United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
of Air Quality
and Standards
, fc*«iwrch Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450/2-S7-002,
January 1987
Air
Progress in the
Prevention and
Control of Air
Pollution in 1985
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South.Dearborn Street .+''
Chicago, Illinois 60604
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication.
Copies of this report are available through the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; or, for a fee, from the National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication No. EPA-450/2-87-002
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE v
I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
A. Overview « . 1-1
B. Air Quality Trends, Monitoring, and Modeling c. 1-1
C. Air Pollution Research Programs . 1-3
0. Development of National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 1-5
E. Regulatory Assessment of Toxic Air Pollutants 1-5
F. Status of Air Quality Management Programs 1-6
G. Control of Stationary Source Emissions 1-8
H. Stationary Source Compliance «,. 1-9
I. Control of Mobile Source Emissions 1-10
J. Stratospheric Ozone Protection 1-12
K. Radon Assessment and Mitigation 1-13
L. Litigation 1-13
II. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
A. National Air Quality and Emission Trends II-l
B. Ambient Air Monitoring II-4
C. Air Quality Modeling II-6
D. Integration of Air Data Systems II-9
E. Emission Factor Development II-9
F. National Dioxin Study 11-9
G. References .. 11-10
III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS .
A. Introduction III-l
B. General Air Pollution Research Activities III-l
C. Acid Deposition Research Activities III-7
D. References 111-9
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
A. Description of Activities IV-1
B. References IV-2
V. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
A. Description of Activities V-l
B. References V-2
VI. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. Development of Policy and Regulations................. VI-1
B. Prevention of Significant Deterioration and
Nonattainment New Source Review Activities VI-4
C. Implementation Overview and Assistance VI-6
D. Air Pollution Training VI-10
E. References VI-11
in
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VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) VII-1
B. National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAP) VII-1
C. Delegation of NSPS and NESHAP VI1-2
D. BACT/LAER Clearinghouse VI1-2
E. References VI1-3
VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. General VIII-1
B. Litigation VI11-4
C. Compliance and Enforcement Guidance VIII-6
0. Compliance by Federal Facilities VI11-7
E. List of Violating Facilities VIII-7
F. References VIII-7
IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. Introduction IX-1
B. Air Toxics '. IX-2
C. Standard Setting IX-2
D. Preproduction Compliance IX-4
E. Inspection/Maintenance IX-4
F.- Mobile Source Enforcement IX-5
G. Imports IX-6
H. References IX-6
X. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
A. Description of Activities X-l
B. References X-2
XI. RADON ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION XI-1
XII. LITIGATION
A. Introduction XII-1
B. Title I Cases XII-1
C. Title II Cases XII-2
D. Judicial Review Cases XII-2
IV
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PREFACE
The Clean Air Act, as amended, authorizes a national program of air
pollution research, regulation, and enforcement activities. This program
is directed at the Federal level by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). However, primary responsibility for the prevention and
control of air pollution continues to rest with State and local governments,
The EPA's role is to conduct research and development programs, set national
standards and regulations, provide technical and financial assistance to
the States, and, where necessary, supplement State implementation programs.
Section 313 of the Clean Air Act requires the Administrator to report
on measures taken toward implementing the purpose and intent of the Act.
This report covers the period January 1 to December 31, 1985, and describes
the issues involved in the prevention and control of air pollution and
the major elements of progress toward that goal that have been made during
that time. In addition, this report also includes two other EPA reports
to Congress required under the Clean Air Act, as amended:
1. Section 306 report on Federal procurement and violating facilities
(Chapter VIII), and •
2. Section 202(b)(4) report on measures taken in relation to motor
vehicle emissions control (Chapter IX).
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I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
A. OVERVIEW
This report describes the progress that the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has made in the prevention and control of air pollution
during 1985. The following paragraphs summarize the contents of the
remaining chapters of this report, especially insofar as those chapters
illuminate current understanding of air quality problems, controls, and
administrative apparatus. Since it takes approximately 1 year to assemble,
analyze, and report air quality and emissions data on a national basis,
the latest air quality and emissions data available for this report are
for the year 1984.
8. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
All of the criteria pollutants showed improvements in air quality and
emissions between 1975 and 1984. Between 1983 and 1984, however, total
suspended particulate (TSP), sulfur dioxide (S02), and nitrogen dioxide
(NO?) showed slight increases, while carbon monoxide (CO) showed a slight
decline, lead (Pb) a more substantial decline, and ozone (O^) declined
from its 1983 level to the levels of 1981 and 1982. Specific details on
air quality and emissions levels, for each of the pollutants to which
ambient air quality standards apply, are as follows:
0 Annual average ambient TSP levels decreased 20 percent between
1975 and 1984, while TSP emissions decreased 33 percent. Between
1983 and 1984, ambient TSP levels increased 2 percent, while TSP
emissions increased 4 percent.
0 Annual average ambient SO? levels decreased 36 percent between 1975
and 1984, while total sulfur oxide emissions decreased 16 percent.
Between 1983 and 1984, ambient S02 levels increased 2 percent, while
total sulfur oxide emissions increased 4 percent.
0 Ambient CO levels decreased 34 percent between 1975 and 1984, while
total CO emissions decreased 14 percent. Between 1983 and 1984,
ambient CO levels decreased only 1 percent. This leveling off
appears to be consistent with the highway vehicle portion of the
transportation category which showed a 1 percent decrease between
1983 and 1984.
o
Annual average ambient N02 levels decreased 10 percent between 1975
and 1984. Between 1975 and 1984, total nitrogen oxide emissions
increased by 3 percent, but highway vehicle emissions, the source
category likely impacting the majority of N02 monitoring sites,
decreased by 4 percent. Between 1983 and 1984, ambient N02 levels
increased 2 percent, while total nitrogen oxides emissions increased
3 percent.
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o
o
The composite average of the second highest daily maximum 1-hour
ambient 03 values decreased 17 percent between 1975 and 1984,
while volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions decreased 6 percent.
The decrease in ambient 03 levels is complicated by the change in
the 03 calibration procedure which took place between 1978 and
1979. In the post-calibration period (1979-1984), ambient 03 levels
decreased 7 percent, while VOC emissions decreased 10 percent.
Between 1982 and 1984, ambient 03 levels increased (1982-83) and
then decreased (1983-84). The 1984 ambient 03 levels are very
similar to the 1981-82 levels, despite an estimated national
growth of almost 200 billion vehicle miles of travel between 1980
and 1984 and an expansion of economic activity in 1984.
Ambient Pb levels decreased 70 percent between 1975 and 1984, while
lead emissions decreased 72 percent. Between 1983 and 1984,
ambient Pb levels declined 7 percent, while Pb emissions declined
13 percent.
The EPA promulgated regulations in 1979 which required States to
establish and operate air monitoring networks and to report the data to
EPA. Two types of permanent stations are provided for in the regulations:
State and Local Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS) and National Air Monitoring
Stations (NAMS). The SLAMS, which were designed to meet the overall
monitoring requirements of State implementation plan activities, were
required to meet all provisions of the regulations by January 1, 1983.
Through December 1985, 4,642 SLAMS monitors out of a total operating
network of 4,674 monitors met all requirements of the regulations. The
NAMS, which are a subset of the SLAMS network, are designed to provide
a national monitoring network as required by section 319 of the Clean Air
Act (Act). Through December 1985, 1,344 NAMS monitors out of a total planned
network of 1357 monitors met all requirements of the regulations.
To accompany the proposed revisions to the national ambient air quality
standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM), EPA on March 20, 1984, also
proposed amendments to 40 CFR 58 (Air Quality Surveillance and Reporting
Regulations). The proposed revisions to Part 58 would establish ambient air
quality monitoring requirements for particles nominally 10 micrometers and
smaller in diameter (PM^g) as measured by a new reference method proposed
as Appendix J of 40 CFR Part 50 or an equivalent method. In addition, new
network design and monitoring siting requirements were proposed for the
secondary TSP standard.
Also in the monitoring area in 1985, more ambient hydrocarbon data were
gathered in 19 cities following the 22-city study of 1984. Data from the
1985 study confirm that the new analytical method yields much more reliable
and accurate measures of hydrocarbon concentrations than does the older
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measurement method and also confirm the 1984 data in indicating that
ambient hydrocarbon concentrations in major metropolitan areas are somewhat
higher than previously thought.
During 1985, EPA continued its program to evaluate several categories
of air quality models by completing evaluation of four mobile source
models. Efforts to develop effective graphical techniques to present
statistical performance information on models were continued. Multiyear
cooperative agreements with the States of New York and Connecticut were
continued to evaluate strategies for the control of photochemical air
pollutants in the New York metropolitan area. Efforts to improve guidance
on air quality models and to ensure consistency in their use also were
continued, including the distribution of a report on receptor modeling and
continuation of ozone modeling support efforts.
A major new focus in air quality dispersion modeling was initiated
during 1985. The EPA's activities in the regulation of toxic chemical
impacts required the review of available dispersion techniques to adequately
address different types of air pollutant releases than previously assessed.
The emphasis shifted from stack releases at a few points within the facility
to an assessment of pollutant discharges from vents, valves, flanges, etc.
This required the development of screening mechanisms and review of short-term
release models and application of these techniques to test for potential
acute health effects.
In 1985, work continued on the air quality component of the Aerometric
Information Reporting System (AIRS). This system is an integrated data
system that will replace entirely the existing data bases, files, and
software now used by EPA for storing and retrieving ambient air quality data,
stationary source and emissions data, and source compliance data.
The EPA continued to support State efforts to develop emission control
strategies by publishing emission factors on various pollutants including
potentially toxic pollutants. Emphasis was placed on sources of particles
less than 10 microns in size and on sources of phosgene, epichlorohydrin,
vinylidene chloride, chlorobenzenes, PCB's, and ethylene oxides.
Also in 1985, EPA continued to implement the National Dioxin Study to
assess the potential extent of contamination of the environment with
chlorinated dioxin compounds.
C. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
Research efforts conducted by EPA in 1985 covered a wide variety of
topics. Work continued on air quality criteria documents for ozone and
lead. These documents provide the scientific bases for the review and
possible revision of the NAAQS for these pollutants. Considerable progress
was made in characterizing the effects of acute exposures to oxidants in
humans. Pulmonary function effects of sulfur dioxide and aerosol particles
were investigated and a 5-year follow-up study of the effects of lead on
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children was completed. Projects were completed on respiratory tract
deposition of particles in animals. Various effects of ozone on crops
were studied, an advanced atmospheric corrosion monitor was developed and
evaluated, and a number of reports were prepared on the topic of measuring
ambient air pollutants.
Additional research efforts included the study of a new method for
measuring nonmethane organic compounds and a number of studies on the role
of VOC's in producing ozone. Experiments were conducted to improve complex
terrain air quality models. Control of VOC's was emphasized but research
on control of emissions of other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and
sulfur dioxide was conducted.
A total of 14 comprehensive health assessment documents for potentially
toxic air pollutants were completed in 1985. Research continued on the
contribution of air pollution to cancer incidence in the United States
and dose-response information for various air pollutants was developed.
In addition, a number of experiments were completed to determine the
transport, transformation, and fate of hazardous air pollutants. Progress
on implementation of the toxic air monitoring system continued in 1985
and control technologies for control of toxic pollutants were investigated.
A number of research efforts related to primarily mobile source
pollutants were in progress in 1985. These included carbon monoxide health
effects studies and a study of the respiratory carcinogenicity of diesel
particles. Studies characterizing motor vehicle emissions were completed
and a report summarizing the fuels and fuel additives registered in 1985
was prepared.
Research was also conducted in 1985 on emissions from household building
materials and space heaters. A workshop to discuss indoor air pollutants
was sponsored and field testing related to radon mitigation techniques was
completed. Research also progressed on the health and environmental effects
of certain forms of ultraviolet radiation.
In addition, research continued to be conducted in the area of acid
deposition. In 1985, EPA continued to participate in the work of the
Interagency Task Force on acid precipitation related to the national acid
precipitation assessment program. Research on monitoring dry acidic
deposition was conducted and data on wet deposition were collected through
the National Trends Network. Development of a regional acid deposition
model that simulates atmospheric processes was completed. A special effort
to develop a 1985 inventory of major emission sources of sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds was initiated to support
future analytical efforts of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment
Program (NAPAP). State submissions are due to EPA during the last quarter
of 1986 and the final data base should be completed by June 1987. Two
major research efforts were initiated to improve EPA's understanding of
the aquatic effects of acid deposition and research was also conducted in
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the area of terrestrial effects and the effects of acid deposition on
materials. In addition, EPA continued to develop limestone injection
multistage burners (LIMB) technology to reduce emissions of sulfur oxides
and nitrogen oxides from coal-fired boilers.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA to regularly review
and, if appropriate, revise the NAAQS on a 5-year basis. Reviews of all
existing NAAQS were in progress in 1985. In 1984, EPA proposed changes
to the NAAQS for particulate matter. The Clean Air Scientific Advisory
Committee (CASAC) reviewed the proposal at a meeting in December 1985 and
recommended that because of new data published since the combined
criteria document for particulate matter and sulfur oxides was prepared
in 1981, EPA should prepare an addendum to the criteria document and the
particulate matter staff paper. Due to the time needed for preparation
and CASAC review of the criteria document and staff paper addenda, final
action on the particulate matter standard will be delayed until 1987.
Other activities in this area in 1985 included reaffirmation of the NAAQS
for N0£ in June and reaffirmation of the primary (health-related) NAAQS
for CO and revocation of the secondary (welfare) NAAQS for CO in September.
In addition, work on the exposure analysis and the cost, economic, and
benefits analyses for the sulfur oxide NAAQS review continued in 1985.
The CASAC met in May 1985 and reviewed the first draft of the lead
staff paper and also conducted an initial review of the lead risk program.
On the basis of their comments, the staff paper was revised and will be
reviewed by CASAC in early 1986. During 1985, work proceeded on the lead
risk assessment program and related exposure analyses. Also, the CASAC
met in March 1985 and reviewed the first draft of the ozone criteria
document. Since then, the criteria document has been revised on the basis
of CASAC and public comments and was released in December 1985 for
additional public and CASAC review.
E. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
The EPA completed its commitment to Congress to consider 20-25
chemicals for regulation under section 112 of the Act. Three decisions
were published in 1984 and 19 in 1985, for a total of 22. Nine of these
have been notices of Intent to List (as a hazardous air pollutant) under
section 112 of the Act, one (coke oven emissions) was listed under section
112, and one (methylene chloride) will be considered for regulation under
section 112 or other Federal legislation. The pollutants covered by Intent
to List notices are carbon tetrachloride, cadmium, chromium, chloroform,
ethylene oxide, ethylene dichloride, butadiene, trichloroethylene, and
perch!oroethylene. Decisions announced in 1985 not to regulate under the
Act were issued for chlorofluorocarbon 113, chlorinated benzenes, chloro-
prene, epichlorohydrin, hexachlorocyclopentadiene, manganese, methyl
chloroform, and vinylidene chloride. For acrylonitrile, EPA instituted a
program to cooperate with State initiatives to control sources of local
or Regional concern.
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In June 1985, EPA announced the development of a comprehensive strategy
for reducing risks to public health from air toxics that deals with both
routine and accidental releases. The strategy for routine releases involves
three major thrusts: 1) a more aggressive direct Federal regulatory
program that involves utilization of all EPA authorities, not just the Clean
Air Act; 2) enhancement of State and local air toxics programs; and 3) a
program to assess and regulate, where necessary, the elevated multipollutant,
multimedia risks that occur in many large urban areas. The program for
accidental releases involves the issuance by EPA of an acutely toxic
chemicals list and associated guidance to assist States in determining
who produces, stores, and transports these chemicals and in developing
emergency preparedness and response plans for these facilities within
their jurisdiction.
Also in 1985, the National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
(NATICH) was significantly expanded through the implementation of the
computerized NATICH data base.
F. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
As mentioned previously,-EPA proposed revised NAAQS for particulate
matter in March 1984. The proposed standards consist of primary standards
that would apply to a size range of particles nominally 10 micrometers and
smaller in diameter (PM^o). and an annual TSP secondary standard. The focus
of the proposed primary standards on a new particle size range necessitated
preparation of regulations, policies, and technical guidance so that SIP's
for PMig can be developed by the States. In April 1985, EPA published a
Federal Register notice which solicited public comments on a number of
considerations relative to implementing the proposed PM^o standards. A
considerable number of comments were received on the PM^g implementation
material. At the end of 1985, EPA was in the process of resolving the
issues raised.
In 1982, a number of plaintiffs filed suit seeking to compel EPA to
promulgate State plans for visibility protection under section 110(c) of the
Act for those States which had not submitted such plans as required by
regulations promulgated by EPA in 1980. Partially as a result of a two-part
settlement agreement between EPA and the Environmental Defense Fund, EPA
promulgated monitoring strategies for 22 States and visibility new source
review programs for 20 States in two actions—July 1985 and February 1986.
These actions, along with actions on some State-submitted plans, complete
the first part of the settlement agreement. In compliance with the
second part of the agreement, EPA reviewed the SIP's for the States and
determined that 31 States were deficient for implementation control
strategies and long-term strategies for visibility protection and one
State was deficient for protection of integral vistas.
In July 1985, EPA adopted revisions to regulations originally published
in 1982 which prohibit reliance by stationary sources on stacks in excess
of "good engineering practice" or on any other dispersion techniques in
lieu of emission controls. Known as the "stack height" regulations, these
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revisions were adopted after an extended comment period and public hearing.
States were given 9 months from the date of promulgation of the revisions
to review their rules and source emission limitations, and to revise and
resubmit them to EPA as necessary. In a related action, EPA proposed a
policy in December 1985 which, if adopted, would allow sources for which
emission reductions are required under the stack height regulations to
contract with other sources for the reductions in lieu of reducing emissions
at their own facilities. To ensure that the balancing would have positive
environmental benefits as great as, or greater than, those that would occur
with stack-by-stack compliance with the stack height regulation, EPA proposed
that the emission reductions from the source which is providing the reductions
be greater than the reductions at the affected source.
The EPA made significant progress in 1985 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Act regarding the preconstruction review of new
and modified stationary sources. In the area of delegation of prevention of
significant deterioration (PSD) programs, EPA continued its progress of
previous years. In a related area, in 1985 EPA developed a draft national
policy for reviewing proposed PSD permit modifications and extensions.
Such a policy appears to be increasingly important as many of the source
owners with valid PSD permits wish to change conditions within their
permits on the eve of their construction or operation.
As previously reported, the EPA's PSD and nonattainment new source
review regulations have been challenged by a variety of entities. These
challenges were consolidated as Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA)
v. EPA. On February 22, 1982, EPA entered into a litigation settlement
with the industry petitioners in which it agreed to propose certain
regulatory changes. The EPA has prepared final actions on a significant
portion of the settlement. These documents were undergoing internal EPA
review at the end of 1985. In addition, an important related matter of
controversy has been the definition of "source" for the purposes of
nonattainment new source review since the Act is not clear in this area.
During 1985, EPA worked on the development of a policy which will aid the
Regions in processing proposed SIP's in which the definition of source is
a critical issue. Resolution of the definition of source should signifi-
cantly accelerate the processing of revisions to the nonattainment portions
of SIP's.
Also in the area of new source review, in 1985 EPA continued rulemaking
on the issue of including fugitive emissions from surface coal mining
operations when calculating whether a source is "major," and therefore
subject to new source review.
The National Air Audit System (NAAS) was developed in 1983 as a joint
effort by EPA, the State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators
(STAPPA), and the Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
(ALAPCO). The primary goals of the NAAS are to identify any obstacles that
are preventing State and local air pollution control agencies from imple-
menting effective air quality management programs and to provide EPA with
quantitative information for use in defining more effective and meaningful
national programs. A national report summarizing the results of that 1985
audit was in preparation at the end of the year.
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In 1985, EPA continued to work on the development of a final emissions
trading policy to allow affected sources more flexibility in meeting air
quality requirements. In addition, EPA had approved or proposed to approve
50 bubbles with an estimated savings of $300 million by the end of 1985.
The EPA also assisted States in developing programs whereby surplus emission
reductions can be banked and used to meet certain air quality management
objectives. At the end of 1985, formal banking rules had been approved
for five States or local areas.
In 1985, EPA continued efforts to explore the potential issues that
could arise in implementing possible acid deposition control programs.
Starting in 1984, State and local air pollution control agencies submitted
59 proposals to conduct a variety of projects to analyze various implementation
issues. The EPA eventually selected 37 projects for funding. Work on
the projects began in 1985. Also in 1985, EPA began to identify other
implementation issues and options not being examined under the projects
described above.
