EPA-450/2-82-001
Smoke Management-
A Workbook For Balancing
Air Quality And Land
Management Goals
U.S. Forest Service
U.S. Department Of Agriculture
Washington DC
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
January 10, 1982
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many individuals representing differing geographic areas, interests, and
organizations throughout the country contributed to formulation of this
Workbook.
Technical Writer and Editor, respectively, were John M. Pierovich and
George Hansen, USDA, Forest Service.
Members of a work group guided, reviewed, corrected and otherwise kept the
writer on track. Persons serving on the group throughout development of
the Workbook were: Bill Baughraan, Westvaco Corp.; Art Belcher, USDI, Fish
a Wildlife Service; David Butts, USDI, National Park Service; Stan Coloff,
USDI, Bureau of Land Management; Dennis Haddow, USDA, Forest Service, for-
merly with Montana State Department of Health and Environmental Sciences;
Julie Home, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Lee Lockie, New Mexico
State Environmental Improvement Division, Health and Environment Depart-
ment; David Nicholson, Weyerhaeuser Company; Neil Paulson, USDA, Forest
Service; Kai Petersen, USDI, Bureau of Land Management; Dr. John Pinkerton,
National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc.; Neil Skill, Oregon
State Department of Forestry; Steve Smallwood, Florida State Department of
Environmental Regulation; Roland Stoleson, USDA, Forest Service; James
Turner, Georgia Forestry Commission. Others served on the work group or
assisted it part time. They included: Dave Duran, New Mexico State
Environmental Improvement Division, Health and Environment Department; John
Graf, Virginia State Division of Forestry; Marshall Mott-Smith, Florida
State Department of Environmental Regulation.
Individuals contributing to development of certain suggested approaches, as
well as special technical reviews, were: Dr. Charles Craig;, Oregon Seed
Council; Lee Lavdas and Paul Ryan, USDA, Forest Service Southeastern Forest
Experiment Station; John Deeming, and Dr. David Sandberg, USDA, Forest
Service Pacific Northwest Forest & Range Experiment Station; Dr. Douglas
Fox, USDA, Forest Service Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Experiment Station.
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ABSTRACT: A process is given for balancing air quality and land manage-
ment goals through smoke management. The process has
application wherever land management open burning has the
potential to affect air quality, or wherever air quality
restrictions may affect the use of fire as a land management
practice. Primary focus of the process is upon confirmation
of related public and technical issues, then upon developing
issue-resolving criteria. This leads to development and
evaluation of alternatives. Two are emphasized. One is
increased utilization of residues in place of burning. The
other emphasized alternative is scheduling of open burning to
meet conditions specified for maintaining downwind con-
centrations of emissions to acceptable levels. Scheduling
may also be employed to favor visibility protection and
enhancement. Process supporting technical appendices cover
development and evaluation of a smoke management program,
predicting downwind concentrations, and determining visi-
bility protection needs. Selected references and a glossary
are provided.
KEY WORDS: AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES • AIR QUALITY PROTECTION • ALTERNATIVES
EVALUATION • ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION • ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS •
FOREST RESIDUES • GOALS-BALANCIN3 « IMPACT ANALYSIS • LAND
MANAGEMENT OPEN BURNING • OPEN BURNING • PRESCRIBED FIRE
• SMOKE MANAGEMENT « VISIBILITY PROTECTION.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT & KEY WORDS i
ADMINSTRATIVE SUMMARY 1
PART I - BACKGROUND
Introduction 3
Air Quality Protection 4
Land Management Open Burning 5
Smoke and Air Quality 7
Ongoing Research and Development 9
PART II - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS IN BRIEF
Leadership & Appropriate Participation 11
Smoke Problem Determination 12
Developing Issue-Resolving Criteria 13
Commitments of Technical Specialists & Resources 13
Alternatives Development & Evaluation 13
Documentation, Implementation 14
PART III - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS IN DETAIL
Leadership &. Appropriate Participation 15
Smoke Problem Determination 18
Developing Issue-Resolving Criteria 18
Commitments of Technical Specialists & Resources 19
Exhibits for confirmed issues
pertaining to more than one organization 20
Exhibit for a confirmed issue
pertaining to one organization 23
Alternatives Development & Evaluation 24
Alternative Identified for
Emphasis: Increased Utilization 31
Alternative Identified for
Emphasis: Scheduling 32
Documentation, Implementation 34
APPENDIX A - DEVELOPING & EVALUATING A SMOKE
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 35
APPENDIX B - PREDICTING DOWNWIND CONCENTRATIONS OF TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER ORIGINATING
WITH LAND MANAGEMENT OPEN BURNING .... 67
APPENDIX C - METHODS SUGGESTED FOR DETERMINING VISIBILITY
PROTECTION NEEDS 83
SELECTED REFERENCES 89
GLOSSARY 101
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SMOKE MANAGEMENT
A Workbook for Balancing Air Quality
and Land Management Goals
ADMINISTRATIVE SUMMARY
This Workbook has been prepared for use wherever land management open
burning has the potential to affect air quality goals, or wherever air
quality goals may affect the use of fire in meeting land management goals.
The objective of this Workbook is to provide information and procedures
for: 1) evaluating the relationships between air quality and land manage-
ment open burning; 2) developing, where necessary, appropriate programs for
balancing clean air and land management goals.
Public and technical issues may arise from differing perceptions of these
goals. Confirming such issues, then establishing criteria for resolving
them, is a focal point of the goals-balancing process recommended in this
Workbook. When no issues are confirmed, the process is to be quickly
terminated. Criteria established for resolving any confirmed issues lead
to development and evaluation of alternatives.
Smoke management may be applied at varying levels of sophistication, as
appropriate to varied local situations. In these situations, fire is
employed to different degrees to meet objectives falling within the
national goals for agricultural lands and for forest, range, and wetlands.
To meet required attainment and maintenance of the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS), each State must determine the effect of various
sources of emissions upon air quality. Emissions produced may make land
management open burning a potentially significant source in this respect.
Congress made visibility protection and enhancement a national goal when
amending the Clean Air Act in 1977. With this amendment, responsibilities
relating to designated Class I Federal Areas were mandated for both air
quality managers and land managers. Routes of travel and airport
approaches calling for safe visual distances have been incorporated in
smoke management programs already in operation. In certain areas of heavy
visitation, smoke management has also included timing of burning operations
to afford visitors views of scenic attractions. Visibility protection and
enhancement for Congressionally mandated areas is then logically one of
several key objectives of smoke management.
The recommended process calls for participation by decision-maker represen-
tatives from organizations that may be affected, and that will have capa-
bilities for carrying out the process. Technical specialists from both
land managing and air quality managing organizations may be needed, de-
pending upon the issues and the issue-resolving criteria determined by the
decision-makers. Technical participation may initially include determining
the existence or extent of a smoke problem. Subsequent work by technical
specialists may be needed for developing and evaluating alternatives to
meet established issue-resolving criteria.
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A Lead Agency is to be selected in each area where the process is employed.
The Lead Agency is responsible for initial identification of issues and
potential issues, and for invitation of participating organizations. Final
Lead Agency responsibilities are to assure implementation followthrough for
chosen actions, and to maintain documentation of the process.
A generalized summary is given for alternatives to open burning, and for
carrying out the practice when open burning is selected as the best
alternative. Two alternatives are emphasized due to their potentials to
benefit air quality. Cne is increased residues utilization. Despite
notable progress already, further implementation may be made possible
through the broadened area of concern opened by discussions under the
process.
Scheduling is the other anphasized alternative. It can be applied as a
tool of smoke management to match burning operations with conditions spe-
cified to result in acceptable downwind concentrations of anissions. Where
the total burning job is heavy, and days for carrying it out are limited,
budgeting of a burn schedule may be necessary. On a day-by-day basis, the
schedule may then be rebudgeted to accommodate more or less of the burning
job, depending upon conditions. Where this aspect of scheduling is
necessary, smoke management entails prior agreement upon priorities, and
should provide for negotiations between burners and a coordinator. A
further application of scheduling is timing of burning operations so as to
provide for visibility protection and enhancement where appropriate.
Three technical appendices support the process. These cover development
and evaluation of a smoke management program, predicting downwind con-
centrations of participate matter emitted from burning operations, and
determining visibility protection needs.
Selected references are suggested for supplemental reading, and a glossary
is provided. These anticipate diversity of disciplines among personnel who
may be called upon to participate in a joint effort.
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PART I - BACKGROUND
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SMOKE MANAGEMENT
A Workbook for Balancing Air Quality
and Land Management Goals
»
PART I - BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
Objective
Fire is used to accomplish specific land management goals. This use of
fire produces emissions which can conflict with specific goals for clean
air.
The objective of this Workbook is to provide information and procedures
for:
1. Evaluating the relationships between air quality and land
management open burning, and
2. Developing, where necessary, appropriate programs for bal-
ancing clean air and land management goals.
Workbook Application
Where applied. Wherever land management open burning has the potential to
affect the air quality goal, or wherever the air quality goal may affect
the use of fire in meeting the land management goal, this Workbook will
have application.
Congress made visibility protection and enhancement a national goal when
amending the Clean Air Act in 1977. With this amendment, responsibilities
relating to designated Class I Federal Areas were mandated for both air
quality managers and land managers. Routes of travel and airport
approaches calling for safe visual distances have been incorporated in
smoke management programs already in operation. In areas of scenic
attractions, some smoke management programs already provide for timing of
burning operations for periods when visitation is low. Visibility protec-
tion and enhancement for Congressionally mandated areas is then logically
one of several key objectives of smoke management.
Types of burning to which applied. This Workbook applies to open burning
conducted by agriculturists and managers of forest, range, and wetlands.
Among the included types of open burning are disposal of debris from land
clearing for food or fibre production (e.g., using fire in making type
conversions), as well as disposal of debris from rights-of-way cleared for
land management purposes. Open burning of fuels used in orchard heating,
or of backyard and urban land clearing debris, is excluded from the land
management practices recognized by this text.
Application to issues resolution. Air quality and land management goals
established through legislation are often closely related to private goals.
A public-at-large, however, will often place different weights of impor-
tance upon them and will have widely different individual expectations of
such goals. When there are differences like these, public issues can
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result. Proposed new actions to meet objectives drawn from these goals may
surface both as public issues and as technical issues. For these reasons,
issues and potential issues resulting from different perceptions of goals
and related objectives are focal points in the recommended goals-balancing
process. Establishment of issue resolving criteria as a part of the pro-
cess leads to development and evaluation of alternative courses of action.
On the other hand, if no issues are confirmed, the process ends with docu-
mentation of that finding.
An example of the kinds of issues that can be involved is afforded in the
hypothetical case of a Federal land manager whose responsibilities include
those for visibility protection mandated by Congress in the 1977 Clean Air
Act Revision. This manager may have determined that in nature, the
Wilderness involved was often frequented by dense smoke from uncontrolled
fires. An objective of affording visitors a spectacular view is to be met.
At the same time, other objectives call for preserving the wild, natural
ecosystem. Nearby, objectives on other land classes call for assuring land
productivity. Potential issues in this example are readily identified with
priority setting. Criteria for issues resolution may involve compromises
technically related to the law, to histories, to public use, to biological
requirements, and so forth.
Interdisciplinary application. Individuals from a wide range of discip-
lines may be needed when issues to be resolved are complex. To aid com-
munication between these individuals, and to define terms as used in this
text, a Glossary of terms has been placed at the end of the Workbook.
Selected references are suggested for supplemental reading. These selected
examples may suggest sources of information that will augment the
background summaries in the rest of this part of the text, intended to pro-
vide a cannon starting place.
AIR QUALITY PROTECTION
The Clean Air Act in section 109 directs the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) to develop National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
These standards establish acceptable levels of the following pollutants:
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (nonmethane), lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
particulate natter, and sulfur oxide. Two standards are set for certain
pollutants. Those identified as Primary Standards protect public health,
and those as Secondary Standards protect public welfare.
Attainment or nonattainment of the NAAQS is determined by air quality moni-
toring and/or modeling on a pollutant-by-pollutant basis. Determinations
are based on actual monitoring data, if available. If not, models are used
to predict the potential for violation of a standard. Most models used for
this purpose are dispersion models. The models are used to evaluate the
way pollutants move through the atmosphere, in order to predict impacts on
health and welfare (usually measured by the NAAQS). Usually, emissions are
treated as produced from single stacks, or from area sources. Transport
and dispersion models may use both meteorological inputs and chemical con-
version factors to predict downwind impacts. Although some problems remain
with this type of modeling (usually in the atmospheric components), effec-
tive use in air quality management has been demonstrated.
A major program pertaining to attainment areas is that of Prevention of
Significant Deterioration (PSD). Congress ostaolished PSD to: 1) protect
the air quality in areas cleaner than that required by the NAAQS; 2) pro-
tect air quality-related values in National Parks and Wilderness Areas, and
3) insure that economic growth in attainmeat areas will be consistent with
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the preservation of existing air resources. PSD established an "increment"
system which allows only a specified increase of sulfur dioxide and par-
ticulate matter over an established baseline. Baseline is a legal term
characterizing the ambient air quality existing at the time of the receipt
of the first permit application. It is determined by either monitoring or
modeling, or both. Major sources wanting to locate in attainment areas
must obtain a permit verifying they will not increase ambient concentra-
tions above the established level before they can begin construction.
The Clean Air Act, Amended 1977, designates certain National Parks and
Wildernesses as mandatory "Class I Federal Areas." PSD provisions assign
the Federal land manager an affirmative responsibility to protect the air
quality-related values (including visibility) of these Class I Federal
Areas.
The Clean Air Act gives the individual States primary responsibility for
implementing the various air programs. Federal regulations act as minimum
requirements and guidelines - States are free to develop more stringent
programs. Each State must bring Nonattainment Areas into compliance with
the NAAQS and insure the Standards are maintained in Attainment Areas.
States with approved programs have final authority for permitting sources
under the PSD program. U.S. EPA issues permits in other areas. Strategies
the State will pursue to meet Federal requirements are outlined in a State
implementation plan ("SIP"). When approved by U.S. EPA, these SIPs become
Federally enforceable.
LAND MANAGEMENT (PEN BURNING
Fire employed in the management of agricultural lands is usually called,
"controlled burning," and in the management of forest, range, and wetlands
is called, "prescribed burning,"_!/ a name derived from the prescriptions
written for this type of burning. Objectives for this use of fire will
generally fall within the following list, traceable to the broader national
goals established for these lands.
1. Through reduction of fire hazard, to reduce costs and losses
from otherwise inevitable and destructive wildfires.2/
2. Prevent naturally the infestations of diseases and insects
which would otherwise develop in the absence of fire.
!_/ The term "prescribed burning" is used somewhat differently in different
areas of the United States. See the Glossary for the definition
followed in this text.
_2/ Due to histories of disastrous wildfires originating in fuels which
had been allowed to accumulate without treatment, fire hazard reduction
has long been a forestry practice required by law in many States.
While these histories are readily associated with huge monetary costs
and losses, other costs and losses also underlie the need for con-
tinuing this practice. These include potentially severe environmental
impacts like: production of massive amounts of emissions to the
atmosphere, removal of protective vegetative mantles from watersheds
with consequent increases in stream and lake turbidity, unwanted
changes in chemical balances, marring of a desired esthetic quality of
the landscape.
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3. Preparation of farmland for cultivation, (i.e., that which
has lain fallow, or which is covered by residues from
harvesting).
4. Preparation for reforestation.
5. Reintroduce fire as a natural element in the ecosystems of
certain Wildernesses and Parks. (In sane organizations,
called "Natural Prescribed Fire.")
6. Renew and improve range forage and wildlife habitat.
7. Seed stimulation by "thermal shock" (e.g., to increase the
yield of perennial grass crops).
8. Disease control by burning of infected plants or plant parts.
9. Enhancement of chemical application (e.g.: indirect control
of weeds when used as a pre- or post-treatment for areas
treated with herbicides.)
10. Reduction of nitrogen fertilizer requirements.
11. Destruction of pests such as mites, insects, and rodents.
12. Direct control of weeds by destruction of weed seeds and
plants.
Open burning employed as a recognized agricultural practice is temporary
and is usually seasonal. The burning takes place annually, in most cases
on a schedule determined by harvesting and other practices, such as pruning
in orchards and vineyards. Prescribed fires are temporary, are usually
seasonal, and are periodic. Many burn for only a few hours. (A sometimes
notable exception is the "Natural Prescribed Fire" which may burn for days
or weeks.) Seasons of prescription burning are delimited by climatologies
in which the probabilities of favorable weather parameters coincide with
those of desired fuel conditions.
Periods between burning may be as short as 1 year where agricultural crops
are mostly the same, year-in, year-out. In prescription burning, there are
special cases for annual burning, such as when an objective calls for main-
taining certain herbaceous species in dominance (notably, in understory
burning in a few quail habitat management areas in the Southeastern
States). More connonly, the interval between prescription burns is several
years. For all areas, this is determined by land management objectives.
Fire history and fuels accumulations are the determinants where fire is
being returned to its natural role, as may be appropriate to Park and
Wilderness objectives.
Prescribed fire intervals in southern coastal plain areas may be as short
as 2 or 3 years where management objectives call for reducing rapid
regrowth of competing flammable vegetation. On the other hand, in seme
timber production areas of the West, the interval may be determined only by
the scheduling of a harvest cutting (which is then followed by use of
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prescribed fire to reduce the fuel hazard and to remove residues in prep-
aration for reforestation). In the brushfields of Arizona and California,
chaparral matures to an extremely hazardous fuel. There, the interval is
based on species composition, age, amounts of living and dead vegetation, and
the moisture of the living and dead fuel. Chaparral older than 7 years is
regarded as very hazardous to safe burning in many southern California
management situations.
SMOKE AND AIR QUALITY
The smoke from wildfires and from land management open burning is usually
highly visible during initial phases when well defined plumes are rising to
the atmosphere above burn areas. Even small fires are characterized by
such plumes during the time when there is sufficient convective heat from
the fire to loft the smoke. In later phases, remaining fuels will continue
to burn, producing smoke, but not enough heat to bring about plume rise.
Where there are light fuels, or fuels which have been burned with a type of
fire that results in almost complete fuel consumption as the fire advances
(e.g., a backing fire), the period of no plume rise is often so short that
it can be regarded of negligible importance. In fuels which burn with
relatively low intensity for several hours (as with large logs, damp or
soil-laden piles and windrows, deep organic soils), or in a type of fire
which does not consume most of the fuel during its initial advance (e.g., a
heading fire), smoldering combustion may produce high concentrations of
smoke that remain close to the earth's surface.
If low level temperature inversions interfere with dispersion of this
smoke, safe visibility can be impaired along routes of travel in low lying
areas. Surface winds moving downslope and downcanyon from smoldering fires
can carry smoke into "smoke sensitive areas." Haze resulting from
dispersed smoke can also interfere with visibility.
Knowledge of these effects, and of how to avoid or mitigate them, makes
smoke management possible. In its simplest forms, the doing job of smoke
management may mean little more than selecting the right wind direction and
some very broad dispersion conditions under which established levels of
pollutant concentrations will not be exceeded in locations where these are
of importance. Even at this simple level, alternatives to burning are
considered.
With increased knowledge, a new smoke management technology is emerging. It
is suggested that under this new technology, smoke management consists of
3 major functions: APPRAISAL (of alternatives — this will include that of
existing air quality, and of predicted smoke effects downwind from burn
areas); SPECIFICATIONS (conditions under which smoke will disperse to ac-
ceptable locations and concentrations) & SCHEDULING (to meet these specifi-
cations) ; EXECUTION (of an Operating Plan based upon the first 2 functions).
Several States have enacted rules bearing directly on land management open
burning. Actions taken in response to these rules, and taken voluntarily
elsewhere in the absence of rules, have resulted in smoke management
programs. Formally recognized cooperative smoke management operating plans,
in particular those between prescribed burners, and between prescribed burn-
ers and State or local authorities responsible for air quality management,
are being successfully followed in several States. These operating plans
have been effective in minimizing transport of smoke to populated areas, and
in reducing concentrations of emissions in designated Nonattainment Areas as
well as in "smoke sensitive areas" (such as highways, airfields, and
hospitals).
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8
Contributing to this emerging technology, fire scientists have studied the
characteristics of smoke from different kinds of fires and from fires in
different fuels. With research oriented to finding new ways to avoid
violations of the (NAAQS), particulate matter production, transport, and
dispersion have become key elements in the management of smoke from land
management open burning.
Results from empirical studies have yielded usable emission factors for
total suspended particulate matter (TSP) production from fires burning in
certain fuel types. These studies have also shown some important differ-
ences between emissions from heading fires and backing fires. The high
cost of such studies has led scientists to seek an alternate research
approach related to the carbon-balance equation. To date, however,
available emission factors are limited.
A high proportion of particulate natter in smoke from land management open
burning is in the fine fraction. This is illustrated by the particle size
relationship shown in figure 1, found to hold generally true for related
studies by others. The light scattering property of fine particulate
matter has led to suggesting a method (in appendix C to this Workbook) by
which the haze resulting from dispersing smoke may be included in input
evaluations to be made by Federal land managers responsible for visibility
protection in designated Class I Federal Areas.
Figure 1.
9939
99.9
u
K
U
o.
U,
MASS
DISTRIBUTION
98
Q.
93
90
80
_i
3
§60
u
40
30
20-
1.. i i i i 1 1 1 i i i i i 1 1 n
^'.4 6 k \ 234 570
PARTICLE DIAMETER, MICRONS
Distribution of smoke particles larger
than 0.4 micron. Distribution is based
on particle mass/3/
~3j From: Tangren, Charles D., Charles W. McMahon, & Paul W. Ryan, 1976.
Ch. II. Contents and effects of forest fire snoke. In: Southern
Forest Fire Laboratory Personnel. Southern forestry smoke management
guidebook. USDA For. Serv., Southeastern For. & Range Exp. Sta.,
Asheville, N.C. (p. 9-22). NOTE: citations are emitted from Workbook
text for reader convenience except where direct credit or recommended
reference is appropriate. For references related to subject fields,
see the section giving Selected References.
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9
At present, most predictive models adapted to management of smoke from land
management open burning deal with total suspended particulate matter (TSP).
Predictive models are employed in evaluations of alternatives to land man-
agement open burning, and of alternative approaches to operational smoke
management when burning is the selected alternative. Development and eval-
uation of alternatives is a key element of the process recommended in Parts
II and III of this Workbook. (See discussions starting on pages 13 and
24.) Model adaptations now available are used both indirectly and directly
in operational smoke management. Indirect applications are found in the
use of model-derived case examples, screening methods, and check lists.
Direct applications are found in use of models programmed for interactive
electronic data processing. With these adaptations, it is possible to pre-
test trial specifications being set forth in smoke management, operating
plans, as well as those being considered in 'teal-time" for individual
burning operations. For planning tests, climatologically derived weather
variables are used. For "real-time" tests, current weather observations
and forecasts are used.
Models thus applied can be valuable aids to decision makers. They are not,
however, suited to independently determining when to burn. This is a con-
sequence both of limitations of the models and of the need to exercise
judgement regarding situations not represented by available models.
(Examples of model limitations are: the statistical bases for many of
those commonly applied; adequately representing the flow of winds in
complex terrain. Examples of situations not represented are: a locally
urgent need; a priority that must be met, as when an opportunity to burn a
difficult location might otherwise be lost.)
ONGOING RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
Research and development expected to yield results bearing upon resolution
of issues related to land management open burning is most likely to be from
among 3 sponsor categories. Two are the U.S. EPA and the USDA, Forest
Service. The third category is the States, through State universities or
agricultural experiment stations.
Related U.S. EPA research and development will generally fall under the
headings of atmospheric modeling, source assessments, state of art reviews.
For a guide to the U.S. EPA research and development program, see the "ORD
Publications Announcement," as well as others, listed under Air Quality
Protection, Abstracting Services & Related, in the Selected References
Section of this Workbook, page 89.
USDA, Forest Service research and development may fall either in the
general resource fields (e.g., timber, range, recreation, etc.), as these
may yield results useful to alternatives evaluation, or in specialized
fields. These latter include forest fire, smoke management, energy &
forest residues, forest meteorology, forest economics (all within the
Forest Service Research Arm), and Equipment Development and Testing. Lo-
cal USDA, Forest Service Experiment Station personnel and Regional staff
group specialists are the best sources of information on relevancy of
ongoing work.
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10
State universities and agricultural experiment stations may deal with
locally important matters in crop management alternatives and equipment
development options where alternatives are being sought. They may also be
directly involved in smoke management. State agricultural extension agents
and State Forestry staff specialists are the best sources of information on
relevancy in this category.
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PART II - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS, IN BRIEF
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11
PART II - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS, IN BRIEF
It is the intent of this Part to capsule the process to be presented in
detail later.
