the resulting effluent  are  very simi-
lar in "classical" pollutants  (TSS, iron, manganese).   Tables
V-10 and V-ll  illustrate these data for alkaline and acid  mines.
Although substantial differences between  deep and  surface  mines
occur for acid and alkaline raw wastewaters,  these  tables
indicate the similarity of BPT-treated discharges  with  respect to
these three key pollutants.  The similarity of  treated  effluent
also extends to the toxic metals, as  can  be seen in Table  V-12,.
Because of these factors,  separate subcategories for surface and
underground mines were not established.

Preparation Plants and Preparation Plant  Associated Areas

These two segments of  the  coal mining  category  are  classified
differently for new sources than for  existing sources.   For new
sources, separate subcategorization of preparation  plants  and
associated areas is based upon differences  in the  following:

     1.  TSS and metals concentrations
     2.  Treatment strategies
     3.  Water usage requirements
     4.  Regulatory strategies

First, a comparison of metals  and TSS  concentrations in these two
subcategories is presented in  Table V-10.   It is seen that  prepa-
ration plant process effluent  is much  higher  in suspended  solids,
while toxic metals occur more  consistently  and  in higher concen-
trations than  in associated areas runoff.   It is not merely the
differences in water quality as apparent  from the data,  but the
differences in treatment strategy implied by  these  data, that
support this division.  The major contributor to total  metals in
the preparation plant  slurry is suspended metals, due to the
nature of the cleaning process.  This  is  evidenced  by the  data in
Table V-14.  This indicates that settling of  preparation plant
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slurry will provide substantial removal of  toxic  metals.   Con-
versely, metals from associated areas are mostly  due  to  the  low
pH, and thus a different treatment strategy would be  selected,
i.e., pH adjustment via neutralization.

Figure V-2 shows two typical preparation plant water  circuits.
Although many factors suggest different treatment systems  for
preparation plants and associated areas, most facilities commin-
gle these drainages, as illustrated  in the  top configuration of
Figure V-2.  For new sources, segregated treatment can be
designed into the overall wastewater  system.  The incentives for
separate treatment are discussed below.

Water management considerations and  economics will most  often
dictate maximizing water recycle.  Preparation plants utilize
water to assist in cleaning the coal, and thus the water is  pro-
cess water subject to one class of treatment options. Runoff
from associated areas is usually not  used in coal cleaning,  and
hence different wastewater treatment  strategies are suggested.
For instance, the intermittent runoff generated in associated
areas is suited to a sedimentation pond system with possible
neutralization required if this runoff is acidic.   On the  other
hand, a preparation plant continually discharges  process waste-
water from the coal cleaning equipment while the  plant is  oper-
ating.  This continuous effluent is  usually alkaline  and solids-
laden and is thus suited for a settling and decant recycle
system.  Slurry impoundments could also be  used;  the  flow  to
these would not increase during a rainfall  unless surface  runoff
is also received.  This is not the case for associated areas
which most often only discharge significant quantities during
rainfall events.  Finally, increased  regulatory flexibility  is
provided by separating these as subcategories.  This  is  particu-
larly in reference to the potential  for a "zero discharge" or
total recycle regulation for preparation plant slurry waters.  If
the associated area runoff can be segregated from slurry efflu-
ent, the water balance can be achieved through diversion ditching
and other techniques, thus allowing  total water recycle  systems
for preparation plants.  This is more extensively discussed  in
Sections VII and VIII.

For existing sources, however, these  reasons are  overridden  by
consideration of engineering and cost factors.  Current  practice
in the industry is commonly to commingle wastewater from refuse
and storage piles (associated areas)  with preparation plant
process wastewater for treatment.  To set differing limitations
for the two segments would cause most operators to segregate the
two types of drainage, which would require  massive expenditures
and gross inefficiency for a facility.  Installation of  extensive
retrofit equipment and construction  of new  ponds  would  severely
impact the capital and human resources of many coal mining
operations.  For existing sources this commitment of resources
                               114

-------
would happen with little  environmental  improvement.   A further
discussion of these  factors  is  presented  in  Section  VII.

Pennsylvania Anthracite Mines

The Agency examined  anthracite  mining and  preparation to  assess
any statistical or technical differences  in  wastewater from
bituminous and lignite operations.  Results  shown  in Table V-15
indicate that no significant differences  exist;  thus anthracite
facilities will be categorized  identically with  bituminous and
lignite operations.

Post Mining Discharges

Surface and underground mines can  continue to  discharge polluted
wastewater after production  from the mine  has  ceased.   For sur-
face mines, this discharge consists of  runoff  from a previously
mined area that has  been  backfilled, regraded, and revegetated.
This process, called reclamation,  is an ongoing  operation at one
area of a mine that  occurs simultaneously  with active mining of
another area.  For underground  mines, the  post-mining discharge
results from groundwater  infiltration into the mined out  areas.
This groundwater can originate  from breached aquifers or  from
adjacent abandoned mines.  During  active mining, water is usually
pumped to the surface for treatment and discharge.  After mine
closure, this water  will  continue  to drain into  the  mine
workings.  Over a priod of time, several  outcomes  are possible.
First, a state of equilibrium could occur  when the gravity head
of the water balances the infiltration  pressure.   Second, the
water could erode and break  through mine  seals to  adjacent active
or abandoned mine tunnels.   Third, the  mine  pool could continue
to rise until the level reaches ground  level,  and, should no mine
seal be in place, a  surface  discharge occurs.  Fourth, if the
mine is sealed, the  water can erode and break  through the seal,
again resulting in a surface discharge.

The post-mining discharges from either  a  reclamation area at a
surface mine or from an abandoned  underground mine can contain
significant amounts  of pollutants.  These  wastewaters were not
previously regulated by EPA, and so were postulated  as a
candidate subcategory for BAT and  NSPS  effluent  limitations.  To
verify this for the  final subcategorization, data  were gathered
from four independent studies.  A  self  monitoring  industry survey
was initiated at 24  surface mine sites  to  characterize raw and
treated streams from reclamation areas.  These data  are presented
in Table V-9.  A second and more exhaustive  study  is being con-
ducted at eight surface mine sites with the  same purpose.  Data
are not yet available from this study.  To collect data on post-
mining discharges from underground mines,  four anthracite mines
were sampled.  Among the  wastewaters sampled were  discharges from
underground abandoned mines.  The  data  are contained in a
                               115

-------
supplement to this report  (20), and were also presented  in  Table
V-15.  Finally, a data collection program at several abandoned
mines is currently being conducted.  No data are yet available
from this effort.  Results from programs where data have been
available indicate that drainage from surface mines under
reclamation contains suspended solids as the only pollutant of
concern.  Concentrations for iron, manganese, and the  toxic
metals were lower than typical values from active mine drainage.
On the other hand, post-mining discharges from underground  mines
are very similar to wastewater generated during active mining.
This is because the mechanism  for wastewater generation  is
identical.  Nevertheless,  these discharges are subcategorized
separately from active mine drainage because these discharges
were not covered under BPT regulations.

Western Mines

An evaluation of the nature of discharges from western mines has
been performed to determine the appropriateness of separately
subcategorizing mines in this region.  Coal mines west of the
100th meridian in the United States have been designated western
mines (42 FR 46937, 19 September 1977).  This includes mines in
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming
(42 FR 21380, 26 April 1977).  These coal regions are  depicted  in
Figure V-3.

This candidate subcategory was established to recognize  potential
differences in achievable  effluent quality between eastern  and
western mines for a number of  reasons.

First, the West receives substantially less rainfall than the
eastern region.  Further,  evaporation rates are higher primarily
because of the lower humidity  in the West.  These two  conditions
result in a lesser amount  of runoff and high evaporation  from
settling ponds, also termed "positive evapotranspiration."
Figure V-4 illustrates the location of these positive  evapo-
transpiration areas.  Finally, site-specific conditions  such as
topography and hydrogeology are potential incentives for
separation regulations.

Tables V-16 through V-19 present data from the BAT sampling
program for eastern and western raw wastewaters.  Treated efflu-
ent data for the two regions appear in Tables V-20 through  V-23.
Additional data from discharge monitoring reports  (DMRs)  are
summarized in Table V-24.  Information collected  from the  DMRs
indicates that western mines  (16 facilities were  included)
exhibit no discharge 41 percent of the time  samples were  taken
(or attempted to be taken).  The comparable  figure from  eastern
mines (56 facilities were  included) is 19 percent.  However, as
Tables V-20 through V-23 indicate, the final discharge composi-
tions are very similar for eastern and western mines when a
discharge did occur.


                               116

-------
This is further verified by  a  statistical  analysis.   The purpose
of this analysis was to determine,  with  respect  to TSS,  whether
effluent discharges at Western alkaline  mines  were statistically
different from effluent discharges  at  Eastern  alkaline mines.
The data available for the analysis consisted  of 68  samples from
Eastern mines (22 influent and 46 effluent)  and  26 samples from
Western mines (11 influent and 15 effluent).

The statistical approach used  was a "goodness  of fit" test.  This
was adopted because of the limited  number  of samples available
from Western mines.  Under this approach,  the  more plentiful
Eastern mine data is used to define a  sample distribution for
TSS.  A statistical test is  then performed to  determine how well
the Western mine data "fit"  into the Eastern mine distribution.
The test results show that the distribution  of TSS at Western
mines is statistically similar to that at  Eastern mines.

Figure V-5 provides observed and expected  frequencies for influ-
ent and effluent samples at  Western mines.   The  expected frequen-
cies are those which one would expect  to see if  the  Western mine
data followed the same distribution as the Eastern mine data.
The observed frequencies are those  which were  actually found in
the data.  These frequencies were calculated by  classifiying each
value of TSS observed at a Western  mine  into one of  the four
quadrants of the TSS distribution established  for Eastern mines.
The quandrants of a distribution are those areas which divide the
data into four equally dense portions.  That is, the first
quadrant will contain 25 percent of the  data,  the second quadrant
will contain 25 percent of the data and  so on.  It should be
noted that quadrants were established  independently  for influent
and effluent samples.  The expected frequencies  are  found by
taking 25 percent of the available  samples.  Since there were 11
influent samples, one would  expect  approximately three to fall
into each quadrant if the distribution of  TSS  at Western mines
was similar to that at Eastern mines.

Figure V-5 shows that in most  cases the  observed frequencies are
similar to the expected frequencies.   The  largest differences are
found in the second and fourth quadrants of  the  influent distri-
bution.  Calculation of a chi  square statistic indicates that
these differences are not statistically  significant.

Based on these facts, a separate subcategory for western mines is
not warranted.
                               117

-------
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                  CONCENTRATIONS OF  CERTAIN ELEMENTS  AS A FUNCTION OF pH



              Source:   (7)
                                              118

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                      Figure V-4

   RELATION OF AREAS OF POSITIVE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
                TO THE 100th MERIDIAN
                          121

-------
                      Figure V-5

          OBSERVED AND EXPECTED FREQUENCIES
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                         122

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                            Table V-2

                        DATA BASE SOURCES
                                          Type of
                                          Facility
BPT Study

BCRI Surveys

*BAT Screening
and Verification

*Self-Monitoring
Survey

*EPA Region IV, VIII

*Engineering Site
Visits

*Preparation Plant
Site Visits

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Industry Survey
  Anthracite,
 Bituminous Coal
and Lignite Mines

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  and Associated
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         34

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Total No. in Data Base         314

Total No. of Independent
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Percent of 1978 Total
Production Represented
in Total Data Base              39
                              335
                              167
                               43
*Data from this source has been computerized.
                                124

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                            Table V-10

              COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL POLLUTANTS IN
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                        Mean Values (mg/1)


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TSS                   141        40           36        39

Iron                 1.52      0.41         1.26      0.68

Manganese            0.82     0.076         0.39      0.29
                               158

-------
                            Table V-ll
              COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL POLLUTANTS  IN
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                        Mean Values  (mg/1)

                           Raw                  Treated
Pollutant           SurfaceDeep        Surface    Deei
TSS                   732       158           32      21.1
Iron                 45.7       135         1.21      1.72
Manganese            17.7       4.9         2.45      1.27
                               159

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-------
                            Table V-15



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                  Anthracite Mines
Acid Mines
Pollutant
TSS
Iron
Manganese
pH (units)

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(mg/1)
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34*
6.7*
4.3
(ug/1)
__
26
7
--
40
20
9
--
50
--
11
--
520
Total
Number
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22
22
22
24

21
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
Total
Detects
21
22
21
24

8
14
7
3
11
16
6
11
11
11
7
5
20
Median
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88*
8.2*
5.3
(ug/1)
2
31
10
11
41
48
18
1.1
140
28
13
1
460
*Mean value
                               163

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                            SECTION VI

                SELECTION OF  POLLUTANT  PARAMETERS
INTRODUCTION

The Agency has studied coal mining wastewaters  to  determine  the
presence or absence of toxic, conventional,  and  non-conventional
pollutants.  This section will address the selection  of  pollutant
parameters in effluents that have undergone  BPT  treatment.   The
quantities and treatability of pollutants in these  treated waste-
waters will form the basis for selection of  pollutant parameters
for regulation.

The CWA requires that effluent limitations be established  for
toxic pollutants referred to in Section 307(a)(l).  These
pollutants, and the conventional and selected nonconventional
pollutants are summarized in Table VI-1.

The Settlement Agreement in Natural Resources Defense Council,
Incorporated vs. Train, 8 ERG 2120 (D.D.C. 1976),  modified 9
March 1979, provides for the exclusion of particular  pollutants,
categories and subcategories (Paragraph 8),  according to the
criteria summarized below:

     1.  Equal or more stringent protection  is  already provided
by EPA's guidelines and standards under the  Act.

     2.  The pollutant is present in the effluent  discharge
solely as a result of its presence in the intake water taken from
the same body of water into which it is discharged.

     3.  The pollutant is not detectable in  the  effluent within
the category by approved analytical methods  or  methods represent-
ing the state-of-the-art capabilities.  (Note:   this  includes
cases in which the pollutant is present solely  as  a result of
contamination during sampling and analysis by sources other  than
the wastewater.)

     4.  The pollutant is detected in only a small  number  of
sources within the category and is uniquely  related to only  those
sources.

     5.  The pollutant is present only in trace  amounts  and  is
neither causing nor likely to cause toxic effects.
*Figures and tables appear at the end of this  section,


                               173

-------
     6.  The pollutant is present in amounts too small to be
effectively reduced by known technologies.

     7.  The pollutant is effectively controlled by the tech-
nologies upon which other effluent limitations and guidelines  are
based.

All pollutants detected in treated effluents of the coal mining
industry are summarized in Table VI-2.  These results are also
summarized by subcategory in Tables VI-3 through VI-7.

POLLUTANTS SELECTED FOR REGULATION IN THE COAL MINING POINT
SOURCE CATEGORY

Specific effluent limitations are being established for total
suspended solids, pH, iron and manganese for each subcategory
except post mining discharges from reclamation areas; settleable
solids and pH have been selected to control these effluents and
also discharges during rainfall events.

POLLUTANTS EXCLUDED FROM REGULATION

All of the organic priority pollutants are excluded from regula-
tion.  The reasons for exclusion are presented in Table VI-8 and
are discussed below.  It should be noted that one additional acid
mine was sampled very late in the BAT program.  Although the data
collected from this mine is included in the summary tables  in
this section, time did not permit the incorporation of the
results into the following discussion.  Two of the organic  pollu-
tants, benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(k)fluoranthene, were detected  on
one day at 8 and 13 ug/1, respectively.  Subsequent drafts  of
this document will include benzo(a)pyrene as a pollutant detected
at two or less mines at a concentration of less than 10 ug/1
(Table VI-14), and benzo(k)fluoranthene as a pollutant present at
concentrations too small to be effectively reduced (Table VI-15) .

Pollutants Not Detected in Treated Effluents

The Settlement Agreement provides for the exclusion from regula-
tion of toxic pollutants not detectable by approved methods or
methods representing state-of-the-art capabilities.  The sixty-
seven organic priority pollutants not detected during sampling
and thus excluded from regulation are listed in Table VI-9.

Pollutants Detected Due to Laboratory Analysis and Field Sampling
Contamination

Ten of the priority organics were detected in one or more  of the
treated effluent samples; however, their presence is believed  to
be the sole result of contamination by sources in the  field or
                               174

-------
laboratory independent of the wastewater  samples.   Table  VI-10
tabulates the pollutants in this category.  The  sources of
contamination are discussed in detail below.

Field controls and blanks were used during  each  phase  of  the
sampling program (Screening, Verification,  and EPA  Regional
Sampling and Analysis).  The field controls consisted  of  water
that was run through the automatic sampler  at each  composite
sample site prior to the actual  sampling.   The water used as
control water was deionized and  as such,  any contaminants appear-
ing in the collected control water could  be attributed to the
sampling apparatus or  to the laboratory analysis.   The results
are found for all subcategories  in Table  VI-11.   Field blanks
were also collected to assess contamination in transport  and  in
laboratory analysis.   For the volatile organics,  deionized water
was placed in 45 ml to 125 ml vials.  For the remainder of the
priority pollutants, a facility  blank, prepared  in  the labora-
tory, was hand-carried by sampling personnel during field
sampling.  Table VI-12 summarizes the blanks for the screening
and verification sampling and analysis program.

Table VI-2 indicates that members of the  phthalate  class  were
observed in many of the samples  representing treated wastewater.
Only two of the phthalates (bis-phthalate and di-n-butyl
phthalate) were detected in the  raw water (refer to Table V-4);
however, five of the phthalates  (bis-phthalate,  di-n-butyl
phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate,  and
diethyl phthalate) were detected in treated water.  This suggests
that these compounds were introduced into the water during sample
collection or analysis.  It is known that during  sample collec-
tion, automatic composite samplers were equipped with  polyvinyl
chloride (Tygon) tubing or manufacturer supplied  tubing.
Phthalates are  widely used as plasticizers to ensure  that tubing
remains soft and flexible (2).   These compounds,  added during
manufacturing, have a  tendency to migrate to the  surface  of
tubing and leach out into water  passing through  the sample
tubing.  In addition,  laboratory experiments were performed  to
determine if phthalates and other priority  pollutants  could be
leached from tubing used on automatic samplers (3). The  types of
tubing used in these experiments were:

     (1)  Clear tubing originally supplied  with  the sampler at
time of purchase; and

     (2)  Tygon S-50-HL, Class VI.

Results of analysis of the extracts representing the original and
replacement Tygon tubings are summarized  in Table VI-13.   The
data indicate that both types contain bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
and the original tubing leaches  high concentrations of phenol.
Although bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate was the only phthalate
                               175

-------
detected in the tubing in these experiments, a similar  experiment
conducted as part of a study pursuant to the development  of  BAT
Effluent Limitations Guidelines for the Textiles Point  Source
Category found dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, di-n-butyl
phthalate, and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate,  in tubing  "controls
(4).  Thus, four of the phthalates [bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate,
butylbenzyl phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate, diethyl  phthalate]
and phenol can be attributed to contamination during  sample
collection and cannot be conclusively identified with the
wastewater.

A number of the volatile organic compounds were detected  during
the sampling program (benzene, chloroform, methylene  chloride,
tetrachloroethylene, toluene).  The volatile nature of  these
compounds suggests contamination as a possible source,  especially
considering the relatively low concentrations detected  in the
samples.  More importantly, all of these-compounds may  be found
in the laboratory as solvents, extraction agents or aerosol
propellants.  Thus, the presence and/or use of the compounds in
the laboratory may be responsible for sample contamination.  This
type of contamination has been previously addressed in  another
study (5).  In a review of a set of volatile organic  blank
analytical data from this study, inadvertent contamination was
shown to have occurred for each of the above compounds  (see  Table
VI-12).

Another contaminant is methylene chloride.  This compound is
separated and quantified with other volatile compounds.   The
organics analytical procedure involves the use of methylene
chloride as a solvent (1), (5).  Thus, the relatively high
concentrations and the detection of this compound in  47 of 51 of
the treated water samples (Table VI-2) may be explained by its
use in analytical procedures.

Priority Organics Detected in Treated Effluents at One  or Two
Mines and Uniquely Related to Those Sources

The 23 pollutants in Table VI-14 were detected at two or  less
facilities and always at concentrations below 10 ug/1.  One  of
these compounds is a member of the phthalate family,  two  are
volatile organics, three are acid-extractable, twelve are base
neutrals and five are pesticides.  These organics are excluded
from regulation since they are present at less than the nominal
detection limit (10 ug/1) in two or less facilities within the
category.  This level was established by the Agency to  indicate
where background signals in the machines used for analysis begin
to mask actual detection signals (i.e., the signal to noise  ratio
reaches approximately 2:1).  Examination of Tables VI-11  and
VI-12 shows that 14 of these compounds were also detected in at
least one field blank or control sample.
                               176

-------
Priority Organics Detected but Present  in Amounts  too  Small  to be
Effectively Reduced

The 14 compounds in Table VI-15 were detected  in  treated  efflu-
ents in this industry.  The concentrations  of  these  pollutants
are so small that they cannot be  substantially reduced.   In  some
cases this is because no technologies are known to further reduce
them beyond BPT; in other cases,  the pollutant reduction  cannot
be accurately quantified because  the analytical error  at  these
low levels can be larger than the value  itself.  These 14 pollu-
tants are thus excluded from regulation.

Therefore, all pollutants listed  in Table VI-8 were  determined to
be excluded from regulation at this time.

Priority Metals Excluded from Regulation

Examination of Table VI-2 shows that five priority metals (anti-
mony, beryllium, cadmium, silver  and thallium)  and cyanide were
detected in effluents at more than two  facilities.   However,  in
all cases the detected concentrations were  at  levels only
slightly above the detection limit for  each respective species.
This precludes any meaningful determination of the effectiveness
of treatment beyond BPT technologies.   Thus, antimony,  beryllium,
cadmium, cyanide, silver and thallium can be excluded  from BAT
regulation since they cannot be effectively reduced  by known
technologies.

The remaining eight (arsenic, chromium,  copper, lead,  mercury,
nickel, selenium, and zinc) were  sometimes  found at  concentra-
tions above the detection limit in BPT-treated discharges.
Paragraph 8(a)(iii) provides for exclusion  of  pollutants  if these
pollutants are already effectively controlled  by technologies
upon which other effluent limitations and guidelines are  based.
These eight metals are effectively controlled  by BPT technology
and thus were not selected for national regulation under  BAT  or
NSPS.  However, some of these metals appear in significant
amounts for individual mines.  This results from a number of
factors, including:

     (1)  Differing trace element compositions  in  the  precursor
plant life that was later transformed into  coal,

     (2)  Differing geologies of strata surrounding  the coal,  and

     (3)  Geographic variations.

In these cases, the permit authority should consider the  imposi-
tion of a limitation for the pollutant of concern  for  the mine  in
question.
                               177

-------
                            Table Vl-l

          LIST OF 129 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS, CONVENTIONALS

                    AND NON-CONVENTIONALS (1)
Compound Name

  1.  *acenaphthene   (B)
  2.  *acrolein       (v)***
  3.  *acrylonitrile  (V)
  4.  *benzene        (V)
  5.  *benzidene      (B)
  6.  *carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane)    (V)
  7.  chlorobenzene   (V)
  8.  1,2,4-trichlorobenzene   (B)
  9.  hexachlorobenzene   (B)
 10.  1,2-dichloroethane   (V)
 11.  1,1,1-trichlorethane    (V)
 12.  hexachlorethane    (B)
 13.  1,1-dichloroethane  (V)
 14.  1,1,2-trichloroethane   (V)
 15.  1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane   (V)
 16.  chloroethane   (V)
 17.  bis (chloromethyl)  ether   (V)
 18.  bis (2-chloroethyl) ether   (B)
 19-  2-chloroethyl vinyl ether  (mixed)   (V)
 20.  2-chloronaphthalene   (B)
 21.  2,4,6-trichlorophenol   (A)***
 22.  parachlorometa cresol   (A)
 23.  *chloroform (trichloromethane)    (V)
 24.  *2-chlorophenol    (A)
 25.  1,2-dichlorobenzene   (B)
 26.  1,3-dichlorobenzene   (B)
 27.  1,4-dichlorobenzene   (B)
 28.  3,3'-dichlorobenzidine   (B)
 29.  1,1-dichloroethylene    (V)
 30.  1,2-trans-dischloroethylene    (V)
 31.  *2,4-dichlorophenol   (A)
 32.  1,2-dichloropropane   (V)
 33.  1,2-dichloropropylene (1,3-dichloropropene)    (V)
 34.  *2,4-dimenthylphenol    (A)
 35.  2,4-dinitrotoluene   (B)
 36.  2,6,-dinitrotoluene   (B)
 37.  *l,2-diphenylhydrazine   (B)
 38.  *ethylbenzene   (V)
 39.  *fluoranthene   (B)
 40.  4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether    (B)
 41.  4-bromophnyl phenyl ether   (B)
 42.  bis(2-chloroisopropyl)  ether    (B)
                                178

-------
                     Table VI-1  (Continued)

         LIST OF 129 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS,  CONVENTIONALS

                   AND NON-CONVENTIONALS <1)


43.  bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane    (B)
44.  methylene chloride  (dichloromethane)    (V)
45.  methyl chloride (chloromethane)    (V)
46.  methyl bromide  (bromomethane)    (V)
47.  bromoform (tribromomethane)    (V)
48.  dichlorobromomethane   (V)
49.  trichlorofluoromethane   (V)
50.  dichlorodifluoromethane    (V)
51.  chlorodibromomethane   (V)
52.  *hexachlorobutadiene   (B)
53.  *hexachlorocyclopentadiene    (B)
54.  *isophorone   (B)
55.  *naphthalene    (B)
56.  *nitrobenzene   (B)
57.  2-nitrophenol   (A)
58.  4-nitrophenol   (A)
59.  *2,4-dinitrophenol   (A)
60.  4,6-dinitro-o-cresol   (A)
61.  N-nitrosodimethylamine   (B)
62.  N-nitrosodiphenylamine   (B)
63.  N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine    (B)
64.  *pentachlorophenol   (A)
65.  *phenol   (A)
66.  bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate    (B)
67.  butyl benzyl phthalate   (B)
68.  di-n-butyl phthalate   (B)
69.  di-n-octyl phthalate   (B)
70.  diethyl phthalate   (B)
71.  dimethyl phthalate   (B)
72.  benzo (a)anthracene (1,2-benzanthracene)    (B)
73.  benzo (a)pyrene (3,4-benzopyrene)   (B)
74.  3,4-benzofluoranthene   (B)
75.  benzo(k)fluoranthane (11,12-benzofluoranthene)    (B)
76.  chrysene  (B)
77.  acenaphthylene    (B)
78.  anthracene   (B)
79.  benzo(ghi)perylene  (1,12-benzoperylene)    (B)
80.  fluorene   (B)
81.  phenathrene   (B)
82.  dibenzo (a,h)anthracene (1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene)    (B)
83.  indeno (1,2,3-cd)(2,3,-o-phenylenepyrene)    (B)
84.  pyrene   (B)
85.  *tetrachloroethylene   (V)
86.  *toluene   (V)
                               179

-------
                      Table VI-1  (Continued)

          LIST OF 129 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS, CONVENTIONALS

                    AND NON-CONVENTIONALS  (1)
 87.  *trichloroethylene   (V)
 88.  *vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)    (V)
 89.  *aldrin   (P)
 90.  *dieldrin    (P)
 91.  *chlordane (technical mixture and metabolites)    (P)
 92.  4,4'-DDT   (P)
 93.  4,4'-DDE(p,p'DDX)    (P)
 94.  4,4'-DDD(p,p'TDE)    (P)
 95.  a-endosulfan-Alpha   (P)
 96.  b-endosulfan-Beta    (P)
 97.  endosulfan sulfate   (P)
 98.  endrin   (P)
 99.  endrin aldehyde     (P)
100.  heptachlor    (P)
101.  heptachlor epoxide   (P)
102.  a-AHC-alpha    (P)  (B)
103.  b-BHC-beta    (P) (V)
104.  r-BHC (lindane)-gamma   (P)
105.  g-BHC-delta    (P)
106.  PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)    (P)
107.  PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)    (P)
108.  PCB-1221 (Arochlor 1221)    (P)
109.  PCB-1232 (Arochlor 1232)    (P)
110.  PCB-1248 (Arochlor 1248)    (P)
111.  PCB-1260 (Arochlor 1260)    (P)
112.  PCB-1016 (Arochlor 1016)    (P)
113.  *Toxaphene    (P)
114.  **2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin  (TCDD)    (P)
115.  *Antimony (Total)
116.  *Arsenic (Total)
117.  *Asbestos (Fibrous)
118.  *Beryllium (Total)
119.  *Cadmium (Total)
120.  *Chromium (Total)
121.  *Copper (Total)
122.  *Cyanide (Total)
123.  *Lead (Total)
124.  *Mercury (Total)
125.  *Nickel (Total)
126.  *Selenium (Total)
127.  *Silver (Total)
128.  *Thallium (Total)
129.  *Zinc (Total)
                                180

-------
                      Table VI-1  (Continued)

          LIST OF 129 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS, CONVENTIONALS

                    AND NON-CONVENTIONALS  (1)
    Convent ionals

    PH
    Total Suspended Solids
   Non-Conventionals

   Iron
   Manganese
   Chemical Oxygen Demand  (COD)
   Total Organic Carbon  (TOG)
   Settleable Solids (SS)
  *Specific compounds and chemical classes as  listed  in  the
   consent degree.
 **This compound was specifically listed in the consent  degree,
***B = analyzed in the base-neutral extraction fraction
   V = analyzed in the volatile organic fraction
   A « analyzed in the acid extraction fraction
   P » pesticide/polychlorinated diphenyl
                               181

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-------
                            Table VI-9
       PRIORITY ORGANICS NOT DETECTED IN TREATED EFFLUENTS
              OF SCREENING AND VERIFICATION SAMPLES
 1.  acenaphthene
 2.  acrolein
 3.  acrylonitrile
 4.  benzidine
 5.  carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane)
 6.  chlorobenzene
 7.  1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
 8.  hexachlorobenzene
 9.  1,1-dichloroethane
10.  1,1,2-trichloroethane
11.  chloroethane
12.  bis(chloromethyl) ether
13.  bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
14.  2-chloroethyl vinyl ether (mixed)
15.  2-chloronaphthalene
16.  2,4,6-trichlorophenol
17.  parachlorometa cresol
18.  2-chlorophenol
19.  1,3-dichlorobenzene
20.  2,4-dichlorophenol
21.  1,2-dichloropropane
22.  1 ,2-dichloropropylene (1,3-dichloropropene)
23.  2,4-dimethylphenol
24.  2,4-dinitrotoluene
25.  2,6-dinitrotoluene
26.  1,2-diphenylhydrazine
27.  bis(2-chloroisopropyl)  ether
28.  4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
                                221

-------
                     Table VI-9 (Continued)
      PRIORITY ORGANICS NOT DETECTED IN TREATED EFFLUENTS
             OF SCREENING AND VERIFICATION SAMPLES
29.  4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
30.  methyl chloride (chloromethane)
31.  methyl bromide (bromomethane)
32.  bromoform (tribromomethane)
33.  dichlorobromomethane
34.  dichlorodifluoromethane
35.  chlorodibromomethane
36.  hexachlorobutadiene
37.  hexachlorocyclopentadiene
38.  isophorone
39.  nitrobenzene
40.  2-nitrophenol
41.  4-nitrophenol
42.  N-nitrosodimethylamine
43.  N-nitrosodiphenylamine
44.  N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
45.  dimethyl phthalate
46.  benzo(a)pyrene
47.  3,4-benzofluoranthene
48.  benzo(k)fluoranthane(11,12-benzofluoranthene)
49.  acenaphthylene
50.  vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
51.  dieldrin
                               222

-------
                    Table VI-9 (Continued)
     PRIORITY ORGANICS NOT DETECTED IN TREATED EFFLUENTS
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52.  chlordane (technical mixture and metabolites)
53.  4,4'-DDE (p,p'-DDX)
54.  a-endosulfan-Alpha
55.  0-endosulfan-Beta
56.  endosulfan sulfate
57.  endrin
58.  endrin aldehyde
59.  PCS 1242 (Arochlor 1242)
60.  PCB 1254 (Arochlor 1254)
61.  PCB 1221 (Arochlor 1221)
62.  PCB 1232 (Arochlor 1232)
63.  PCB 1248 (Arochlor 1248)
64.  PCB 1260 (Arochlor 1260)
65.  PCB 1016 (Arochlor 1016)
66.  toxaphene
67.  2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
                             223

-------
                           Table VI-10
          PRIORITY ORGANICS DETECTED BUT PRESENT DUE TO
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 1.   benzene
 2.   chloroform
 3.   methylene chloride
 4.   phenol
 5.   bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
 6.   butyl benzyl phthalate
 7.   di-n-butyl phthalate
 8.   diethyl phthalate
 9.   tetrachloroethylene
10.   toluene
                               224

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                         Table VI-13 (3)

                 TUBING LEACHING ANALYSIS RESULTS
                                         Micrograms/Liter
Component                        Original ISCO              Tygon

Bis (2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate

    Acid Extract                      915                    N.D.
    Base-Neutral Extract            2,070                    885

Phenol

    Acid Extract                   19,650                    N.D.
    Base-Neutral Extract             N.D.                    N.D.
N.D. - Not Detected
                               236

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                           Table VI-14
               COMPOUNDS DETECTED IN TREATED WATER
                       AT ONE OR TWO MINES
                     BUT ALWAYS BELOW 10 ug/1
 1.  *1,2-dichloroethane
 2.   hexachloroethane
 3.  *l,l,2,2-tetrachloroethane
 4.  *1,4-dichlorobenzene
 5.   3,3'-dichlorobenzidine
 6.  *fluoranthene
 7.   bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
 8.  *2,4-dinitrophenol
 9.  *4,6-dinttro-o-cresol
10.   pentachlorophenol
11.   di-n-octyl phthalate
12.   benzo(a)anthracene
13.   chrysene
14.  *anthracene
15.   fluorene
16.  *phenanthrene
17.  *pyrene
18.  *benzo(g,h,i)perylene
19.  *aldrin
20.   4,4'-DDT
21.  *4,4'-DDD
22.  *heptachlor
23.  *heptachlor epoxide
*This compound was detected in one or more field blanks and/or
 controls.
                               237

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                           Table VI-15
            PRIORITY ORGANICS DETECTED BUT PRESENT IN
           AMOUNTS TOO SMALL TO BE EFFECTIVELY REDUCED
 1.   1,1,1,-trichloroethane
 2.   1,1-dichloroethylene
 3.   1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
 4.   ethylbenzene
 5.   trichlorofluoromethane
 6.   trichloroethylene
 7.   1,2-dichlorobenzene
 8.   naphthalene
 9.   dibenzo (a,h) anthracene
10.   indeno (l,2,3-c,d) pyrene
11.   BHC-Alpha
12.   BHC-Beta
13.   BHC-Gamma
14.   BHC-Delta
                                238

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                           SECTION VII

                 TREATMENT AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Previous sections have presented the characteristics of  raw  and
treated effluents in the coal mine industry, including the prior-
ity, conventional, and nonconventional pollutants present in
these wastewaters.  The purposes of this section are to  present
the existing treatment practices of the coal mining industry
(which should reflect, at a minimum, BPT or equivalent technol-
ogy) and to present the candidate BAT treatment and control
technologies and the associated levels of conventional,  noncon-
ventional and toxic pollutant reduction.  These control  practices
will be evaluated only from a technical standpoint; cost consid-
erations will be presented in Section VIII.