In 1985, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. This training included short course presen-
tations of 3 to 5 days in length, self-study courses, technical assistance
to others who conduct training, and the support of the traineeships and
fellowships for graduate air pollution training. Nearly 2300 students
received training through these efforts.
G. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
In the area of stationary source controls, work progressed on the
development of emissions standards for those major source categories not
yet regulated under new source performance standards (NSPS) and on the
revision of various NSPS as appropriate. The NSPS for six new categories
were promulgated in 1985 and the existing NSPS for one category was revised.
Section 112 of the Act authorizes EPA to establish national emission
standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP). Regulatory activities
under this section limiting emissions of arsenic, benzene, asbestos, mercury,
vinyl chloride, chromium and coke oven emissions were under w.ay in 1985.
In addition, technical studies, including engineering and control analyses,
were commenced for 10 other compounds in 1985. The compounds under study
are carbon tetrachloride, trichloroetyhylene, perch!oroethylene, cadmium,
chromium, chloroform, ethylene oxide, 1,3 butadiene, methylene chloride,
and ethylene dichloride. Standards were promulgated for radionuclide
emissions from the Department of Energy facilities, Nuclear Regulatory
Commission licensed facilities and non-DOE Federal facilities, elemental
phosphorus plants, and underground uranium mines. Work continued on
standards for radon-222 emissions from licensed uranium mill tailings.
Also in 1985, EPA continued to make progress in delegating responsibility
for implementing NSPS and NESHAP programs to State and local air pollution
control agencies. At the end of 1985, approximately 94 percent of applicable
NSPS and 95 percent of applicable NESHAP had been delegated.
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The EPA also continued to maintain the Best Available Control
Technology/Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (BACT/LAER) Clearinghouse
in 1985 in order to assist State and local agencies in their Bact and LAER
determinations.
H. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
The EPA closely monitors the compliance status of about 31,000
stationary sources of air pollution. Approximately 27,000 of these sources
are Class A State implementation plan (SIP) sources, about 3,000 are NSPS
sources, and about 1,000 are NESHAP sources. At the end of 1985, as has
been the case since the late 1970's, the compliance rates were high and
generally stable. Class A SIP sources had a compliance rate of over
90 percent, NSPS sources were over 89 percent, and NESHAP sources were
over 86 percent. In 1985, EPA conducted 1,734 overview inspections of
Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP sources while the States conducted over
30,000 such inspections.
The Act provides a variety of administrative enforcement mechanisms
for dealing with both special situations and relatively easily corrected
violations. During 1985, EPA issued immediate compliance orders under
section 113(a) of the Act to 111 sources and issued or approved delayed
compliance orders under section 113(d) to 21 sources* In addition, EPA
filed 73 civil actions in 1985 against stationary sources for Act
violations and a total of 163 such actions were pending at the end of the
year.
A major focus of the stationary source compliance program is the
effort to return to compliance those sources meeting the definition of
a significant violator. The universe of sources covered by this program
include sources that are in violation of NESHAP and NSPS regulations and
Class A SIP sources in violation of a SIP requirement located in a
nonattainment area for the pollutant for which the source is in violation.
For fiscal year (FY) 1985, EPA identified 513 significant violators
pending at the beginning of FY 1985 and by the end of the fiscal year,
391 were addressed.
In 1985, EPA and States received 23,022 asbestos demolition or
renovation notifications, conducted 10,482 asbestos inspections, and found
1,227 violations. The EPA issued 331 notices of violation or deficiency,
issued 46 administrative actions, and initiated 18 civil actions for
violations of asbestos demolition and renovation regulations. Delegated
States also conducted a high level of asbestos enforcement action during
1985. The States issued 298 notices of violation or deficiency, issued
98 administrative orders, and initiated 16 civil actions.
On July 11, 1984, EPA issued a vinyl chloride NESHAP enforcement
strategy which facilitates the development of civil complaints against
violators of vinyl chloride regulations. The EPA filed three civil
actions during 1985 for violations of the vinyl chloride standards. At
present, 13 enforcement actions for violation of these standards are in
litigation.
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The EPA has been conducting pilot studies to determine the most
promising techniques to address the problem of assuring continuous
compliance by stationary sources. In 1984, EPA completed the first
phase of the Virginia pilot inspection system. In 1985, EPA expanded
the Virginia pilot inspection system to cover the entire State to determine
if benefits comparable to that achieved by the more limited pilot can be
obtained. Also in 1985, EPA completed a continuous emission monitoring
(CEM) pilot that was primarily conducted in Missouri. The pilot evaluated
the effectiveness of a CEM program as a program component of a multifaceted
compliance monitoring effort. Finally, in 1985, EPA began pilot programs
in Michigan and Colorado to develop more sophisticated methods for
targeting compliance monitoring inspections.
Two significant enforcement actions were concluded by EPA in 1985.
These included an action against the Chevron Oil Company for violations of
PSD requirements and S02 emission requirements in the Texas SIP. This was
a "penalties-only" case, and resulted in the largest cash civil penalty
in EPA history. Over $4.5 million was awarded to the United States and
over $1.5 million to the intervenor State of Texas. In addition, the
United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit overturned two lower
court decisions which had dismissed enforcement actions filed for vio-
lations by Ethyl Corporation and other companies of the national emission
standard for vinyl chloride. The Fifth Circuit's action resurrected
seven other vinyl chloride enforcement cases which had been stayed pending
the Ethyl decision, as well as the two directly affected cases.
Also in 1985, EPA issued its revised inspection frequency guidance
for stationary sources for FY 1986. This guidance was a product of a
joint EPA; State, and local agency effort that provides States greater
flexibility to target inspection resources to address their most significant
air quality problems. The guidance also included a more comprehensive
definition of a minimally-acceptable compliance inspection.
I. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
In 1985, EPA initiated a number of actions aimed at controlling
potentially toxic motor vehicle emissions. One of the key actions was work
on controlling excess evaporative emissions. The possible carcinogenicity
of gasoline vapor, as well as its contribution to ozone formation, and
the known adverse effects of benzene are the primary concerns. In November
1985, EPA published a detailed technical study on this issue. Two other
initiatives on air toxics also related to vehicle fuels. The first is
the development of testing protocols to determine the health effects of
fuels and fuel additives. Issue papers on this subject were under preparation
in 1985 with rulemaking activity projected for 1987. The second is a
review of the quality of diesel fuel. Reduction of sulfur and the aromatic
content of diesel fuel may lead to significant reductions in particulate
emissions from diesel engines. Preliminary work on this issue was started
in 1985 with rulemaking activity planned for 1986 or 1987. In addition,
the EPA has also been active in developing emission standards for methanol-
fueled vehicles. The use of methanol as a transportation fuel has the
potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline-type engines and
particulate emissions from diesel-cycle engines. A proposal was developed
. 1-10
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in 1985, which will be published in 1986. Two final actions that took
place in 1985 with a large air toxics impact were rules that set standards
for particulate emissions from heavy-duty diesel engines and rules further
reducing the amount of lead allowed in leaded gasoline.
Several accomplishments were made by EPA in 1985 in the area of
developing standards for heavy-duty trucks and other commercial vehicles.
In one action, regulations for heavy-duty diesel engines were completed
which established a standard of 6.0 grams per brake horsepower-hour
(g/bhp-hr) for oxides of nitrogen, and 0.6 g/bhp-hr for particulate
emissions starting in the 1988 model year. The regulations also establish
that the standards be tightened even further in 1991, to 5.0 g/bhp-hr for
oxides of nitrogen, and 0.25 g/bhp-hr (0.1 grams for urban buses) for
particulates. Trucks will be required to meet the 0.1 g/bhp-hr particulate
standard in 1994. In addition, EPA implemented new and more stringent
heavy-duty exhaust hydrocarbons (HC) and CO and evaporative HC standards,
which took effect in the 1985 model year.
In order to ease manufacturers' transition to stricter standards,
EPA promulgated nonconformance penalties for those engine families unable
to meet certain standards applicable to a given model year. This mechanism
assures that no manufacturer benefits financially from noncompliance, and
that the least effective technology does not determine the stringency of
standards for the entire industry.
Finally, in March 1985, EPA promulgated a rule which reduced allowable
lead in gasoline from 1.1 grams per leaded gallon (gplg) to 0.5 gplg,
effective July 1, 1985. The rule further reduces allowable lead to
0.1 gplg, effective January 1, 1986. At the same time, a rule was proposed
to eliminate lead from gasoline altogether by 1988. The effect of these
actions on refiners was mitigated by allowing them to bank and trade
credits for unused lead, so that those refiners which produced leaded
gasoline with lower lead content than the 1.1 gplg or the 0.5 gplg standard
could use or trade the amount of lead saved, allowing them to offset
exceedances of the 0.1 gplg standard, but still lowering the overall
allowable amount of lead at the same rate during the regulation's phase-in
period (i.e., until January 1, 1988).
An effective strategy for dealing directly with in-use emissions
problems is the establishment of motor vehicle inspection and maintenance
(I/M) programs. In 1985, EPA continued to promote the implementation of
I/M programs in each locality where it is required by the Act. By the
end of the year, 55 areas had initiated I/M programs. In order to assure
that operating I/M programs actually achieve the planned emissions reductions,
EPA has initiated a systematic I/M auditing plan. In 1985, EPA audited 12
I/M programs.
Section 207(c) of the Act authorizes EPA to order the recall of
vehicles if a substantial number of any class of vehicles do not conform
to emissions standards. During 1985, 1,521,600 vehicles were recalled
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either by direct order of EPA or as a result of an EPA investigation.
In the same period, manufacturers voluntarily recalled 722,920 vehicles
to correct emissions problems. The EPA conducted a total of 35 recall
investigations in 1985, and performed 661 tests of in-use vehicles at
laboratory facilities. . In addition, EPA continued efforts begun in 1984
toward implementing light-duty evaporative emissions and heavy-duty
recall programs by initiating a light-duty evaporative emissions
investigation and completing a pilot heavy-duty project.
In order to assure that production vehicles are built in accordance
with emissions standards, EPA conducts Selective Enforcement Audit (SEA)
test programs at manufacturers' facilities. In 1985, EPA conducted 17
SEA test programs, including 4 at foreign manufacturers' facilities.
The EPA has responsibility for enforcing section 211 of the Act,
relating to the regulation of fuels and fuel additives, and has established
a nationwide fuels enforcement program to ensure that affected retail
outlets comply with regulations aimed at protecting the catalytic
converters on 1975 and later model year cars. The EPA conducted 12,500
inspections under this program during 1985.
The EPA is also responsible for carrying out programs designed to
deter tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or using leaded
fuel in vehicles which require unleaded. Since Federal efforts alone
cannot effectively address these problems, EPA has promoted the imple-
mentation of State and local antitampering enforcement programs. In 1985,
four local antitampering programs were set up as a result of this
initiative.
J. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
In 1980 EPA issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking discussing
possible further limits on domestic production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)
under section 157 of the Act. This was done in order to lessen depletion
of stratospheric ozone and thereby lessen the amount of potentially harmful
ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface. However, some of the
scientific information summarized in that notice was soon outdated by
more recent work in the field, and there have been substantial changes in
the research community's understanding of several important aspects of the
issue since then. In general, the more recent work has demonstrated that
possible changes in the ozone layer are affected by a more complex array of
physical and chemical forces than previously thought. In addition, EPA
believes that any decision on further regulation of domestic CFC production
or use should be evaluated in the context of possible international
regulatory actions. Accordingly, EPA developed a program for further
examination and resolution of this issue which it published in January
1986. This program integrates the diverse scientific and economic
research being carried on by EPA and by other organizations into a
coherent framework for future EPA decisionmaking on both the domestic and
international aspects of this issue.
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K. RADON ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION
Elevated concentrations of radon, a naturally occurring radioactive
gas, have been found in homes across the United States. Because of the
magnitude of the potential risks involved, this environmental problem
received growing public and Congressional attention in 1985. Consequently,
EPA developed a strategy to assist State governments and the private
sector in assessing and mitigating the health risks due to indoor radon.
The strategy builds upon existing knowledge and focuses not only on
reducing significant current risks, but'also on reversing trends in
structure design, siting, construction, and maintenance that could increase
future risks.
I. LITIGATION
Of the 13 cases related to the Act that were decided in 1985, 7
involved SIP's and other matters related to Title I of the Act, 1
involved regulation of fuel additives under Title II, and the remainder
concerned various issues involved in judicial review.
Two of the SIP-related decisions in 1985 upheld EPA approvals of
SIP's against challenges to the modeling methods on which they were based.
In another case, a district court held that EPA must notify the Governors of
various midwestern States that sulfur emissions from sources within those
States were endangering the public welfare in Canada, thus setting in
motion the SIP process to address such situations. The EPA appealed the
decision and it was reversed by the Court of Appeals in 1986. Four other
cases addressed various provisions of the Act related to areas designated
nonattainment of one or more pollutants in 1985. One of these cases
upheld EPA's approval of a nonattainment designation for the San Francisco
Bay Area although it included several counties that, if considered sepa-
rately, would be attainment areas. In another case, the court upheld
EPA's refusal to redesignate a county in Ohio from nonattainment to attain-
ment for 03, despite monitoring data showing attainment there, because
emissions from sources in the county contributed to violations of the 03
NAAQS elsewhere. In still another case, the Court upheld EPA's imposition
of a construction ban for three counties in Kentucky where the State had
failed to enact enabling legislation related to motor vehicle I/M programs. ,
In another action, the Court affirmed a district court decision refusing
to vacate an earlier consent decree requiring Pennsylvania to implement
an I/M program.
No cases involving radionuclides were decided in 1985. However, EPA
and the Sierra Club entered into an agreement that led to a court
stipulation and order to promulgate radon-222 emission standards for
licensed uranium mill tailings by May 1, 1986.
In the one case decided in 1985 involving fuel additives, the Court
vacated a fuel additive waiver previously granted by EPA on the ground
that some of the conclusions EPA reached in granting it were not supported
by the administrative record.
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II. AIR QUALITY TRENDS, MONITORING, AND MODELING
This chapter describes current trends in ambient air quality levels
(the concentration of a given pollutant in the atmosphere), as well as
trends in estimated emissions into the air of various pollutants. In
addition, the chapter discusses the topics of .air quality monitoring and
air quality modeling. Data on ambient air quality levels and emissions
are through 1984, the latest year for which EPA has complete statistics.
A. NATIONAL AIR QUALITY AND EMISSION TRENDS
In 1984, 79.2 million people were living in counties with measured
air quality levels that violated the national ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS) for ozone (03). This compares with 61.3 million people for
carbon monoxide (CO), 32.6 million people for total suspended particulate
(TSP), 7.5 million people for nitrogen dioxide (NO?), 4.7 million people
for lead (Pb), and 1.7 million people for sulfur dfoxide (SO?). While
millions of people continue to breathe air that is in violation of the
NAAQS, considerable progress is being made in reducing air pollution
levels.
Nationally, long-term 10-year (1975 through 1984) improvements can
be seen for TSP, S02, CO, N02> 03, and Pb. The trend in 03 is complicated
by a major drop in measured concentration levels which occurred between
1978 and 1979, largely due to a change in the 03 measurement calibration
procedure. Therefore, special attention is given to the period after
1979, because the change in the calibration procedure is not an influence
during this time.
Air pollution trends were also examined over the most recent 5-year
period (1980 through 1984) to take advantage of a larger number of moni-
toring sites and the fact that the data from the post-1980 period should
be of the highest quality, with sites meeting uniform siting criteria and
high standards of quality assurance. Nationally, improvements can be
seen for all the pollutants during the 5-year period. Between 1983 and
1984, however, TSP, S02 and N02 showed slight increases in concentration
while CO showed a slight decline, Pb a more substantial decline, and 03
declined from its 1983 level to the levels of 1981 and 1982.
All of the ambient air quality trend analyses which follow are based
on monitoring sites which recorded data in at least 8 of the 10 years in
the period 1975 through 1984. In each of these years, annual data
completeness criteria also had to be met. As a result of these criteria,
only a subset of the total number of existing sites are used for trend
purposes.
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Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) - Annual average TSP levels,
measured at 1344 sites, decreased 20 percent between 1975 and 1984.
There was a 33 percent decrease in estimated TSP emissions for the same
period. TSP air quality levels generally do not improve in direct propor-
tion to estimated emissions reductions, because air quality levels are
influenced by factors such as natural dust, reentrained street dust,
construction activity, etc., which are not included in the emissions
estimates. EPA has found that the TSP data collected during the years
1979-1981 may be biased high due to the glass fiber filter used during
these years, and that most of the large apparent 2-year decrease in
pollutant concentrations between 1981 and 1982 can be attributed to a
change in these filters. TSP decreased between 1982 and 1983, while
rainfall increased. Then in 1984, the TSP levels increased 2 percent
over the 1983 levels, following a return of rainfall to more normal
levels and an increase in particulate emissions.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO?) - Annual average S02 levels measured at 229 sites
with continuous S02 monitors decreased 36 percent from 1975 to 1984. A
comparable decrease of 41 percent was observed in the trend in the composite
average of the second maximum 24-hour averages. An even greater improvement
was observed in the estimated number of exceedances of the 24-hour standard,
which decreased 93 percent. Correspondingly, there was a 16 percent drop
in sulfur oxide emissions. The difference between emissions and air quality
can be attributed to several factors. The S02 monitors are mostly urban
population oriented and as such do not monitor many of the major emitters
which tend to be located in more rural areas. The residential and commercial
areas, where most monitors are located, have shown sulfur oxide emission
decreases comparable to the S02 air quality improvement. Between 1983 and
1984, nationwide average S02 levels increased 2 percent. The increase in
ambient levels coincided with a 4-percent increase in sulfur oxide emissions,
which reflects increased fuel consumption.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) - Nationally, the second highest nonoverlapping
8-hour average CO levels at 157 sites decreased 34 percent between 1975 and
1984. Although the median rate of improvement has been approximately 5
percent per year, this rate is less pronounced in the last few years. The
estimated number of exceedances of the 8-hour. NAAQS decreased 88 percent
between 1975 and 1984. CO emissions decreased 14 percent during the same
period. Because CO monitors are typically located to identify potential
problems, they are likely to be placed in traffic-saturated areas that may
not experience significant increases in vehicle miles of travel. As a
result, the air quality levels at these locations generally improve at a
rate faster than the nationwide reduction in emissions. Between 1983 and
1984, CO levels decreased only 1 percent. This leveling off appears to be
consistent with CO emissions for the highway vehicle portion of the transpor-
tation category which showed a 1 percent decrease between 1983 and 1984.
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Nitrogen Dioxide (Nfe) - Annual average N02 levels, measured at 119
sites, increased from 1975 to 1979, decreased through 1983, and then recorded
a slight increase in 1984. The 1984 composite N02 average, however, is 10
percent lower than the 1975 level, indicating a downward trend during the
overall period. The trend in the estimated nationwide emissions of nitrogen
oxides is similar to the N02 air quality trend. Between 1975 and 1984,
total nitrogen oxide emissions increased by 3 percent, but highway vehicle
emissions, the source category likely impacting the majority of NOg monitoring
sites, decreased by 4 percent. Between 1983 and 1984, the N02 composite
average increased by 2 percent, while the estimated emissions of nitrogen
oxides increased by 3 percent.
Ozone (03) - Nationally, the composite average of the second highest
daily maximum 1-hour 03 values, recorded at 163 sites, decreased 17 percent
between 1975 and 1984. Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions decreased
6 percent during the same period. Although the 1984 composite average for
the 163 trend sites is 17 percent lower than the 1975 average, the interpre-
tation of this decrease is complicated by a calibration change for 03
measurements that occurred in the 1978-79 time period. In the post calibra-
tion period (1979 to 1984), 03 levels decreased 7 percent, while VOC emissions
decreased 10 percent. The estimated number of exceedances of the 03 standard
decreased 36 percent. The 03 trends in the 1980's show that the 1980 and
1983 values were higher than those in 1981, 1982, and 1984. The previously
reported increase between 1982 and 1983 was followed by a decrease of
approximately 10 percent between 1983 and 1984. The 1984 ambient 03
levels are very similar to the 1981-82 levels. This occurred despite an
estimated national growth of almost 200 billion vehicle miles of travel
between 1980 and 1984 and an expansion of economic activity in 1984.
Lead (Pb) - The composite maximum quarterly average of ambient Pb
levels, recorded at 36 urban sites, decreased 70 percent between 1975 and
1984. Lead emissions declined 72 percent during the same period. In order
to increase the number of trend sites, the 1980 to 1984 time period was
examined. A total of 147 trend sites (1980 to 1984) from 23 States measured
a 45 percent decline in Pb levels, corresponding to a 43 percent decrease
in estimated Pb emissions. Between 1983 and 1984 ambient Pb levels declined
7 percent, while Pb emissions are estimated to have declined 13 percent.