LEADERSHIP & APPROPRIATE PARTICIPATION
A Lead Agency should be designated for the process. Functions of the Lead
Agency are those of:
Tentatively identifying any smoke problems. It is suggested that the
Lead Agency start the process by including a list of tentatively iden-
tified issues with the letter of invitation to organizations. Partic-
ipating organizations can be invited to submit additional, tentative
identifications. All issues should be identified with locales (i.e.,
whether state-wide or confined to a named local area); this will
help to obtain the best matches of issue-resolving actions to issues.
Examples of issues which might be identified are: when smoke from open
burning is believed to be a cause for violations of NAAQS; when it is
suggested existing air quality regulations are resulting in unmet land
management objectives; where visibility protection and enhancement are
mandated 'and a conflict has been perceived between visitor enjoyment
and open burning during the same season.
Inviting representatives from affected organizations. Invited par-
ticipation should be from organizations with capabilities for solving
problems. This will include both organizations with interests in
meeting air quality objectives and organizations with direct and
indirect interests in meeting land managememt objectives. (Examples
are: recognized air pollution control districts where land management
open burning is believed to have an important effect upon air quality;
associations advocating clean air and improved visibility; land
managing agencies and private owners; associations advocating spe-
cialized resources like improved wildlife habitat or wilderness
experiences.)
Representatives should be decision-makers. Each affected organization
can be expected to have 2 major concerns in addition to meeting the
overall objective of balanced air quality and land management goals. A
first concern will be that any problems are properly identified; orga-
nizations will also be concerned that any process-supporting work will
be commensurate with problems being addressed. These policy-level con-
cerns are intended to be addressed by the decision-makers in subsequent
process segments.
Technical specialist participation will depend upon the nature of
issues confirmed, issue-resolving criteria established, and commitments
to be made by decision-makers in subsequent process segments.
Maintaining documentation, and assuring that any followthrough actions
decided upon by participants are taken. By maintaining a record of key
decisions as the process moves forward, the Lead Agency can assure that
actions which may have to be taken over a fairly long time period are
not lost with the passage of time.
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12
Table 1 is provided for use as a documentation checklist. It may also be
of help for tracking the sequence of work to be done while following the
goals-balancing process.
Table 1. Suggested documentation checklist
Designated Lead Agency
Organizations invited and participating
Decision-maker organizational representatives
Any Technical Assessments performed as needed to reach decisions
on issues to be confirmed
Confirmed issues and potential issues, by locales (if none, this
should be documented)
Issue-resolving criteria, suggestions, special instructions
Technical specialists and resources committed to supporting work
Any technical reports covering developed and evaluated alterna-
tives
Record of action decisions, including implementation follow-
through, and by whom. (Should also include any record of public
information and involvement in reaching final decisions.)
SMOKE PROBLEM DETERMINATION
With public and technical issues as focal points for this goals-balancing
process, their confirmation by the participating decision-makers will
determine the existence and extent of any smoke problems. Obviously, if no
issues or potential issues are confirmed, this can be documented and the
process quickly closed out. When issues or potential issues are confirmed,
the work to be done in the remaining process segments becomes a logical
result.
Issue confirmation, including determining that locales are correctly
described, is a key role for the decision-makers. When issues are not
clear cut, the decison-makers may also find it necessary to provide for
specialists to make further technical assessments of the situations which
led to tentative identification.
Common sense may also anticipate potential future problems that could
become issues. These are to be handled as "supplemental criteria" in the
next section.
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13
DEVELOPING ISSUE-RESOLVING CRITERIA
With development of criteria for resolving issues, the participating
decision-makers can function both as a team solving a problem and as repre-
sentatives assuring that organizational concerns are given voice. For
example, if the issue is related to violations of the NAAQS, criteria could
be established specifying both: "There will be no future violations; land
management open burning will be assured a proportionate share of the
atmosphere's capacity for dispersal of pollutants."
The example immediately above illustrates that the job of developing and
evaluating alternatives can be technically demanding. For specialists who
may be called upon to do this work, the decision-makers may find that they
have insights to problems which can be passed on as special instructions,
along with the documented criteria. As part of these special instructions,
supplemental criteria may be suggested, or the technical specialists should
be given the understood freedom to add these for common-sense avoidance of
problems which are not currently issues.
COMMITMENTS OF TECHNICAL SPECIALISTS AND RESOURCES
Some criteria will clearly indicate an action calling for little or no
technical development and evaluation outside the decision-maker group.
Other issues and their criteria may call for supporting work by technical
specialists who will subsequently recommend actions to be taken.
Specialists and resources needed for developing and evaluating alternatives
will cone from the participating organizations. This calls for commitments
to be made by the decision-makers who represent affected organizations with
capabilities for solving the problems to be addressed. In some cases it
may be necessary to fund outside technical help.
Examples of the kinds of specialists that might be needed include: resi-
dues harvesting and utilization technologists, silviculttirists, agricul-
turists, agronomists, smoke management and air quality technologists,
economists, meteorologists, statisticians, modelers, equipment develpment
and test engineers.
Examples of resources include: funds for travel, for contracted spe-
cialists and equipment, for data processing; office space and equipment;
secretarial support; special services such as cartographic, report
duplication.
A special case of commitments of technical specialists and resources would
be when it appears to participating decision-makers that criteria for an
issue to be resolved can be met by an action taken internal to one
organization. In this case, the commitment would be to complete an inter-
nal evaluation of this action and to implement same, if feasible.
ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
For issues and criteria that were determined to require supporting work by
technical specialists, this segment of the process is devoted to develop-
ment of candidate alternatives, and to alternatives evaluation. Technical
-------
14
specialists performing this work include in their evaluations the issue-
resolving criteria, and any supplemental criteria, established by the
decision-makers. Suggestions and special instructions passed on with these
criteria are also taken into account. Technical specialists should also
consider any supplemental criteria of their own, seen as needed to avoid
potential future problems.
Of several alternatives evaluated, the specialists may recommend only the
top few to the decision-makers for action decisions. With these, their
evaluation reports should summarize the deciding factors to be considered.
Specialists should also append supporting materials (e.g., draft or skele-
ton proposals) related to recommendations implementation.
DOCUMENTATION, IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation is a result of action decisions. Those issues and criteria
calling for supporting technical work in development and evaluation of
alternatives are, by this point, covered by recommendations from the tech-
nical specialists.
The variety of possibilities for action decisions, and the possibility
that implementation of these decisions may require a long time period,
indicate a need for documentation and responsible followthrough.
The Lead Agency fills a necessary role by maintaining documentation for the
process. Followthrough by participating organizations will complete the
process.
-------
PART III - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS, IN DETAIL
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15
PART III - A RECOMMENDED GOALS-BALANCING PROCESS, IN DETAIL
It is the intent of this Part to parallel the process capsule from Part II
with amplifying discussions under the same headings. Subheadings are added
to provide separations for the expanded discussions. While Part II could
be used alone, this Part is somewhat dependent upon information previously
supplied, and here repeated only as necessary for maintaining continuity.
DETAILS: LEADERSHIP & APPROPRIATE PARTICIPATION
Lead Agency Designation
At the State level, the State Forester and the State Air Quality
Protection Chief are most likely to have knowledge of issues and poten-
tial issues where land management open burning may be related to air
quality. In sane States, the counterpart for Agriculture may have simi-
lar knowledge. A working relationship between these state-level policy
makers is seen as essential to operation of the process.
At this and other levels where the process may be applied among several
agencies, any one of those represented in the paragraph above is a
likely candidate for designation as Lead Agency.
The role of the Lead Agency includes tasks covered by the following
subheadings.
Tentatively identifying any smoke problems
Personnel of the Lead Agency, working with those of its air quality
or land management counterparts (see immediately above), should
develop a LIST OF TENTATIVE ISSUES. Issues should be identified
with locales as appropriate.
CATEGORIES OF ISSUES, here supplied along with some "prompt-
ers" of possibly conflicting goals or objectives, include the
following:
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) attain-
ment & maintenance. Are open burning sources known, or
believed, to be responsible for NAAQS violations?
Protection & enhancement of visibility in Class I
Federal Areas. Does smoke from land management open
burning pose definition problems (e.g., what is accept-
able visibility)?
Smoke Sensitive Areas. Are there incidents of highway
accidents or airfield closures due to the smoke from
open burning operations? While this issue category is
not part of the objectives usually stated in gauging the
air quality goal, it is usually an objective of smoke
management.
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16
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: LEADERSHIP & APPROPRIATE PARTICIPATION
It is believed excessive smoke results from alter-
natives not being properly evaluated. Are there
unexplored opportunities, or barriers which might be
overcome if the alternatives to open burning are exam-
ined on the broader basis afforded by this process? Is
there public pressure to employ alternatives?
Constraints in the absence of viable alternatives to
open burning. Can fuels, fire, and weather parameters
be specified for improved smoke dispersal? Can amounts
of burning be coordinated between burners? Do land
managers report unmet land management objectives or
excessive costs as a consequence of existing con-
straints?
LOCALES identified with each issue will help to pinpoint
those underlying causes which are definitely area specific.
While some issues may be statewide, others may be confined to
a very small area. For such issues, the more narrowly the
locale is defined, the more precise can be its treatment
under subsequent issue-resolving statements.
Suggested levels of locale include the following:
Designated Class I Federal Area
Designated Nonattainment Area
Airshed
Air Quality Control Region
Statewide, county-wide, or other recognized politically
bounded area.
Inviting representatives from affected organizations to participate.
A LETTER TRANSMITTING the tentative issues list should also
enclose a copy of this Workbook, and should invite replies to
include:
Suggested modifications of issues statements.
Suggested additions of other issues identified with
locales.
An expression of interest in possible further par-
ticipation through designation of a policy-level indi-
vidual to function as a decision-maker.
ORGANIZATIONS to which invitations are sent may include the
following:
Air quality related
Air quality associations
Air quality advisory boards & commissions
State air quality agency
State-authorized air pollution control districts, or
similar entities
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17
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: LEADERSHIP & APPROPRIATE PARTICIPATION
Land management related
Conservation associations
Farm Bureaus
Granges
Forest owner associations
Agriculture industry associations
Wildlife organizations
Livestock associations
Small woodlands owners associations
State Forestry agency
State Game agency
State Parks System agency
USDA, Forest Service
USDI, Bureau of Indian Affairs
USDI, Bureau of Land Management
USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service
USDI, National Park Service
Other organizations that might be affected
(Example: State Department of Transportation)
Counterpart organizations where long range transport of
smoke from open burning is of concern. Smoke from land
management open burning may originate and/or impact in
other States and countries. Where long range transport
of smoke from open burning is of possible consequence to
counterpart organizations, it may be advisable to defer
their participation. Deferment will make possible more
clear statements of resolving criteria for any intra-
state issues. The possible modeling and broad scale
coordination difficulties will then be better understood
for the long range transport problem as well. If
achievement of balanced goals remains contingent upon the
added participation of out-of-state counterparts, issues
related to long range transport can then be treated as an
expansion of this same process.
Maintaining documentation, and assuring that any followthrough
actions decided upon by participants are taken. As an addition to
the documentation table suggested in Part II, a second checklist to
be used by all participants will be covered in the final process
segment on page 34.
Participation Governed by Issues
If no tentative issues are identified by the Lead Agency, and none is
proposed by affected organizations, the recommended process will logi-
cally terminate with a letter to each organization so stating. Where
the issues are few and simple, the participation may logically be
handled by correspondence or telephone conferences. Meeting par-
ticipation may be the most efficient approach where the issues are com-
plex or there are several.
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18
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
DETAILS: SMCKE PROBLEM DETERMINATION
Confirmation of Issues
A major concern of participating organizations, to be addressed by
participants, will be the existence and/or extent of smoke problems.
An issue may arise from lack of data, lack of quantitative examinations
of available data, public misunderstanding as a consequence of com-
binations of these, or merely from inadequate communication. Situations
like these call for more than redefining issues and locales. Some such
issues may call for technical assessment before they can be confirmed or
denied.
Commitments to Technical Assessments for Issues Confirmation
Participating organizations are the source of technical specialists and
resources necessary to completing any needed technical assessments.
"Technical Assessments" should not be confused with the formal "Impact
Analyses," even though they may be similar in many cases. For example,
one technical assessment may deal only with determining if available
monitoring data show land management open burning to be an important
contributor to an air quality problem area. Another, however, may be
concerned with the level of smoke management sophistication now being
applied.
Documentation for Smoke Problem Determination
Documentation for this process segment should include:
A list of participants;
A list of issues examined, showing decisions reached, on: (1)
confirmation, (2) deferment for technical assessment, with target
date for completion of decision, (3) nonconfirmed, or rejected,
issues;
Corcmitments to technical assessment, and instructions prepared for
specialists being assigned (including target dates for completion).
DETAILS: DEVELOPING ISSUE-RESOLVING CRITERIA
This is a critical process segment in that criteria developed set the pat-
tern for all subsequent technical work in development and evaluation of
alternatives.
Examples of documented issue-resolving criteria, along with other documen-
tation for this process segment, are given in Exhibits 1, 2, 3, and 4,
introduced in the next subsection.
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19
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
DETAILS: COMMITMENTS OF TECHNICAL SPECIALISTS AND RESOURCES
The kinds of specializations and resources that may be needed for this pro-
cess segment are shown under this heading in PART II. Exhibits 1, 2, and
3, on the following pages, illustrate how commitments of personnel and
resources may be documented when confirmed issues pertain to more than one
organization. Exhibit 4 illustrates how a commitment to an internal effort
might be documented when the confirmed issue pertains to only one
organization.
(TEXT CONTINUES ON PAGE 24, FOLLOWING EXIBITS.)
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20
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
Exhibit 1. Example 1 (of 3) of documentation for a confirmed
issue pertaining to more than one participating
organization.
DOCUMENTATION FOR CONFIRMED ISSUE:
Present Nonattainment status & growth projections
have brought about the belief that land management
open burning should be curtailed to favor further
residential and industrial growth.
Locale: Browntcwn Air Quality Control Region
Issue Resolving Criteria: Land productivity will be maintained either by
public acceptance of a smoke management program (i.e.,
covered by an operating plan with adequate specifications
and procedures}, or by other cost-effective treatment
alternatives.
If it is found necessary to reduce the amount of
land management open burning, a fair share of the atmo-
sphere's capacity to disperse pollutants will be reserved
for the use of fire in those areas for which no acceptable
alternatives are available.
Commitments of Technical Specialists S Resources:
Fire management specialist from USDA, Forest Service
Forest residues specialist from Straight Grain Lbr. Co.
Smoke management specialist from State Department of
Forestry
Silviculturist from Brown Bag Co.
Fire ecologist from State University (funded by USDI,
National Park Service)
Dispersion modeler for complex terrain (hired consultant
funded by USDI, National Park Service, and
Straight Grain Lbr. Co.)
Air quality specialist from state Department of Environment
Air quality specialist from Brown County A.P.C.D.
Economist from State University (funded by State Department
of Environment & USDA, Forest Service)
Team Leader - Assistant V.P. for Community Relations, Brown
Paper Bag Co.
Office space, computational and report duplication
facilities, and secretarial support from Brown Paper Bag
Co.
Suggestions & Special Instructions: Preliminary data collection S impact
modeling from issue-confirming technical assessment should
be of value ... shows less than full smoke management
employed at present.
Any special public involvement to be employed
will be coordinated by the Process Panel. If to be
employed, submit proposed informational materials with
report of recommendations.
Report due 11/20.
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21
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
Exhibit 2. Example 2 (of 3) of documentation for a confirmed
issue pertaining to more than one participating
organization.
DOCUMENTATION FOR CONFIRMED ISSUE:
State air quality regulation prohibiting open burning of
any piled silvicultural debris is believed to be unduly
restrictive.
Locale: Statewide
Issue-Resolving Criteria: Land productivity will not be reduced.
Land management open burning will not result in
violations of NAAQS.
All valid reasons for the prohibition will be
satisfied.
Commitments of Technical Specialists & Resources:
Silviculturist from Indus. Forestry Assoc.
Silviculturist from State Department of Forestry
Smoke management specialist from USDI, Bureau of Land
Management
Mechanical pretreatments specialist from Long Slat Lbr. Co.
Air quality specialist from Big Catalpa River Air Pollution
Control District
Equipment development engineer from USDA, Forest Service
Fire behavior research scientist from USDA, Forest Service
Team Leader - Assoc. Chief for Leg is. Matters, State Air
Board
Office space, secretarial support, and report duplicating
service from State Air Board
Suggestions & Special Instructions: The air quality and land management
effects of present practices will be compared with those of
any alternatives considered for proposal.
If it appears that the prohibition resulted from
the past kinds of piles, how they were constructed, dirt
content, or how burning was scheduled, the evaluation
should include possible new specifications; if feasible, it
should recommend a means of placing these into effect.
The report is to be completed by 6/30.
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22
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
Exhibit 3. Example 3 (of 3) of documentation for a confirmed
issue pertaining to more than one participating
organization.
DOCUMENTATION FOR CONFIRMED ISSUE:
It is believed that excessive smoke results from
alternatives not being properly evaluated.
Locale: Western half of State
Issue-Resolving Criteria: NAAQS will not be violated.
Land productivity will be maintained
Commitments of Technical Specialists & Resources:
Timber marketing economist from State Department of Forestry
Timber sales specialist from USDI, Fish S Wildlife Service
Energy specialist from State Dep't of Energy Conservation
Orchardist from State Agricultural Experiment Station
Pulp s paper procurement specialist (part time) from Brown
Bag Company
Logging engineer from Clean Fibre Company
County Agent (part time) from U.S. Department of Agriculture
Materials handling engineer, consultant, paid for by
AGCOGROW Co.
Team leader - Deputy State Forester
Office space & clerical support from State Dep't of Forestry
Suggestions & Special Instructions: Prior investigations of agricultural
and timber harvesting residues have shown that specialized
materials handling skills needed for improved utilization
are not locally available. These investigations have also
shown that on an ownership-by-ownership basis, there is an
inadequate residue supply for investment in a new utiliza-
tion outlet. Transportation and stockpiling appear to be
major barriers. Regardless, public sentiment appears to be
high and deserves a studied response.
For this investigation, include the concept of
larger working circles for possible utilization sites and
processes. Examine means by which transportation and
materials handling costs could be offset as a benefit to
air quality.
Public involvement, if any, can be handled inde-
pendently as appropriate, but should be separately iden-
tified from this parent effort for the present.
Report due 9/25.
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23
Continuation PART
DETAILS
Exhibit 4. Example of documentation for a confirmed issue
pertaining to one participating organization
which in turn has made a commitment to develop
and evaluate alternatives for internal actions
that will resolve the issue.
DOCUMENTATION FOR CONFIRMED ISSUE:
Black Gold Airport has been closed on some nights
by smoke from land management open burning.
Locale: Downspout Airshed
Issue-Resolving Criteria: The Black Gold Airport will not be closed by
smoke from land management open burning.
Commitments of Technical Specialists & Resources: Arbor Berry Farms,
Inc. has committed itself to hiring a consultant to
identify meteorological specifications by which pro-
ducers can avoid sanitation burning on afternoons when
inversions may trap smoke in the vicinity of Black Gold
Airport.
Suggestions S Special Instructions: Arbor Berry Farms, Inc. represen-
tative will report back to Process Panel on accomplish-
ment by 6/8.
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24
Continuation PART III, DETAILS
DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
The work of this Process Segment is mainly done by technical specialists
assigned from participating organizations under commitments made by
the representing decision-makers. Following the specialists' work, the
decision-makers are to reenter the Process in the next main segment on page
34.
Technical specialists are to supply decision-makers with recommendations
supported by formal reports as requested. Appendices to these reports may
include draft proposals (such as for a residues utilization outlet), draft
smoke management operating plans, specially added technical assessments
(when needed to determine the extent of a problem underlying an issue),
etc.
This segment is not intended to stand alone even though it contains a fair
amount of supplementary material, including references to Workbook
appendices. It is expected technical specialists will bring to bear the
professional skills, personal knowledge, and literature necessary for
innovation. The Selected References Section of this Workbook is also pro-
vided for their use in starting appropriate literature searches.
Two Types of Alternatives are to be of Concern
The first type of alternative discussed is that of substitutes for land
management open burning. The second type of alternative is when open
burning is the selected practice.
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated in Selecting a Land Management Practice.
It is the purpose of this subsection to review those alternatives rou-
tinely evaluated by land managers in order to select the best practice;
open burning is one such alternative.
The tabular summaries employed, starting on the next page, must be
recognized as generalizations. Evaluation points accorded positive,
negative, and negligible effects in these tables must not only be
interpreted again for local areas, they must still be viewed as needing
site-specific interpretations.4/
It has seemed unnecessary to display the relative effects of foregoing
treatment. This alternative is suggested only where tract-by-tract
evaluations indicate that the land and the air will both benefit. On
such a basis, foregoing treatment is often selected; but in the overall,
the net effect of using fire to reduce the air quality and other impacts
of wildfires, plus the obvious benefits to the land management goal, do
not lead to emphasis for this alternative.
4/ Evaluation Points in the tables are in terms of effects. "Natural
Proc's Depend"cy" refers to a dependency upon natural processes in the
management of certain lands (e.g., as in Wilderness). "Pest (Non-
Disease) Contr." refers to control of insect, plant, and animal pests.
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25
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated in Selecting a Land Management Practice.
I
N
C
R U
E T
A I
S L
E I
D Z
A
R T
E I
S O
I N
D
U
E
S
AVAILABILITY: Subject to markets, materials handling, and
transportation $ & energy costs
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibility
_Air Quality
_Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
, Esthetics
Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
2
2
N
+
N
+
N
N
N
Z
+
1
3
3
N
+
3
+
N
N
N
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease^ Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
-
4
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
Z
-
-
4
N
5
N
N
N
-
+
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive I - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible- N = Not evaluated
1. Timber residues used in home heating may be negative
effect; 2. May require subsidy for individual farmer;
3. May call for consideration in wider working circle
for timber - net energy units a caution considering fuel
for equipment; 4. Can be negligible if needles & twigs
and other small material left, then burned... on south
aspects may need to leave larger material for shading; 5.
Can be negligible if needles & twigs and other small
material left, then burned.
M
E
C
H
A
N
I
C
A
L
C
H
0
P
P
I
N
G
AVAILABILITY: Subject to s
tured for ty
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
_Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
-
—
—
—
—
+
0
0
-
Z
+
+
-
-
—
—
—
+
0
0
-
uitable equipment being manufac-
pe of material to be treated
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
0
+
0
—
1
—
—
N
+
0
Z
-
+
+
0
—
1
—
—
—
+
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive j - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible! N = Not evaluated
1. Soil friability effect is too site-specific to
generalize for this practice.
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26
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated in Selecting a Land Management Practice.
A
I
R
C
U
R D
T E
A V
I I
N C
E
T S
Y
P
E
AVAILABILITY: Some commercially available for trench or
pit use. Vat type not known to be on market.
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
Capital Investment
[^Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
JSnergy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
-
—
1
+
-
+
-
0
N
Z
+
+
—
—
0
+
-
+
-
0
-
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl'ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
0
H-
0
N
N
—
—
-
0
0
Z
—
0
+
2
3
N
—
-
-
2
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive I - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible} N = Not evaluated
1. Could have application to burning of diseased orchard
clippings; 2. For timber residues & trench type, would
call for an excessive amount of trenching in many
situations - vat type may have application to some
rights-of-way work; 3. Effect on soil fertility would be
negligible if needles & twigs not removed from site.
H
A
U
L I
N
& C
I
N
E
R
A
T
E
AVAILABILITY: Commercial equip 't is available
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
Capital Investment
Cost/ Re turn
Disease Control
Esthetics
Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
-
-
+
+
—
+
0
0
N
Z
+
+
—
-
+
+
—
+
0
0
0
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl ' ty to Steep Terr .
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality j
Water Quantity
A
N
0
+
-
0
—
-
-
-
+
0
Z
-
—
+
-
1
-
-
-
-
+
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive I - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible] N = Not evaluated
1. If needles & small twigs left, then burned, effect
is negligible.
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27
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated in Selecting a Land Management Practice.
AVAILABILITY: Locations to accomplish may be limited due
to stumps &/or crop production area needs
EVAL'N POINTS
Accessibility
_Air Quality
Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics j
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
-
-
—
-
-
+
0
N
N
Z
+
+
-
-
—
-
-
+
0
0
-
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl'ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
—
0
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
N
0
Z
—
0
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive j - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible} N = Not evaluated
1. Site prep can be negative if much area taken out
production and/or if promotes growth of root rot.
of
B
U
R
Y
I
N
G
C
H
E
M
I
C
A
L
AVAILABILITY: Few chemicals available to substitute
for fire
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
-
-
-
+
0
-
1
0
N
N
Z
+
-
-
-
+
0
-
1
0
N
N
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
—
N
+
0
+
N
N
-
N
N
0
Z
—
N
+
0
+
N
N
-
N
N
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive I - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible] N = Not evaluated
1. No chemical known by which flame retardant character-
istic is permanent in open. No chemical known & no biolog-
ic agent known by which woody materials decay made more
rapid .