APPROACH

A summary of in-use treatment technology (BPT or its equivalent)
is presented in this section for each subcategory.  Next, the
candidate treatment technologies applicable to BPT-treated
effluents in each subcategory are reviewed.  To determine the
best available technology, all potentially available treatment
techniques were assessed according to a number of initial
criteria.  These initial screening criteria are:

     1.  The candidate technology must produce or be capable of
producing an effluent of better quality than that required under
BPT guidelines.

     2.  The candidate technology must be in use or available  to
the coal mining industry or transferable from other industrial or
municipal wastewater treatment applications.

     3.  Preliminary cost studies or cost data must be available;
this information should indicate baseline cost feasibility of  the
candidate technology.

Applying these initial criteria, the following candidate technol-
ogies were selected:

     1.  Flocculant Addition,
     2.  Granular Media Filtration,
     3.  Carbon Adsorption,
     4.  Ion Exchange,
     5.  Reverse Osmosis,
     6.  Electrodialysis,
     7.  Ozonation, and
     8.  Sulfide Precipitation.
                               239

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Next, the technical feasibility of these technologies  was
assessed based on the following criteria:

     1.  Process fundamentals,
     2.  Control effectiveness,
     3.  Non-water quality impacts,
     4.  Reliability,
     5.  Secondary waste streams, and
     6.  Preliminary cost/economic considerations.

The process fundamentals description is a short  summary high-
lighting the major operating parameters, equipment required, and
the mechanism for pollutant reduction or removal.  The degree  of
this reduction is presented as the control effectiveness  for each
technology, in tabular form where sufficient data exist.

Third, the non-water quality impacts resulting from  applications
of a treatment technique are discussed.  These include sludge
generation, air pollution, and energy requirements.  The  fourth
factor considered--reliability--is principally a function  of the
maturity of the technology; i.e., the process has been commer-
cialized and initial problems resolved.  Fifth,  the  generation of
secondary waste streams, such as brines, are important parameters
in determining the merit of each technology.  Finally, prelimi-
nary cost estimates were prepared to analyze the cost  effective-
ness of each candidate technology.

After reviewing the above aspects of each technology and,  in par-
ticular, the preliminary cost and control effectiveness,  appro-
priate candidate treatment technologies in each  subcategory were
selected.

The final screening step for the BATEA determination is applica-
tion of cost and economic criteria.  Cost estimates  are first
prepared for each technology not previously eliminated (these
cost curves and supporting material are presented in Section
VIII).  The cost curves for each treatment system are  then used
as input to a computer economic model.  This computer  model will
predict the nationwide economic impact by geographic region
including total cost to the industry; changes in selling  price of
the commodity, productivity, employment, and number  of operating
facilities; and import/ export fluctuations.  The results  of this
economic assessment are contained in a separate  document  enti-
tled, "Economic Impact Analysis of Proposed Effluent Limitations
Guidelines, New Source Performance Standards, and Pretreatment
Standards for the Coal Mining Point Source Category."
                               240

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ACID MINE DRAINAGE

Current Treatment Technology

Raw wastewaters  from mines  exhibiting  acid  drainage are charac-
terized by low pH, high dissolved  iron and  other  metals levels.
For surface operations, raw wastewaters may carry substantial
sediment loads.  The effluent  limitations currently in force can
be achieved by application  of  the  best practicable technology to
these wastewaters.  For this subcategory, this  level of technol-
ogy includes chemical precipitation/pH adjustment, aeration, and
settling.  A flow chart for a  typical  BPT treatment system is
illustrated in Figure VII-1.   Each of  the principal process units
is discussed below.

The raw water holding pond, although not always installed, is
employed by many facilities as  an  equalization  basin.   Variation
in flow and pollutants, particularly pH, can be minimized by this
pond.  Overflow  from this facility is  then  commonly routed to a
mixing tank where pH adjustment  is initiated.

pH Adjustment/Chemical Precipitation

This technology consists of the  addition of an  alkaline reagent
to acid mine drainage to raise  the pH  to between  six and nine.
This pH change also causes  the  solubilities of  positively charged
metal ions to decrease and  thus  precipitate (settle as an insolu-
ble compound) out of solution.   These  metal ions  are replaced in
solution by more acceptable calcium, magnesium  and sodium ions.
In general, three types of  reactions occur  as a result of pH
adjustment:

     1.  Neutralization, an ion  exchange reaction that, in the
case of acid mine drainage, combines basic  hydroxyl ions with
acidic hydronium ions;

     2.  Oxidation, which converts ferrous  iron (iron  in the +2
valence state) to ferric iron  (iron in the  -1-3 valence  state) ; and

     3.  Precipitation, which results  from  solubility  decreases
of toxic and other metal ions.

The precipitates are, in most cases, metal  hydroxides  such as
ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3)  which can be  removed to a great
extent by settling.  One of four reagents are commonly used to
effect the above reactions:  hydrated  lime  (Ca(OH)2)>  calcined
or quick lime (CaO), caustic soda  (NaOH), or soda ash
(Na2C03).  Selection of one of these alkaline compounds
depends upon the acidity and ferrous/ferric iron  ratio of the raw
mine water, and the availability and cost of the  reagents.
                               241

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Hydrated Lime.  This is the most commonly used  reagent  for  pH
adjustment.  It can be introduced as an aqueous  slurry  or as  a
dry powder.  The slurry can be prepared using the  acid  drainage,
good quality water or treated effluent.  Dry lime  or  lime slurry
is then, in most cases, added to the acid mine  drainage (AMD)  in
a mixing tank.  Addition rates can be controlled automatically or
manually.

Calcined Lime (also termed "unslaked" or "quick" lime). This can
also be used as a reagent.A potential problem with  the use  of
either calcined lime or hydrated lime is the formation  of gypsum
(CaS04«2H20).  This compound forms when calcium  ions  from
the lime reagent combine with the typically high concentrations
of sulfate ions present in AMD.  Gypsum will deposit  on tanks,
impellers, piping, control equipment including  pH  probes, and
other surfaces that contact the treated AMD.  High concentrations
of gypsum, if allowed to accumulate, may result  in plugged  lines
and damaged equipment.  This problem can be lessened  with proper
chemical dosages, and correctly sized pipes and  tanks.   The
selection of the type of lime used is a matter  of  economics which
usually favor hydrated lime except in very large installations,
where use of unslaked lime becomes advantageous.

Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH).  This  is  used  as the
neutralization reagent in a number of acid mines;  most  of these
have drainage with lesser acidity and iron concentrations,  or low
flows.  Caustic soda is a strong base, but it is also the most
expensive per unit of alkaline equivalence.  As  an aqueous
solution, it mixes readily with AMD, and reacts  rapidly.

The use of an aqueous solution of caustic soda  may eliminate  the
need for expensive dispensing and mixing equipment.   Savings  in
capital and operating costs of such a system may more than  offset
the additional expense of the reagent when only  small amounts of
alkali are needed.  Where calcium is the limiting  reactant,
caustic soda does not precipitate calcium sulfate.  This
substantially decreases gypsum deposits.

Caustic soda use also has several disadvantages.   The reagent is
dangerous to handle, requiring the use of protective  clothing.
Although it is available in 50 percent solution, this solution
freezes at 54°F and thus often requires heating  to remove it  from
the transport containers.  Thus, a 20 percent solution  is favored
where winter temperatures are below freezing.  Nevertheless,  even
the 20 percent solution can continue to be difficult  to pump  at
winter temperatures.  Also, because hydroxide is such a strong
base, closer flow-proportioned control is required to prevent
overtreatment (1).
                                243

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Soda Ash or Sodium Carbonate  (Na2.CO^)_.  This  is used  as  an
alkaline reagent by a small percentage of mining operations.
Although some degree of caution must be exercised  in  the use  of
soda ash, the hazards associated with handling this material  are
less than with caustic soda.  Similar to lime, soda ash  can be
added dry (ground or in briquettes), or as a  slurry.   The sludge
formed with soda ash settles  to greater densities  than sludge
resulting from lime addition  or caustic soda, but  reagent
consumption is also relatively high.

Limestone.  This has the lowest cost of any of the neutralizing
reagents.  It is used minimally, however, because  of  several
factors.  Two predominant disadvantages are that limestone has
very low reactivity at high pH and its use results in the forma-
tion of gypsum.  This substance coats the unreacted limestone and
further reduces its reactivity.  The achievable pH ceiling for
limestone treatment is approximately 7.5 which is  insufficient to
precipitate many metals (particularly manganese) (1).

The control effectiveness of  neutralization and settling on
metals is dependent upon the  reagent used, influent and  effluent
pH, temperature, flow, and the presence of any side reactions
including metal chelation and mixed-metal hydroxide complexing.
Complete mixing of the alkaline agent and AMD is also important
to control effluent pH and metals removal.  Table  VII-1  presents
metals removal data for lime  neutralization generated in a pilot
plant treatment study at EPA's Crown Field site (2).

Referring again to Figure VII-1, oxidation of iron from  its
ferrous to ferric state can be achieved using aeration.

Aeration

Often, aeration is accomplished by allowing the water to simply
flow or cascade down a staircaselike trough or sluiceway. This
causes turbulence that increases the oxygen transfer  rate and
therefore the oxidation reaction rate.  In other cases,  the air
or oxygen may be supplied by  one or more of the following types
of aerators:

     1.  Diffused air systems,

     2.  Submerged turbine aerators, or

     3.  Surface aerators.

The oxidation system consists of a tank or pond fitted with one
of the above aeration systems.  The presence  of dissolved oxygen
supplied by the aerating technique oxidizes ferrous ions enhanc-
ing the formation of essentially insoluble ferric  hydroxide.   The
resulting sludge is more easily settled.  Temperature, pH, flow,
                                244

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                           Table VII-1

           TRACE ELEMENT REMOVAL BY LIME NEUTRALIZATION
                 - GROWN MINE PILOT PLANT STUDY  -
Parameters
Ars enic
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Mercury
Nickel
Phosphorous
Selenium
Zinc
Spiked
Influent
1 .90 mg/1
2.36
.90
.54
5.30
.50
.66
9.83
.94
5.65
pH-7
mg/1
.10
2.25
.18
.04
.30
.02
.34
3.81
.05
1 .01
pH-9
mg/1
.04
-
.08
.07
.11
.01
.08
2.30
.16
.11
pH-11
mg/1
.03
1 .90
.01
.05
.06
.02
.06
3.56
.39
.11
Source:  (2)
                              245

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dissolved oxygen content, and initial concentration  are  all
important design parameters (3).

The control performance of aeration will cause a nearly  complete
conversion of influent ferrous  ion to the oxidized or  ferric
state.  Further, many volatile  organics present are  often  strip-
ped or oxidized by this process to nondetectable levels  (4).

Referring again to Figure VII-1, the neutralized wastewater,
laden with insoluble precipitates, is routed to a settling
facility prior to final discharge.

Settling

The process of sedimentation removes the suspended solids, which
includes the insoluble precipitates.  Sedimentation  can  be
accomplished in a settling pond or clarifier (a settling tank).
The settling pond can be created by excavating a depression.   The
extent of solids removal depends upon surface area,  retention
time, flow patterns, settling characteristics of influent  sus-
pended solids, and other operating parameters of a particular
installation.  Clarifiers are mechanical settling devices  which
can be used where insufficient  land exists  for construction of a
pond.  Clarifiers operate on essentially the same principles  as  a
sedimentation pond.  The most significant advantage  of a
clarifier is that closer control of operating parameters such as
retention time and sludge removal can be maintained, while
problems such as runoff from precipitation  and short-circuiting
can be avoided.  Center feed (the most common), rectangular,  and
peripheral feed basins are a few of the several clarifier
designs.

Center feed clarifiers have four distinct sections:  the inlet
zone, the quiescent settling zone, the outlet zone,  and  the
sludge zone.  The inlet zone allows a smooth transition  from  the
high velocities of the inlet pipe to the low uniform velocity
needed in the settling zone.  Careful control of the velocity
change is necessary to avoid turbulence, short-circuiting, and
carryover.  The quiescent settling zone must be large  enough  to
reduce the net upward water velocity to below the settling rate
of the solids.  The outlet zone provides a  transition  from the
low-velocity settling zone to the relatively high overflow
velocities.  The sludge zone muat effectively settle,  compact,
and collect the solids and remove this sludge without  disturbing
the settling zone above.  The bottom of the circular clarifier is
usually sloped five to eight degrees to the center of  the  unit
where sludge is collected in a  hopper for removal.   Mechanically
driven sludge rakes rotate continuously and scrape the sludge
down  the sloped bottom to the sludge hopper (see Figure  VII-2).
                               246

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                                                   EFFLUENT
                SLUDGE
It— INFLUENT
                           Figure VII-2

               CIRCULAR CENTER FEED CLARIFIER WITH
                 A SCRAPER SLUDGE REMOVAL SYSTEM
Source:   (5)
                                247

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The rectangular basin or clarifier is similar to a  section  of a
center feed clarifier with the inlet at one end and  the  outlet at
the other.  Usually a flight system removes sludge  in  the rec-
tangular basin.  The flights travel along the basin  bottom  to
convey the sludge to a discharge hopper.  To avoid  turbulence,
which would hinder settling, the flight system moves slowly.
This type of clarifier has the advantage that common walls  can be
used between multiple units to reduce construction  costs (see
Figure VII-3).

The peripheral feed or rim feed clarifiers shown in  Figure  VII-4,
are designed to utilize the entire volume of the circular clari-
fier basin for sedimentation.  In both types of clarifiers, water
enters the lower section at the periphery at very low  velocities
to provide immediate settling of large particles.   In  a  periph-
eral take-off configuration, the flow then accelerates toward the
center and subsequently drops as the flow reverses  and redirects
to a peripheral overflow weir.  In the center take-off system,
effluent is discharged through weirs located centrally.   Peri-
pheral feed clarifiers are sensitive to temperature  changes and
load fluctuations.  Sludge recirculation is difficult  with  these
types of clarifiers.

Clarification of acid mine drainage produces two secondary
streams:  the clear overflow or decant and the sludge  underflow.
The overflow is often discharged in current treatment  systems.
The dilute solids underflow stream, usually of only  5  to 10 per-
cent solids content is often dewatered further before  final dis-
posal.  Evaporation, centrifugation, and vacuum filtration  are
several techniques that may be used to further dewater sludges
from clarifiers prior to ultimate disposal.

Installation of clarifiers to provide sedimentation  is princi-
pally in hilly or mountainous areas where suitable  land  for a
sedimentation pond is difficult to obtain.

Ponds can also be installed to provide sedimentation capability.
The settling pond can be created by excavating a depression or
damming a natural runoff water course.  This also includes  use of
an abandoned strip mine pit at surface facilities.   The  purpose
of a sediment basin is to remove sediment from runoff  and thus
protect drainageways, properties, and rights-of-way  below the
sediment basin from sedimentation (6).

Construction of these basins is regulated primarily  by the  Office
of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM)  in the
Department of Interior.  A settling pond operates on the princi-
ple that as the sediment laden water passes through  the  pond, the
particles will settle to the bottom and be trapped.  Some of the
factors affecting the settling velocity of a particle  include
water viscosity (which is a sensitive function of temperature),
                               248

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INFLUENT
  SLUDGE
JL
                    DRIVE SPROCKET
                                                                ADJUSTABLE WEIRS
                                ,WATER LEVEL
                 . ZREC-SSFOR
                 /  DRIVE CHAIN
                         FLOW


                       SKIMMING
                   CHAIN 8 FLIGHT

                   CROSS COLLECTOR




                   SLUDGE HOPPER
AVERAGE

 WATER

 DEPTH
                                                                         EFFLUENT
                                           _J	_U^

                                          	t-^g	^	1-T4
                               z"* 6 "FLIGHTS
                                               PIVOTING FLIGHT-1
Source:   (5)
                               Figure VII-3



                 RECTANGULAR SEDIMENTATION CLARIFIER

                    WITH CHAIN AND FLIGHT  COLLECTOR
                                    249

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       INFLUENT
                                                     EFFLUENT
                                                  SLUDGE
     (a)   CIRCULAR RIM-FEED, CENTER TAKE-OFF CLARIFIER WITH A
             HYDRAULIC SUCTION SLUDGE  REMOVAL SYSTEM
           V,
X
                                                     INFLUENT
                                                      EFFLUENT
                          \
    SLUDGE
          (b)  CIRCULAR RIM-FEED,  RIM TAKE-OFF CLARIFIER




                            Figure  VII-4

                   PERIPHERAL FEED CLARIFIERS
Source:  (5)
                                250

-------
and the density, size, and  shape of  the  particle.   For  instance,
as the temperature increases, the water  viscosity  decreases,  and
thus a particle will have a greater  settling velocity  in  warm
water (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12).

As indicated previously, the use of  sedimentation  facilities  is
required by OSM regulations and has  been commonplace in the
industry for some time.  Some mines, particularly  in mountainous
areas, may opt for several  small ponds.   These  ponds are  usually
constructed in series, with the decant of one flowing  into
another.  Other acid mine drainage treatment plants use two  ponds
in a parallel configuration.  When the solids level in  one pond
has reached capacity,  flow  is diverted to the second pond and the
sludge in the first is either removed by dredging  or allowed  to
undergo drying and compaction which  greatly reduces the sludge
volume.  When the second pond is full, flow is  returned to the
first and the cycle is repeated.

Application of the above treatment technologies  to acid mine
drainage will result in achievement  of the BPT  limitations dis-
cussed in Reference 13.

Candidate Treatment Technologies

Source control options are  discussed under the  best management
practices subsection (Section X).  The candidate technologies
examined for treatment of acid mine  drainage were  previously
listed and include:

     1.  Flocculant Addition,
     2.  Granular Media Filtration,
     3.  Activated Carbon,
     4.  Ion Exchange,
     5.  Reverse Osmosis,
     6.  Electrodialysis,
     7.  Ozonation, and
     8.  Sulfide precipitation.

The first two technologies  were selected for further study.   The
remaining technologies and  the reasons for their rejection are
discussed below.

Carbon Adsorption

Activated carbon technology is predicated upon  the considerable
sorptive properties of granular or powdered carbon.  The  acti-
vated carbon process is often associated with organics  removal,
although some reduction of heavy metals  can also be accomplished
(14, 15).
                                251

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A typical system is depicted in Figure VII-5.  Contaminated  water
is introduced across a fixed or moving bed of granular or pow-
dered activated carbon.  Residence time in the bed  is the major
control parameter for pollutant removal.  When a bed becomes
fully loaded or exhausted, the adsorbent must be regenerated or
disposed of.  Regeneration (for granulated carbon only)  is
usually effected by heating to volatilize any organics and/or
heavy metals.

The adsorptive capacity of carbon depends on the pore size,
typical size of the sorbed molecules, pH of the solution, temp-
erature, and the initial pollutant concentration.  Adsorption
capacity generally increases as pH decreases and, normally,
adsorption efficiency increases  as the concentration increases
(14).  A large amount of data is available on organic pollutant
removal by this technology, whereas less data exist in the
literature for metals removal.  For cases where metals are
present in the untreated wastewater at the parts per million
level, significant reductions of Sb, As, hexavalent Cr,  Sn,  Ag,
Hg, Pb, and Ni are documented in the literature (16).  Cu, Cd,
and Zn removals vary widely, while concentrations of Ba, Se, Mo,
Mn, and W are not significantly reduced.  BPT-treated effluents
in the coal mining industry contain toxic metals at the  parts per
billion level, and data quantifying reductions beyond these
levels are not available.

Table VII-2 presents an estimate of general effluent water qualr
ity parameters.  Suspended solids will quickly foul an activated
carbon column, hence, filtration, which will itself reduce metals
concentrations, is a required pretreatment step in an activated
carbon system.  Activated carbon columns would also be very
difficult to operate at remote sites.  Some provision for regene-
ration (typically including multiple hearth furnaces) is required
to make such a system cost effective.  Beyond this, the  substan-
tial capital cost for equipment and the high operating costs for
carbon purchase and regeneration cannot be justified for any
potential additional reductions of metals beyond BPT.  Based on
these factors, activated carbon is not selected as a BAT option
for further analysis.

Ion Exchange

The property of reversible interchange of ions between solids and
liquids is the fundamental principle of ion exchange.  Ion-rich
water is introduced into an exchanger or column in which a solid
resin bed resides.  This resin, most commonly a type of  styrene-
divinylbenzene copolymer, has the ability to sorb (capture)  and
contain ions before release during regeneration.  Of the many ion
exchange configurations available, a typical arrangement,  shown
in Figure VII-6, is a cation column using an acidic solution for
                               252

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                          253

-------
                           Table VII-2

     ESTIMATED EFFLUENT CONTAMINANT LEVELS - ACTIVATED CARBON
PH

Total iron

Dissolved iron

Manganses, total

Total suspended
   solids
                       Acid Mines
                        Alkaline Mines
30- Day
Average*
6-9.00
2.00
0.30
2.00
Daily
Maximum*
6-9.00
3.00
0.60
4.00
30-Day
Average*
6-9.00
2.00
--
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Daily
Maximum*
6-9.00
3.00
—
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15.00
30.00
15.00
30.00
*A11 values in mg/1 except pH,

Source:  (15)
                                254

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regeneration, followed by an anion column using an  alkaline
regeneration solution to elute (deadsorb with a solvent)  sorbed
anions.

Individual ion exchange systems do not generally exhibit  equal
affinity or capacity for each ionic species, and hence may not be
suited for broad-spectrum removal schemes in wastewater treat-
ment.  Their behavior and performance are usually dependent upon
pH, temperature, and concentration.  The highest removal  effi-
ciencies are generally observed for polyvalent ions.  In  waste-
water treatment, some pretreatment or preconditioning of  wastes
to adjust suspended solid concentrations and other  parameters is
likely to be necessary.

High concentrations of ions other than those to be  recovered may
interfere with practical removal.  Calcium ions, for example, are
generally collected along with the divalent heavy metal cations
of copper, zinc, lead, etc.  High calcium ion concentrations,
therefore, may make ion exchange removal of divalent heavy metal
ions impractical by causing rapid loading of resins.

Ion exchange can effectively produce low levels of  metals.  How-
ever, although ion exchange is a commercially available technol-
ogy, it becomes uneconomical on streams high in dissolved solids
due to resin replacement costs.  Even at less than  500 ppm dis-
solved solids, ion exchange is expensive and requires relatively
sophisticated equipment and control (2, 3, 17).  Table VII-3
presents data from an EPA mine drainage study showing metals
removal (2).

A number of operational disadvantages are associated with this
technology.  A secondary pollution stream is generated and must
be treated.  Iron fouling is a common problem in the cation
sorption column, necessitating an acidification step prior to the
first resin bed.  Also, a final effluent neutralization step is
required if the pH remains too high downstream of the anion
exchanger.  Acidic and basic regenerant solutions are required.
Operation of this relatively sophisticated system at remote
sites, especially in the mountainous terrain of Appalachia, would
be very difficult.  Costs per thousand gallons of treated water
are also substantially higher than the selected technologies
while not demonstrating better removal capacity.

For these reasons, this technology is not selected  as a BAT
option for further analysis.

Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis is the process of concentrating ions on one  side
of a semipermeable membrane by the application of external pres-
sure.  This pressure must be sufficient to overcome the osmotic
                                256

-------
                           Table VII-3

          ION EXCHANGE EFFLUENT WATER QUALITY  (in mg/1)


                  Spiked Feed   Cation Effluent   Anion Effluent
Parameter            (mean)      	(mean)	        (mean)
pH
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Iron, total
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
4.8
2.47
0.95
0.63
7.27
160
3.9
0.72
0.86
1.34
7.44
1.9
1 .68
0.04
0.05
0.11
2.1
0.09
0.07
0.02
1.19
0.14
9.9
0.52
0.001
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.001
0.02
0.09
0.03
Source:  Adapted from (2)
                               257

-------
gradient which acts in the opposite direction--hence,  the  name
reverse osmosis.  This is schematically illustrated  in Figure
VII-7.  Water is separated from the ions by forcing  it across a
membrane, which is impervious to ion transfer.  Treated water is
then decanted and discharged, while the brine requires further
treatment prior to disposal.

Since 1966, the EPA has been sponsoring and conducting research
to determine the potential of using reverse osmosis  to treat acid
mine drainage.  This EPA work includes pilot plant studies that
have been undertaken at the Crown Mine Drainage Control Field
Site (2).  Results from these and other research efforts  (19)
have shown that in treating mine drainage, reverse osmosis can
remove nearly all dissolved solids and up to 95 percent of the
aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, and
sulfate ions.

The basic reverse osmosis system consists of a number  of  poten-
tial pretreatment steps (e.g., filtration, pH adjustment); a high
pressure pump (400 to 800 psig); a reverse osmosis membrane pack-
age; and post-treatment, if necessary  (Figure VII-8).

One of the problems encountered in applying reverse  osmosis to
acid mine drainage treatment is fouling of the membranes.   Foul-
ing of a semipermeable membrane is defined as any reduction in
permeability or efficiency due to blinding of the membrane by
suspended solids, age of the membrane, or deterioration of the
membrane.  Membrane fouling progressively lowers water recovery
until recover rates are no longer practical.  The two  major
causes of fouling in the treatment of  acid mine drainage  are
chemical and bacterial.  Two solutions for the bacterial  fouling
are to disinfect the water before it enters the reverse osmosis
unit or to adjust the mine water to below pH 2.5 which greatly
retards bacterial growth.  The two chief chemical compounds that
can foul the membrane are the sulfates of iron and calcium.
Under normal conditions ferric iron fouling can be controlled
either by the addition of an acid to maintain a pH below  3.0 or
by the addition of reducing chemicals  such as sodium sulfite, to
reduce ferric iron to ferrous.  The stream can also  be filtered
prior to polishing in a reverse osmosis unit to remove suspended
material such as ferric or calcium sulfate.  Table VII-4  presents
effluent pollutant reductions of acid  mine drainage  achievable  by
reverse osmosis.

Although reverse osmosis is  slightly more effective  than  lime
neutralization and settling  for metals removals,  this  technology
is very expensive and appropriate only for low volume, high dis-
solved solids feed streams.  Sophisticated equipment and  control
required, and the power and maintenance costs of  the pressure
pump and process membrane.  Further, concentrated brine  requir-
ing further  treatment is generated from the  separation chambers.
                               258

-------
              Pressure
                             Semipermeable
                               membrane
              Concentrated
              Solution
Dilute
Solution
                           Figure VII-7
              TRANSFER AGAINST OSMOTIC  GRADIENT IN
                     REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEM
Source:  Adapted from  (18)
                                259

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                            Table VI1-4

        EFFLUENT WATER  QUALITY ACHIEVED  BY  REVERSE  OSMOSIS
                             (in mg/1)
Parameter

PH

Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Iron, total

Manganese

Mercury

Nickel

Selenium

Zinc
Source:  Adapted from (2)
Spiked Feed
(mean)
2.2
2.29
0.83
0.54
6.18
170
110
0.28
0.74
1.17
6.25
Product
(mean)
2.0
0.01
0.006
0.01
0.01
0.30
0.20
0.06
0.01
0.11
0.06
Brine
(mean)
3.6
3.58
1.22
0.82
9.12
270
180
0.17
1 .10
1 .83
9.63
                              261

-------
Based on the above considerations, reverse osmosis  is  not
selected as a BAT-level treatment technology.