The decrease in ambient Pb levels results from three EPA control programs.
Regulations issued in the early 1970's resulted in the Pb content of all
gasoline being gradually reduced over the period of years. Secondly,
unleaded gasoline was introduced in 1975 for use in automobiles equipped
with catalytic control devices. Third, Pb emissions from stationary sources
have been reduced by both the TSP and Pb control programs.
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B. AMBIENT AIR MONITORING
General
Section 110(a)(2)(C) of the Clean Air Act (Act) requires State
implementation plans to include provisions for establishment and operation
of systems for monitoring ambient air quality. In addition, section
319 of the Act requires the development of uniform air quality monitoring
criteria and methods and the establishment of an air quality monitoring
system throughout the United States which uses uniform monitoring
criteria and'methods. To satisfy these requirements, EPA promulgated
regulations in 1979 which required States to establish and operate air
monitoring stations and report the data to EPA*. The two principal types
of stations in the State networks are State and Local Air Monitoring
Stations (SLAMS) and National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMS). The
monitoring stations of the SLAMS and NAMS must adhere to the uniform mon-
itoring criteria described in the regulation. These criteria cover quality
assurance, monitoring methods, network design, and probe siting. January 1,
1981, was the deadline by which all NAMS were to meet all of the requirements
in the regulations. The SLAMS had until January 1, 1983, to meet all of the
provisions in the regulations. Based on 5 years of operating experience
with the NAMS and SLAMS networks, some relatively minor modifications of
the 1979 regulations were proposed in the Federal Register in 1985.2
These modifications are intended to simplify and improve the overall
monitoring program required by the Act.
Overall, State and local progress in meeting the requirements of the
regulations continues to be excellent. Table 1 shows the status of the
SLAMS network at the end of 1985. Of the 4674 operating monitors in the
system, 4642 or 99 percent of the total monitors are meeting all require-
ments of the regulations. The remaining operating monitors should meet the
requirements with some small changes in monitor siting and improvements in
their standard operating procedures. Table 2 shows that of the 1357 planned
NAMS, 1344 or 99 percent were in operation and were meeting all requirements
of the regulations through December 1985. Table 3 lists, by pollutant, the
number of SLAMS and NAMS.
Table 1. SLAMS Status through December 1985
Number of Percent of
Monitors Network
Total planned network for 1986* 4674
Monitors operational through 12/85 4674
Monitors in operation meeting all 4642 99
requirements of the regulations
* Includes NAMS monitors and reflects small reductions and additions
planned by a number of control agencies.
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Table 2. NAMS Status Through December 1985
Total pi
Monitors
anned network
operational
Monitors in operation meeti
requirements of the regul
Table 3.
Ai r Moni
Number of
Monitors
1357
1344
ng all 1344
ations
National Summary of Operating
toning Stations (as of 12/85)
Percent of
Network
100
99
99
Pollutant
TSP
S02
N02
CO
03
Pb
SLAMS
(including NAMS)
2424
544
246
440
617
403
NAMS
639
216
57
112
215
105
TOTAL 4674 1344
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Partlculate Monitoring
To accompany the proposed revisions to the NAAQS for particulate
matter (PM), EPA on March 20, 1984, also proposed amendments to 40 CFR 58
(Air Quality Surveillance and Reporting Regulations).3 The proposed
revisions to Part 58 would establish ambient air quality monitoring require-
ments for PM^Q as measured by a new reference method proposed as Appendix J
of 40 CFR Part 50 or an equivalent method. In addition, new network design
and monitoring siting requirements were proposed for the secondary TSP
standard. The proposed requirements are comparable to those already established
for the other criteria pollutants for which NAAQS have been set. These
include requirements for reporting and assuring the quality of ambient PMjQ
data, designing monitoring networks, and the siting of samplers. Since
most areas of the country did not have PMjg ambient monitoring data, EPA, in
late 1984, procured 662 PMig samplers for distribution to State and local
agencies. Specialized training was provided by EPA to State and local agency
personnel on the operation and maintenance of the PM^Q samplers. Of the
662 samplers distributed to the States as of December 31, 1985, 495 or 75
percent of them have been sited and are operational. The remaining
samplers are scheduled to come on line in 1986. The data from these
sites will be used by the States in developing PM^Q State implementation
plans which will be required upon promulgation of a PM^g NAAQS. ,
Nonmethane Organic Compounds (NMOC) Monitoring
During the summer of 1985, more ambient hydrocarbon data were gathered
in 18 citfes following the 22-city study of 1984. Data from the 1985 study
confirm that the new analytical method yields much more reliable and
accurate measures of hydrocarbon concentrations than does the older measure-
ment method. The 1985 data also confirm the 1984 data in indicating that
ambient hydrocarbon concentrations in major metropolitan areas are somewhat
higher than previously thought. This conclusion means that hydrocarbon
controls in these areas may need to be increased in order to achieve the
NAAQS for ozone. Several agencies have again indicated that they want to
make additional measurements in 1986. During 1986, the EPA will provide
technical support to these efforts and continue to analyze the data collected
in 1984 and 1985.
C. AIR QUALITY MODELING
An air quality model is a set of mathematical equations that describes
the atmospheric transport, dispersion, and transformation of pollutant emis-
sions. By means of these equations, a model can be used to calculate or
predict the air quality impacts of emissions from proposed new sources, emis-
sions from existing sources, or changes in emissions from either of these
source categories. These models are of great utility because they provide
a means whereby the effectiveness of air pollution controls can be estimated
before action is taken.
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During 1985, a major EPA program to evaluate several categories of
models was continued. This program was developed in response to recommenda-
tions of the American Meteorological Society under its cooperative agreement
with EPA.4 The evaluation of four mobile source models was completed5 in a
manner consistent with earlier evaluations of rural point source models and
urban models. The results clarified the similarities and differences among
several of these models for the five data bases considered. None of the
models, however, showed clear superiority for all data bases. A peer
scientific review will be conducted in 1986.
The EPA has also automated a procedure for generating tabulations of
model performance statistics and for producing graphic displays that con-
trast performance levels among models. The model evaluation support system
which provides for storage and retrieval of ambient data bases and predicted
concentrations and produces standardized tabular summaries of model perfor-
mance has been completed, documented and implemented for several additional
data sets.6 The most effective graphic displays of performance statistics
have been selected and used to demonstrate with statistical confidence the
differences between models for a variety of conditions.7 A formal procedure
for utilizing this information will be considered in 1986.
A technique to explicitly consider the impact of model uncertainty on
regulatory decision making was coded and documented.8 in 1986 the method
for Calculation of Uncertainty Estimates (CUE) will be tested for a variety
of sources, and various alternatives for its implementation will be
considered.
A major new focus in air quality dispersion modeling was initiated
during 1985. The EPA's activities in the regulation of toxic chemical
impacts required the review of available dispersion techniques to adequately
address different types of air pollutant releases than previously assessed.
The emphasis shifted from stack releases at a few points within the facility
to an assessment of pollutant discharges from vents, valves, flanges, etc.
While these effects were usually determined on a long-term basis for the
assessment of human risk to long-term exposure effects such as cancer, the
effect of high concentration, short-term releases were also considered.
This required the development of screening mechanisms and review of short-term
release models and application of these techniques to test for poten-
tial acute health effects. During 1986, further development and review of
available techniques will proceed to ensure the adequacy and appropriateness
of such analyses.
Cooperative agreements with the State of New York and Connecticut to
perform photochemical modeling of the New York metropolitan area, including
parts of New Jersey and Connecticut were continued. This effort, entitled
"Oxidant Modeling for the New York Metropolitan Area Project" (OMNYMAP),
will test existing and alternative control strategies for attaining the
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ozone NAAQS. As part of this analysis, the performance of the Airshed
Model will be evaluated and its sensitivity to specific variations in model
inputs will be tested. In this way, the most critical parameters affecting
control strategies will be identified. This work will be completed in 1986.
Efforts to improve guidance on air quality models^ and to ensure
consistency in their use have also continued. Model clearinghouse activi-
ties were continued to ensure that use of nonguideline techniques does not
lead to inconsistent regulatory decisions. A workshop was held with model-
ing contacts in EPA's ten Regional Offices and two representative State
agencies to improve communications on the use of models and to resolve
common problems. The revised "Guideline on Air Quality Models" was sub-
jected to a public hearing and comment. The hearing was conducted in
conjunction with the Conference on Air Quality Modeling (Third) which is
required at 3-year intervals by section 320 of the Act. A wide variety of
public comments on various technical modeling issues were received. These
were summarized and formal EPA responses and actions were documented. The
guideline will be incorporated by reference in EPA's prevention of signi-
ficant deterioration (PSD) regulations. Final rules to incorporate the
revised guideline will be promulgated in 1986.
Receptor Model Activities
During 1985, EPA continued its series of reports to describe the uses,
capabilities, and limitations of specific receptor models. One such report,
the Receptor Model Source Composition Guideline, was prepared and distributed.*0
In addition, the Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) was improved to include considera-
tion of collinearity among chemical source profiles. During 1986, EPA
plans to prepare two protocol documents. One document will address the
procedures for validating the CMB model and the other will address procedures
for reconciling varying results from different receptor models. The end
objective is to foster appropriate and consistent application of receptor
models by State and local agencies. EPA also will continue with its
series of reports describing specific receptor models.
Ozone Modeling
During 1985, EPA continued to provide technical support and review of
ozone model applications using the Empirical Kinetic Modeling Approach (EKMA).
The EKMA is widely used by State and local agencies to estimate emission
controls necessary to attain the ambient air quality standard for ozone.
Continuing efforts are under way to improve certain inputs to the EKMA model
and to assist State and local agencies in its applications.
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D. INTEGRATION OF AIR DATA SYSTEMS
The Aerometric Information Reporting System (AIRS) is a new integrated
data system being developed by EPA to replace entirely the existing data
bases, files, and software now used by the EPA for storing and retrieving
ambient air quality data, stationary source and emissions data, and source
compliance data. The AIRS project was fully approved by senior EPA manage-
ment in December 1980 after the earlier comprehensive feasibility study
revealed the advantages of a truly integrated data system. Detailed perfor-
mance specifications were completed in 1981-82 which defined the overall
structure of AIRS. The AIRS will be composed of two relatively separate
components (air quality and facility data) but will use common sets of geo-
graphical and other codes and draw upon a state-of-the-art data base
management system.
In 1985, work continued on the air quality component of AIRS. This
segment is expected to be fully available for use by EPA Headquarters and
Regional Offices by mid-1987 with pilot installations in some States begun
by the end of 1987.
E. EMISSION FACTOR DEVELOPMENT
In 1985, EPA published emission factors for use by States and others
to estimate source emissions and to compile emission inventories. Emission
factor information is published and distributed for criteria pollutants in
a publication entitled "Compilation Of Air Pollutant Emission Factors."H
A fourth edition of this document was prepared and distributed in 1985.
Current attention is on developing size-specific emission factors with
special emphasis on particles less than 10 microns.
The EPA also distributed guidance in 1985 on procedures for estimating
emissions for selected, potentially toxic pollutants. Final reports were
distributed for phosgene, epichlorohydrin, and vinylidene chloride. Reports
are now in preparation for chlorobenzenes, PCB's and ethylene oxides. Issuance
of these additional documents is scheduled for 1986, pending the completion
of peer review for each document.
F. NATIONAL DIOXIN STUDY
In 1985, EPA continued to implement the National Dioxin Study to assess
the potential extent of contamination of the environment with chlorinated
dioxin compounds. The study was divided into seven tiers, each designed
to investigate a group of sources with a potential to contaminate the envir-
onment. Tier 4 focused on combustion sources and dealt primarily with
emissions to the atmosphere. Thirteen sources were stack tested, and ash
samples were collected at approximately 75 other sources. A summary report
is scheduled for completion in early 1986, and a more detailed, technical
report is scheduled for late 1986.
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G. REFERENCES
1. 44 FR 27558, May 10, 1979.
2. 50 FR 9538, March 8, 1985.
3. 49 FR 10436, March 20, 1984.
4. D. Fox, "Judging Air Quality Model Performance," Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society, 62(5):599-609, 1981.
5. D. Wackter and P. Bodner, "Evaluation of Mobile Source Air Quality
Models," EPA Contract No. 68-02-3886, Research Triangle Park, N. C.
27711, 1985.
6. W. Cox and G. Moss, "Evaluation of Rural Air Quality Simulation Models,
' Addendum A: Muskingum River Data Base," EPA-450/4-83-003a, 1985.
7. W. Cox, G. Moss, and J. Tikvart, "Evaluation of Rural Air Quality
Simulation Models, Addendum B: Graphical Display of Model Performance
Using the Clifty Creek Data Base," EPA-450/4-83-003b, 1985.
i
8. A. Thrall, T. Stoeckenius, and S. Burton, "A Method for Calculating
Dispersion Modeling Uncertainty Applied to the Regulation of an Emission
Source." EPA Contract No. 68-02-3870, Research Triangle Park, N. C.
27711, 1985.
9. "Guideline on Air Quality Models," EPA-450/2-78-027, 1978.
10. "Receptor Model Technical Series VI: A Guide to the Use of Factor
Analysis and Multiple Regression Techniques in Source Apportionment,"
EPA-450/4-85-007, July 1985.
11. "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume I: Stationary,
Point, and Area Sources," Fourth Edition, AP-42, U.S. EPA, Research
Triangle Park, N.C., September 1985.
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III. AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS
A. INTRODUCTION
In support of the Clean Air Act, EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD) provides three services: (1) short-term research to
fill specific scientific gaps for regulatory development, (2) technical
assistance to the Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) and other organizations
inside and outside EPA, and (3) anticipation of future regulatory
questions and initiation of research to answer them. Decisions on program
emphasis and pollutants to be studied are made through the research
committee process. Air pollution research is planned jointly by ORD
research managers and senior managers from OAR, with input from EPA Regional
Office representatives and officials from EPA's policy and comptroller's
offices. Air research planning and management is coordinated through the
Air and Radiation Research Committee. Acid deposition and energy research
is planned within the Multi-media Energy Research Committee. To ensure
the maintenance of a cohesive research program, the Assistant Administrators
for ORD and OAR have identified several classifications of research which
express the full range of research needs for pollutants with similar
regulatory relationships. The discussion which follows is organized
according to these issues.
8. GENERAL AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
In 1985, research on pollutants for which national ambient air
quality standards (NAAQS) have been set emphasized control technology,
particularly to assist in meeting ozone (03) attainment goals. Research
on health effects of criteria pollutants centered on the responses of
susceptible populations to ambient levels of pollutants. Research in
support of new source performance standards (NSPS) and State implementation
plans (SIP's) focused on volatile organic compounds (VOC) control and on
modeling 03 transport over complex terrain, such as mountainous areas.
Hazardous air pollutant (HAP) research was broadened and accelerated,
in step with EPA's general move toward increased emphasis on toxic air
pollutants. The emphasis in the HAP research program is on evaluating
total human exposure to these pollutants. The primary aim in the mobile
source research program is to characterize evaporative and exhaust emissions
from vehicles with alternate fuels, such as methanol. Radon mitigation
in buildings became a priority in 1985, as more was learned about the
health hazards posed by long-term exposure to radon in homes and offices.
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Development of Scientific Assessments and Data on the Health and
Welfare Effects of Criteria Air Pollutants
In 1985, work was continued on Air Quality Criteria Documents
for 03 and lead (Pb). These documents provide the scientific bases
for the review and possible revision of the NAAQS for these pollutants.
A second external review draft of the Air Quality Criteria Document for
03 was published in November 1985. This document included comments
resulting from a Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC) review
of the first external review draft earlier in the year. A follow-up
CASAC meeting will be held in the spring of 1986 to review the second
external review draft. Based on comments on the second external review
draft of the lead criteria document, reviewed by the CASAC in May 1985,
an addendum is being prepared which considers blood-lead/blood pressure
relations.2 An international symposium on aerosols, sponsored and
organized by ORD, was held on May 19, 1985. The proceedings from that
symposium will be published during 1986.
Considerable progress was made in characterizing the effects of
acute exposures to oxidants in humans, particularly those persons who
may be especially sensitive. Several studies were done in which children
and adults were exposed to 0^ during moderate and vigorous exercise. "
These studies showed slight pulmonary decrements following exercise
during exposure to ozone. Children were somewhat more susceptible than
adults. Humans with chronic obstructive lung disease or naturally
acquired respiratory infection were studied following ozone exposure.?»8
In addition, various other studies of the effect of ozone on immunity
were performed in animals and humans.9~12 The negative findings suggest
that the host defense mechanisms in these individuals are not greatly
compromised by exposure to ozone at ambient levels.
Pulmonary function effects of sulfur dioxide (503) and aerosol
particles were investigated in 1985. As part of EPA's efforts to
identify potentially susceptible populations, exercising asthmatics were
exposed acutely to SC^ and sulfuric acid.1-i In another study, children
were exposed to SO? and ammonium sulfate while exercising and at rest.^
The significance of these studies is still being determined.
A 5-year follow-up study of the neurobehavioral effects of lead
in children was completed.15 In addition, two clinical studies were done
which corroborate earlier findings on the neurological consequences of
lead.16»17 These studies indicate that neurobehavioral effects can be
seen in children at much lower levels of lead than previously suspected.
Two important projects were completed on respiratory tract deposition
of particles in animals. The deposition patterns of aerosol particles in
the upper and lower respiratory system were determined in five common
laboratory animals.18 These patterns can be related to available human
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data. Deposition of insoluble particles was found to be related to route
of breathing and activity level.19 Advances were also made in modeling the
uptake of ozone in the upper and lower respiratory system. One study of
particular interest relates the site of ozone uptake to level of exercise
and lower respiratory tract secretions.20
Based upon analysis of 03 field data taken by the National Crop Loss
Assessment Network (NCLAN) and processed through agricultural economic
models, substantial dollar losses were attributed to 03 damage under the
exposure scenarios studied.21 Several problems became apparent, however,
from some of the field data. The most prominent one was the role of soil
moisture deficits on crop response to ozone. These responses had not been
studied earlier but evidence indicated a reduced ozone response during dry
weather.
To improve EPA's ability to assess the impact of pollutants on
materials, an advanced atmospheric corrosion monitor has been developed
and evaluated.22 This monitor is now being used in field experiments
where air pollution levels will be related to materials damage.
A number of reports were prepared which detailed progress in
measuring ambient air pollutants. These included a report on reference
and equivalent methods, audits of laboratories which measure ambient
pollutants, and quality assurance.23-26 ^ report was provided on trace
metals analyses.27 A multi-site visibility monitoring network in California
was established and preliminary data were generated.28 The results of a
5-year study on air quality were published.29 This work, by Stanford
University, resulted in over 100 technical papers.
Development of Ambient Air Quality Models, Monitoring Systems
Emission Characterizations, and Control Technologies'
A promising new method of measuring nonmethane organic compounds
was studied and the commercially available instruments were evaluated.30
Progress was made in measuring air pollutants emitted from stationary
sources, and a manual test method for determining carbon monoxide (CO)
emissions was validated.31-34 /\ final report was published on the National
Air Pollution Background Network.35 This network measured ozone concentra-
tions in remote national forests for several years. The results will be
used in the air quality standards revision process.
To increase the accuracy of current urban and regional scale air
quality models, a number of studies examined the role of VOC's in producing
ozone.36 The data obtained from these studies have increased understanding
of the role of precursors in atmospheric ozone formation.37,38 /\n
experimental procedure for estimating atmospheric reactivity was developed
which uses the hydroxyl radical--a major atmospheric oxidizing agent--as
a single indicator of atmospheric reactivity.39 in this procedure, the
reaction of VOC under hydroxyl radical attack is assumed to represent the
more complex processes of atmospheric oxidation. This procedure was
developed to assess the effects of individual VOC's on the production of
ozone.
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Experiments were conducted in EPA's special fluid model facility to
determine optimum relationships among stack heights, terrain, and meteoro-
logical conditions.40 The results of these experiments were needed to
develop stack height estimates needed for air quality modeling of emission
sources located in complex terrains. Also, two reports have been
completed on the development of air quality models for complex terrain
application.41,42
A major report was completed on assessing the state of science on
atmospheric diffusion for use in air quality model ing.43 The report
evaluates existing techniques and provides a critical examination of the
research still required on atmospheric diffusion. This work will have
wide application to a number of models used in assessing air quality
impacts resulting from stationary source emissions.