-------
28
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated in Selecting a Land Management Practice.
AVAILABILITY: Experimental only
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
jCapital Investment
_Cost/ Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
N
-t-
—
—
4-
N
_
+
-
0
+
Z
N
+
-
-
N
N
-
N
-
N
N
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc ' s Depend ' cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
N
+
N
—
-
-
N
N
Z
—
N
N
N
N
N
—
-
-
N
N
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive ! - = Effect generally negative
_0 = Effect generally negligible] N = Not evaluated
N
M
0
B
I I
L
E C
I
S N
A E
N R
I A
T T
I 0
Z R
E
R
AVAILABILITY: Ccranercial units in use
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
Air Quality
Capital Investment
_Cbst/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
-
—
—
0
—
+
0
—
—
Z
+
+
-
-
-
—
-
+
0
—
—
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
-
-
N
-
-
-
-
0
Z
-
+
+
-
-
N
-
-
-
-
0
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
-i- = Effect generally positive 1 - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible; N = Not evaluated
D
I
S
C
I
N
G
-------
29
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated Before a Land Management Practice Like
Open Burning is Selected.
0
P
E
N
B
U
R
N
I
N
G
AVAILABILITY: Widely applied
EVAL'N POINTS
Accessibility
Air Quality
..Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
1
0
+
+
+
0
+
2
N
N
Z
+
1
0
+
+
+
0
•f
2
+
+
EVAL'N POINTS
JStatural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl'ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
3
+
0
+
+
+
—
N
Z
+
+
H-
3
+
0
+
+
+
-
+
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive I - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible! N = Not evaluated
1. Generally negative, but tradeoffs are demonstrated
where prescribed fire has reduced total emissions when
all burning, plus wildfire, has been evaluated;
2. Depends upon area — certain number of fires are lost
from control annually; 3. Effect negligible when
parameters are properly specified.
-------
30
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated When Open Burning Has Been Selected.
Once the decision is reached to employ the open burning practice, addi-
tional alternatives are routinely evaluated. These impose certain pre-
burning requirements which constrain the operation.
The more cannon of these are here summarized in the same tabular format
used in the preceding section. Here again, local factors and site-
specificity must be taken into account. These are generalizations.
S
c
H
E
D
U
L
I
N
G
AVAILABILITY: Limited only as to experience & indicated neec
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil i ty
_Air Quality
_Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
+
1
—
•f
+
0
+
2
N
N
Z
+
+
1
—
+
+
0
+
2
+
+
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest ( Non-Disease )_Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl'ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
3
+
0
+
+
+
—
N
Z
+
-t-
+
3
+
0
+
+
+
—
+
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive j - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible} N = Not evaluated
1. Generally negligible — could be high for very sophis-
ticated program of scheduling; 2. Losses of fires from
control would increase in impact if schedule is for
higher fire danger; 3. Effect negligible when parameters
properly specified.
C
H
E
M
I P
C R
A E
L T
R
D E
E A
S T
I M
C E
C N
A T
N
T
AVAILABILITY: Limited number of approved chemicals
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil i ty
_Mr Quality
_Capital Investment
_Cost/Return
Disease Control
^Esthetics
Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
1
—
-
+
—
—
+
2
+
-
Z
+
1
—
-
+
—
-
+
2
+
-
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Gontr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Son Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl'ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
3
+
0
+
+
0
-
N
Z
-
+
+
3
+
0
+
H-
0
-
+
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive j - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible! N = Not evaluated
1. In that hotter fire results, effect is positive;
2. Depends on area — certain number of losses of fires
from com:rol annually. 3. Effect negligible when param-
eters properly specified.
-------
31
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Alternatives Routinely Evaluated When Open Burning Has Been Selected
p
I
L A
E N
D
0
R B
U
w R
I N
N
D
R
0
W
AVAILABILITY: Widely practiced
EVAL'N POINTS
_Accessibil ity
_Air Quality
_Oapital Investment
^Cost/Return
Disease Control
Esthetics
_Energy Conservation
Fire Hazard
Fire Risk
Native Fauna
Native Flora
A
+
1
-
-
+
-
-
+
0
0
N
Z
+
1
-
-
+
-
-
+
0
0
-
EVAL'N POINTS
Natural Proc's Depend 'cy
Pest (Non-Disease) Contr.
Site Preparation
Soil Erosion
Soil Fertility
Soil Friability
Suitabl'ty to Wetlands
Suitabl'ty to Steep Terr.
Suitabl ' ty to Understory
Water Quality
Water Quantity
A
N
+
+
-
0
2
+
+
+
N
N
Z
-
+
+
-
0
2
+
+
+
N
N
A = In agricultural lands Z = In all other lands
+ = Effect generally positive j - = Effect generally negative
0 = Effect generally negligible] N = Not evaluated
1. Effect can be dramatically positive for larger res-
idues materials piled in large piles — soil admix-
ture must be held to less than 30% — residual smoke
can cause problems if pile or windrow is damp and fuels
do not burn clean early in same day ignited; 2. Where
machine piling and windrowing, must be done during
drier cycles to avoid negative effect.
Alternatives Identified for Emphasis Due to Special Potentials
To Benefit Air Quality
Although the effects of alternatives in the preceding subsections are
generalized, they do point to 2 for special emphasis due to their poten-
tials to benefit air quality.
Increased Utilization Of Residues. Energy and products possibilities
from both agricultural and timber harvesting residues have been widely
discussed. Those residues which remain unused are accounted for in
terms of markets, capital investments in the face of uncertain supplies,
logistics, and net energy balances.
Logs which may appear sound to the untrained observer may be worthless
as raw material for wood products. This is due to hidden defects,
distance to market, or lack of current end-product markets. Handling
costs are higher for combinations of large and small sizes of logs and
for logs with different end-product suitabilities.
Widened circles of operation, joint ventures, commitments by public
agencies to assure supplies, and other innovations have potentials for
an acceleration of residues use.
-------
32
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
Increased Utilization Of Residues Continued
Marketing of standing timber is dependent upon the installed capacities
and capabilities of potential purchasers. Large industrial firms will
usually have capabilities for utilization, or for sorting and sales of
special materials to others. These capabilities are not available to
all potential purchasers of timber. The market for forest products, as
affected by both the national economy and locations of processing
plants, also bears heavily on utilization.
Particularly on public lands in the Western States, the practice of
yarding residues to a central point following harvesting of timber has
led to increased interest in the use of these piles of material. With
the cost of yarding written off as a public expense to reforest the land
due to air quality constraints, an economic incentive lias been provided.
Some wood products firms have found it feasible to cogenerate
electricity, or to increase utilization of residues for wood-derived
energy in other forms (e.g., steam). A broad preliminary investigation
of the residues potentials and energy-balance relationships (i.e., the
net energy units produced after consumption of all necessary hauling and
materials-handling fuel energy units) could delineate new areas where
further evaluations are worthwhile. These evaluations would need to
deal with marketing, amortization schedules (in particular, where
expected changes in age classes of timber to be harvested will mean
reduced residues in a relatively short time frame), and other environ-
mental benefits and costs.
If such evaluations are made, they should give consideration to the
growing demand for fibre to be used in residential heating. One home in
10 is now burning wood for heating. If this is considered in relation
to the increase reported in emissions from woodstoves, fireplaces, and
furnaces, it is reasonable to speculate that a new market opportunity
could be developed. The challenge of the current situation is that it
has the effect of moving a rural problem into an urban area.
Scheduling
The scheduling alternative is employed to different levels of sophisti-
cation to meet specified smoke production and dispersion conditions.
Sometimes this is merely labeled "Meteorological Scheduling;" but as
will be discussed below, the scheduling can include more.
Where appropriate, 2 applications of scheduling will be found within a
single smoke managment operating plan: scheduling applied to basic air
quality management; scheduling applied to visibility protection. These
are discussed separately here to provide a logical progression from the
basic need to that which may be found appropriate on a more limited
basis.
SCHEDULING APPLIED TO BASIC AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT. Smoke manage-
ment planning will usually include an analysis of the climatology
for the burning season or seasons. This analysis will be useful
in determining how readily the total burning job can be
-------
33
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
accomplished, based upon the number of days when specifications
that have been established for different burning situations can be
met.
In areas where analysis shows an ample number of burning days, the
job of scheduling on an operational basis is merely one of indi-
cating the maximum number of burns expected to be possible on any
one day. The management task is simply one of matching burns with
certain specifications to the forecast conditions...then, depend-
ing upon need, of setting a limit on the total number of burns to
be carried out (for airsheds or other sub-areas).
When the analysis shows that the number of burning days is limited
for the job load to be accomplished, it may be necessary to pro-
vide for budgeting and rebudgeting of the burn schedule.
Rebudgeting of burn schedules permits sometimes more, and some-
times less, than a predetermined number of burns for a particular
day (depending upon the day's departures from the climatological
norms for specified conditions). For this purpose, prior agree-
ment between organizations on the priorities to be used is
essential. Another essential is to have agreement on ways that
rebudgeting negotiations between a smoke management coordinator
and the burners is to take place.
With advance agreement on priorites and negotiation procedures,
scheduling with provision for rebudgeting is effective in avoiding
a rush of too many burns on the first few good days of a season.
This can also avoid having to set specifications so that some less
than optimum days are lost to getting the job done with a few
carefully chosen burns.
Most importantly, good budgeting and rebudgeting of the burning
schedule can effectivly utilize those peaks of better-than-average
smoke dispersion conditions that are not available to day-in-day-
out enmisions sources.
Appendix A to this Workbook contains three sub-appendices (Al, A2,
A3) suggested as technical aids to development of a smoke manage-
ment operating plan by which scheduling is carried out. Where
needed, operating plans become the vehicle for developing a full-
fledged smoke management program.
Appendix B to this Workbook offers some information on aids
available for predicting downwind concentrations of total
suspended participate matter, suggested earlier in this text as
the best available emission estimate by which smoke management can
be effected at this time.
SCHEDULING APPLIED TO VISIBILITY PROTECTION. The basic concept
underlying application of scheduling to visibility protection is
that there will usually be tijnes when the responsible Federal land
manager will experience variations in the need for affording
views. Beyond that basic concept, it is possible that even at
peak visitation times, or even at low visitation times, some ac-
ceptable or unacceptable visibility characteristics can be speci-
fied.
-------
34
Continuation PART III, DETAILS: ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT & EVALUATION
In carrying this concept forward, it is desirable that the smoke
manager be provided with an objective measure against which he can
make planning predictions. For example, the measure can be a
specified visiblity characteristic like values assigned to changes
in sky/terrain contrast. Such objective measures simplify quality
assurance on the smoke management job being done, opinion, loosely
stated about desired visibility, is not apt to serve well for this
purpose.
An aid for determining visibility protection needs for Class I
Federal Areas is supplied as appendix C to this Workbook. It will
be noted that this suggested aid provides for the responsible
Federal land managers to carry out their affirmative responsibil-
ity, mandated by Congress. A State following the process outlined
in this Workbook may find that this aid will supply the necessary
inputs from these Federal land managers so that visibility protec-
tion through scheduling in smoke management plans can be a reality
under the present state of the art.
DOCUMENTATION, IMPLEMENTATION
A documentation checklist supplied under this title in PART II is suggested
as a basic tool by which the Lead Agency can carry out the documentation
job.
Just as this is made the final process segment and the final section in the
main Workbook text, the documentation on hand and the implementation yet to
be carried out should be made a final subject of discussion between process
participants. Seme of the implementation tasks may require a fairly long
time period for completion. Some may result in new alternate paths being
chosen.
A second checklist of questions for both the Lead Agency and the par-
ticipants to maintain and consider in their closing discussions is started
below. As work progresses through the process, additional items for such a
checklist will be identified by participants.
Will a premise card file be needed for followthrough?
How are carmitments to actions to be assured?
Will public involvement be needed for any of the proposed
actions, and how is this to be coordinated with the public
involvment requirements of other organizations?
If public involvement results in a need to make revisions to
planned actions, how are participating organizations to be
brought back to make any decisions or further connitments to
technical support?
Have any needed authorities been properly identified, and how
are they to be assured? What are the alternatives if
legislation does not result in needed authorities?
-------
APPENDIX A - AIDS TO DEVELOPING & EVALUATING
A SMOKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
-------
35
APPENDIX A - AIDS TO DEVELOPING & EVALUATING
A SMOKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
At the outset, it must be stressed that SMOKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS SHOULD
ONLY BE IMPLEMENTED WHERE THERE IS A DEFINITE NEED.
A simplified operating plan may in itself be useful to help field units
maintain air quality to acceptable levels, without the formality of a Smoke
Management Program. No program, however, should be without an operating
plan.
This appendix is in three parts:
APPENDIX Al - ANNOTATED SAMPLE SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING PLAN
OUTLINE, starting on page 36;
APPENDIX A2 - CHECKLIST FDR SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING PLAN DEVELOP-
MENT (suggests, under the same outline headings as in
Al, the kinds of questions to be answered in develop-
ing a smoke management operating plan), start-ing on
page 40;
APPENDIX A3 - AN AID TO DETERMINING AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF SMOKE
MANAGEMENT SOPHISTICATION (suggests sane possible ways
of gauging how much smoke management may be needed for
a given set of circumstances), starting on page 52.
Appendices Al and A2 complement each other, with the latter suggesting the
kinds of questions that planners should address. Both appendices should be
regarded as the framework by which an operating plan appropriate to a par-
ticular situation can be developed. Neither is intended for uniform
application.
Where the need is simple, the headings of the outline in appendix Al may
survive, but not all of the content indicated by annotation would be
appropriate. Similarly, not all of the questions in appendix A2 would need
to be answered; this is why it is called a "checklist."
Having reviewed the questions in appendix A2, the reader will already have
a grasp of the degree of sophistication likely to be needed for an area
under consideration. Appendix A3 is intended to help with judging this
further, and with matching some possibly appropriate management approaches.
A further starting note to users seems appropriate here. Participants in
the process suggested by this Workbook are normally advocates from either
air quality or land management orientations. As advocates of separate
functional specialties, they may see needs differently, even though they
may be working together to solve a common problem. In an endeavor with as
many areas lacking in rigid guidance as smoke management program develop-
ment and evaluation, it will be difficult, but beneficial, if those from
different specializations recognize the strengths of expertise available in
a joint venture. Subjugation of the advocacy roles expected naturally of
individuals working daily to advance separate objectives is essential to
obtaining the best product.
-------
36
APPENDIX Al - ANNOTATED SAMPLE SMOKE MANGEMENT OPERATING PLAN OUTLINE
The following sample outline and annotations are adapted from work toward a
plan developed for actual use while testing this appendix. Note that
beyond the addition of an introduction, the major headings correspond to
the 3 smoke management functions identified in the text.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Purpose [What the plan is to accomplish.]
B. Background [What led to development of the plan.]
II. APPRAISAL FUNCTION
A. Existing situation
1. Confirmed issues
2. Issue-resolving criteria
3. Supplemental criteria
[Common sense avoidance of other potential
problems.]
4. Smoke management £ fire use policy
[Identifies both that which supports this plan
and that which may require substantial modifi-
cation.]
B. Technical assessment
1. Analysis of "smoke events"
[Summarizes results of analyses using best
available data to reconstruct the fuels, fire,
and dispersion conditions leading to events
covered by locally relevant and available docu-
mentation on the drift, effects, and nature of
smoke from open burning.]
2. Analysis of climatologically based weather parameters
[Summarizes results of analyses using available
weather records for months when land management
open burning may be conducted.]
NOTE: See appendix B to this Workbook for some possible
aids to the analyses to be done in B.I and B.2.
3. Analysis of needs for Class I Federal Areas visibility
protection
[See appendix C to this Workbook for a possible
approach.]
4. Analysis of indicated level of sophistication
[Summarizes results of matching possible man-
agement approaches to the local situation. See
appendix A3 to this Workbook for a possible
aid.]
-------
37
APPENDIX Al continued
C. Alternatives development & evaluation
1. Alternatives to the use of land management open burning
[Briefly localizes the pros and cons of alter-
natives from the tabular summaries in this
Workbook.]
2. When open burning has been selected, alternate ways of
preparing for, scheduling, and carrying out
this practice
[Briefly localizes the pros and cons of alter-
natives from the tabular summaries in this
Workbook. Summarizes tests of candidate com-
binations of values to be used in III, below.
See appendix B to this Workbook for some
possible aids to the analyses to be done.]
D. Conclusions
[Regarding development of specifications and
scheduling function and execution function.]
III. SPECIFICATIONS AND SCHEDULING FUNCTION
A. Specifications when other than land management open burning
is the selected alternative
[Developedto encourage employment of alter-
natives when feasible.]
B. Specifications when land management open burning is the
selected alternative
[Tables are used in both A and B to provide
specified value ranges by locales, fuel types,
and (in the case of those for B) categories of
pretreatment and firing patterns For A, the
values specify when alternatives to open
burning may be preferred. For B, the values
specify under what conditions burning may be
conducted, as well as when mopup may be
needed.]
C. Scheduling of burns
[Forcritical source locales, developing a
schedule of burns, based upon the specifica-
tions (in III.B), the burning load, and a
burning season(s) climatology. Where visibility
protection for Federal Class I Areas is part of
the plan, also incorporating any developed
specifications and time period provisions.]
IV. EXECUTION FUNCTION
A. Receipt and dissemination of weather information
-------
38
APPENDIX Al continued
B. Coordination
1. Internal
a. Smoke management weather interpretations
b. Burn schedule rebudgeting
[Priorities agreed to in advance; use in
advancing a "Rebudgeted Schedule;" provisions
for negotiation when conditions are limiting
and field burners are dealing with factors not
considered in rebudgeting analysis.]
c. Feedback & negotiation
2. External
a. State air quality - advance notices and special
alerts
b. Adjoining burners (i.e., those organizations which
may impact upon the same areas, but which are
not currently participants in this plan)
[Burn notification, impacts discussions, and
negotiation.]
c.
C. Quality assurance
1. Evaluations of current smoke observations, "smoke events
& episodes," complaints
2. Air quality monitoring
3. Accomplishment reporting
D. Steering Group makeup, need for special authorities
[Even if the smoke management program covered
by the plan is internal to one organization, it
may be desirable to provide for a steering
group made up of the line officers of sub
units. When more than one organization is
participating in the Program, a steering group
may be seen as essential. In some cases, new
legislation or other authority may be needed
for a Smoke Management Program to be carried
out.]
E. Staffing, day-to-day direction, and administration of coor-
dinator group
["Especially when more than one organization
participates in the Program, the operating plan
should set forth not only the staff
requirements, but how the staff will be
directed and who will be responsible for
administration.]
-------
39
APPENDIX Al continued
F. Funding
1. Coordinator staff group expense
2. Quality assurance expenses
3. Other overhead and smoke management administration ex-
penses
4. Pretreatment and burn execution expenses as a consequence
of meeting air quality objectives
[Discusses monetary and other cost impacts,
possible availability of special internal
account(s) to be made available when unforseen
weather changes force mopup or other emergency
actions.]
G. Provision for Plan Updates
[Covers cut-and-fit nature of plan, how any
current revisions to the plan are to be
effected, and how new plans are to be issued
every 5 years.]
DEFINITIONS
APPENDICES [Made part of file copy only. ..includes analy-
ses summarized in II, above]
SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSES [Made part of file copy only...covers analyses
of possible new alternatives and specifications
with promise, but needing further field eval-
uation or policy changes before these can be
made part of the operating plan.]
-------
40
APPENDIX A2 - CHECKLIST FOR SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING PLAN DEVELOPMENT
Starting with the Appraisal Function of smoke mananagement, this
appendix amplifies further the sample outline and notations presented
in appendix Al. While the same main headings are used as in the pre-
ceeding outline, questions to be answered in developing a plan are
given here in sequence. Since not all questions relate to all
situations, this permits the user to check off, or separately list,
those appropriate to his situation.
Here then, is a checklist for use if a plan is needed.
THE APPRAISAL FUNCTION
Existing Situation
1. Have any issues been formally identified? If issues have been
confirmed, what are the issue-resolving criteria established
for them? (This will bear directly upon the alternatives and
the specifications evaluated in preparing a smoke management
operat ing plan.)
2. What are the supplemental criteria by which alternatives and
specifications should be tested? (Besides those issues which
have been formally identified, there will be common sense
knowledge of the kinds of impacts to avoid in order to resolve
in advance other problems that might develop in the absence of
a pi an .)
3. What is the present policy (or "standard operating procedure")
regarding the use of fire and smoke management... are policy
changes needed?
Technical assessment
[As indicated in appendix Al, possible aids to technical assessment
may be found in appendices A3, B, and C to this Workbook.]
4. Air quality considerations for areas impacted by smoke from
land management open burning (LMOB)
a. Are National Ambient Air Quality Standards for par-
ticulates exceeded or predicted to be exceeded?
b. What is the ambient air quality level to which may be
added smoke from LMOB?
c. Do air quality data indicate concentrations of gaseous
pollutants from other sources that could be absorbed
or adsorbed on particulates to result in synergistic
health effects?
d. Does smoke from LMOB cause visibility problems from the
standpoint of traveler safety on highways, airports, air-
port approaches, etc.?
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41
APPENDIX A2 continued
e. Is there a need to identify item d locations or other
areas as Smoke Sensitive Areas?
f. Are there Federal Class I Areas for which visibility pro-
tection will be an objective of this plan, and what will
be the requirements for protection?
g. Does the topography of the area importantly influence
smoke dispersion? Will this lend itself to delineation of
locales for differing specifications and scheduling treat-
ment under this plan?
h. Does the meteorology of the area cause important disper-
sion or stagnation problems?
i. Are both prescribed burning and agricultural burning con-
ducted in the area under consideration? (See 5 and 6,
be low.)
5. Prescribed burning considerations in the area under study
a. Is (are) the season(s) the same for agricultural open
burn i ng?
b. What is the current level of burning in the area of
concern, broken down by:
(1) Burning type - broadcast, pile, etc.
(2) Fuel loading - net avai Iab I e tons/acre
(3) Fuel type
(4) Season of burning
(5) Other
c. What is the proposed level of burning in the future, bro-
ken down as above. The following should be considered in
making these determinations:
(1) Will timber harvest increase, decrease, remain the
s ame?
(2) Will there be increased utilization of residue for
chips, hogged fuel, firewood, other?
(3) Will there be an increase in the use of fire for:
(a) si I vicu I turaI purposes
(b) range improvements
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42
APPENDIX A2 continued
(c) wildlife habitat improvement
(d) fuels management?
(4) Will there be major construction projects such as
reservoirs, ski areas, roads, etc.?
d. Are there limitations on the number of days available to
do burning because of:
(1) Fire hazard
(2) Fuel moisture (both of living and dead fuels)
(3) Availability of manpower and equipment
(4) Stages of vegetation development
(5) Wildlife calving, nesting, etc., seasons
(6) Periods of heavy visitor use of forested areas, i.e.,
hunting season, holidays, etc.
(7) Lives tock use
(8) Other?
6. Agricultural burning considerations
a. Is (are) the season(s) the same for prescribed burning?
b. What is the current level of burning in the area of
concern, broken down by:
(1) Burning type - broadcast, pile, etc.
(2) Fuel loading - net available tons/acre
(3) Fuel type
(4) Season of burning
(5) Other?
c. Will the future (next 5-10 years) level of burning be
affected by foreseeable changes in crop types, farming
methods, or land use changes?
d. Are there limitations on when the burning can be done
(such as broadcast burning type, fuel moisture, fire
hazard), or can burning be deferred for extended periods?
7. How do the indicated preferred alternatives and specifications
test against criteria set forth above, and against a burning
season(s) climatology for opportunities to get the job done?
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43
APPENDIX A2 continued
8. What level of sophistication (with what matching management
options) will be needed to carry out the execution function?
Alternatives development and evaluation
9. What alternatives to land management open burning are viable
in the area under consideration?
10. What are the alternate categories of pretreatments, firing
patterns, and alternative schedules for open burning that are
practical in the area under study? Is mopup a likely post-
treatment need?
Conclusions
11. From the Appraisal now completed (Questions 1 through 10,
above), what conclusions can be reached regarding:
a. The need for a Smoke Management Operating Plan...for a
formal Program?
b. The specifications and scheduling function (to be answered
further starting with question 12)
c. The execution function (to be answered further, starting
with ques t i on 16)?