Electrodialysis

Electrodialysis can be used for the control of dissolved inorgan-
ics in coal mine wastewaters.  The technology is based upon  dif-
ferentially permeable membranes operating in an electric field.

Contaminated water is introduced into a cell or "stack" of alter-
nating anion- and cation-permeable membranes.  With an electric
field applied across the stack providing the driving force,  ions
are forced into alternating cells, while deionized  water is  with-
drawn from the remaining cells (Figure VII-9).

A small bench-scale electrodialysis unit was tested by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration at its  Mine Drain-
age Treatment Laboratory, Norton, West Virginia, in cooperation
with the Office of Saline Water (17) .  When used on drainage
without pretreatment, the cathode cell quickly became  fouled with
iron.  In those cases where the mine drainage was pretreated by
lime neutralization for iron removal, the unit operated satisfac-
torily.

Electrodialysis is a costly technology suitable chiefly for  low
flow, high dissolved solids streams, with pretreatment frequently
necessary.  Energy requirements to maintain the electrical field
add significantly to the operating costs.  The process also
produces a secondary stream of concentrated brine that requires
further treatment.

Based on the above considerations, electrodialysis  is  not
selected as a BAT-level treatment technology.

Ozonation

Ozone is an unstable molecule, 03, that is a powerful  oxidant.
Its primary application to the coal mining industry is oxidation
of metal compounds that render them less soluble and thus
increases the settling rates.  It has also been shown  to be
effective in the oxidation of soluble manganese to  an  insoluble
state which can be removed prior to discharge into  streams.

Because of the instability of ozone, facilities for on-site  gen-
eration are required.  The gas is generated by passing air across
a high voltage field (5 to 30 kilovolts).  The gas  is  then
injected into a stream where oxidation occurs (3).

Preliminary cost estimates show ozonation to be a relatively
costly technology.  Further, no data are available  to  quantify
toxic metals removal by ozonation systems on coal mine drainage.
                               262

-------
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Source:   (17)
                               263

-------
Finally, suspended solids in substantial concentrations  impede
ozonation performance (16).

Because of these factors, ozonation was not selected  as  a  BAT
option.

Sulfide Precipitation

Sulfide precipitation is analogous to lime precipitation in  that
heavy metal cations (positively charged) are combined with anions
(negatively charged) to form an insoluble compound  that  settles
out of solution.  In this process, sulfide is the anion  used.
Sulfide precipitates vary in solubility which will  determine the
removal efficiency.  Heavy metal sulfides are in general very
insoluble and have excellent settling properties.

Table VII-5 gives the theoretical solubilities of hydroxides and
sulfides of various metals in pure water.  In addition to  having
lower solubilities than hydroxides in the alkaline  pH ranges,
sulfides also tend to have low solubilities in the  pH 7  range or
below (14).

Several steps enter into the process of sulfide  precipitation
(16):

     1.  Preparation of sodium sulfide.  Although this product  is
often in oversupply from byproduct sources, it can  also  be made
by reduction of sodium sulfate.  The process involves an energy
loss in the partial oxidation of carbon (such as that contained
in coal) as follows:

          Na2S04 + 4C 	»*Na2S + 4CO (gas)

     2.  Precipitation of the pollutant metal (M) in  the waste
stream by an excess of sodium sulfide:

          Na2S + MS04 	**MS (precipitate) + Na2S04

     3.  Physical separation of the metal sulfide in  thickeners
or clarifiers, with reducing conditions maintained  by excess
sulfide ion.

     4.  Oxidation of excess sulfide by aeration:

          Na2S + 202 	**Na2S04

In practice, sulfide precipitation can be best applied when  the
pH is sufficiently high (greater than eight) to  assure generation
of sulfide, rather than bisulfide ion or hydrogen sulfide  gas.   A
process utilizing ferrous sulfide as the principal  source  of sul-
fide ion has been developed and appears to overcome the  problem
                               264

-------
                           Table VII-5
            THEORETICAL SOLUBILITIES OF HYDROXIDES AND
              SULFIDES OF HEAVY METALS IN PURE WATER
Metal
Cadmium  (Cd++)
Chromium  (Cr+++)
Cobalt (Co++)
Copper (Cu++)
Iron (Fe++)
Lead (Pb++)
Manganes e  (Mn++)
Mercury (Hg++)
Nickel (Ni++)
Silver (Ag+)
Tin (Sn++)
Zinc (Zn++)
Solubility of Metal Ion (mg/1)
As HydroxideAs Sulfide
  2.3 x TO'5
  8.4 x 10-4
  2.2 x 10-1
  2.2 x 10-2
  8.9 x 10'1
  2.1
  1 .2
  3.9 x 10-4
  6.9 x 10-3
 13.3
  1.1 x TO"4
  1.1
 6.7 x 10~1°
No precipitate
 1.0 x 10-8
 5.8 x 10-18
 3.4 x 10-5
 3.8 x 10-9
 2.1 x 10-3
 9.0 x 10-20
 6.9 x 10-8
 7.4 x 10-12
 3.8 x 10-8
 2.3 x 10-7
Sources:  (20, 21,  22)
                              265

-------
of generating H2S from excess sulfide.  The sulfide  is  released
from the FeS only when other heavy metals with lower equilibrium
constants for their sulfide form are present in solution.   If  the
pH can be maintained at 8.5 to 9, the liberated iron will  form a
hydroxide and precipitate out as well.

Although very effective in pollutant removal, sludge produced
from sulfide precipitation is easily degraded to  soluble  salts
that will leach toxic materials.  Sludge produced from  lime
addition is much more stable (15).

The most probable application of sulfide technology  is  as  a
polishing unit downstream of a lime precipitation unit.   However,
to be implemented in the coal industry, the problem  of  potential
leaching of soluble salts from sulfide precipitaiton sludge must
be mitigated or circumvented.  Also, the cost of  operation with
sulfides is much higher than lime neutralization,  with  only
slight improvement in effluent quality.  These factors  preclude
sulfide precipitation from being considered as a  candidate best
available technology.

The two technologies recommended for further evaluation and
economic impact assessments are  flocculant addition  and granular
media filtration.  These are discussed in the following para-
graphs .

Flocculant Addition

Flocculant addition is a term often used interchangeably  with
chemical coagulation.  The process involves the aggregation and
settling of suspended particles  by the addition of a coagulant
aid.  Technically, coagulation involves the reduction of  elec-
trostatic surface charges and the initial  formation  of  aggregated
material.  Coagulation is essentially instantaneous  in  that the
only time required is that time  necessary  for dispersing  the
chemicals in solution.  Flocculation is the time  dependent phys-
ical process of the aggregation  of wastewater solids into parti-
cles large enough to be separated by sedimentation,  flotation, or
filtration.

For particles in the colloidal and fine supracolloidal  size
ranges (less than one to two micrometers), natural stabilizing
forces (electrostatic repulsion, physical  repulsion  by  absorbed
surface water layers) predominate over the natural aggregating
forces (van der Waals) and the natural mechanism  which  tends to
cause particle contact (Brownian motion).  The  function of chemi-
cal coagulation of wastewater may be the removal  of  suspended
solids by destabilization of colloids to increase settling veloc-
ity, or the removal of soluble metals by chemical precipitation
or adsorption on a chemical  floe (16).
                               266

-------
There are three different types of  flocculants:   inorganic  elec-
trolytes, natural organic polymers  and synthetic  organic  poly-
electrolytes.  Inorganic electrolytes are  salts or  multivalent
ions such as.alum (aluminum sulfate) and act by neutralizing  the
charged double layer of colloidal particles.  Natural  organic
polymers are derived from starch, vegetable materials,  or mono-
galactose, and act to agglomerate colloidal particles  through
hydrogen bonding and electrostatic  forces.  Synthetic  polyelec-
trolytes are polymers that incorporate ionic or other  functional
groups along the carbon chain in the molecule.  The  functional
groups can be either anionic  (attract positively  charged  spe-
cies) , neutral or cationic (attract negatively charged  species).
Polyelectrolytes function by  electrostatic bonding  and  the  forma-
tion of physical bridges between particles, thereby  causing them
to agglomerate.

The colloidal particles in AMD sludge usually carry a  negative
charge.  Consequently a. cationic flocculant must  be  used.   Syn-
thetic polyelectrolytes are most frequently employed since  they
function best in the high ionic strength solutions  encountered in
AMD.

Chemical coagulants are most  commonly added upstream of sedimen-
tation ponds, clarifiers, or  filter units  to increase  the effi-
ciency of solids separation.  The settling  solids are  more
effective in adsorbing fine metal hydroxide precipitates.   As
these fine particles are agglomerated and  settled,  equilibrium
relationships will cause additional dissolved metals to react and
form additional insoluble precipitates.  The major  disadvantage
of coagulant addition to a raw wastewater  stream  is  the produc-
tion of large quantities of sludge, which  must remain  in  storage
within the sedimentation facility.  Therefore, raw  wastewaters
are normally treated by removal of  easily  settled particles in a
primary sedimentation pond.   Coagulants are then  added  to this
effluent prior to secondary settling or filtration.  In most
cases, chemical coagulation can be used with minor  modifications
and additions to existing treatment systems.  In  mines  with acid
drainage, this would be accomplished by polymer addition  down-
stream of neutralization and  primary settling facilities.

To assist in determination of performance  characteristics of  this
technology at acid mines, a treatability study, included  as a
supplement to this report (23), was performed at  four  coal  mine
sites exhibiting acid mine drainage.  Raw  acid mine  drainage
samples (from the Crown, Norton, Hollywood, and Will Scarlet
sites) were treated via lime  neutralization and precipitation,
flocculation, aeration and settling.

Chemical dosage rates and polymer selection were  determined by
jar tests.  Settling tests were then conducted in an eight  inch
inner diameter by eight foot  high settling  tube to  establish
                               267

-------
performance data.  Spiking solutions containing priority metals
were added to the acid mine drainage to raise influent  concentra-
tions to levels significant for measurement of test  parameters.
The chief objective of the study was to establish priority metals
and suspended solids concentrations achievable by application  of
chemically aided precipitation.

Settling tests performed with dosages of each chemical  are sum-
marized in Table VII-6.  Influent suspended solids concentra-
tions are recorded after addition of lime.  As can be seen from
Table VII-6, flocculant addition consistently reduces effluent
suspended solids to 20 mg/1 or less.  In fact, reductions below
10 mg/1 are frequent.  Also, in other industries, such  as ore
mining, reductions via flocculant addition of total  suspended
solids to 15 mg/1 and less are typical.

The removal of priority metals was also evaluated for each of  the
28 settling tests.  Because spiking solutions were not  readily
obtainable and background levels were less than the  detection
limits, no data could be recorded for removals of arsenic,
antimony, selenium, and thallium.  Referring to Table VII-7,
consistently high removals were achieved for beryllium, cadmium,
chromium, copper, iron, mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc.  Less
consistent reduction is achieved for silver and manganese.  These
effluent levels are summarized in Table VII-7.

A number of points concerning this table should be made.  First,
raw mine drainage from these facilities does not exhibit high
(>1.0 mg/1) concentrations of priority metals.  Copper, lead,
zinc, chromium (hexavalent), mercury, nickel, cadmium,  and man-
ganese were thus added to the raw drainage in about  half of the
tests to yield a concentration of 3 mg/1 for each of the metals
prior to neutralization and flocculant addition.  Due to an
inadvertent error, the spiked solutions used at the  Crown site
produced an initial concentration of only 0.3 mg/1 for  each
spiking priority metal.  At Norton, these compounds  were added as
nitrates and at Hollywood, chloride metal salts were utilized.

Second, the quantity of lime required to neutralize  the acidity
in the drainage from Will Scarlet was so voluminous  for tests  S-3
through S-6 that the settled sludge kept the lower sampling tap
(where metal samples were obtained) covered throughout  the test.
Thus, analytical results are available on the metals contained in
AMD sludge, but are of no value and, as such, are not included on
Table VII-7.

Thirdly, raw water characteristics from the Crown site  are pre-
sented as settling tests C-l and C-2.  This is also  true of the
Norton site where test N-l summarizes raw mine water settling
characteristics.  These tests were run without chemical addition
to establish baseline performance data.  Tests on raw water at
                               268

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Hollywood and Will Scarlett would be redundant and hence were  not
conducted.

Excluding the data from tests S-3 through S-6, means are pre-
sented in Table VII-8 for each of the final effluent metals
concentrations (quantifying non-detected values as 1/2  the
detection limit).  These values represent achievable effluent
limitations for acid mine drainage from deep and surface facil-
ities through the application of BPT and flocculant addition
technology.

Additional treatability analyses have been conducted by the
Agency at the Crown, West Virginia site for polymer addition;
results indicate that certain priority metals  (Ni, Cu,  Cr, and
Se) are effectively reduced (2).  Other studies have also con-
firmed the suspended solids and metals reductions documented
above (16, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28).

In cases where settling ponds are at remote locations,  construc-
tion of access toads and power lines will be necessary  to install
and maintain polymer feed equipment.  The installation  of chemi-
cal handling equipment, tanks, access roads, land, and  power
lines in remote areas could exacerbate coal mining production
problems, particularly for small mines.  Costs for those items
are presented in the next section of this report.  In some cases
where ponds are difficult to access or lack electricity, gravity
feed systems (used in one Western coal mine visited) or diesel
generators can be employed.

Filtration

Filtration is used as a suspended solids and metals removal tech-
nology.  Filter systems are usually located downstream  of primary
gravity settlers, lime precipitation units, or polymer  addition
equipment.  Filtration is accomplished by the  passage of water
through a physically restrictive medium with resulting  entrapment
of suspended particulate matter.  Filtration is a versatile
method in that it can be used to remove a wide range of suspended
particle sizes.

Filtration processes can be placed in two general categories:
(1) surface filtration devices, including microscreens  and
diatomaceous-earth filters; and (2) granular-media  filtration,
such as rapid sand filters, slow sand filters, and mixed media
filters.  For application to coal mine wastewaters, granular
mixed media filtration systems are most suitable.

Granular media filtration utilizes a variety of mechanisms
including straining, interception, impaction,  sedimentation  of
backwash, and adsorption  for suspended solids  removal.  Filters
are most often classified by flow direction and type of filter
                               274

-------
                 Table VII-8

MEAN FINAL EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS  (mg/1) FOR
         UNSPIKED AND SPIKED SAMPLES
           Unspiked	        	Spiked
Metal
Ag
As
Be
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Hg
Mn
Ni
Pb
Sb
Se
Tl
Zn
Mean
.009
.0025
.0005
.0252
.0581
.0114
2.28
0.0114
.612
.084
.0005
.0025
.005
.001
.0642
S tandard
Deviation
.006
0
0
.060
.0622
.0197
3.79
0.0327
.986
.023
0
0
0
0
.134
Mean
.023
.0025
.001
.150
.072
.0636
2.96
.183
1.55
.273
.019
.0025
.001
.001
.059
Standard
Deviation
.045
0
.002
.203
.0263
.043
7.04
.280
1.60
.263
.018
0
0
0
.0521
                     275

-------
bed.  Dovmflow, multimedia filters would probably  find  the  widest
application to both acid and alkaline coal mine wastewaters.   In
such a system, influent is piped to the top of the  filter and  by
gravity or external pressure percolates through the bed before
discharge or further treatment.

Maximum loading of the filter is determined either by a pre-
scribed permissible head loss (the pressure drop across the
filter) or a ceiling level of suspended solids in  the filtered
effluent.  When these conditions occur, the filter  is backwashed
and air-scrubbed to clean the bed, and the wash water disposed of
in an acceptable manner, usually by settling and return to  the
head of the treatment plant.

Various combinations of media, including sand, gravel,  garnet,
activated carbon, anthracite coal, and ilmenite, can be used  in a
filtration system.  These materials represent a wide distribution
of specific gravities and grain sizes.  Total media depths  typi-
cally range from 50 cm to 250 cm, with feedwater flux rates of 2
to 30 gallons per minute per square foot of cross-sectional area,
with 10 gpm per square foot typical.

Whenever possible, designs should be based on pilot filtration
studies of the actual wastewater.  Such studies are the best way
to assure:  (1) representative cost comparisons between different
filter designs capable of equivalent performance (i.e., quantity
filtered and filtrate quality); (2) selection of optimal operat-
ing parameters, such as filter rate, terminal head  loss, and run
length for a given medium application; (3) definite effluent
quality performance for a given medium application; and (4)
determination of the effects of pretreatment variations.  Ulti-
mate clarification o£ filtered water will be a function of  parti-
cle size, filter medium porosity, filtration rate,  and  other
variables.

The technology is proven in both industrial and municipal appli-
cations and is cost effective in relation to other  technologies
when reductions to 10 mg/1 TSS and less and very low levels of
suspended metals are to be achieved.  A major question  in appli-
cation to coal mine wastewater is the potential for gypsum
fouling/blinding when lime is used for neutralization and/or
precipitation of AMD.  Gypsum (CaS04  . 2H£0) is formed  when
calcium ions liberated by the dissolution of lime  (CaO) combine
at alkaline pH with sulfate ions.  This substance  will  deposit on
surfaces throughout the treatment system.  When this material
deposits on the granular media pores, water is impeded  from pass-
ing across or through the filtration  apparatus.  This phenomena
is called fouling or blinding.  The problem can be  abated by
proper dosage of lime, recycle of sludge or use of a different
neutralizing chemical.  To examine the levels of suspended  solids
and toxic removal potential achieved by filtration technology, a
                               276

-------
treatability study was ,instituted by  the Agency  at  two  mines,
both exhibiting normally acid mine drainage  (24,  25).

The first testing program, conducted  on BPT-treated  acid  mine
drainage from a deep mine in Pennsylvania, consisted of bench
scale jar tests, dual media filtration tests and  backwash set-
tling tests at the coal mine site.  In addition  to  determination
of achievable removal of suspended matter, an  evaluation  of pos-
sible effects of fouling caused by gypsum or excess  lime  was
carried out.  Further, a number of filtration  tests  were  run with
addition of different polyelectrolytes to ascertain  their effect
on filter performance.  Composite samplers were  used to track
filter progress.

Initial flux rates for each test were established at 20 gpm per
square foot of filter area.  The influent to the  test unit was
clarifier effluent from the acid mine drainage treatment  plant.
Test parameters for each test run are summarized  in  Table VII-9.
No filter test runs exhibited a significant  flow reduction,
including a test of 43 hours duration (test no.  9).   Effluent
suspended solids averages were always below 15 mg/1  and,  in many
cases, less than 10 mg/1.  This level was independent of  the
duration of the test run.  At the end of each  filter test run,
the filter media were cleaned by a combination of air and water
backwash.  A backwash period of 10 minutes was found to be
sufficient in each case to regenerate the filter.

Analytical data for the priority metals are summarized  in Table
VII-10.  Priority metals in the clarifier effluent  used as influ-
ent to the filtration apparatus were  very low.   In  addition, no
spiking of effluent for treatment was conducted.  As a  result,
quantitative prediction of priority metals removal  is not pos-
sible.  Metal levels in many influents were not  detectable and  in
no case did a priority metal have a filter effluent  concentration
of greater than .012 mg/1.  Reductions of iron to .75 mg/1
average effluent concentration from 2.8 mg/1 average influent,
and reduction of manganese to .063 mg/1 from .17  mg/1 average
were achieved.

Treatability information is currently being collected at  one
additional facility known to have substantial  gypsum formation  to
assess the effect of this substance on filter  performance.

ALKALINE MINE DRAINAGE

Current Treatment Technology

Mines exhibiting alkaline drainage supply a majority of U.S. coal
production.  Raw wastewaters from these mines  are generally char-
acterized by very low metals levels and are pH neutral  or
                               277

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slightly alkaline.  Alkaline  surface  mines  can  contain high sedi-
ment loading caused by precipitation  and  runoff,  whereas  alkaline
underground mines are most often  low  in  suspended solids.   Many
mines with alkaline drainage  can  discharge  the  raw water  without
any treatment.  However, most mines will  have a pond  or pond sys-
tem installed to contain or treat runoff  resulting from rainfall.
Aside from precipitation and  the  ensuing  sediment laden runoff,
the major exception to mines  that can normally  discharge  without
treatment is for those mines  located  in  geological strata con-
taining fine clays.  These colloidal  clays  are  difficult  to
settle without coagulant aids.  If fine  clays are prevalent,
chemical flocculant addition  may  be required to comply with BPT
limitations.  This, however,  is an infrequent situation in the
industry.  Figure VII-10 depicts  a typical  BPT  treatment  system
for alkaline drainage.  The settling  facility is  identical to the
sediment pond or mechanical clarifier discussed under the  pre-
vious acid mine drainage subsection.   Ponds installed to  comply
with rainfall provisions are  discussed later in this  section.

Candidate Treatment Technologies

Technologies applicable to alkaline mines are similar to  treat-
ment options discussed under  acid mine drainage for BPT treated
wastewaters.  The reader is directed  to  the Acid  Mine Drainage
Candidate Treatment Technology subsection for a detailed  discus-
sion of the technologies.

PREPARATION PLANTS

Current Treatment Technologies

Wastewater from coal preparation  plants,  as discussed in  Section
V, originates from preparation plant  coal separation  and  cleaning
equipment, such as jigs, washers,  froth  flotation units,  and wet
cyclones.  The water is high  in coal  fines  which  are  removed
prior to discharge or reuse.  Economic and  environmental  incen-
tives often dictate that some portion of  this effluent water be
recycled for plant use.  Some plants  operate under total  recycle
while others recycle only a fraction  or  none at all.   The  remain-
der is discharged after appropriate treatment,  usually consisting
of some type of sedimentation technology.   This will  remove the
coal fines which are present  as suspended solids.

Figure VII-11 illustrates a typical treatment scenario for prepa-
ration plant wastewaters.  The slurry stream generated by  the
preparation plant usually contains  fine coal refuse as a waste
product from the coal cleaning process.   The refuse contained in
the slurry is usually 0.10 in (approximately 2.50 mm)  and  finer
in size and frequently contains less  than 10 percent  by weight
                               281

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solids.  In many cases, fine coal, clay and  other  mineral  parti-
cles with size below 0.004 in  (0.10 mm) are  present.   In  some
cases, very fine colloidal-sized material  is  present.

These solids are removed to allow reuse or discharge  of the  clar-
ified water.  The settling facilities most often used  are  sedi-
mentation or slurry ponds, or, where adequate land is  not  avail-
able, clarifiers/thickeners are frequently employed.   Where  the
latter option is selected, dewatering by vacuum or pressure  fil-
tration is occasionally implemented within the industry to
recover additional water and permit easier handling of the
dewatered refuse.  The water from this process is  recycled to the
clarifier influent and the refuse is hauled  to a disposal  site, a
borehole, or an abandoned or active pit.   In  Appalachian  facili-
ties, dewatering of the thickener underflow  is commonly accom-
plished in a sedimentation pond for settling  of the solids and
recycle or discharge of the basin decant.  Overflow from  the
clarifier/thickener is either  directly recycled to the prepa-
ration plant or routed to a pond system (termed a  "fresh  water
lake" in Figure VII-11) for eventual recycle  or discharge.  In
many existing facilities, this latter alternative  of  drawing
makeup from a fresh water basin is often preferred to  provide a
dependable water source of consistent quality for  preparation
plant use.

Many midwestern and western facilities employ sedimentation
basins in lieu of clarifiers to provide solids removal for the
refuse slurry.  Basins are sometimes designed for  the  life of the
preparation plant, but more frequently, a  number of ponds  are
required over the operating life of the cleaning facility.  As
one slurry pond is silted out, slurry is diverted  to  a new basin.
The old pond can be dredged and/or reclaimed.  These  sedimenta-
tion basins will often receive drainage from areas associated
with the preparation plant, such as disturbed areas ancillary to
the site, coal storage piles,  and refuse piles.  The  character-
istics and treatment of effluents from these  three sources are
discussed in the next subsection.  The pond  system will also
frequently receive storm runoff drainage from undisturbed  areas,
which, in some cases, can consist of vast  tracts of land.  This
storm runoff is also analyzed  later in this  section.   Decant
routed from the primary slurry settling pond  is commonly com-
mingled with this undisturbed  area drainage  and raw or treated
effluents from the associated  areas in a fresh water  lake.  This
lake provides secondary settling prior to  recycle  of  water
required by the preparation plant.

The suspended solids removal technology selected by mine  opera-
tors is very dependent on the  region in which the  mine is
located.  In Applachia and other regions where steep  terrain is
prevalent, thickeners and clarifiers are usually installed rather
than settling basins to handle preparation plant slurries.
                               284

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Those plants using  a  clarifier  often  use  a coagulant aid to
assist in agglomerating  fine  solids,  resulting  in  greater settl-
ing rates of solids.  Preparation  plants  that employ settling
ponds for suspended solids removal do not  usually  inject chemical
aids but instead rely on  the  longer retention times  available to
provide sufficent settling.

Candidate Treatment and Control Technologies -  Existing  Sources

Control technologies are  particularly applicable to  preparation
plant wastewaters in  the  abatement of pollution from these
sources.  This includes consideration of  a no discharge  of pol-
lutants requirement that  would  require recirculation of  all water
from a system treating wastewater  from a  preparation plant water
circuit.

Total Recycle Option

To properly evaluate  this option for  existing sources, an examin-
ation of the definition of preparation plant wastewater  is essen-
tial.  For the remainder  of this report,  "preparation plant
wastewater" is defined as any wastewater  which  results from pro-
cessing a stream of coal  to remove ash forming  constituents.
This wastewater consists  of the following:

     1.  Water purposely  brought into contact with run-of-mine
coal to clean the coal,

     2.  Water collected  in the waste sump resulting from spills
or cleanup within the preparation  plant boundaries,  and

     3.  Runoff resulting from precipitation which enters the
preparation plant wastewater  treatment system.

Thus, the zero discharge  requirement  would effectively disallow
the discharge of any pollutant-bearing water that  stems  from or
contacts process water from the preparation plant.

To assist in the analysis of  this  issue,  Figure VII-12 depicts
the various flows into and out of  the preparation  plant.

The types of flow streams entering the water circuit are  shown on
the left side of the block diagram and flows exiting the  system
are shown on the right side.  The various  sources  and losses of
water in the system will  be discussed below in  an  effort  to
evaluate the requirements for attainment  of total  recycle for the
preparation plant water circuit.
                               285

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Water sources include:

     1.  Makeup Water.  Water  from  sources  external  to  the prep-
aration plant and slurry water systems  are  almost  always  needed
to meet the feed water requirements of  the  plant after  using the
water recycled from slurry treatment.   Typical  sources  might be
surface impoundments, mine drainage, well water, or  drainage from
preparation plant associated areas.  This water should  be neutral
or basic to minimize corrosion problems and be  relatively low in
suspended solids content to avoid nozzle fouling in  the plant.
The volume of makeup water from  sources external to  the prepara-
tion plant water circuit may be  zero if the slurry treatment sys-
tem has sufficient capacity to store large  volumes of water.  In
general, however, implementation of a zero  discharge requirement
would necessitate a makeup water source that can be  throttled to
balance the system.

     2.  Water on the Surface of Feed Coal.   The coal entering
the preparation plant usually has some  water on the  surface of
the coal.  This water results  from dust suppression  sprays in
underground mined coal or from ground water in  wet surface or
underground mines.  The raw coal also receives  water as a result
of precipitation falling on storage piles or on the  coal  as it is
transported to the plant.

     3.  Precipitation and Runoff.  The quantity of  water enter-
ing the system from precipitation and runoff is governed  by
design and climatological factors which are both site specific.
A slurry treatment system consisting of a thickener  and filtra-
tion of the underflow receives precipitation only  on the  surface
of the thickener.  The amount of precipitation  entering a pond
system is related directly to the drainage  area of the  pond or
ponds.  The amount of runoff entering from  areas adjacent to the
pond system can be controlled at the design phase  or as a retro-
fit procedure by using diversion ditching and diking as required
to control inflow.

Water losses include:

     1.  Moisture on the coal product.   This moisture leaves a
preparation plant as residual water after having undergone some
form of mechanical and/or thermal coal  drying.  The  degree to
which the coal material is dried is usually determined  by what is
necessary to achieve purchaser specifications and/or the  avoid-
ance of excessive transportation costs. The amount  of  water
leaving with the coal will most  often be greater than that enter-
ing with it since the cleaning process  involves a  size  reduction
with the attendant increase in surface  area. This increase in
porosity due to smaller grain  sizes enhances water retention.
                               287

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     2.  Water on Coarse Refuse.  The cleaning  process  is
designed to remove material that either does not  contribute  to
the end use of the coal or has some deleterious effect  on  the use
of the coal.  These materials are removed as refuse by  processes
in the preparation plant.  The bulk of this refuse leaves  the
plant as a surface-saturated solid after mechanical dewatering.
It is dry enough to allow handling by truck or  conveyor to a dis-
posal site.  The large size of this refuse makes  use  of wet
disposal impractical.  The volume of this coarse  refuse will be  a
function of the amount of non-coal components in  the  plant feed
and the efficiency of the separation.  The total  amount of water
leaving the system by this route will be dependent on the  amount
of refuse as well as the relative size of the refuse.

     3.  Miscellaneous Water Lost (Drying and Evaporation).   In
some cases^thermal drying of the coalis required to meet pro-
duct specifications.  Usually, thermal drying is  primarily used
for the fine coal fraction.  In this process, the surface  mois-
ture in the coal is reduced by evaporative losses.  Water  is also
lost by evaporation in the plant, particularly  at locations  where
water sprays are used in processing.  Usually the water removed
from the system as a result of drying and evaporation is not
large compared to the total plant water requirement.

     4.  Evaporation and Seepage from Slurry Water Treatment.
The volume and importance of these lossesfrom  the system  will be
a function of the design of the system as well  as site  specific
hydrologic conditions.  For example, if the slurry  water  treat-
ment consists of a thickener and underflow dewatering,  then  seep-
age is nonexistent.  Evaporation, although still  dependent on
local climatic factors, is limited to the surface area  of  the
thickener.  On the other hand, slurry water treatment by sedimen-
tation in a pond system can result in major losses by evaporation
and seepage depending upon design and maintenance of  the system
(e.g., surface area, lining, etc.).

     5.  Fine Refuse Moisture.  Generally, a preparation process
is designed to minimize the production of fines while achieving
the desired coal quality improvement.  Therefore, the fine solids
which can be removed from the slurry by some combination of  sedi-
mentation (usually in mechanical thickeners or  settling impound-
ments) and filtration usually represent a relatively  small pro-
portion of the feed material.  After the fine solids  have  been
removed in the settling facility from the bulk  slurry,  they  will
retain considerable water.  Fine solids can be  dewatered by fil-
tration of the thickener underflow, and will often contain about
25 percent water by weight.  The fine solids removed  by sedimen-
tation in ponds will, of course, retain greater amounts of water.
                                288

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As indicated above, losses  from water  on  the  coal  product and
coarse refuse, as well as internal  evaporative  losses  are insig-
nificant in comparison to the  total water flow  in  the  plant.
Closing the water circuit will primarily  involve recycling of
preparation plant effluents as makeup  to  the  facility.   However,
the wastewater leaving the preparation plant  as slurry  is not
suited for direct reuse  in  the preparation plant because of its
fine solids content.