Ozone nonattainment remains a major EPA concern. Consequently,
VOC control technology was emphasized in 1985. One important project
was an evaluation of the efficiency of industrial flares, where it was
discovered that flare efficiency was quite variable under different
operating regimes and for different gases.44
Research to control nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions shifted away
from the demonstration of low NOX burners toward gaining an understanding
of the combustion processes, thereby enabling the development of advanced
combustion modification techniques.45 Toward that end, advanced air staging,
reburning, and precombustion technologies are being investigated.46
Several studies were completed on flue gas desulfurization (FGD),
including the conclusion of a long-term project on organic acid enhance-
ment of limestone FGD processes.47-49 Begun in 1977, the commercial
success of technology developed through this program has made further
development of limestone FGD technology unnecessary. A three-year study
to evaluate the current coal ash and FGD waste-disposal practices at
coal-fired electric generating plants was completed.50 The study charac-
terized waste, gathered environmental data, assessed environmental effects,
and evaluated engineering costs of disposal practices at six power plants
at various locations within the USA.
A fundamental breakthrough in fabric filtration was developed called
Advanced ESFF (Electrostatically Augmented Fabric Filtration).51 This
technology uses strong electrostatic fields to deposit matter preferen-
tially upon selected portions of the fabric. The use of ESFF allows a
marked reduction in the size of a baghouse needed to meet specified
particle emission rates.
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Development of Scientific Assessments, Monitoring Systems, Control
Technologies, and Data on the Health Effects and Atmospheric Processes
of Noncriteria Pollutants
Fourteen comprehensive health assessment documents for potentially
toxic air pollutants were delivered to OAR in 1985.52-65 Among these
were documents on cadmium, ethylene oxide, dioxin, vinylidene chloride,
and chloroform. In addition, health effects summary documents were
prepared for four compounds. They are chloroprene, dibenzofurans,
propylene oxide, and phenol. 66-69
Under the Integrated Air Cancer Program, research to determine the
contribution of air pollution to the incidence of cancer in the United
States continued. A report on the first year's activity was completed.70
An interim report on the northern New Jersey portion of a study using the
total exposure assessment methodology (TEAM) was completed.71
Dose-response information to support the hazardous air pollutant
program is developed in the areas of mutagenicity and cancer, neurotoxi-
cology, inhalation toxicology, and developmental biology. The chemicals
are either selected by OAR as high priorities or by the researchers to
develop, test, or calibrate their testing systems. Studies completed in
1985 include several on toluene, manganese, and cadmium.72-79
In order to determine the transport, transformation, and fate of
hazardous air pollutants, a number of laboratory and field experiments
have been completed. Smog chamber studies, which can simulate a variety
of atmospheric conditions, were conducted on potentially hazardous air
pollutants.30 This research provides information on the lifetimes and
daughter products of important hazardous compounds. Also, selected
chemicals which are emitted to the atmosphere in large quantities
were tested to determine if they produce mutagenic compounds as a result
of atmospheric oxidation reactions.8!
Progress on the implementation of the Toxic Air Monitoring System
(TAMS) continued throughout 1985.82 Methods development continued for
HAP's, including the validation of an emission test for arsenic.8^
Regarding control of hazardous air pollutants, progress was made in
three areas. First, the performance of catalytic oxidizers for destruction
of chlorinated organic air pollutants was evaluated, primarily in conjunc-
tion with an Air Force program to reduce emissions from contaminated
groundwater stripping. Second, a laboratory was designed to evaluate
solid sorbents for organic air pollutant control. This facility will
enable ORD to develop expertise on solid sorbents for organic HAP control.
Third, a manual on technologies for HAP control was distributed for
review to Regional, State, and local air pollution officials. Publication
of the final manual is scheduled for mid-1986.
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Evaluations have been initiated on the effectiveness of various
measures for reducing emissions from woodstoves. These include combustion
chamber designs, catalytic, and noncatalytic secondary combustion units
and modified operating procedures. Initial results indicate that secon-
dary combustion, both catalytic and noncatalytic, can significantly
reduce total woodstove emissions.
Development of Monitoring Systems, Control Technologies, and Data on the
Health Effects and Atmospheric Processes of Mobile Source Pollutants
Data collection was completed in a health effects study to determine
pre-anginal changes in individuals with certain types of heart disease
exposed to CO at levels sufficient to cause a 4 percent carboxyl hemoglobin
(COHb) level.34 Because of the negative findings, a follow-up study was
initiated, following the same protocol after achieving COHb levels of 6
percent. A study of the respiratory carcinogenicity of diesel particles
was published.35
A number of studies have been completed on the characterization of
the emissions from a variety of motor vehicles, including light and heavy
duty engines. One major study was completed on the characterization of
emissions from vehicles using methanol and methanol/gasoline blended
fuels.86 This information will be used by EPA in developing regulations
for methanol as a fuel or fuel additive.
A report summarizing the fuels and fuel additives registered in 1985
was prepared.87 Quality assurance activities on the State and Local Air
Monitoring System (SLAMS) continued for mobile source air pollutants.
Additional statistical analyses were undertaken of the extensive data
base collected in the 1982-1983 carbon monoxide human exposure field
studies conducted in Denver, Colorado and Washington, D.C., and a journal
article was published which summarizes the research findings.88 Efforts
to validate the Simulation of Human Air Pollution Exposure (SHAPE) com-
puter model were initiated, using data from the Denver CO field study.
Development of Scientific Data to Determine the Impact of the Quality
of Global and Microenvironments on Public Health and the Environment
In-house laboratory studies were conducted to determine the
composition and rates of emissions from household building materials,
such as particle board and adhesives. Research was also conducted to
determine the organic emissions from unvented space heaters. Work was
initiated on the development of a computerized data base for sources of
indoor air pollutants.
In May 1985, an "Indoor Air Source Characterization Workshop" was
held in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. This EPA-sponsored meeting attracted
60 researchers representing U.S. and foreign research institutes, univer-
sities, and private companies. Twenty-five papers, including three by
EPA researchers, were presented on combustion sources, indoor materials,
and biological sources.
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The first phase of scheduled field testing to develop and demonstrate
low cost residential radon mitigation techniques was completed in 18
homes in the "Reading Prong" of eastern Pennsylvania. The short-term
results are encouraging. In four homes with initial radon levels of up
to 7.4 working levels (wl), radon was reduced to 0.03 wl or less by the
application of refined versions of these mitigation measures, representing
indoor radon reductions of 97 to 99 percent.
Research has continued to assess the health and environmental
effects of increased levels of certain forms of ultraviolet radiation due
to the decrease of stratospheric ozone. In 1985, research focused on the
effects of such radiation on such crops as soybeans, maize, wheat, rice,
and citrus fruit, as well as on biologically important systems such as
phytoplankton and zooplankton. Research was also conducted on stratospheric
ozone model development, the epidemiology of melanoma, and the effects of
increased radiation on photochemical smog formation.
C. ACID DEPOSITION RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
The EPA's acid deposition research program represents EPA's part
of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), which is
administered through the Interagency Task Force on Acid Precipitation.
The purpose of this research is to increase understanding of the causes
and effects of acid deposition so that reliable information can be made
available to policy-makers. This work supports efforts to determine what
measure should be taken to resolve the acid deposition problem.
The widely used term "acid rain" refers to the atmospheric deposition
of acidic_or acid-forming compounds in either their dry or wet form.
These compounds exist in the atmosphere as gases or aerosol particles
containing sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, and certain sulfate and nitrate compounds. While
scientists are in general agreement that these compounds are responsible
for varying degrees of atmospheric acidity, there is considerable contro-
versy associated with the questions of causes, effects, and methods for
mitigating or controlling acid deposition.
As part of the effort to provide research information to policy
makers and the general public, EPA published "The Acidic Deposition
Phenomenon and Its Effects — Critical Assessment Review Papers."
After a public comment period, the document was evaluated and revised.
A final summary document, a "Critical Assessment Document,"^9 was
submitted to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) in
August 1985.
Development of Long-term Deposition Monitoring Data
The acid deposition program collects wet deposition data through the
National Trends Network (NTN). This 150-station network operated at peak
efficiency during 1985, providing important scientific information from
sites throughout the nation.
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A growing body of evidence suggests that dry deposition, in the
form of gases and aerosols, provides a significant contribution to total
acidic deposition. In 1985, EPA conducted field testing on a prototype
dry deposition monitor, and established a pilot dry deposition network
of six sets of monitoring equipment at five locations in the eastern
United States. One location at West Point, New York, has been equipped
with dual monitors to evaluate the variability of the equipment.
The EPA began installation of a mountain cloud chemistry/forest
exposure network in 1985. High elevation forests are frequently exposed directly
to clouds. This network will measure air and cloud water chemistry, the
frequency of cloud contact, and the amount of acidic material deposited
on vegetation.
Efforts Related to Better Understanding of Atmospheric Processes
Quantification of source-receptor relationships will help decision-makers
to evaluate the effectiveness of control strategies. Analytical
tools (mathematical models) need to be developed to simulate atmospheric
processes. In 1985, EPA completed development of the initial version of
the Regional Acid Deposition Model. This model contains modules that
simulate atmospheric transport, dispersion, chemical and physical transfor-
mation, precipitation scavenging, and dry deposition. These modules will
be updated and revised as new scientific information becomes available.
Efforts Related to Emission Inventory Development
A special effort to develop a 1985 inventory of major emission sources
of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds was
initiated to support future analytical efforts of the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). State submissions are due to
EPA during the last quarter of 1986 and the final data base should be
completed by June 1987.
Efforts Related to Better Understanding of the Aquatic Effects
of Acid Deposition
Acidic deposition is believed to be a major contributing factor to
episodic depressions of pH in aquatic systems, which may result in bio-
logical effects. Two major research efforts have been mounted to improve
our understanding of aquatic effects: the National Surface Water Survey
(NSWS); and the "Direct/Delayed Response" project.
The NSWS was initiated in 1984 to determine the chemical and biolo-
gical status of lakes and streams in regions potentially sensitive to
acidic deposition. Phase I of this survey will result in the sampling
of over 2,000 lakes throughout the nation. Sampling in the eastern
United States was completed during 1985, and the western portion will be
completed in 1986. Phase II of the survey will quantify the biological
components, and the seasonal and spacial variability of a regionally-
representative subset of lake and streams. Phase III involves the
selection of sites for long-term monitoring, in conjunction with the
"Direct/Delayed Response" project, which will develop predictive models
of watershed and surface model response to acidic deposition.
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Efforts Related to Better Understanding of the Terrestrial Effects
of Acid Deposition
Terrestrial effects of acidic deposition fall into two major
categories: effects on soils and watersheds, and effects on forests.
Acidification of surface water is a watershed-level phenomenon, and a
full understanding of all of the processes involved is not expected for
several years. In the near term, EPA will test the predictions made by
"Direct/Delayed Response" models by using experimental manipulations in a
small number of watersheds.
Preliminary data on foliar damage and growth reductions in several
species of trees in different forest ecotypes suggest that environmental
pollution, including acid deposition, may be a major or contributing
cause. In 1985, EPA and the U.S. Forest Service initiated a joint research
project to examine the forest decline syndrome in Northeastern and South-
eastern forests. This project is designed to examine the causes of
observed changes in forest health, and their extent and magnitude.
Efforts Related to Better Understanding of the Effects of Acid
Deposition on Materials
In 1985, the materials effects research program produced a comprehensive
regional estimate of the damage of materials from acidic deposition and other
air-borne pollutants. While significant controversy has emerged concerning
its assumptions, methodologies, and calculations of the analysis, the 17-state
study provides a useful starting point for the technical dialogue. The study
examined several metals, masonry, and paint.
Information on the Reliability and Cost-Effectiveness of the
limestone Injection Multistage Burner (LIMB) Control Technology
The EPA continues to develop LIMB technology that is designed to
reduce SOX and NOX simultaneously in coal-fired boilers. In 1985, the
LIMB program continued the development of high surface area sorbents to
increase SOX removal efficiency. Work continued on a co-funded contract
for a full-scale demonstration of the LIMB technology on a wall-fired
utility boiler near Lorain, Ohio. Funding is being provided by EPA, the
State of Ohio, the Electric Power Research Institute, Ohio Edison, and
Babcock and Wilcox (the prime contractor).
D. REFERENCES
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Quality Criteria for
Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants (Vol. 1 & 5) Second
External Review Draft.EPA-600/8-84-020B, November 1985.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Notice of Corrigenda to the
Second External Review Draft. Air Quality Criteria for Lead.
FR (50FR14289-14293), April 11, 1985.
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3. Horstman, D.H., "Moderate Exercise During Exposure to 0.18 ppm 03
Induces Pulmonary Function Decrements in Normal Subjects," American
Thoracic Society Meeting, Anaheim, California, May 12-16, 1985.
4. McDonnell, W.F., "Respiratory Responses of Vigorously Exercising
Children to 0.12 ppm Ozone Exposure," American Review of Respiratory
Disease, Vol. 132(4), pp. 875-879, October 1985.
5. Selwyn, B.J., "Health Effects of Ambient Ozone Exposure in
Vigorously Exercising Adults," Scientific Basis for Ozone and
Other Photochemical Oxidants Standards, H. Englund, ed., 1985.
6. McDonnell, W.F., "A Comparison of the Responses of Children and
Adults to Acute Ozone Exposure," Proceedings of the Air Pollution
Control Association Annual Meeting, 1985.
7. Kehrl, H.R., "Responses of Subjects with Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease After Exposure to 0.3 ppm Ozone," American
Review of Respiratory Disease, Vol. 131, pp. 719-724, June 1985.
8. Chapman, R.S., "Pulmonary Response to 0.4 ppm Ozone in Persons With
and Without Naturally Acquired Respiratory Infection," American
Thoracic Society Meeting, Anaheim, California, May 12-16, 1985.
9. Slade, R., "N02 Exposure and Lung Antioxidants in Ascorbic Acid
Deficient Guinea Pigs," Journal of Toxicology and Applied
Pharmacology, 1985.
10. Chang, L.Y., "Effects of Subchronic Inhalation of Low Levels of
Nitrogen Dioxide -- I. The Proximal Alveolar Region of Juvenile
and Adult Rats," accepted for publication, Journal of Toxicology
and Applied Pharmacology.
11. Barry, B.E., "Application of Morphometric Methods to Study Diffuse
and Focal Injury in the Lung Caused by Toxic Agents," CRC Critical
Reviews in Toxicology, Vol. 14(1), pp. 1-32, February 1985.
12. Graham, D.G., "Nasal Lavage Neutrophils Increased in Humans Exposed
to Ozone," American Thoracic Society Meeting, Anaheim, California,
May 12-16, 1985.
13. Horstman, D.H., "Pulmonary Function Changes in Asthmatics
Performing Exercise While Exposed to Combined Sulfur Dioxide and
Sulfuric Acid," submitted for publication, Environmental Health
Perspective.
14. Ferris, B.G., "Effects of Ambient Sulfur Oxides and Respirable
Particles on Respiratory Health of Preadolescent Children,"
submitted for publication, American Review of Respiratory
Disease.
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15. Hawks, B.A., "Effect of Lead on Cognitive Function of Black
Children from Low Socio-economic Status Families -- A Replication,"
The Toxicologist, Vol. 5(1), p. Ill, March 1985.
16. Otto, D.A., "Auditory and Visual Evoked Potentials in Children
With Undue Lead Absorption," The Toxicologist, Vol. 5(1), p. 81,
March 1985.
17. Baumann, S.B., "Late Positive Brain Waves (P3) Elicited by
Auditory Stimuli in Lead Exposed Children," The Toxicologist,
Vol. 5(1), p. 329, March 1985.
18. Martonen, T.B., "Extrapolation Modeling of Inhaled Particles,"
Inhaled Particles Meeting, Cambridge, England, September 1985.
19. Miller, F.J., "Influence of Breathing Mode and Activity Level
on the Regional Deposition of Inhaled Particles and Implications
for Regulatory Standards," Inhaled Particles Meeting, Cambridge,
England, September 1986.
20. Miller, F.J., "A Model of the Regional Uptake of Gaseous Pollutants
in the Lung -- I. The Sensitivity of the Uptake of Ozone in the
Human Lung to Lower Respiratory Tract Secretions and to Exercise,"
Journal of Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Vol. 79(1),
pp. 1127, June 1985.
21. Adams, R.M., S.A. Hamilton, and B.A. McCarl, "An Assessment of the
Economic Effects of Ozone on U.S. Agriculture," Journal of the
,Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 35, pp. 938-943, 1985.
22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Development and Evaluation of
an Instantaneous Atmospheric Corrosion Rate Monitor, EPA/600/3-85/048,
July 1985.
23. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Designated Reference and
Equivalent Methods, Research Report, September 1985.
24. Parr, B.F., et al., National Performance Audit Program -- Ambient
Air Audits of Analytical Proficiency, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Research Report, December 1985.
25. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "The Performance Audit Program
for Gaseous Certified Reference Materials," Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association. April 1985.
26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Comparison of Precision and
Accurate Data from SLAMS and the National Audit Status, December 1985«
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27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Filter Analysis
Network -- Trace Element Analyses, January 1985.
28. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Visibility Monitoring in
the California Desert, December 1985.
29. Stanford University Department of Statistics, SIMS Five Year Study
on Air Quality, December 1985.
30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cryogenic Preconcentration --
Direct FID (PDFID) Method for Measurement of NMOC in Ambient Air,
EPA/600/4-85/063, October 1985.
31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Airborne Lidar Determination
of Boundary Layer Structure and Pollutant Transport in Southern
California," September 1985.
32. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Evaluation of Methodology for
Determination of Fugitive Organic Emissions from Sources," January
1985.
33. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Stability of S02, Nitrogen
Oxides, and CO in Aluminum Cylinders," Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, December 1985.
34. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Validation of Manual Test
Methods for the Determination of CO Emissions, June 1985.
35. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The National Air Pollution
Background Network, EPA/600/S4-85/038, August 1985.
36. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Outdoor Smog Chamber -
Experiment to Test Photochemical Models — Phase III,
EPA/600/3-85/029, NTIS PB85-29929, May 1985.
37. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of Chemical
Reaction Mechanisms for Photochemical Smog — Part III.
"Sensitivity of EKMA to Chemical Mechanism and Input Parameters,
EPA/600/3-85/029, NTIS PB85-210888, May 1985.
38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Development of a Chemical
Kinetic Mechanism for the U.S. EPA Regional Oxidant Model,~
EPA/600/ 3-85/028, NTIS PB85-185858, April 1985.
39. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Experimental Protocol for
Determining Hydroxyl Radical Reaction Rate Constant for Organic
Compounds Estimation of Atmospheric Reactivity, EPA/600/3-85/058.
NTIS PB85-238558, July 1985.
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40. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fluid Modeling Demonstration
of Good Engineering Perspective Stack Height in Complex Terrain,
EPA/600/3-85/022, NTIS PB85-203107, [DATE]
41. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Complex Terrain Model
Development Fifth Milestone Report, EPA/600/3-85/069, October 1985.
42. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Green River Air Quality
Model for Complex Terrain — Volume 1. Overview, Technical
Description and User's Guide, EPA/600/3-85/017a. NTIS PB85-122587,
November 198.5.
43. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research on Diffusion in
Atmospheric Boundary Layers — A Position Paper on Status and
Needs, EPA/600/3-85/072, NTIS PB85-122587. November 1985.
44. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of the
Efficiency of Industrial Flares — Flare Head Design and Gas
Composition, EPA/600/2-85/106, February 1985.
45. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Bench Scale Process
Evaluation of Reburning and Sorbent Injection for In-Furnace
NOy/SOy Reductions, EPA/600/2-85/012, NTIS PB85-185890,
March 1985.
46. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of NOX Reduction
Techniques for Refinery CO Burners, EPA/600/7-85/017, NTIS PB85-
200285, April 1985.
47. Laslo, D., N. Ostroff, R. Foley, D. Schreyer, Economics of
Retrofitting Big Rivers Electric Corporation's Lame-Based FGD
System to Orgamc Acid Enhanced Limestone Operations,
EPA/600/7-85/016, April 1985.
48. Sudhoff, F.A., R.L. Torstrick, Shawnee Flue Gas Desulfurization
Computer Model User's Manual, EPA/600/8-85/006, March 1985.
49. Krishnan, E.R., R.S. McKibben,-M.T. Melia, B.A. Laseke,
Lime/Limestone Flue Gas Desulfurization Inspection and
Performance Evaluation Manual. EPA/600/8-85/024, September 1985.