SPECIFICATIONS AND SCHEDULING JUNCTION
Specifications when other than land management open burning is the
selected alternative
12. Have viable alternatives to land management open burning been
identified with definable locales, fuel types, and situations
lending themselves to specifications which will encourage
their empIoyment?
Specifications when land management open burning is the selected
alternative
13. Can land management open burning situations be identified by
locales, fuel types, and pre- and post-treatments in order to
specify season(s) and conditions under which burning can be
expected to be permitted?
Scheduling of burns
14. Are there critical locales for which a tentative schedule of
burns should be developed, using the specificatons above, the
burning load, and a burning season(s) climatology?
15. If visibility protection for Class I Federal Areas is an
objective of this plan, have specifications been developed to
meet this need?
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44
APPENDIX A2 continued
EXECUTION FUNCTION
Receipt and dissemination of weather information
16. Data proces s i ng
a. Do topographic influences make smoke management weather
interpretations difficult?
b. Do specific meteorological conditions make it difficult to
develop dispersion forecasts?
c. Are suitable dispersion models available for the area?
d. What type of meteorological data are currently available
in a usab I e form?
e. What additional meteorological data are needed, and how
can it be obtained?
f. How far in advance is it possible to make smoke management
weather interpretations?
g. What data specific to the fuels and fire types is needed?
h. What type of facility, funding, and manpower commitment is
needed for data handling?
Coordination
The following supplemental information on smoke management coor-
dination may be useful in answering the questions in this section.
When more than one organization is participating in a Snoke
Management Program, member organizations should agree upon how
daily coordination will be handled. The lead coordination func-
tion may be assigned to one or more member organizations, or to
an independent group.
Coordination activities are illustrated by the flow diagram and
accompanying notes starting on the next page.
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45
APPENDIX A2 continued
A simplified diagram of the coordinator' s daily flow of work is
shown below:
c
Nat'l Weath. Serv,
weather forecasts
Land management
organizat ions
V
Meteorologists
[1]
[4]
[5]
V
Forecast
interpretations
[3]
Coordinator
Air regulatory
agencies
[2]
Weather interpretations
with restrictions
Burn schedule rebudget,
as needed
Notes on the flow paths of the above diagram, shown as [ ], are as
follows:
[1] Burn data should be supplied as far in advance as possible.
In many cases this can be months in advance of the burning
season. It should come to the Coordinator in a uniform
format.
[2] In many cases, real-time air quality data will not be
available; but the air regulatory agency should, however,
assist with estimates of ambient (i.e., "background") pollu-
tant levels; contact the Coordinator when complaints are
received from the public and air pollution alerts are called.
[3] The Coordinator may be the same person (or staff) developing
the Smoke Management Weather Interpretations. Meteorological
data from all sources should be submitted to the Coordinator
in a uniform format.
[4] The Coordinator must develop and communicate
interpretations and alerts in a timely fashion.
the weather
[5] On a particular day, the dispersion conditions may be either
more or less favorable than the climatologically determined
schedule of burns anticipates. Where there is a heavy
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46
APPENDIX A2 continued
burning load and burn scheduling has been agreed to, the
Coordinator will then have to rebudget the schedule to no
more burns than can be accoraodated. With favorable con-
ditions and by direct communication with burners, rebudgeting
for additional burning may also be possible. NOTE here, that
the diagram provides for a flow of coranunication in both
directions, indicating negotiated rebudgeting.
In addition to the above daily work, individuals functioning as
Coordinator should be assigned the following general
responsibilities:
Maintain records of all smoke management weather interpre-
tations, restrictions, negotiated changes in budgeted sched-
ule (where applicable), and meteorological inputs.
Compile information on the amount and type of burning that is
proposed and accomplished.
Compile information on air quality and land management
complaints and problems that result from the operation of the
Program.
Make recommendations on possible modifications to the Pro-
gram.
Prepare an annual report on the operation of the Program,
submitting it to member organizations, cooperators, and the
media (the latter possibly following approval of a separate
press release).
[End of supplemental information, continue now with checklist, under
Coordination.]
17. Internal
a. Can the data system (carrying forward from question 16,
above) be made available as needed to make timely,
accurate smoke management weather interpretations? At
what hours will these be needed by field personnel, and
how will this fit with weather forecast availability?
b. If needed, how can the system (in 17a, above) also handle
burn schedule budgeting (i.e. allocations of scheduled
burning between several operations, some of which may have
the potential to impact upon the same area), and accounting
for stiI I-pending burns?
c. In consideration of 17a and 17b, is a new type of com-
munication and data processing system needed, or will in-
place systems meet those requirements necessary to carry
out the following in a timely manner: get the weather
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47
APPENDIX A2 continued
interpretations to the burners; if needed, to handle burn
scheduling and burn schedule budgeting; carry out nego-
tiations when field units are dealing with factors not
routinely taken into account; provide for rapid feedback
on interpretations and scheduling?
18. External
a. Are there neighboring organizations which have burning
programs but which are not likely to participate under
this plan?
b. What informal coordination can be developed (e.g., burn
notifications, impacts assessments, negotiation between
designated cooperators) ?
c. What arrangements can be made to receive air pollution
alert and other key information from air quality agency in
a t ime I y manner ?
d. How should public information be handled?
Quality assurance
The following supplemental information on quality assurance for smoke
management may be useful in answering the questions in this section.
Any Program needs to have a built-in system which regularly
checks to see that the Program is meeting its objectives.
Without quality assurance, it is possible for a Program to
either fail to maximize its potential or to totally miss the
objectives it was designed for. With the problems and costs
associated with smoke management, it is not realistic to only
"hope" that a Program meets its needs.
Most Smoke Management Programs are based on meteorological
forecasts. The accuracy of the weather forecast and resultant
interpretations should be checked regularly to make sure Program
needs are met.
Both the unit making the weather interpretation and the people
in the field should help check for accuracy and sufficiency. It
is important that the people doing the burning regularly report
what happens to the smoke from their burns. It is not satisfac-
tory to report back "no smoke problem" or "moderate smoke
problem." The reports should document the meteorological con-
ditions during the burn, the plume height and direction, re-
sidual smoke, etc. This type of information vail help the
meteorologist improve future interpretations. Also, the burner
should report at-site meteorological conditions when he believes
the restrictions were too stringent. (Done as a part of the
feedback mentioned under internal coordination.)
In some cases it may be necessary to fly over burns to actually
track the smoke plumes. Where possible, air quality samples
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48
APPENDIX A2 continued
taken during the burn can be used to assess the accuracy of pre-
dictions used in making weather interpretations, assigning
restrictions, and, when needed, in making up burn schedule
budgets.
Hi-Vbl Samplers used in monitoring ambient air quality for total
suspended particulate matter (TSP) may provide quality assurance
data if arrangements can be made to operate monitoring sites on
days when the smoke from land management open burning may impact
on downwind locations of importance. In the absence of these,
data on TSP concentrations can sometimes be obtained through use
of an instantaneous-reading electronic device operated by a
cooperator in strategic locations at critical times. The
purpose, of course, is to determine if criteria (like NAAQS) are
being met.
(End of supplemental information, continue now with checklist, under
Quality assurance.)
19. What type of quality assurance system is needed to check the
accuracy of weather forecasts, of smoke management weather
interpretations, and of the smoke management being practiced?
20. What in-place monitoring facilities can be used, and what
supplementary methods need to be employed?
21. How should burner feedback and smoke observations ("smoke
event reports") be made a part of this system?
22. 'What methods should be used to obtain burn accomplishment
reporting to make this a part of quality assurance?
23. How are quality assurance data to be processed, interpreted,
and reported upon...and how are the reports to result in any
necessary Program changes?
Steering group makeup, need for special authorities
24. Will a steering group be needed, and what should be its
makeup?
25. Is this to be a voluntary smoke management effort, or has it
been decided that in order to meet the "Enforceable Rules"
requirement of U.S. EPA, a mandatory Program will be effected?
If the latter, are new legislative or other authorities
needed?
26. If a voluntary Program is being planned, can a steering group
provide the basis for quasi-officia I recognition (possibly
necessary to avoid a "bad name" being tagged to the smoke
management to be practiced if a nonparticipating burner does
not practice adequate smoke management)?
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49
APPENDIX A2 continued
Staffing, day-to-day direction, and administration of coordinator
The following supplemental information may be useful in answering the
questions in this section.
The staffing needs for a smoke management coordinator group will
vary in relation to the size of the burning Program, the potential
for air quality problems, and the complexity of the smoke manage-
ment itself.
The key areas in which staff is needed are collection and pro-
cessing of burn data, collection and processing of meteorological
data, and formulation and dissemination of smoke management
weather interpretations. Staff effort is also needed to carry out
quality assurance.
The options for staffing a smoke management coordinator group
include:
Using competent in-place personnel by adding to their
existing duties. (In the case of 3noke Management Programs
with several participating organizations, this may mean that
one organization becomes an agreed-to home base for the coor-
dinator group, with responsibility for day-to-day direction
and adminstration.)...
and/or...
Hiring or contracting with individuals to work during the
months of the year when land management open burning
emissions are important. In only a few cases will it be
necessary for the smoke management coordinator group to
operate at full capacity on a year-round basis. (Under this
arrangement, one participating organization may "contract" to
others, or all participating organizations may contract to
yet another entity, using the steering group as the contract
administering body.)
The need for staffing can be reduced if each burning organization
collects and forwards its own information on the amount, location,
type, etc. of proposed burning. It is important that this infor-
mation be transmitted to the smoke management unit in a uniform
format, well ahead of the burning season.
Where supplementary meteorological data (i.e., surface winds, fuel
moisture, temperatures, and winds aloft) are needed, it may again
be possible to use in-place personnel of some of the participating
organizations to help collect it. This will depend on whether or
not any of them have facilities and operations at the locations
where the additional data are needed.
It should be noted here that meteorological data may be collected
and processed by technicians. Trained meteorologists are needed
to use these data for smoke management interpretations.
(End of supplenental informaton; continue now with checklist, under
Staffing, day-to-day direction, and administration of coordinator group.)
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50
APPENDIX A2 continued
27. What numbers and what specializations of personnel are
needed to carry out the work of the coordinator group?
28. What option fits best for supplying these personnel and
providing for their day-to-day direction and ad-ninistra-
t ion?
Funding
The following supplemental discussion may be useful in answering the
questions in this section.
Smoke management may be regarded by some as an air quality func-
tion deserving special appropriations. By others, it may be
regarded as merely another cost of carrying out the job of land
management. These positions pose policy questions which must be
answered on a case-by-case basis. A rationale that may be helpful
in reaching decisions is the following.
For those expenses which are necessary to meeting criteria
like avoidance of NAAQS violations, a parallel could be drawn
with the required installation of pollution control devices
at a stationary emissions source. Since those installation
expenses are borne by the source industry and its consumers,
it might then follow that organizations participating in a
Smoke Management Program could be expected to pay for its
operation.
When more stringent criteria may result from pressures
brought to bear by a limited public, the expenses and the
possibly forgone natural resources may become special cases.
An example would be the criterion to avoid further complaints
from a new community in a mountain area where no amount of
smoke is tolerated, and intentional use of fire is not
understood. In this example, to meet such a criterion, the
costs of carrying out alternatives to burning, or of exe-
cuting burns with expensive pre- and post-burning measures,
could be recognized as neither funded, nor with parallels.
Between the extremes just covered are many less easily cate-
gorized issues and criteria. In the development of a smoke
management operating plan, the needs are: to recommend
funding approaches that seem reasonable; to convey any mone-
tary or other costs to the decision-makers for resolution by
other means (such as public information and involvement).
If it is decided that participating organizations are to fund the
staffing and related expenses of a Smoke Management Program,
options for equalizing the expenses may include:
Charge/acre of material burned,
Charge/ton of material burned,
Charge/required day to get the burning done, and/or
Charge/percent of total area under management.
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51
APPENDIX A2 continued
The first two of the above options might provide incentive for
participating organizations to reduce the amount of burning they
do. Other funding options (among several possible) would be to:
Split all costs evenly between participating organizations;
Provide for an equitable severance fee on all harvested crops
(including timber) for which residues or regeneration treat-
ments include the use of land management open burning;
Obtain State enabling legislation which includes an appro-
priation to pay for at least the basic Program expense.
(End of supplemental information; continue now with checklist, under
Funding.)
29. Do any criteria established by the decision-makers result in
monetary or other costs which warrent making recommendations
for resolution by means other than this operating plan?
30. What are the expenses to be covered for
a. The coordinator, staff group
b. Quali ty as surance
c. Other overhead and smoke management administration
d. Pre-treatment, burn execution, and post-treatment as a
consequence of meeting air quality objectives?
31. How are the expenses in each of the above categories to be
met?
Provision for plan updates
32. Is 5 years a satisfactory life for this plan?
33. How should intermediate revisions be effected?
DEFINITIONS
34. What terms used within the plan need to be defined?
APPENDICES
35. Are analyses sirrmarized under the appraisal function of this
plan which should be made part of the record by attachment to
the file copy?
SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSES
36. In the course of carrying out the appraisal function, were any
promising alternatives or specifications brought to light
which bear further field evaluation and/or policy changes with
an eye to making these part of this plan by subsequent
revision?
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52
APPENDIX A3 - AN AID TO DETERMINING AN APPROPRIATE
LEVEL OF SMOKE MANAGEMENT SOPHISTICATION
The variation to be expected in answers to the questions in appendix A2
should make obvious the area-specific and individualized nature of smoke
management planning. No "cookbook" approach can be devised to adequately
cover what can be done better by specialists familiar with a local
situation. At the same time, however, there are some general concepts
which do lend themselves to systematization. These are presented in this
appendix as an aid for possible use in hazarding some first-approximation
comparisons with matching management approaches.
The 3 main sections of this appendix will supply information in the follow-
ing sequence:
Section 1 has been written to provide either for readers who pre-
fer to assign their own "index" of an indicated level of smoke
management sophistication, or to obtain the "index" elsewhere.
The "index" is then used to obtain some possible matches with
suggested smoke management operating procedure options;
Section 2 is for readers whose preference is to defer section 1,
first obtaining an "index" of an- indicated level of smoke manage-
ment sophistication by a state-of-art method here advanced for the
first time;
Section 3 discusses the bases for development of this appendix.
1. OBTAINING SOME POSSIBLE MATCHES WITH SUGGESTED SMOKE MANAGEMENT
OPERATING PROCEDURE OPTIONS
The table beginning on the following page is to be used. Four "index"
levels of smoke management sophistication are available for selection,
with level "A" being the lowest level of sophistication. An "M" is
shown in each of the four "index" columns where a match with a
suggested smoke management operating procedure occurs.
IT MUST BE STRESSED THAT THESE ARE ONLY POSSIBLE MATCHES ... TO BE
TREATED AS NO MORE THAN A FIRST APPROXIMATION OF WHAT MAY BE YOUR
FINAL SET OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
Use either your own "index" of smoke management sophistication, or
one obtained elsewhere. Trace the corresponding index column in the
following table for possible matches with suggested procedures.
[Section 2 of this appendix (pages 58 to 64) has been provided as an
approach to obtaining an "index," if your preference is to deter sec-
tion 1 to obtain the index by the method of Section 2.]
It is suggested you circle any "M" in the table which corresponds to a
procedure you believe should be recommended for the situation being
analyzed. (If you are tracing more than one index column in order to
recommend more than one option, different colors of pencil may help to
maintain separation.)
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53
APPENDIX A3 continued
TABLE OF STROKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING PROCEDURES OPTIONS
AND POSSIBLE MATCHES WITH INDICATED
LEVELS OF SOPHISTICATION
SUGGESTED
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING
PROCEDURE OPTIONS
A. OVERALL MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
1. Inform open burners - use lay
language in "Burner's Handbook'
with possibly separate editions
for agricultural and prescribec
burners. Contents: Tips on
when & when not to burn; avail-
ability of any specially use-
ful weather forecast informa-
tion; how to obtain any avail-
able stagnation, or other re-
lated alerts; effects of major"
fire types and fuel arrange-
ments; best times of day; how
to carry out the "cleanest"
burn. Open & close with notes
recognizing alternatives to
burning. . .benefits to overall
air quality.
2. Train open burners. Expand
upon A.I, above . Emphasize :
alternatives; weather forecast
interpretation; carrying out
"cleanest" burn.
3. Encourage voluntary anoke Man-
agement Programs among larger
landowners and land-managing
agencies. Program format for
consideration: within each
volunteering organization ,
utilize best available smoke
management interpretations of
current and forecast weather;
make burn-no burn decisions a
locale-assigned responsibility
where practical , treat locales
under program by subdivisions
(airsheds, where definable,
otherwise by political or man-
agement unit boundaries); use
POSSIBLE MATCHES (M)
WITH INDICATED LEVELS OF
SMOKE MANANAGEMENT
SOPHISTICATION I/
A
M
B
M
M
C
M
M
D
M
M
•
\J The indices A, B, etc. are from step 6 in section 2 of this appendix
(see pages 62-64), unless indexed independently by users who prefer
their own index.
Please go to the next page.
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54
APPENDIX A3 continued
SUGGESTED
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING
PROCEDURE OPTIONS
(A. 3. continued)
case-examples of smoke produc-
tion, downwind concentration
predictions, to limit daily
open burning smoke production
as necessary to remain within
NAAQS and/or other locally
established criteria.
4. Formally recognize (e.g., by
published rule) a self-regula-
ting Smoke Management Program.
Program format for consider-
ation: essentially same as A3,
above, except open burning to
be carried out under a permit
system, with 'permits revocable
or suspendable. Revocation to
be used to effect meeting of
established Program Standards.
Suspension to be used when ad-
ministering agency determines
atmospheric conditions unfavor-
able for transport and disper-
sion in any locale. Note: Ad-
ministering organization must
POSSIBLE MATCHES (M)
WITH INDICATED LEVELS OF
SMOKE MANANAGEMENT
SOPHISTICATION
A
have technical staff and weather
interpretation capabil i ties .
5. Formally recognize (e.g., by
published rule) a Smoke Manage-
ment Program essentially as in
A. 4, above, except that where
technical assessment has shown
a need among large ownerships,
self-regulation could include
rebudgeting between owners (anc
agency personnel where public
lands are involved) of the
amount of burning to be done or
any day. Burn budgets will be
dependent upon use of case-ex-
amples. Interactive programs
with automated data processing
could be developed for use to
determine the amount of burning
that could be accomodated.
B
M
C
M
M
M
D
*
*
M
* NOTE: Match applies but higher level of sophistication needed, see
items 5 and 6 below.
Please go to the next page.
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55
APPENDIX A3 continued
SUGGESTED
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING
PROCEDURE OPTIONS
(A. continued)
6. Formally Recognize a smoke man-
POSSIBLE MATCHES (M)
WITH INDICATED LEVELS OF
SMOKE MANANAGEMEOT
SOPHISTICATION
A
agement program in which the ad-
ministering organization could
handle burn schedule rebudget-
ing local e-by-1 ocale , following
priorities previously agreed
upon between burners. Negoti-
ation procedures worked out in
advance would be a requirement.
Preplanning should define
categories of permit, using
technical assessments by burn-
ing types and locations to
identify defining criteria. In
this way, certain types of oper:
burning can be permitted as in
A. 4, above. For burning types
with high impact potentials, an
automated data processing sys-
tem which accomplishes the fol-
lowing might be needed: pro-
cesses requests for permits on
first-come-first-served basis,
except as certain well-defined
priority-burns are moved ahead
in scheduling; is accessible to
all open-burners whose opera-
tions fall within this permit
category (either through field
offices of the administering
agency, or by direct dial-up);
is interfaced with hourly up-
datable weather data for use ir
applying smoke management in-
terpretation programs to deter-
mine upper limit of the day's
budget of burning.
Desirable characteristics
of the system would be a capa-
bility to provide burners upon
inquiry: (1) an indication of
the week of the season in which
their requests for permits are
likely to be filled; (2) con-
firmation permit is to be made
B
C
D
Please go to the next page.
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56
APPENDIX A3 continued
SUGGESTED
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING
PROCEDURE OPTIONS
(A. 6. continued)
on next available burning day;
(3) tentative confirmation of
permitted status planned for
next day; (4) confirmation of
permitted status, early a.m. oi
day permitted; (5)smoke manage-
ment interpretations of current
and forecast weather for local
area Automatic adjustments
for cancellations, permits be-
ing withheld due to changed
forecasts, and missed opportu-
nities can also be seen as a
system need.
B. MANAGEMENT-SUPPORTING OPTIONS
1. Current and forecast weather
a. Narrative, NOAA Radio
b. Narrative, NWS Fire Weather
c. Smoke management interpre-
tations , narrative
d. Smoke management interpre-
tations, interactive pro-
grams providing downwind
concentrations
e. Input data for models
f. Stagnation & related alerts
2. Accounting & permits allocation
program
3. Case examples
C. IMPLEMENTATION OPTIONS
1. Smoke management operating
plans
2. Rulenraking, recognizing formal
smoke management operating
plans (to be made, or in exis-
tence)
POSSIBLE MATCHES (M)
WITH INDICATED LEVELS OF
SMOKE MANANAGEMENT
SOPHISTICATION
A
M
M
M
M
B
M
M
M
M
M
C
M
M
M
M
M
M
D
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Please go to the next page.
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57
APPENDIX A3 continued
SUGGESTED
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING
PROCEDURE OPTIONS
D. INCENTIVES OPTIONS
Under general procedures where per
mits would be required, exemption
from permit, or priority-status,
can be recognized when certain
requirements are met. This, in
turn, can be used as a way of
offering incentives to open burn-
ers to create less air quality
impact. Some examples follow:
1. Heavy residues treated by
yarding to large piles (the YTffi
practice), and burned...
a. While it is raining, may be
exempted from required per-
mit.*
b. In early morning hours so as
to be fully consumed by a
specified time, may be giver
priority status.*
2. Light fuels such as grasses
(which are very subject to poor
burning conditions following a
short period of rain or high
humidity) can be given priority
status if a backing fire or
strip backing fire is to be
employed .
3. Residues such as orchard prun-
ings, timber-harvest limbs and
tops to a specified minimum
size, etc., which are in piles
covered with an approved mate-
rial , and are burned while it
is raining, may be exempted.
4. Heavy fuels that would normally
burn into the night, but which
will be mopped up (i.e., extin-
guished) may be given priority.
POSSIBLE MATCHES (M)
WITH INDICATED LEVELS OF
SMOKE MANANAGEMENT
SOPHISTICATION
A
_
B
C
M
M
M
M
D
M
M
M
M
*Caution here, however, to be dependent upon careful weather
interpretations since stable conditions may accompany these
periods.
Please go to the next page.
-------
58
APPENDIX A3 continued
2. OBTAINING AN INDICATED "INDEX" OF NEEDED SOPHISTICATION
This section is for readers who have deferred section 1 to first obtain
an "index" of an indicated level of smoke management sophistication for
use in the table in that section.
The net hod suggested here has been tested on only a few actual
situations and may bear adjustment with further testing. Artificial
values are used to represent descriptions of situations being analyzed.
These and the resulting "index" have no directly measured bases, but
are used to obtain relative weights. (See further discussion of the
concept and how the method was developed in section 3.)
Six steps are to be completed.
Step 1 - Smoke management locales
A decision must be made here to either obtain an indicated index for the
entire area under consideration, or to make separate estimates. It is
suggested that if there are large portions of the area in which there are
likely to be few smoke problems, a first approximation of a logical sub-
area with the greater problems be delineated, and all steps below completed
for this area alone. Later, other locales or subareas can be delineated,
and further iterations of these steps be carried out as needed. These sub-
divisions by locales will also help with setting up appropriately different
specifications for different locales.
An example problem area would be a fairly large airshed or drainage
where nighttime downslope winds and temperature inversions have
resulted in a problem with trapped smoke in the past; upslope areas
where burning takes place could then be delineated as a logical smoke
management locale.
NOW, THE REMAINING STEPS SHOULD BE APPLIED SEPARATELY TO EACH CATEGORY OF
SMOKE MANAGEMENT LOCALE DELINEATED IN STEP 1.
Step 2 - Relation to issue-resolving criteria & added criteria
In this step, you are to match the most stringent criterion being applied
to smoke management for the area under consideration with the closest cri-
terion descriptor in the following table...Then circle the corresponding
numeric value.
Criterion Descriptor
Relates to a law, reg-
ulation, or ordinance
_that is not fully met.
Relates to perceived
social pressures which
scan strong enough to
resul t in passage of a
law, regulation, or
ordinance, if criterion
is not met.
Any criterion not match-
Ling other descriptors
Nuneric Value
10
7
1
Criterion Descriptor
Relates to perceived
social need which
decision-makers desire
to be met.
Relates to perceived
social pressures which,
though not likely to
result in law, regula-
tion, or ordinance, wi
demand administrative
t rne if cri terion not
met.