The slurry treatment process must prepare water for  recycle that
is relatively free of suspended solids so that  its solids car-
rying capacity is restored  for removal of similar  material in the
preparation plant.  Solids  even in  fine sizes and  low  concentra-
tions can cause long term maintenance  problems  as  a  result of
excessive pump and piping wear.  Nozzle plugging is  an  additional
maintenance problem for  washing operations within  the plant.   The
reuse for screen spray and wash water  of  thickener overflow with
suspended solids less than  100 ppm  has been reported.   Slurry
treatment must also provide recycle water which is neutral or
alkaline to minimize corrosion of the  process equipment.

Two primary issues can be delineated regarding  a no  discharge
requirement.  First, a total recycle system must provide suffi-
cient water to meet process requirements  while  taking  into
account the water losses previously discussed.  Second,  the
feasibility of segregating preparation plant  wastewater  from
other wastewater must be assessed.   Both  of these  factors are
primarily design considerations.

A survey was conducted in cooperation  with the  National  Coal
Association in 1980 of its member companies to  collect  data and
information specifying the design of their preparation  plant
slurry treatment systems.  Eighty-eight member  producer  companies
of the NCA were canvassed for profile  information  and water, man-
agement data.  These companies operate approximately 292 prepara-
tion plants.  One hundred and  fifty-two of these (52 percent),
representing about 24 percent  of the entire preparation  plant
industry, responded to the survey.   Results from the responding
facilities indicate that approximately 34 percent  are currently
achieving zero discharge of preparation plant wastewater.   This
suggests that certain facilities have  adequately addressed the
two issues outlined above.  Other facilities  have  a  system design
that provides for a sufficiently large drainage area to  continu-
ally supply preparation plant makeup water needs.  Such  systems
resolve the first issue but are susceptible to  voluminous amounts
of discharge during rainfall.  Plants  that obtain  water  from  this
type of system would have to provide adequate freeboard  in their
slurry basins to accomodate the storm  flows.  A second way to
comply would be to install a clarifier/thickener with underflow
dewatering, thus obviating the need  for the pond system.   A third
alternative is to install diking and diversion  ditching  around
                               239

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the pond system and drawing makeup water  from  a new  source.   This
third alternative may also require installation of new  facilities
to treat the diverted runoff, particularly  if  acidic  refuse  and
coal pile drainage is involved.  These alternatives  are  shown
schematically in Figures VIII-18 and VIII-19 in Section  VIII.

If a facility already has a clarifier installed,  changes would be
confined to recycling all decant to the preparation  plant and
dewatering the underflow solids.  This option  is  depicted sche-
matically in Figure VIII-20 of Section VIII.   Redesign  of the
clarifier or additon of equipment for chemically  aided  solids
settling may be required to provide water of suitable quality as
makeup water.  Many facilities already have this  flocculant  addi-
tion equipment in place with their clarifiers.

Total recycle with no discharge is a technically  achievable  con-
trol technology to reduce the discharge of  pollutants from coal
preparation processes into the environment.  This is  particularly
true for new sources where water handling strategies  can be
planned from the design phase.  The costs associated  with imple-
mentation of this alternative are presented and discussed in
Section VIII.

Flocculant Addition

Flocculant addition is also a candidate BAT option for  prepara-
tion plant wastewaters.  Important factors  characterizing this
technology were previously discussed for mine  drainage  and will
not be repeated here.

Filtration

Preparation plant wastewaters are readily amenable to this type
of treatment.  Gypsum is rarely evident in  the normally  alkaline
effluents.  Further, metals, if present,  are in the  suspended
state and are thus removed by filtration.  Application  of this
technology is feasible for both clarifier and  sediment  basin
effluents.  Achievable levels are documented in the  mine drainage
section.

Other Technologies

Reverse osmosis, ion exchange, electrodialysis, and  sulfide  pre-
cipitation are technologies applicable for  dissolved solids
removals.  Alkaline effluents are characteristically low in  unde-
sirable and toxic dissolved metals, and thus these technologies
are not considered for preparation plant  wastewaters.  Activated
carbon and ozonation are fouled by high suspended solids, render-
ing them ineffective for these types of effluents.   Moreover,
their principal application is for a dissolved compound  at a low
                                290

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pH value, none of which are expected  in  preparation  plant
discharges.

Candidate Treatment Technologies  - New Sources

Two major options are considered  for  new source  preparation  plant
discharges--a no discharge of pollutants requirement and a dis-
charge with effluent standards achievable  through  application  of
the best available demonstrated treatment  technology.   The latter
approach is identical to that discussed  for  existing sources and
will not be repeated here.  However,  additional  considerations
are relevant for the no discharge requirement.   First,  design  of
a total recycle system is easily  adopted for new sources.  Segre-
gation of other drainage from the preparation plant  wastewater
can be a design parameter of the  system.   Ponds  can  be  located in
topographical areas that do not receive  large amounts of natural
drainage.  This will lessen the volume of  storm  runoff  requiring
diversion around the slurry treatment system.  Second,  if
clarifier/thickeners are selected for settling,  small emergency
ponds can be provided to contain  temporary imbalances in the
water circuit arising from operational problems  or exceedingly
heavy precipitation on the clarifier  surface.  Thirdly, the
achievement of zero discharge at  facilities  in each  major  coal
producing region substantiate this option  as the best available
demonstrated technology.  No fundamental technical reasons for
inability to achieve this requirement for  new sources have been
identified.  Costs for implementation of this option and of
discharges employing filtration technology to polish the final
effluent are presented in the next section.

PREPARATION PLANT ASSOCIATED AREAS

Current Treatment Technology

Drainage from these areas is a result of runoff  from coal  storage
and refuse piles and other disturbed  areas.   This  runoff has
similar characteristics to untreated  drainage from adjacent
mines.  The rulemaking published  on 26 April 1977  (see  42  FR
21380) thus established limitations similar  to those for active
mine drainage; i.e., standards for pH, TSS,  and  iron (and  manga-
nese for drainage that is normally acidic  prior  to treatment).
As a result, current treatment technology  for this subcategory
typically includes neutralization, aeration, and settling  for
acidic runoff and settling for alkaline  runoff.  In  cases  where
site logistics permit, runoff is  often commingled  with  mine
drainage due to the cost advantages in joint treatment.  Each  of
the technologies was discussed in detail in  the  mine drainage
subsection and is not reiterated here.
                               291

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Candidate Treatment Technologies

Drainage from preparation plant associated  areas  is  often com-
mingled for treatment with the preparation  plant  wastewaters.
Establishment of a no discharge regulation  for  associated area
runoff is infeasible due to the extremely wide  variations in
storm runoff.  If such a requirement  is proposed  for preparation
plant wastewaters in existing sources, associated area  drainage
would in most cases have to be segregated and treated separately.
Because this wastewater is similar to mine  drainage,  the  reader
is referred to the discussion found in the  Candidate Treatment
Technologies portion of that subsection.

POST MINING DISCHARGES

Reclamation Areas

Current Treatment Technology

Areas under reclamation are defined as areas of land resulting
from the surface mining of coal which has been  returned to final
contour and revegetation begun.  Drainage from  land  that  has been
regraded after active mining is not currently subject to  EPA
regulations unless commingled with wastewater from the  active
mining area.  OSM, under authority of SMCRA, has  required that
drainage from reclamation areas must be routed  through  a
sedimentation pond.  Therefore, operators have  installed
sedimentation ponds to treat this drainage  until  revegetation
requirements are met and untreated drainage (influent to  the
ponds) meets the applicable state and federal water  quality
standards for the receiving stream (see 44  FR,  3  March  1979).

Candidate Treatment Technology

The Agency has conducted a sampling and analysis  program  under
authority of Section 308 of the Clean Water Act to have 12
companies monitor influents and effluents at two  ponds  for each
company.  These ponds primarily receive drainage  from areas
undergoing revegetation, although some ponds also receive active
mine drainage.  Data from the first 10 months of  the program are
presented in Table Y-9.  Total suspended solids were found at
widely varying levels, due partly to differences  in  particle size
distribution delivered to the pond from the reclamation area.
Settleable solids (i.e., suspended particles that will  settle
within one hour), however, are effectively  controlled by  these
sediment ponds.

The data also demonstrate that concentrations of  the toxic metals
and iron and manganese in drainage from these areas  are at or
very near limits of analytical detection.
                                292

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The number  of  ponds  or  other  type  of treatment required can be
quite  large.   This is because  the  acreage  under reclamation is
often  larger than the active  area,  especially as the surface min-
ing project is developed.  Reclamation  in  the East  requires a
minimum of  five  years and  in  the West a minimum of  ten years,
according to OSM criteria.  The  large number  of ponds  already in
existence constrain  the technology selection  from a cost
standpoint.

Underground Mine Discharges

Current Treatment Technology

Underground mines will  often  continue to discharge  after cessa-
tion of coal removal from  the  mine.   This  drainage  is  similar in
composition to the drainage that occurred  during the active life
of the mine, since the  mechanism for generation is  identical.  No
EPA limitations  are  currently  established  for these discharges.
However, OSM standards  require that  this drainage be treated
until either the discharge continuously meets OSM effluent  limi-
tations or  the discharge has  permanently ceased.

Technology  to  control these discharges  is  identical to that
implemented for  active  mine drainage.   For acid discharges, this
includes neutralization, aeration,  and  settling. Alkaline  dis-
charges require  only settling.  Each of these has been exten-
sively discussed and will  not  be repeated  here.

Candidate Treatment  Technology

Each treatment technology  presented  in  the active mine drainage
sections is also considered for this  subcategory.

PRECIPITATION EVENTS

Precipitation events can make  it infeasible to meet effluent
limitations (see "Evaluation  of Performance Capability of Surface
Mine Sediment Basins" by Skelly and  Loy, Engineers-Consultants,
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,  July 1979).   These  events are often
beyond the control of the  coal operator; thus,  some mechanism
should exist to  temporarily exempt  the  facility from compliance
until "normal" conditions  return.  For  the coal  mining industry,
precipitation  is the prime cause of  an  excursion beyond the
effluent standards, particularly for  total suspended solids.
This is because  the vast tracts of land occupied by many surface
coal mines receive substantial rainfall, particularly  in the
Appalachian coal region.

The original exemption  for storm (or  snowmelt events)  was
published at the time of BPT regulatory promulgation on 26  April
1977 (42 FR 21380).  The exemption was  provided  for overflows
                               293

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from sedimentation ponds that were "designed, constructed,  and
maintained to contain or treat the discharges .  .  . which would
result from a 10-year, 24-hour precipitation event  .  .  .."   Thus,
the exemption was available regardless of the size  of the hydro-
logic event.  On 12 January 1979, the Agency promulgated new
source performance standards for the coal mining category that
contained a modified storm exemption.  The modification included
that:  (1) the burden of proof was placed on the operator to
demonstrate that the appropriate prerequisites  to  obtaining the
exemption had been met, and (2) an exemption could  only be
granted if a 10-year, 24-hour or larger  event (or  snowmelt  of
equivalent volume) had actually occurred.  On 2 April 1979,  the
exemption provided for existing sources  was amended to be identi-
cal to the NSPS exemption.  These actions met with  substantial
criticism and legal opposition by various industry  trade groups,
such that EPA withdrew its modified exemption provision and
instituted the Skelly and Loy Study cited above  to  more clearly
define sedimentation pond performance, particularly for those
storms less than the 10-year, 24-hour event.

This study concluded that sediment pond  efficiency  during storm
events is, to a large extent, dependent  on site-specific factors.
The inflow hydrograph (i.e., the volume  of water delivered  to a
pond at any given moment during or immediately  after a  storm) of
a given storm event, and the volume and  concentration of sediment
delivered, will depend in each case on,  among other things,  the
soil erodibility, length and steepness of the terrain,  and  cover
and management practices employed at a given watershed.

Moreover, the specific total suspended solids concentration in
the effluent of a given sediment pond will depend  on  the particle
size distribution of the solids delivered to the pond.  As  the
Skelly and Loy study demonstrates, theoretical  detention times on
the order of 24 hours may not be sufficient to  permit settling of
fine, colloidal solids.  Thus, even if all of the  larger solids
settle, TSS effluent concentrations can  vary widely depending
upon the amounts of fine material present in the  influent.   The
particle size distribution of the sediment delivered  at a partic-
ular site is thus a critical factor affecting effluent  quality,
and is largely beyond the control of the operator.  This distri-
bution will vary not only from site to site for a  given storm
event, but at the same site during the course of that storm (7).

These conclusions were verified by other available literature,
including an EPA study entitled, "Effectiveness of Surface  Mine
Sedimentation Ponds" published in 1976.  This study's central
conclusion was that the sediment ponds which were  properly
utilized and maintained were measured to have high efficiencies
of removal of suspended solids during the baseline sampling
period.  However, the efficiency of removal of  suspended  solids
was measured to be much lower during  the storm  event  (12) .   The
                               294

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report goes on to state that the lower efficiencies were  pri-
marily attributable to improper construction  and maintenance of
the ponds.

As a result of these investigations, on 28 December 1979  (44 FR
76788), the Agency rescinded its BPT and NSPS  storm exemptions
and promulgated what was essentially the original  BPT  exemption,
with the burden of proof placed upon an operator and a require-
ment that the overflow had been caused by an  actual hydrological
event.

During the course of this rulemaking, the Agency instituted two
studies to investigate the appropriateness of  alternate limita-
tions during the storm exemption period.  The  first study, incom-
plete as yet, is being conducted at eight mine sites in the
eastern and western regions.  Data from the second study  at 22
surface mine sedimentation ponds were collected during baseflow
and rainfall conditions to demonstrate the feasibility of meeting
certain effluent limitations for storms less  than  the  10-year,
24-hour precipitation event.  Analysis of the  data indicate that
for most precipitation events settleable solids of 0.5 ml/1 and
pH control between 6.0 and 9.0 can be achieved for ponds  that are
properly designed, constructed and maintained.  Settleable solids
monitoring is preferable to TSS monitoring as  a method of regu-
lating effluent sediment concentration during  the  exemption
period since data obtained by this study indicate  that TSS cannot
always be effectively reduced.
                               295

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                           SECTION VIII

            COST, ENERGY AND NON-WATER QUALITY  ISSUES


INTRODUCTION

The principal purpose of this chapter is  to  present  results  of a
cost analysis for treatment technologies  within each subcategory.
Energy requirements and nonwater quality  impacts  such  as  solid
waste generation and air pollution are also  discussed  for each
treatment system.  To conduct this analysis, a  model plant
approach was utilized.  The first step in this  procedure  is  to
estimate average and maximum flow volumes and other  design para-
meters .  This was accomplished by review  of  pertinent  literature
and site visits to operating coal mines.   From  this  information,
capital and operating cost curves are prepared  to reflect each
component of the treatment system.  These component  costs are
then assembled into overall costs for an  entire treatment system
or level.  Energy usage for each technology  is  also  computed.

The costs presented in this section are in 1979 dollars.   A
detailed breakdown of this section's summarized costs  is  pre-
sented in a cost manual developed as a part  of  this  project  (1),
which is included as a supplement to this document.  Additional
assumptions and backup cost data are found in Appendix A  and in
reference (2).

The final step in the cost analysis was to verify the  accuracy of
model plant costs with actual costs at an active  coal  mine.   This
was achieved by first visiting various mines and  collecting
design and cost information and then computing  system  costs  for
that mine.  The results, which are presented in Appendix  A,  were
then compared with the model plant costs,  using the  actual flow
at that mine.

Treatment methods such as reverse osmosis, electrodialysis,  car-
bon adsorption, ion exchange, sulfide precipitation, and  ozona-
tion were initially considered as possible treatment processes
for attaining BAT or NSPS compliance.  These treatment systems
are not included in this section because  these  systems are not
feasible for reasons previously discussed.   Table VIII-1  summa-
rizes capital and operating costs for these  systems  based on a
flow of 1.0 mgd.
                                297

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                               298

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MINE DRAINAGE

Existing Sources

Treatment Levels

Four treatment systems (designated levels 1, 2, 3,  and 4) were
identified as the basis for the cost analysis.  These systems
incorporate the technically feasible technologies discussed  in
Section VII, as outlined below.

Level One.  This system is typical of a BPT treatment configura-
tion.As shown schematically  in Figure VIII-1, this scheme  con-
sists of optional raw water holding for equalization, neutraliza-
tion if required for acid drainage, optional aeration, settling,
and optional sludge dewatering.  Some type of pH monitoring  and
control is required.

Level Two.  This level consists of installing "add-on" equipment
to the present BPT facilities  to permit the addition of a floccu-
lant aid.  The flocculant aid  is normally an organic polyelectro-
lyte added to promote agglomeration and subsequent  settling  of
finer suspended solids.  This  level is depicted schematically in
Figure VIII-2.

Level Three.  This level, shown schematically in Figure VIII-3,
consists of mixers and flocculator-clarifiers in lieu of sedimen-
tation basins, and also additional chemical feed, mixing and
aeration facilities.  More sophisticated chemical and pH moni-
toring and control facilities  are also included.  This level of
treatment would be applicable  to a major upgrade of existing BPT
facilities or where a mine was meeting BPT requirements without
treatment facilities and would chose this treatment system  to
comply with BAT limitations.

Level Four.  This level consists of the addition of granular
media filtration to one or more of the first three  levels of
treatment.  This technology is depicted in Figure VIII-4.

Capital Costs

Capital cost estimates were prepared for each level of treatment,
in most cases for ranges between 0.02 and 9 million gallons  per
day (mgd).  These flows cover  the range of more than 99 percent
of active discharging mines.   The capital costs for each level of
treatment include the purchase and installation of  all necessary
equipment but, in most cases,  do not include land,  power lines,
access roads or sludge disposal costs. These costs  are presented
separately.  Level 1 has not been costed since it is assumed to
be installed to meet the BPT requirements.  A 25 percent factor
                               299

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is included in the capital cost curves to account  for  engineer-
ing, administration, and contingencies.

System Capital Cost for Level 2 Treatment.  The level  2  treatment
system providesfor polymer addition as an aid in  the  removal  of
suspended solids in mine drainage (acid or alkaline).

Equipment for the mixing, storage and feeding of polymer can be
operated over a wide range of flow rates.  Only two  different
polymer systems are required to cover the entire flow  range of
0.02 to 4.5 mgd level (1).

The capital costs for the treatment level 2 systems  are  $30,000
for flow rates up to 0.75 mgd and $40,000 for flow rates greater
than 0.75 mgd including an enclosure.

System Capital Costs for Level 3 Treatment.  Figure  VIII-3 pre-
sented a schematic of the equipment included in the  level 3
treatment system.  This system includes a pump station,  mixing
tanks, clarifiers, and a control building.  The capital  costs  are
presented as a function of flow rate in Figure VIII-5.

System Capital Costs for Level 4 Treatment.  The equipment and
facilities comprising this treatment system are pump station,
gravity filters, backwash water storage tank, and  control build-
ing.  A schematic diagram of this system was presented in Figure
VIII-4.  The capital cost curve is shown in Figure VIII-6.

Land Requirements

The land requirements computed for treatment levels  3  and 4 are
presented in Figure VIII-7.  The land required for level 2 should
be minimal and is included with the capital cost.  Once  the land
area that is needed from a particular treatment level  is known,
then this value can be multiplied by the cost per  acre at the
site in question.  For the purposes of this report the cost per
acre is assumed to be $4,000.

Annual Costs

Level 2.  Table VIII-2 provides a breakdown of annual  costs
associated with level 2 treatment system.  By incorporating the
appropriate amortized capital cost and polymer cost, Figure
VIII-8 was generated.

Level 3.  The annualized costs and energy requirements for level
3 treatment are computed in the same manner as those for level 2.
Polymer addition is also included in this treatment  level and  the
annualized cost and energy curves are presented in Figure VIII-9
with a two ing/1 polymer dosage.  In this treatment system, two
                                304

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                                10
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              LEVEL 3  TREATMENT OF MINE DRAINAGE
                  CAPITAL COST VERSUS FLOW RATE
                                305

-------
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                       DESIGN  FLOW IN M.G.D.
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                 MINE WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM
                 DESIGN FLOW VERSUS LAND AREA
                        REQUIREMENTS
                             307

-------
                           Table VIII-2

    BREAKDOWN OF ANNUALIZED COST FOR LEVEL 2 TREATMENT SYSTEM
1.    Capital Recovery
     Construction:
       0.10608 x Cc

     Mechanical:
       0.16725 x Cc

               TOTAL
                                   0.015-1.0 mgd
   $  500
    3,200
   $3,700
                  1.0-4.5 mgd
    $  900
     5.100
    $6,000
2.   Operating Personnel
                                      $9,000
                    $9,000
3.   Maintenance

     (Materials St Supplies)
     (@ 3% of Capital Cost)
   $  900
    $1,200
4.   Chemicals
     (€ $2/lb & 365 days/year)
     (function of flow rate
      and dosage)
$91-46,000
$6,000-274,000
5.   Energy
      @ $0.03/kW-hr, 24 hr/d,
      365 d/yr)
   $  400
    $  700
                               308

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      WASTEWATER TREATMENT FLOCCULANT  (POLYMER) ADDITION
           ANNUAL COST CURVES  AND  CAPITAL COST DATA
                                309

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            TREATMENT LEVEL 3 ANNUALIZED COSTS  AND ENERGY

             REQUIREMENTS VERSUS MINE DRAINAGE  FLOWRATES
                                  310

-------
operators per shift are assumed  for flow rates  up  to  0.75 mgd;
above 0.75 mgd, three shift operators are required.

Level 4.  Annualized costs and energy requirements  for  level  4
treatment were estimated by the  same process  used  for level 2 and
are presented in Figure VTII-10.  Only one operator per shift is
required for this system.

New Sources

Four treatment levels were also  established  for new sources in
the mine drainage subcategory.   These levels  correspond closely
to the treatment levels under existing sources,  with  only minor
modifications in levels 3 and 4.  As shown in Figure  VIII-11,
level 3 for new sources would include recycle of filtrate  from
sludge dewatering equipment to the head of the  treatment plant.
Level 4 for new sources is modified to include  levels 1, 2, or  3,
as shown in Figure VII1-12.

Capital Costs

The capital cost assumptions for new sources  are identical  to
those made for existing sources, with one major exception.  New
sources by definition do not have any existing  treatment
installed, while existing sources were assumed  to  have  BPT  or
equivalent in place.  Therefore, new source  capital  (and annual)
cost estimates must include the  cost of BPT  facilities  as well.

System Capital Costs for Level 1 Treatment.   The level  1 treat-
ment system providesfor the construction of a  sedimentation
basin or clarifier to remove suspended matter from mine drainage
(acid and alkaline).  The capital costs for  sedimentation ponds
are presented in Figure VIII-13. If lime  feed  equipment is
required and the dosage known, Figure VTII-14 can  be  used to
determine the cost of installed  equipment.

System Capital Costs for Level 2 Treatment.   The level  2 treat-
mentsystem providesfor the construction of a  sedimentation
basin for polymer addition as an aid in the  removal of suspended
matter in mine drainage (acid or alkaline).   The capital costs
for sedimentation ponds are presented  in Figure VIII-13.  Since
the sedimentation pond sizing is based on the area storm runoff
while the polymer addition equipment is based on the  dry weather
flow, it is infeasible to prepare cost curves of combined  sedi-
mentation basins and polymer addition  equipment costs.   Therefore
separate curves are presented.

The capital costs for the polymer addition systems are $30,000
for flow rates up to 0.75 mgd and $40,000 for flow rates greater
than 0.75 mgd including an enclosure.
                                311

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System Capital Costs for Level 3 Treatment.   This  system includes
a pump station, mixing tanks,clarifiers,  and a  control  building.
The capital costs were presented as  a  function of  flow rate in
Figure VII1-5.

System Capital Costs for Level 4 Treatment.   The equipment  and
facilities comprising this  treatment system  are  pump  station,
gravity filters, backwash water storage  tank, and  control build-
ing.  A schematic diagram of  this  system was presented in Figure
VIII-4.  The capital cost curve was  shown  in Figure VIII-6.   This
level of treatment must be  applied after either  a  sedimentation
basin alone, or after level 3 treatment.   If the total cost for
this system is required the costs  from Figure VIII-6  should be
combined with costs for the appropriate  sedimentation basin or
the level 3 costs.

Land Requirements

The land requirements for levels 3 and 4 were presented  in  Figure
VIII-7.  An insignificant amount of  land is  required  for level 2.

Annual Costs

Level 1.  The annual costs  for level 1 are composed of sedimenta-
tion basin annual costs from Figure  VIII-15,  lime  feeding for  pH
adjustment from Figure VIII-16 if required and sludge dewatering
from Figure VIII-17 if this is installed.

Level 2.  The annual costs  for level 2,  polymer  addition, were
presented in Figure VIII-8.

Level 3.  The annual costs  for level 3 were  presented in Figure
VIII-9.

Level 4.  The annual costs  for level 4 were  presented in Figure
VIII-10.

PREPARATION PLANTS AND ASSOCIATED AREAS

Existing Sources

Water discharged from coal preparation plants and  their  immediate
areas originates from two sources:   (1)  preparation plant process
wastewater (PP) and (2) wastewater generated  in  the vicinity of
the plant facilities, from coal storage  areas, and from  refuse
disposal areas (Associated Area Runoff (AA)).

These discharges are disposed of in  various  methods depending  on
the specific site under consideration.   For  instance,  the flows
could be segregated or commingled.   The  preparation plant water
circuit could be once-through or with  partial or total recycle of
                               317

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                 WASTEWATER TREATMENT SEDIMENTATION POND

                            ANNUAL COST CURVE
                                  318

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process wastewaters.  Various systems have been  costed  in  an
attempt to cover each of the water handling options  (3).   These
options and systems are discussed below.

Zero Discharge of Preparation Plant Water Circuit

Three systems were identified for existing sources to achieve
total recycle of preparation plant process wastewater (also
termed "zero discharge").

System 1.  This system, shown in Figure VIII-18, assumes that  a
pond system is installed, the preparation plant  presently  has
from 0 to 100 percent recycle, and the associated area  storm
runoff enters the preparation plant water circuit.   In  this case,
the existing sedimentation basin would require dikes to divert
the associated area runoff to a new sedimentation pond  designed
to contain the volume of runoff from a 10-year,  24-hour storm  and
also diversion of the undisturbed area runoff around the
associated area.

System 2.  This system assumes that preparation  plant wastewater
and associated area runoff are segregated for treatment.   A
clarifier is installed to treat the preparation  plant wastewater.
Recycle from the clarifier overflow to the preparation  plant can
vary from 0 to 100 percent.  A sedimentation pond is assumed to
be in place which receives only associated area  runoff  and
possibly some undisturbed area runoff.  Figure VIII-19  is  a
schematic of this system.

System 3.  This system, shown in Figure VIII-20, assumes a
clarifier is installed to treat preparation plant wastewater.
The clarifier discharge and associated area runoff presently are
combined and routed to an existing pond for treatment.  Recycle
from the pond can vary from 0 to 100 percent.  Modifications
would include the elimination of the pond from the preparation
plant water circuit by installing a new pump station to route  100
percent of the clarifier overflow to the preparation plant.  The
pond would, however, continue to provide treatment for  the
associated area runoff.

Allowable Discharge from the Preparation Plant Water Circuit

Since this configuration is currently the option selected  by most
plants, only one system was identified for costing purposes.

System 4.  This scenario assumes an allowable discharge from the
preparation plant water circuit.  Preparation plant  waters may or
may not be recycled.  Figure VIII-21 is a schematic  of  this sys-
tem showing the preparation plant discharge treated  first  in
                               321

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either a sedimentation basin or a clarifier and  then by  filtra-
tion.  Associated area runoff is shown as being  treated  sepa-
rately, however, it may be commingled.

Capital Costs

Cost estimates were prepared for the components  for each of  the
preparation plant flow configurations.  These costs were then
plotted with flow rate or, in the case of storm  runoff,  with
runoff volume.  The expected cost for each component includes  the
purchase and installation of all necessary equipment but does  not
include installation of power lines or access roads assumed  to be
in place at existing preparation plants, but needed for  new
sources.  Since the total capital cost is very site-specific,  the
component costs are presented so that if the parameters  of a
specific site are known the total system can be  costed using the
appropriate component costs.

System 1.  The items that may require costing for  this system,
depending on the particular site in question, include:

     Sedimentation basin diking

     Associated area drainage ditch construction

     Recycle pump station

     Polymer feed system

     Sedimentation basins

Knowing the size and configuration o£ the sedimentation  basin
will allow the determination of the length of diking required.
With this known, Figure VIII-22 can be used to determine the
cost.  The associated area dimensions would then be used to
determine the length of drainage ditches required  to segregate
the undisturbed area runoff from the associated  area.  Figure
VIII-23 is used to determine the cost of the ditches required.
Figure VIII-13 is used to determine the cost of  the sedimentation
basin required to serve the associated area and  Figure VIII-24 is
used to determine the cost of a new recycle pump station.  If
there is a flow from the associated area during  dry weather, a
polymer addition system may be required so that  the effluent will
meet guidelines.  A cost of $30,000 is estimated for flows less
than 750,000 gpd and $40,000 for flow rates greater than 750,000
gpd, including an enclosure.

System 2.  The items that may require costing for  this system,
depending on the particular site in question, include:
                               326

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IOO 1,000 10,000 100,000
NOTE: LINEAR FEET
    CAN BE USED TO SEGREGATE UNDISTURBED

    AREA FROM ASSOCIATED AREA OR ASSOCIA-

    TED AREA. FROM PREPARATION PLANT FLOW.
                              Figure VIII-22

             COAL MINE PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER TREATMENT

             EARTH DIKE FOR RUNOFF CONTROL  CAPITAL COST CURVE
                                 327

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          COAL MINE  PREPARATION PLANT WASTEWATER TREATMENT

    RECYCLE/MAKE-UP  WATER PUMPING  FACILITY CAPITAL COST CURVE
                               329

-------
     Clarifier underflow dewatering

     Recycle pump station

It is assumed that the existing associated area  sedimentation
basin will not require augmentation.  Figure VIII-24 is again
used to determine the cost of pumping facilities.  The sludge
dewatering capital cost can be determined from Figure VIII-17.
The vacuum filter loading rate (based on vendor  design criteria)
is 50 pounds /hr/ft^.  Assuming the flow rate and slurry concen-
tration at a particular preparation plant is known, the proper
size filter can then be determined.  For example, a vacuum  filter
influent suspended solids concentration of 100,000 mg/1  (10 per-
cent) and a flow of 250 gpm, the solids level in pounds per hour
would be calculated using the following formula:

         s_CxFxDxT
                  105

where C = concentration of suspended solids in mg/1

      F = flow in gpm

      D - 8.34 Ibs/gallon

      T - time = 60 minutes .

For the example stated:

          c   100.000 x 250 x 8.34 x 60
          S = 12,510 Ibs per hour.

Using Figure VIII-17, the cost would be approximately  $250,000.

System 3.  The items that may be required  for  this  system,
depending on the particular site in question,  include:

     Sludge dewatering

     Recycle pump station

It is assumed that the associated area sedimentation basin  design
will not require augmentation.  Figure VIII-17 can  be  used  to
determine the cost of dewatering clarifier  sludge.  Figure
VIII-24 can be used to determine the cost  of a recycle pump
station.