50. Santhanam, C.J., A.A. Balasco, I. Bodek, C*B. Cooper, J.T. Humphrey,
B. Thacker, Full-Scale Field Evaluation of Waste Disposal for
CoalFired Electric Generating Plants, Volumes I-VI,
EPA/600/7-85/028 a-f, June 1985.
51. Mosley, R., H. Hovis and N. Plaks, et. al.? "Advanced Electrostatic
Enhancement of Fabric Filtration," Proceedings of the 3rd Conference
on Fabric Filtration Technology for Coal-Fired Power Plants,
Scottsdale, AZ, November 1985.
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52. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Chlorinated Benzenes (Final), EPA/600/8-84/015F, NTIS:
PB85-150332. January 1985. -
53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Chloroform (2 Parts) (Final). EPA/600/8-84/015F, NTIS:
PB86-105004, September 1985.
54. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) (Final).EPA/600/8-82/004F.
NTIS: PB86-123742/AS, February 1985.Addendum, EPA/600/8-82/004FA,
NTIS: PB85-191559, May 1985.
55. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Ethylene Oxide (Final), EPA/600/8-84/009F, NTIS: PB86-105004,
September 1985.
56. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Hexachlorocyclopentadiene (Final), EPA/600/8-84/001F, NTIS:
PB85-124915, November 1984.
57. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Health Assessment Document
for Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (2 Parts) (Final),
EPA/600/8-84/014F, NTIS: PB86-122546/AS, September 1985.
58. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document for
Tetrachloroethylene (Perch!oroethylene) (Final). EPA/600/8-82/005F,
.NTIS: PB85-249704, July 1985.
59. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Trichloroethylene (Final), EPA/600/8-82/006F, NTIS: PB85-249696,
July 1985.
60. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Vinylidene Chloride (Final), EPA/600/8-82/006F, NTIS:
PB85-100641, July 1985.
61. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity
Assessment of 1,3-Butadiene (Final), EPA/600/8-85/004A, NTIS:
PB86-125507/AS, September 1985.
62. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Updated Mutagenicity and Carci-
nogenicity Assessment of Cadmium (Final), EPA/600/8-83/025F, NTIS:
PB85-243533, June 1985.
63. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Beryllium (External Review Draft), EPA/600/8-84/026A, NTIS:
PB85-168433, December 1984.
111-14
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64. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mutagenicity and
Carcinogenicity Assessment of 1,3-Butadiene (ExternaT"Review Draft),
EPA/600/8-85/004A.NTIS: PB85-181097, February 1985.
65. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Assessment Document
for Nickel (Draft Final), EPA/600/8-83/012F, NTIS: PB85-248383,
September 1985.
66. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Summary Review of the Health
Effects Associated with Chloroprene: Health Issue Assessment (Final),
EPA/8-85/011F, August 29, 1985.
67. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Tier I Summary: Health Assessment Document for
Dibenzofurans (Draft), Draft number": ECAO-CIN-459A, June 1985.
Transmitted to Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, July 10,
1985.
68. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Summary Overview for Health Effects Associated
with Exposure to Phenol (Draft), Draft number;ECAO-R-070A.June
1985.Transmitted to Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
August 8, 1985.
69. Summary Review of the Health Effects Associated with Propylene
Oxide (DrafETiApril 30, 1985.ECOA-R-070A.U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment,
Washington, D.C. Transmitted to Office of Air Quality Planning
.and Standards June 17, 1985.
70. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Air Cancer
Project—Interim Report, EPA 600/X-85-000, September 1985.
71. Research Triangle Institute, Interim Report of the Total Exposure
Assessment Methodology (TEAM) Study: First Season, Northern
New Jersey, RTI/2392/03-03S. June 1985.
72. Courtney, K.D., "A Perinatal Study of Toluene in CD-I Mice,"
submitted for publication, Journal of Toxicology and Applied
Pharmacology.
73. Aranyi, C., "Effects of Toluene Inhalation on Pulmonary Host
Defenses of Mice," Toxicology Letters, Vol. 25, pp 103-110,
1985.
74. Laskey, J.W., "Assessment of the Male Reproductive System in the
Preweanling Rat Following MN03 Exposure," Journal of Toxicology
and Environmental Health, Vol. 15(2), pp. 339-350, February 1985.
75. Laskey, J.W., "Effects of Chronic Manganese Exposure on Male
Reproductive Behavior in the Japanese Quail (Coturni X Coturni
Japonica)," Poultry Science, Vol. 64(3), pp. 579-584, March 1985.
111-15
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76. Rehnberg, G.L., "Age-Dependent Changes in 61 Transport and
Retention of Particulate MnO in the Rat," Submitted to the
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health.
77. Grose, E.G., "The Relationship Between Pulmonary Glutathione
Peroxidase and Glutathione Transferase Following Inhalation of
Cadmium Chloride," ISSX Meeting, Key Biscayne, Florida,
November 1985.
78. O'Callaghan, J.P., "Diethyldithiocarbamic Acid Facilitates Entry
of Cadmium into Brain but Prevents Cadmium-Induced Neurotoxicity,"
Society for Neurotoxicity Meeting, Dallas, Texas, October 20-24, 1985.
79. Grose, E.G., "A Comparison of the Effects of Inhalation of Cadmium
Chloride (CdC12) and Cadmium Oxide (CdO) in the Liver," Society of
Toxicology Meeting, March 1985.
80. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atmospheric Reaction Products
from Hazardous Air Pollutant Degradation, EPA/600/3-85/028, NTIS
PB85-185841, April 1985.
81. Shefson, P.B., et.al., "The Mutagenic Activity of Irradiated
Toluene/N0x/H20 Mixtures," Environmental Science and Technology,
Vol. 19, pp. 249-255, March 1985.
82. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Operation of the Toxic Air
Monitoring System, September 1985.
83. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Validation of an Emission
:Test Method for Arsenic, April 1985.
84. Sheps, D.S., "Lack of Effect of 4% Carboxyhemoglobin in Patients
with Ischemic Heart Disease," submitted to the Journal of Cardiology.
85. Shefner, A.M., Respiratory Carcinogenicity of Diesel Fuel Emissions
and Related Substance, EPA/60Q/1-85/004, March 1985.
86. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Characterization of
•Emissions from Vehicles Using Methanol and Methanol-Gasoline
Blended Fuels," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Vol. 35, pp. 1168-1175, November 1985.
87. "Registered Fuels and Fuel Additives: FY 1985", EPA Correspondence
from Thomas Hauser to Richard Wilson, December 19, 1985.
88. Akland, G.G., et. al., "Measuring Human Exposure to Carbon Monoxide
in Washington, D.C. and Denver, Colorado, During Winter of 1982-1983,"
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 19, pp. 911-918, 1985.
111-16
-------
89. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The Acidic Deposition
Phenomenon and Its Effects; Critical Assessment Document,
EPA 600/8-85-001, August 1985.
111-17
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IV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
A. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
The 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments require EPA regularly to review
and, if appropriate, to revise all of the national ambient air quality
standards (NAAQS). Reviews of all existing NAAQS were in progress
during 1985.
After extensive review over the past 5 years, the primary
(health-related) NAAQS for carbon monoxide (CO) was reaffirmed and the
secondary (welfare) NAAQS was revoked in September 1985.1 Work is proceeding
on research studies to assess the health effects of CO. Results of studies
on angina patients are anticipated in 1987. The EPA plans to review the
study results with the Clean Air Act Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC)
and to assess the need for any revisions to the primary standards. If
revisions seem appropriate, EPA will act expeditiously to revise the
standards.
The annual primary and secondary NAAQS for nitrogen dioxide were
reaffirmed in June 1985.2 jhe decision on the need, if any, for a separate
short-term primary standard was deferred pending the results of additional
research on short-term health effects.
On March 20, 1984, EPA proposed changes to the NAAQS for particulate
matter (PM).3 The EPA proposed to replace the current 24-hour and annual
primary standards for total suspended particulate matter (TSP) with standards
that include only those particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter
(PM^g). The EPA proposed to establish an annual secondary TSP standard and
to revoke the current 24-hour secondary standard. The EPA also solicited
public comment on the option of making the secondary standards equivalent
in all respects to the proposed primary standards. As a result of a
number of requests from the- public and delays in publishing guidance for
development of implementation plans, the comment period on the proposed
standards was held open until June 1985. The proposal was reviewed at a
CASAC meeting in December and CASAC recommended that because of new data
published since the combined criteria document was prepared in 1981, EPA
should prepare an addendum to the criteria document for PM and sulfur
oxides and the PM staff paper. Due to the time needed for preparation
and CASAC review of the criteria document and staff paper addenda, final
action on the PM standard will be delayed until 1987.
IV-1
-------
Concurrence by the CASAC on the scientific accuracy and completeness
of the staff paper^ for sulfur oxides was received in 1983. Work on the
exposure analysis and the cost, economic and benefits analyses continued
in 1985. Recent studies on the health effects of sulfur oxides will be
evaluated in the addendum to the combined criteria document for PM and
sulfur oxides and the implications of these studies for the sulfur oxides
NAAQS will be assessed in an addendum to the sulfur oxides staff paper.
The CASAC met in May 1985 and reviewed the first draft of the lead
staff paper and also conducted an initial review of the lead risk program.
On the basis of CASAC comments, the staff paper was revised and will be
reviewed by CASAC in early 1986. During 1985, work proceeded on the lead
risk assessment program and related exposure analyses. The results of
these analyses will also undergo review by CASAC in 1986.
The CASAC met in March 1985 and reviewed the first draft of the ozone
criteria document. Since then, the criteria document has been revised
on the basis of CASAC and public comments and a second draft was released
in December 1985. The first draft of the staff paper and the revised
criteria document will be reviewed by CASAC in early 1986. An extensive
program to formally use risk analysis in setting the ozone NAAQS is under
way.
B. REFERENCES
1. 50 FR 37484, Sept. 13, 1985.
2. 50 FR 25532, June 19, 1985.
3. 49 FR 10408, Mar. 20, 1984.
4. "Review of the NAAQS for Sulfur Oxides: Assessment of Scientific and
Technical Information - OAQPS Staff Paper," (EPA-450/5-82-007),
Nov. 1982.
IV-2
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V. REGULATORY ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
A. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
The EPA has completed its commitment to Congress to consider 20-25
chemicals for regulation under section 112 of the Clean Air Act (CAA).
Three decisions were published in 1984 and 19 in 1985, for a total of
22. Nine of these have been Notices of Intent to List (as a hazardous
air pollutant) under section 112 of the CAA, one (coke oven emissions)!
was listed under section 112, and one (methylene chloride)2 will be
considered for regulation under section 112 or other Federal legislation.
The pollutants covered by Intent to List notices are carbon tetra-
chloride^, cadmium^, chromiumS, chloroform^ ethylene oxide?, ethylene
dichloride8, butadiene9, trichloroethylene1", and perchloroethylenell.
Further work on these pollutants was under way at the end of 1985.
Decisions announced in 1985 not to regulate under the CAA were issued
for chlorofluorocarbon 113,12 chlorinated benzenes,13 chloroprene,14
epichlorohydrin,15 hexachlorocyclopentadiene,16 manganese,17 methyl
chloroform,18 and vinylidene chloride,19. For acrylonitrile, EPA insti-
tuted a program to cooperate with State initiatives to control sources
of local or Regional concern. In the case of acrylonitrile (a carcinogen
used in making plastics), public health risks from cancer are limited to
a few industrial facilities. At the end of 1985, EPA was in the process
of completing agreements with State or local agencies where acrylonitrile
(AN) sources are located whereby the State and local agencies would evaluate
and, if necessary, regulate the sources with EPA providing technical and
scientific support. This approach would provide control of AN sources
more quickly and more cost effectively than section 112 standards.
Evaluations by the State or local agencies are under way or completed for
most of the sources at the end of 1985. Public hearings on about half
the sources were completed by the end of the year, with regulatory decisions
on these sources expected by late spring of 1986. The other decisions
for the other compounds mentioned above were generally based on the lack
of adverse health effects at concentrations known or estimated to occur
in the ambient air. In the case of several of the pollutants considered
to be carcinogens, the risk to the public was estimated to be extremely
small.
The status of the toxic air pollutant evaluation and control program
as of the end of 1985 is summarized in Table V-l.
In June 1985, EPA announced the development of a comprehensive
strategy for reducing risks to public health from air toxics that deals with
both routine and accidental releases.20 The strategy for routine releases
involves three major thrusts: 1) a more aggressive direct Federal regulatory
program that involves utilization of all EPA authorities, not just the Clean
Air Act, 2) enhancement of State and local air toxics programs, and 3) a
program to assess and regulate, where necessary, the elevated multi-pollutant,
V-l
-------
multimedia risks that occur in many large urban areas. The program for ac-
cidental releases involves the issuance by EPA of an acutely toxic chemicals
list and associated guidance21 to assist States in determining who produces,
stores, and transports these chemicals and in developing emergency preparedness
and response plans for these facilities within their jurisdiction. In
conjunction with the release of EPA's Air Toxics Strategy, a final
report on the magnitude and nature of the air toxics problem in the U.S.
was released.22 This report played a significant role in the development
of the strategy.
Also in 1985, the National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse
(NATICH) was significantly expanded through the implementation of the
computerized NATICH data base. Established in 1983, the Clearinghouse
provides a tangible method of improving communication among EPA and State
and local agencies. The Clearinghouse is funded by EPA and is a cooperative
effort among EPA, the State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Adminis-
trators (STAPPA), and the Association of Local Air Pollution Control
Officials (ALAPCO). The goal of the Clearinghouse is to disseminate infor-
mation about activities under way to solve toxic air pollutant problems
and to reduce duplication of effort. Some of the kinds of information
included in the Clearinghouse are: (1) regulatory program activities,
including acceptable ambient limits and emergency response program develop-
ment; (2) source permit information, such as types and quantities of
pollutants permitted and required control technology; and (3) source test
and ambient monitoring methods in use. With the implementation of the
NATICH data base, the Clearinghouse users (e.g., State, local air quality
management agencies, EPA, industry, environmental groups and the public)
may now have direct access to the Clearinghouse information through a
user-friendly interactive program. In addition to direct computer access
to the data base, hardcopy reports of the data base information are
printed and distributed annually. Other publications on air toxics
distributed in 1985 included four issues of the Clearinghouse newsletter,
a bibliography of EPA reports and Federal Register notices,23 a listing
of EPA's ongoing research and regulatory development projects,2^ a report on
the rationale for air toxics control in seven State and local agencies,2^
a reprint of the EPA Air Toxics Strategy,20 an interim report summarizing
data submitted by State and local agencies,2^ and a users guide for the
NATICH data base.27 Plans for 1986 include continuation of the prior
publications plus publication of special reports on the EPA's risk assess-
ments and procedures and on other data base sources of information.
B. REFERENCES
1. 49 FR 36560, Sept. 15, 1984.
2. 50 FR 42037, Oct. 17, 1985.
3. 50 FR 32621, Aug. 13, 1985.
V-2
-------
4. 50 FR 42000, Oct.' 16, 1985.
5. 50 FR 24317, June 10, 1985.
6. 50 FR 39629, Sept. 27, 1985.
7. 50 FR 40286, Oct. 2, 1985.
8. 50 FR 41994, Oct. 16, 1985.
9. 50 FR 41466, Oct. 10, 1985.
10. 50 FR 52422, Dec. 23, 1985.
11. 50 FR 52880, Dec. 26, 1985.
12. 50 FR 24313, June 10, 1985.
13. 50 FR 32628, Aug. 13, 1985.
14. 50 FR 39632, Sept. 27, 1985.
15. 50 FR 24575, June 11, 1985.
16. 50 FR 40154, Oct. 1, 1985.
17. 50 FR 32627, Aug. 13, 1985.
18. 50 FR 24314, June 10, 1985.
19. 50 FR 32632, Aug 13, 1985.
20. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "A Strategy to Reduce Risks
to Public Health from Air Toxics," June 1985.
21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Chemical Emergency Preparedness
Program Interim Guidance," Dec. 1985.
22. E. Haenisegger et al., "The Air Toxics Problem in the United States: An
Analysis of Cancer Risks for Selected Pollutants," EPA 450/1-85-001,
May 1985.
23. Bibliography of Selected EPA Reports and Federal Register Notices.
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse, Pollutant Assesment
Branch, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. January 1985.
24. Ongoing Research and Regulatory Development Projects. National Air
Toxics Information Clearinghouse, Pollutant Assessment Branch, Office
of Air Quality Planning and Standards. March 1985.
25. Rationale for Air Toxics Control in Seven State and Local Agencies.
National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse, Pollutant Assessment
Branch, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. August 1985.
V-3
-------
26. National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse Data Base Report on
State and Local Agency Air Toxics Activities. National Air Toxics
Information Clearinghouse, Pollutant Assessment Branch, Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards. September 1985.
27. National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse Data Base Users Guide
for Data Viewing, National Air Toxics Information Clearinghouse,
Pollutant Assessment Branch, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
September 1985. EPA 450/5-85-008.
V-4
-------
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VI. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
A. DEVELOPMENT OF POLICY AND REGULATIONS
Implementation Policy and Guidance for Revised Particulate Matter
Standards
As discussed in Chapter IV of this report, EPA proposed revised
national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter
(an annual and a 24-hour standard) that would apply to a size range of
particles nominally 10 micrometers and smaller in diameter (PM^g), and an
annual total suspended particulate (TSP) secondary standard. The focus of
the proposed primary standards on a new particle size range has necessitated
preparation of regulations, policy, and technical guidance so that State
implementation plans (SIP's) for PM^g can be developed.
On April 2, 1985, EPA published a Federal Register notice which
solicited public comments on (1) regulatory amendments which would accom-
modate the focus of the primary standards on the PMjg size range and which
would establish the requirements for new source review programs, (2) a
policy for SIP development for primary and secondary standards and the
EPA's interpretation of the Clean Air Act which results in that policy,
and (3) technical guidance specific to dealing with the PM-^Q size range.
The proposed regulatory amendments would focus the health-protecting air
pollution episode programs on PMig rather than TSP and would describe the
requirements for a dual new source system, e.g., new sources would be
reviewed for both PM^g and TSP emissions. The SIP development policy
would establish time frames for SIP development for the primary and secondary
standards. The PM^g technical guidance addresses development of emission
inventories, dispersion and receptor modeling, ambient monitoring and data
reporting, using ambient TSP data where PMjQ data are not available, and
monitoring for prevention of significant deterioration purposes.
Seventy-two comment letters were received, mostly from industry. The
issue most frequently commented upon was the legal interpretation of the
Clean Air Act as it would apply to primary PMig standards. Other items
addressed frequently were the need for ambient PM^g data before SIP
development, the fugitive dust policy, the construction ban, and various new
source review issues.
Public comments have been summarized and issues identified for
resolution. At the end of 1985, the EPA was in the process of resolving
the issues raised.
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Visibility Protection
Section 169A of the Clean Air Act establishes as a national goal
"the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing,
impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas which
impairment results from manmade air pollution." On December 2, 1980,
EPA promulgated regulations implementing this section.2 All States which
contained mandatory Class I Federal areas were to develop and submit
SIP revisions to EPA which implemented these regulations.
On December 20, 1982, a number of plaintiffs filed suit in the
United States District Court for the Northern District of California
seeking to compel EPA to promulgate State plans for visibility protection
under section 110(c) of the Clean Air Act for those States which had not
submitted such plans. During 1983, EPA and the plaintiffs negotiated and
signed a settlement agreement which was accepted by the court on April
20, 1984. The settlement agreement calls for a two-part implementation
of the 1980 rules. New source review requirements and a visibility
monitoring strategy were proposed for the 34 deficient States on October
23, 1984.3 Tne £p/\ promulgated monitoring strategies for 22 States and
visibility NSR programs for 20 States in two actions in July 1985 and
February 1986.4>5 The EPA is reviewing the State-submitted plans for the
remaining States. These actions complete the first part of the settlement
agreement.
In compliance with the second part of the agreement, EPA reviewed the
SIP's for the States and determined that 31 States were deficient for
implementation control strategies and long-term strategies for visibility
protection and one State was deficient for protection of integral vistas.6
Federal plans to implement the deficient portions are scheduled to be
proposed in 1986 and promulgated in 1987.
Tall Stacks and Other Dispersion Techniques
In July 1985, EPA adopted revisions to regulations originally published
in 1982 which prohibit reliance by stationary sources on stacks in excess
of "good engineering practice" or on any other dispersion techniques in
lieu of emission controls.? Known as the "stack height" regulations,
these revisions were adopted after an extended comment period and public
hearing following the November 9, 1984 proposal.
The changes were ordered by the U.S. Court of appeals for the D.C.