Nuneric Value
5
1 2
Please go to the next page.
-------
59
APPENDIX A3 continued
The following table will be used in step 3. While available input data
have been in part adjusted to more closely approximate open burning
conditions, it is likely that the weighted ventilation factors will
sctnewhat overestimate the actual conditions when smoke may persist into
evening or night; this is of particular concern for low terrain, mountain
valleys, and canyons where local temperature inversions will occur, but,
because of location, not be a part of the National Weather Service (NWS)
upper air station observations. (See also section 3 of this appendix for
development notes.)
TABLE OF EIGHTH) VENTILATICN FACTORS
r^wo Location
Station WINTER
(Dec. -Feb.)
ALAbAvK
iVQVl Montgomery
ARIZCNA
TUS Tucson
INV Winslow
ARKANSAS
LIT Little Rock
CALIFORNIA
CAK Oakland
SAvl San Di ego
SIVD Santa Monica
COLORADO
DEN Denver
GIT Grand Junction
FLORIDA
JAX Jacksonville
MIA Miami
TPA Tampa
GEORGIA
AhN Athens
IDAHD
BO! Boise
ILLINDIS
PIA Peoria
KANSAS
DDC Dodge City
TOP Topeka
LOUISIANA
BRJ Burrvwod
LCH Lake Charles
ShV Shreveport
MAINE
CAR Caribou
PVW Portland
1800
1500
1100
1900
1100
1000
1100
1600
1100
2100
2100
2000
2100
1400
1900
2200
2300
2200
2200
2100
2600
2400
Factors oy
SPRIN3
(Mar .-May)
1800
1800
2000
2400
1900
1300
1400
2200
2400
2300
2500
2300
2200
2100
2600
3200
3200
2200
2200
2600
2800
2800
seasons
SLMVER
(Jun. Aug.)
1300
1600
1400
1400
1200
800
800
1500
1800
1700
1700
1600
1400
1200
1600
2600
2000
1500
1500
1600
2100
2000
AUTUVN
(Sep,-Nov.)
1200
1400
1000
1300
1000
800
900
1100
1300
1700
1900
1900
1500
1400
1600
2200
1900
1900
1500
1500
2200
1900
MASSACHUSETTS
ACK Nintucket 3200 3000 2000 2300
MICHIGAN
FNT Flint 2400 2600 1600 1800
SSM Sault Ste. Marie 2000 2300 1700 2000
MINNESOTA
INL Internal'1 Falls 1800 2300 1700 2000
STC St. Cloud 1900 2600 1700 1900
MISSISSIPPI
JAN Jackson 1700 2000 1200 1200
MISSOURI
CBI Coli/rbia 2200 2900 1700 1900
Table continues, next page
-------
60
APPENDIX A3 continued
TABLE CF WEIGHTED VENTILATICN FACTCRS (Cont'd.)
r*Vb> Location
Station WINTER
(Dec. -Feb.)
lYLNI/aNOi
GGW Glasgow
GIF Great Falls
NEBRASKA
LBF North Platte
MC\/Af\A
INbV/'LJ'K
ELY Ely
LAS Las Vegas
WVC Wi nnenucca
KCVl/ »jfVI/'Y^
NEW IVEXIQj
ABQ Albuquerque
NEWVCRK
ALB Albany
BUF Buffalo
JFK New York
M^DTTJ f~AI>~^ IMA
INLKln C^HULIrA
HAT Cape Hatteras
GSO Greensboro
MPDTLI rvM/PYTA
NLKIn QANJiA
BIS Bismark
CHIO
DAY Dayton
CV\ Al_r"» JIA
(-KL/SHLM^
CKC Oklahoma City
ORS£N
MFR Medford
SLE Salem
PENNSYLVANIA
PIT Pittsburgh
C.r^\ m_i y*Arytf IK.IA
SQJlH OVCLIm
CHS Charleston
C^^ nrt_i r^Ai/yTTA
btUTH DAKOTA
RAP Rapid City
TENNESSEE
B^4^ Nashville
TEX4S
^/Kk Anarillo
BRO Brownsville
ELP El Paso
Mi\F Midland
SAT San Antonio
UTAH
SLC Salt Lake City
WASHINGTON
SEA Seattle
GEG Spokane
\I/ACI_I i N/"*"r*^Ki r% /~
W^SHINjTCN, D.C.
DIA Washington D.C.
WEST VIRGINIA
HTS Hun ting ton
\A/I C/T^MC IM
WI jUJTOlfN
GRB Green Bay
YAAjT^MI lif*
WYvMIKa
LND Lander
1600
3300
1900
1400
1400
1200
1600
2400
2800
3100
2700
1900
2000
2400
2400
700
1300
2300
2000
2200
2000
2300
2600
1700
2000
2000
1400
1800
1600
2300
2000
2300
900
factors oy seasons
SPRIN3 SUWER
(Mar. -May) (Jun. Aug.)
2600
3200
2800
2300
2400
1900
2400
2800
2700
3300
3100
2300
2800
2700
3500
1200
1400
2400
2200
2900
2400
3200
3300
2800
3100
2700
2200
2300
2200
2500
2400
2600
1900
2100
2000
2100
1100
1800
900
1700
1800
1800
2200
2300
1500
1800
1500
2400
700
1000
1400
1700
1900
1300
2500
2800
1700
2500
2100
1600
1500
1500
1400
1100
1800
1300
AJTUVN
(Sep. -Nov.)
1800
2600
1700
1300
1400
1200
1300
1800
1800
2200
2200
1500
1800
1700
2200
600
1000
1600
1500
1900
1300
2100
2100
1200
2000
1800
1500
1500
1400
1600
1100
1900
1100
NOW GO TO STEP 3 ON THE NEXT PAGE
-------
61
APPENDIX A3 continued
STEP 3 - Relation to management situation
In this step, you are to obtain a set of values which will represent" the man-
agement situation for the area under consideration.
There are 5 parts to this step.
1 . Cl imatological cons
SEASCNS
[Conpl. this part
for each season in
which burning take;
place. Use boxes or
make entries as
appropriate for
each entry in a-d.
See Part 2 in re
SLM (last coiunn).
for WINTER
for SPRIN3
for SUVMER
for AUTUVN
a.
i derations
The Table of Vent.
Factors
shows a value for
the most representative
station which is:
representative val. o1
2101 or
more
1
1
1
1
N3TE#
N3TE H
1601 to
2100
4
4
4
4
1600 or
less
10
10
10
10
b. Days
avai . tc
burn, fr.
stdpoint
LJVI. Cbj.
A
m
P
I
e
1
1
1
1
A
d
e
q
•
2
2
2
2
L
i
m
t
d
4
4
4
4
c. Enter
fron not*
#1 below
the value
describ'i
your sit-
uation.
d. Enter
fron note
#2 below
the value
describ'j
your s i t-
uation.
e. SIM
of seas .
point
values
( a+b+c
+d=SUVl)
1: For step 3, part 1c, above, select a value fron the following table
which best describes the managenent situation for each season,
entering these values above.
Burns, incl
gnoldering
phase wi 1 1
usual ly...
, Last only a
few dayligh
Hours (1-3!
1
Last the better
part of a day
2
Last into Last for
evening several day:
& nights
4 10
2: For step 3, part Id, above, select a value fron the following table
which best describes the managenent situation for each season,
entering these values above.
If snoke
managenent
were left
laissez
faire...
It is not
1 ikely that
A.Q. stan-
dards would
be violated
1
A.Q. stan-
dards might
be violated
4
It is likely
that A.Q.
standards
would be
violated
10
2. In part 1e of this step you obtained suns of clsnatological value points for
each season in which burning is done. Now circle the highest nunber in the
part 1e, SLM, colunn of the table you conpleted in part I.
CONTINUE WITH STEP 3, PART 2, ON THE NEXT RAGE
-------
62
APPENDIX A3 continued
(Part 2 cont.)
You may need to conpare the effects of climates in different seasons on the
step 6 end product snoke management sophistication "index." This will call
for carrying out further iterations, the sane as mentioned in step 1 regarding
obtaining different "indices" for different sub areas. (As a matter of inter-
est, the range of numeric values possible as entries for part 1e is fron 4 to
34.)
3. Terrain in vrfiich burning
takes place is best de-
scribed as (circle 1, add-
ing a +2 if influenced by
shoreline of sea or of
other large water body) —
Flat with
few low
spots
1
Ro 1 1 i ng or
flat with
low spots
2
Hilh
3
Plateau-
1 i ke wi th
deep drain-
ages
4
Mountains
5
4. Burners countr ibut ing snokc
to the sane airshed are
generally (circle 1) —
From the sane organization!
& only one
adnin. unil
1
But fron sev'rl
adnin. units
3
| Fron different
organizations
5
5. Weather forecast difficulties
(e.g., as for the shoreline
phenonenon, local pockets of
tenperature inversion, etc.)
(circle 1) —
Are seldom
experienced
1
Are ex-
perienced
occasion-
aily
5
Are
experienced
frequently
10
Step 4 - "Criteria Value"
Enter here the numeric value that you circled in step 2:
Step 5 - "Management Situation Value"
Enter here the sum of all point values circled in step 3:
Now divide this sum by 5 to arrive at a 'Management
situation value," and enter the result of division here:
* For this entry, treat any number greater than 10 as 10.
Step 6 - "Index of needed sophistication
On page 64, a graphic method is to be employed to obtain the sought
"index." In order to supply a means by which technical specialists
completing this set of steps may provide decision-makers with options, the
graph has been constructed to permit weighting of the results to favor
criteria, or to favor management, as well as to obtain an unweighted
result.
Please go to the next page.
-------
63
APPENDIX A3 continued
Weightings are shown across the top of the graph. To weight for criteria,
use values on this top scale to the left of 50/50. To weight for
management, use values on this top scale to the right of 50/50. An
unweighted result is obtained by using the 50/50 top scale value as in the
example shown on the graph.
(a) From step 4, mark your "Criteria value" on the left numeric scale
of the graph below.
(b) Fran step 5, mark your "Management situation value" on the right
numeric scale of the graph below.
(c) A line is now to be projected from the marked value on the left
numeric scale to the marked value on the right numeric scale.
(d) At the intersection(s) of the line projected in (c), above, with
the vertical line(s) extending downward from the weighting scale
weight(s) selected (see explanation at start of this step) make a
dot.
(e) Now draw a horizontal line to the right.
(f) Where the line drawn in (e), above, crosses the alpha scale to
the right, read the resulting "Index" of needed sophistication as
A, B, C, etc, with A being the lowest possible "index" value.
NOW EMPLOY THE ENTRIES YOU MADE FOR STEPS 4 AND 5 (PAGE 62) WITH THE GRAPH
ON THE NEXT PAGE
-------
64
APPENDIX A3 continued
An example of how each of the substeps from the proceeding page will look
is shown in dashed lines, and labeled by substeps, on the graph below.
(In this example, a nonweighted result is obtained by using the vertical
line extending downward from 50/50.)
Weighting Scale
Criteria: 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Percents)
Managm't:
10 .
8 .
6 .
4 .
2 .
0 .
/c
0
i_
r
10
•^
20
Criteria value
1 (from Step 4)
30
*«
40
(d)
50
•*»,
60
*
70
— —
80
-(el
^
90
.
100 (Percents)
. 10
D
. 8
C
. 6
B
. 4
• 2 \s
A X.
RESULT-\
. 0 "Index" —
|k of needed
Management situation \ sophistication
value (from Step 5) '
The resulting "index" may now be used in section 1. (Discussion of appendix
development begins on next page.)
-------
65
APPENDIX A3 continued
3. DEVELOPMENT NOTES
The overall concept
Objectives of the aid presented in this appendix are to utilize subjec-
tively rated variables affecting the level of smoke management
complexity to:
a. Index the indicated need for sophistication,
b. Provide for different weightings of criteria and
situation, and
c. Match the derived index against possible management
approaches.
Evolution of the aid presented began with a series of elaborate trial
integrations, the labors of completing which were too great for the
unsureness of results. By using completely artificial scales obtained
by working back from the end result, it has been possible to greatly
simplify the process. While the early trials and the now simplified
aid have been tested against opinions of what would be needed for
sample situations, there are yet too few applied smoke management
programs to fully judge the opinions of need. Under the present state
of art, both the variability of opinion as to what may be needed and
the lack of some apparently needed management methods hamper further
development.
The most compelling reasons for advancing this aid now are: to offer a
process by which consistency in indexing between different areas can
result; to provide a framework by which individuals new to the emerging
state of the art can begin to grasp the relative effects of variables
influencing needed sophistication. Users must recognize that at best,
only a first approximation can be expected.
Bases for table of ventilation factors
Ventilation factor is mixing height times transport windspeed.
Transport windspeed used here is the harmonic mean of the day and night
transport windspeed given by HolzworthJL/ for "all cases."
Mixing height used here is evaluated similarly to transport windspeed.
An adjustment is initially made to the Holzworth "all cases" mixing
height at night, which was based on assumptions most appropriate to
urban areas.
If this night mixing height is <120 meters, no adjustment is made.
Holzworth, George C. 1972. Mixing heights, windspeeds, and potential
for urban air pollution throughout the contiguous United States. U.S.
EPA, Off. Air Progs., Publ. No. AP-101, 118 p., Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
-------
66
APPENDIX A3 continued
For other cases,
1 = b-i + b2 ( + b3_ )
Adj. MH MH 120 ( 240 )
where: b^ is the expected national seasonal frequency
of F and G stability classes, from Holzworth,
Doty, & Wallace2/
b3 is the frequency of E stability class from
the same source (this term is considered only
if MH is <240 meters)
bl is either .5-b2, or .5-(b2 + ba), depending on
whether txj term was considered
120 meters is a reasonable effective mixing height
for a ground source at 60 miles, for F and G
classes
class G is considered the same as class F
240 meters is the effective mixing height
for E stability class.
Holzworth, Doty, & Wallace. 1976. A climatological analysis of
Pasquill stability class categories based on "star" surmaries. U.S.
Nat'l Weath. Serv., Nat'l CLimat. Ctr. 51 p. Asheville, N.C.
-------
APPENDIX B - AVAILABLE AIDS TO PREDICTING DOWNWIND CONCENTRATIONS
OF TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER ORIGINATING WITH
LAND MANAGEMENT OPEN BURNING
-------
67
APPENDIX B - AVAILABLE AIDS TO PREDICTING DOWNWIND CONCENTRATIONS
OF TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER ORIGINATING WITH
LAND MANAGEMENT OPEN BURNING
INTRODUCTION & SOME CAUTIONS
The section of the parent text titled, "Smoke And Air Quality" (see page 7)
introduces the general state of knowledge regarding production and trans-
port of emissions from land management open burning. In that section it
was developed that focus has been strongest upon total suspended par-
ticulate matter (TSP) emissions. Also given were some data on the propor-
tion of TSP which is the fine fraction. Models used in predicting trans-
port and dispersion of TSP were there suggested as aids to decision-makers,
but not as being suited to independently determining when to burn.
In this appendix, certain models, model input requirements, and model adap-
tations used in predicting downwind concentrations of TSP from land man-
agement open burning will be discussed in more detail. Models can be
powerful tools for helping to grasp the consequence of taking different
alternatives, specifying different minimum or maximum values. Models will
minimize risk taking, provided they are regarded as no more than tools.
Any tool in the wrong hands, used in the wrong application, or applied
without the realization that there are limitations as well as substitute
methods, is better left alone.
If then, the discussions to follow appear to be "pro-model," the reader
must bear in mind that they are intended as pro- the best available
tool...not the ultimate tool...and not as arguments to lay aside good, com-
mon horse sense! At times, the state-of-art may seem to be pressed hard
for an application to which, if available, better knowledge would be
preferred. As an example of this, the last model adaptation described in
this appendix (while a Gaussian adaptation, best suited to flat and rolling
terrain) was used in planning for a complex terrain situation. In that
use, the local land managers and the person conducting the study benefitted
from the information obtained by comparisons with some documented events.
They were able to begin the task of setting some trial specifications to
avoid repetition of these events; and they were able thereby to recognize
help for managing smoke in the admittedly limited, available weather fore-
cast information for the area. But note the underlined "begin" and
"trial," in the preceding sentence. These terms convey that a cautious
application was made. The byword being spelled out, if not always direct-
ly set forth in the material which follows, is C-A-U-T-I-O-N.
BASIC MODELS
Atmospheric Transport & Dispersion
To predict how much dispersing smoke is likely to arrive at a specified
downwind location, the characteristics of the atmosphere in which it is to
be transported must be represented. Commonly, models used for this purpose
will employ values which include: the transport windspeed and direction;
an expression for the upper limit of vigorous mixing (mixing height); an
expression for both the angle of spread and the margins of error to be
expected as the wind direction naturally varies; an expression for the
degree of mixing that will take place (atmospheric stability, or stability
class). In applications where it is desired to impose limits on the width
-------
68
APPENDIX B continued
of spread that approximate the surrounding terrain, and/or where it is
desired to make changes in other variables with distance traveled and the
passage of time, mathematical expressions are available by which "boxes" or
"cells" are treated sequentially. Starting values are also needed for the
height to which the smoke is lifted by the buoyant heat from the source
fire (plume rise), and for the amount of a specified emission product being
produced.
Because both the influencing weather and the fire itself will change with
time, predictions must generally be made either as in the "box" or "cell"
approach, mentioned above, or for a discrete moment in time (i.e., with the
variables at "steady-state"). An approach to adapting the "steady-state"
model for adjustments to these variables with time is to accumulate a
series of separately incremented predictions.
Data availability and the economies of data collection, as well as of data
processing, will often dictate that less sophisticated models be employed,
even if more elegant choices are at hand. An example is in the use of a
steady-state model without incrementing to predict only a peak downwind
concentration (appropriate to very short duration burns with little
smoldering following passage of the flaming combustion stage).
One of the most important limitations of models in general is in their
construction to reflect only those variables which are most commonly of
importance (i.e., sensitive variables). The statistical bases for these
models carry with them an expectation that errors will result. Similarly,
with weather phenomena being critically important to what takes place, the
limitations on weather forecast accuracy must also be recognized in "real-
time" applications.
Most air quality models have been developed to predict impacts from sources
like smoke stacks. Some are designed for urban areas, while others are
best suited to rural areas. Use of available models for predicting impacts
from land management open burning, therefore, requires careful evaluation
of the assumptions used in the models, and may require adaptations for
specific situations. Evaluation and adaptation of air quality models
should be done only by experienced modelers. Selections of existing or
adapted models should be discussed with personnel of the appropriate air
pollution control agency before being employed operationally.
While several types of atmospheric transport and dispersion models have
possible application, only the 3 most commonly associated with land
management open burning will be covered here. Of these, the Gaussian Model
has been most widely adapted to air quality work, and is the model pre-
sently in greatest use for land management open burning predictions. Its
name is derived from the assumed Gaussian (normal) distributions of con-
centration in the horizontal and vertical planes perpendicular to the mean
wind direction. Gaussian Model adaptations in several automated data pro-
cessing programs (available under acronyms like (DM, for dimatological
Dispersion Model, and AQDM, for Air Quality Display Model) are generally
well accepted for flat and rolling terrain, but have serious limitations in
mountains (as do most other models due to a general lack of adequate
terrain-affected input variables, even when the model can accomodate
these).
The Box Model, so named because in use it treats the atmosphere as though
it were divided into separate boxes of specified dimensions, has been given
only limited use in predicting concentrations from land management open
-------
69
APPENDIX B continued
burning within mountainous areas. Within each box, the concentration is
assumed to be uniform. By solving budget equations for each increment of
time at which material in transport crosses the boundary of a box, it is
possible to account for such differences as the narrowing of a mountain
canyon . I/
Grid Models are named for the predictions of concentrations to grid points.
Within each grid cell, the concentration is treated the same as in the Box
Model. The large number of grid models available differ in treatments of
variables, but they have in common a great need for input data and com-
putational effort. (But in this need, have the potential to deal more
exhaustively with important meteorological differences in complex terrain;
a feature that has led to some studies related to open burning in mountain
and mountain-valley situations. The promise may be to obtain case examples
for more simplified operational use.)
Plume Rise
In all the above dispersion models, the height of release of the emissions
to the atmosphere is an important variable (i.e., as the effective height
at which dispersion begins to occur). Because of their buoyant nature, hot
gases rising from a stack or from an open burning fire (in all but the
coolest stages of combustion) continue to rise in a convection column.
This column functions much like a chimney. Because emissions are entrained
by these "chimneys," the effect of the heat released to the atmosphere from
the combustion source must be accounted for. The temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere, its stability, and the wind profile, further affect
the rise of the smoke plume, both as to rate and as to the position of
release of emissions. These are treated collectively as the phenomenon of
plume rise.
Although there are several plume rise models, that of Briggs2/ alone has
been adapted to open burning. This is also the method preferred by the
National Commission on Air Quality.^/
In work with prescribed fires in the Southeastern United States, the
Briggs' equation was adapted to fires of relatively low intensity (i.e.,
low in relation to fires such as those in heavy residues) by including an
I/ For an example of Box Model use with a daily time scale, see Reiquam,
H. 1970. An atmospheric transport and accumulation model for airsheds.
In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 4: 233-247.
.2/ See Briggs, Garry A. 1969, 1971, and 1972 cited in references 3/, 4/,
and 5/, below.
37 Fox D.C. & J.E. Fairobent, 1981. NCAQ panel examines uses and limita-
tions of air quality models. In: Bui. Amer. Met. Soc. vol. 62:
218-221.
-------
70
APPENDIX B continued
adjustment for the percentage of smoke entrained versus the percentage
unentrained.4/ Another application of the Briggs' equation to open burning
is air quality work with the grass seed crop stubble in the Willamette
Valley of western Oregon .5_/
The importance of plume rise to resultant downwind ground level emissions
concentrations has made it necessary to recognize two fire phases for open
burning. Where there is any appreciable time period when fuels continue to
burn without contributing to plume rise, these have been initially iden-
tified as the convective lift and no convective lift fire phases,4/ and
more recently by some, as merely the "active" and "nonactive" fire phases.
Regardless of terminology, the key concepts and potential sources of error
are: (1) NOT ALL SMOKE IS ENTRAINED ... theoretically, the proportion of
unentrained smoke increases as fire intensity decreases; (2) IN FIRES WITH
PERIODS OF CONTINUED EMISSION PRODUCTION AND WITH LITTLE RELEASE OF HEAT
CONTRIBUTING TO PLUME RISE, A NO-RISE CONDITION MUST BE ACCOUNTED FOR.6/
Heat Release Rate & Emission Rate
Both heat release and emission rates are determined by the rate at which
the fuels in an open burning fire are consumed.
Expressions of the behavior of open burning fires have long included values
for the rates of fire spread (e.g., the forward spread of an advancing line
of fire in linear units per unit of time) and of fire intensity (e.g., the
units of energy released per linear unit of an advancing fire front). The
convenience of using these conventional and available means of arriving at
rates of fuel consumption (and thus of heat release rate and emission rate)
is appealing and has been applied to open burning prescribed fires in the
Southeastern United States.Z/ Unfortunately, the combustion continuing
after an advancing flame front has passed will take different forms and
must be accounted for separately.
I/ Pharo, James A., Leonidas G. Lavdas, &. Philip M. Bailey, 1976. Smoke
transport and dispersion. In: Southern Forest Fire Laboratory
Personnel, Southern forestry smoke management guidebook. USDA, Forest
Service, Southeastern For. Exp. Sta., Asheville, N.C. (p. 45-55).
Ji/ Craig, Charles D. & M. A. Wolf, 1980. Factors influencing participate
concentrations resulting from open field burning. In: Atmospheric
Environment, vol. 14: 433-443.
GJ For a more detailed discussion of the involved phenomena, see Lavdas,
~ Leonides G., 1978. Plume rise from prescribed fires. In: Proc. 5th
Joint Conf. on Fire and Forest Meteorology, March 14-16, 1978,
Atlantic City, N.J. Publ. by Amer. Meteorol. Soc. (p. 88-91).
7/ Johansen, Ragnar W., W. Henry McNab, Walter A. Hough, and M. Boyd
Edwards, Jr., 1976. Fuels, fire behavior, and emissions. In:
Southern Forest Fire Laboratory Personnel, op. cit. (p. 29-44).
-------
71
APPENDIX B continued
Further, to account for the coranonly applied composite of different firing
patterns with differing behaviors for the open burning pile and for a tech-
nique known as "area ignition," linear values become difficult to use.
Unit-area of fire has been suggested as the best substitute because it per-
mits conversions from linear units where available, yet still will serve
these special types. (This approach can be additionally appealing when
dispersion models are employed which project area emissions into a line
source prediction. This can mean that line source models may have wide
applicability for open burning, if adjusted and used with care.)