System 4.  The items that may be required  for  the  system,  depend-
ing on the particular site  in question, include:


                               330

-------
     Sedimentation basin - diking

     Sludge dewatering

     Polymer feed and granular media  filtration

This system assumes an allowable discharge  from  the  preparation
plant without recycle using either existing  sedimentation  basins
or clarifiers.  The sludge dewatering cost,  if required, can  be
obtained from Figure VIII-17.  In order to meet  effluent limita-
tions, a polymer feed may be required before the preparation
plant slurry pond or the clarifier.  The capital cost  for  polymer
feed equipment is $30,000 for flows up to 750,000 gpd  and  $40,000
for flows over 750,000 gpd.  If filtration  is required  to  meet
effluent limitations its cost can be  found  in Figure VIII-6.

Annual Costs

Since the components for the various  systems described  above  and
the annual costs to operate and amortize these components  are the
same, the annual costs are presented  only once.   Once  the  need
for a component in a particular system is determined,  the  annual
cost is derived from the following figures:

                                                       Figure

     Annual Costs of Dikes & Ditches                   VIII-25

     Annual Costs of Recycle Pump Station              VIII-26

     Annual Costs of Sedimentation Basins              VIII-15

     Annual Costs of Sludge Dewatering                 VIII-27

     Annual Costs of Clarifier                         VIII-28

All the component annual costs are additive  for  a given system.

New Sources

Zero Discharge from Preparation Plant Water  Circuit

System 1.  This system assumes a new  source  using a  pond to  treat
the preparation plant discharge prior to 100 percent recycle.   A
separate pond designed to contain the runoff from a  10-year,
24-hour storm would be used for associated  area  runoff.  The
associated area and pond would be ditched to divert  an  undis-
turbed area runoff from associated area runoff.   Figure VIII-29
is a schematic of this system.
                               331

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        WASTEWATER TREATMENT EARTH DIKE/DRAINAGE DITCH

             FOR RUNOFF CONTROL ANNUAL COST CURVE
                              332

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System 2.  This system assumes a new  source  using  a clarifier to
treat the preparation plant discharge prior  to  100 percent  recy-
cle.  A separate pond designed to contain  the runoff from a
10-year, 24-hour storm would be used  for associated area  runoff.
The associated area and pond would be ditched to divert undis-
turbed area runoff from associated area runoff.  Figure VIII-30
is a schematic of this system.

Capital Costs

System 1.  This system, as shown in Figure VIII-29, is applied to
new sites where all treatment facilities are constructed  when the
preparation plant is constructed.  A  slurry  pond for the  prepara-
tion plant wastewater would be installed and a  pump station for
100 percent recycle of the treated water required.   Associated
area runoff would be segregated from  the undisturbed area.   The
items required for this system include:

                                                   Figure

     Preparation plant slurry pond with dikes   VIII-13 St  VIII-22

     Recycle pump station                           VIII-24

     Associated area segregation by ditch           VIII-23

     Pond for associated area runoff                VIII-13

The figure numbers next to the items  can be  used to determine the
capital costs.

System 2.  This system, as shown in Figure VIII-30, is applied to
new sites when a clarifier is used to treat  the preparation plant
discharge.  The items required for this system  include:

                                                      Figure

     Clarifier                                        VIII-31

     Sludge dewatering                                VIII-17

     Recycle pump Station                             VIII-24

     Associated area segregation from undisturbed
     area by ditch                                    VIII-23

     Pond for associated area runoff            VIII-13 &  VIII-22

The figure numbers next to the items  can be  used to determine the
capital costs.
                               337

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Annual Costs

For both new source systems, the annual costs can be derived  from
the same annual cost curves presented for existing sources.

POST MINING DISCHARGES

Operation and maintenance costs to treat post mining discharges
through bond release are presented in this section.  (Note:   this
treatment is already required by OSM.)

General Assumptions Used

In determining the treatment costs, five assumptions were made:

     1.  No capital charges are included.  It is assumed
facilities are fully depreciated by the time of mine closure.

     2.  No "typical" pond size could be assumed.  Ponds range
from "no pond" to 21 acre-feet in storage.

     3.  A "typical" lime dosage is 300 mg/1.

     4.  Operation and maintenance and energy costs for lime
feeding are not sensitive to lime dosage rates and are assumed
constant.

     5.  Sludge pumping energy costs are less than five percent
of the total operation and maintenance costs.  Therefore, energy
costs for varying sludge rates are masked by the total operation
and maintenance cost.

Reclamation Areas

These costs apply only to surface mines.  The costs include  sedi-
mentation structures for treating the runoff from areas under
reclamation through release from the applicable reclamation  bond.
For this subcategory, treatment is for the control of  settleable
solids and pH.

Assumptions

In determing the treatment costs, two assumptions were neces-
sary:

     1.  Since OSM requires treatment facilities for areas under
reclamation to meet BPT limitations, no capital costs  result from
these requirements.

     2.  Lime for pH control should not be required for dis-
charges covered in the reclamation phase  since no acid wastewater
                               340

-------
should be formed at these facilities.  Again,  this has been  veri-
fied by an Agency study of reclamation areas.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

The costs associated with areas under reclamation include  opera-
tion and maintenance costs for sedimentation ponds and mainte-
nance costs for runoff control with earth dikes or drainage
ditches.  The cost curves for these areas are  identical  to
figures previously presented, but are repeated here  for  conveni-
ence.  Figure VIII-32 presents operation and maintenance costs
for sedimentation ponds.  The capital.cost of  the pond was found
in Figure VIII-13.  The maintenance costs for  runoff control with
earth dikes or drainage ditches are given in Figure  VIII-33.
Supporting information and assumptions for developing these
figures may be obtained in Appendix A.

Alkaline Underground Mines

Only settling ponds are considered for costing.  No  clarifiers
have been included because few alkaline deep mines employ  clari-
fiers for wastewater treatment.  The annual operation and  main-
tenance cost curve for wastewater treatment with settling  ponds
was presented in Figure VIII-32.  The annual maintenance cost
curve for earth dike or drainage ditch runoff  control was  illus-
trated in Figure VIII-33.  Supporting information and assumptions
for developing these figures may be found in Appendix A.

Acid Underground Mines

Two treatment systems are considered for costing.  The first
system includes settling ponds, lime addition  equipment, and
aeration equipment.  The second system includes clarifiers,  lime
addition equipment, and aeration equipment.

Costs Associated with Both Settling Pond and Clarifier Systems.
The annual costs associated with both systems  may be obtained
from Figures VIII-34, VIII-35, and VIII-36.  Included in the cost
curves of Figure VIII-36 is the cost of hydrated lime at $65 per
ton.  Supporting information and assumptions for developing  these
figures may be found in Appendix A.

Costs Associated Only with the Settling Pond System.  Operation
and maintenance costs were illustrated in Figures VIII-32  and
VIII-33.  The total operation and maintenance  costs  for  the
sedimentation pond system (including sedimentation ponds,  lime
addition and aeration) are determined by adding the  costs  from
Figures VIII-32 and VIII-33 to the costs obtained from Figures
VIII-34, VIII-35, and VIII-36.
                               341

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21
24
27
                      Figure VIII-32
      SEDIMENTATION POND OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
      ANNUAL 'COST CURVE FOR POST MINING  DISCHARGES
                             342

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POST MINING DISCHARGE LIME ADDITION  CHEMICAL COST CURVES

FORL'.UNDERGROUND COAL MINE ACID WASTEWATER TREATMENT WITH
           SEDIMENT PONDS OR  CLARIFIERS
                           344

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                      Figure VIII-35

POST MINING DISCHARGE LIME FEED FACILITIES OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE ANNUAL COST CURVES FOR UNDERGROUND COAL MINE
             ACID WASTEWATER TREATMENT WITH
           SEDIMENTATION PONDS OR CLARIFIERS
                           345

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             POST MINING  DISCHARGE AERATION OPERATION

       AND MAINTENANCE ANNUAL  COST CURVE  FOR  UNDERGROUND  COAL

      MINE ACID WASTEWATER  TREATMENT WITH SEDIMENTATION PONDS

                           OR  CLARIFIERS
                                346

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Costs Associated Only with the Clarifier  System.   The  clarifier
and sludge pumping operation and maintenance  costs are presented
in Figure VIII-37.  To obtain the  total operation  and  maintenance
costs for the clarifier system (including  clarifiers,  lime  addi-
tion, and aeration), add  the costs  from Figure VIII-37 to the
costs obtained from Figures VIII-34, VIII-35, and  VIII-36.

GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING CAPITAL COSTS  FOR ALL
SUBCATEGORIES

Building Costs

Buildings will be required to house  chemical  and polymer  feed
equipment, as well as the controls  for the  treatment systems.
The cost estimates were prepared by  including various  subcate-
gories, i.e., costs for concrete,  superstructure,  plumbing,  sani-
tation, and lighting.  The electrical and  control  panel costs as
well as laboratory facilities and  office  equipment are included
in the building costs.  These costs  are included in the capital
cost curves for each of the treatment levels.

Piping

The type of piping costed for each  treatment  system is carbon
steel.  Pipe diameters were sized  based on  six to  seven feet per
second flow velocity.  The costs for piping were based on
up-to-date pipe cost quotations and  a factor  of 100 percent  was
added to this cost to account for  fittings, flanges, hangers,
excavation, and backfilling as required.

Electrical and Instrumentation

The electrical and instrumentation  costs  for  the treatment  levels
were estimated at 30 percent of the  cost  of the applicable  equip-
ment .

Power Supply for Mine Water Treatment

Operation of the equipment associated with  the three candidate
levels of BAT treatment may require  additional electric power at
the site.  This power can be supplied by  either running a power
line from an accessible trunk line or power source, or by using
diesel powered generator units.  The worst  case would  probably  be
to run a high voltage trunk line from a generating facility  long
distances to the wastewater treatment facility.  In addition to
the capital cost for power line construction, associated  costs
for metering, transformers and secondary  lines would be required.

In order to provide information on  the costs  for running  power
lines, two supply voltage levels were assumed:  480 volts and
                               347

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     100,000
CO
01
o
Q
H
CO
O
O
10,000
       1,000
O.I
                              1.0
                                           10.0
100.0
                             DESIGN  FLOW  IN  MGD
                             Figure VIII-37

               AFTER MINE CLOSURE CLARIFIER MECHANISM AND
                SLUDGE  PUMPING  OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
              ANNUAL COST CURVE FOR UNDERGROUND COAL MINE
               ACID  WASTEWATER  TREATMENT WITH CLARIFIERS
                                  348

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4.16 kilovolts.  It was then assumed  that  the  practical  break-
point on transmission distance would be between  500  to 1,000  feet
for 480 volts.  Distances approaching 1,000 feet and longer would
require a feeder of 4.16 kV.  Table VIII-4 has been  prepared  to
present approximate cost for power lines.  If  the distance  from
the source and user and the load in kilowatts  (kW) is known,  the
table can be used to obtain the power line costs.  These prices
include installation, poles, wire, insulators  and crossarms for
480 volts and also includes a power center at  the user containing
a high voltage incoming section with necessary protection discon-
necting devices, transformer (4.16 kV/480V) and  secondary side
circuit breaker.

In cases where trunk or secondary lines are not  readily  avail-
able, it may be advantageous to operate diesel engine generator
units.  The range of approximate power requirements  for  the three
candidate levels of BAT is  from 5 kw  at the lowest flow  rate,
level 2, to 150 kw for the highest flow rate,  level  4.   An eco-
nomic tradeoff exists between the relatively low capital cost  for
a diesel unit and the relatively low maintenance and operating
costs of a long distance trunk line system.  Table VTII-5 pro-
vides cost estimates for diesel generator  units  for  a range of
power requirements.  The costs presented in Table VIII-5 include
an ICC approved weather-housed trailer with controls, cables,
battery muffler system, alternator, control panel, silencer,
diesel engine, and generator.  Capital costs for electric power
supply do not include land requirements and are  not  included  in
the capital cost curves presented for the various treatment
levels, due to the highly site-specific nature of these  costs.
No extensive power requirements are necessary  at the preparation
plants since power is already available for production equipment.

Land

Additional land may have to be purchased in order to comply with
BAT/NSPS.  This cost is difficult to estimate  on a general basis
since the information received during the  mine visits indicated
that the cost can vary from a few hundred  dollars to $40,000  per
acre.  If additional land is required, land costs must be added
to the capital cost obtained from the treatment  level system
curves.  The amount of land needed for proposed  BAT  alternatives
is presented on an individual equipment basis  for each level  of
treatment suggested (1).  A value of $4,000 per  acre is  assumed
to represent a reasonable cost and is recommended for use unless
a different value is known for a particular site.

Equipment

The equipment costs included in this  subsection  are  for  polymer
addition equipment, pump stations, mixing  tanks,  clarifiers,
gravity filters, and water storage tanks.  This  encompasses
                               349

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                               Table VIII-3



             COST OF OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS





                               480V System
Distance
ft
250
500

Distance
ft
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000

100
$1500
$3200


100
$19,000
$20,400
$22,000
$23,500
$25,000
$26,600
$28,000
$29,800
$31,300
L 0
200
$1900
$4900

L
200
$19,000
$20,400
$22,000
$23,500
$25,000
$27,700
$29,400
$31,200
$32,900
A D - K
300
$2100
$5500
4.16 KV

0 A D -
300
$20,000
$21,400
$23,000
$25,300
$26,000
$28,700
$32,400
$34,400
$36,400
W
400
$2500
$6700
System

K W
400
$23,000
$25,000
$26,600
$29,600
$31,500
$36,300
$38,600
$41,000
$49,700

500
$3100
*


500
$23,000
$25,000
$25,600
$29,600
$31,500
$36,300
$38,600
$41,000
$49,700
Notes


*Voltage drop
excessive

Notes

Power center
costs included
M ii
M n


ii n
M II
II II
II 11
II M
It II
Reference (2)
                                350

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                           Table VIII-4



             CAPITAL COSTS FOR DIESEL GENERATOR SETS*





Generator Type      Power Requirement (Kv)       Cost  (1000$)



Air-Cooled                   10                         11



Air-Cooled                   30                         16





Radiator-Cooled              55                         20



Radiator-Cooled             100                         24



Radiator-Cooled             150                         30
Reference (4)
                               351

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equipment required for all three treatment levels.   Cost  esti-
mates for installation, engineering, administration,  and  con-
tingencies are also included.

Polymer Addition Equipment.  Capital costs of polymer addition
equipment are relatively insensitive to mine drainage flow  rates
according to vendor price  quotations.  Below 750,000  gpd  the
installed capital cost was estimated at $30,000 and  above 750,000
gpd the cost estimate was  $40,000.  These costs include a mixing
tank, feed pump, transfer  pump, storage tank, an enclosure, and
an electric heater.  Costs for the enclosure and heater were
additional to those given  by the vendors of the polymer equip-
ment.  The costs for these two items were estimated  at $10,000
for the enclosure and $6,000 for the heater.

Pump Stations.  Installed  capital costs for pump stations include
a 3/8 inch steel structure, pumps and motors, piping,  valves,
fittings, structural steel (stairwells, ladders, ancillary  equip-
ment), electrical equipment and instrumentation.  Two pumps were
assumed for all flow rates up to 3.0 mgd; above this  flow rate
three pumps were used.

Mixing Tanks.  The cost for the mixing tanks used in  level  3
includes three steel tanks and skids, three mixers,  nine  slide
gates, structural steel, aeration systems (blowers and piping),
electrical equipment, and  instrumentation.

Flocculatpr-Clarifiers.  A flocculator-clarifier composed of  a
steel tank (1/4 inch thick) in concrete base, the internal
flocculation and sludge scraping mechanisms, structural steel,
slide gates, sludge pumps  and motors, electrical equipment  and
instrumentation.

Gravity Granular Media Filters.  The equipment included with
gravity filters is composed of a concrete pad, a backwash water
storage tank, piping connections, filter cells, media, underdrain
system, electrical equipment and instrumentation.  The filters
were sized based on a flux rate of 10 gpm/ft^.

Installation.  Installation is defined here to include all  ser-
vices, activities, and materials required to implement the
described wastewater treatment systems.  Many factors affect  the
magnitude of this cost including wage rates, in-house or  con-
tracted construction work  and site dependent conditions.  The
installation costs are included in capital cost estimates pre-
sented in this section.

Engineering, Administration and Contingencies.  The  costs asso-
ciated with taxes,insurance,engineering,administration,  and
contingencies are computed as 25 percent of the installed cost of
facilities and equipment.
                               352

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GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING ANNUAL COSTS FOR ALL  SUBCATEGORIES

The annual costs computed  for each of the  treatment  systems
suggested for BAT are categorized as follows:

     Amortization

     Operation and Maintenance

          Labor
          Materials and Supplies
          Chemicals

     Energy

Amortization

The annual depreciation and capital costs  are  computed based  on
using the capital recovery factor:

     AC - (II)(CRF)

where

      AC = annual cost

      II = initial investment

     CRF - capital recovery factor = (r)(r+l)n/((l+r)n-l)

       r = annual interest rate

       n = useful life in  years.

An interest rate of 10 percent was used  in all cases.  The
expected life differs for  civil construction work  and mechanical
and electrical equipment items and their installation, i.e.,  the
expected life for civil construction work  is 30 years and 10
years for installed mechanical and electrical  equipment.  No
residual or salvage value  is assumed.  Based on these assump-
tions, the general multipliers (AC/II) compute as  follows:

     CRF(civil)30 " 0-10608

     CRF(mech. & elec.)io  = 0.16275

Operation and Maintenance

General.  Operating time of the systems  costed is  assumed to  be
for 24 hours per day, 365  days per year.
                               353

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Operating and Maintenance Personnel.  Personnel  costs  are  based
on an annual rate of $28,000.

Maintenance Materials.  The materials necessary  for  performing
yearly maintenance activities are estimated at three percent  of
the capital cost of the facilities including the contingency
item.

Chemicals.  The chemicals costed for use in any  of the  levels of
treatment are polymer and lime.  The polymer cost is estimated at
$2.00 per pound, lime estimated at $65/ton.  Yearly  costs  will
vary according to the dosage level used in the treatment system.
A polymer dosage rate of two ppm was selected for computing
annual polymer costs in each applicable system.

Power Costs.  Electricity costs are based on auxiliary  power
requirements in terms of kilowatts and 8,760 hours per  year of
operation.  The cost per kilowatt hour is estimated  at  $0.03  (2).

SLUDGE HANDLING AND ASSOCIATED COSTS

The sludge produced in the treatment of mine drainage,  prep-
aration plant effluent and pond sedimentation can be handled  by
various methods.  Three methods which may be used and  are
considered in this report are:  sludge lagoons,  trucking of
dewatered sludge to disposal site and trucking of undewatered
sludge to disposal site.

Sludge Lagoons

The sludge lagoon would require construction of  a lagoon and
pumping the sludge from the treatment facility to the  lagoon.
Available data for lime neutralization indicates that  sludge
production is about 10 percent by volume of the  incoming flow
(solids concentration of two percent) (1).  This sludge would
compact in a lagoon to 10 percent solids which equates  to  three
percent by volume of the incoming flow treated.  To  arrive at a
cost it is assumed that the sludge storage requirements would be
for an estimated 10 year life of the mine.  The  cost curves  for
capital and yearly cost for the sludge lagooning approach  are
shown in Figure VIII-38.

Haulage of Dewatered Sludge

The method of dewatering sludge considered here  consists of  pump-
ing the sludge to a thickener.  The thickened sludge is then
dewatered by vacuum filters before hauling to disposal.  It  is
assumed that this system will increase the solids loading  in  the
sludge to about 25 percent.  The cost curves for capital and
yearly costs, as well as energy requirements for this  dewatering,
are shown in Figure VIII-39.  The estimated cost for hauling
                               354

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100 c
        I  I  I I I I I!    I   I I  I I I I I     I  I  I I I I
                   CAPITAL
                    COST
                                   YEARLY
                                    COST
        I  I  I I I I I I    I   I I  I I I II     I  I  I I M II
             DESIGN FLOW  IN  M.G.D.
                  Figure VIII-38

               MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT
          SLUDGE LAGOON VERSUS DESIGN FLOW
                      355

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                               I   I   I  I I I 14-
                                             0.001
                                            10
     DESIGN  FLOW IN M.G.D.
           Figure VIII-39

       MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT
SLUDGE DEWATERING VERSUS DESIGN FLOW
       COST AND ENERGY CURVES
                356

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dewatered sludge to disposal  sites, based  on  a one  round trip
mile, is presented in Figure  VIII-40.  To  maintain  a  uniform cost
basis, this curve is a plot of design  flow in mgd versus cost in
thousands of dollars.

Haulage of Undevatered Sludge

The final sludge handling approach is  to haul the sludge to dis-
posal sites without dewatering.  This  involved pumping the sludge
at about two percent solids to a tank  truck and  then  hauling to a
disposal site where it is lagooned or  pumped  into a bore hole.
The trucking cost for hauling this sludge,  based on a round trip
mile, is also presented  in Figure VIII-40.  Assumptions  and cost
criteria for sludge handling  are based on  information provided  in
reference (2).

To calculate the cost of land, Figure  VIII-41 presents the sludge
lagoon area required versus mine drainage  flow rates.

REGIONAL SPECIFICITY FOR COSTS

Variations in capital and annualized costs  are dependent on the
region in which the treatment facility is  located.  These
differences are due to such factors as soil type, precipitation,
topography, and vegetation.   Cost multipliers have  been  prepared
to reflect these cost differences and  are  presented in Table
VIII-6 in the column entitled "Basic Capital  Cost Multiplier."
The development of these multipliers is presented in  reference
(5).

Before using these multipliers for a particular  region,  the
extent to which certain  costs have already  been  absorbed in
establishing BPT facilities should be  determined; this may
require a certain degree of downward multiplier  adjustment in the
cost.  Items which affect the accuracy of  these  basic multipliers
are previously built-in  access roads,  clearing and  grubbing, etc.

The development of the Capital Cost Multiplier Adjusted  to Civil
Works was based on the premise that the multiplier  is only appli-
cable to that portion of the  capital cost which  is  associated
with excavation, backfilling, and concrete  placement.  The
assumed contribution which these items provided  in  the overall
construction investment  is 40 percent.  Thus, the basic  multi-
pliers are adjusted to 40 percent of their  original value (5).
Table VIII-6 also presents the formula which  demonstrates the
application of the adjusted capital cost multiplier to yearly
costs.  Regional cost multipliers for  yearly  cost would  apply
only to that portion of  the yearly cost associated  with  the civil
works part of the facilities, such as  the  civil  works portion of
the amortization and associated charges.
                               357

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   1000 rr
    100
UJ
CO
o:
o
o
CO
o
X
CO
o
o
10
     1.0
     O.I
       .01
      I   I I  I I III     I  I  I  I 11II
            I  I  I I I III
               O.I            1.0

            DESIGN  FLOW  IN  M.G.D.
10
                    Figure VIII-40

          YEARLY COST OF ONE ROUND TRIP MILE
         OF SLUDGE HAULING VERSUS DESIGN FLOW
                MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT
                          358

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io c
                  DESIGN FLOW IN  M.G.D.
                        Figure VIII-41

       SLUDGE LAGOON - AREA REQUIRED VERSUS  DESIGN FLOW
                    MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT
                             359

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                           Table VIII-5

  COST MULTIPLIERS FOR COAL MINING REGIONS IN THE UNITED  STATES
Region

Northern Appalachia

Central Appalachia

South Appalachia

Midwest

Central W«st

Gulf

Northern Great Plains

Rockies

Southwest
Basic Capital
Cost Multiplier
Capital Cost Multi-
plier Adjusted to
  Civil Works
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.0
1.9
1.65
1.32
1.32
1.28
1.12
1.08
1.0
1.0
1.36
1.26
NOTES:

To obtain the adjusted yearly cost for a region where  the  capital

cost multiplier is greater than, one use the following  formula:
Adjusted    Yearly       Capital
Yearly   =  Cost from -  Recovery  x
Cost        Curve        Factor
Reference (5)
            Yearly
            Co s t from
            Curve
          Capital
    x 1 - Cost
          Multiplier
                                360

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Examples of regionally specific cost determination  procedures  are
provided in the cost manual  (1).

NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS

The effects of the candidate technologies on air pollution,  solid
waste generation, and energy requirements have been considered.
The latter aspect has been addressed in earlier subsections, and
will not be repeated.

Air Pollution

Imposition of regulations based on any of the candidate  technol-
ogies in any subcategory will not create any additional  air
pollution.

Solid Waste Generation

The neutralization and aeration of acid mine drainage  results  in
a suspension of ferric hydroxide, other metal hydroxides,  and
unreacted reagents (lime) in an aqueous solution of salts  com-
posed largely of sulfates.  This suspended matter must be  removed
before the water is discharged.  Also, alkaline drainage contains
sediment which requires removal.

Many preparation plants in the United States use water to  assist
in the sizing, separation, and cleaning of run-of-mine coal.   The
waste slurry discharged from the plant is often high in  suspended
coal fines that require reduction or removal prior  to  recycle  or
discharge.  Also, coal preparation facilities generate a solid or
semisolid refuse of material rejected from the cleaned coal.
Ash, clays, and other materials make up this refuse, which is
conveyed as a slurry to a refuse pile, or disposed  of  in some
other manner.

The creation of these sludges result from application  of the BPT
requirement.  Additional sludge generation resulting from the
candidate technologies are discussed in the following  paragraphs.

Flocculant Addition and Granular Media Filtration

For mine drainage or preparation plant wastewaters,  the  applica-
tion of these technologies would result in additional  sludge
production of a composition similar to sludge generated  by BPT
requirements.  However, the amount of this extra solid waste
would be minimal in comparison with quantities produced  by
compliance with BPT.  For instance, in the acid drainage sub-
category, the average TSS removal (which makes up a substantial
portion of the solid waste) at a typical mine by application of
BPT is 1,310 pounds per day.  Installation of flocculant addition
equipment would result in an additional estimated removal  of 40
                               361

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pounds per day, or a little over three percent of  the  BPT  sludge
production. For application of filtration technology,  additional
sludge production would be approximately 80 pounds  per day,  or
less than 6.5 percent of the sludge produced under  the BPT
requirement.

Total Recycle Option-Preparation Plants

The BAT option is being considered only for preparation plant
wastewaters (distinct from preparation plant associated area
wastewater).  As in the previous case, the additional  sludge
resulting from selection of the zero discharge option  would  be
minimal.  Again, using a typical facility, 370,000  pounds  per  day
are removed from the wastewater by application of  settling (BPT)
technology (this figure does not include the small  amounts of  any
gypsum or other "spectator" solids that might settle).   Installa-
tion of facilities to achieve total recycle would  remove an
additional 140 pounds per day from waters discharged  to the
environment.

Settling - Reclamation Areas

The Agency is proposing requirements for areas under  reclamation
and for sites where mining has ceased.  Because  these  require-
ments are based on a technology whose installation  is  already
required by another federal agency (the Office of  Surface
Mining), there will be no incremental non-water  quality impacts
resulting from the EPA proposal.  Because the composition  of the
settled material does not include toxic metals,  the environmental
impacts of solid waste disposal in this subcategory are projected
to be minimal.
                               362

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                            SECTION IX

                        AMENDMENTS TO BPT

Three subcategories were established as the basis  for promulga-
tion of effluent limitations based on application  of the best
practicable technology currently available.  These subcategories
include coal preparation plants and associated areas, alkaline
mine drainage, and acid mine drainage.  A  fourth subcategory was
also established for reclamation areas.  A western mines (those
located west of the 100th meridian) subcategory was also
proposed.  The catastrophic precipitation event exemption was
investigated for any necessary modifications.  Extension of the
period of applicability for certain effluent limitations for post
mining discharges from deep mines was also considered.

WESTERN MINES

As discussed in Section V, western mines are not subcategorized
separately.

POST MINING DISCHARGES

Reclamation Areas

This subcategory was established during the NSPS rulemaking, but
the Agency deferred publication of any limitations  until further
data could be gathered and analyzed.  As discussed  in Sections V
and VII, additional data have been collected that  support the
establishment of this subcategory.  Pollutants to  be regulated
include settleable solids and pH.

The Agency has concluded that the following limitations shall
apply to the reclamation areas subcategory for mining of coal of
all ranks including, but not limited to, lignite,  bituminous, and
anthracite:
                                     Effluent Limitations
Effluent Characteristic

Settleable Solids

PH
  Maximum for
  Any One Day

   0.5 ml/1

within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
30 Day
Average
                               363

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Underground Mine Discharges

EPA has evaluated the length of time that effluent  limitations
should remain in effect after a mine has closed and reclamation
of the area initiated.  This is discussed in Sections V  and  VII.
In the case of deep mines, the pertinent effluent limitations
will remain effective until the applicable reclamation bond  has
been released, ensuring that pollution abatement will continue
until effective sealing and reclamation has been completed.
These limitations are tabulated under the applicable mine
drainage subsection.

CATASTROPHIC PRECIPITATION EVENT EXEMPTION

A further revision to BPT, in reference to sedimentation ponds,
deals with catastrophic precipitation events (CPE).  Studies
indicate that even when sedimentation pond size is  in compliance
with certain design criteria (i.e., if the pond is  designed  to
contain the amount of water resulting from a 10-year, 24-hour
storm), during certain rainfall events less than the 10-year,
24-hour event, TSS concentrations remain higher than the
established limitations.  This is the case even for optimally
designed and operated ponds.  However, as discussed in Section
VII, settleable solids are consistently removed during various
rainfall events.

The Agency will adopt the following exemption provision:

Any overflow, increase in volume of a discharge or  discharge from
a bypass system caused by precipitation within any  24-hour period
less than or equal to the 10-year, 24-hour precipitation event
(or snowmelt resulting in equivalent volume) shall  be subject to
the following alternate limitations:
                                     Effluent Limitations
Effluent Characteristic

Settleable Solids

PH
  Maximum for
  Any One Day

   0.5 ml/1

within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
30 Day
Average
Any overflow, increase in volume of a discharge  or  discharge  from
a by-pass system caused by precipitation within  any 24-hour
period greater than the 10-year, 24-hour precipitation  event  (or
snowmelt resulting in equivalent volume) shall be  subject to  the
following alternate limitations:
                               364

-------
                                     Effluent Limitations
Effluent Characteristic

pH
  Maximum for
  Any One Day

within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
30 Day
Average
These alternate limitations shall be available only  if  the  facil-
ity is designed, constructed, operated, and maintained  to contain
at a minimum the volume of water which would drain into  the
facility during a 10-year, 24-hour precipitation  event  (or  snow-
melt of equivalent volume).  The treatment facility  must also  be
designed, constructed, operated, and maintained to consistently
achieve the applicable effluent limitations during periods  of  no
precipitation (or snowmelt) and to ensure that the pH in the
final effluent remains in the range of 6.0 to 9.0 during the
precipitation event (or snowmelt).  The operator  shall  have the
burden of demonstrating to the appropriate authority that the
prerequisites for the alternate limitations have  been met.
                               365

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                            SECTION X

     BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE  (BAT)

The factors considered in assessing best available  technology
economically achievable (BAT) include the age of equipment  and
facilities involved, the process employed, process  changes,  non-
water quality environmental impacts (including energy require-
ments) and the costs of application of such technology  (Section
304(b)(2)(B)).  In general, the BAT technology level represents,
at a minimum, the best economically achievable performance  of
plants of various ages, sizes, processes, or other  shared charac-
teristics.  Where existing performance is uniformly inadequate
BAT may be transferred from a different subcategory or  category.
BAT may include process changes or internal controls, even  when
not common industry practice.