Circuit in Sierra Club v. EPA, 719 F.2d 436 (D.C. Cir. 1983) and will
require additional control of emissions at some sources. An assessment
of potential impacts was prepared to accompany the final regulations and
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estimated that reductions of up to 1.7 million tons of S02 could be
obtained at an annual cost of up to $750 million. Actual impacts cannot
be calculated until plant-specific analyses are performed, however.
States were given 9 months from the date of promulgation of the revisions
to review their rules and source emission limitations and to revise and
resubmit them to EPA as necessary.
Stack Height Emission Balancing Policy
As a result of promulgation of the stack height regulations in July 1985s
some sources will be required to reduce their emissions. These reductions
may not be the most cost-effective reductions available. Therefore, in
December 1985, EPA proposed a policy which, if adopted, would allow
sources for which emission reductions are required under the stack height
regulations to contract with other sources for the reductions in lieu of
reducing emissions at their own facilities.8 To ensure that the balancing
would have positive environmental benefits as great as, or greater than,
those that would occur with stack-by-stack compliance with the stack
height regulation, EPA proposed that the emission reductions from the
source which is providing the reductions be greater than the reductions
at the affected source. Due to a number of factors, EPA proposed to
require between 20 and 100 percent additional emission reductions.
The proposal opened a 30-day period for the public to comment on the
general policy and a number of proposed restrictions. The EPA will review
the policy and the restrictions in light of the public comments.
Federal Enforcement of Visible Emissions
The EPA is considering a new, modified visible emission test method
for evaluating compliance with certain types of SIP opacity standards
where the State has not specified a test method in the SIP. The existing
method for Federal enforcement of SIP opacity limits in such cases is
Test Method Number 9 of 40 CFR 60. The EPA started to develop this pro-
posal during 1984 and plans to complete rulemaking in 1986. If adopted,
this revised procedure would provide EPA with an expanded array of specific
visible emissions testing procedures for various types of SIP opacity
emission limitations and would allow EPA to better enforce SIP provisions.
Guidance to Promote Consistency in the Application of National Policies
During 1985, EPA continued to provide additional information to assist
State and local agencies in the development of SIP's and other air programs
by filling requests for copies of the Air Programs Policy and Guidance
Notebook and by distributing an update of the Air Programs Reports and
Guidelines Index containing almost one hundred new entries. The Notebook
includes a collection of current memorandums concerning national policy
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and guidance. The Index represents a compilation of bibliographic
information on current technical and guideline documents prepared by EPA
over the past several years. The update was distributed to about 350 State
and local agencies in addition to Regional and Headquarters personnel, all
of whom are holders of the Notebook and Index.
Building State and Local Air Toxics Control Programs
In 1985, EPA continued its efforts to control toxic air pollutants and
initiated a program to enhance the capabilities of State and local agencies
to control air toxics. Accordingly, EPA set a goal to have an operative
air toxics control program in all States by the end of 1986. In order to
attain this goal, EPA took various steps to upgrade the air toxics control
capabilities of State and local agencies. These activities included
providing guidance on priorities for States to consider when developing
control programs, sharing information regarding exemplary State/local air
toxics control activities, and developing opportunities for interaction
among State/local air toxics control personnel, including training
opportunities. These activities are intended to improve State and local
air toxics control capabilities, promote a strong State/EPA partnership,
and expand the Nation's capability to deal effectively with toxic air
pollutants.
B. PREVENTION OF SIGNIFICANT DETERIORATION AND NONATTAINMENT NEW
SOURCE REVIEW ACTIVITIES
The EPA made significant progress in 1985 in carrying out its
responsibilities under the Clean Air Act regarding the preconstruction
review of'new and modified stationary sources. Major 1985 activities
are described below.
PSD Program Transfer
The EPA continues to emphasize the importance of high quality transfers
of the prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) and new source review
(NSR) programs. In addition to the strong legal and resource reasons for
implementation by State and local authorities rather than EPA, the EPA
believes that the critical growth decisions associated with the preconstruc-
tion review process should be made at the State and local level. The
permitting process, once transferred, forms the key for minimizing source-
specific SIP revisions in the future. In 1985, EPA continued its progress
in transferring implementation of the PSD program to State and local agencies.
The majority of PSD permits are now issued by these agencies. Although
several transfers are presently being held up by litigation and resulting
policy clarification, progress was made nevertheless. As of the end of
1985, 42 State and local agencies had either full delegation of the PSD
program or a PSD SIP, and 9 more had partial responsibility for the PSD
program. Two transfers of particular significance were to districts in
California; this is a major breakthrough in the process of transferring
the program to the rest of the State.
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Modifications to Permits
In response to several requests, EPA has developed a draft national
policy for reviewing proposed PSD permit modifications and extensions.
Such a policy appears to be increasingly important as many of the source
owners with valid PSD permits wish to change conditions within their
permits on the eve of their construction or operation. This permit
modification policy provides a more consistent approach for applicants,
owners, and operators who propose changes to obtain revisions of existing
permits or applications rather than having to apply for totally new
permits.
Chemical Manufacturers Association v. EPA
As previously reported, the EPA's PSD and nonattainment new source
review regulations have been challenged by a variety of entities. These
challenges were consolidated as Chemical Manufacturers Association v. EPA
(CMA), D.C. Cir. No. 79-1112. On February 22, 1982, EPA entered into a
litigation settlement with the industry petitioners in which it agreed to
propose certain regulatory changes. An important part of the settlement
agreement was satisfied by EPA's Federal Register proposal of August 1983.9
That proposal addressed the topics of fugitive emissions in new source
review applicability determinations, Federal enforceability of various
emissions reductions, "buffer zones" around Class I areas, review of
secondary emissions, and offset credit for past source shutdowns. At
the end of 1985, EPA had prepared final action on a significant portion
of the settlement. These documents were undergoing internal EPA review
at the end of the year.
An important related matter of controversy has been the definition
of "source" for the purposes of nonattainment new source review. The
Clean Air Act is not clear in this area. In 1980, EPA promulgated a dual
source definition that minimized the opportunity for modifications to
sources to avoid review in nonattainment areas. This was challenged by
industry in the CMA suit, but was not of primary concern in the settlement
because EPA had replaced it with a "plantwide" definition in its rulemaking
of October 14, 1981. The Natural Resources Defense Council claimed that
the plantwide definition is inconsistent with the Act and, on August 17,
1982, the O.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in their favor. Both EPA
and industry representatives appealed this ruling, and on June 25, 1984,
the Supreme Court decided in favor of EPA and the industry litigants.
The EPA is presently developing a policy which will aid the Regions in
processing proposed SIP's converting to a plantwide definition. Resolution
of the definition of source should significantly accelerate the processing
of revisions to the nonattainment portions of SIP's.
In an August 7, 1980, promulgation, EPA listed 30 source categories
for which fugitive emissions would be included in PSD applicability
determinations. Surface mining operations were not among these. The
Sierra Club sued EPA on this point and on August 26, 1983, the D.C.
Circuit Court of Appeals remanded this matter to the EPA for explanation
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of its position. In October 1984, EPA published final action on this
issue, reaffirming its current requirements for the inclusion of fugitive
emissions in calculating whether a source is "major" for purposes of NSR.10
EPA further proposed to extend the requirements for inclusion of fugitive
emissions to surface coal mining operations. According to the rulemaking
criteria established by EPA, the proposed listing of surface coal mines
is only a presumption which can be overcome if the rulemaking record
reveals that the costs associated with listing are unreasonable relative
to the corresponding benefits. A regulatory impact analysis has been
prepared on that proposal and was made available for public comment in
early 1986.
The remaining issues in the August 25, 1983, proposal are addressed
in a Federal Register notice which will be published in 1986.
C. IMPLEMENTATION OVERVIEW AND ASSISTANCE
National Air Audit System
The National Air Audit System (NAAS) was developed in 1983 and
implemented initially in 1984 as a joint effort by EPA, the State and
Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators (STAPPA), and the
Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (ALAPCO). The need
for the NAAS resulted from the fact that State and local air pollution
control agencies have assumed responsibility for an increasing number of
programs under the Clean Air Act over the years. The primary goals of the
NAAS are to identify any obstacles that are preventing State and local
air pollution control agencies from implementing effective air quality
management programs and to provide EPA with quantitative information for
use in defining more effective and meaningful national programs.
In 1985, a fifth audit area—motor vehicle inspection maintenance--
was added to the other audit areas of air quality planning and State
implementation plan activities, new source review, compliance assurance,
and air monitoring. A national report covering the results of the
audits of these areas for 1985 was in preparation at the end of the year
as was a document providing guidance on conducting audits in subsequent
years. In addition, a symposium was held in March 1985 with EPA, State,
and local air pollution control agencies in order to develop recommenda-
tions based upon the results of the audit program which could be used in
future resource planning efforts by EPA Headquarters and Regional Office
personnel.
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Status of Nonattainment Areas
The following table lists those areas of the country that were not
in attainment with air quality standards as of the end of 1985. Note
that totals are not shown since the same area may be nonattainment for
more than one pollutant. A significant portion of the carbon monoxide
and ozone nonattainment areas shown below are areas which received an
attainment date extension under the Clean Air Act to December 31, 1987.
Number of
Pollutant Nonattainment Areas*
Particulate matter (primary standard) 134
Particulate matter (secondary standard) 191
Sulfur oxides (primary standard) 54
Sulfur oxides (secondary standard) 12
Nitrogen oxides 4
Carbon monoxide 141
Ozone 362
*Areas listed are either counties or portions of counties.
Ozone Task Force
In 1985, EPA organized an Ozone Task Force to address the issue of
widespread nonattainment of the ozone NAAQS. The Task Force initiated
the process of developing control strategies for all ozone nonattainment
areas, including those areas that received an extension of the ozone
attainment deadline to December 1987 under Part D of the Clean Air Act
but were not expected to attain by that time. Task Force activities
in 1985 consisted of problem definition, development of needed data,
and preparation of draft strategy alternatives. Public announcement of
specific strategies is scheduled for 1986.
Emissions Trading
Emissions trading includes several alternatives to traditional
regulation. These alternatives do not alter existing air quality
requirements but simply give States and industry more flexibility to
meet these requirements. Bubble trades and emissions reduction banking
are two of the major emissions trading concepts being promoted by EPA.
Bubble trades allow existing plants (or groups of plants) to treat
some or all of their emission points as though they were under a giant
bubble and reduce or eliminate pollution controls where costs are high,
in exchange for compensating increased control at emission sources where
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control costs are low. They give firms increased compliance flexibility,
meet current or future pollution control requirements more quickly, make
innovative control approaches profitable, and can result in significant
savings over the costs of conventional controls. In 1982, EPA issued a
proposed emissions trading policy to replace the original bubble policy
and to streamline procedures, giving States and industry more opportunities
to use bubbles in many more circumstances and geographic areas.^ Since
that time, EPA has reviewed numerous formal comments on the policy and
developed alternatives to respond to specific issues raised by the
commenters. In 1983, EPA proposed alternatives to shutdowns for public
review and additional comment.12 The EPA reviewed all of the comments
that were submitted on the proposals and was proceeding toward the
development of a final emissions trading policy at the end of 1985. As
of December 31, 1985, EPA approved or proposed to approve 50 bubbles
resulting in an estimated savings of more than $300 million over the cost
of conventional pollution controls, with many producing energy savings
and greater emission reductions than traditional regulation.
Bubbles can be approved by the States without case-by-case EPA review
if evaluated under EPA-approved State procedures known as generic trading
rules that assure no bubble will interfere with timely attainment and
maintenance of the NAAQS. State generic rules are approved by EPA only
if their procedures are replicable in operation to meet this test. As of
December 31, 1985, EPA approved generic trading rules for nine States or
local areas which allow these States to approve bubbles without prior
Federal approval. The EPA "also proposed to approve a generic rule for one
State. At least 11 additional States or local areas were developing such
rules. In addition to the 50 bubbles approved or proposed for approval
by EPA 40 bubbles were approved by States under generic trading rules. At
least 160 bubbles were under development or review either as SIP revisions
or under generic rules. In total, over 250 bubbles were approved, proposed,
under review, or under development in 29 States throughout the nation
through the end of 1985. The total estimated savings from these bubbles
exceeds $800 million.
Emissions reduction banking allows firms to get credit for surplus
emission reductions and to store such emission reduction credits (ERC's)
in a legally-protected manner. The ERC's can be "banked" (stored) and
possibly used in bubble applications to meet control requirements for
existing plants more flexibly and efficiently, as offsets to support
economic growth in areas not meeting air quality standards, or in "netting"
to exempt certain expansions or modernizations from new source review.
Banking rules can speed trades between firms, expand opportunities for
bubbles, and encourage the production of cheap ERC's at optimal times.
Banking systems also provide the certainty needed for firms to invest in
ERC's when meeting other control requirements, creating a pool of readily
available credits that make trading easier, and speeds permit issuance
while assuring progress toward clean air.
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As of the end of 1985, formal banking rules had been approved for
five States or local areas and approval of four Statewide or local banking
programs had been proposed. Eight additional areas have adopted at the
State or local level banking programs, some of which are under EPA review.
Banking rules are known to be under development or consideration in seven
more areas.
Acid Deposition Implementation Issues
In 1984, EPA initiated an effort to explore with the States the
potential issues that could arise in implementing any possible acid
deposition control program. Accomplishing this effort was planned in
three phases: identifying key implementation issues and major options for
dealing with them; evaluating various options using both "'in-the-field" and
"in-house" approaches; and preparing preliminary or prototype guidance on
the issues. Major progress was made in 1984 on the first phase as EPA,
in coordination with State and local air agencies, produced an initial
listing and description of over 200 implementation issues.
In 1985, the focus shifted to analyzing the issues and evaluating
the options for dealing with them, particularly through "in-the-field"
studies. These studies, called State Acid Rain (STAR) projects, were
to be conducted by individual States although the results could have broad
applicability to other States that might be involved in a possible acid
rain control program. The projects were eligible for funding through the
$3 million in section 105 funds that Congress had appropriated for the
development of "the technical and institutional foundations for future
acid rain control strategies."
In application for this funding, State and local agencies submitted
53 proposals, and EPA, after consulting with STAPPA/ALAPCO, selected 31
projects for an initial round of funding. Later in the year, EPA
reviewed the range of issues covered by the projects and identified six
additional STAR projects for funding. In all, the section 105 special
appropriation was able to fund 37 of the 59 project proposals. Thirty-seven
States are involved in the effort directly and special procedures
allow other States to participate in the review and evaluation of the
projects. A national STAR workshop was held in November 1985 for EPA
and the States to discuss and review the progress of the STAR projects
thus far.
The EPA has begun to identify other important issues and options that
should be investigated with "in-the-field" or "in-house" studies but are
not being examined in the STAR projects. The EPA also began to determine
what types of projects would be appropriate for examining these other
issues and options.
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VOC RACT Clearinghouse
The EPA has specified that the SIP revisions for areas designated as
not attaining photochemical oxidant standards should contain, as a minimum,
regulations for controlling volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions
from stationary sources. These regulations must provide for the implemen-
tation of reasonably available control technology (RACT). To assist the
States in defining RACT, EPA prepared a series of documents, referred
to as control techniques guidelines (CTG's), which address various control
options for a variety of individual stationary sources. Since EPA cannot
publish CTG's for all affected VOC source categories, States may have to
develop regulations using information sources other than CTG's. The
purpose of the VOC RACT clearinghouse is to provide a means by which
State and local air pollution control agencies can exchange technical
information, minimize duplication of effort and resources, and provide
guidance regarding VOC controls for various sources. The VOC RACT
clearinghouse is a cooperative effort with STAPPA, ALAPCO, and EPA.
The VOC RACT clearinghouse output takes several forms, including a
VOC RACT Clearinghouse Newsletter, which is targeted for publication on
a quarterly basis. During 1985, four newsletters were issued. Other
outputs during 1985 were a directory of air pollution control agency VOC
contact persons, and a subject index and a title index for the VOC RACT
Clearinghouse Newsletter.
D. AIR POLLUTION TRAINING
In 1985, EPA continued to provide technical training in the abatement
and control of air pollution. This training included short course presenta-
tions (3 to 5 days in length), self-study courses, technical assistance to
others who conduct training, and the support of traineeships and fellowships
for graduate air pollution training.
During 1985, EPA conducted 27 short courses in 18 different subject
areas for a total of 711 students. These courses were presented in locations
across the U.S. by seven universities designated as area training centers.
Technical assistance was provided to States and EPA Regional Offices for the
conducting of 14 additional courses reaching a total of 385 students.
In support of the delegation of more air quality management
responsibilities to the States, EPA continued emphasis on self-study
courses as a means of providing training to more air pollution personnel.
During 1985, 1163 students applied for the 30 self-study courses presently
available.
As an additional means of developing qualified personnel, EPA supported
12 graduate traineeships/fellowships to employees of State and local air
pollution control agencies. These awards are for both part-time and
full-time graduate study in the field of air pollution control.
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E. REFERENCES
1. 50 FR 13130, April 2, 1985.
2. 45 FR 80084, December 2, 1980.
3. 49 FR 42670, October 23, 1984.
4. 50 FR 28544, July 12, 1985.
5. 51 FR 5504, February 13, 1986.
6. 51 FR 3046, January 23, 1986.
7. 50 FR 27892, July 8, 1985.
8. 50 FR 52418, December 23, 1985.
9. 48 FR 38742, August 25, 1983.
10. 49 FR 43201, October 26, 1984.
11. 47 FR 15076, April 7, 1982.
12. 48 FR 39580, August 31, 1983.
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VII. CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (NSPS)
During 1985, NSPS were promulgated under section 111 of the Clean
Air Act (Act) for six new categories: nonmetallic mineral processing
plants,1 light weight aggregate,1 gypsum,1 perlite,1 onshore natural gas
processing (2 NSPS),2»3 and wool fiberglass insulation manufacturing.*
The existing NSPS for surface coating metal furniture^ was revised.
Standards were proposed for three new categories: volatile organic liquid
storage vessels,6 synthetic organic chemical manufacturing equipment
leaks,^ and distillation unit operations.8 Revisions were proposed for two
source categories: petroleum refineries8*9 and portland cement plants.10
Innovative technology waivers were proposed for several sources subject
to the standard for automobile coating plants.11 The reviews of NSPS for
ammonium sulfate,12 sulfuric acid plants,^ and portland cement plants1^ were
completed. Standards development programs now under way are planned to
result in the promulgation of nine standards,, the proposal of 14 standards,
and completion of reviews for four existing NSPS during 1986.
B. NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS (NESHAP)
0 Arsenic - Work on NESHAP for glass manufacturing, high arsenic
feedstock primary copper smelters, and low arsenic feedstock primary
copper smelters continued in 1985 with a promulgation planned in 1986.
0 Benzene - Work continued in 1985 on a source assessment for benzene
emissions from gasoline marketing and on promulgation of the NESHAP for coke
by-product plants. The proposed regulations for control of benzene
emissions in maleic anhydride plants, ethylbenzene/styrene plants, and
benzene storage facilities were withdrawn in 1984.^ The withdrawal was
based on the position that public health risks for these sources were
determined not to be significant. In 1985 NRDC filed a petition for
reconsideration of the withdrawal which EPA denied in late 1985. The NRDC
then filed a petition to review the reconsideration denial.
0 Asbestos - Work continued on revising the asbestos NESHAP during
1985. The revision will consider all source categories covered by the
existing NESHAP and is scheduled for proposal in early 1987.
0 Mercury - Work continued in 1985 on the revision of the mercury NESHAP.
Promulgation is planned for 1986.
0 Vinyl chloride - Revisions16 to the vinyl chloride NESHAP were
proposed in 1985 and are scheduled for promulgation in 1986.
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0 Chromium =• During 1985, technical analysis began for chromium
emissions from electroplating and cooling towers. Other chromium
sources including utility boilers, industrial boilers, chromium chemical
manufacturing, steel production, refactory manufacturing, sewage sludge
incinerators, municipal incinerators, cement manufacturing, chromite ore
refining, and ferrochromium production were under review at the end of
1985.
0 Coke oven emissions - Standards development work continued in
1985 for coke oven emissions sources in the iron and steel industry. A
proposed NESHAP for coke oven emissions is planned for 1986.
0 Radionuclides - Standards were promulgated for radionuclide
emissions from the Department of Energy (DOE) facilities, Nuclear
Regulatory Commission licensed facilities and non-DOE Federal facilities,
elemental phosphorus plants, and underground uranium mines.17,18 work
continued on standards for radon-222 emissions from licensed uranium mill
tailings.