Because rate of fuel consumption changes with time, both heat release and
emission rates change with time. These changes will occur for the open
burn area as a whole, and will change for portions of the fire area after
an advancing flame front has passed. Where means can be found to adjust
these rates for the fire as a whole, it is possible to more properly
account for differences from the period of start-up, through peak
intensity, and decline of the fire, including thereby, the no-rise
condition. In practice, it may be reasonable to assume that the time from
start-up to peak intensity is sufficiently short to neglect the differences
between these two times. The much more gradual decay of heat release and
emissions following the peak is, however, of great importance in many open
burning situations. Little data are available for this type of adjustment,
but an exponential decay rate is suggested.
INPUTS TO MODEL ADAPTATIONS
In this subsection, heat release and emission factors will be discussed as
inputs to adapted transport and dispersion models. Since both of these
inputs are employed in relation to the mass of fuel consumed over tijne, the
discussion in the preceding subsection concerned with changes in rate of
fuel consumption, and with the possible use of a decay rate, is again
stressed as important, to their proper use.
Heat release. Heat release (or the technically more proper, "heat released
to the atmosphere") may be either an input value or, in some packaged
programs, a "default value" which will determine heat release rate, and
thus bear upon plume rise. Heat release is expressed in units of heat
energy (or net heat flux) released per unit-mass of fuel consumed. The
routinely published values of heat yield for different fuels cannot be used
directly for heat release. This is because of heat losses such as those of
radiant heat. For example, a net sensible heat flux of 3500 cal gmrl (or
1.4665 X 107 Joules/kg) has been suggested for prescribed burning in the
Southeastern United States.^/ Local fire behavior experts should be con-
sulted for values appropriate to other situations.
EMssion factors. Bnission factors are expressed as unit-mass of emissions
produced per unit-mass of fuel consumed (whereas emission rate is the unit-
mass of emissions produced per unitnnass of fuel consumed per unit of
time).
8/ See for example, Johansen, Ragnar W., W. Henry McNab, Walter A. Hough,
and M. Boyd Edwards, Jr., 1976. op. cit.
-------
APPENDIX B continued
Although many important compounds have been identified in the smoke from
open burning f±res,9/ attention has been focused upon particulate matter as
the basic emission by which smoke can be managed. That focus will be main-
tained here.
Fire behavior and fuel type are known to change the unit-mass of par-
ticulate matter produced per unit-mass of fuel consumed. Flame interaction
is believed to be one of the principal effects causing differences such as
those reported between heading fires (which generally produce relatively
greater amounts of TSP), and backing fires. Smoldering combustion is
reported to be a larger producer per unit-mass of fuel consumed than is
flaming combustion. These differences account for sane of the major dif-
ferences in emission factors reported from different studies, particularly
those from more heterogeneous fuel types and firing patterns.
Most of the currently available data are the result of empirical studies.
Because these studies are very costly, recent effort has turned to work
with the carbon balance equation with the intent that emission factors for
TS? can be predicted from models that are able to more readily relate
measured emissions to fuel consumption.
In place of the usual compilations of emission factors ,10_/ the suggestion
is made that the current literature for the area of concern be used as a
source of TSP emission factors. This is due to the need for the best
available local factors to be employed. Examples of literature sources
would be those for specific crops.ll/ and those for prescribed burning in
specific geographic areas .J
9/ See for example: Chi, et al. 1979. Source assessment: prescribed
burning, state of the art. EPA-600/2-79-01h. Monsanto Res. Corp. and
U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Southeastern For. Exp. Sta., Dayton,
Ohio, and Asheville N.C., resp. (122 p.); and Tangren, C.D., Charles
K. McMahon, and Paul W. Ryan, 1976. Contents and effects of forest
fire smoke. In: Southern Forest Fire Laboratory Personnel, op. cit.
(p. 9-22).
IP/ See for example, Anon. (latest ed'n - periodically updated).
Compilation of air pollutant emission factors. AP-42, parts A Si B.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air & Waste Mg't,
Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards, Research Triangle Park,
N.C. (477 p. total.)
ll/ See for example, Carroll, John J., George E. Miller, James F. Thompson,
& ELlis F. Barley, 1977. The dependence of open field burning
emissions and plume concentrations on meteorology, field conditions and
ignition technique. In: Atmospheric Environment, vol. 11: 1037-1050.
12/ See for example, Johansen, Ragnar '.V., W. Henry. McNab, Walter A. Hough,
and M. Boyd Edwards, Jr., 197G. op. cit.
-------
73
APPENDIX B continued
Lacking these, another possibility is to vise those emission factors for the
most comparable fuel and fire types available. An example of how this
might be done is illustrated by the figure reproduced on page 74. Before
any use is made of the "safe-sided" values suggested by this figure, the
cited reference should be reviewed for the accompanying discussion of
weaknesses and strengths.
Other inputs. In addition to the heat release and emission factor inputs,
model adaptations will call for a variety of other inputs affecting
eranissions and heat production, as well as transport and dispersion of
pollutants. These include:
information on the fuels, usually the fuel type (e.g.,
the name of the species association), and the "available
fuel," (i.e., the net fuel available to burn after
adjusting for fuel moisture);
rate of fuel consumption, or other data leading to this
variable;
decay adjustment for emissions production and heat
release;
size of area to be burned;
firing pattern to be employed;
mixing height, and/or thickness of the mixing layer;
Pasquill stability classes, or other data leading to
these;
the transport windspeed; and
the surface windspeed.
Although used in the accompanying analysis to determine where the impacts
may occur, wind direction is not usually required as an input to the model
adaptations themselves. [An exception is an algorithm called SMKLCR (for
smoke locator), not covered here, but available to users of the Forestry
Weather Interpretations System, discussed in the model adaptations section
of this appendix.]
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74
APPENDIX B continued
Family of curves showing "safe-sided" TSP emission factors and
giving conjectural examples of how these may be used in the
absence of more reliable local dataJ^/ [**>te that 2(g/kg)
converts graphic values to pounds (avdp)/ton (short).]
UPPER LIMITS
OF THE MEAN
• 99*. 95%.
*90*CONF.
INTERVALS
QUADRATIC MEAN
ARITHMETIC MEAN
UNDERSTORY
VEGETATION
ft LITTER
SHEADING FIRES
BROADCAST
HARVEST
RESIDUES
UNDERSTORY
VEGETATION
ft LITTER
^BACKING FIRES
PILED HARVEST
RESIDUES
10 REPLACE
DATA)
CRASS
Because of an unusually large amount of fresh pine needles still
readily available with the residues, and because of uncertainty
about the effect of fuel moisture in the larger fuels, 50-g/kg,
the upper (knit of the mean at the 99 percent confidence interval,®
is selected for conservatism.
Noting a seen ing departure of the arithmetic mean fron the general
shape of the fanily of curves, the apparently safer quadratic
mean value of 19.5-g/kg is selected for use.
A selection of this moderately "safe-sided" 15.9-g/kg value might
result fron the belief that while the planned burn is fairly
typical, fuel moisture is not adequately known.
For the values presented, a combination of heading and backing
fires is assumed since neither is specified; since only heading
fires will be used, a high, "safe-sided" 16.5-g/kg value is
selected.
Strictly, the conndence interval hip lies that for the population repre-
sented by the sample, the average is expected to fall between the upper
and lower limits of the mean that percent of the tfrne. In this example,
the upper Iknit of the mean, ^99, is read 50-g/kg, and it is implied
that the population average should not be greater more than 1 percent
of the time.
13/ From Chi et al., op. cit., with correction.
-------
75
APPENDIX B continued
MODEL ADAPTATIONS
It can be seen that practical compromises in the models themselves, the
need to reflect changes over time when these changes may be only imper-
fectly known, natural variability, and the lack of "sure" input values
(like suitable emission factors) will result in errors. Open burning fires
do not always conform to the dimensions idealized for them. Meteorological
values, in particular wind flow in mountains or from bodies of water, lo-
calized temperature inversions, and variability of wind direction with
lower windspeeds (even in flat terrain), will also introduce errors. When
used operationally on a "real-time" basis (e.g., on the day of a proposed
burn) a weather forecast used as a source of inputs may itself be in
error .W
A well-grounded knowledge of these sources of error can lead to more con-
fidence in the results obtained through use of models (again, as best-
available tools) ._15/ It is thus that the basic models described earlier in
this appendix have been adapted to managing smoke from land management open
burning. With them, and with adaptations and supporting programs yet to be
developed, competent meteorologists and fire behavior experts can supply
decision-makers with interpreted information that will lead to choices that
can be regarded sound, even when predictive errors do occur.
Two types of adaptations are to be covered here. The first of these
recognizes that not all situations will demand sophistication calling for
automated data processing. The other type recognizes that where available,
automated data processing adaptations can offer management options to both
preplanning and management of daily operations.
Adaptations suited to uses without automated data processing. While de-
veloping smoke management procedures for southern prescribed burnersl6/, it
became evident that in addition to procedures employing models directly,
there was a need for screening aids, as well as for case examples, to be
used as guidance for burning under different field conditions. The fol-
lowing 2 examples are based upon results of applying the Gaussian model,
Briggs' plume rise equations, and related fire and fuel models. The first
of these is an example of how a screening aid can be constructed. The
second illustrates use of case examples as guidance tools for burners.
_14/ In addition to providing an example of a modeling application, the
following reference is suggested for its more technical review of cer-
tain important sources of error and what can be done about them. See
Lavdas, Leonidas G. 1980. Aspects of a system for predicting
prescribed fire impact on air quality. In: Proc. Second Joint Conf.
on Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology, 24-28 March, 1980, New
Orleans, La. Publ. by Amer. Met. Soc., Boston, Mass. (p. 29-36)
15_/ A reference suggested as appropriate to obtaining the recommended
grounding is: Fox, D.G. 1981. Judging air quality model performance.
In: Bui. Aner. Met. Soc. vol. 62: 599-609.
16/ Pierovich, J.M. et al. 1976. How to manage smoke. In: Southern Forest
Fire Laboratory Personnel, op. cit. (p. 57-131).
-------
76
APPENDIX B continued
Example of screening aid developed for management
fron individual prescribed burning operations.IT/
of smoke
FCR
By following a written pre-
scription and all directions
on page 23 (i.e., of the cited
source text], a forest manager
will reduce the production of
moke and ensure good disper-
sion. Snoke will still be
produced, however, and the
forest manager needs to deter-
mine the rnpact it might have
on the safety and welfare of
people or the environnent.
The Southern Forestry Snoke
Nhnagonent Guidebook includes
a system for predicting moke
concentrations at any distance
downwind. This prediction
system is available through a
conputer program where teimi-
nals are available. The whole
system cannot be discussed
here, but we wi 11 present an
Initial Screening System based
on the Guidebook. This system
has five steps: (1) plotting
trajectory of the moke plume,
(2) identifying moke sensi-
tive areas, (3) identifying
critical areas, (4) deter-
minjng fuel type and, (5)
minimizing risk.
Step 1. Plotting Trajectory
6T~lTfe STIOKC nune
A. Use maps showing rn-
provanents that are sensitive
to moke for: 10 miles down-
wind fron the burn for backing
fires, 20 miles for heading
fires or large burns (1000
acres or more), and 30 miles
if fuel will be logging de-
bris. Snoke Sensitive areas
that can be adversely affected
by moke are: airports, high-
ways, coimunities, recreation
areas, schools, hospitals, and
factories. Locate burn on map
and draw a line representing
the center)ine of the path of
the moke plane for the dis-
tance indicated (direction of
wind). If burn will last 3
hours or more, draw another
line showing predicted direc-
tion at completion of burn.
B. To allow for horizontal
dispersion of the moke, as
well as shifts in wind direc-
tion, draw two other lines
fron the fire at an angle of
30° from the center Iine(s).
If fire is represented as a
spot, draw as in figure A. If
larger, draw as in figure B.
- continue this screening sys-
tem.
FIGURE A
FIGURE B
Step 2. Identify Smoke
sensitive Areas ~
Identify and mark any moke
sensitive areas within the 30°
lines plotted above. These
areas are potential targets
for moke from your burn.
A. If in the rare case no
potential targets are found -
you may burn as prescribed.
B. If any targets are found
Step 3.
Identify Critical
Targets
Critical targets are:
Any potential targets iden-
tified in step 2 that are
within 3/4 mile of your plan-
ned burn.
Potential targets that
already have an air pollution
or visibili ty problem.
Any potential targets where
emission of sulfur dioxide
(SCU) will merge with the
moKe plune. (Present re-
search indicates that SO? >"
the presence of. participate
matter might be a health haz-
ard.) Likely sources are
melters, electric power
plants and factories where
coal is burned.
Identify and mark critical
targets within the moke tra-
jectory on your map:
A. If there are any criti-
cal targets, do not burn under
present prescriptionl
1. Prescribe a new wind
direction that will avoid
such targets and return to
the beginning of this
screening system, or -
2. Use some alternative
other than burning.
B. If there are no critical
targets, continue the screen-
ing system.
Step 4. Determine Fuel Type
The effect of moke on sen-
sitive areas will vary by type
and amount of the fuel con-
sumed.
A. From the list be I ow,
deteimine your fuel type or
one that is reasonably con-
parable.
1. Grass (with pine
overstory)
IT/ Adapted from: Ifobley, H.E. et al. 1977 (rev.). A guide for prescrib-
ed fire in southern forests. USDA, Forest Service, SE Area S&PF,
Atlanta, Ga. (40 p.) For citation of Southern Forestry Snake
Management Guidebook referenced, see Pierovich, et al, 1976, op. cit.
-------
77
APPENDIX B continued
Continuation of example of screening aid developed for
management of smoke from individual prescribed burning operations.
2. Light brush
3. Pine needle litter
4. Pahietto-gal Iberry
5. Scattered logging
debris (unpiled)
B. If your fuel type is not
conparable to any of those
listed above, the rest of the
systan does not apply.
Present research is not ade-
quate to judge the effects of
other fuels. If you have
identified targets, proceed
with EXTKBVE OUTICN.
C. If the type is scattered
logging debris, (and you have
identified targets) DO N3T
BLRN under present prescrip-
tion. Snoke production is
much greater and will last for
days.
1. Prescribe a new wind
direction to avoid all
targets and return to the
beginning of this systan.
2. If you cannot avoid
all targets - you will
need a better procedure
than this simple screening
systan. See first para-
graph.
D. If your conparable fuel
type is one listed, deteimine
if your total fuel loading is
less than 10 tons in the fuel
types listed be low when age of
rough is:
1. Grass (with pine
overstory): any age
2. Light brush: 7
years or less (10 years if
basal area is under 100)..
3. Pine needle litter
(loblolly): 7 years or
less (10 years if basal
area is under 100)
4. Pine needle litter
(slash): 5 years or less
(8 years if basal area is
under 100]
5. Parnetto-galIberry:
3 years or less (5 years
if basal area is under 70
and understory is less
than 4 feet).
Step 5. Minimize Risk
To meet your smoke manage-
ment obligations when any
smoke sensitive area may be
affected by your burn, you
must meet alI of the following
criteria to minimize any pos-
sible adverse effects.
II Height of mixing layer
(mixing height) is 500 meters
(1,640 feet) or greater
II Transport windspeed® j$ 4
meters per second (9 mph) or
greater
11 Background visibility is
at least 5 miles within the
plotted area
II Fuel loading is less than
10 tons per acre
II Rough older than two
years; backing fire is pre-
scribed (backing fires gener-
ally produce less particulate
matter)
II At identified targets,
other sources of jnoke are
displaced to the side of your
burn by a least one-half the
downwind distance
II If there are targets in
the overlapping trajectories
fron two sources of smoke,
they should be farther than 1
mile fron either source (more
if either one is a large burn
or wi 11 produce a lot of
snoke)
II For night burns, backing
fires and surface windspeeds
greater than 4 mph should be
prescribed.
anoke fron a prescribed burn.
This systen does not attenpt
to consider all the variables
- it can only offer you broad
sideboards. If you have close
"targets," sone that are extra
sensitive, a burn that will
produce large anounts of
smoke, or if sone of your
results were marginal, then
use the prediction systen men-
tioned in the first paragraph.
If the necessary infoimation
i s not ava iIabIe or you do
not wish to use the prediction
systsn, consider sone alter-
native other than burning to
acconplish your objectives.
@ Transport windspeed is the
average of the windspeed fron
the ground to the top of the
mixing layer.
Nunerous variables affect the
fire behavior and resulting
-------
78
APPENDIX B continued
Illustration of the type of table that can be developed to
provide case example guidance on short term peak
(instantaneous) concentrations to be expected
from individual burns. 18/
Type of fire
Pasquill
stability
class
Mixing
height.
km
Heat release
rate,
megacal/sec
Length of
fired line
or equiv . ,
m
Transport
windspeed.
m/sec '
Emission
rate.
mg/m-sec
PaImetto-gal1berry:
backing fire
Palmetto-galIberry:
heading fire in
2-year-old rough
1.5
1.5
37.632
137.984
600
800
168
616
Particulate matter concentrations at various distances
downwind , ug/m3
Distance
downwind, Heading fire
km Backing fire in 2-year-old roughs
0.10
.13
.16
.20
.25
.32
.40
.50
.63
.79
1.00
1.30
1.60
2.00
2.50
3.20
4.00
5.00
6.30
7.90
10.00
13.00
16.00
20.00
25.00
32.00
40.00
50.00
63.00
79.00
100.00
901
730
591
479
388
314
256
206
167
135
110
90
72
57
45
37
31
25
19
14
10
7
5
3
2
2
1
i
1
1
1
3,302
2,675
2,167
1,756
1,422
1,152
933
756
612
496
402
325
261
206
157
116
83
59
43
32
25
20
15
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
3
18 / In this example, for certain prescribed fires in the Southern United
States. Taken from Chi et al., op. cit., as an adaptation from
Pierovich et al., op. cit.
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79
APPENDIX B continued
Adaptations suited to uses where automated data processing is available.
The large number of variables to be employed in fairly complex equations
makes automated data processing a must for most direct applications of
adapted models. In this type of adaptation, there are currently two basic
kinds of data processing programs available. One is the UNAMAP series of
programs developed by U.S. EPA and available as tapes, aided by user
manuals, through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). (See
Selected References Section of this Workbook regarding NTIS.) These have
not been adapted for direct use with land management open burning, but the
needed further adaptations can be made locally. The other kind of data
processing program adaptation is that available for interactive uses
through pilot test users of the Forestry Weather Interpretations Systan
(FWIS). These interactive programs are directly adapted to land management
open burning.
1. Programs available through NTIS
Presented here by the acronyms used to identify the U.S. EPA developed
models are those programs available through NTIS with which experience in
making adaptations to land management open burning has been reported. In
addition, certain programs are listed that have been recommended for trial
with land management open burning, even though no experience in making such
adaptations is currently reported. These are Gaussian and steady-state
model adaptations except as noted. Neither the list, nor the experience in
making adaptations to land management open burning (which underlies the
accompanying discussions) is exhaustive.
PAL. Of all the UNAMAP programs to be listed here, PAL has been found
to result in concentrations believed to most closely resemble the smoke
impact from open burning, if used with caution. A fairly wide range of
source configurations may be used, resembling different open burning
types (e.g., a hotly burning pile, a point, a moving, low intensity
line of fire, a smoldering zone during the no convective lift fire
phase, an area of fire). Plume rise from line or area sources is not
handled in a manner compatible with open burning (i.e., gradual plume
rise is calculated only for stacks). This difficulty can be partially
compensated for through careful specification of such parameters as
source location and height. PAL should be particularly effective in
calculating impact from irregular shaped smoke sources with little
plume rise.19/
CDM. This program is designed for application to seasonal or annual
data use. It assumes a more unstable atmosphere than seems reasonable
for rural areas. An open burn can be treated as an area source; but
for more reliable results, a program which can handle plume rise asso-
ciated with the convective lift fire phase should be utilized.20/
19/ Petersen, William B., 1978. User's guide for PAL - a Gaussian-plume
algorithm for point, area, and line sources. EPA-600/4-78-013. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Res. Triangle Pk., N.C. (163 p.).
20/ Busse & Zimmerman, 1973. User's guide for the dimatological Dispersion
Model. EPA-RA-73-024. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Res.
Triangle Pk., N.C. (144 p.)
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80
APPENDIX B continued
CDMQ. An extended version of (DM. The program listing is reportedly
somewhat easier to follow. The same cautions apply as for CDM.21/
ISC. As the acronym (for Industrial Source Complex) implies, this is
currently the recommended program for difficult source configurations,
and may have application to certain types of land management open
burning. Either polar or cartesian receptor grids may be used; sequen-
tial hourly meteorological data may be used. As yet, no adaptations to
land management open burning have been reported. (Note: incorporates an
updated version of the CRSTER program.)22/
RAM. This model is designed for urban areas and does not work well in
rural situations. Source options are more restrictive than for PAL,
but computations should be more rapid. The narrow plume assumption
hurts its potential applicability to detailed analysis of smoke from
open burning fires. RAM could posibly be used, however, to predict the
annual ijmpact of open burning in an area, provided one can specify
hourly emission rates for each fire, ignore plume rise, and accept the
Gaussian steady-state.23/
MPTER. Despite maximum terrain elevation being limited to actual stack
height, it has been suggested that terrain adjustments may offer more
flexibility than in other UNAMAP programs. Experience with adaptation
to open burning is limited.24/
2. Programs available for interactive uses through
Pilot Test users of FWIS
The FWIS Pilot Test is being carried out cooperatively between the USDA,
Forest Service, the National Weather Service, and using organizations in
the Eastern United States (within the area roughly bounded on the west by
the western State boundaries for Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma, and
21/ Brubaker, K.L., P. Brown, & R.R. Cirillo, 1977. Addendum to user's
guide for climatological dispersion model. EPA-450/3-77-015. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Res. Triangle Pk., N.C. (134 p.)
22/ Bowers, J.F., J.R. Bjorklund, & C.S. Chenny, 1979. Industrial source
complex (ISC) dispersion model user's guide, Vols 1 and 2. EPA-
450/4-79-030 £ -031. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Res.
Triangle Pk., N.C. (367 p. and 470 p. resp.)
23/ Turner, D. Bruce, & Joan Novak, 1978a & 1978b. User's guide for RAM,
vols 1 & 2. EPA-600/8-78-016a and EPA-GOO/8-78-01Gb. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Res. Triangle Pk., N.C. (70 p. and 232
p., resp.).
24/ Turner, D. Bruce, & Thomas F. Pierce, 1980. User's guide for MPTER, a
multiple point Gaussian dispersion algorithm with optional terrain
adjustment. EPA-600/8-80-01G. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Res. Triangle Pk., N.C. (242 p.)
-------
81
APPENDIX B continued
Texas). Primary concerns of the pilot test are to develop and test methods
of making currently updated observational and forecast weather products
available in products that are effective for forest management.25/
Several automated data processing programs for smoke management have
resulted from work for FWIS. The discussion here will be limited to the
program HRSMQK, although others now available and being developed may be
found useful.
HRSMOK. This algorithm uses the Gaussian Model and Briggs' plume rise
equations to provide hourly estimates of the predicted downwind cen-
terline concentrations that will result at distances of up to 60 miles.
The option is provided to use either default values or user inputs for:
emission factor; duration of convective lift phase; duration of
constant emissions; an exponential decay constant. Other initial
inputs include the total tons of fuel consumed and the total acres
burned. For each hour, the user interactively enters the numerical
value of the Pasquill Stability Class, the transport windspeed, and the
mixing height; the program then returns centerline concentration esti-
mates at various preselected downwind distances.
As a Gaussian model, HRSMOK is best suited to flat and rolling terrain
situations. Lacking other directly usable programs, it has been used to
obtain first approximations for smoke management planning in complex
terrain. Intimate knowledge of the downslope wind pattern, local formation
of temperature inversions not easily recognized from forecast or observed
upper air data, and the general shape of the terrain had to be accounted
for. (This is where, if available to help, experienced local meteorolo-
gists can be of invaluable assistance.) In one such application, compari-
sons with documented reports on aaoke "episodes" made it possible to
proceed with some cautiously advanced specifications.
As presently programmed, HRSMOK will only yield estimates of the predicted
impact at the time the emissions are produced. To be used further, it is
necessary to "transport" the smoke, using available windspeed and wind
direction data in hand calculations. With this approach, estimates can be
made of the hour of peak impact, the degree of this impact, and the 24-hour
average concentrations at key locations.
25/ For additional information on FWIS, and adaptations other than that
discussed here, see: Paul, James T. & Joe Clayton, 1978. User manual
- Forestry Weather Interpretations System...(FWIS). USDA, Forest
Service, Southeastern For. Exp. Sta. & SE Area S&PF (in coop'n with
U.S. Nat'l Weath. Serv.) Atlanta, GA.(83 p.)