EPA proposed BAT limitations for two subcategories  (coal prepara-
tion plants and preparation plant associated areas)  of  the  coal
mining industry on 13 May 1976 (41 FR 19841).  These subcate-
gories were later combined in the modified proposal for BAT
requirements published in the 26 April 1977 Federal Register (42
FR 21380).  Also on 13 May 1976, the Agency proposed BAT stand-
ards for the alkaline and acid mine drainage subcategories  based
on the application of granular media filtration.  These proposed
standards were unchanged in the 26 April publication, pending
toxic pollutant data collection and analysis in keeping with the
Settlement Agreement and the Clean Water Act.

The statutory assessment of BAT "considers" costs,  but  does  not
require a balancing of costs against effluent reduction benefits.
In developing the proposed BAT, however, EPA has given  substan-
tial weight to the reasonableness of costs.  The Agency has
considered the volume and nature of discharges, the volume  and
nature of discharges expected after application of  BAT, the
general environmental effects of the pollutants, and the costs
and economic impacts of the required pollution control  levels.

Despite this expanded consideration of costs, the primary deter-
minant of BAT remains effluent reduction capability.  Effluent
limitations in this industry are expressed as concentrations
(i.e., mass per unit volume, most often milligrams  per  liter--
mg/1).  Mass limitations cannot be written because  wastewater
flow cannot be correlated with coal production.  This stems  from
the fact that, although little process water is employed in  coal
extraction, large volumes of water still require treatment
because of infiltration from precipitation and runoff through the
active mining area as well as groundwater seepage from  breached
aquifers.  Thus a particular mine may have large volumes of water
to treat that are essentially independent of the coal production
capacity of the mine.  This situation is also found in  the  coal
                               367

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preparation segment.  Although process water used  for  coal  clean-
ing can be correlated with production, wastewater  flows  are
impossible to predict due to varying amounts of  surface  runoff
from preparation plant associated areas such as  coal stockpiles.

The Agency considered a number of options for regulation of
existing sources subject to the BAT requirement  and new  sources
subject to the NSPS requirement.  The BAT limitations  options  are
detailed below.  New source options are discussed  in Section XII.

BAT OPTIONS CONSIDERED

OPTION ONE - Require effluent limitations equivalent to  those
promulgated under BPT.  For acid drainage mines  and coal prepara-
tion plants and associated areas the limitations are based  on  the
application of neutralization, aeration, and settling  technology.
For alkaline mines and areas under reclamation,  limitations are
based on application of settling technology.

The basic elements of the storm exemption published on 28
December 1979 (44 FR 76788) are adopted with a number  of
modifications.

First, settleable solids and pH limitations will apply during  the
exemption period.

Second, the exemption currently requires operators to  "contain or
treat" the runoff from a design storm to successfully  claim the
exemption.  This language has caused unnecessary confusion, since
some have misinterpreted the phrase "to treat."  This  language
was included to cover those few coal mines where chemical coagu-
lants are added as part of the treatment system.   The  Agency did
not intend to imply that treatment of storm runoff to  a  certain
level was required.  To eliminate this confusion,  EPA  has removed
the phrase "to treat" from the exemption language, but includes
as a prerequisite for the exemption a demonstration that the
treatment facility can consistently treat to the "dry  weather"
limitations during periods of no precipitation.

Third, discharges from underground mines will no longer  be  exempt
from effluent limitations, regardless of storm size.   Precipita-
tion does not significantly affect the mechanism of underground
mining discharges, and thus no relief from effluent limitations
is necessary.  Techniques for minimizing or preventing infiltra-
tion in underground mines are presented later in this  section.

The settleable solids and pH limitations that apply during  the
exemption period are based on application of settling  technology
and were developed from data collected by the Agency during
various types of storm events.  Pollutant coverage would be
extended to include post mining discharges from  both deep and
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surface mines.  These limitations would  apply  through release  of
the applicable reclamation bond.

Additional costs borne by the operator by  selection  of this
option would be restricted to operation  and  maintenance costs  of
pollution control equipment to comply with the  extended pollutant
coverage provisions and for monitoring during  the  storm exemption
period.  These costs are minimal.

OPTION TWO - Require effluent limitations  based on flocculant
addition technology.  A treatability study commissioned by the
Agency has shown that when toxic metals  were spiked  into the
untreated wastewater, substantial reduction  of  these pollutants
was also achieved along with suspended solids.   Additional toxic
metal removals for BPT-treated water without spiking were highly
variable due to the low influent levels  of these metals.

Costs for installation and operation of  this technology would
range from $30,000 to $40,000 per outfall  for  capital costs  and
from $.042/1,000 gallons treated to $.41/1,000  gallons treated
for annual costs.*  The cost of implementating  this  option at
preparation plants and associated areas  for  the entire U.S.  is
50.0 million dollars (capital) and 25.1  million dollars (annual)
for this subcategory.

The extended pollutant coverage and the  modified storm exemption
discussed under BAT Option One would also  apply here.

OPTION THREE - Require effluent limitations  based  on the appli-
cation of granular media filtration technology.  Two acid drain-
age treatment plants were studied for evaluation of  this technol-
ogy.  They consisted of BPT treatment (neutralization,  aeration,
and settling) of acid mine drainage followed by a  dual-media fil-
ter.  Toxic metal reductions are not quantified because influent
concentrations of toxic metals to the filter were  very low,  i.e.,
the neutralization and settling processes  effectively removed  the
priority metals contained in the raw wastewater.

Capital costs for this technology range  from $150,000 for a
design flow of 100,000 gpd to $900,000 for a design  flow of
8,000,000 gpd.  Annual costs for filtration  range  from $.51/1,000
gallons treated for the 100,000 gpd facility to $.055/1,000  gal-
lons treated for the 8 mgd facility.  No capital and annual  costs
were estimated for implementation of this  option specifically  for
preparation plants and associated areas.
*Note:  The lower cost was calculated assuming a two mg/1  dosage
 rate and a 4.5 mgd facility; the higher cost was  calculated
 assuming a two mg/1 dosage rate and a 0.1 mgd facility.

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The extended pollutant coverage and modified storm exemption
discussed in BAT Option One would apply if this option were
selected.

OPTION FOUR - Require no discharge of pollutants from existing
source preparation plants, with one of the other options selected
for the mine drainage subcategories.  Associated area drainage
would be segregated from preparation plant wastewaters for
separate treatment.  Total recycle would be necessary, with
ditching or diking installed around the slurry pond to divert
storm and other surface runoff.  Makeup water would be provided
from an independent source.  Associated area drainage would, if
required, be neutralized and settled in a separately constructed
facility.  The extended pollutant coverage and storm exemption
discussed in BAT Option One would apply to the associated area
drainage treatment system only.

Total industry capital costs for implementation of this option
are estimated to total 291.2 million dollars.  Annual costs  are
estimated at 52.6 million dollars.

BAT SELECTION AND DECISION CRITERIA

EPA has selected Option One as the basis for proposed effluent
limitations.  Although some small amount of additional metals and
suspended solids removal was provided by Options Two and Three,
the costs associated with installation and operation of these
technologies are too high to warrant such removal.  Further,
additional removals at these levels are difficult to accurately
quantify due to the magnitude of analytical error associated with
their measurement.

Options Two and Three provided only small incremental toxic  metal
removals and in some cases exhibited virtually no additional
removal at all.  Suspended solids removals were quantifiable;
however, these technologies are subject to the BCT "cost reason-
ableness" test.  As discussed in Section XI, the Agency has
concluded that the BCT evaluation is not applicable to effluents
from the coal mine industry.  Thus, lower BAT limitations based
on these technologies could not be justified.

Option Four for existing preparation plants was not selected,
based upon the high retrofit expenditures.  In the Agency's
judgment, the costs of retrofitting for zero discharge are
significantly higher at minimal environmental improvement  than
the costs and benefits of the selected option.  As noted  in
Section XII, New Source Performance Standards (NSPS),  this  option
was selected for new source preparation plants.

The BAT effluent limitations guidelines for the coal mining
category are summarized in Table X-l.
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                            Table X-l

           EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS BASED ON BEST AVAILABLE
             TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE  (BAT)
                                   Effluent Limitations
Subcategory and
   Effluent
Characteristics

Acid Mine Drainage:

     Fe (total)
     Mn (total)
     TSS
     PH
Alkaline Mine Drainage:

     Fe (total)
     TSS
     pH
Preparation Plants and
Associated Areas:

     Fe (total)
     Mn (total)
     TSS
     PH
POST MINING DISCHARGES

Areas Under Reclamation

     Settleable Solids
     PH
Underground Mine
Discharges
  Maximum for
  any one day
      7.0
      4.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
      7.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
       3.5
       2.0
      35
      7.0
      4.0
     70
within the range
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times
       3.5
      35
       3.5
       2.0
      35
      0.5 ml/1
within the range         	
   6.0 to 9.0
  at all times

Effluent limitations that apply
from appropriate active mine
drainage subcategory
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (WATER MANAGEMENT)

Section 304(e) of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251)  authorizes
the Administrator of EPA to promulgate Best Management  Practices
(BMPs) for each class or subcategory of both point and  nonpoint
sources of pollution.   Under the Surface Mining Control  and
Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) (Public Law 95-87), OSM was
assigned responsibility for the development of a comprehensive
program to ensure environmental protection and land reclamation
of surface coal mining operations.  Water handling practices  can
include the application of various mining, aquifer and  erosion
control techniques to prevent or minimize adverse environmental
effects.  The purpose of these techniques is to effect  a  reduc-
tion in effluent water volumes and/or an improvement  in effluent
quality, thereby reducing wastewater treatment and its  associated
costs.  The following paragraphs discuss water management prac-
tices available to operators and permit authorities to  reduce
wastewater quantity.

For both surface mining and the surface effects of underground
mining, OSM has promulgated specific regulations governing water
management associated with mining and reclamation operations  (44
FR 15143-15178).  A number of these standards have been remanded
as a result of litigation; therefore, OSM is now in the process
of a new rulemaking.

Underground Mines

Surface or groundwater may enter underground mines from above,
below, or laterally through adjacent rock strata.  Faults,
joints, and roof fractures are common sites of water  entrance
into abandoned underground mines.  Water may also enter mines
through exploration drill holes or through boreholes  that supply
power and air to underground equipment.  Surface water  can drain
into underground mines from surface mines or as a result  of
inadequate stream diversion practices.  Flooding or seepage from
adjacent abandoned or inactive underground mines is often a sig-
nificant source of water infiltration.  Factors that  can  affect
the quantity of water entering a deep mine are:  the  depth of the
mine, the source of the drainage, the location of water bearing
strata, and groundwater flow patterns.  Investigations  of the
quantity of water entering underground coal mines have  found  the
average rate of infiltration to vary between 6,260 and  10,280
liters per hectare per day (670 to 1,100 gal/acre/day).   These
rates may be exceeded if catastrophic flooding of a mine  occurs
from adjacent or overlying abandoned drifts (1).

Various infiltration control practices are required in  order  to
comply with OSM regulations restricting the discharge of  water
into underground mines (44 FR 15269 sec. 817.55).  OSM  require-
ments endorsed by EPA include:
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     1.  Borehole  sealing  and  casing
     2.  Mine sealing
     3.  Regrading and revegetation of  surface  facilities,  and
     4.  Surface water diversion

Borehole Sealing

Underground mines  are commonly intercepted  by boreholes  extending
from the ground surface.   These holes are  sometimes  drilled dur-
ing mineral exploration, but may  also be utilized  for  supplying
power or air to underground equipment or  for discharge water
pumped from active sections.   Upon abandonment  of  an underground
mine, these boreholes may  collect and transport surface  and
groundwater into the mine.

These vertical, or nearly  vertical, boreholes can  be successfully
sealed from below  in an active underground  mine.   The  sealing can
also be achieved by placing packers and injecting  a  cement  grout.
Often abandoned holes will be  blocked with  debris  and  will
require cleaning prior to  sealing.  The packers should be placed
below aquifers overlying the mine to prevent entry of  sub-surface
waters, but should be well above  the roof to prevent damage to
the seal from roof collapse.

A borehole may also be sealed  by  filling the hole  with rock until
the mine void directly below the  hole is filled to the roof.
Successive layers  of increasingly smaller stone should be placed
above the rock.  A clay and/or concrete plug is then placed in
the borehole.  The remainder of the borehole may be  filled  with
rock or capped.

Mine Sealing

Several techniques contained in the OSM program prevent  post-
mining formation of acid mine  drainage.  One of these  techniques
is mine sealing.  Mine sealing is defined as the closure of mine
entries, drifts, slopes, shafts,  subsidence holes, fractures, and
other openings in underground  mines with clay,  earth,  rock, tim-
ber, concrete, fly ash, grout,  and other materials.  The purpose
of mine sealing is to control  or  abate  the  discharge of  mine
drainage from active and abandoned mines.

Mine seals have been classified into three  types based on method
of construction and function.   The three seal types  are:

     1.  Dry Seal--The dry seal is constructed  by  placing suit-
able material in mine openings  to prevent the entrance of air and
water into the mine.  This seal can be applied  to  openings  where
there is little or no water flow  from within the mine  and little
danger of a hydrostatic head developing.
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     2.  Air Seal--An air seal prevents the entrance  of  air  into
a mine while allowing the normal mine discharge to  flow  through
the seal.  This seal is constructed with a water  trap similar  to
the traps in sinks and drains.

     3.  Hydraulic Seal—Construction of a hydraulic  seal
involves placing a plug in a mine opening that is discharging
water.  The plug prevents discharge after the mine  is flooded.
Flooding excludes air from the mine and retards the oxidation  of
sulfide minerals.  However, the possibility of the  failure of
mine seals or outcrop barriers increases with time  as the  sealed
mine workings gradually become inundated by groundwater  and  the
hydraulic head increases.  Depending upon the rate  of groundwater
influx and size of the mine area, complete inundation of a sealed
mine may take several decades.  Consequently, the maximum  antici-
pated hydraulic head on the mine seals may not occur  for a long
time.  In addition, seepage through, or failure of, the  coal out-
crop barrier or mine seal could occur at any time.

Surface Area Regrading

Water discharging from underground mines often originates  as sur-
face water from ungraded, unvegetated strip mine  spoils.  This
commonly occurs in the eastern United States where  coal  outcrops
are often mined by contour stripping techniques.  These  strip
mines can intercept underground workings or have  underground mine
entries and auger holes located along the highwall.   When  these
openings occur on the updip side of an underground  mine, large
volumes of surface water may be conveyed to underground  workings.
Surface mines may collect water and allow it to enter a  permeable
Coal seam.  This water can flow along the seam to adjacent
underground mines.

The purpose of regrading is to return the disturbed area back  to
its approximate original contour, with natural drainageways  and
watersheds.

Various methods of surface regrading have been practiced in  the
eastern coal fields.  The selection of a regrading  method  will
depend upon such factors as:  the amount of backfill  material
available, the degree of pollution control desired, future land
use, funds available and topography of the area.  Prior  to
backfilling, impervious materials may be compacted  against the
highwall and coal seam to prevent the flow of water to adjacent
underground mines.  Where contour terrace regrading methods  are
applied, surface runoff is diverted away from the highwall.
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Surface Water Diversion

Surface cracks, subsidence areas, ungraded  surface  mines,  and
shaft, drift and slope openings often are the  source  of  surface
water infiltration into underground mines.  Water diversion
entails the interception and conveyance of  water around  these
underground mine openings.  This procedure  controls water  infil-
tration and decreases the volume of mine water  discharge.

Ditches, trench drains, flumes, pipes, and  dikes are  commonly
used for surface water diversion.  Ditches  are  often  used  to
divert water around surface mines.  Flumes  and  pipes  can be used
to carry water across surface cracks and subsidence areas.  To
ensure effective diversion, the conveyance  system must be  capable
of handling maximum expected flows.  Riprap may be  required to
reduce water velocities in ditch type conveyance systems.

In addition to the above practices required by  OSM, permit
writers may make use of the following water management practices
to assure the control of infiltration into  underground mines:

     1.  Surface or subsurface sealing
     2.  Channel reconstruction
     3.  Aquifer interception
     4.  Subsidence sealing and grading

Surface Sealing

Surface mines that overlie deep mines can collect water  in a pit
and this water could percolate into the underground facility.   To
Control this, the surface permeability should  be reduced which
can be accomplished by placement of impervious  materials,  such  as
concrete, asphalt, rubber, plastic, latex,  or  clay  on the  ground
surface.  Surface permeability may also be  decreased  by  compac-
tion; however, the degree of success will depend upon soil prop-
erties and the compaction equipment utilized.

A seal below the surface would have several advantages over sur-
face seals:  it would be less affected by mechanical  and chemical
actions; land use would not be restricted;  and  the  seal  would
most likely be located in an area of lower  natural  permeability.
The seal would be formed by injecting an impermeable  material
into the substrata.  Asphalt, cement and gel materials have been
used to control water movement below the surface.   The effective-
ness of various latexes, water soluble polymers, and  water solu-
ble inorganics, which hydrate with existing ground  materials to
form cement like substances, has been demonstrated  in laboratory
and field tests.  However, large scale applications of subsurface
sealants to control acid mine drainage have not been  demonstra-
ted.
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Channel Reconstruction

Vertical fracturing and subsidence of strata overlying  under-
ground mines often create openings on the ground  surface.
Streams flowing across these openings may have  a  complete  or par-
tial loss of flow to the underground workings.  During  active
operations, pumping of this infiltrating water  is  required.  In
both active and abandoned underground mines the problem of infil-
trating stream flow can be effectively controlled  by  reconstruct-
ing and/or lining the stream channel.  The reconstructed channel
bottom may be lined with an impervious material to prevent seep-
age or flow to the underground mine.  To ensure complete and
effective diversion, the reconstructed channel  must be  capable  of
handling peak stream flows.

In instances when stream flow cannot be diverted  to a new  chan-
nel, flow into underground mines can be controlled by plugging
the mine openings with clay or other impervious material.

Aquifer Interception

This mine water handling technique utilizes hydrogeologic  fea-
tures of an underground mine in order to help prevent the  inflow
and contamination of groundwater.  Wells are drilled  from  the
land surface through the aquifer to the underground mine.   The
groundwater may then be drained through the mine  zone for  dis-
charge into underlying aquifers, or conveyed from  the mine
through a pipe system.

Subsidence Sealing and Grading

Before or after abandonment of underground mines,  fracturing or
general subsidence of overlying strata can occur.   This fractur-
ing increases the permeability of the strata, and  can result in
the flow of large volumes of water into a mine.   The  volume of
water that is diverted into an underground mine via fracturing  or
subsidence depends upon the structure of the overlying  rock, and
the surface topography and hydrology of the area.

Vertical permeability may be decreased by placing  impermeable
materials around the subsided area.  These materials  may be com-
pacted on the surface and graded, or placed in  a  suitable  sealing
strata below ground level.  Materials which have  been success-
fully utilized for subsidence sealing are rubber,  clay, concrete,
and cement.

Prevention of Acid Formation

Because sufficient water is almost always present  in  deep  mines
to allow acid formation, methods for reducing oxygen  availability
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and contact time are important  in preventing  this  reaction.
Reduction of contact time can be accomplished  during  active  oper-
ations by pumping water  from the mine  and  maintaining the  mine
pool at a sufficiently low level.  Pumping  costs can  be  quite
high, particularly if the water sources  are diffuse;  therefore,
it is also good practice to try and reduce  the amount of water
flowing into the mine.   For inactive or  abandoned  mines, mine
sealing is a viable alternative.  This method  can  eliminate
oxygen from entering an  underground mine.

Surface Mining

Water handling techniques for surface  mines include practices
associated with two categories:  (1) mining technology,  and  (2)
reclamation technology.  Pre-mine planning  to  institute  these
practices is very important, as is borne out by the permit pro-
cedures required by OSM.  The mining and reclamation  techniques
discussed in this subsection represent source  control methods
that can contain or prevent pollution  formation during active
mining.

Mining Methods

Certain mining techniques can help reduce  the  environmental
impacts of coal strip mining.   One such  technique  currently
employed by industry and favored by OSM  is  termed  "Modified  Block
Cut" mining.

This method is basically applicable to moderate slopes (20°  or
less), low highwalls (60 feet average) and  thin seams.  It has
been applied to mines located in the east.  This technique is
expected to be feasible  in even steeper  terrain.

The modified block cut method is a variation of conventional con-
tour strip mining (2).   Material from  the  first cut is often
stored in a valley or head of hollow fill.  This initial cut is
usually three times wider than  each succeeding cut in order  to
accommodate excess spoil as the mining plan progresses.  After
completion of each cut,  a void  is created  near the highwall  to
store pollutant-forming  materials encountered  during  mining.

Overburden from the next cut is backfilled  into the previous cut
simultaneously exposing  coal and .initiating reclamation.  This
method offers several advantages:

     1.  Overburden is handled  only once,

     2.  Most of the spoil is confined to  a mined  area,

     3.  Spoil on the downslope is almost  completely  eliminated
thereby reducing the amount of  disturbed area,
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     4.  Reclamation is concurrent, and

     5.  Grading and revegetation areas are reduced.

Figure X-l illustrates the "Modified Block Cut"  method.

Excess Spoil Disposal

According to OSM regulations, spoil not used  in  returning  the
land to approximate original contour must be  hauled  and  placed  in
a designated disposal area.  The operator must ensure  that leach-
ate and surface runoff from the fill will not harm the surface
waters or groundwater and the fill area must  be  suitable for
reclamation.  The regulations allow three types  of fill  design:
valley, head-of-hollow, and durable rock.

A valley fill can be described as follows:  a structure  located
in a hollow where the fill material has been  hauled  and  compacted
into place with diversion of upstream drainage around  the  fill.
In addition, according to OSM regulations, valley fills  must meet
rules for subdrainage and filter systems.

Head-of-hollow fills are constructed in a manner similar to val-
ley fills.  However, instead of diverting upstream drainage
around the fill, a rock-core chimney, constructed from the toe  to
the head of the fill, passes drainage through a  fill core.  In
addition, head-of-hollow fills must completely fill  the  disposal
site to the approximate elevations of the ridge  line (3).   Figure
X-2 illustrates a head-of-hollow fill.

Durable rock fills represent a third type of  valley  fill but can
be utilized only if the amount of durable rock (i.e.,  rocks which
do not slake in water) is 80 percent of the total fill volume.
Spoil material is dumped over a berm located  at  the  head of the
fill.  The rock material forms a natural blanket drainway across
the bottom of the fill.  A drainage system is required but the
regulations leave design open to the operator (3).

Reclamation

Proper reclamation techniques play a vital role  in overall
environmental quality control for any mining  operation.   Recla-
mation is considered an integral part of the  overall mining plan.
According to SMCRA, as contemporaneously as practicable  with
operations, all disturbed land shall be reclaimed to a condition
equal to or exceeding any previous use which  such lands  were cap-
able of supporting immediately prior to any exploration  or mining
function.  Reclamation techniques center basically on  regrading
and revegetation.
                               378

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          Cut  I
     Highwall-—


       Hill
Diagram   A
Volley
                                            Spoil Bank
                                            Spoil Backfill
                                            Outcrop  Barrier
                         Cut 2-

                          Cut  I
                     Highwall-—
        Hill
             Diagram  8
Valley
                           Valley
                   Hill
             Diagram  D
                                                  Cut
                         Valley
   Hill
Diagram   E
        Cut  5
  Valley
Hill
             Diagram  F
                        Cut 5
Valley
 Source:   (1)
                                Figure X-1

                           MODIFIED  BLOCK CUT
                                    37.9

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             Strip  Mine Bench
       Crowned
       Terraces
                             PLAN
  Crowned
  Terraces.
                                              Original
                                           Ground  Surface
                                              Highwall

                                              Fill

                                     Lateral Drain
                                Rock Filled
                                Natural Drainway
                             Figure X-2

           CROSS SECTION OF  TYPICAL HEAD-OF-HOLLOW  FILL
Source:   (1)
                               380

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Regrading

The purposes of regrading include the  following:

     (a)  Aesthetic improvement of the land  surface

     (b)  Returning the land to usefulness

     (c)  Providing a suitable base  for revegetation

     (d)  Burial of pollution-forming materials

     (e)  Reducing erosion

     (f)  Eliminating landsliding

     (g)  Encouraging natural drainage

     (h)  Eliminating ponding

     (i)  Eliminating hazards, such  as high  cliffs, deep  pits  and
          deep ponds

     (j)  Controlling water pollution.

Regrading, as applied to surface mining, is  currently  defined  as
that of reconstructing the approximate original  contour.

Regrading is often more difficult in older surface mines  where
mining was conducted with less regard to environmental  concern.
For example, spoil was often placed  without  consideration of
future regrading requirements.

Contour strip mines in steep terrain create  special problems
where the spoil was deposited over the outslope.  The  terrain
becomes difficult to cover with topsoil prior to regrading.
Achieving a suitable surface for revegetation on abandoned mines
becomes complicated because spoil segregation was rarely  prac-
ticed.  Topsoil usually was not segregated or stockpiled  and
pollution-producing materials are often well mixed throughout  the
spoil.  This emphasizes the importance of regrading methods such
as soil spreading and burying of pollution-forming materials.
Revegetation techniques such as soil supplementation and  spoil
segregation are also important.  Practices such  as water  diver-
sion and sealing both underground mine openings  and auger holes
in highwalls can eliminate many erosional and/or pollution prob-
lems otherwise encountered during regrading  and  revegetation.

A major characteristic of most open  pit mines or quarries is the
large area required for disposal of  overburden and processing
wastes.  Usually the required disposal acreage exceeds  the actual
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pit area.  Careful management of topsoil and overburden must  be
maintained for later use in land reclamation.  Proper disposal of
wastes avoids leaching of toxic materials  from waste sites.
Revegetation and regrading techniques help avoid water infiltra-
tion and severe erosion losses which could eventually result  in
landslides and severe pollutant loadings in nearby waters.  Each
of these practices is specified under OSM  regulations.

Revegetation

Proper revegetation is one of the most effective pollution  and
erosional control methods for surface,mined lands.  Revegetation
results in aesthetic improvement, and returns land to agricul-
tural, recreational, or silvicultural usefulness.

A dense ground cover stabilizes the surface with its root system,
reduces velocity of surface runoff, and  functions as a filter to
remove sediment from water flowing over  and through it.  This
vegetative cover will annually contribute  organic matter to the
surface and can greatly reduce erosion.  Eventually the soil  pro-
file develops into a complete soil ecosystem.  The soil bacteria
act as an oxygen barrier by consuming oxygen as it enters the
soil from the atmosphere.  The amount of pollution formed due to
oxidation of materials lying below the soil horizon is thus
greatly reduced.

A soil profile also tends to act as a sponge by retaining water
near the surface.  The retained water acts as a surface coolant
as it evaporates from the surface.  The  resulting decrease  in
surface temperature enhances vegetative  growth.  Additionally,
water retained at the surface or evaporated from the surface  does
not pass through underlying spoil material, thereby averting
potential pollution problems.

Loss of the topsoil is a major hindrance to revegetation and,
therefore, topsoil stockpiling is required by OSM.  To protect
the stockpile from erosion, OSM regulations require that quick-
growing annual and perennial plants be seeded on the pile.

Revegetation can be an entire pollution  control plan in some
instances, but generally it must be an integral part of more  com-
prehensive plans that incorporate water  diversion, overburden
segregation, and regrading.

Past revegetation efforts were primarily concerned with planting
trees.  However, to establish vegetative cover adequately,  tree
planting must be accompanied by establishment of dense ground
covers of grasses and legumes that are compatible with the  local
plants and local environment.  Again, OSM  regulations  specify
many facets of revegetation and reclamation.
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Erosion and Sediment Control

The most widely practiced method of erosion control  is  diversion
of water.  Diverting streams and surface runoff  to avoid  con-
tamination from mined or disturbed areas is required by OSM.
Diversion involves collection of water before  it enters a mine
area and conveyance of that water around or through  the mine  site
to a suitable disposal area.  Structures used  for these purposes
include diversion dikes, diversion ditches or  swales, diversion
pipes, and flumes (4, 5).  Flumes and pipes are  used mainly in
areas of steep terrain or to carry water across  regraded  areas.
A dike, a ridge of compacted soil, is used to  simply divert the
flow of water, whereas a ditch or diversion system collects the
water and transfers it to a suitable disposal  area.   Erosion  can
also be controlled by reducing the velocity of the water.  This
can be done by spreading rip rap over the area,  by using  check
dams, or by using sandbag or straw bale barriers  (see Figure
X-3). The establishment of vegetation will also  decrease  erosion
Diversion techniques are directed toward  preventing  water  from
entering a mined area.  Runoff control employs various  methods to
handle water after it has reached the mine  site.   Erosional  dam-
age due to runoff can be effectively and  inexpensively  controlled
by the establishment of vegetation.  In areas where  vegetation
cannot be established, rip rap can be used  to reduce erosion.
Slope reduction and terracing of embankments are  also effective
in achieving runoff control.

In general, diversion and runoff control  methods  alone  are insuf-
ficient to prevent erosion and therefore  sedimentation.  Methods
of sediment control during active mining  are needed  to  remove
sediments from the runoff before it is discharged.

The most common method of sediment control  is the use of sedimen-
tation ponds as required by OSM.  In some cases,  certain tech-
niques may be employed to enhance sedimentation pond performance.
One such method is the use of straw bale  dikes  (see  Figure X-3).
This is a replaceable barrier constructed out of  straw  bales.
The dike intercepts the runoff, reduces the water's  velocity,  and
detains small amounts of sediment (4).  Another technique  is the
use of in-pond baffles to reduce short circuiting and thereby
increase retention time.

Water Infiltration Control

Control of surface infiltration involves  either isolating waste
material from the water supply or decreasing the  surface perme-
ability.  Generally, it is not feasible to  isolate the  large
amounts of waste material generated by mining operations.  Also,
the waste material may be needed as backfill during  regrading
                               383

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                A.   SANDBAG BARRIERS
                B.  LOG CHECK DAM


Source:  USEPA, Erosion and Sediment Control-Surface Mining
         in the Eastern U.S., 1976.
                           Figure X-3

                         SEDIMENT TRAPS
                              38^-

-------
  FLOW
                                               10.2 cm
                                           (4") VERTICAL FACE
                    EMBEDDING DETAIL
ANGLE FIRST STAKE
TOWARD PREVIOUSLY
  LAID BAIL
FLOW
                                            WIRE OR NYLON BOUND
                                            BALES PLACE ON THE
                                                 CONTOUR
                               2 RE-BARS, STEEL PICKETS, OR
                               5.1 cm x 5.1 cm (2" x 2") STAKES
                               0.46 m to 0.61 m (!%' to 2') IN GROUND
                        ANCHORING DETAIL

                       C. STRAW BALE BARRIER

                    Figure X-3  (Continued)

                        SEDIMENT  TRAPS
                             385

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operations.  Under these conditions, if infiltrating water  is
causing formation of pollutants, abatement will require on-site
control of infiltration such as contained disposal of  toxic
wastes or decreasing the surface permeability.

Controlling water infiltration from rainfall and subsurface
sources can be accomplished by placing impervous barriers on or
around the waste material, establishing a vegetative cover, or
constructing underdrains.  Impervious barriers, constructed of
clay, concrete, asphalt, latex, plastic, or formed by  special
processes such as carbonate bonding, can prevent water from
reaching the waste material.