0 Other Compounds - In late 1985, technical analysis commenced for
10 compounds for which notices of intent to list under section 112 or to
consider regulations under other statutes were published in 1985. The first
phase of work, which should be completed in 1986, is to determine source
categories for which controls will be considered. The compounds under study
are carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, cadmium,
chromium,^chloroform, ethylene oxide, 1,3 butadiene, methylene chloride, and
ethylene di chloride.
The EPA's Office of Air and Radiation is coordinating with other Agency
offices in the development of hazardous organic NESHAP for various chemicals
and chemical classes.
C. DELEGATION OF NSPS AND NESHAP
The EPA continued to make progress in 1985 in delegating responsibility
for implementing the NSPS and NESHAP programs to the State and local air
pollution control agencies. The number of applicable NSPS and NESHAP
vary for each State or local agency depending on the types of source
categories that either exist or are likely to be built in the future. At
the end of 1985, 42 State and local agencies had accepted delegation of
all applicable NSPS and 48 had accepted delegation of all applicable
NESHAP. These numbers represent delegation of approximately 94 percent
of applicable NSPS and 95 percent of applicable NESHAP nationwide.
D. BACT/LAER CLEARINGHOUSE
New or modified facilities that are to be constructed in areas of
the country that are currently attaining the national ambient air quality
standards are required by the Act to install best available control
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technology (BACT). In those areas of the country that have not yet
achieved compliance with the air quality standards, new or modified
facilities are required to meet the lowest achievable emission rate
(LAER) for that particular type of source. Both BACT and LAER
requirements are determined on a case-by-case basis. Often an air
pollution control agency will need to establish BACT or LAER requirements
for a source type that is completely new to them or for which they have
had only minimal experience. In these cases, the permitting agency may
not be knowledgeable of the more recent advances in control technology
for such sources and it is extremely helpful if the agency can refer to '
BACT or LAER determinations made by other control agencies.
The EPA established the BACT/LAER Clearinghouse several years ago in
order to assist State and local air pollution control agencies by promoting
the sharing of air pollution control technology information. The primary
output of the Clearinghouse is an annual report of information about
BACT/LAER determinations made by the various control agencies. The report
published in 1985 contains over 1025 BACT/LAER determinations.19 The report
is available in hard copy and through an automated system. The automated
data base can be accessed by both the public and the private sectors.
E. REFERENCES
1. 50 FR 31328, August 1, 1985.
2. 50 FR 26122, June 24, 1985.
3. 50 FR 40158, October 1, 1985.
4. 50 FR 7694, February 25, 1985.
5. 50 FR 18247, April 30, 1985.
6. 50 FR 14941, April 16, 1985.
7. 50 FR 14941, April 16, 1985.
8. 50 FR 14941, April 16, 1985.
9. 50 FR 46464, November 8, 1985.
10. 50 FR 36956, September 10, 1985.
11. 50 FR 36830, September 9, 1985.
12. 50 FR 9055, March 6, 1985.
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13. 50 FR 34461, August 26, 1985.
14. 50 FR 36956, September 10, 1985.
15. 49 FR 23478, June 6, 1984.
16. 50 FR 1182, January 9, 1985.
17. 50 FR 15386, April 17, 1985.
18. 50 FR 5190, February 6, 1985.
19. "BACT/LAER Clearinghouse - (June, 1985) A Compilation of Control
Technology Determinations."
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VIII. STATIONARY SOURCE COMPLIANCE
A. GENERAL
The goal of the Clean Air Act (Act) is to protect public health and
welfare and enhance the quality of the nation's air. The stationary
source compliance program is designed to assure compliance with air
emission-standards by stationary sources of air pollution, including such
major facilities as power plants, steel mills, smelters, and refineries.
In addition to ensuring compliance with emission limitations contained in
State implementation plans (SIPs), EPA and delegated States are responsible
for ensuring that sources comply with new source performance standards
(NSPS) and national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants
(NESHAP).
The EPA closely monitors the compliance status of about 31,000
stationary sources of air pollution. Approximately 27,000 of these
sources are Class A SIP sources*, about 3,000 are NSPS sources, and about
1000 are NESHAP sources. At the end of 1985, as has been the case since
the late 1970's, the compliance rates were high and generally stable.
The compliance status for the federally-tracked stationary sources is the
following:
In In Violation; In Violation;
Compliance Meeting Schedule No Schedule Unknown
Class A SIP 90.7% 1.9% 4.7% 2.7%
NSPS 89.6% 2.0% 5.6% 2.8%
NESHAP 86.7% 2.9% 5.4% 5.0%
The compliance status of stationary sources is determined and tracked
principally by the States. Also, the States report this compliance
information to EPA. In order to obtain information for purposes of
determining compliance status or preparing a possible enforcement action
or for other reasons, the States (and EPA) have the authority to enter
and to inspect stationary sources. In 1985, the States conducted 30,698
inspections of Class A SIP, NSPS, and NESHAP sources.
EPA overviews States' compliance monitoring activities and supplements
the States' enforcement efforts to resolve violations of air quality
regulations. In 1985, EPA conducted 1,734 inspections of Class A SIP,
NSPS, and NESHAP sources.
*A Class A SIP source is a stationary source with actual or potential
uncontrolled emissions, while operating at design capacity, equal to or
greater than 100 tons per year of any regulated air pollutant.
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The Clean Air Act provides a variety of administrative enforcement
mechanisms for dealing with both special situations and relatively easily
corrected violations. During 1985, EPA issued immediate compliance
orders under section 113(a) of the Act to 111 sources and issued or
approved delayed compliance orders under section 113(d) to 21 sources.
Section 120 of the Act is an administrative remedy designed to recoup
the economic benefit which may come from violating air pollution control
regulations. Nine section 120 cases were initiated in 1985.
The EPA is also authorized to file civil and criminal actions in
Federal district court to order a source to comply with applicable require-
ments, to pay penalties, or both. There were 73 civil actions filed in
1985 against stationary sources for violations of the Act. As of
January 1986, there was a total of 163 such actions pending with the U.S.
District Courts. Convictions were imposed in one criminal prosecution in
1985. In addition, four cases were referred to the Department of Justice
for criminal prosecution. These judicial actions addressed a broad
spectrum of violations, including violations of SIP's, violations of
federally-promulgated standards, and contempt actions for violations of
judicial decrees.
A major focus of the stationary source compliance program is the
effort to return to compliance those sources meeting the definition of a
significant violator. The universe of sources covered by this program
includes sources that are in violation of NESHAP and NSPS regulations and
Class A SIP sources in violation of a SIP requirement located in a non-
attainment area for the pollutant for which the source is in violation.
For fiscal year (FY) 1985, the period starting October 1, 1984 and ending
September 30, 1985, EPA identified 513 significant violators pending at
the beginning of the fiscal year and by the end of the fiscal year, 391
were addressed. Of these, 187 were returned to compliance, 95 were
placed on an acceptable compliance schedule, and 109 had an enforcement
action pending. In addition, 191 significant violators were newly-identified
during FY 1985 and, of these, 89 were addressed by the end of
the fiscal year.
In 1984, EPA issued guidance on what constitutes a "timely and
appropriate" EPA/State enforcement response for significant air violators.
The guidance provides timeliness for action, addresses EPA issuance of
notices of violation, and discusses when penalties must be obtained. In
1985, EPA evaluated the implementation of the "timely and appropriate"
guidance and found it was being applied in virtually all States with
little or no change from the national guidance. Also, the evaluation
found that the guidance, by defining expectations and time frames, has
improved relations between EPA and the States.
An area of intensive efforts for the last 2 years by EPA, reflected
in the large growth in the number of significant violators, is the regulation
of sources of volatile organic compounds (VOC's). Such sources are major
contributors to the ozone nonattainment problem and some emit compounds
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which are highly toxic in nature. In response to requirements contained
in the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments, many States adopted regulations
requiring compliance of VOC sources on or before the end of 1982.
In 1985, EPA established an Ozone Task Force to develop a consistent
strategy addressing ozone nonattainment areas. Ensuring that stationary
sources achieve and maintain compliance with VOC regulations is an important
part of this strategy. Besides the basic problems associated with a new
program (e.g., inadequate source inventory), obtaining compliance by VOC
sources presents some particular difficulties. Regulations are complex.
Sources and regulatory agencies are still developing the technical expertise
necessary to assure compliance. In addition, large numbers of smaller
sources (e.g., dry cleaners and degreasers) play a more significant role
than for sources of particulates and sulfur dioxide (SOg) emissions. The
EPA will be exploring ways to enhance the existing VOC compliance program.
In 1985, the stationary source compliance program continued its major
initiative to ensure that demolition and renovation sites are in compliance
with asbestos NESHAP regulations. The demolition and renovation of old
buildings, often in highly populated urban areas, is a major source of
asbestos exposure. Because of the large number of demolition sites, a
strong State and EPA effort is necessary to the success of the program.
The program addresses training, inspection techniques, enforcement
mechanisms, and other aspects essential for ensuring compliance.
In 1985, EPA and States received 23,022 asbestos demolition or renovation
notifications, conducted 10,482 asbestos inspections, and found 1,227
violations. The EPA issued 331 notices of violation or deficiency, issued 46
administrative actions, and initiated 18 civil actions for violations of
asbestos demolition and renovation regulations. Delegated States also
conducted a high level of asbestos enforcement action during 1985. The
States issued 298 notices of violation or deficiency, issued 98
administrative orders, and initiated 16 civil actions.
On July 11, 1984, EPA issued a vinyl chloride NESHAP enforcement
strategy which facilitates the development of civil complaints against
violators of vinyl chloride regulations. The EPA filed three civil actions
during 1985 for violations of the vinyl chloride standards. At present,
thirteen enforcement actions for violation of these standards are in
litigation.
In the past, the focus of the stationary source compliance program
was to ensure that major sources of particulates and sulfur dioxide
achieved initial compliance with Act regulations, generally by either
installing required control equipment or by switching to cleaner fuels.
The more recent focus of attention, which will continue in the future, is
addressing the continuous compliance problems of particulate and S02
sources (while continuing to work to ensure the initial compliance of VOC
sources).
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In 1984, EPA developed a strategy to assure continuous compliance by
stationary sources. The strategy builds upon current use of on-site
inspections as a major compliance monitoring method. It outlines a
number of areas, such as unannounced inspections, better targeting of
sources, and improved inspection techniques, in which inspections can be
made more responsive to determining.the compliance status of sources and
assuring compliance on a basis more representative of day-to-day source
operation. The strategy also calls for an increased use of continuous
emissions monitoring (CEM) data, supported by a major EPA initiative to
enhance CEM usage.
To implement this strategy, EPA has been conducting pilot studies to
determine the most promising techniques to address the problem of assuring
continuous compliance. In 1984, EPA completed the first phase of the
Virginia pilot inspection system. The study, conducted in the Valley of
Virginia region of the State, looked at methods to improve the effectiveness
and efficiency of the inspection process. In 1985, EPA expanded the
Virginia pilot to cover the entire State to determine if benefits comparable
to that achieved by the more limited pilot can be obtained. In 1986, EPA
will evaluate the results of this pilot effort. In 1985, EPA completed a
continuous emission monitoring pilot that was primarily conducted in
Missouri. The pilot evaluated the effectiveness of a CEM program as a
component of a multifaceted compliance monitoring effort. The findings of
the pilot were positive. In particular, the pilot demonstrated that CEM
data is a useful tool for targeting inspections. In 1986, EPA will be
promoting the use of CEM techniques and methods by State and local agencies.
Finally, in 1985, EPA began pilot programs in Michigan and Colorado to
develop more sophisticated methods for targeting compliance monitoring
inspections.
In October 1985, EPA issued the "Technical Guidance on the Review
and Use of Coal Sampling and Analysis (CSA) Data"1 which supplements the
"Technical Guidance on the Review and Use of Excess Emission Reports"2
issued in 1984. These two technical guidance documents provide EPA
Regions and State and local air pollution control agencies with ways CEM
data can be useful to assess compliance, to target inspections, and to
support enforcement.
B. LITIGATION
The following cases are examples of significant enforcement
actions which were concluded in 1985.
1. Significant Judicial Decisions
United States et al. v. Chevron U.S.A., Inc., 23 Env't Rep. Cas.
(BNA) 1265 (W.D. Tex. 1985)
On September 30, 1985, the U.S. District Court for the Western District
of Texas imposed a civil penalty of $6,054,000 (plus 7.87 percent interest
from the day of judgment and court costs) against Chevron for violations
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of prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) requirements and S02
emission requirements in the Texas State implementation plan. This
was a "penalties-only" case, and resulted in the largest cash civil
penalty in EPA history. Over $4.5 million was awarded to the United
States and over $1.5 million to the intervenor State of Texas.
United States v. Ethyl Corporation; United States v. Occidental
Chemical Corp. and Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. 761 F.2d 1153
(5th Cir. 1985), petition for cert, filed, 54 U.S.L.W. 2257
(U.S. Aug. 30, 1985) (No. 85-376^
On June 3, 1985, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth
Circuit overturned two lower court decisions which had dismissed enforcement
actions filed for violations of the national emission standard for vinyl
chloride. The Middle District of Louisiana had ruled that the relief
valve discharge provision of the vinyl chloride regulations was a "work
practice" standard and was invalid because EPA, at the time of promulgation,
lacked authority to adopt work practice requirements. The Fifth Circuit
reversed and remanded, holding that the district court lacked jurisdiction
to rule on the validity of the regulations, pursuant to section 307(b) of the
Act. The Fifth Circuit's action resurrected seven other vinyl chloride
enforcement cases which had been stayed pending the Ethyl decision, as
well as the two directly affected cases. t
2. Significant Administrative Decisions
U.S. v. American Cyanamid
On July 19, 1985, the presiding Administrative Law Judge ruled in
favor of EPA with regard to liability in its case, initiated under section
120 of the Act, against American Cyanamid. The EPA's Notice of Noncom-
pliance ("NON") alleged that volatile organic compound emissions from
certain tanks at Cyanamid1s Fortier plant were not being controlled
by any of the means set forth in the SIP. Cyanamid petitioned for recon-
sideration on grounds that it was in compliance with the SIP by virtue of
a "bubble," which had been approved by Louisiana. (The bubble had been
submitted to, but not approved by, EPA.) The judge held that since EPA
had not approved the bubble as a SIP revision, the company was in violation
of the SIP at the time the Notice of Noncompliance was issued. On
September 27, 1985, the Chief EPA Judicial Officer upheld this ruling on
appeal. This was the first adjudicated section 120 action which EPA won,
and the first appeal of a section 120 Initial Decision.
U.S. v. Dietzgen
On October 18, 1985, the presiding Administrative Law Judge ruled in
favor of EPA's motion which sought to prohibit the introduction of evidence
pertaining to Dietzgen's claims that compliance with applicable provisions
of the Illinois SIP was technologically infeasible or economically unreasonable.
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The judge cited as supporting precedent the appellate opinion upholding
EPA in the section 120 action against the American Cyanamid Co., which
clarified that all that is relevant in section 120 liability proceedings
are SIP provisions which have been formally approved by the Federal as
well as State government.
3. Significant Settlements
U.S. v. LTV Steel Co. (Republic Steel Co.)
In July and August 1985, three consent decrees were entered resolving
contempt actions initiated by EPA to correct violations by Republic Steel
Co. The settlements affect the following plants:
Youngstown/Warren, Ohio, Civil Action No. C-78-1659 (N.D. Ohio)
The consent decree amendment settled litigation consisting of two
contempt motions by the United States and a motion to modify the
decree by the defendant. This litigation arose out of Republic's
failure to meet the emission limitation requirements of a March 1,
1979 consent decree regarding coke oven gas at its new Warren coke
battery, and quenching requirements at its Youngstown and Warren coke
batteries. In the amendment, Republic agreed to a penalty of $2.75
million of which $500,000 was to be paid in cash, and $2.25 million was
to be satisfied in credit projects. The amendment provides new
schedules for Republic to meet the desulfurization and quenching
requirements and contains new stipulated penalty provisions to ensure
compliance with the decree in the future.
Chicago, Illinois, Civil Action No. 80-C-0587 (N.D. 111.)
The consent decree amendment resolves cross-litigation brought by the
United States and by Republic regarding requirements of a December 12,
1980, consent decree for Republic's Chicago Works blast furnace
casthouse. The amendment provides for payment of a $250,000 cash
penalty by LTV Steel and requires LTV Steel to install positive
(capture) controls to supplement the suppression system it has put in
place.
Cleveland. Ohio Civil Action No. C-72-1680 (N.D.Ohio)
The amended decree provides that Republic will bring the.basic oxygen
furnace and the blast furnace casthouses at its Cleveland plant
into compliance with emission limits representing reasonably
available control technology. The Decree also provides that
Republic will pay a cash penalty of $250,000.
C. COMPLIANCE and ENFORCEMENT GUIDANCE
On March 19, 1985, EPA issued its revised inspection frequency guidance
for stationary sources for FY 1986. This guidance was a product of a
joint EPA, State, and local agency effort that provides States greater
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flexibility to target inspection resources to address their most significant
air quality problems. The guidance also included a more comprehensive
definition of a minimally-acceptable compliance inspection.
Other examples of enforcement guidance issued in 1985 include guidance
on parallel cases under section 120 and section 113 of the Act (issued
March 19, 1985), guidance on settlement of section 120 actions (issued
March 19, 1985), a revised asbestos penalty policy (issued February 8,
1985), guidance on injunctive relief to be sought in asbestos demolition
and renovation cases (issued July 10, 1985), guidance on the issuance of
Notices of Violation (issued June 28, 1985), and guidance on injunctive
relief for facilities intending to comply by shutdown (issued November 27,
1985).
D. COMPLIANCE BY FEDERAL FACILITIES
During 1985, Federal facilities demonstrated a good record of compliance
with applicable air pollution regulations. As of the end of 1985, 308
(90 percent) of the 347 major Federal facilities met applicable emissions
limitations. Of the 34 remaining facilities,, 9 are meeting compliance
schedules that will bring them into compliance, 20 are in violation and
not yet on an acceptable schedule, and 5 are of unknown compliance status.
E. LIST OF VIOLATING FACILITIES
The list of violating facilities under section 306 of the Act is
designed to prevent the Federal government from subsidizing certain Act
violators"with contract, grant, or loan monies. On August 21, 1985 the
Sierra Transit Mix Co. of Las Vegas, New Mexico, was placed on the
section 306 list of violating facilities. The listing was based on
violations of an administrative order enforcing compliance with the NSPS
for asphalt plants.
F. REFERENCES
1. "Technical Guidance on the Review and Use of Coal Sampling and
Analysis (CSA) Data," EPA-340/1-85-010, October 1985.
2. "Technical Guidance on the Review and Use of Excess Emission
Reports," EPA-340/1-84-015, October 1984.
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IX. CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
A. INTRODUCTION
Control of motor vehicle emissions has been a Federal responsibility
since 1968. The requirements of the Clean Air Act (Act) relating to
mobile sources have been subsequently refined several times, most recently
in 1977. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 established an ambitious
regulatory program which addressed remaining problems in the motor vehicle
emissions control program and bolstered efforts to attain and maintain
the national ambient air quality standards for carbon monoxide (CO) and
ozone (03). Below are listed some of the the mobile source provisions
of the 1977 Act.
- A schedule was established for implementation of stringent
emissions standards for automobiles--0.41 grams per mile (gpm)
for hydrocarbons (HC), 3.4 gpm for CO, and 1.0 gpm for oxides of
nitrogen (NOX). The table below displays the level of control
mandated by the standards.
Without 1977 CAA Percent
Control Standard Reduction
Hydrocarbons 8.8 gpm .41 gpm 95%
Carbon Monoxide 87.0 gpm 3.40 gpm 96%
Oxides of Nitrogen 3.6 gpm 1.00 gpm 72%
- Similarly, the amendments tightened standards for emissions
of the above mentioned pollutants from heavy-duty engines.
- Standards for the control of particulate emissions from
diesel engines were mandated.
- Areas not meeting CO and 03 ambient air quality standards
were required to implement motor vehicle inspection and
maintenance (I/M) programs.
Since the enactment of the 1977 amendments, EPA has made steady
progress toward achieving the Act's goals. The EPA has made a number of
modifications to its motor vehicle emissions standards in order to assure
that they attain the goal of cleaner air as effectively and efficiently
as possible. In 1985, EPA made significant progress toward the
implementation of this program.
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B. AIR TOXICS
The EPA has committed to a number of initiatives in the area of air
toxics. One of the key actions is work on controlling excess evaporative
emissions. The possible carcinogenicity of gasoline vapor and the known
adverse effects of benzene are the primary concerns. In November, EPA
published a detailed technical study on this issue.1 After review of
public comments, a proposed rule is expected in 1986.