-------
APPENDIX C - METHODS SUGGESTED FOR DETERMINING
VISIBILITY PROTECTION NEEDS
-------
83
APPENDIX C - METHODS SUGGESTED FOR DETERMINING
VISIBILITY PROTECTION NEEDS
This appendix suggests methods by which the present state-of-art in visi-
bility protection may be applied to determine the smoke management needs,
where land management open burning and designated Class I Federal Areas
coexist.
Relation to Workbook for Estimating Visibility Impairment
Principles detailed in the Workbook for Estimating Visibility Impairment _!/
are here adapted to open burning. Familiarity with that text is recom-
mended, even though the adaptation to be presented is a simplification.
The basis for simplification lies in the nature of smoke plumes from open
burning fires. Little need exists for analysis of these plumes for opacity
or coloration effects while they remain well defined. As they disperse,
however, the haze potentials are essentially the same as those considered
in the referenced text.
On the one hand then, we have simply a question of the presence or absence
of usually quite evident and opaque smoke plumes. On the other, we have
the question of the presence or absence of a noticeable effect of haze from
open burning. The concept to be followed here is to determine if, and
when, either of these two conditions make any difference.
For the purposes of this Workbook, it is suggested that a procedure be
followed which asks the responsible Federal land managers to respond with
their own appraisals of what makes a difference under the 2 conditions:
(1) the presence of a noticeable smoke plume from land management open
burning; (2) the presence of a noticeable effect of haze from land manage-
ment open burning.
Because a "noticeable effect" of haze would provide no objective measure to
which the smoke from land management open burning could be managed, it may
be desirable to examine the same haze-causing primary and secondary aerosol
relationships covered in the referenced Visibility Impairment Workbook.
The sky/terrain contrast treatment there-in may provide a parameter by
which Federal land managers can establish a useful effect/no effect
benchmark. Where an objective measure is needed, this will call for
investigation on a case by case basis.
Latimer, Douglas A. & Robert G. Ireson. 1980. Workbook for estimating
visibility impairment. EPA-450/4-80-031. U.S. Env. Prot. Agency,
Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards. Research Triangle Park,
N.C. (373 p.)
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84
APPENDIX C continued
A Further Element of Analysis
A further element of analysis must be introduced. That is to recognize that
many Federal Class I Areas are established for both their natural and sce-
nic features. In some of these areas and their environs, fire is a natural
agent in shaping ecosystems. In nature, one expects to see flames, the
products of combustion, and an aftermath.
This leads to the suggestion that the Federal land managers responsible for
these areas must determine the extent to which fire and the products of
combustion will be accepted; they must also provide increasing numbers of
vistors with enjoyment of views that may be temporarily obscured or changed
by smoke. Open burning as a substitute for the naturally occurring fires
of the past offers some possibilities for a scheduling compromise. In
making this compromise, there are likely to be tradeoffs beyond those of
naturalness and scenery. These will of course fall to the Federal land
managers to evaluate within their own management systems.
Federal Land Manager Inputs
The relationships introduced above suggest that for the Federal land man-
agers to make useful inputs to the analytical processes of this Workbook,
2 categories of potential visibility effect must be examined. One is the
presence, or absence, of well-defined smoke plumes from open burning. The
other is the effect of the haze resulting from dispersion of these same
plumes.
Because the new element of analysis must be added, these visibility cate-
gories should be integrated with the Federal land manager's own appraisal
of acceptability from the standpoint of a mission to provide both for
naturalness and for opportunities to enjoy the scenic values of the Federal
Class I Areas of concern.
A two-part inquiry form is suggested for obtaining the needed Federal land
manager inputs. Made an exhibit to this appendix, and found on the last
2 pages hereof, the suggested form first provides what is believed to be
the necessary starting information. The second part is the Response Sheet.
Uses of The Federal Land Manager Inputs
Indexed to correspond with column numbers shown on the Response Sheet of
the exhibit to this appendix, the following is a summary of suggested uses
for the inputs to be made by Federal land managers.
(l)-(3) These columns are intended to yield location
information which can be used to plot any viewing
areas for which special visibility protection
measures may need to be specified in a smoke
management operating plan.
-------
85
APPENDIX C continued
(4)-(9) Use of this information would be in recommending
scheduling as a possible constraining specifica-
tion in any smoke management operating plan which
may need to be developed. NOTE that respondents
are instructed to supply supplemental information
when "PARTLY ACCEPTABLE" is used. Objective
measures may include: numbers of plumes, sizes
of plumes, special features for which it is
desired obscuration be avoided during certain
times of especially high use, or visibility
values such as sky/terrain contrast. (See addi-
tional discussion under scheduling, below.)
Scheduling
It is suggested that scheduling be considered for recommendation where the
Federal land manager inputs indicate visibility effects to be either
"PARTLY ACCEPTABLE" or "UNACCEPTABLE."
For example:
Given, a Federal land manager's column (8) input indicates "PARTLY
ACCEPTABLE" and an objective measure of this condition is
specified.
Then, a smoke management planner might recommend the following for
the operating plan:
"Burning within the plotted view area to be
protected, and within areas expected to produce
smoke dispersing toward the plotted view area,
be scheduled so as to remain below a specified
emission production level on Fridays through
Sundays of the peak visitor season."
Possible Specification
In the above example, we have seen a possibility for specifying emissions
production. Where available burning days are limited and even a smaller
than normal amount of burning will help to meet land management objectives,
it is possible such a specification will be found useful. Two approaches
to specification are suggested.
The approach with the likely greatest appeal will oe to follow a cut-and-
fit process in which adjective terms describing the effects of haze levels
are used.
-------
86
APPENDIX C continued
An alternate approach will be to define a scale of values that permits the
smoke manager to test specifications against some measurable objective or
objectives. Here, the relationship to the Visibility Workbook has been
shown to offer promise. Methods set forth by Latimer and Ireson in that
workbook will have appeal in that numeric values are obtained, and in that
the enjoyment of protected visibility is related to changes in contrast
that can be both modeled and measured.^/ Other methods are also available.
If the alternate, measurable objective approach is followed, natural
variability, model limitations, and newness of methods by which physical
phenomena are related to human visual experiences, will all point to ten-
tative values being used.
Now please go to the Federal land manager input form
starting on the next page.
See in particular: the suggested procedures (p. 4) and (p. 7) of
Latimer and Ireson (1980), op. cit., for their "Level 1" equations used
in obtaining sky/terrain contrast; their pages 58-60; and their
Appendix A, "Characterizing General Haze," pages 147-160. [Note that
the term QSQ (P- 4), may be dropped for the open burning source.]
-------
87
APPENDIX C continued (Exhibit to Appendix C, Sheet 1 of 2)
FEDERAL LAND MANAGER INPUTS REQUEST,
OPEN BURNING VISIBILITY PROTECTION ANALYSIS
TO: Federal Land Manager
Responsible for the:
(Name of Class I Federal Area)
FROM: Visibility Analysis Task Group,
State Smoke Management Review CotmrLttee
This is to request that you or your authorized representative supply cer-
tain information needed by our Task Group. Your reply will be used as an
important input to our analysis of the smoke management needs for visibil-
lity protection for Federal Class I Areas.
Please complete and return the enclosed form. The following instructions
are numbered to match the columns on the form.
(1) Use a formally recognized identification for the observation point
associated with each view. (If other than coordinates are used,
please also supply a map showing locations of observation points.)
(2) Supply the overall distance included within the view (miles).
(3) Supply the degrees of azimuth included within the view.
(4)-(9) Many Federal Class I Areas were established for their natural as
well as scenic features. It is the purpose of these columns to pro-
vide for your inputs regarding the way that the natural fire history
of your area and its environs may have been given weight in providing
both for preservation of naturalness, and for scenic views. Note that
these columns are headed, "SCHEDULING CONSIDERATIONS," and that in
each of the two subsets, dates are to be supplied when visibility
effects of open burning may be "FULLY ACCEPTABLE," "PARTLY
ACCEPTABLE," or "UNACCEPTABLE." (If "PARTLY ACCEPTABLE" is used in
responding, please supply a supplemental specification. For example,
giving hours of the day or days of the week during the date period
when "UNACCEPTABLE" would apply.)
(4), (5), & (6) In these input form columns, the presence or absence
of a WELL-DEFINED SMOKE PLUME may be all that is con-
sidered (i.e., "yes/no"). On the other hand, the
more clearly time periods and other means by which
smoke can be managed are set forth, the more easily
will land management and air quality objectives both
be net.
(7), (8) & (9) In these input form columns, incomplete knowledge and
wide variability must be met with something more than
an adjective type of rating if smoke is to be managed
in many situations. For these, see the note at the
bottom of the enclosed response form.
Thank you for your assistance,
Sincerely,
Chairman
-------
88
APPENDIX C continued (Exhibit to Appendix C, Sheet 2 of 2)
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SELECTED REFERENCES
-------
89
SELECTED REFERENCES
Purpose
To ease reading in the main text of this Workbook, literature citations
have been used only as needed to credit sources. It is now the purpose of
this section to supply selected examples of references that may encourage
supplemental reading. Where locally oriented examples are given, it is
intended that their presence here will suggest a search for similar local
references in the area where the reader is located.
Many of the fields covered will soon include references more current than
those listed here, especially in newly emerging technologies like smoke
management itself. While these newer sources of information should be
diligently sought out, those which are now listed may serve both to point
to the bibliographies they contain, and to suggest names of investigators
to watch for.
Selection Of Periodicals & References
Selected periodicals and references listed in this section are only
examples of the literature currently available in several fields. A selec-
tion is not an endorsement, nor is the absence of a familiar reference
meant to be a lack of endorsement. Many good references have been passed
over merely because those chosen seem to fit a particular need, contain
excellent bibliographies, or are believed to be more readily available.
Some, but not all, of the selected references have also been cited within
the main text and appendices. Those citations standing alone as footnotes
elsewhere are not only suggested for their pertinence to the immediate sub-
ject area where used, but are also worthy of additional supplemental
reading.
Locating Copies of Selected References
Most U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) publications are
available for on-site use at the reference libraries in the regional of-
fices of that agency, and in those of its State counterparts. Many of
these same publications will be found available in the documents divisions
of State university libraries which are part of the Federal Documents
Library System. Copies of U.S. EPA publications are available for purchase
through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) of the U.S.
Department of Conmerce.
Publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (USDA,
Forest Service) are filed with the same Federal Documents Library System,
as above, but often on only a regional basis. Copies have also been
distributed regionally to land managing agencies, and to forest industries.
Those still in print are available through the publishing Experiment
Station or other office shown.
-------
90
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Journals are most easily obtained through State university libraries.
Frequently, authors will have a supply of separate reprints available.
Proceedings from society meetings are usually available at cost through the
societies, or separately cited publishers, and often can be obtained from
the authors as separate reprints.
Air Quality Protection
Abstracting services & related:
The following article is suggested as a starting place:
Douville, Judith A., 1981. Indexing and abstracting services
in the air pollution field. In: Jour. Air. Pol. Oontr.
Assoc., Vol. 31: 361-364.
Applied Science and Technology, Chemical Abstracts, and
Engineering Index, are examples of other journals which
include air pollution titles among subjects covered
regularly.
APTIC (Air Pollution Technical Information Center) is main-
tained by the U.S. EPA for titles entered prior to October
1978. This is a contract service available interactively
using ADP terminals, or by mail. Inquiries should be made to
specialists in the air pollution control field, or to U.S.
EPA.
The EPA Cumulative Bibliography 1970-1976 covers reports
generated by the U.S. EPA and is available through the
NTIS as order number PB-265920. Beginning in March, 1977,
NTIS issues a quarterly EPA Publications Bibliography. The
quarterly is available by subscription. Published Searches
is another service available through NTIS. Inquiries should
be directed to U.S. EPA, NTIS, or specialists who receive
these services.
The ORD Publications Announcement is issued by the Office Of
Research & Development to announce the availability of publi-
cations categorized as: project summaries; research sum-
maries; decision series; program suinraries and plans; other
publications. Announcements may be received by writing to
Center for Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 45268.
Pollution Abstracts is a general abstracting service pub-
lished bimonthly, and available in most major libraries.
Selected periodicals:
Atmospheric Environment
JAPCA - Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
ES&T - Environmental Science & Technology
Environment Reporter
-------
91
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Air Quality Protection articles and texts continued
Selected articles and texts:
ANON.,
(Current
Year).
Code of federal regulations, title 40, parts 50 to
59 (of Ch. 1 - Environmental Protection Agency,
Sub Ch. C - Air Programs. U.S. Government Print-
ing Office, Washington, B.C.)
BUDNEY, LAURENCE J.,
1976. Guidelines for air quality maintenance planning
and analysis volume 10 (rev.): procedures for
evaluating air quality impact of new stationary
sources. EPA-450/4-77-001 (OAQPS No. 1.2-029 R)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Air & Waste Management, Office of Air Quality
Planning & Standards, Research Triangle Park,
N.C. (50 p.)
GREENWOOD, D.R.
1979.
G.L. KINGSBURY, & J.G. CLELAND,
A handbook of key Federal regulations and cri-
teria for multimedia environmental control.
EPA-PC-A12/MF A01 Research Triangle Inst., Triangle
Park, N.C. for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. (273 p.)
KRAMER, BRUCE M.,
1976. Economics, technology, and the dean Air Act
Amendments of 1970; the first six years. Ecology
Law Quarterly, vol. 6: 1G1-230.
PORTNEY, PAUL R., ed., et al,
1978. Current issues in U.S. environmental policy.
Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, M.D. for
Resources for the Future. (207 p.)
U.S. CONGRESS (95th),
1977. The Clean Air Act as amended August 1977. Serial
No. 95-11 Committee Print, Senate Ccrnmitee on
Environment and Public Works. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (185 p.)
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92
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Open Burning and Smoke Management
Abstracting services & related:
Biological Abstracts covers many titles in this field.
FIREBASE is a bibliographic information retrieval system employing
automated data processing suited to interactive terminal searches
by authorized users. As the acronym conveys, this USDA, Forest
Service-maintained system is oriented to forest fire management
and related subjects. For information on access and search
procedures, contact Forest Service fire specialists, or see the
following reference: Eckels, Karen L. & Alan R. Taylor, 1979.
FIREBASE - wild!and fire bibliographic information system. In:
Environmental Management, vol 3: 21-27.
Selected Periodicals:
Atmospheric Environment
Journal of Forestry
Forest Science
Southern Journal of Applied Forestry
Periodicals Special Note:
For some specialized and general views of current directions in
fire management, see entire issue: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT,
vol. 3, No. 1, January, 1979.
Selected articles.and texts, general:
HESTER, NORMAN E.,
1979. Field and slash burning particulate characteriza-
tion, final project report. Rockwell Internation-
al for Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,
Portland, Ore. (131 p.)
Selected articles and texts, agricultural open burning:
CARROLL, JOHN J., GEORGE E. MILLER, JAMES F. THOMPSON,
& ELLIS DARLEY,
1977. The dependence of open field burning emissions and
plume concentrations on meteorology, field con-
ditions and ignition technique. Atmospheric
Environment, vol 11: 1037-1050.
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93
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Open Burning and Smoke Management Continued
CHI, C.T., & D.L. ZANDERS,
1977. Source assessment: Agricultural open burning
state of the art. EPA-600/2-77-107a Monsanto
Research Corp. for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (66 p.)
CRAIG, CHARLES, & M.A. WOLF,
1980. Factors influencing particulate concentrations
resulting from open field burning. Atmospheric
Environment, vol. 14: 433-443.
Selected articles and texts, prescribed burning:
CHI, C.T., et al,
1979. Source assessment: prescribed burning, state of
the art. EPA-600/2-79-019h Monsanto Research
Corp. for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency &
USDA, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. (107 p.)
COOK, JONATHAN D., JAMES H. HIMEL, RUDOLPH H. MOYER, and others,
1978. Impact of forestry burning upon air quality - a
state of knowledge characterization in Washington
and Oregon. EPA-910/9-78-052 GECMET Corp. for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Seattle, Wa.
(253 p.)
MARTIN, ROBERT E., & JOHN D. DELL,
1978. Planning for prescribed burning in the inland
northwest. Gen. Tech. Rept. PNW 76. USDA, Forest
Service, Pacific NW Forest & Range Exp. Sta.,
Portland, Ore. (275 p.)
MOBLEY, HUGH E., et al,
1977. A guide for prescribed fire in southern forests.
(rev) USDA, Forest Service, Southeastern Area, Atlanta,
Ga. (40 p.)
PAULSON, NEIL R., et al,
1980. Wildland fires, air quality, and smoke manage-
ment. Journal of Forestry, vol. 78: 3-11.
SLAUGHTER, C.W., R.J. BARNEY, & G.M. HANSEN, eds.,
1971. Fire in the northern environment - a symposium.
USDA, Forest Service, Pacific NW For. & Range Exp.
Sta., Portland, Ore. (275 p.)
SOUTHERN FOREST FIRE LABORATORY PERSONNEL,
1976. Southern forestry smoke management guidebook.
Gen. Tech. Rept. SE-10. USDA, Forest Service,
SE Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, N.C. (140 p.)
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94
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Open Burning and Smoke Management Continued
VOGL, RICHARD J.,
1979. Some Basic Principles of Grassland Fire Manage-
ment. Environmental Management, vol. 3: 51-57.
Alternatives Evaluation, General Technology
Selected periodicals:
TIMS/ORSA Bulletin
Management Science
Management Review & Digest
Selected articles and texts:
SRAVERMAN, JEROME D.,
1980. Management decision making. AMACOM, New York.
(241 p.)
BRILL, E. DOWNEY, JR.,
1979. The use of optimization models in public-sector
planning. Management Science, vol. 25: 413-422.
CORNELL, ALEXANDER H.,
1980. The decision-maker's handbook. Prentice-Hall Inc.
Englewood, N.J. (262 p.)
LIEBMAN, JON C.,
1976. Some simple-minded observations on the role of
optimization in public systems decision-making.
Interfaces, vol. 6: 102-108.
PANIK, MICHAEL J.,
197G. Classical optimization: foundations and exten-
sions. North-Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam-Oxford,
American Elsevier Publ. Co., N.Y. (312 p.)
SINDEN, JOHN A. & ALBERT C. WORRELL,
1979. Unpriced values - decisions without market prices.
John Wiley & Sons. New York, N.Y. (511 p.)
STEWART, THOMAS R.,
1975. Appendix E, policy capture. In: McMillan,
Claude, Jr. Mathematical programming, 2d ed.
Wiley, N.Y. (650 p.)
VEMURI, V.,
1979. Modeling of complex systems - an introduction.
Academic Press. New York. (448 p.)
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95
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Alternatives Evaluation, Specialized Technologies
Selected articles and texts, alternate treatments:
ADAMS, THOMAS C.,
1976. Economic availability of logging residue in the
Douglas-fir region. Resource Bui. PNW-64. USDA,
Forest Service. Pac. NW Forest & Range Exp. Sta.,
Portland Ore. (9 p.)
ANON.,
1978. Increased energy from biomass: 1985 possibilities
and problems - working papers for planners, Pacific
Northwest Bioconversion Workshop. RLO-78-5 U.S.
Dept. Commerce, National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Va. (176+ p.)
BUDIANSKY, STEPHEN,
1980. Bioenergy: the lesson of wood burning? Environ-
mental Science & Technology, vol. 14: 769-771.
HALL, R.E., AND DARYL G. DEANGELIS,
1980. EPA's research program for controlling residential
wood combustion emissions. Jour. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., vol. 30: 862-867.
PIEROVICH, JOHN M., EDWARD H. CLARKE, STEWART G. PICKFORD, AND
FRANKLIN R. WARD,
1975. Forest residues management guidelines for the
Pacific Northwest. General Tech. Report PNW-33.
USDA, Forest Service, Pacific NW Forest & Range Exp.
Sta., Portland, Ore. (273 p.)
Selected articles and texts, ambient air quality and monitoring:
ANON.,
1978. Ambient monitoring guidelines for prevention of
significant deterioration (PSD). EPA-450/2-78/019,
OAQPS-1.2-096 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. (71 p.)
GUSHING, KENNETH M. & WALLACE B. SMITH,
1979. Particulate sampling and support: final report.
EPA-600/2-79/114 Southern Research Inst.,
Birmingham, Ala. for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, N.C. (150 p.)
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96
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Alternatives Evaluation, Specialized Technologies
Selected articles and texts, ambient air quality and monitoring:
KODA, MASATO, & JOHN H. SEINFIELD.
1978. Air monitor siting by objective. EPA-600/4-78/03G
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Ca. for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nev,
(89 p.)
SMITH, W.B.,
1980. Proceedings: advances in particle sampling and
measurement (Daytona Beach, FLa., Oct., 1979). Rept.
for Apr.-Nov., 1979. EPA-600/9-80-004 Southern
Research Institute, Birmingham, Ala., for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. (419 p.)
SUMMERS, JACOB G.,
1979. SAROAD (storage and retrieval of aeroraetric data)
information...final report. EPA-450/4-79-005 U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. (71 p.)
Selected articles and texts, emissions:
COWHERD, CHATTEN, et al,
1980. The technical basis for a size-specific particulate
standard - workshop summaries from a two part spe-
cialty conference. Jour. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., vol. 30: 971-982.
HESTER, NORMAN E.,
1979. Oregon field burning studies, volume 8, field and
slash burning paticulate characterization, final
project report. AMC58001.15F. Rockwell
International Corp. for Oregon Dept. Environmental
Quality, Portland, Ore. (116 p.)
SCHRAG, M.P.,
1978. Fine particle emissions information system user
guide. Report for Jan.- May, 1978. EPA-600/8-78/
006 Midwest Reseach Institute, Kansas City, Mo. for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C. (308 p.)
-------
97
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Alternatives Evaluation, Specialized Technologies
Selected articles and texts, environmental assessments and cost analyses:
COOPER, D.W., J.S. SULLIVAN, MARGARET QUINN, R.C. ANTONELLI, AND MARIA
SCHNEIDER,
1979. Setting priorities for control of fugitive particulate
emissions from open sources. Final Report. Sep., 1977
- May, 1979. EPA-600/7-79/186 Harvard School of Public
Health, Boston, Mass, for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. (136 p.)
SERTH, R.W., T.W. HUGHES, R. E. OPFEKUCH, AND E. C. EIMUTIS,
1978. Source assessment: analysis of uncertainty - prin-
ciples and applications. Final report Nov., 1976 -
Mar., 1978. EPA-600/2-78-004U Monsanto Research
Corp., Dayton, Ohio, for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. (181 p.)
SEXTON, N.H., F.W. SEXTON, L.I. SOUTHERLAND, AND T.D. HARWELL,
1979. Interpretation of environmental assessment data.
Final Report, Mar., 1978 - Sep., 1979. EPA-68-02-
2156 Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle
Park, N.C., for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C. (242 p.)
UHL, VINCENT W.,
1979. A standard procedure for cost analysis of pollution
control operations, vols 1 & 2. EPA-600/8-79/018A &
018B, resp. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C. (65 p. & 164 p., resp.)
Selected articles and texts, fire effects:
DELL, JOHN D. , AND LEONARD A. VOLLAND,
1981. Fire effects on Pacific Northwest forest and range
vegetation. USDA, Forest Service, PNW Region. (25 p.)
HARBISON, JOHN R.,
1976. Fire and flame for plant disease control. Annual
Review of Phytopathology, vol. 14: 355-379.
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98
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Alternatives Evaluation, Specialized Technologies
Selected articles and texts, fire effects, continued:
SANDBERG, D.V., J.M. PIEROVICH, D.G. POX, AND E.W. ROSS,
1979. Effects of fire on air - a state-of-knowledge
review. Gen. Tech. Report WO-9. USDA, Forest
Service, Washington, D.C. (40 p.)*
TIEDEMANN, ARTHUR R., et al,
1979. Effects of fire on water - a state-of-knowledge
review. Gen. Tech. Report WO-10. USDA, Forest
Service, Washington, D.C. (28 p.)*
WADE, DALE, JOHN EWEL, AND RONALD HOFSTETTER,
1980. Fire in south Florida ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Report
SE-17. USDA, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Exp.
Sta., Asheville, N.C. (125 p.)
Selected articles and texts, long range transport:
NUBER, JOHN A., ARTHUR BASS, MICHAEL T. MILLS, AND CHARLES S.
MORRIS,
1978. A review of regional-scale air quality models for
long distance dispersion modeling in the Four
Corners Region. Environmental Research and
Technology, Inc., Concord, Mass, for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Energy,
Minerals and Safety. Washington, D.C. (85 p.)
Selected articles and texts, meteorology and climatology:
DOTY, STEPHEN R. , BRIAN L. WALLACE, AND GEORGE C. HOLZWORTH,
1976. A climatological analysis of Pasquill stability
categories based on 'star' summaries. Environmental
Data Service, National Climatic Center, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., Asheville, N.C.