A dense vegetative cover has varying effects on infiltration.
For instance, vegetation tends to reduce the velocity  of water,
thereby inducing infiltration.  Conversely, a vegetative cover
will build up a soil profile, which tends to increase  the surface
retention of water.  This water is available for evaporation and
can result in a net decrease in the amount of water entering
underlying materials.  Vegetation also utilizes large  quantities
of water in its life processes (again decreasing the amount of
water that will reach the underlying material).  When  infiltra-
tion is caused by interception of surface flow, it is  usually
beneficial to divert the flow.  One or more of the techniques
illustrated in the erosion and sediment control subsection  may be
employed for this purpose.

Underdrains are often used to control water infiltration after it
has entered the waste material.  By offering a quick escape
route, contact time between water and any pollutant-forming
material contained in the waste is reduced.  Also, water flow
paths through pollution-forming materials are shortened.  The
possibility of a fluctuating water table is eliminated.  Under-
drain discharges should be monitored to determine the  nature of
pollutants contained therein.  Underdrains also serve  as collec-
tion points to concentrate diffuse groundwater drainage making
any required treatment of this wastewater more manageable.

Infiltration can also occur via exploration drillholes or via
other holes drilled during mining operations although  as previ-
ously mentioned, OSM regulations require that these drillholes be
cased, sealed or otherwise managed in a manner that avoids
drainage into groundwater.
                                386

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                            SECTION XI

          BEST CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

The 1977 amendments added Section 301(b)(4)(E) to  the Act,  estab-
lishing "best conventional pollutant control technology"  (BCT)
for discharges of conventional pollutants  from existing indus-
trial point sources.  Conventional pollutants are  those defined
in Section 304(b)(4)—BOD, TSS, fecal coliform, and  pH--and any
additional pollutants defined by the Administrator as "conven-
tional."  On 30 July 1978, EPA designated  oil and  grease  as a
conventional pollutant (44 FR 44501).

BCT is not an additional limitation; rather it replaces BAT for
the control of conventional pollutants.  BCT requires that  limi-
tations for conventional pollutants be assessed in light  of a
"cost-reasonableness" test which involves  a comparison of the
cost and level of reduction of conventional pollutants from the
discharge of publicly owned treatment works (POTWs)  to the  cost
and level of reduction of such pollutants  from a class or cate-
gory of industrial  sources.  As a part of  its review of BAT for
certain "secondary" industries, the Agency has promulgated  a
methodology for this cost test (44 FR 50732, 29 August 1979).
The Agency compares costs with that of an  "average  POTW  with a
flow of 2 mgd and costs (1979 dollars) of  $1.51 per  pound of
pollutant removal (TSS).

The BCT test is of  questionable utility  for this industry.   Flow
volumes at coal mines are extremely variable, with 90 percent of
the mines falling within a range of 0.006  mgd to 5 mgd.   The
median flow is 0.25 mgd, while the mean  flow is 1  mgd.  The mean
flow falls at the 75th percentile, indicating a very unequal
distribution.  This variability makes it difficult to compare the
level and thus the  cost of reduction of  pollutants in coal  mining
wastewaters with the cost and level of reducing the  same
pollutants in POTWs.

In compliance with  statutory factors, the  Agency completed  the
BCT cost test for Level Two (flocculant  addition)  and Level 4
(granular media filtration) as a function  of mine  drainage  flow
rate.  The results  are presented in Figure XI-1 and  Table XI-1.
Higher flow rates significantly reduce the cost per  pound of
treatment.

As explained in Section X, the Agency has  not selected either
Level 2 or Level 4  as BAT technology, but  will retain BPT as the
best available technology.  Also, the technologies considered for
conventional pollutant removal are identical to those considered
for toxic pollutant removal.  These two  factors establish,  by
definition, that the best conventional pollutant control
technology for this industry meets the BCT cost test.
                               387

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o
LJLJ

O
IS
LJ
IT

CO
co
CO
O
o
                       DESIGN  FLOW IN M.G.D.



       Level 2 - Flocculant Addition

       Level 4 - Granular Media Filtration


                              Figure XI-1


                            BCT COST CURVES
                                   388

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                            Table XI-1
                COAL MINING, POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
                  COST PER POUND OF TSS  REMOVED
                             BCT TEST
Flow

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                           SECTION XII

             NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS  (NSPS)

The basis for new source performance standards  (NSPS) under
Section 306 of the Act is through application of the best  avail-
able demonstrated technology.  New mining  facilities have  the
opportunity to implement the best and most efficient coal  mining
processes and wastewater technologies.  Congress,  therefore,
directed EPA to consider the best demonstrated  process changes
and end-of-pipe treatment technologies capable  of  reducing
pollution to the maximum extent feasible.

New source performance standards were proposed  on  13 May 1976  (41
FR 19841) and 19 September 1977 (42 FR 46932) and  promulgated  on
12 January 1979 (44 FR 2586).  The Agency has reviewed these
standards and established a number of options.

NSPS OPTIONS CONSIDERED

The Agency considered the following four NSPS options:

Option One.  Require achievement of performance standards  in each
subcategory based on the same technology proposed  for BAT,
including neutralization and settling for acidic wastewaters.
This option is predicated on application of the same technology
proposed for BPT for the acid drainage and preparation plant and
associated areas subcategories.  The alkaline drainage and areas
under reclamation subcategories would be required  to meet  perfor-
mance standards based on settling technology.   No  additional
expenditures would be required from selection of this option.

Option Two.  Require achievement of performance standards  based
on flocculant addition.  As discussed in Section X, this tech-
nology would provide some additional reduction  of  solids,  but
would not provide a cost-effective decrease in  toxic pollutant
levels, which were found to be extremely low.

Option Three.  Require achievement of performance  standards based
on granular media filtration.  As in the case of Option Two,
granular media filtration would provide some additional reduction
of solids, but would not provide a cost-effective  decrease in
toxic pollutant levels.

Option Four.  Require achievement of no discharge  of process
wastewater pollutants in the coal preparation plant subcategory
with one of the other options selected for the  mine drainage
subcategories.  Economic and environmental considerations  have
already provided the incentive to design processes in existing
preparation plants which partially or completely reuse process
water.  The zero discharge requirement would prohibit the


                               391

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discharge of any pollution-bearing streams from the preparation
plant water circuit, including the treatment system.  No  storm
exemption would be available.

NSPS SELECTION AND DECISION CRITERIA

EPA has selected Options One and Four as the basis for  proposed
new source performance standards.  The rationale for  selecting
Option One was discussed in Section X.  In Option Four, the
preparation plant subcategory is separated from the associated
areas subcategory for new sources.  Many existing facilities  are
practicing total recycle of preparation plant wastewaters, thus
zero discharge is a demonstrated technology for these facilities.
Further, this option becomes feasible for new sources because
treatment system and water management planning can be implemented
from the design phase, eliminating the economic and technical
inefficiency associated with retrofitting.

The new source performance standards corresponding to Options One
and Four may be found in Section X.
                               392

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                           SECTION XIII

                      PRETREATMENT STANDARDS

Section 307(b) of the Act requires EPA to promulgate  pretreatment
standards for both existing sources  (PSES) and new  sources  (PSNS)
of pollution which discharge their wastes into publicly owned
treatment works (POTWs).  These pretreatment  standards  are
designed to prevent the discharge of pollutants which pass
through, interfere with, or are otherwise incompatible  with the
operation of POTWs.  In addition, the Clean Water Act of 1977
adds a new dimension to these standards by requiring  pretreatment
of pollutants, such as heavy metals, that limit POTW  sludge man-
agement alternatives.  The legislative history of the Act indi-
cates that pretreatment standards are to be technology  based and,
with respect to toxic pollutants, analogous to BAT.   The Agency
has promulgated general pretreatment regulations which  establish
a framework for the implementation of these statutory require-
ments (see 43 FR 27736, 16 June 1978).

EPA is not proposing pretreatment standards for existing sources
(PSES) in the coal mining point source category at  this time nor
does it intend to promulgate such standards in the  future (PSNS)
since there are no known or anticipated dischargers to  publicly
owned treatment works (POTWs).  Coal mines are located  in rural
areas, often far from population centers and  publicly owned
treatment plants.  No rational mine  operator  would  choose to
route the high volume mine discharge to a POTW for  treatment.
This is true for existing sources and will continue to  be true
for new sources, and thus pretreatment standards would  be
irrelevant and unnecessary.
                               393

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                           SECTION XIV

                         ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


This document was prepared by Radian Corporation, McLean,
Virginia with direction from Mr. Dennis Ruddy of the Energy and
Mining Branch of the Effluent Guidelines Division of EPA.
Direction and assistance were also provided by Mr. William A.
Telliard, Chief of the Energy and Mining Branch and Technical
Project Officer for this study, and Mr. Matthew Jarrett and Mr.
Ron Kirby, Effluent Guidelines Technical Project Monitors.

Much of the input for this document was provided by Radian's sub-
contractors Frontier Technical Associates, Buffalo, New York and
Hydrotechnic Corporation, New York, New York.  An earlier version
of this document was developed and written by Versar
Incorporated, Springfield, Virginia.  Much of the information
developed by Versar was incorporated in this draft.

The following agencies and divisions of agencies contributed to
the development of this document:

Environmental Protection Agency

     1.  All regional offices

     2.  Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
         Cincinnati, Ohio

     3.  Office of Research and Development

     4.  Office of General Counsel

     5.  Office of Analysis and Evaluation

     6.  Monitoring and Data Support

     7.  Criteria and Standards Division

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources

Bituminous Coal Research

National Coal Association

Many coal companies were very cooperative in providing access to
coal mines and coal preparation plants for various sampling and
engineering studies.  Of particular assistance were:
                                395

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AMAX Coal Company
Beltrami Enterprises, Incorporated
Beth-Elkhorn Corporation
Bethlehem Mines Corporation
Bill's Coal Company
Buffalo Mining Company
Central Ohio Coal Company
Clemens Coal Company
Consolidation Coal Company
Drummond Coal Company
Duquesne Light Company
Eastern Associates Coal Company
Falcon Coal Company
Harmar Coal Company
Industrial Generating Company
Inland Steel Coal Company
Island Creek Coal Company
Jewell Ridge Coal Company
Jones Se Laughlin Steel Corporation
Kaiser Steel
Kentland Coal Corporation
King Knob Coal Company
Knife River Coal Company
Monterey Coal Company
National Mines Corporation
North American Coal Company
Old Ben Coal Company
Peabody Coal Company
Peter Kiewit & Sons, Incorporated
Pittston Coal Company
Southwestern Illinois Coal Company
U.S. Steel
V. St J. Carlson
Washington Irrigation & Development Company
Western Energy Company
                          396

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                            SECTION XV

                            REFERENCES
Section III

1.   Nielsen, George F., ed., 1979 Keystone Coal Industry Manual,
     McGraw Hill, New York, New York, 1979.

2.   Nielsen, George F., ed., 1980 Keystone Coal Industry Manual,
     McGraw Hill, New York, New York, 1980.

3.   The President's Commission on Coal, Coal Data Book, U.S.
     Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., February 1980.

4.   "U.S. Coal Unlikely to Meet Carter's Production Goal," Oil
     and Gas Journal, Volume 77, No. 46, pages 205-210,
     November 12, 1979.

5.   U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, "Coal -
     Bituminous and Lignite in 1975," Washington, D.C., 1976.

6.   Wilmoth, R. C., et al., "Removal of Trace Elements from Acid
     Mine Drainage," EPA-Industrial Environmental Research
     Laboratory and Hydroscience, Inc., for U.S. EPA, Contract
     No. 68-03-2568, EPA 600/7-79-101, April 1979.
                               397

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Section IV

 1.  Cassidy,  Samuel M.,  ed.,  Elements  of  Practical  Coal Mining,
     American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
     Engineers,  Inc., New York,  New  York,  1973.

 2.  Berkowitz,  N.,  An Introduction  to  Coal Technology, Academic
     Press,  New York, 1979.

 3.  Wachter,  R. A.  and T. R.  Blackwood, "Source Assessment:
     Water Pollutants from Coal  Storage Areas," IERL, EPA,
     Cincinnati, May 1978.

 4.  Jackson,  Dan,  "Western  Coal is  the Big Challenge to
     Reclamation Experts  Today," Coal Age, Volume 82, No.  7,
     pages 90-108,  July 1977.

 5.  "Technical Assistance in  the Implementation of  the BAT
     Review of the Coal Mining Industry Point  Source Category,"
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, prepared  by Versar,
     Inc., Contract  Nos.  68-01-3273, 4762, 5149, and 68-02-2618,
     Draft,  July 1979.

 6.  Leonard,  J. W.  and D. P.  Mitchell, editors, Coal
     Preparation, Seeley W.  Mudd Series, The American Institute
     of Mining,  Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., New
     York, 1968.

 7.  Argonne National Laboratory,  "Environmental Control
     Implications of Generating  Electric Power from  Coal,"
     Technology Status Report, Appendix A, Part 1, "Preparation
     and Cleaning Assessment Study," Argonne,  Illinois, 1977.

 8.  Energy Information Administration:  Annual Report to
     Congress, Vols. II & III, 1977.

 9.  U.S. Department of the  Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals
     Yearbook.  Volume I: Metals, Minerals and Fuels, 1976
     edition,  Washington, D.C.

10.  Pennsylvania Department of  Environmental  Resources, "Annual
     Report on Mining, Oil and Gas,  and Land Reclamation and
     Conservation Activities," Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1977 and
     1978 Reports.

11.  Terlecky, P. Michael, and David M. Harty, "Inventory  of
     Anthracite Coal Mining  Operations, Wastewater Treatment  and
     Discharge Practices," by  Frontier  Technical Associates,
     Inc., for U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No.
     68-01-5163, October 1979.
                                398

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12.  Jackson, Dan, "Outlook Shines for Coal Slurry Lines," Coal
     Age, Volume 83,  No. 6, pages 88-93, June 1978.

13.  Nielsen, George F., ed., 1979 Keystone Coal Industry Manual,
     McGraw Hill, New York, New York, 1979.

14.  "U.S. Coal Unlikely to Meet Carter's Production Goal," Oil
     and Gas Journal, Volume 77, No. 46, pages 205-210, November
     12, 1979.

15.  Bureau of Mines:  Minerals Yearbooks, 1968-1976.
     Congressional Research Service:National Energy
     Transportation,  Volume Ill-Issues and Problems7 March 1978.

16.  Buckley, B., et al.,  "Effects of a Flexible Definition of
     New Source Performance Standards for Utility Boilers Firing
     Anthracite Coal," by Environmental Research and Technology,
     Inc., for U.S. Department of Energy, September 1978.

17.  Averitt, P., "Coal Resources of the United States - January
     1, 1974," Geological Survey Bulletin 1412, U.S. GPO,
     Washington, D.C., 1975.

18.  Department of the Interior:  Energy Perspectives 2, June
     1976.

19.  U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, "Coal -
     Bituminous and Lignite in 1975," Washington, D.C., 1976.

2.0.  Nielson, George F., ed., 1976 Keystone Coal Industry Manual,
     McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1976.

21.  "Water Pollution Impact of Controlling Sulfur Dioxide
     Emissions from Coal-Fired Steam Electric Generators," Radian
     Corporation, EPA Contract No. 68-02-2608, U.S. EPA-IERL,
     Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
                               399

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Section V

 1.  Wilmoth, R. C.,  "Limestone and Lime Neutralization of Acid
     Mine Drainage,"  U.S.  EPA,  IERL, Cincinnati,  Ohio,
     EPA-600/2-77-101, May 1977.

 2.  Wilmoth, R. C.,  "Limestone and Limestone-Lime Neutralization
     of Acid Mine Drainage," U.S.  EPA,  Office of Research and
     Development, Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA-670/2-74-051, June 1974.

 3.  Wilmoth, R. C.,  "Application  of Reverse Osmosis to Acid Mine
     Drainage Treatment,"  U.S.  EPA, Office of Research and
     Development Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA-670/2-73-100, December
     1973.

 4.  "Testing of Neutralization and Precipitation of Coal Mine
     Acid Mine Drainage,"  Hydrotechnic  Corporation, EPA Contract
     No. 68-01-5163,  U.S.  EPA,  Washington, D.C.,  September 1979,
     draft report.

 5.  "Testing of Dual Granular Media Filtration of Treated Acid
     Mine Drainage,"  Hydrotechnic  Corporation, EPA Contract No.
     68-01-5163, U.S. EPA, Washington,  D.C., March 1980,
     preliminary draft.

 6.  "Treatability of Coal Mine Drainage for Removal of Priority
     Pollutants," Radian Corporation, McLean, Virginia, EPA
     Contract No. 68-01-5163, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., January
     1980, preliminary draft.

 7.  Wilmoth, R. C.,  "Removal of Trace  Elements from Acid Mine
     Drainage," U.S.  EPA,  lERL-Cincinnati and Hydroscience, Inc.,
     EPA Contract No. 68-03-2568,  EPA 600/7-79-101, April 1979.

 8.  U.S. EPA, "Sampling and Analysis Procedures for Screening of
     Industrial Effluents  for Priority  Pollutants," Environmental
     Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, March
     1977, revised April 1977.

 9.  "Inductively-Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometric
     Method for Trace Element Analysis  of Water and Wastes," U.S.
     EPA-EMSL, Cincinnati, Ohio,  June 1979.

10.  "Mine Drainage Treatment and  Costing Study:   Coal Mining
     Industry," U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency, prepared by
     Hydrotechnic Corporation,  Contract Nos. 68-02-2608 and
     68-01-5163, December 1979.
                               400

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11.  Martin, J. F., "Quality of Effluent from Coal Refuse
     Piles," U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1974.

12.  Yancey, H. F., M. R. Greer, et al., "Properties of Coal and
     Impurities in Relation to Preparation," pages 1.3 to 1.53 in
     Leonard and Mitchell, eds., Coal Preparation, American
     Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers,
     Inc., New York, 1968.

13.  "Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines
     and New Source Performance Standards for the Steam Electric
     Power Generating Point Source Category," U.S. EPA
     4401/1-74-029-a, October 1974.

14.  U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Northwest Colorado Coal,
     final environmental statement, 4 Volumes, undated.

15.  U.S. Geological Survey, Development of Coal Resources in
     Central Utah, draft environmental statement, Part 1-Regional
     analysis; Part 2-Site specific analysis, 1978.

16.  U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining
     Reclamation and Enforcement, Permanent Regulatory Program
     Implementing Section 501(b) of the Surface Mining Control
     and Reclamation Act of 1977, draft environmental statement,
     September 1978.

17.  U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Northwest Colorado Coal
     Regional Environmental Statement"] supplemental report,
     undated.

18.  Wachter, R. A. and T. R. Blackwood, "Source Assessment:
     Water Pollutants from Coal Storage Areas," IERL, EPA,
     Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1978.

19.  Anderson, W. C. and M. C. Youngstrom, "Coal Pile Leachate-
     Quality and Quality Characteristics," ASCE, Journal of the
     Environmental Engineering Division, Volume 102, No. EE6,
     pages 1239 to 1253, 1976.

20.  Terlecky, P. Michael and D. M. Harty, "Inventory of
     Anthracite Coal Mining Operations, Wastewater Treatment
     and Discharge Practices,", by Frontier Technical Associates,
     Inc. for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No.
     68-01-5163, Final Report, June 10, 1980.
                              401

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Section VI

1.   "Sampling and Analysis Procedures  for Screening of  Industrial
    Effluents for Priority Pollutants,."  U.S.  Environmental
    Protection Agency,  Environmental Monitoring  and Support
    Laboratory, Cincinnati,  Ohio, March  1977,  Revised April  1977.

2.   "Condensed Chemical Dictionary," P.  Hawley,  Van Norstrand,
    Reinhold, New York, New York,  1971.

3.   "Development Document for BAT  Effluent Limitations  Guidelines
    and New Source Performance Standards for  the Ore Mining  and
    Dressing Industry," Calspan Report No. 6332-M-1, September 5,
    1979.

4.   Rawlings, G. D.,  and M.  Samfield,  Environmental Science  and
    Technology, Vol.  13, No. 2,  February 1974.

5.   "Seminar for Analytical Methods  for  Priority Pollutants,"
    U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency,  Office of Water
    Programs, Savannah, Georgia, May 23-24,  1978.
                                402

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Section VII

 1.  Lovell, Harold L.,  "An Appraisal of Neutralization Processes
     to Treat Coal Mine Drainage," Pennsylvania  State University,
     University Park,  Pennsylvania,  November 1973.

 2.  Wilmoth, Roger C.,  et al.,  "Removal of Trace Elements  from
     Acid Mine Drainage," EPA Industrial Environmental  Research
     Laboratory and Hydroscience,  Inc.,  for U.S.  Environmental
     Protection Agency Contract  No.  68-03-2568,  EPA 660/7-79-101,
     April 1979.

 3.  "Environmental Control Selection Methodology for a Coal
     Conversion Demonstration Facility," U.S.  Department of
     Energy, prepared  by Radian  Corporation,  Contract No.
     EX-760-C-01-2314,  October 1978.

 4.  "Treatability of  Coal Mine  Drainage for Removal of Priority
     Pollutants:  Effluent Limitations Guidelines for the Coal
     Mining Point Source Category,"  U.S. Environmental  Protection
     Agency, prepared  by Versar,  Inc., Contract  No.  68-01-4762,
     Draft, September  1979.

 5.  "Process Design Manual for  Suspended Solids  Removal,"  U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency Technology  Transfer, EPA
     625/1-75-0039, January 1975.

 6.  "Erosion and Sediment Control:   Surface Mining in  the
     Eastern U.S.," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA
     625/3-76-006, October 1976.

 7.  Ettinger, Charles E. and J.  E.  Lichty,  Evaluation  of
     Performance Capability of Surface Mine Sediment Basins,
     Harrisburg,Pennsylvania,Skelly and Loy, August 1979.

 8.  Environmental Protection Agency, Resource Extraction &
     Handling Division,  Sedimentation Ponds -  A  Critical Review,
     report, Cincinnati, Ohio,undated.

 9.  Hill, Ronald D.,  Water Pollution from Coal Mines,  EPA,
     August 1973.

10.  Hill, Ronald D.,  "Sediment  Control  and Surface Mining,"
     Presented at the  Polish-U.S.  Symposium Environmental
     Protection in Openpit Coal  Mining,  Denver,  Colorado, May
     1975.
                               403

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11.  Grim,  Elmore G.  and Ronald  D.  Hill,  Environmental Protection
     in Surface Mining of Coal,  final  report,  Cincinnati, Ohio,
     U.S.  EPA,  National Environmental  Research Center, Office of
     Research and Development, October 1974.

12.  Kathuria,  D. Vir,  M.  A.  Nawrocki  and B. C. Becker,
     Effectiveness of Surface Mine  Sedimentation  Ponds,  Columbia,
     Maryland,  Hittman Associates,Inc.,  August 1976.

13.  Environmental Protection Agency,  Development Document  for
     Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New  Source
     Performance Standards for the  Coal Mining Point Source
     Category,  Washington, D.C., May  1976.

14.  Lanouette, Kenneth H., "Heavy  Metals Removal," Chemical
     Engineering, Vol. 84, No. 22,  pp. 73-80,  October 1977.

15.  "Mine Drainage Treatment and Costing Study:   Coal Mining
     Industry," U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency, prepared by
     Hydrotechnic Corporation, Contract Nos. 68-02-2608  and
     68-01-5163, November 1979.

16.  "Development Document for BAT  Effluent Limitations
     Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Ore
     Mining and Dressing Industry," U.S.  Environmental Protection
     Agency, prepared by Calspan Corporation,  Contract No.
     68-01-4845, Draft, September 1979.

17.  "Processes, Procedures,  and Methods  to Control Pollution
     from Mining Activities," U.S.  Environmental  Protection
     Agency, prepared by Skelly  and Loy and Penn  Environmental
     Consultants, Inc., Contract No.  68-01-1830,  EPA
     430/9-73-011, October 1973.

18.  "Technical Assistance in the Implementation  of the  BAT
     Review of the Coal Mining Industry Point  Source Category,"
     U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency, prepared by Versar,
     Inc.,  Contract Nos. 68-01-3273,  4762, 5149,  68-02-2618,
     Draft, July 1979.

19.  Wilmoth, Roger C., Applications  of Reverse Osmosis  to  Acid
     Mine Drainage Treatment, 2  copies, EPA, Crown Mine  Drainage
     Control Field Site, December 1973.

20.  "Handbook of Chemistry and  Physics," 50th edition,  Weast, R.
     C., editor, Chemical Rubber Company, Cleveland, Ohio,  p.
     B252.

21.  "Handbook of Analytical Chemistry,"  Meites,  L., editor,
     McGraw-Hill, New York, pp.  1-15  to 1-19,  1963.
                               404

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22.  "Ionic Equilibrium as Applied to Qualitative Analyses,"
     Hogness and Johnson, Holt Rinehart & Winston Company, New
     York, pp. 360-362, 1954.

23.  "Testing of the Neutralization and Precipitation of Coal
     Mine Acid Mine Drainage," U.S. Environmental Protection
     Agency, prepared by Hydrotechnic Corporation, Contract No.
     68-01-5163, final report, November 1979.

24.  "Testing of Dual Granular Media Filtration of Treated Acid
     Coal Mine Drainage," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     prepared by Hydrotechnic Corporation, Contract No.
     68-01-5163, final report, August 1980.

25.  "Testing of Dual Granular Media Filtration of Treated Acid
     Coal Mine Drainage at a Second Site," U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency, prepared by Hydrotechnic Corporation,
     Contract No. 68-01-5163, final report, December 1980.

26.  Janiak, Henryk, "Purification of Waters Discharged from
     Polish Lignite Mines," Central Research and Design Institute
     for Open-pit Mining, Wroclaw, Poland, for U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency, EPA 600/7-79-099, April 1979.

27.  Mann, Charles E., "Optimizing Sediment Control Systems," in
     Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Symposium;  Coal
     Conference Sc Expo V, October 23-25, Louisville, Kentucky,
     McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1979.

28.  Huck, P. M., K.. L. Murphy, C. Reed, (McMaster Univ.
     Hamilton, Ontario, Canada) and B. P. LeClair, (Environmental
     Protection Service, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) "Optimization
     of Polymer Flocculation of Heavy Metal Hydroxides," Journal
     WPCF, pp. 2411-2418, December 1977.

29.  Reese, R. D. and R. E. Neff, (American Cyanimid Company)
     "Flocculation-Filtration Studies on Acid Coal Mine
     Drainage," BCR-MD70-86, June 15-19, 1970.

30.  Brodeur, T. and D. A. Bauer, "Picking the Best Coagulant for
     the Job," Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, p.
     52-57, 1974":
                               405

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Section VIII

1.  "Mine Drainage Treatment and Costing Study:   Coal Mining
    Industry," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, prepared  by
    Hydrotechnic Corporation,  Contract Nos.  68-02-2608  and
    68-01-5613, December 1979.

2.  "Coal Mine Industry Mine Drainage Treatment  and  Costing
    Study:  Backup Data," U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,
    prepared by Hydrotechnic Corporation, March  20,  1980.

3.  Ruddy, Dennis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
    communication to Leo Ehrenreich and Harold Kohlmann, outline
    of preparation plant scenarios,  March 18, 1980.

4.  Curtis, Robert, "Mine Drainage Treatment Costing File:  A  Set
    of Notes and Phone Call Memos on the Cost of Treating Mine
    Drainage," Radian Corporation,  McLean, Virginia, January
    1980.

5.  Randolph, K. B., Versar, Inc.,  memorandum to Dennis. Ruddy,
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  regarding  cost
    multipliers for coal mining regions of  the United States,
    January 25, 1979.

6.  "Environmental Control Selection Methodology for a  Coal
    Conversion Demonstration Facility," U.S. Department of
    Energy, prepared by Radian Corporation,  October  1978.

7.  Gumerman, R. C., et al., "Estimating Water Treatment Costs:
    Volume 2.  Cost Curves Applicable to 1  to 200 MGD Treatment
    Plants," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, prepared by
    Culp/Wesner/Culp Consulting Engineers, Contract  No.
    68-03-2516, EPA-600/2-79-162b,  August 1979.
                                406

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Section X

1.   "Processes, Procedures, and Methods to Control Pollution
     from Mining Activities," U.S. Environmental Protection
     Agency, prepared by Skelly and Loy and Penn Environmental
     Consultants, Inc., Contract No. 68-01-1830, EPA
     430/9-73-011, October 1973.

2.   Grim, Elmore C. and R. D. Hill, Environmental Protection in
     the Surface Mining of Coal, Final Report, Cincinnati, Ohio;
     USEPA, National Environmental Research Center, Office of
     Research and Development, October 1974.

3.   Joyce, Christopher R., Final Federal Surface Mining
     Regulations, Washington, D.C., McGraw-Hill, 1980.

4.   "Erosion and Sediment Control:  Surface Mining in the
     Eastern U.S.," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA
     625/3-76-006, October 1976.

5.   "Technical Assistance in the Implementation of the BAT
     Review of the Coal Mining Industry Point Source Category,"
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, prepared by Versar,
     Inc., Contract Nos. 68-01-3273, 4762, 5149, 68-02-2618,
     Draft, July 1979.
                              407

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                           SECTION XVI


                             GLOSSARY


absorption:  The process by which a liquid is drawn into and
     tends to fill permeable pores in a porous solid body; also
     the increase in weight of a porous solid body resulting from
     the penetration of liquid into its permeable pores.

acid:  A substance which dissolves in water with the formation of
     hydronium ion.  A substance containing hydrogen which may be
     displaced by metals to form salts.

acid mine drainage (AMD):   Synonomous with "ferruginous mine
     drainage."  That drainage which before any treatment has a
     pH of less than 6.0 or a total iron concentration of more
     than 10.0 mg/1.

acidity:  The quantitative capacity of aqueous solutions to react
     with hydroxyl ions (OH").  The condition of a water
     solution having a pH of less than 7.

acre-foot:  A term used in measuring the volume of water that is
     equal to the quantity of water required to cover 1 acre 1
     foot deep, or 43,560 ft3.

Act:  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended (33
     U.S.C. 1251, 1311 and 1314(b) and (c), P.L. 92-500).  Also
     called the Clean Water Act and amendments through 1977.

activated carbon:  Carbon which is treated by high-temperature
     heating with steam or carbon dioxide producing an internal
     porous particle structure.  Activated carbon is often used
     to adsorb organic pollutants and/or remove metal ions.

active mining area:  An area where work or other activity
     relating to the extraction, removal or recovery of any coal
     is being conducted.  This includes areas where secondary
     recovery of coal is being conducted, but specifically does
     not include for surface mines any area of land on or in
     which grading to return the land to the desired contour has
     been completed and reclamation work has begun.

Administrator:  Administrator of the U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency, whose duties are to administer the Act;

adsorption:  The adhesion of an extremely thin layer of molecules
     (of gas, liquid) to the surfaces of solids (granular
     activated carbons for instance) or liquids with which they
     are in contact.