Two other initiatives on air toxics also relate to vehicle fuels.
The first is testing protocols to determine the health effects of fuels
and fuel additives. Issue papers on this subject were under preparation
in 1985 with rulemaking activity projected for 1987. The second is a
review of the quality of diesel fuel. Reduction of sulfur and the aromatic
content of diesel fuel may lead to significant reductions in potentially
toxic particulate emissions from diesel engines. Preliminary work on
this issue was started in 1985 with rulemaking activity planned for 1986
or 1987.
The EPA has also been active in developing emission standards for
methanol-fueled vehicles. The use of methanol as a transportation fuel
has the potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline-type
engines and particulate emissions from diesel-cycle engines. A proposal
was developed in 1985, which will be published in 1986.
Two final actions that took place in 1985 with a large air toxics
impact were rules that set standards for particulate emissions from
heavy-duty diesel engines and rules further reducing the amount of lead
allowed in leaded gasoline. These actions are described in more detail
below.
C. STANDARD SETTING
With the achievement of effective reductions of passenger car emissions,
EPA has increasingly turned its regulatory focus toward the development
of parallel standards for heavy-duty trucks and other commercial vehicles.
Projections indicate that these vehicles will contribute an ever-increasing
percentage of the mobile source emissions generated for the rest of this
century. It. is therefore important to establish standards for these
vehicles to help ensure better air quality.
Accomplishments in this area during 1985 include the following:
- EPA moved forward in its development of standards for
particulate and NOX emissions for heavy-duty diesel
engines. Regulations were completed establishing a
standard of 6.0 grams per brake horsepower-hour (g/bhp-hr)
for oxides of nitrogen, and 0.6 g/bhp-hr for particulate
emissions, starting in the 1988 model year.^ The regulations
also establish that the standards be tightened even further in
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1991, to 5.0 g/bhp-hr for oxides of nitrogen, and 0.25 g/bhp-hr
(0.1 grams for urban buses) for particulates. Trucks will be
required to meet the 0.1 g/bhp-hr particulate standard in
1994.
- EPA implemented new and more stringent heavy-duty exhaust
HC and CO and evaporative HC standards, which took effect
in the 1985 model year. In order to assure that manufacturers
were in a position to meet these standards, EPA provided them
with extensive support on technological and test procedure
issues.
- In order to ease manufacturers' transition to stricter
standards, EPA promulgated nonconformance penalties for
those engine families unable to meet certain standards
applicable to a.given model year.3 This mechanism
assures that no manufacturer benefits financially from
nonconformance, and that the least effective technology
does not determine the stringency of standards for the
entire industry. (This rulemaking was the first EPA
action to feature an innovative process known as
regulatory negotiation, in which all interested parties
meet in an effort to settle their differences prior to
initiation of the formal rulemaking process. The
regulatory negotiation process proved to be extremely
successful in this case.)
The EPA also moved forward in its study of railroad emissions, due
to be published in 1986.
In March 1985, EPA promulgated a rule which reduced allowable lead in
gasoline from 1.1 grams per leaded gallon (gplg) to 0.5 gplg, effective
July 1, 1985. The rule further reduces allowable lead to 0.1 gplg,
effective January 1, 1986. At the same time, a rule was proposed to
eliminate lead from gasoline altogether by 1988. The effect of these
actions on refiners was mitigated by allowing them to bank and trade
credits for unused lead, so that those refiners which produced leaded
gasoline with lower lead content than the 0.1 gplg or the 0.5 gplg standard
could use or trade the amount of lead saved, allowing them to offset
exceedances of the 0.1 gplg standard, but still lowering the overall
allowable amount of lead at the same rate during the regulation's phase-in
period (i.e., until January 1, 1988).4
The promulgation of this regulation was prompted by accumulating
evidence of the health effects and other factors associated with the
presence of lead in the ambient air. The regulation will significantly
reduce atmospheric lead contaminations, and consequently blood lead
levels and related medical costs. In addition, it should significantly
curtail consumer fuel switching activities, which undermine EPA's mobile
source emission control efforts.
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In a related area, EPA granted a fuel additive regulations waiver for
a methanol blend in 1985. This is expected to become an increasingly
important area in response to the ongoing lead phasedown program, as
refiners experiment with various additives as substitutes for lead in
vehicle fuel.
D. PREPRODUCTION COMPLIANCE
One of EPA's long-standing techniques for assuring compliance with
motor vehicle emissions standards is the preproduction certification
program. Initiated in 1968, the program entails engineering review and
testing by EPA staff of engine families representing new vehicles to be
sold in the United States. Steps in the process include submission by
manufacturers of technical data about respective vehicles, emissions
testing of prototypes by manufacturers, review of engineering data and
test results by EPA, and, in certain cases, confirmatory testing of
prototypes at EPA's laboratory facility in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
A series of regulatory reforms implemented over the last several
years have made certification a much stronger and more efficient and
flexible program. As a result of computerization, elimination of
redundancy, and administrative streamlining, the program has retained its
full effectiveness while easing the procedural burden to manufacturers by
one-thi rd.
E. INSPECTION/MAINTENANCE
An effective strategy for dealing directly with in-use emissions
problems is the establishment of motor vehicle inspection and maintenance
(I/M) programs. The EPA's basic approach in this area was determined by
the 1977 amendments to the Act. Urban areas of the country which
obtained an extension in the deadline for attaining the ambient air
quality standards for automotive-related pollutants beyond 1982 are
required by the Act to implement an I/M program. In 1985, EPA continued
to promote the implementation of I/M programs in each locality where it
is required by the Act. By the end of the year, 55 of 63 areas had
initiated I/M programs.
In order to assure that operating I/M programs actually achieve the
planned emissions reductions, EPA has initiated a systematic I/M auditing
plan. In 1985, EPA audited 12 inspection and maintenance programs.
Auditing and thorough followup by Federal, State, and local officials
will pinpoint and lead to correction of any major deficiencies in individual
I/M programs.
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F. MOBILE SOURCE ENFORCEMENT
The EPA mobile source enforcement program is directed primarily
toward achieving compliance with motor vehicle emissions standards and
fuel regulations as required by the Act. The major goals and objectives
are to: (1) assure that both new and in-use vehicles meet emissions
standards; (2) assure that emissions control systems are not removed or
rendered inoperative; (3) assure that harmful additives are not present
in gasoline; (4) administer statutory and California emissions standards
waivers; and (5) administer the statutory emissions warranties.
In order to accomplish these goals, EPA maintains a number of basic
motor vehicle enforcement programs:
Section 207(c) of the Act authorizes EPA to order the recall of
vehicles if a substantial number of any class of vehicles do not conform
to emissions standards. During 1985, 1,521,600 vehicles were recalled
either by direct order of EPA or as a result of an EPA investigation.
In the same period, manufacturers voluntarily recalled 722,920 vehicles
to correct emissions problems. The EPA conducted a total of 35 recall
investigations in 1985, and performed 661 tests of in-use vehicles at
laboratory facilities in Springfield, Virginia and Ann Arbor, Michigan.
The recall program has traditionally focused on light-duty vehicle
exhaust emissions. However, as new categories of emissions come under
stringent control, the recall strategy must be applied to them. Therefore,
in 1985, EPA continued efforts begun in 1984 toward implementing light-duty
evaporative emissions and heavy-duty recall programs by initiating a
light-duty evaporative emissions investigation and completing a pilot
heavy-duty recall project.
In order to assure that production vehicles are built in accordance
with emissions standards, EPA conducts Selective Enforcement Audit (SEA)
test programs at manufacturers' facilities. The EPA has found that the SEA
program encounters few failures because automobile manufacturers routinely
test on a voluntary basis many more vehicles than are strictly required
through SEA orders. Therefore, beginning in 1981, EPA changed its SEA
policy to place greater reliance on manufacturer testing programs and
less on EPA-mandated audits. In 1985, EPA conducted 17 SEA test programs,
including four at foreign manufacturers' facilities.
The EPA has responsibility for enforcing section 211 of the Act,
relating to the regulation of fuels and fuel additives. One of the
regulations under this section of the Act is aimed at protecting the
catalytic converters on 1975 and later model year cars and protecting
public health by minimizing the amount of lead used in leaded gasoline
("lead phasedown").
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The EPA has established a nationwide fuels enforcement program to
ensure that affected retail outlets comply with these regulations. This
program includes sampling of the fuel at retail outlets by Regional EPA
field inspectors and private or State inspectors under EPA contract in
order to measure the fuel's lead content. The EPA conducted 12,500
inspections under this program during 1985.
As mentioned before, rules expediting the lead phasedown schedule
took effect in 1985. These rules are creating a demand for other additives
which may have a harmful impact on auto emissions. The EPA expects that
the proliferation of additives will create a need to monitor the composition
of vehicle fuels even more closely than in the past.
The EPA is also responsible for carrying out programs designed to deter
tampering with vehicle emissions control systems or using leaded fuel in
vehicles which require unleaded. Surveys undertaken by EPA have shown
tampering and fuel switching to be continuing serious problems which
undermine the emissions control performance of many in-use vehicles. The
latest survey indicates that about 28 percent of the vehicle fleet is
subject to gross tampering, and about 16 percent to fuel switching.
Federal efforts alone cannot effectively address these problems.
Consequently, EPA has promoted the implementation of State and local
antitampering enforcement programs. In 1985, four local antitampering
programs were set up as a result of this initiative.
G. IMPORTS
The control of emissions from imported vehicles has become a major
issue in recent years. Due to various changes in consumer taste and the
strength of the dollar in foreign exchange rates, vehicle imports have
vastly increased their share of the U.S. auto market. Correspondingly,
there has been a significant increase in the number of independent auto
importers bringing cars into this country for resale. This has created a
huge administrative burden in regulating the emissions from these cars.
In 1985, EPA received 72,774 applications and 62,000 inquiries concerning
the importation of nonconforming autos into the U.S. In response, the
EPA is modernizing its imports program to handle this increase in
demand, and is revising its regulations to make the process work more
smoothly and efficiently. A supplementary notice of proposed rulemaking
addressing the problems created by this increased demand was issued in
1985.5 The final rule will be published in 1986.
H. REFERENCES
1. 50 FR 48100, November 21, 1985.
2. 50 FR 10606, March 15, 1985.
3. 50 FR 53454, December 31, 1985.
4. 50 FR 9400, March 7, 1985.
5. 50 FR 36838, September 9, 1985.
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X. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE PROTECTION
A. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
By preventing most potentially harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B
radiation) from penetrating to the earth's surface, the ozone layer acts
as an important shield protecting human health, welfare, and the
environment. The possibility that the production, use, and release of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) could cause the depletion of stratospheric
ozone was first theorized in 1974. If a net depletion of stratospheric
ozone occurred, more UV-B radiation would penetrate to the earth's
surface. This could result in a number of possible health and environ-
mental effects. Although less was known about the possible causes and
effects of ozone depletion in the mid-1970's, EPA and other agencies
responded to concerns about this issue by promulgating regulations in 1978
limiting the use of CFC's as a propel 1 ant in nonessential aerosol spray
cans.1 By significantly reducing CFC use and therefore the risks of ozone
depletion, this action provided more time to address the complex scientific
questions involved in assessing those risks.
In 1980 EPA issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking discussing
possible further limits on domestic production of CFC's under section 157
of the Clean Air Act.2 However, some of the scientific information
summarized in that notice was soon outdated by more recent work in the
field, and there have been substantial changes in the research community's
understanding of several important aspects of the issue since then. In
general, the more recent work has demonstrated that possible changes in the
ozone layer are affected by a more complex array of physical and chemical
forces than previously thought. In addition, EPA believes that any decision
on further regulation of domestic CFC production or use should be evaluated
in the context of possible international regulatory actions. Accordingly,
EPA developed a program for further examination and resolution of this issue
which it published in January 1986.3 This program integrates the diverse
scientific and economic research being carried on by EPA and by other
organizations into a coherent framework for future Agency decisionmaking on
both the domestic and international aspects of this issue. The three primary
elements of the Agency's program are: (1) conducting analyses and research
across a range of economic and scientific subjects aimed at narrowing
uncertainties; (2) participating in a series of workshops and conferences
both in the United States and abroad aimed at improving understanding of all
aspects of this issue; and (3) deciding by November 1987 whether additional
domestic regulation of CFC's is warranted, based on the information gained
during the period of study. Key areas for analysis include evaluating
potential future rates of growth in emissions; modeling the changes to the
ozone layer that may result from changes in the atmosphere's composition;
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analyzing model parameters and predictions in light of atmospheric
monitoring data; evaluating potential health, welfare, and environmental
effects from exposure to increased UV-B radiation or changes in climate
related to ozone modification; and analyzing potential economic impacts,
including the potential benefits from limiting UV-B exposure and the
potential costs of limiting future increases in CFC's and other atmospheric
perturbants.
8. REFERENCES
1. 43 FR 11301, March 17, 1978
2. 45 FR 66726, October 7, 1980
3. 51 FR 1257, January 10, 1986
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XI. RADON ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION
Radon Assessment and Mitigation
Elevated concentrations of radon, a naturally occurring radioactive
gas, have been found in homes across the United States. Houses located
in the Reading Prong area of eastern Pennsylvania have been found to have
indoor radon concentrations up to one hundred times greater than the
current occupational standard for underground uranium miners exposed to
this gas. Because of the magnitude of the potential risks involved, this
environmental problem received growing public and Congressional attention
in 1985. Consequently, EPA developed a strategy to assist State governments
and the private sector in assessing and mitigating the health risks due
to indoor radon. The strategy builds upon existing knowledge and focuses
not only on reducing significant current risks, but also on reversing
trends in structure design, siting, construction, and maintenance that
could increase future risks.
1. Determine national exposure distributions and identify high
risk areas.
2. Mitigate exposure in existing structures.
3. Prevent exposure in future construction.
4. Provide for limited, yet essential, overall Federal program
direction and leadership.
Concurrent with designing a study to meet the first objective, in
1985 EPA conducted a major program to help the State of Pennsylvania
deal with severe indoor radon problems in the Reading Prong area of
that State. This program will be expanded to neighboring States having
radon problems and will also be incorporated into the national program.
The major components of the Reading Prong program include:
1. Providing technical assistance in developing a comprehensive
measurement program to ensure consistency and utility of
collected data.
2. Reducing radon exposure in existing homes through demonstrations,
contractor training, and house evaluation programs.
3. Preventing excessive exposure in new homes through better
construction designs, developing criteria for high-risk land,
and changing model building codes.
XI-1
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4. Providing funds for remedial actions.
5. Disseminating public information on the risks of indoor radon
exposure and ways in which exposure can be reduced.
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XII. LITIGATION
A. INTRODUCTION
Of the 13 cases directly related to the Clean Air Act (Act) that
were decided in 1985, seven involved State implementation plans (SIP's)
and other matters related to Title I of the Act, one involved regulation
of fuel additives under Title II, and the remainder concerned various
issues involved in judicial review.
B. TITLE I CASES
1. SIP's
Two Ninth Circuit decisions upheld EPA approvals of SIP's against
challenges to the modeling methods on which they were based. In Kamp v.
Hernandez, 752 F.2d 1444 (9th Ci r. 1985), the Court upheld approvaTof
an Arizona SIP for sulfur dioxide that was based on use of a "multi-point
rollback technique" rather than the more conservative "single-point
rollback technique" used to develop SIP's in the past. In California v.
EPA, F.2d (9th Cir. 1985), the Court upheld EPA's approval of the Lake
Tahoe Basin SIP for carbon monoxide (CO) against challenges by California
and Nevada to the modeling method each had used to predict CO emission
increases from two proposed parking garages.
2. International Air Pollution (Section 115)
In New York v. Ruckelshaus, No. 84-0853 (D.D.C. 1985), the
District Court for the District of Columbia held that EPA must notify the
Governors of various midwestern states that sulfur emissions from sources
within those States were endangering the public welfare in Canada, thus
setting in motion the SIP process to address such situations. The EPA
appealed the decision and it was reversed in 1986 by the Court of Appeals.
3. Nonattainment Areas
Four cases addressed various nonattainment area provisions of the
Act in 1985. In Western Oil and Gas Ass'n v. EPA, 767 F.2d 603 (9th Cir. 1985),
the Ninth Circuit upheld EPA's approval of a nonattainment designation
for the San Francisco Bay Area although it included several counties
that, if considered separately, would be attainment areas. The Court
concluded that EPA had discretion to consider the contribution of emissions
from sources in those counties to violations of the national ambient air
quality standards (NAAQS) in other parts of the Bay Area.
XII-1
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Similarly, in Ohio v. Ruckelshaus, 776 F.2d 1333 (6th Cir. 1985),
the Sixth Circuit upheld EPA's refusal to redesignate a county in Ohio
from nonattainment to attainment for ozone, despite monitoring data
showing attainment there, because emissions from sources in the county
contributed to violations of the ozone NAAQS elsewhere.
In another Sixth Circuit case, Pressman v. Costle, 759 F.2d 548 (6th
Cir. 1985), the Court upheld EPA's imposition of a construction ban for
three counties in Kentucky where the State had failed to enact enabling
legislation related to motor vehicle inspection/maintenance (I/M) programs.
Finally, in Delaware Valley Citizens' Council for Clean Air v. Pennsylvania,
755 F.2d 38 (3d Cir. 1985), the Court affirmed a district court decision
refusing to vacate an earlier consent decree requiring Pennsylvania to
implement an I/M program.
4. Radiation Program
No cases involving radionuclides were decided in 1985. However,
EPA and the Sierra Club entered into an agreement that led to a court
stipulation and order to promulgate radon-222 emission standards for
licensed uranium mill tailings by May 1, 1986.
C. TITLE II CASES
In a 1984 case involving a methanol/gasoline blend called "Petrocoal,"
the D.C. Circuit ruled that EPA lacked authority to revoke a fuel waiver
granted under section 211(f) of the Act, indicating that if EPA felt it
had granted that waiver mistakenly it could take corrective action under
section 211(c). American Methyl Corp. v. EPA, 749 F.2d 826 (D.C. Cir.
1984). In a 1985 case involving the same fuel, Motor Vehicle Manufacturers
Ass'n v. EPA. 768 F.2d 385 (D.C. Cir. 1985), cert, denied 106 S Ct.852
(1986), the Court vacated the waiver on the ground that some
of the conclusions EPA reached in granting it were not supported by the
administrative record.
0. JUDICIAL REVIEW CASES
Five cases in 1985 addressed various aspects of judicial review.
Three cases rejected challenges to the validity of EPA standards
on the ground that judicial review of such standards is available only as
provided in section 307(b) of the Act. U.S. v. Ethyl Corp., 761 F.2d 1153
(5th Cir. 1985); Caterpillar Tractor Co. v. Adamkus, F. Supp. _(D.I11.
1985); Luckie v. EPA, 752 F.2d 454 (9th Cir. 1985).
XII-2
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Two other cases approved awards of attorneys' fees and costs for
litigation under section 304 or section 307 of the Act. Delaware Valley
Citizens' Council for Clean Air v. Pennsylvania, 762 F.2d 272 (3d Cir.
1985); Sierra Club v. EPA, 769 F.2d 796 (D.C. Cir. 1985). In the Sierra
Club case, however, the Court declined to grant attorneys' fees against
intervenors and for issues as to which plaintiffs had been unsuccessful.
XII-3
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. ' 2.
EPA 450/2-87-002
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Progress in the Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution in 1985
7.#*x?>woe<»x
Project Officer— William F. Hamilton
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
~ Control Programs Development Division
-" Mail Drop 15
« Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
. 401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
January 1987
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
A13A2A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
13. TYPE Of REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
1985 .(Final)
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Annual Report of the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to the
Congress under Sections 313, 202, and 306 of the Clean Air Act.
16. ABSTRACT
The report addresses the progress made in the prevention and control of air
•pollution in 1985. It covers the areas of air quality trends and monitoring,
developino of air quality criteria and standards, the status of State implementation
plans, the control of stationary and mobile source emissions, enforcement, and
litigation. The report is the annual report of the Administrator of EPA to the
Congress in compliance with Sections 313, 202(b)(4), and 306 of the Clean Air Act,
as amended.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. ' DESCRIPTORS
Air Pollution
Environmental Engineering
Pollution Abatement
Pollution Regulations
Public Health
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited. Available through
NTIS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
20 SECURITY CLA.SS (This page)
Unclassified
c. COSATI Field/Group
•
21. NO. OF PAGES
86
22. PRICE
rm 2230-1 (Rt». 4-77) PREVIOUS EDI TION is OBSOLETE
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