(51 p.)
HOLZWORTH, GEORGE C.,
1972. Mixing heights, windspeeds, and potential for urban
air pollution throughout the contiguous United
States AP-101. Office of Air Programs, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. (118 p.)
HOSLER, CHARLES R.,
1961. Low-level inversion fequency in the contiguous United
States. Monthly Weather Review, vol. 89: 319-339.
* listed as an example from an entire "fire effects series" resulting from a
USDA, Forest Service Research Workshop held in 1978.
-------
99
x.
SELECTED REFERENCES continued
Alternatives Evaluation, Specialized Technologies
Selected articles and texts, meteorology and climatology, continued:
PASQUILL, F.,
1978. Atmospheric dispersion parameters in plume modeling.
Report for Jan., 1977 - Aug., 1977. EPA-600/4-78/
021 Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, N.C. (70 p.)
SCHROEDER, MARK J., AND CHARLES C. BUCK,
1970. Fire weather...a guide for application of meteoro-
logical information to forest fire control opera-
tions. Agriculture Handbook 360, USDA, Forest
Service, Washington, D.C. (228 p.)
Selected articles and texts, visibility:
ANON.,
1979. Protecting visibility — an EPA report to Congress.
EPA-450/5-79-008 Office of Air, Noise, & Radiation,
Office of 'Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S.
Environmental Protection Angency, Research Triangle
Park, NC. (262 p.)
LATIMER, DOUGLAS A., AND ROBERT G. IRESON,
1980. Workbook for estimating visibility impairment.
EPA-450/4-80-031 Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. (373 p.)
OSBORNE, MICHAEL C., AND M. RODNEY MIDGETT,
1978. Survey of Transmissometers used in conducting
visible emissions training courses. Final Report.
EPA-600/4-78/023 Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. (49 p.)
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GLOSSARY
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101
GLOSSARY
Definition of technical terms is an almost continual challenge among the
professional societies and organizations representing disciplines included
in the text of this Workbook. An example is the effort within the Society
of American Foresters to publish an updated glossary of fire management
terras.
The following terras are defined as used in this Workbook. Some definitions
are more narrow than will be found in common use, but all conform as closely
as possible to usages in the literature of the technologies from which they
are drawn. SMCKE MANAGEMENT is an exception; the definition advanced here
is an expansion of that in common current use, including here 3 functional
components believed needed to better communicate that this activity entails
more than carrying out a burning operation to minimize air quality impacts.
Not all terms included in this glossary have been used in the Workbook text
and appendices. Those added here are included to help speed communications
between individuals from the diverse disciplines which may become involved
in suggested Workbook procedures.
Abbreviations used in this glossary include: cf = compare to; CFR = Code
of Federal Regulations; e.g. = for example; i.e. = that is.
*#***#**#**##***#***#*#*******##***#*#
ACTIVE FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is sufficient to result
in appreciable lift of smoke or plume rise. [One of several terms used more
or less interchangeably by some but not all technologists in this field.
(cf: Convective Lift Fire Phase; Plume Rise Fire Phase).] Antonyms:
Nonactive Fire Phase; No Convective Lift Fire Phase; No Plume Rise Fire
Phase.
AIR CURTAIN DEVICE
Any device which forces air so as to form a "curtain" about a mass of fuel
and result in more nearly complete combustion than if left unaided. Usually
employed with trenches, pits, or portable bins.
AMBIENT
That which surrounds or encompasses. In an air quality regulatory sense,
that portion of the atmosphere, external to buildings, to which the general
public has access.
ANTHROPOGENIC
Induced or altered by the presence and activities of man. Used in air
quality to label those emissions originating with the presence and activi-
ties of man.
APPRAISAL
As used here, primarily the act of estimating or evaluating in the broader
sense, including thereby an assessment of the existing or resultant
situation, and of both monetary and other costs and benefits as appropriate
to making decisions on alternatives.
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102
GLOSSARY continued
AREA SOURCE
In an air quality regulatory sense, an aggregate source of emissions, its
individual sources being too small to be considered as point sources;
examples are small residential fuel combustion operations, any mobile source
such as cars or aircraft. In common usage, an emissions source comprised of
more than one individual point of emissions to the atmosphere. (cf:
Emissions Source; Line Source; Point Source.)
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
The distribution of a given quantity of pollutant throughout an increasing
volume of atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
The degree to which the atmosphere resists turbulence and small "random"
vertical motions.
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT
The movement of a mass of anissions borne in the air above the earth from a
point of origin to other points, (cf: Atmospheric Dispersion; Long Range
Transport.)
AVAILABLE FUEL
The net amount of combustible material not limited from burning by moisture
and other factors, (cf: Total Fuel Loading.)
BACKGROUM)
Ambient (which see) pollutant concentrations due to natural sources and
distant, unidentified, Anthropogenic (which see) sources.
BACKING FIRE
Any fire which literally backs against the wind, and/or downslope. Also
used to descriptively name a firing pattern set to behave in this manner.
The term is not applied to fires advancing rapidly downslope with a down-
slope wind; these are usually refered to as "downslope runs." A synonym in
most of the Southeastern United States, "Backfire" is used in most of the
Western United States only for fires set against an advancing fire front,
usually in controlling wildfires. Antonym: Heading Fire.
BURNING DAY
In general use, a day upon which objectives of open burning may be met.
CASE EXAMPLE
Results of a limited study for a specialized case, or set of cases, sug-
gested for cautious use with similar cases (sometimes including adjustment
factors), when more broadly adaptable models are not available.
CEILING HEIGHT
In strict U.S. weather observation station usage, merely, Ceiling. The
distance above the surface to the lowest cloud layer which obscures more
than half of the sky. (cf: Mixing Height)
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103
GLOSSARY continued
CHAPARRAL
A plant association of shrubs, and at times low (to about 8 meters) trees,
occurring in California and Arizona, and regarded as a highly flammable fuel
type during certain seasons of the year. Cccrmon names of species usually
identified with Chaparral include ceanothus, chamise, manzanita, and certain
of the oaks.
CHOPPING
Mechanically altering the original structure of residues and vegetation by
means such as rotary flails or drums.
CLIMATOLOGY
The scientific study, or the results of such a study, of long term meteoro-
logical variables (affecting the climate of an area and/or special opera-
tions such as agriculture, aviation, open burning, etc.).
COMPLEX TERRAIN
Primarily mountains and large bodies of water which affect local cir-
culation patterns, making it difficult to use generalized models for
atmospheric transport and dispersion.
CONTROLLED BURNING
The intentional use of fire to meet agricultural land management
objectives, and in a manner which assures the fire will not escape from the
area of open burning. Also an archaic term of occasional use in other
forms of land management open burning, but in the main replaced by the pre-
ferred term, Prescribed Burning, (cf: Open Burning; Land Managanent Open
Burning; Prescribed Burning; Natural Prescribed Fire.)
CONTROLLED INCINERATION
Burning within a combustion chamber in which the airflow and rate of com-
bustion can be regulated for more complete combustion than would take place
in an open burning environment.
CONVECTION COLUMN
A smoke plume rising in the atmosphere due to the thermally induced motion
resulting from the heat of combustion.
CONVECTIVE LIFT FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is sufficient to result
in appreciable lift of smoke, or plume rise. [One of several terms used
for essentially the same meaning by some, but not all, technologists in
this field. (cf: Active Fire Phase; Plume Rise Fire Phase).] Antonyms:
Nonactive Fire Phase; No Convective Lift Fire Phase; No Plume Rise Fire
Phase.
CRITERION
A characteristic used in basing a decision or judgement. Often
preestablished for subsequent evaluation of a performed task. (cf:
Standard.)
CROWN SCORCH
Dieback of the foliage of trees resulting from the heat of fires burning in
the understory vegetation and/or litter.
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104
GLOSSARY continued
DECAY RATE
Adjustment over time for a decline, as for the decline of fuel consumed in
combustion as it affects emissions production and heat released to the
atmosphere.
DECISION-MAKER
An individual responsible for determining the action to be taken. In the
procedures of this Workbook, specifically a participant responsible for
making decisions on the actions to be taken.
DESICCANT
A substance used to induce drying of living vegetation in preparation for
open burning.
DISPERSION
The distribution of a given quantity of a substance (in this text, of a
pollutant) throughout an increasing volume (in this text, of atmosphere).
(cf: Atmospheric Dispersion.)
EMISSION
A pollutant released to the atmosphere.
EMISSION FACTOR
The mass of a specified pollutant released to the atmosphere per unit-mass
of dry fuel consumed during combustion.
EMISSION RATE
The mass of a specified pollutant released to the atmoshere per unitnmss of
dry fuel consumed per unit of time.
EMISSION PRODUCTION
A generalization usually referring to the pollutants released to the
atmosphere by a specified process, (cf: Emission Rate.)
EMISSION SOURCE
Any process resulting in pollutants being released to the atmosphere.
ENTRAINMENT
The phenomenon of air, and airborne materials such as emissions, being
drawn into the convection column of a fire.
ESCAPED FIRE
Here specifically, an open burn which has not remained within the intended
control boundaries. More generally, both the preceding and a wildfire
which results in a control action beyond that of the initial attack force
capability.
ESCAPES
Common expression for the plural of Escaped Fire (which see).
FEDERAL LAND MANAGER
In an air quality regulatory sense, "...with respect to any lands in the
United States, the Secretary of the Department with authority over such
lands." (40 CFR 52.21) In this Workbook and in common usage, the offi-
cial of a Federal land managing Department or agency to whom has been dele-
gated responsibility for visibility protection and enhancement.
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105
GLOSSARY continued
FIRE DANGER
A generalization conmonly applied to the degree of fire control difficulty
expected. Also applied to the more precise, Fire Danger Rating, a measure
both of the likelihood of a wildfire occurring and of fire control
difficulty.
FIRE HAZARD
The amount of fuels subject to ignition.
FIRE RISK
The extent of exposure to sources of ignition.
FLAME INTERACTION
The movement of emissions through the glowing portion of the gases in the
combustion process, with the result that oxidation and/or reduction reac-
tions take place.
FLAMING COMBUSTION
Burning with a noticeable incandescence emitted from the glowing portion of
the gases above fuels being consumed. In more generalized usage, the com-
bustion stage in which flames are characteristically present, discounting
such intermittent or limited flaming as may take place during the
smoldering combustion fire stage. Antonym: Smoldering Combustion.
FRIABILITY
The ease of crumbling, pulverizing, or powdering.
FRONT-END MODEL
Commonly, the mathematical expressions representing Emission Production
(cf), employed in adapting atmospheric dispersion models to use with open
burning.
FUEL
Combustible material.
FUEL MOISTURE
The amount of water present in fuel, usually expressed in percent
(determined on the basis of the weight of the fuel in a given natural con-
dition compared to its ovendry weight). (cf: Timelag)
FUEL TYPE
The name for a given kind of combustible material, often taking on the name
of the dominant vegetation species or species association.
GOAL
The end to which an effort is directed. A condition or state to be brought
about. In planning, usually distinguished from Objective (cf) by its
longer-term expectations and less well defined dimensions.
HEADING FIRE
A fire which advances with the wind and/or upslope. Headfire is a synonym
in most of the Southeastern United States. Antonym: Backing Fire.
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106
GLOSSARY continued
HEAT RELEASE
In this text, a shortened form of the technically more correct, Heat
Released to the Atmosphere. The net sensible heat rising above an area of
combustion.
HEAT RELEASE RATE
Heat released to the atmosphere per unit-mass of fuel consumed per unit of
time.
HEAT VALUE
The total heat energy released during combustion, usually published as
units of heat energy produced per unit-mass of ovendry fuel consumed.
HIDDEN DEFECT
As used in this Workbook, a concealed flaw (such as rot, wind shake,
breakage, a pitch pocket) rendering a log, or portion of a log,
unmarketable, or of lessened value.
INDIGENOUS PLANT COMMUNITY
An association of vegetational species believed to be native to the area
under consideration.
ISSUE
A point of controversy, of dispute, or of seemingly conflicting goals or
objectives. Also, one of such issues confirmed by the process suggested by
this Workbook.
LAND MANAGEMENT OPEN BURNING
Fire applied to vegetative fuels in order to meet a definite objective
(i.e., by bringing about desired effects).
LINE SOURCE
An Emission Source (which see) for which the emissions are not from a
single point or several points within an area, but rather from a line.
(cf: Area Source; Point Source.)
LITTER
The uppermost layer of mostly undecomposed material on the forest floor.
Comprised mainly of fallen leaves, needles, flowers, fruit, bark fragments,
twigs, and branchwood.
LOFT
To lift, as smoke, to the atmosphere.
LONG RANGE TRANSPORT
The atmospheric suspension and movement of pollutants that, because of
their size and chemical composition, remain in the atmosphere over a long
period of time (e.g., greater than 24 hours) and, thus, are transported
over long distances (generally considered to be greater than 100
kilometers).
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107
GLOSSARY continued
METEOROLOGICAL SCHEDULING
A major tool of snake management by which land management opea burning is
scheduled, based upon weather variables affecting fire behavior, plume
rise, and smoke transport and dispersion. (Because of its overall impor-
tance in the scheduling process, this term is somet lines misapplied to
include other bases for scheduling that are also a part of smoke
management.)
MIXING HEIGHT
The distance above the surface of the earth to which relatively vigorous
exchange of fluid "parcels" takes place. (In some areas mixing height is
provided as an elevation above mean sea level in order to permit adjust-
ments for different surface elevations.)
NATURAL PRESCRIBED FIRE
A form of land management open burning in which naturally ignited fires
(i.e., from lightning) are permitted to burn in certain predetermined
areas, and under predetermined conditions.
NO ODNVECTIVE LIFT FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is not sufficient to
result in appreciable lift of smoke, or plume rise. [One of several terms
used more or less interchangeably' by some but not all technologists in this
field, (cf: Nonactive Fire Phase; No Plume Rise Fire Phase).] Antonyms:
Convective Lift Fire Phase; Plume Rise Fire Phase; Active Fire Phase.
NONACTIVE FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is not sufficient to
result in appreciable lift of smoke, or plume rise. [One of several terms
used more or less interchangeably by some but not all technologists in this
field. (cf: No Convective Lift Fire Phase; No Plume Rise Fire Phase).]
Antonyms: Convective Lift Fire Phase; Plume Rise Fire Phase; Active Fire
Phase.
NCNATTAINMENT
Used to denote an area in which the National Ambient Air Quality Standard
for a specific pollutant is exceeded. Nonattainment is determined by
either direct monitoring data, or, when that data is not available, calcu-
lated by air quality modeling. An area is designated nonattainment when
violations of the standard occur, or are expected to occur, more than once
per year.
NO PLUME RISE FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is not sufficient to
result in appreciable lift of smoke, or plume rise. [One of several terms
used more or less interchangeably by some but not all technologists in this
field. (cf: No Convective Lift Fire Phase; Nbnactive Fire Phase).]
Antonyms: Convective Lift Fire Phase; Plume Rise Fire Phase; Active Fire
Phase.
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108
GLOSSARY continued
OBJECTIVE
The result expected of an action or practice, often intermediate to other
objectives [all of which may be directed toward attainment of a Goal (cf),
from which term it is usually distinguished in planning by shorter-term
expectations and more narrow dimensions].
OPEN BURNING
Any manner of burning, not in a device or chamber designed to achieve or
approach complete combustion. Where the products of combustion are emitted
directly or indirectly into the open air. (cf: Land Management Open
Burning.)
PARTICULATES
Solid particles or liquid droplets small enough to be suspended in the air.
Examples include dust, soot, smoke, and fumes. (cf: Total Suspended
Particulate Matter.)
PILE & BURN
A common practice in which fuels are arranged in piles prior to burning,
and which may be considered as an alternative constraint when the piles are
constructed so as to promote more complete combustion, (cf: "PUM;" "YUM")
PLUME RISE
The phenomenon of smoke being entrained (see Entrainment) by the convection
column of a fire with sufficient heat to accelerate lofting of the air
above the area of burning, (cf: Plume Rise Fire Phase.)
PLUME RISE FIRE PHASE
That period of burning when the heat of combustion is sufficient to result
in appreciable lift of smoke, or plume rise. [One of several terms used
more or less interchangeably by some but not all technologists in this
field. (cf: Convective Lift Fire Phase; Active Fire Phase).] Antonyms:
Nonactive Fire Phase; No Convective Lift Fire Phase; No Plume Rise Fire
Phase.
POINT SOURCE
An individual location from which emissions are produced, such as a single
smoke stack, (cf: Area Source; Line Source.)
POLLUTANT
Any substance foreign to, or exceeding an amount expected naturally in the
medium under consideration.
PRESCRIBED BURNING
The application of fire to fuels in either their natural or modified state
(usually on lands managed for other than agriculture), under conditions of
weatlier, fuel moisture, soil moisture, etc., so that the fire will be con-
fined to a predetermined area, and at the same time so planned objectives
of such activities as silviculture, wildlife habitat management, grazing
management, and fire hazard reduction will be met. In some organizations,
the term is employed to include preplanned fires similar in purpose to
those which are separately defined in other organizations as Natural
Prescribed Fire (which see), (cf: Controlled Burning.)
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109
GLOSSARY continued
PRIMARY AEROSOL
Particulates (which see) directly emitted from a source; the emission
remains unchanged in chemical composition and structure. (cf: Secondary
Aerosol.)
PROBLEM RECEPTOR
Any downwind location for which it has been determined that an intrusion of
a specified amount of pollutant will be undesirable, (cf: Smoke Sensitive
Area.)
PUM
The acronym for piling unmerchantable material, a practice in which the
piles are generally more scattered and smaller than those of "YUM" (cf).
Often done as a part of prescriptions calling for Pile & Burn (cf)
treatment.
RADIANT HEAT
Heat which is transmitted as a wave motion rather than that which is con-
ducted or is carried by convection (these being known as conductive heat
and convective heat, respectively).
ROUGH
A term used in the Southern United States to name the competing understory
vegetation and litter found in timber stands in that area.
SAFE-SIDED
An adjective term used to indicate that, while knowledge is incomplete,
values so described should be reasonably safe, or erring to the
conservative.
SANITATION BURNING
The use of fire to remove pests and undesirable hosts (e.g.: plants,
disease, insects, including disease vectors) likely to otherwise unfa-
vorably affect the productivity of crops (including timber).
SECOND GROWTH
Conroonly employed to name timber which has become established following
destruction of the predecessor trees (as by fire or insects), or following
harvesting.
SECONDARY AEROSOL
Particulates (which see) that are changed in structure and/or chemical
composition while in the atmosphere, (cf: Primary Aerosol.)
SHORELINE PHENOMENON
A possibly better name for what is more cannon!y known as the Seabreeze
Phenomenon. An example of the effect of complex terrain where there are
large bodies of water, this is generally an on-shore wind confined to areas
proximate to coastlines, and resulting from certain predictable weather
variables. It is particularly troublesome to maintaining control of open
burning and to predicting the direction of smoke transport and dispersion,
unless accounted for.
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110
GLOSSARY continued
SHORT-TERM PEAK CONCENTRATION
The maximum downwind concentration of a pollutant originating from a source
such as open burning which is frequently characterized by a gradual decay
of heat release and emissions production. Usually expressed as an instan-
taneous quantity.
SKY/TERRAIN CONTRAST
The difference in light intensity of the sky relative to that of the
terrain.
SMOKE MANAGEMENT
Most commonly, the actions taken to minimize the possible air quality
impacts of smoke from open burning. In this text it is suggested that the
term embraces 3 main functions: APPRAISAL; SPECIFICATIONS AND SCHEDULING;
EXECUTION.
SMOKE MANAGEMENT OPERATING PLAN
Written specifications and procedures to be followed in carrying out smoke
management.
SMOKE MANAGEMENT WEATHER INTERPRETATION
Consequences specific to smoke management, as expected in view of infor-
mation contained in an official forecast from the National Weather Service.
SMOKE SENSITIVE AREA
Any area recognized in smoke management as one where the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards or locally determined criteria are to be met.
Examples are hospitals, highways, etc.
SMOLDERING COMBUSTION
Burning without flames.
SOURCE
Any process resulting in pollutants being released to the atmosphere.
Synonym: Emissions Source.
SPECIES ASSOCIATION
A community of flora or fauna with definite composition and dominant mem-
bers in a uniform habitat.
SPECIES DENSITY
The population per unit-area of a species.
STAGNATION
Lack of movement in an air mass for extended periods of time (e.g., 24
hours or more) which traps and concentrates pollutants in a specific area.
STANDARD
The measure by which something may be judged, (e.g., The National Ambient
Air Quality Standards.)
STEADY-STATE
A condition that does not change with time.
SUCCESSION
The natural progression in development and composition of vegetation.
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Ill
GLOSSARY continued
SURFACE WIND
The wind direction and speed measured close to the surface of the earth.
To avoid interfering objects, this is usually measured at a distance above
the actual surface. [A 20-foot standard above open terrain usually applies
to this distance, and to forecasts of surface wind in forested areas. This
may mean that special adjustments in forecasts and observations are
necessary; (e.g., under standing timber, or where the wind at mid-flame
height is needed in fire behavior predictions).] (cf: Transport Wind.)
TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT
In this Workbook, the determination of impact.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
A layer in the atmosphere in which temperature increases with altitude.
TIMELAG
The time it takes for a fuel particle to lose approximately 63 percent of
the difference between its starting moisture content and its moisture con-
tent if left exposed for an infinite time in an environment of specified
constant temperature and humidity (i.e., equilibrium moisture content).
Important differences in timelag constants for different fuel types must be
accounted for in determining rates of fuel consumption, and thus emission
rates, at different time intervals since measureable precipitation.
TOTAL FUEL LOADING
The total weight of fuel per unit-area, disregarding fuel moisture and
other factors affecting its availability to burn, (cf: Available Fuel.)
TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER (TSP)
The general term used for particles found in the atmosphere.
TRANSPORT WIND DIRECTION
The weighted average of the directions from which all winds within the
mixing layer originate. [i.e., below the Mixing Height, (which see).]
(cf: Surface Wind.) NOTE: In some cases, when wind directions change
greatly within the mixing layer, the transport windspeed has little value
for downwind concentration predictions because smoke travels in several
directions at the same time.
TRANSPORT WINDSPEED
The arithmetic average of all windspeeds (including surface windspeed)
within the mixing layer [i.e., below the Mixing Height, (which see)], (cf:
Surface Wind.)
UNDERBURNING
The use of a low intensity surface fire (compared with fires in cleared
areas or on open range) as a management practice under a stand of timber.
Used in treating Understory (which see) vegetation and litter, and for Sani-
tation Burning (which see).
UNDERSTORY
Vegetation beneath the canopy formed by dominant members of the Species
Association (which see).
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112
GLOSSARY continued
UNENTRAINED
Smoke which is not drawn into the convection column of a fire. (cf:
Entrainment.)
WILDFIRE
Any fire burning out of prescription. (cf: Prescribed Fire; Natural
Prescribed Fire.)
WINDROW
A fuel arrangement resulting when residue or other debris is treated by
machines so as to form an elongated pile.
YARDING
The transport of harvested materials or residues to collection points within
an area being logged.
YUM
The acronym for yarding unmerchantable material. (See Yarding.) Piles
resulting from "YUM" are generally larger than those from "PUM" (cf), and
are dependent upon tractor or cable logging systems.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-450/2-82-001
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Smoke Management - A Workbook for Balancing Air
Quality and Land Management Goals
5. REPORT DATE
January 10, 1982
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Forest Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16.ABSTRACT A process is given for balancing air quality andTand management goals
through smoke management. The process has application wherever land management
open burning has the potential to affect air quality, or wherever air quality
restrictions may affect the use of fire as a land management practice. Primary
focus of the process is upon confirmation of related public and technical issues,
then upon developing issue-resolving criteria. This leads to development and
evaluation of alternatives. Two are emphasized. One is increased utilization
of residues in place of burning. The other emphasized alternative is scheduling
of open burning to meet conditions specified for maintaining downwind concentrations
of emissions to acceptable levels. Scheduling may also be employed to favor
visibility protection and enhancement. Process supporting technical appendices
cover development and evaluation of a smoke management program, predicting
downwind concentrations, and determining visibility protection needs. Selected
references and a glossary are provided.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Held/Group
Agricultural residues, air quality pro-
tection, alternatives, evaluation, atmos-
pheric emissions, forest residues, goals-
balancing, impact analysis, land management
open burning, open burning, prescribed fire,
jsmoke management, visibility protection.
6F
'..'•a 3ISTR.BUNION STATE'VIENI
Release Unlimited
1 19 SECURITY CLASS ,'This Report
None
, 21 NO OF °AGES
112
20 SECUR' fv C-ASS i'T':ts page)
•22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. a_77)
PfiE.'IOUS EDITION IS OBSOLETE
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