                               409

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alkaline mine drainage:   That mine drainage which before any
     treatment has a pH of more than 6.0 and a total iron
     concentration of less than 10.0 mg/1.

advanced waste treatment:  Any treatment method or process
     employed following biological treatment (1) to increase the
     removal of pollution load, (2) to remove substances which
     may be deleterious to receiving waters or the environment,
     (3) to produce a high-quality effluent suitable for reuse in
     any specific manner or for discharge under critical
     conditions.  The term tertiary treatment is commonly used to
     denote advanced waste treatment methods.

aerated pond:  A natural or artificial wastewater treatment pond
     in which mechanical.or diffused air aeration is used to
     supplement the oxygen supply.

aeration:  The bringing about of intimate contact between air and
     liquid by one of the following methods:  spraying the liquid
     in the air, bubbling air through the liquid (diffused
     aeration), agitation of the liquid to promote surface
     absorption of air (mechanical aeration).

agglomeration:  The coalesence of dispersed suspended matter into
     larger floes or particles which settle more rapidly.

alkalinity:  The capacity of water to neutralize acids, a
     property imparted by the water's content of carbonates,
     bicarbonates, hydroxides, and occasionally borates,
     silicates, and phosphates.  It is expressed in milligrams
     per liter of equivalent calcium carbonate.

anion:   The charged particle in a solution of an electrolyte
     which carries a negative charge.

anion exchange process:   The reversible exchange of negative ions
     between functional groups of the ion exchange medium and the
     solution in which the solid is immersed.  Used as a
     wastewater treatment process for removal of anions, e.g.,
     carbonate.

anthracite:  A hard natural coal of high luster which contains
     little volatile matter, and greater than 927* fixed carbon.

anticline:  A fold that is convex upward.  The oldest strata are
     closest to the axial plane of the fold.

aquifer:  A subsurface rock formation that is capable of
     producing water.
                               410

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areas under reclamation:  A previously surface mined area where
     regrading has been completed and revegetation has
     commenced.

asbestos minerals:  Certain minerals which have a fibrous
     structure, are heat resistant, chemically inert and
     possessing high electrical insulating qualities.  The two
     main groups are serpentine and amphiboles.  Chrysotile
     (fibrous serpentine,   3MgO  . 2SiC>2  • 2H20) is the
     principal commercial variety.  Other commercial varieties
     are armosite, crocidolite, actinolite, anthophyllite, and
     tremolite.

auger:   Any drilling device in which the cuttings are
     mechanically and continuously removed from the borehole
     without the use of fluids; usually used for shallow drilling
     or sampling.

auger mining:  Spiral boring for additional recovery of a coal
     seam exposed in a highwall.

backfilling:  The transfer of previously moved material back into
     an excavation such as a mine or ditch, or against a
     constructed object.

backwashing:  The process of cleaning a rapid sand or mechanical
     filter by reversing the flow of water.

base:  A compound which dissolves in water to yield hydroxyl ions
     (OH-).

bench:   The surface of an excavated area at some point between
     the material being mined and the original surface of the
     ground on which equipment can be set, move or operate.  A
     working road or base below a highwall as in contour
     stripping for coal.

best available technology economically achievable (BATEA or BAT):
     The level of technology applicable to effluent limitations
     to be achieved by July 1, 1984, for industrial discharges to
     surface waters as defined by Section 301(b) (2) (A) of the
     Act.

best practicable control technology currently available (BPCTCA
     or BPT):  Treatment required by July 1, 1977 for industrial
     discharge to surface waters as defined by Section 301 (b) (1)
     (A) of the Act.

best available demonstrated technology (BADT):   Treatment rquired
     for new sources as defined by Section 306 of the Act.
                               411

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biochemical oxygen demand (BOD):   A measure of water
     contamination expressed as the amount of dissolved oxygen
     (mg/1) required by microorganisms, during stabilization of
     organic matter by aerobic chemical action.

bituminous:  A coal of intermediate hardness containing between
     50 and 92 percent fixed carbon.

blowdown:  A portion of water in a closed system which is removed
     or discharged in order to prevent a buildup of dissolved
     solids.

carbon absorption:  A process utilizing the efficient absorption
     characteristics of activated carbon to remove both dissolved
     and suspended substances.

cation:  The positively charged particles in solution of an
     electrolyte.

cationic flocculant:  In flocculation, surface active substances
     which have the active constituent in the positive ion.  Used
     to flocculate and neutralize the negative charge residing on
     colloidal particles.

chemical analysis:  The use of a standard chemical analytical
     procedure to determine the concentration of a specific
     pollutant in a wastewater sample.

chemical coagulation:  The destabilization and initial
     aggregation of colloidal and finely divided suspended matter
     by the addition of a floe-forming chemical.

chemical oxygen demand (COD):  A specific test to measure the
     amount of oxygen required for the complete oxidation of all
     organic and inorganic matter in a water sample which is
     susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.

chemical precipitation:  (1)  Precipitation induced by addition
     of chemicals.  This includes the reaction of dissolved
     substances such that they pass out of solution into the
     solids phase.  (2)  The process of softening water by the
     addition of lime and soda ash as the precipitants.

chrysotile:  A mineral of the serpentine group, Mg3$i205
     (OH)4.

clarification:  A physical-chemical wastewater treatment process
     involving the various steps necessary to form a stable,
     rapid settling floe and to separate it by sedimentation.
     Clarification may involve pH adjustment, precipitation,
     coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation.


                               412

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clarifier:  A basin usually made of steel in which water  flows  at
     a low velocity to allow settling of suspended matter.

coagulation:  The treatment process by which a chemical added to
     wastewater acts to neutralize the repulsive  forces that hold
     waste particles in suspension.

coagulants:  Materials that induce coagulation and are used to
     precipitate solids or semi-solids.  They are usually
     compounds which dissociate into strongly charged ions.

coal mine:  An area of land with all property placed upon, under
     or above the surface of such land, used in or resulting from
     the work of extracting coal from its natural deposits by any
     means or method including secondary recovery of coal from
     refuse or other storage piles derived from mining, cleaning,
     or preparation of coal.

coal mine drainage:  Any water drained, pumped or siphoned from a
     coal mine.

coal pile drainage:  Drainage from a coal pile as a result of
     percolation or runoff from rainfall.

colloids:  Suspensions of particles, usually between a nanometer
     and a micrometer in diameter, in any physical state.  In
     this size range the surface area is so great compared to the
     volume that unusual phenomenon occur, i.e., particles do not
     settle out by gravity and are small enough to pass through
     normal filter membranes (i.e., not ultrafilters).

composite wastewater sample:  A combination of individual samples
     of water or wastewater taken at selected intervals,
     generally hourly for some specified period,  to minimize the
     effect of the variability of the individual  sample.
     Individual samples may have equal volume or may be roughly
     proportioned to the flow at time of sampling.

concentration, hydrogen ion:  The weight of hydrogen ions in
     grams per liter of solution.  Commonly expressed as  the pH
     value that represents the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
     hydrogen ion concentration.

conventional pollutants:  pH, BOD, fecal coliform, oil and
     grease, and TSS.

crusher, jaw:  A primary crusher designed to reduce the size of
     materials by impact or crushing between a fixed plate and  an
     oscillating plate or between two oscillating plates, forming
     a tapered jaw.
                               413

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crusher, roll:   A reduction crusher consisting of a heavy frame
     on which two rolls are mounted;  the rolls are-driven so that
     they rotate toward one another.   Coal is fed in from above
     and nipped between the moving rolls,  crushed,  and discharged
     below.

cyclone:  (a)  The conical-shaped apparatus used in dust
     collecting operations and fine grinding applications;  (b)   A
     classifying (or concentrating) separator into which pulp is
     fed, so as to take a circular path.  Coarser and heavier
     fractions  of solids report as the apex of long cone while
     finer particles overflow from central vortex.

data correlation:  The process of the conversion of reduced data
     into a functional relationship and the development of the
     significance of both the data and the relationship for the
     purpose of process evaluation.

decant structure:  Apparatus for removing clarified water from
     the surface layers of tailings or settling ponds.

deep mine:  An underground mine.

dense-media separation:  (a)  Heavy media separation, or sink
     float.  Separation of heavy sinking from light floating
     mineral particles in a fluid of intermediate density;  (b)
     Separation of relatively light (floats) and heavy
     particles  (sinks), by immersion in a bath of intermediate
     density.

denver cell:  A flotation cell of the subaeration type, in wide
     use.  Design modifications include receded disk,
     conical-disk, and multibladed impellers, low-pressure air
     attachments, and special froth withdrawal arrangements.

denver jig:  Pulsion-suction diaphragm jig for fine material, in
     which makeup (hydraulic) water is admitted through a rotary
     valve adjustable as to portion of jigging cycle over which
     controlled addition is made.

dependent variable:  A variable whose value is a function of one
     or more independent variables.

deposit:  Mineral, coal or ore deposit is used to designate a
     natural occurrence of a useful mineral, coal, or an ore, in
     sufficient extent and degree of concentration to permit
     exploitation.
                                414

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depressing agent; depressor; depressant:  In the froth flotation
     process, a substance which reacts with the particle surface
     to render it less prone to stay in the froth, thus causing
     it to wet down as a tailing product (contrary to activator) .

detention time:  The time allowed for solids to collect in a
     settling tank.  Theoretically , detention time is equal to
     the volume of the tank divided by the flow rate.  The actual
     detention time is determined by operating parameters of the
     tank.

dewater:  To remove a portion of the water from a sludge or a
     slurry.
differential flotation:  Separating a raw coal into ttfo or more
     coals and pyrites by flotation; also called selective
     flotation.  This type of flotation is made possible by the
     use of suitable depressors and activators.

discharge:  Outflow from a pump, drill hole, piping system,
     channel, weir or other discernible, confined or discrete
     conveyance (see also point source).

discharge pipe:  A section of pipe or conduit from the condenser
     discharge to the point of discharge into receiving waters or
     cooling device.

dispersing agent:   Reagent added to flotation circuits to prevent
     flocculation, especially of objectionable colloidal slimes.
     Sodium silicate is frequently added for this purpose.

dissolved solids:   Theoretically,  the anhydrous residues of the
     dissolved constituents in water.  Actually, the term is
     defined by the method used in determination.  In water and
     wastewater treatment, the Standard Methods tests are used.

disturbed area:  An area which has had its natural condition
     altered in the process of mining coal,  preparing coal, or
     other mine related activities.  This includes but is not
     limited to all areas affected by grubbing and topsoil
     removal; road construction; construction of mine facilities;
     coal mining,  reclamation and preparation activities;
     deposition of topsoil, overburden, coal or waste materials,
     etc.  These areas are classified as "disturbed" until said
     areas have been returned to approximate original contour (or
     post-mining land use) and topsoil (where appropriate) has
     been replaced.
                               415

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dragline:   A piece of excavating equipment which employs a
     cable-hung bucket to remove overburden.

drift:   A deep mine entry driven directly into a horizontal or
     near horizontal mineral seam or vein when it outcrops or is
     exposed at the ground surface.

effluent:   Liquid,  such as wastewater,  treated or untreated
     which flows out of a unit operation, reservoir or treatment
     plant.  The influent is the incoming stream.

eluate:   Solutions  resulting from regeneration (elution) of ion
     exchange resins.

eluent:   A solution used.to extract  collected ions from an ion
     exchange resin or solvent and return the resin to its active
     state.

embankment (or impoundment):  Storage basin made to contain
     wastes from mines or preparation plants.

erosion:  Processes whereby solids are removed from their
     original location on the land surface by hydraulic or wind
     action.

filter,  granular:   A device for removing suspended solids from
     water, consisting of granular material placed in a layer(s)
     and capable of being cleaned by reversing the direction of
     the flow.

filter,  rapid sand:  A filter for the purification of water which
     has been previously treated, usually by coagulation and
     sedimentation.  The water passes downward through a
     filtering medium consisting of a layer of sand,
     prepared anthracite coal or other suitable material, usually
     from 24 to 30 inches thick and  resting on a supporting bed
     of gravel or other porous medium.  The filtrate is removed
     by an underdrain system.  The filter is cleaned periodically
     by reversing the flow of the water upward through the
     filtering medium; sometimes supplemented by mechanical or
     air agitation during backwashing to remove mud and other
     impurities that are lodged in the sand.

filter,  vacuum:  A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum
     mounted on a horizontal axis, covered with a filter cloth
     revolving with a partial submergence in liquid.  A vacuum is
     maintained under the cloth for the larger part of a
     revolution to extract moisture and the cake is scraped off
     continuously.
                                416

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filtration:  The process of passing a liquid through a  filtering
     medium for the removal of suspended or colloidal matter.

final contour:  The surface shape or contour of a surface mine
     (or section thereof) after all mining and earth moving
     (regrading) operations have been completed.

floe:  A very fine, fluffy mass formed by the aggregation of  fine
     suspended particles.

flocculants:  Any substance which will cause flocculation.  They
     are specifically useful in wastewater treatment.   Lime,
     alum, and ferric chloride are examples of inorganic
     flocculants and polyelectrolytes are organic flocculants.

flocculate:  To cause to aggregate or to coalesce into  small
     lumps or loose clusters, e.g., the calcium ion tends to
     flocculate clays.

flocculation:  In water and wastewater treatment, the
     agglomeration of colloidal and finely divided suspended
     matter after coagulation by gently stirring by either
     mechanical or hydraulic means.

flotation:  The method of coal or mineral separation in which a
     froth created in water by a variety of reagents floats some
     finely crushed coal or minerals, whereas pyrites and other
     minerals sink.

flotation agent:  A substance or chemical which alters  the
     surface tension of water or which makes it froth easily.
     The reagents used in the flotation process include pH
     regulators, slime dispersants, resurfacing agents, wetting
     agents, conditioning agents, collectors, and frothers.

flume:  An open channel or conduit on a prepared grade.

froth, foam:  In the flotation process, a collection of bubbles
     resulting from agitation, the bubbles being the agenct for
     raising (floating) the particles of coal or ore to the
     surface of the cell.

frother(s):  Substances used in flotation processes to  make air
     bubbles sufficiently permanent principally by reducing
     surface tension.  Common frothers are pine oil, creyslic
     acid, and amyl alcohol.
                               417

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flow model:  A mathematical model of the effluent wastewater
     flow, developed through the use of multiple linear
     regression techniques.

flow rate:  Usually expressed as liters/minute (gallons/minute)
     or liters/day (million gallons/day).  Design flow rate is
     that used to size the wastewater treatment process.  Peak
     flow rate is 1.5 to 2.5 times design and relates to the
     hydraulic flow limit and is specified for each plant.  Flow
     rates can be mixed as batch and continuous where these two
     treatment modes are used in the same plant.

frequency distribution:  An arrangement or distribution of
     quantities pertaining to a single element in order of their
     magnitude.

grab sample:  A single sample of wastewater taken at neither  a
     set time nor flow.

gravity separation:  Treatment of coal or mineral particles which
     exploits differences between their specific gravities.
     Their sizes and shapes also play a minor part in separation.
     Performed by means of jigs, classifiers, hydrocyclones,
     dense media, shaking tables, Humphreys spirals, sluices,
     vanners and briddles.

grinding:  (a)  Size reduction into relatively fine particles.
     (b)  Arbitrarily divided into dry grinding performed on  coal
     or mineral containing only moisture as mined, and wet
     grinding, usually done in rod, ball or pebble mills with
     added water.

groundwater table (or level):  Upper surface of the underground
     zone of saturation.

grout:   A fluid mixture of cement, sand (or other additives)  and
     water that can be poured or pumped easily.

hardness:  A characteristic of water, imparted by salts of
     calcium, magnesium, and iron, such as bicarbonates,
     carbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates, that causes
     curdling of soap, deposition of scale in boilers, damage in
     some industrial process, and sometimes objectionable  taste.
     It may be determined by a standard laboratory procedure  or
     computed from the amounts of calcium and magnesium as  well
     as iron, aluminum, manganese, barium, strontium, and  zinc,
     and  is expressed as equivalent calcium carbonate.

heavy-media separation:  See dense-media separation.
                               418

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highwall:  The unexcavated face of exposed overburden and coal in
     a surface mine or the face or bank on Che uphill side of a
     contour strip mine excavation.

hydrocyclone:  A cyclone separator in which a spray of water is
     used.

hydroclassifier:  A machine which uses an upward current of water
     to remove fine particles from coarser material.

hydrology:  The science that relates to the water systems of the
     earth.

independent variable:  A variable whose value is not dependent on
     the value of any other variable.

influent:  The liquid, such as untreated or partially treated
     wastewater, which flows into a reservoir, process unit, or
     treatment plant.  The effluent is the outgoing stream.

in-plant control:  Those treatment techniques that are used to
     reduce, reuse, recycle, or treat wastewater prior to end-of
     pipe treatment.

ion:  A charged atom, molecule or radical, the migration of which
     affects the transport of electricity through an electrolyte.

ion exchange:  A chemical process involving reversible
     interchange of ions between a liquid and solid but no
     radical change in the structure of the solid.

jig:  A machine in which the feed is stratified in water by means
     of a pulsating motion and from which the stratified products
     are separately removed, the pulsating motion being usually
     obtained by alternate upward and downward currents of the
     water.

jigging:   A process used to separate coarse materials in the coal
     or ore by means of differences in specific gravity in a
     water medium.

lagoon:  Man-made ponds or lakes usually 4 feet deep (or up to 18
     feet if aerated) which are used for storage, treatment, or
     disposal of wastes.  They can be used to hold wastewater for
     removal of suspended solids, to store sludge, cool water, or
     for stabilization of organic matter by biological oxidation.
     Lagoons can also be used as holding ponds, after chemical
     clarification and to polish the effluent.
                               419

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lignite:  A carbonaceous fuel ranked between peat  and bituminous
     coal.

lime:  Any of a family of chemicals consisting essentially  of
     calcium hydroxide made from limestone  (calcite) which  is
     composed almost wholly of calcium carbonate or a mixture of
     calcium and magnesium carbonates.

lime slurry:  A form of calcium hydroxide in aqueous suspension
     that contains free water.

linear regression:  A method to fit a line  through a set  of
     points such that the sum of squared vertical  deviations  of
     the point values from the fitted line  is a minimum,  i.e.,  no
     other line, no matter how it is computed, will have  a
     smaller sum of squared distances between the  actual  and
     predicted values of the dependent variable.

magnetic separator:  A device used to separate magnetic  from  less
     magnetic or nonmagnetic materials.

mathematical model:  A quantitative equation or system of
     equations formulated in such a way as  to reasonably  depict
     the structure of a situation and the relationships among the
     relevant variables.

mean value:  The statistical expected or average figure.

median value:  A data observation located at the 50th percentile
     or the midrange.

mesh size (activated carbon):  The particle size of granular
     activated carbon as determined by the  U.S. Sieve series.
     Particle size distribution within a mesh series is given in
     the specification of the particular carbon.

milligrams per liter (mg/1):  This is a mass per volume
     designation used in water and wastewater analysis.

minable: (a)  Capable of being mined.  (b)  Material that can be
     mined under present day mining technology and economics.

mine:   (a)  An opening or excavation in the earth  for the purpose
     of excavating minerals, coals, metal ores or  other
     substances by digging.  (b)  A word for the excavation of
     minerals by means of pits, shafts, levels, tunnels,  etc.,  as
     opposed to a quarry, where the whole excavation is  open.  In
     general the existence of a mine is determined by the mode in
     which the mineral is obtained, and not by its chemical or
     geologic character.  (c)  An excavation beneath the  surface
     of the ground from which mineral matter of value is
     extracted.
                                420

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mine drainage:  Mine drainage usually  implies gravity  flow
     of wastewater from coal mining to a point away  from  the
     mining operation.  However, this  term encompasses  any
     wastewater emanating from a coal mining or preparation
     operation.

mixed-media filtration:  A filter which uses two  or  more  filter
     materials of differing specific gravities selected so as  to
     produce a filter uniformly graded coarse to  fine.

mulching:  The addition of materials (usually organic)  to the
     land surface to curtail erosion or retain soil  moisture.

multiple linear regression:  A method  to fit a plant through a
     set of points such that the sum of squared distances between
     the individual observations and the estimated plane  is a
     minimum.  This statistical technique is an extension of
     linear regression in that more than one independent  variable
     is used in the least squares equation.

neutralization:  Adjustment of pH by the addition of acid or
     alkali until a pH of about 7.0 is achieved.  See pH
     adjustment.

new source:  Any point source, the construction of which  is begun
     after the publication of proposed Section 306 regulations.

new source performance standard (NSPS):  Performance standards
     for the industry and applicable new sources  as  defined by
     Section 306 of the Act.

NPDES permits:  National Pollutant Discharge Elimination  System
     Permits are issued by the EPA or  an approved state program
     in order to regulate point-source discharge  to  public
     waters.

nonconventional pollutants:  Chemical  or thermal  pollutants,
     principally defined by not being a conventional or toxic
     pollutant.

normalized coefficients:  Regression constants whose magnitudes
     are referenced to some value.

open-pit mining, open cut mining:  A form of operation  designed
     to extract coal or minerals that  lie near the surface.
     Waste, or overburden, is first removed, and  the coal or
     mineral is broken and loaded.

osmosis:  The process of diffusion of  a solvent through a
     semipermeable membrane from a solution of lower to one of
     higher solute concentration.
                               421

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osmotic pressure:  The equilibrium pressure differential  across  a
     semipermeable membrane which separates a solution of lower
     from one of higher concentration.

outcrop:  The exposing of bedrock or strata projecting through
     the overlying cover of detritus and soil.

outfall:  The point or location where sewage or drainage
     discharges from a sewer, drain or conduit.

overburden:  Material of any nature, consolidated or
     unconsolidated, that overlies a deposit of useful materials
     (i.e., coal, ores, etc.).

overflow:  Excess water discharged from the treatment system.

oxidation:  The addition of oxygen to a chemical compound,  or
     any reaction which involves the loss of electrons from an
     atom.

oxidized zone:  In coal mining, that portion of a refuse  pile
     near the surface, which has been leached by percolating
     water carrying oxygen, carbon dioxide or other gases.

permeability:  Capacity for transmitting a fluid.

pH:  A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous
     solution, generally expressed in terms of the hydrogen ion
     (H+) or hydronium ion (1130+) content.  A pH of below 7 is
     considered an acidic solution; and above 7 it is considered
     an alkaline solution.

pH adjustment:  Treatment of wastewater by the addition of an
     acid or alkali to effect a change in the pH or hydrogen ion
     concentration.  Alkalis such as lime (CaO), limestone
     (CaCOs), caustic soda (NaOH), or soda ash (Na2COO,
     which supply hydroxyl ions are used to adjust acidic streams
     while an acid, usually sulfuric (1*2804) or hydrochloric
     (HC1) reacts, with alkaline streams by supplying hydrogen
     ions.

pH modifiers:  Proper functioning of a cationic or anionic
     flotation reagent is dependent on the close control  of pH.
     Modifying agents used are soda ash, sodium hydroxide,  sodium
     silicate, sodium phosphates, lime, sulfuric acid,  and
     hydrofluoric acid.
                               422

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pH value:  A scale for expressing the acidity or alkalinity  of  a
     solution.  Mathematically, it is the logarithm of the
     reciprocal of the gram ionic hydrogen equivalents per liter.
     Neutral water has a pH of 7.0 and hydrogen ion concentration
     of 10~7 moles per liter.

physical-chemical treatment:  In this study, it is taken  to  mean
     a method of treating wastewater by the addition of chemicals
     to physically separate the pollutant from a stream,  usually
     by precipitation, followed by settling or flotation  of  the
     wastes.  To accomplish this, several processes may be
     utilized such as pH adjustment, reduction of hexavalent
     chromium, heavy-metal precipitation, coagulation,
     flocculation, and clarificaiton by settling.

point source:  Any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance,
     including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel,
     tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,  rolling
     stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or
     other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may  be
     discharged.

preparation plant:  A facility that cleans, sizes and upgrades
     run-of-mine coal thereby creating a final coal product  prior
     to shipping or consumption, and facilities (i.e., slurry
     pond, fresh water pond, conveyances) directly associated
     with the recycling or discharge of waters used during the
     "preparation  of coal.

preparation plant ancillary or associated areas:  Areas that are
     interrelated with coal preparation or coal load out
     activities but do not include the preparation plant  building
     and the preparation plant water recycle/discharge system.
     Said areas include but are not limited to ancillary
     buildings associated with coal preparation; disturbed areas
     in proximity to the preparation plant or related preparation
     activities; coal stockpiles; coal refuse storage areas;  coal
     haulroads and refuse haulroads in proximity to the
     preparation plant or coal refuse storage site; treatment
     systems designed to handle runoff or seepage from
     preparation plant "disturbed" areas, or coal refuse  piles
     etc.

priority pollutants:  Those pollutants included in Table  1 of
     Committee Print Numbered 95-30 of the "Committee on  Public
     Works and Transportation of the House of Representatives,"
     subject to the Clean Water Act of 1977, and included in
     Table VI-1 of this document.
                               423

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pyrites:  Mineral group composed of iron and sulfur  found  in  coal
     as FeS2«

rank of coal:  A classification of coal based upon the  fixed
     carbon on a dry weight basis and the heat value.

raw mine drainage:  Untreated or unprocessed water drained,
     pumped or siphoned from a mine.

reagent:  A chemical or solution used to produce a desired
     chemical reaction; a substance used in flotation.

reclamation:  The procedures by which a disturbed area  can be
     reworked to make it productive, useful, or aesthetically
     pleasing, consisting primarily of regrading and
     revegetation.

reduction:  A chemical reaction which involves the addition of
     electrons to a species.

refuse pile:  Waste material from a preparation plant.   The
     material includes pyrites, ash, and water or chemicals used
     in cleaning the coal.

regression model:  A mathematical model, usually a single
     equation, developed through the use of a least  squares
     linear regression analysis.

reserve:  That part of an identified resource from which a usable
     mineral and energy commodity can be economically and  legally
     extracted at the time of determination.

residuals:  The differences between the expected and actual
     values in a regression analysis.

reverse osmosis:  The process of diffusion of a solvent through a
     semipermeable membrane from a solution of higher to one  of
     lower solute concentration, effected by raising the pressure
     of the more concentrated 'solution to above the  osmotic
     pressure.

riprap:  Rough stone of various sizes placed compactly  or
     irregularly to prevent erosion.

room and pillar mining:  A system of mining in which the
     distinguishing feature is the mining of 50 percent or more
     of the coal in the first working.  The coal is  mined  in
     rooms separated by narrow ribs (pillars); the coal in the
     pillars can be extracted by subsequent working  in  which  the
     roof is caved in successive blocks.
                               424

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runoff:  That part of precipitation that flows over the land
     surface from the area upon which it falls.

sampler:  A device used with or without flow measurement to
     obtain any adequate portion of Water or waste for analytical
     purposes.  May be designed for taking a single sample
     (grab).composite sample, continuous sample, or periodic
     sample.

sampling stations:  Locations where several flow samples are
     tapped for analysis.

scarification:  The process of breaking up the topsoil prior to
     mining.

sediment:  Solid material settled from suspension in a liquid
     medium.

sedimentation:  The gravity separation of settleable, suspended
     solids in a settling basin or lagoon.

settleable solids:  (1)  That matter in wastewater which will not
     stay in suspension during a preselected settling period,
     such as 1 hour but either settles to the bottom or floats to
     the top.  (2)  In the Imhoff cone test, the volume of matter
     that settles to the bottom of a 1-liter cone in 1 hour.

Settlement Agreement of June 7, 1976:  Agreement between the U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and various
     environmental groups, as instituted by the United States
     District Court for the District of Columbia, directing the
     EPA to study and promulgate regulations for a list of
     chemical substances, referred to as Appendix A Pollutants.

settling pond:  A pond, natural or artificial, for recovering
     solids from an effluent.

significance:  A statistical measure of the validity, confidence,
     and reliability of a figure.

sludge:  Accumulated solids separated from a liquid during
     processing.

sluice:  To cause water to flow at high velocities for wastage,
     for purposes of excavation, ejecting debris, etc.

slurry:  Solid material conveyed in a liquid medium.

spoil material:  Overburden that is removed from above the coal
     seam; usually deposited in previously mined areas.
                              425

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statistical variance:  The sum of the squared deviations about
     the mean value in proportion to the likelihood of
     occurrence.  A measure used to identify the dispersion of a
     set of data.

subsidence:  Surface depression created by caving of the roof
     material in an underground mine.

sump:  Any excavation in a mine for the collection of water for
     pumping.

suspended solids:  (1)  Solids which either float on the surface
     of or are in suspension in water, wastewater, or other
     liquids, and which are removable by a .45 micron filter.
     (2) The quantity of material removed from wastewater in a
     laboratory test, as prescribed in "Standard Methods for the
     Examination of Water and Wastewater" and referred to as
     nonfilterable residue, measured in mass per unit volume
     (e.g., mg/1).

surface active agent:  One which modified physical, electrical,
     or chemical characteristics of the surface of solids and
     also surface tensions of solids or liquid.  Used in froth
     flotation (see also depressing agent, flotation agent).

syncline:  A fold that is concave upward.  The younger strata are
     closest to the axial plane of the fold.

table,  air:  a vibrating, porous table using air currents to
     effect gravity concentration of sands or other waste
     material from coal.

terracing:  The act of creating horizontal or near horizontal
     benches.

thickener:  A vessel or apparatus for reducing the amount of
     water (or conversely, increasing the concentration of
     settled material)in a wastewater stream.

tolerance limits:  Numerical values identifying the acceptable
     range of some variable.

turbidity:  Is a measure of the amount of light passing through a
     volume of water, which is directly related to the suspended
     solids content.
                              426

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weir:  An obstruction placed across a stream for  the  purpose  of
     diverting the water so as to make it flow through a desired
     channel, which may be an opening or notch in the weir
     itself.

yellowboy:  Salt of iron and sulfate formed by treating acid  mine
     drainage (AMD) with lime; FeS04.
                              427

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                     ABBREVIATIONS
AS
Al
As
BADT

BATEA (BAT)

BCPCT (BCT)

Be
BFR
BMP
BOD
BPCTGA (BPT)

Ca
Cd
CN
COD
CPE

Cr
Cu
CWA
DM
EPA

Fe
FWPCA

Hg
Mg
Mn
Na
Ni
NPDES

NSPS

OSM

Pb
PH
POTW
Silver
Aluminum
Arsenic
Best Available Demonstrated
Technology
Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable
Best Conventional Pollutant
Control Technology
Beryllium
Big Flushing Rain
Best Management Practices
Biochemical Oxidation Demand
Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available
Calcium
Cadmium
Cyanide
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Catastrophic Precipitation
Event
Chromium
Copper
Clean Water Act of 1977
Dissolved Metals
Environmental Protection
Agency
Iron
Federal Water Pollution
Control Act of 1972
Mercury
Magnesium
Manganese
Sodium
Nickel
National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System
New Source Performance
Standards
Office of Surface Mining
(Reclamation and Enforcement)
Lead
-Iog10 [H+]
Publicly Owned Treatment Works
                          428

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                    ABBREVIATIONS  (Continued)
     PSES

     PSNS

     RCRA

     Sb
     Se
     SMCRA

     SS
     TDS
     Tl
     TM
     TS
     TSS
     Zn

    Units

     FTU
     JTU
     kkg
     mgd
     mg/1
     mty
     ppb
     ppm
     t
     NTU
     ug/1
Pretreatment Standards  for
Existing Sources
Pretreatment Standards  for New
Sources
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976
Antimony
Selenium
Surface Mining Control  and
Reclamation Act of  1977
Settleable Solids
Total Dissolved Solids
Thallium
Total Metals
Total Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Zinc
Franklin Turbidity Unit
Jackson Turbidity Unit
thousand kilograms
million gallons per day
milligram(s) per liter
million tons per year
part(s) per billion
part(s) per million
ton
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
microgram(s) per liter
*U.S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-341-085:4632
                                429

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